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Among the former Allies, Rommel developed a reputation after his death as a noble soldier who happened to fight on the wrong side. He was baptized on November 17, He was the second son of a Protestant headmaster of the secondary school at Aalen, also named Erwin Rommel, and Helene von Luz, a daughter of a prominent local dignitary. The couple had three more children, two sons, Karl and Gerhard, and a daughter, Helene.
He was the third of five children of Erwin Rommel Senior —a teacher and school administrator, and his wife Helene von Lutz, whose father Karl von Luz headed the local government council. As a young man Rommel's father had been a lieutenant in the artillery.
Rommel had one older sister, an art teacher who was his favorite sibling, one older brother named Manfred who died in infancy and two younger brothers, of whom one became a successful dentist and the other an opera singer. He returned to the th when war was declared.
He successfully employed the tactics of penetrating enemy lines with heavy covering fire coupled with rapid advances, as well as moving forward rapidly to a flanking position to arrive at the rear of hostile positions, to achieve tactical surprise.
The offensive, known as the Battle of Caporettobegan on 24 October KolovratMatajurand Stol. In one instance, the Italian forces, taken by surprise and believing that their lines had collapsed, surrendered after a brief firefight.
Convinced that they were surrounded by an entire German division, the 1st Italian Infantry Division — 10, men — surrendered to Rommel. This episode left an indelible impression on Rommel's mind, and also that of Hitler like Rommel, he had also experienced the solidarity of trench warfare who participated in the suppression of the First and Second Bavarian Soviet Republics by the Reichswehr, that, according to Reuth, "Everyone in this Republic was fighting each other," and that there were people trying to convert Germany into a socialist republic on the Soviet lines.
The need for national unity thus became a decisive legacy of the first World War. It became a bestseller, which, according to Scheck, later "enormously influenced" many armies of the world; Adolf Hitler was one of many people who owned a copy.
Here he clashed with Baldur von Schirachthe Hitler Youth leader, over the training that the boys should receive.
That went against Schirach's express wishes who appealed directly to Hitler. Consequently, Rommel was quietly removed from the project in Rommel is on his left and Martin Bormann on his right. He described the devastated Warsaw in a letter to his wife, concluding with: They have erected numerous barricades which blocked civilian movement and exposed people to bombardments from which they could not escape.
The mayor estimated the number of the dead and injured to be 40, The inhabitants probably drew a breath of relief that we have arrived and rescued them".
Following the campaign in Poland, Rommel began lobbying for command of one of Germany's panzer divisionsof which there were then only ten.
Rommel obtained the command he aspired to, despite having been earlier turned down by the army's personnel office, which had offered him command of a mountain division instead.
By the third day Rommel and the advance elements of his division, together with a detachment of the 5th Panzer Division under Colonel Hermann Werner, had reached the River Meusewhere they found the bridges had already been destroyed Guderian and Reinhardt reached the river on the same day. Rommel brought up tanks and flak units to provide counter-fire and had nearby houses set on fire to create a smokescreen.Mar 04, · Watch video · Erwin Rommel was born in Heidenheim, Germany, on November 15, The son of a teacher, Rommel joined the German infantry in and fought as a lieutenant in World War I, in France, Romania and monstermanfilm.com: Nov 15, Horoscope and natal chart of Erwin Rommel, born on /11/ you will find in this page an excerpt of the astrological portrait and the interpration of the planetary dominants.
Desert Rats, byname of the 7th Armoured Division, group of British soldiers who helped defeat the Germans in North Africa during World War monstermanfilm.com Desert Rats, led by Gen. Allen Francis Harding, were especially noted for a hard-fought three-month campaign against the more-experienced German Afrika Korps, led by Gen.
Erwin Rommel (“The Desert Fox”). The Desert Fox is a black-and-white biographical film from 20th Century Fox about Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in the later stages of World War monstermanfilm.com stars James Mason in the title role, was directed by Henry Hathaway, and was based on the book Rommel: The Desert Fox by Brigadier Desmond Young, who served in the British Indian Army in North Africa..
The movie played a significant role in. Oct 17, · Watch video · Title: The Desert Fox: The Story of Rommel () 7 / Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site?
Use the HTML below.7/10(K). Normandy, July 17, L ate in the day, slightly more than a month after the Allied landings on D-Day, Field Marshal Erwin Rommel was returning to his Headquarters at La Roche-Guyon. His abilities as a brilliant tactician in North Africa and France, his loyal service in . | <urn:uuid:f59d6caf-4bb6-46f5-99d3-8cec9323c7ff> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://watywoguqozovivud.monstermanfilm.com/erwin-rommel-the-desert-fox-2728qw.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00405.warc.gz | en | 0.980593 | 1,160 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.354611396789... | 1 | Among the former Allies, Rommel developed a reputation after his death as a noble soldier who happened to fight on the wrong side. He was baptized on November 17, He was the second son of a Protestant headmaster of the secondary school at Aalen, also named Erwin Rommel, and Helene von Luz, a daughter of a prominent local dignitary. The couple had three more children, two sons, Karl and Gerhard, and a daughter, Helene.
He was the third of five children of Erwin Rommel Senior —a teacher and school administrator, and his wife Helene von Lutz, whose father Karl von Luz headed the local government council. As a young man Rommel's father had been a lieutenant in the artillery.
Rommel had one older sister, an art teacher who was his favorite sibling, one older brother named Manfred who died in infancy and two younger brothers, of whom one became a successful dentist and the other an opera singer. He returned to the th when war was declared.
He successfully employed the tactics of penetrating enemy lines with heavy covering fire coupled with rapid advances, as well as moving forward rapidly to a flanking position to arrive at the rear of hostile positions, to achieve tactical surprise.
The offensive, known as the Battle of Caporettobegan on 24 October KolovratMatajurand Stol. In one instance, the Italian forces, taken by surprise and believing that their lines had collapsed, surrendered after a brief firefight.
Convinced that they were surrounded by an entire German division, the 1st Italian Infantry Division — 10, men — surrendered to Rommel. This episode left an indelible impression on Rommel's mind, and also that of Hitler like Rommel, he had also experienced the solidarity of trench warfare who participated in the suppression of the First and Second Bavarian Soviet Republics by the Reichswehr, that, according to Reuth, "Everyone in this Republic was fighting each other," and that there were people trying to convert Germany into a socialist republic on the Soviet lines.
The need for national unity thus became a decisive legacy of the first World War. It became a bestseller, which, according to Scheck, later "enormously influenced" many armies of the world; Adolf Hitler was one of many people who owned a copy.
Here he clashed with Baldur von Schirachthe Hitler Youth leader, over the training that the boys should receive.
That went against Schirach's express wishes who appealed directly to Hitler. Consequently, Rommel was quietly removed from the project in Rommel is on his left and Martin Bormann on his right. He described the devastated Warsaw in a letter to his wife, concluding with: They have erected numerous barricades which blocked civilian movement and exposed people to bombardments from which they could not escape.
The mayor estimated the number of the dead and injured to be 40, The inhabitants probably drew a breath of relief that we have arrived and rescued them".
Following the campaign in Poland, Rommel began lobbying for command of one of Germany's panzer divisionsof which there were then only ten.
Rommel obtained the command he aspired to, despite having been earlier turned down by the army's personnel office, which had offered him command of a mountain division instead.
By the third day Rommel and the advance elements of his division, together with a detachment of the 5th Panzer Division under Colonel Hermann Werner, had reached the River Meusewhere they found the bridges had already been destroyed Guderian and Reinhardt reached the river on the same day. Rommel brought up tanks and flak units to provide counter-fire and had nearby houses set on fire to create a smokescreen.Mar 04, · Watch video · Erwin Rommel was born in Heidenheim, Germany, on November 15, The son of a teacher, Rommel joined the German infantry in and fought as a lieutenant in World War I, in France, Romania and monstermanfilm.com: Nov 15, Horoscope and natal chart of Erwin Rommel, born on /11/ you will find in this page an excerpt of the astrological portrait and the interpration of the planetary dominants.
Desert Rats, byname of the 7th Armoured Division, group of British soldiers who helped defeat the Germans in North Africa during World War monstermanfilm.com Desert Rats, led by Gen. Allen Francis Harding, were especially noted for a hard-fought three-month campaign against the more-experienced German Afrika Korps, led by Gen.
Erwin Rommel (“The Desert Fox”). The Desert Fox is a black-and-white biographical film from 20th Century Fox about Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in the later stages of World War monstermanfilm.com stars James Mason in the title role, was directed by Henry Hathaway, and was based on the book Rommel: The Desert Fox by Brigadier Desmond Young, who served in the British Indian Army in North Africa..
The movie played a significant role in. Oct 17, · Watch video · Title: The Desert Fox: The Story of Rommel () 7 / Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site?
Use the HTML below.7/10(K). Normandy, July 17, L ate in the day, slightly more than a month after the Allied landings on D-Day, Field Marshal Erwin Rommel was returning to his Headquarters at La Roche-Guyon. His abilities as a brilliant tactician in North Africa and France, his loyal service in . | 1,156 | ENGLISH | 1 |
You never hear about a one-man pirate ship.
Pirates had to work together to successfully plunder and rob.
The average old-timey Caribean-type pirate ship during the 17th and 18th centuries consisted of 80 pirates, and some pirate crews reached into the hundreds.
But pirates were not known for being the most orderly people.
How did ruffians who thought nothing of murder work together to relieve massive armed merchant vessels of their goods? And how could one pirate be sure his hard work wouldn’t simply be stolen by a rival, or expropriated by the Captain?
Carribean piracy was effective and profitable, in short, because they formed an effective legal system. Pirate ships were like tiny floating governments.
And while pirates were clearly horrible to outsiders, internally, they actually had a fair and efficient system of governance.
Each ship would put together their own set of rules or articles. These essentially formed the government aboard each ship.
In the book Legal Systems Very Different From Our Own by David Friedman, Peter T. Leeson and David Skarbek, a typical set of articles serves as an example.
Ships carried mountains of gun powder, so a stray bullet or cutlass could blow the entire ship to smithereens. Therefore the rules stipulated that any quarrels were to be settled on land with sword and pistol, not on the ship.
The punishment for abandoning ship or post during battle was death or marooning. The same went for defrauding the company when it came time to split the booty.
Stealing from a fellow pirate meant having your nose and ears cut off. Then they were left “not in an uninhabited Place, but somewhere, where he was sure to encounter Hardships.”
This particular pirate ship even banned gambling and had an early bedtime. Lights out was 8 o’clock, and any further drinking and rabble-rousing had to be done above deck. And no women were allowed to be brought back to the ship for sexual liaisons. These rules all helped prevent conflicts from forming in the first place.
Pistols and cutlasses were to be kept clean and fit for service.
Pirates even had worker’s compensation, long before labor unions took credit for it. Pirates who lost limbs, became crippled, or suffered other debilitating injuries got “800 Dollars, out of the publick stock.” That was distributed to any injured pirates before the rest of the spoils were divided evenly.
And the musicians got Sundays off.
The Quartermaster enforced these rules, and he, like the Captain, was elected by a democratic vote among the pirate crew. He could be recalled by a majority vote and punished if he abused his power.
Many pirates were former merchant sailors who felt wronged, cheated, or abused by their former officers. For that reason, pirates spread power relatively evenly among the crew, complete with checks and balances. A majority could always recall and elect a new Captain or Quartermaster.
In some ways, the Quartermaster had more power than the Captain.
The Captain was only really in charge “in Chase, or Battle.” His role was a military commander to direct effective piracy. He had to be bold enough to get them the booty, but not so aggressive to get them killed. And he had to be strategic enough to corner the merchant ships, well aware of the threat of piracy.
These organized laws among pirates allowed them to cooperate and each pull in one voyage what a typical sailor would earn over twenty or thirty years.
Pirates even had methods for protecting their citizens from angry governments.
Movies depict pirates as pressing most of the crew into service. This was clever pirate propaganda. It gave pirates who were caught an opportunity to make a plausible defense of their actions: They forced me to do it!
Pirates did force some people into their crews, so courts adopted a policy of pardoning men who could prove they were pressed into piracy.
Some captured merchants who wanted to join the pirates would pull the Captain aside, and ask him to make a show out of forcing him into piracy. Then if the merchant was ever captured and tried for piracy, he could call credible witnesses from his old merchant vessel who saw him being enslaved by the pirates.
No one was under any impression that pirate crews were made up of good people. There was no expectation of honorable behavior among those in charge. So they set up a proper system to hold leaders accountable.
They had to do their jobs fairly and effectively–at least according to the majority–or lose their position and the extra pay which went with it. Even the leaders were subject to the rules and could be brought before a jury of fellow pirates if they transgressed.
A pirate ship was a voluntary government. Everyone joined of their own free will (except for the rare conscripts) and agreed to the rules beforehand. They were told what their rights and powers were, what they were entitled to under different circumstances, how injustice would be dealt with, and even under what circumstances they were allowed to part ways with the company.
It was in each pirate’s self-interest to adhere to the rules, prevent conflict, and avoid punishment. The rewards were massive.
It’s interesting that such obviously bad people could come together to form such an effective system of government. I’m not praising the pirates for what they did to non-pirates. I just think this proves that it is possible to design a voluntary legal system that does not at all rely on good people being in power.
Subscribe to The Daily Bell and immediately access our free guide:
Freedom in Two Years
How to stop caring about political “sides” and focus your efforts on what will truly make a difference in your life.
This is a guide to individual, not political, action.Yes, deliver THE DAILY BELL to my inbox! | <urn:uuid:0025b493-48c4-450d-9e1a-a497b2831123> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thedailybell.com/all-articles/news-analysis/caribbean-pirates-had-a-better-system-of-government-than-ours/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00121.warc.gz | en | 0.987059 | 1,229 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.051620878279... | 2 | You never hear about a one-man pirate ship.
Pirates had to work together to successfully plunder and rob.
The average old-timey Caribean-type pirate ship during the 17th and 18th centuries consisted of 80 pirates, and some pirate crews reached into the hundreds.
But pirates were not known for being the most orderly people.
How did ruffians who thought nothing of murder work together to relieve massive armed merchant vessels of their goods? And how could one pirate be sure his hard work wouldn’t simply be stolen by a rival, or expropriated by the Captain?
Carribean piracy was effective and profitable, in short, because they formed an effective legal system. Pirate ships were like tiny floating governments.
And while pirates were clearly horrible to outsiders, internally, they actually had a fair and efficient system of governance.
Each ship would put together their own set of rules or articles. These essentially formed the government aboard each ship.
In the book Legal Systems Very Different From Our Own by David Friedman, Peter T. Leeson and David Skarbek, a typical set of articles serves as an example.
Ships carried mountains of gun powder, so a stray bullet or cutlass could blow the entire ship to smithereens. Therefore the rules stipulated that any quarrels were to be settled on land with sword and pistol, not on the ship.
The punishment for abandoning ship or post during battle was death or marooning. The same went for defrauding the company when it came time to split the booty.
Stealing from a fellow pirate meant having your nose and ears cut off. Then they were left “not in an uninhabited Place, but somewhere, where he was sure to encounter Hardships.”
This particular pirate ship even banned gambling and had an early bedtime. Lights out was 8 o’clock, and any further drinking and rabble-rousing had to be done above deck. And no women were allowed to be brought back to the ship for sexual liaisons. These rules all helped prevent conflicts from forming in the first place.
Pistols and cutlasses were to be kept clean and fit for service.
Pirates even had worker’s compensation, long before labor unions took credit for it. Pirates who lost limbs, became crippled, or suffered other debilitating injuries got “800 Dollars, out of the publick stock.” That was distributed to any injured pirates before the rest of the spoils were divided evenly.
And the musicians got Sundays off.
The Quartermaster enforced these rules, and he, like the Captain, was elected by a democratic vote among the pirate crew. He could be recalled by a majority vote and punished if he abused his power.
Many pirates were former merchant sailors who felt wronged, cheated, or abused by their former officers. For that reason, pirates spread power relatively evenly among the crew, complete with checks and balances. A majority could always recall and elect a new Captain or Quartermaster.
In some ways, the Quartermaster had more power than the Captain.
The Captain was only really in charge “in Chase, or Battle.” His role was a military commander to direct effective piracy. He had to be bold enough to get them the booty, but not so aggressive to get them killed. And he had to be strategic enough to corner the merchant ships, well aware of the threat of piracy.
These organized laws among pirates allowed them to cooperate and each pull in one voyage what a typical sailor would earn over twenty or thirty years.
Pirates even had methods for protecting their citizens from angry governments.
Movies depict pirates as pressing most of the crew into service. This was clever pirate propaganda. It gave pirates who were caught an opportunity to make a plausible defense of their actions: They forced me to do it!
Pirates did force some people into their crews, so courts adopted a policy of pardoning men who could prove they were pressed into piracy.
Some captured merchants who wanted to join the pirates would pull the Captain aside, and ask him to make a show out of forcing him into piracy. Then if the merchant was ever captured and tried for piracy, he could call credible witnesses from his old merchant vessel who saw him being enslaved by the pirates.
No one was under any impression that pirate crews were made up of good people. There was no expectation of honorable behavior among those in charge. So they set up a proper system to hold leaders accountable.
They had to do their jobs fairly and effectively–at least according to the majority–or lose their position and the extra pay which went with it. Even the leaders were subject to the rules and could be brought before a jury of fellow pirates if they transgressed.
A pirate ship was a voluntary government. Everyone joined of their own free will (except for the rare conscripts) and agreed to the rules beforehand. They were told what their rights and powers were, what they were entitled to under different circumstances, how injustice would be dealt with, and even under what circumstances they were allowed to part ways with the company.
It was in each pirate’s self-interest to adhere to the rules, prevent conflict, and avoid punishment. The rewards were massive.
It’s interesting that such obviously bad people could come together to form such an effective system of government. I’m not praising the pirates for what they did to non-pirates. I just think this proves that it is possible to design a voluntary legal system that does not at all rely on good people being in power.
Subscribe to The Daily Bell and immediately access our free guide:
Freedom in Two Years
How to stop caring about political “sides” and focus your efforts on what will truly make a difference in your life.
This is a guide to individual, not political, action.Yes, deliver THE DAILY BELL to my inbox! | 1,174 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on the first day of 1863. During the period when the president gave the proclamation, the country was enthralled in a bloody and destructive civil war for three consecutive years. The proclamation declared that all people who were at the time held as slaves were declared free as at the time the speech was made. While the wording was grand, the practical application of the same was limited in many ways. The proclamation was only applicable to states which had seceded from the US, and therefore, the states which were along the border were left untouched. Besides, it exempted some parts of the Confederacy, in particular, the Southern secessionist states which were under the control of the Northern States. Moreover, the freedom that President Lincoln had promised was wholly dependent on the military victory of the Union. However, it is important to note that although the Emancipation Proclamation did not manage to end slavery in the US, it managed to capture the imagination and hearts of millions of Americans and change their character particularly, after the war. The proclamation ensured that black men joined the Union Navy as well as the army such that the liberated became liberators. Before the end of the war, more than 150000 black sailors and soldiers had fought for freedom through the Union.
Interestingly, slavery did not end in the nineteenth century. In the twenty-first century, there remains modern-day slavery, although it is more covert than in the previous years. Black people still end up doing more work sometimes for less pay than their white counterparts. Moreover, it is harder for a black person to get a decent job despite having similar qualifications as their white counterparts. This paper shall discuss twenty-first century slavery in detail and how although people are not working against their will anymore, the color of one’s skin still determines one’s pay scale as opposed to one’s academic qualifications as well as skill set.
Equality of all human beings is one of the beliefs that are deeply entrenched in my psyche. I believe that human beings should be treated equally before the law if equality is to be achieved. In this regard, I think it is imperative to look beyond the color of one’s skin to get to the real depth of their character to make progress as a human race. Paying people their appropriate dues at the right time is one of the ways to ensure that covert slavery comes to an abrupt end. Modern slavery is an umbrella concept, and it captures the different types of exploitation that people go through as they try to earn a living. It is important to note that poverty is perhaps the most significant enabler of modern-day slavery. While the data out there is patchy and unsustainable; it is estimated that about 21 million people are in forced labor as well as other forms of slavery. Other sources claim that indeed the number of slaves around the country stands at about 27 million people across the world. Forced labor, trafficking, and slavery are regarded as criminal activities under international legislation. In 1926, the League of Nations defined slavery as the situation whereby an individual has powers of ownership over another person. Later in 1956, the United Nations adopted practices such as debt bondage and serfdom in the broader net of slavery.
I first came across slavery in the twenty-first century when a friend of mine from an African country contacted me on Facebook excitedly informing me that she had landed a job in Qatar. My friend who is a Kenyan had spent a long time looking for a job in her home country without success due to the problem of unemployment the country. She has a bachelor of Arts degree which she attained in one of the most prestigious universities in her country. Having been raised in a poor family, she sometimes had to skip school several times as her parents looked for school fees. She also took up some odd jobs on occasion in order to fend for herself as well as her siblings. Both of her parents died in the year when she graduated high school and therefore, she was forced to look after her siblings on her own since her aging grandmother could barely manage anything. However, despite all the hardships that she went through she somehow made it through university after securing a government assisted education loan which she pays to date. I met her during her second year at the university when she, along with five of her classmates had come to the US to study for a semester on an exchange program. She was one of the most intelligent students in her class and this is the reason as to why she had won this scholarship. She was also a hardworking individual with a thirst for excellence. We became fast friends and would spend all of our time together. We have managed to stay in touch over the years whereby she keeps me updated on what’s happening in her life as I tell her about my life. As a matter of fact, I was able to visit her home country a few years ago and I could not believe the poverty that they are subjected to.
Upon graduation, my friend was excited to grab new opportunities in life and see her life transform. She applied to several companies and got invited to various interviews. However, her country is one where corruption always takes the lead and people from influential families were given the jobs regardless of the fact that they were less qualified. She looked for a job for many months and in the end, she had to start doing odd jobs since her siblings depended on her to feed and dress them as well as to educate them. For the last five years, she has been struggling to pay rent, school fees as well as buy food and clothing for her siblings. Therefore, when the opportunity to go to Qatar as a housemaid presented itself, she had to take it despite having a bachelor’s degree. The agency she was working with demanded $1000 as ‘processing fee’ for the job that she would get. She was also required to pay for her visa and passport application as well as her air ticket. She tried her best and managed to get all that was needed for her to start working in the Gulf.
Once she reached there, her employer confiscated her passports and threatened to kill her if she did not comply with his rules. They took away her clothes and forced her to wear what they referred to as modest clothing. In addition, they told her to sleep on the floor after she toiled for up to 18 hours every day. Her employers would kick her around and spit on her and even sometimes, rape her. However, she accepted the mistreatment not only because she wanted payment but also because there was no way for her to get out of the country. The Kenyan Embassy there informed that they could not help her since she had already surrendered her visa and all her identification documents. At the end of the first three months of her stay there, she asked for payment but they refused to give her claiming that she was still paying off her debt to the agency that had brought her there. Since then, she has been stuck in a strange country working tirelessly and being treated as a slave. She can only communicate with her family through Social Media on the rare opportunity that she gets. These are not appropriate working conditions and yet she struggles through them clinging on to the hope that one day she will meet her family.
Exploitative and forced labor is becoming a big business especially, for private firms. Many countries, especially the developing ones have weak protection laws and citizens who remain largely unaware of such laws. In addition, the denizens are desperate and jobless and would do anything to earn a living. For this reason, therefore, they continue to struggle in these slave-like conditions in order to earn a living. However, being a staunch Christian I believe the Bible clearly calls us to love our neighbor more than we love ourselves. In this sense, therefore, it is of utmost importance for people to ensure that they treat each other with dignity and respect which means that mishandling others cannot be considered. It is important that nations across the world pay attention to labor protection laws and pay their employees more than the minimum wage. This is regardless of the fact that some employees are immigrants and therefore, consider any means to earn a living as a blessing. The Bible is very clear on how Christians are expected to treat their neighbor regardless of the economic situation. Jesus went out of his way to preach love to all nations in order to ensure that people live in peace with one another through time.
Modern-day slavery comes in many shapes and forms. However, discrimination against immigrant workers stands out in many Gulf countries. However, this discrimination still stands even in Western countries since most immigrants work the lowest paying jobs mainly because they do not have much of a choice. Various governments need to find a way to ensure that immigrants are properly integrated into the system of their recipient countries and given better working and living conditions. This way, equality will be achieved and everyone can productively earn a living while building the host country. Those that break labor laws should be dealt with accordingly. Finally, immigrants need to know their rights in order to ensure that they are not infringed upon.
Burkhalter, Holly. “It’s the 21st Century. Yet Slavery Is Alive and Well.” The Washington Post. June 27, 2017. Accessed February 22, 2019. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/democracy-post/wp/2017/06/27/its-the-21st-century-yet-slavery-is-alive-and-well/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.3c169771746e.
Degorge, Barbara. “Modern Day Slavery in the United Arab Emirates.” The European Legacy 11, no. 6 (2006): 657-667. doi:10.1080/10848770600918307.
Miller, John R. “Call It Slavery.” Two Cheers for Materialism | Wilson Quarterly. Accessed February 22, 2019. http://archive.wilsonquarterly.com/essays/call-it-slavery.
Sage, Jesse, and Liora Kasten. Enslaved: True Stories of Modern Day Slavery. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
“The Emancipation Proclamation.” The New York Times. April 02, 1864. Accessed February 22, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/1864/04/02/archives/the-emancipation-proclamation.html.
. The New York Times. “The Emancipation Proclamation” The New York Times. April 2, 1864. https:// www.nytimes.com/1864/04/02/archives/the-emancipation-proclamation.html
Holly Burkhalter. “It’s the 21st Century. Nonetheless, slavery Is Alive and Well.” The Washington Post. June 27, 2017. Accessed February 22, 2019. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/democracy-post/wp/2017/06/27/its-the-21st-century-yet-slavery-is-alive-and-well/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.3c169771746e.
Barbara Degorge. “Modern Day Slavery in the United Arab Emirates.” The European Legacy 11, no. 6 (2006): 657-667.
John Miller R. “Call It Slavery.” Two Cheers for Materialism | Wilson Quarterly. Accessed February 22, 2019. http://archive.wilsonquarterly.com/essays/call-it-slavery.
Jesse Sage and Liora Kasten. Enslaved: True Stories of Modern-Day Slavery. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
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... | 1 | Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on the first day of 1863. During the period when the president gave the proclamation, the country was enthralled in a bloody and destructive civil war for three consecutive years. The proclamation declared that all people who were at the time held as slaves were declared free as at the time the speech was made. While the wording was grand, the practical application of the same was limited in many ways. The proclamation was only applicable to states which had seceded from the US, and therefore, the states which were along the border were left untouched. Besides, it exempted some parts of the Confederacy, in particular, the Southern secessionist states which were under the control of the Northern States. Moreover, the freedom that President Lincoln had promised was wholly dependent on the military victory of the Union. However, it is important to note that although the Emancipation Proclamation did not manage to end slavery in the US, it managed to capture the imagination and hearts of millions of Americans and change their character particularly, after the war. The proclamation ensured that black men joined the Union Navy as well as the army such that the liberated became liberators. Before the end of the war, more than 150000 black sailors and soldiers had fought for freedom through the Union.
Interestingly, slavery did not end in the nineteenth century. In the twenty-first century, there remains modern-day slavery, although it is more covert than in the previous years. Black people still end up doing more work sometimes for less pay than their white counterparts. Moreover, it is harder for a black person to get a decent job despite having similar qualifications as their white counterparts. This paper shall discuss twenty-first century slavery in detail and how although people are not working against their will anymore, the color of one’s skin still determines one’s pay scale as opposed to one’s academic qualifications as well as skill set.
Equality of all human beings is one of the beliefs that are deeply entrenched in my psyche. I believe that human beings should be treated equally before the law if equality is to be achieved. In this regard, I think it is imperative to look beyond the color of one’s skin to get to the real depth of their character to make progress as a human race. Paying people their appropriate dues at the right time is one of the ways to ensure that covert slavery comes to an abrupt end. Modern slavery is an umbrella concept, and it captures the different types of exploitation that people go through as they try to earn a living. It is important to note that poverty is perhaps the most significant enabler of modern-day slavery. While the data out there is patchy and unsustainable; it is estimated that about 21 million people are in forced labor as well as other forms of slavery. Other sources claim that indeed the number of slaves around the country stands at about 27 million people across the world. Forced labor, trafficking, and slavery are regarded as criminal activities under international legislation. In 1926, the League of Nations defined slavery as the situation whereby an individual has powers of ownership over another person. Later in 1956, the United Nations adopted practices such as debt bondage and serfdom in the broader net of slavery.
I first came across slavery in the twenty-first century when a friend of mine from an African country contacted me on Facebook excitedly informing me that she had landed a job in Qatar. My friend who is a Kenyan had spent a long time looking for a job in her home country without success due to the problem of unemployment the country. She has a bachelor of Arts degree which she attained in one of the most prestigious universities in her country. Having been raised in a poor family, she sometimes had to skip school several times as her parents looked for school fees. She also took up some odd jobs on occasion in order to fend for herself as well as her siblings. Both of her parents died in the year when she graduated high school and therefore, she was forced to look after her siblings on her own since her aging grandmother could barely manage anything. However, despite all the hardships that she went through she somehow made it through university after securing a government assisted education loan which she pays to date. I met her during her second year at the university when she, along with five of her classmates had come to the US to study for a semester on an exchange program. She was one of the most intelligent students in her class and this is the reason as to why she had won this scholarship. She was also a hardworking individual with a thirst for excellence. We became fast friends and would spend all of our time together. We have managed to stay in touch over the years whereby she keeps me updated on what’s happening in her life as I tell her about my life. As a matter of fact, I was able to visit her home country a few years ago and I could not believe the poverty that they are subjected to.
Upon graduation, my friend was excited to grab new opportunities in life and see her life transform. She applied to several companies and got invited to various interviews. However, her country is one where corruption always takes the lead and people from influential families were given the jobs regardless of the fact that they were less qualified. She looked for a job for many months and in the end, she had to start doing odd jobs since her siblings depended on her to feed and dress them as well as to educate them. For the last five years, she has been struggling to pay rent, school fees as well as buy food and clothing for her siblings. Therefore, when the opportunity to go to Qatar as a housemaid presented itself, she had to take it despite having a bachelor’s degree. The agency she was working with demanded $1000 as ‘processing fee’ for the job that she would get. She was also required to pay for her visa and passport application as well as her air ticket. She tried her best and managed to get all that was needed for her to start working in the Gulf.
Once she reached there, her employer confiscated her passports and threatened to kill her if she did not comply with his rules. They took away her clothes and forced her to wear what they referred to as modest clothing. In addition, they told her to sleep on the floor after she toiled for up to 18 hours every day. Her employers would kick her around and spit on her and even sometimes, rape her. However, she accepted the mistreatment not only because she wanted payment but also because there was no way for her to get out of the country. The Kenyan Embassy there informed that they could not help her since she had already surrendered her visa and all her identification documents. At the end of the first three months of her stay there, she asked for payment but they refused to give her claiming that she was still paying off her debt to the agency that had brought her there. Since then, she has been stuck in a strange country working tirelessly and being treated as a slave. She can only communicate with her family through Social Media on the rare opportunity that she gets. These are not appropriate working conditions and yet she struggles through them clinging on to the hope that one day she will meet her family.
Exploitative and forced labor is becoming a big business especially, for private firms. Many countries, especially the developing ones have weak protection laws and citizens who remain largely unaware of such laws. In addition, the denizens are desperate and jobless and would do anything to earn a living. For this reason, therefore, they continue to struggle in these slave-like conditions in order to earn a living. However, being a staunch Christian I believe the Bible clearly calls us to love our neighbor more than we love ourselves. In this sense, therefore, it is of utmost importance for people to ensure that they treat each other with dignity and respect which means that mishandling others cannot be considered. It is important that nations across the world pay attention to labor protection laws and pay their employees more than the minimum wage. This is regardless of the fact that some employees are immigrants and therefore, consider any means to earn a living as a blessing. The Bible is very clear on how Christians are expected to treat their neighbor regardless of the economic situation. Jesus went out of his way to preach love to all nations in order to ensure that people live in peace with one another through time.
Modern-day slavery comes in many shapes and forms. However, discrimination against immigrant workers stands out in many Gulf countries. However, this discrimination still stands even in Western countries since most immigrants work the lowest paying jobs mainly because they do not have much of a choice. Various governments need to find a way to ensure that immigrants are properly integrated into the system of their recipient countries and given better working and living conditions. This way, equality will be achieved and everyone can productively earn a living while building the host country. Those that break labor laws should be dealt with accordingly. Finally, immigrants need to know their rights in order to ensure that they are not infringed upon.
Burkhalter, Holly. “It’s the 21st Century. Yet Slavery Is Alive and Well.” The Washington Post. June 27, 2017. Accessed February 22, 2019. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/democracy-post/wp/2017/06/27/its-the-21st-century-yet-slavery-is-alive-and-well/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.3c169771746e.
Degorge, Barbara. “Modern Day Slavery in the United Arab Emirates.” The European Legacy 11, no. 6 (2006): 657-667. doi:10.1080/10848770600918307.
Miller, John R. “Call It Slavery.” Two Cheers for Materialism | Wilson Quarterly. Accessed February 22, 2019. http://archive.wilsonquarterly.com/essays/call-it-slavery.
Sage, Jesse, and Liora Kasten. Enslaved: True Stories of Modern Day Slavery. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
“The Emancipation Proclamation.” The New York Times. April 02, 1864. Accessed February 22, 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/1864/04/02/archives/the-emancipation-proclamation.html.
. The New York Times. “The Emancipation Proclamation” The New York Times. April 2, 1864. https:// www.nytimes.com/1864/04/02/archives/the-emancipation-proclamation.html
Holly Burkhalter. “It’s the 21st Century. Nonetheless, slavery Is Alive and Well.” The Washington Post. June 27, 2017. Accessed February 22, 2019. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/democracy-post/wp/2017/06/27/its-the-21st-century-yet-slavery-is-alive-and-well/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.3c169771746e.
Barbara Degorge. “Modern Day Slavery in the United Arab Emirates.” The European Legacy 11, no. 6 (2006): 657-667.
John Miller R. “Call It Slavery.” Two Cheers for Materialism | Wilson Quarterly. Accessed February 22, 2019. http://archive.wilsonquarterly.com/essays/call-it-slavery.
Jesse Sage and Liora Kasten. Enslaved: True Stories of Modern-Day Slavery. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
Do you need high quality Custom Essay Writing Services? | 2,488 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It's Nicolaus Copernicus's 540th birthday today. He is widely considered the father of modern astronomy and is best known for arguing that the Earth revolves around the sun--a controversial stance until the mid-17th century. Before he found his calling in heliocentrism, however, Copernicus was a versatile scholar who studied several unrelated fields, including church law and medicine. And while it's implanted in our heads that the Catholic Church skewered anyone who espoused heliocentrism, Copernicus actually had a fine relationship with the Church. At the beginning of his career, he was elected canon, a position just below bishop. He dialed down his church work before pursuing astronomy, and afterward found both supporters and detractors in the Church. | <urn:uuid:d335f918-37dc-408e-9c96-33f3a8dd3849> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.popsci.com/science/article/2013-02/8-things-you-didnt-know-about-copernicus/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00192.warc.gz | en | 0.98748 | 156 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.2780784368... | 1 | It's Nicolaus Copernicus's 540th birthday today. He is widely considered the father of modern astronomy and is best known for arguing that the Earth revolves around the sun--a controversial stance until the mid-17th century. Before he found his calling in heliocentrism, however, Copernicus was a versatile scholar who studied several unrelated fields, including church law and medicine. And while it's implanted in our heads that the Catholic Church skewered anyone who espoused heliocentrism, Copernicus actually had a fine relationship with the Church. At the beginning of his career, he was elected canon, a position just below bishop. He dialed down his church work before pursuing astronomy, and afterward found both supporters and detractors in the Church. | 159 | ENGLISH | 1 |
At the World’s Fair in New York in 1853 President Pierce might have been seen watching a young man exhibiting a patent rat trap. He was attracted by the enthusiasm and diligence of the young man, but never dreamed that he would become one of the richest men in the world. It seemed like small business for Jay Gould to be exhibiting a rat trap, but he did it well and with enthusiasm. In fact he was bound to do it as well as it could be done. Young Gould supported himself by odd jobs at surveying, paying his way by erecting sundials for farmers at a dollar apiece, frequently taking his pay in board. Thus he laid the foundation for the business career in which he became so rich.
Fred. Douglass started in life with less than nothing, for he did not own his own body, and he was pledged before his birth to pay his master’s debts. To reach the starting-point of the poorest white boy, he had to climb as far as the distance which the latter must ascend if he would become President of the United States. He saw his mother but two or three times, and then in the night, when she would walk twelve miles to be with him an hour, returning in time to go into the field at dawn. He had no chance to study, for he had no teacher, and the rules of the plantation forbade slaves to learn to read and write. But somehow, unnoticed by his master, he managed to learn the alphabet from scraps of paper and patent medicine almanacs, and no limits could then be placed to his career. He put to shame thousands of white boys. He fled from slavery at twenty-one, went North and worked as a stevedore in New York and New Bedford. At Nantucket he was given an opportunity to speak in an anti-slavery meeting, and made so favorable an impression that he was made agent of the Anti-Slavery Society of Massachusetts. While traveling from place to place to lecture, he would study with all his might. He was sent to Europe to lecture, and won the friendship of several Englishmen, who gave him $750, with which he purchased his freedom. He edited a paper in Rochester, N. Y., and afterward conducted the _New Era_ in Washington. For several years he was Marshal of the District of Columbia. He became the first colored man in the United States, the peer of any man in the country, and died honored by all in 1895.
“What has been done can be done again,” said the boy with no chance who became Lord Beaconsfield, England’s great prime minister. “I am not a slave, I am not a captive, and by energy I can overcome greater obstacles.” Jewish blood flowed in his veins, and everything seemed against him, but he remembered the example of Joseph, who became prime minister of Egypt four thousand years before, and that of Daniel, who was prime minister to the greatest despot of the world five centuries before the birth of Christ. He pushed his way up through the lower classes, up through the middle classes, up through the upper classes, until he stood a master, self-poised upon the topmost round of political and social power. Rebuffed, scorned, ridiculed, hissed down in the House of Commons, he simply said, “The time will come when you shall hear me.” The time did come, and the boy with no chance but a determined will, swayed the sceptre of England for a quarter of a century.
“I learned grammar when I was a private soldier on the pay of sixpence a day,” said William Cobbett. “The edge of my berth, or that of the guard-bed, was my seat to study in; my knapsack was my bookcase; a bit of board lying on my lap was my writing table, and the task did not demand anything like a year of my life. I had no money to purchase candles or oil; in winter it was rarely that I could get any evening light but that of the fire, and only my turn, even of that. To buy a pen or a sheet of paper I was compelled to forego some portion of my food, though in a state of half starvation. I had no moment of time that I could call my own, and I had to read and write amidst the talking, laughing, singing, whistling, and bawling of at least half a score of the most thoughtless of men, and that, too, in the hours of their freedom from all control. Think not lightly of the _farthing_ I had to give, now and then, for pen, ink, or paper. That farthing was, alas! a great sum to me. I was as tall as I am now, and I had great health and great exercise. The whole of the money not expended for us at market was _twopence a week_ for each man. I remember, and well I may! that upon one occasion I had, after all absolutely necessary expenses, on a Friday, made shift to have a half-penny in reserve, which I had destined for the purchase of a red herring in the morning, but when I pulled off my clothes at night, so hungry then as to be hardly able to endure life, I found that I had lost my half-penny. I buried my head under the miserable sheet and rug, and cried like a child.
“If I, under such circumstances, could encounter and overcome this task,” he added, “is there, can there be in the world, a youth to find any excuse for its non-performance?”
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0.50569105148... | 1 | At the World’s Fair in New York in 1853 President Pierce might have been seen watching a young man exhibiting a patent rat trap. He was attracted by the enthusiasm and diligence of the young man, but never dreamed that he would become one of the richest men in the world. It seemed like small business for Jay Gould to be exhibiting a rat trap, but he did it well and with enthusiasm. In fact he was bound to do it as well as it could be done. Young Gould supported himself by odd jobs at surveying, paying his way by erecting sundials for farmers at a dollar apiece, frequently taking his pay in board. Thus he laid the foundation for the business career in which he became so rich.
Fred. Douglass started in life with less than nothing, for he did not own his own body, and he was pledged before his birth to pay his master’s debts. To reach the starting-point of the poorest white boy, he had to climb as far as the distance which the latter must ascend if he would become President of the United States. He saw his mother but two or three times, and then in the night, when she would walk twelve miles to be with him an hour, returning in time to go into the field at dawn. He had no chance to study, for he had no teacher, and the rules of the plantation forbade slaves to learn to read and write. But somehow, unnoticed by his master, he managed to learn the alphabet from scraps of paper and patent medicine almanacs, and no limits could then be placed to his career. He put to shame thousands of white boys. He fled from slavery at twenty-one, went North and worked as a stevedore in New York and New Bedford. At Nantucket he was given an opportunity to speak in an anti-slavery meeting, and made so favorable an impression that he was made agent of the Anti-Slavery Society of Massachusetts. While traveling from place to place to lecture, he would study with all his might. He was sent to Europe to lecture, and won the friendship of several Englishmen, who gave him $750, with which he purchased his freedom. He edited a paper in Rochester, N. Y., and afterward conducted the _New Era_ in Washington. For several years he was Marshal of the District of Columbia. He became the first colored man in the United States, the peer of any man in the country, and died honored by all in 1895.
“What has been done can be done again,” said the boy with no chance who became Lord Beaconsfield, England’s great prime minister. “I am not a slave, I am not a captive, and by energy I can overcome greater obstacles.” Jewish blood flowed in his veins, and everything seemed against him, but he remembered the example of Joseph, who became prime minister of Egypt four thousand years before, and that of Daniel, who was prime minister to the greatest despot of the world five centuries before the birth of Christ. He pushed his way up through the lower classes, up through the middle classes, up through the upper classes, until he stood a master, self-poised upon the topmost round of political and social power. Rebuffed, scorned, ridiculed, hissed down in the House of Commons, he simply said, “The time will come when you shall hear me.” The time did come, and the boy with no chance but a determined will, swayed the sceptre of England for a quarter of a century.
“I learned grammar when I was a private soldier on the pay of sixpence a day,” said William Cobbett. “The edge of my berth, or that of the guard-bed, was my seat to study in; my knapsack was my bookcase; a bit of board lying on my lap was my writing table, and the task did not demand anything like a year of my life. I had no money to purchase candles or oil; in winter it was rarely that I could get any evening light but that of the fire, and only my turn, even of that. To buy a pen or a sheet of paper I was compelled to forego some portion of my food, though in a state of half starvation. I had no moment of time that I could call my own, and I had to read and write amidst the talking, laughing, singing, whistling, and bawling of at least half a score of the most thoughtless of men, and that, too, in the hours of their freedom from all control. Think not lightly of the _farthing_ I had to give, now and then, for pen, ink, or paper. That farthing was, alas! a great sum to me. I was as tall as I am now, and I had great health and great exercise. The whole of the money not expended for us at market was _twopence a week_ for each man. I remember, and well I may! that upon one occasion I had, after all absolutely necessary expenses, on a Friday, made shift to have a half-penny in reserve, which I had destined for the purchase of a red herring in the morning, but when I pulled off my clothes at night, so hungry then as to be hardly able to endure life, I found that I had lost my half-penny. I buried my head under the miserable sheet and rug, and cried like a child.
“If I, under such circumstances, could encounter and overcome this task,” he added, “is there, can there be in the world, a youth to find any excuse for its non-performance?”
“I have talked with great men,” Lincoln told his fellow-clerk and friend, Greene, according to _McClure’s Magazine_, “and I do not see how they differ from others.” | 1,197 | ENGLISH | 1 |
With the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars stretching the resources of the Royal Navy to their limit, the need for cheap ships to assume duties that would free up frigates for use elsewhere was soon readily apparent. This led to the commissioning of the Cruizer-class (model coming soon) and later Cherokee-class Brig-Sloops. While the Cruizer was the most-built ship design of the Napoleonic Wars, postwar construction would place the Cherokee as the most numerous design built by the British.
The vessels were armed with carronades which, thanks to their short length, could be given a greater calibre than a conventional cannon of the same weight. This meant that a small ship could put out the same broadside weight as a much larger conventionally-armed vessel, so long as she could close to within pistol shot distance.
It was therefore determined that Brig-Sloops would suffice for patrol duties, convoy escort and as mail packets, since the foe they were most likely to face, French privateers, would need to close-in to accomplish their goals and find themselves outmatched.
Unfortuantely, the origin of these ships as cost-saving measures really showed itself; they were too small for the global duties they were asked to assume, sank readily and came to be known as “coffin brigs.” A full quarter of these ships were lost. | <urn:uuid:691fc51b-292b-43ac-b5fc-2a4d5c060f8b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wargaming3d.com/product/gb-cherokee-class-brig-sloop-18-guns-1808/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00500.warc.gz | en | 0.990431 | 288 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.49471333622932... | 2 | With the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars stretching the resources of the Royal Navy to their limit, the need for cheap ships to assume duties that would free up frigates for use elsewhere was soon readily apparent. This led to the commissioning of the Cruizer-class (model coming soon) and later Cherokee-class Brig-Sloops. While the Cruizer was the most-built ship design of the Napoleonic Wars, postwar construction would place the Cherokee as the most numerous design built by the British.
The vessels were armed with carronades which, thanks to their short length, could be given a greater calibre than a conventional cannon of the same weight. This meant that a small ship could put out the same broadside weight as a much larger conventionally-armed vessel, so long as she could close to within pistol shot distance.
It was therefore determined that Brig-Sloops would suffice for patrol duties, convoy escort and as mail packets, since the foe they were most likely to face, French privateers, would need to close-in to accomplish their goals and find themselves outmatched.
Unfortuantely, the origin of these ships as cost-saving measures really showed itself; they were too small for the global duties they were asked to assume, sank readily and came to be known as “coffin brigs.” A full quarter of these ships were lost. | 274 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paper type: Essay Pages: 3 (664 words)
The English civil war broke out in 1642 between King Charles II and parliament. In the following essay I will state some of the most important factors of how the war broke out. In my conclusion I will some up what I think the main factor was that broke out war between the King and parliament. There were significant political views between the king and parliament. Charles wanted to do whatever he wanted because he thought that was what the king could do.
He brought in unnecessary taxes into England, such as ship tax which wasn’t needed because the country was not in a war with another country.
The sailors did not like ship tax because it meant they had to pay money that didn’t need to be paid that would be spent on the king’s lavish luxurious lifestyle. Parliament on the other hand wanted to have as much power as possible and wanted to overthrow Charles. Parliament introduced the Grand Remonstrance which was a document that said all of the misdeeds that Charles had done.
They also introduced the 19 propositions.
They took power away from Charles, so Charles ruled without parliament for a period of time. This made parliament and Charles angry at each other causing the country to split into two groups. Parliament and the king were each building up their own armies. They both knew that the only way to solve the problem was to have a civil war. This is because without each other the country would not be right. Charles had to face many financial problems. He lots of arguments with parliament about these problems and many of them were linked to religious and political issues.
He needed money to fight wars against Spain and France. He also needed to control the uprisings in Scotland and he had to pay of his own expenses from his lavish lifestyle. He was only getting only a seventh of the money he requested from parliament so he decided to rule without them. This lasted from 1629 to 1640. This didn’t help him with his money raising though because he wasn’t being paid at all by parliament now. One of the ways he tried to raise money was to fine people.
He would fine poor people that had pulled down houses saying that it encouraged peasants to move to the city. Charles also introduced ship tax that meant sailors had to pay to ship goods into the country. Charles wasted a lot of money on other wars which he didn’t win meaning that he lost men and lots of money. I think that this factor is very important because it gave parliament a chance to see one of Charles’ weaknesses. Everyone thought that Charles was changing the country catholic. This is because he married Henrietta Maria who was a Catholic and French.
Parliament were very strong protestants and were not happy with Charles marrying Henrietta. Parliament were very concerned with the marriage because it meant that if the king and Henrietta had children they would be Catholic meaning the country could be converted into Catholicism. Although Charles was a member of the Church of England he liked churches that had music and statues and preferred that way of worship.
This was what Parliament (the Puritans) were campaigning against causing even more concern. Charles introduced the prayer book into all of the churches in Scotland. The Scottish people were not in favour of this and rebelled against Charles. Overall I think this factor was very important because the whole country could have rebelled against the king, leaving parliament in a very strong position. In conclusion I think that the most important factor that broke out the civil war was Charles’ religious problems. He made the whole country think that he was going to turn the country Catholic and they could have been influenced by the Scottish revolt and rebelled against the king. This would have given Charles no other decision but to surrender.
Cite this page
Why did the english civil war break out in 1642?. (2016, Apr 22). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/why-did-the-english-civil-war-break-out-in-1642-2-essay | <urn:uuid:55f848fe-4494-4873-a88e-147e58539b3a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/why-did-the-english-civil-war-break-out-in-1642-2-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00354.warc.gz | en | 0.992141 | 833 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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The English civil war broke out in 1642 between King Charles II and parliament. In the following essay I will state some of the most important factors of how the war broke out. In my conclusion I will some up what I think the main factor was that broke out war between the King and parliament. There were significant political views between the king and parliament. Charles wanted to do whatever he wanted because he thought that was what the king could do.
He brought in unnecessary taxes into England, such as ship tax which wasn’t needed because the country was not in a war with another country.
The sailors did not like ship tax because it meant they had to pay money that didn’t need to be paid that would be spent on the king’s lavish luxurious lifestyle. Parliament on the other hand wanted to have as much power as possible and wanted to overthrow Charles. Parliament introduced the Grand Remonstrance which was a document that said all of the misdeeds that Charles had done.
They also introduced the 19 propositions.
They took power away from Charles, so Charles ruled without parliament for a period of time. This made parliament and Charles angry at each other causing the country to split into two groups. Parliament and the king were each building up their own armies. They both knew that the only way to solve the problem was to have a civil war. This is because without each other the country would not be right. Charles had to face many financial problems. He lots of arguments with parliament about these problems and many of them were linked to religious and political issues.
He needed money to fight wars against Spain and France. He also needed to control the uprisings in Scotland and he had to pay of his own expenses from his lavish lifestyle. He was only getting only a seventh of the money he requested from parliament so he decided to rule without them. This lasted from 1629 to 1640. This didn’t help him with his money raising though because he wasn’t being paid at all by parliament now. One of the ways he tried to raise money was to fine people.
He would fine poor people that had pulled down houses saying that it encouraged peasants to move to the city. Charles also introduced ship tax that meant sailors had to pay to ship goods into the country. Charles wasted a lot of money on other wars which he didn’t win meaning that he lost men and lots of money. I think that this factor is very important because it gave parliament a chance to see one of Charles’ weaknesses. Everyone thought that Charles was changing the country catholic. This is because he married Henrietta Maria who was a Catholic and French.
Parliament were very strong protestants and were not happy with Charles marrying Henrietta. Parliament were very concerned with the marriage because it meant that if the king and Henrietta had children they would be Catholic meaning the country could be converted into Catholicism. Although Charles was a member of the Church of England he liked churches that had music and statues and preferred that way of worship.
This was what Parliament (the Puritans) were campaigning against causing even more concern. Charles introduced the prayer book into all of the churches in Scotland. The Scottish people were not in favour of this and rebelled against Charles. Overall I think this factor was very important because the whole country could have rebelled against the king, leaving parliament in a very strong position. In conclusion I think that the most important factor that broke out the civil war was Charles’ religious problems. He made the whole country think that he was going to turn the country Catholic and they could have been influenced by the Scottish revolt and rebelled against the king. This would have given Charles no other decision but to surrender.
Cite this page
Why did the english civil war break out in 1642?. (2016, Apr 22). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/why-did-the-english-civil-war-break-out-in-1642-2-essay | 823 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How King Richard II. Lost His Throne
R ICHARD was only a boy of fifteen when he faced the rioters at Smithfield so bravely, and afterward broke his promises so basely. It would have been better for England if he had always been brave as he was the day he faced the rioters, and never base as he was afterward.
It was not until Richard was twenty-one that he really ruled. Until then his uncles ruled for him.
"How old do you think I am, uncle?" he said suddenly to one of them at a feast.
"Your highness is in his twenty-second year," replied he.
"Then I am surely old enough to rule. I thank you for your past help, uncle. I require it no longer." And before his uncle could recover from his surprise, Richard had asked for the great seal and keys of office, and had proclaimed to the people that in the future he himself should rule. And for a time Richard ruled well. He made peace with France, and the taxes on the poor were made lighter. But this was not for long. It was soon seen that he intended to do exactly as he liked, and would take advice from no one. He banished and outlawed those who tried to keep him in check. As he was always in need of money, he seized the lands and money of these banished people, and did many other wicked and dishonest things. At last the King, who had been placed upon the throne amid so much rejoicing, came to be hated and despised.
One of the people whom Richard had banished was his cousin, Henry of Bolingbroke, the son of his uncle, John of Gaunt. Soon after Henry had been banished John of Gaunt died, and Richard, in spite of having promised not to do so, seized his land and money.
When Henry heard of this he came back to England to take possession of his own inheritance, he said, but really to try to win the crown of England. The people had always loved Henry, and had been very sorry when he was banished, and now they welcomed him back with joy, hoping that he would free them from their hated King. Henry came with only fifteen knights, but as soon as he landed, many people flocked to him.
Richard, at this time, was in Ireland, trying to put down a rebellion there. As soon as he heard that Henry was in England he hurried home. But he was too late. Henry was already master of the country.
Richard brought a large army with him from Ireland, but many of the soldiers deserted almost as soon as they landed and joined the standard of Henry.
At last, forsaken by all, in utter despair, without food or clothes, or even a bed upon which to sleep, Richard was forced to submit to his cousin.
They met at the castle of Flint in Wales. Henry knelt to Richard as to his king and kissed his hand.
"Fair cousin of Lancaster," said Richard, looking down upon him, "you are right welcome."
"My lord," replied Henry, "I am come somewhat before my time." By which he meant that he had a right to the throne after the death of Richard, but that he had not waited until then. "But," he went on, "I will tell you the reason. Your people complain that you have ruled them badly these twenty years. Please God, I will now help you to rule them better." And the poor, broken, spiritless king replied, "Fair cousin, if it pleaseth you, it pleaseth me right well."
But when Richard was left alone he burst out in furious rage, "Would to Heaven that I had killed when I might this false cousin, this Henry of Bolingbroke."
Amid the curses of his people, forsaken even by his favourite dog which left him for Henry, Richard II. was led a prisoner to the Tower of London. There he solemnly gave up his right to the crown, and Henry of Bolingbroke was made king. This was in 1399 A.D.
Richard was afterwards sent to Pontefract Castle in Yorkshire, where, it is believed, he was cruelly murdered. | <urn:uuid:a6a20371-3bdd-4a28-bd64-4f66f5b34cb3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=marshall&book=island&story=throne | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00394.warc.gz | en | 0.995453 | 875 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.11541065573692... | 1 | How King Richard II. Lost His Throne
R ICHARD was only a boy of fifteen when he faced the rioters at Smithfield so bravely, and afterward broke his promises so basely. It would have been better for England if he had always been brave as he was the day he faced the rioters, and never base as he was afterward.
It was not until Richard was twenty-one that he really ruled. Until then his uncles ruled for him.
"How old do you think I am, uncle?" he said suddenly to one of them at a feast.
"Your highness is in his twenty-second year," replied he.
"Then I am surely old enough to rule. I thank you for your past help, uncle. I require it no longer." And before his uncle could recover from his surprise, Richard had asked for the great seal and keys of office, and had proclaimed to the people that in the future he himself should rule. And for a time Richard ruled well. He made peace with France, and the taxes on the poor were made lighter. But this was not for long. It was soon seen that he intended to do exactly as he liked, and would take advice from no one. He banished and outlawed those who tried to keep him in check. As he was always in need of money, he seized the lands and money of these banished people, and did many other wicked and dishonest things. At last the King, who had been placed upon the throne amid so much rejoicing, came to be hated and despised.
One of the people whom Richard had banished was his cousin, Henry of Bolingbroke, the son of his uncle, John of Gaunt. Soon after Henry had been banished John of Gaunt died, and Richard, in spite of having promised not to do so, seized his land and money.
When Henry heard of this he came back to England to take possession of his own inheritance, he said, but really to try to win the crown of England. The people had always loved Henry, and had been very sorry when he was banished, and now they welcomed him back with joy, hoping that he would free them from their hated King. Henry came with only fifteen knights, but as soon as he landed, many people flocked to him.
Richard, at this time, was in Ireland, trying to put down a rebellion there. As soon as he heard that Henry was in England he hurried home. But he was too late. Henry was already master of the country.
Richard brought a large army with him from Ireland, but many of the soldiers deserted almost as soon as they landed and joined the standard of Henry.
At last, forsaken by all, in utter despair, without food or clothes, or even a bed upon which to sleep, Richard was forced to submit to his cousin.
They met at the castle of Flint in Wales. Henry knelt to Richard as to his king and kissed his hand.
"Fair cousin of Lancaster," said Richard, looking down upon him, "you are right welcome."
"My lord," replied Henry, "I am come somewhat before my time." By which he meant that he had a right to the throne after the death of Richard, but that he had not waited until then. "But," he went on, "I will tell you the reason. Your people complain that you have ruled them badly these twenty years. Please God, I will now help you to rule them better." And the poor, broken, spiritless king replied, "Fair cousin, if it pleaseth you, it pleaseth me right well."
But when Richard was left alone he burst out in furious rage, "Would to Heaven that I had killed when I might this false cousin, this Henry of Bolingbroke."
Amid the curses of his people, forsaken even by his favourite dog which left him for Henry, Richard II. was led a prisoner to the Tower of London. There he solemnly gave up his right to the crown, and Henry of Bolingbroke was made king. This was in 1399 A.D.
Richard was afterwards sent to Pontefract Castle in Yorkshire, where, it is believed, he was cruelly murdered. | 865 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Yes, there were vomitoriums in ancient Rome, but they were not what you think they are. A vomitorium was a wide passage in a theater that leads to and from a seating area. The people could thus issue forth quickly and en masse. Most people believe that vomitoria were special rooms or buildings for hedonistic Romans to throw up in so they could make room to eat more food. As it turns out, most Romans were no fonder of throwing up than most people are today.
Now that the air is clear, it must be noted that not all Romans were averse to what we call today binge and purge eating, the experience was just not widespread enough to have entire rooms devoted to it.
One of the reasons for the belief in widespread vomiting in ancient Rome is because one of the most famous Romans of all time, Julius Caesar, expressed that he often desired to throw up after dinner. In some Roman literature, passages can be found that one or more slaves were specifically assigned to the task of cleaning up vomit at large banquets, but it is unclear as to whether this was from eating or from drinking too much wine.
Another reason for the belief in rooms set aside for vomiting is because the word vomitorium is often used incorrectly, even in reference books of authority. In 1923, the Oxford Dictionary cited an example where the term was used incorrectly. Another book on history published in 1961 suggested that the vomitoria in Roman theaters were named after vomitoria used to throw up, which is patently false.
A true vomitorium in a theater was designed to get the most people into and out of the theater as quickly as possible. It is said that the vomitoria at the Colosseum could be used to fill the 50,000-seat stadium in less than 15 minutes.
Posted 3041 day ago | <urn:uuid:52c938de-d463-4d7d-b5ea-2b99608b7f80> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.strangequestions.com/question/1062/Were-there-really-vomitoriums-in-ancient-Rome.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00283.warc.gz | en | 0.986877 | 381 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | Yes, there were vomitoriums in ancient Rome, but they were not what you think they are. A vomitorium was a wide passage in a theater that leads to and from a seating area. The people could thus issue forth quickly and en masse. Most people believe that vomitoria were special rooms or buildings for hedonistic Romans to throw up in so they could make room to eat more food. As it turns out, most Romans were no fonder of throwing up than most people are today.
Now that the air is clear, it must be noted that not all Romans were averse to what we call today binge and purge eating, the experience was just not widespread enough to have entire rooms devoted to it.
One of the reasons for the belief in widespread vomiting in ancient Rome is because one of the most famous Romans of all time, Julius Caesar, expressed that he often desired to throw up after dinner. In some Roman literature, passages can be found that one or more slaves were specifically assigned to the task of cleaning up vomit at large banquets, but it is unclear as to whether this was from eating or from drinking too much wine.
Another reason for the belief in rooms set aside for vomiting is because the word vomitorium is often used incorrectly, even in reference books of authority. In 1923, the Oxford Dictionary cited an example where the term was used incorrectly. Another book on history published in 1961 suggested that the vomitoria in Roman theaters were named after vomitoria used to throw up, which is patently false.
A true vomitorium in a theater was designed to get the most people into and out of the theater as quickly as possible. It is said that the vomitoria at the Colosseum could be used to fill the 50,000-seat stadium in less than 15 minutes.
Posted 3041 day ago | 392 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In order to use a language effectively and establish accurate and efficient communication through it, in addition to having the mastery of its grammar rules and lexicon, it is also necessary to be able to produce its sounds accurately. Pronunciation problems that are observed in the learning of almost all foreign languages are also experienced in teaching Turkish as a foreign language. Due to those problems, in this study, firstly the plethora of the terms that are used to refer to those phenomena that lead to confusion were discussed and a proposal for a common term was attempted. Based on the review of the literature, it was concluded that terms phone and phoneme were used to refer to sound and phoneme and that the terms articulation, pronunciation and spelling were used to refer to articulation. Secondly, three different approaches which are considered basic in pronunciation instruction were examined. Finally, 20 functional and useful instructional activities that teachers may use in their lessons at the beginner and intermediate levels in teaching Turkish as a foreign language were introduced.
phonetic and pronunciation training, phone, phoneme, articulation
|Author :||Halit KARATAY - Gökçen TEKİN|
|Number of pages:||27-46| | <urn:uuid:eff11301-f1ad-4330-9d9f-e56d4a31f497> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://kesitakademi.com/index.jsp?mod=makale_ing_ozet&makale_id=1412 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00311.warc.gz | en | 0.981697 | 247 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.224486470222473... | 1 | In order to use a language effectively and establish accurate and efficient communication through it, in addition to having the mastery of its grammar rules and lexicon, it is also necessary to be able to produce its sounds accurately. Pronunciation problems that are observed in the learning of almost all foreign languages are also experienced in teaching Turkish as a foreign language. Due to those problems, in this study, firstly the plethora of the terms that are used to refer to those phenomena that lead to confusion were discussed and a proposal for a common term was attempted. Based on the review of the literature, it was concluded that terms phone and phoneme were used to refer to sound and phoneme and that the terms articulation, pronunciation and spelling were used to refer to articulation. Secondly, three different approaches which are considered basic in pronunciation instruction were examined. Finally, 20 functional and useful instructional activities that teachers may use in their lessons at the beginner and intermediate levels in teaching Turkish as a foreign language were introduced.
phonetic and pronunciation training, phone, phoneme, articulation
|Author :||Halit KARATAY - Gökçen TEKİN|
|Number of pages:||27-46| | 244 | ENGLISH | 1 |
sort, but it never developed even to the pitch of the earliest Egyptian hieroglyphics. In Yucatan only was there a kind of script, the Maya writing, but it was used simply for keeping a calendar. In Peru the beginnings of writing were superseded by a curious and complicated method of keeping records by means of knots tied upon strings of various colours and shapes. It is said that even laws and orders could be conveyed by this code. These string bundles were called quipus, but though quipus are still to be found in collections, the art of reading them is altogether lost. The Chinese histories, Mr. L. Y. Chen informs us, state that a similar method of record by knots was used in China before the invention of writing there. The Peruvians also got to making maps and the use of counting-frames. "But with all this there was no means of handing on knowledge and experience from one generation to another, nor was anything done to fix and summarize these intellectual possessions, which are the basis of literature and science."
When the Spaniards came to America, the Mexicans knew nothing of the Peruvians nor the Peruvians of the Mexicans. Intercourse there was none. Whatever links had ever existed were lost and forgotten. The Mexicans had never heard of the potato, which was a principal article of Peruvian diet. In 5000 b.c. the Sumerians and Egyptians probably knew as little of one another. America was 6000 years behind the Old World.
- F. Ratzel, History of Mankind. | <urn:uuid:2a11c446-0ad3-47f8-a0ee-604fae076a7b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu/232 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00227.warc.gz | en | 0.982169 | 317 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.3994408249... | 1 | sort, but it never developed even to the pitch of the earliest Egyptian hieroglyphics. In Yucatan only was there a kind of script, the Maya writing, but it was used simply for keeping a calendar. In Peru the beginnings of writing were superseded by a curious and complicated method of keeping records by means of knots tied upon strings of various colours and shapes. It is said that even laws and orders could be conveyed by this code. These string bundles were called quipus, but though quipus are still to be found in collections, the art of reading them is altogether lost. The Chinese histories, Mr. L. Y. Chen informs us, state that a similar method of record by knots was used in China before the invention of writing there. The Peruvians also got to making maps and the use of counting-frames. "But with all this there was no means of handing on knowledge and experience from one generation to another, nor was anything done to fix and summarize these intellectual possessions, which are the basis of literature and science."
When the Spaniards came to America, the Mexicans knew nothing of the Peruvians nor the Peruvians of the Mexicans. Intercourse there was none. Whatever links had ever existed were lost and forgotten. The Mexicans had never heard of the potato, which was a principal article of Peruvian diet. In 5000 b.c. the Sumerians and Egyptians probably knew as little of one another. America was 6000 years behind the Old World.
- F. Ratzel, History of Mankind. | 325 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Franco-American History: Earthquake Hits New France
In Québec, Marie de l’Incarnation wrote about hearing a loud noise and a “terrible buzzing sound” coming from far away. She described it as the sound of many coaches rushing recklessly over cobblestones. Almost as soon as the people of Québec heard the sound in the air, they heard it coming from the ground as well. Then, the earth began to move. It was about 5:30 in the afternoon.
Rafters snapped and houses collapsed. Fires ensued. Church bells rang and rang in what seemed an eerily spontaneous response as the earth rose and then collapsed upon itself. Some habitants knelt in the snow crying for mercy while others passed the rest of the night in prayer. After the quake, the few churches in the colony were filled with the faithful seeking consolation—and absolution. It was said afterwards that many colonists throughout New France abjured evil and sought to live holier lives. Many believed that God was punishing them for their contraband sale of alcohol to the Indians, and the Jesuits appeared to be vindicated for their condemnation of this practice.
“God is seeming to want to get even for the slights against him,” the Jesuit Relations reported.
At Trois-Rivières, trees slid into the Saint-Maurice, and entire banks disappeared, flowing into the Saint-Laurent where they were said to have interfered with the current of the great fleuve for as long as three months.
In Montréal, the earthquake was less violent than it had been down river. But even there, spectators wrote that it shook houses “as a wind shakes a tree branch.” People fled their houses, leaving fires unattended in open hearths, creating a great risk of a conflagration. Even the sick fled the Hotel-Dieu. Madame D’Ailleboust, wife of the ex-governor and a woman known for her piety, was thrown out of her bed, half-clothed. Hurriedly followed by her woman servant carrying Madame’s skirt, she rushed through the cold night to the Abbé Souart, pastor of Montréal, shouting, “Confession, mon père. Confession.”
The earthquake was also frightening to the Indians who lived in winter long houses on the outskirts of the French settlements. Converts crowded into the French churches while those who held to traditional beliefs professed the ancestors were speaking angrily because the land was being lost to the French. The old people, they said, were demanding their territory back. Frightened, some traditionalists shot bullets into the air to ward off evil spirits.
There were many subsequent earthquakes that year. While less severe and frequent than the Februrary 5 quake, they continued to alarm the colonists, and it was not until August that they stopped.
The information about the erthquake derives largely from Gustave Lanctot in Historie du Canada/Des Origines au régime royal
Later estimated as between 7.5 and 8 on the Richter Scale. The epicenter was at La Malbaie, about 100 miles down the Saint-Lawrent from Québec. Much of the information in this section is from the journals and letters of Marie de l’Incarnation. The earthquake was felt strongly as far away as New England where, in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the tops of chimneys were broken on houses and dishes were thrown from shelves.
D’Ailleboust had served both as interim governor of Montréal on several occasions when Maisonneuve had had to absent himself.
It was said that she and her husband had taken a vow of celibacy on their wedding day. | <urn:uuid:e25f873b-4d3c-4b81-9efc-ffd4438b74eb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thememoirnetwork.com/franco-american-history-earthquake-new-france/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00503.warc.gz | en | 0.980674 | 790 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.2296560406... | 1 | Franco-American History: Earthquake Hits New France
In Québec, Marie de l’Incarnation wrote about hearing a loud noise and a “terrible buzzing sound” coming from far away. She described it as the sound of many coaches rushing recklessly over cobblestones. Almost as soon as the people of Québec heard the sound in the air, they heard it coming from the ground as well. Then, the earth began to move. It was about 5:30 in the afternoon.
Rafters snapped and houses collapsed. Fires ensued. Church bells rang and rang in what seemed an eerily spontaneous response as the earth rose and then collapsed upon itself. Some habitants knelt in the snow crying for mercy while others passed the rest of the night in prayer. After the quake, the few churches in the colony were filled with the faithful seeking consolation—and absolution. It was said afterwards that many colonists throughout New France abjured evil and sought to live holier lives. Many believed that God was punishing them for their contraband sale of alcohol to the Indians, and the Jesuits appeared to be vindicated for their condemnation of this practice.
“God is seeming to want to get even for the slights against him,” the Jesuit Relations reported.
At Trois-Rivières, trees slid into the Saint-Maurice, and entire banks disappeared, flowing into the Saint-Laurent where they were said to have interfered with the current of the great fleuve for as long as three months.
In Montréal, the earthquake was less violent than it had been down river. But even there, spectators wrote that it shook houses “as a wind shakes a tree branch.” People fled their houses, leaving fires unattended in open hearths, creating a great risk of a conflagration. Even the sick fled the Hotel-Dieu. Madame D’Ailleboust, wife of the ex-governor and a woman known for her piety, was thrown out of her bed, half-clothed. Hurriedly followed by her woman servant carrying Madame’s skirt, she rushed through the cold night to the Abbé Souart, pastor of Montréal, shouting, “Confession, mon père. Confession.”
The earthquake was also frightening to the Indians who lived in winter long houses on the outskirts of the French settlements. Converts crowded into the French churches while those who held to traditional beliefs professed the ancestors were speaking angrily because the land was being lost to the French. The old people, they said, were demanding their territory back. Frightened, some traditionalists shot bullets into the air to ward off evil spirits.
There were many subsequent earthquakes that year. While less severe and frequent than the Februrary 5 quake, they continued to alarm the colonists, and it was not until August that they stopped.
The information about the erthquake derives largely from Gustave Lanctot in Historie du Canada/Des Origines au régime royal
Later estimated as between 7.5 and 8 on the Richter Scale. The epicenter was at La Malbaie, about 100 miles down the Saint-Lawrent from Québec. Much of the information in this section is from the journals and letters of Marie de l’Incarnation. The earthquake was felt strongly as far away as New England where, in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, the tops of chimneys were broken on houses and dishes were thrown from shelves.
D’Ailleboust had served both as interim governor of Montréal on several occasions when Maisonneuve had had to absent himself.
It was said that she and her husband had taken a vow of celibacy on their wedding day. | 753 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lest We Forget: Remembering our Veterans’ Hard Work
Remembrance Day is a memorial day to remember the end of World War I and to commemorate all those who served during the war.
During WWI soldiers were subjected to horrible conditions in trenches and on the battlefield. On average, each soldier would spend 8 days in the front line and 4 days in the reserve. However, when a soldier was injured, another had to take their place and they could possibly spend around 30 days in the front line trenches.
Trenches were dug around 10ft deep and 6ft wide and in the spring and fall they would fill up with rain up to a soldier’s waist. During the harsh winter months, trenches did not provide a lot of shelter or warmth. Blankets and clothing were said to freeze, food became frozen and inedible and the frozen mud walls became hard as stone. Soldiers suffered from frostbite and exposure leading to amputations. Once the snow and mud started to thaw, it only escalated the muddy and wet conditions in the trenches similar to those in the warmer months. Along with thick mud and flooding, trenches were also infested with rodents and insects.
In the early stages of war, the standard footwear of the British Army were known as “Ammunition boots” which were unlined ankle boots made out of tanned cowhide with an iron plate half sole that was fixed to the heel. They were designed to be durable but not comfortable nor waterproof.
Over the course of the war, due to the increasing number of British casualties caused by trench foot, trenches were constructed with better drainage and more importantly soldiers received improved waterproof footwear called the “Perishing boot”.
These boots were designed as an American combat boot and were made out of heavier leather, they had a thicker sole and several more hobnails and treatments to improve waterproofing.
The Perishing boot was also dubbed “Little Tanks” as the soldiers found the construction heavy and bulky but incidents of trench foot dramatically decreased.
Book an appointment
You do not need a referral to become a patient at our foot clinic. Schedule an appointment by using the Appointment Request form below or contact the clinic at 416-769-FEET(3338). | <urn:uuid:e31b6d23-2a69-4f87-be67-1bb66b07ea4b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://feetfirstclinic.com/blog/lest-we-forget-remembering-our-veterans-hard-work/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00483.warc.gz | en | 0.985424 | 465 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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Remembrance Day is a memorial day to remember the end of World War I and to commemorate all those who served during the war.
During WWI soldiers were subjected to horrible conditions in trenches and on the battlefield. On average, each soldier would spend 8 days in the front line and 4 days in the reserve. However, when a soldier was injured, another had to take their place and they could possibly spend around 30 days in the front line trenches.
Trenches were dug around 10ft deep and 6ft wide and in the spring and fall they would fill up with rain up to a soldier’s waist. During the harsh winter months, trenches did not provide a lot of shelter or warmth. Blankets and clothing were said to freeze, food became frozen and inedible and the frozen mud walls became hard as stone. Soldiers suffered from frostbite and exposure leading to amputations. Once the snow and mud started to thaw, it only escalated the muddy and wet conditions in the trenches similar to those in the warmer months. Along with thick mud and flooding, trenches were also infested with rodents and insects.
In the early stages of war, the standard footwear of the British Army were known as “Ammunition boots” which were unlined ankle boots made out of tanned cowhide with an iron plate half sole that was fixed to the heel. They were designed to be durable but not comfortable nor waterproof.
Over the course of the war, due to the increasing number of British casualties caused by trench foot, trenches were constructed with better drainage and more importantly soldiers received improved waterproof footwear called the “Perishing boot”.
These boots were designed as an American combat boot and were made out of heavier leather, they had a thicker sole and several more hobnails and treatments to improve waterproofing.
The Perishing boot was also dubbed “Little Tanks” as the soldiers found the construction heavy and bulky but incidents of trench foot dramatically decreased.
Book an appointment
You do not need a referral to become a patient at our foot clinic. Schedule an appointment by using the Appointment Request form below or contact the clinic at 416-769-FEET(3338). | 461 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Music of the 1960’s
The 1960’s, like almost every decade throughout history, had many social and political conflicts. Like every decade, these conflicts forced people to make difficult decisions about their core values and morals, as well as take action to protect these beliefs. Music, just like literature, reflected the issues present in the 1960’s. It helped the younger generation express their feelings and ideas, as well as unite them against a common enemy. Using their music as a shield they battled the generation gap, the war in Vietnam, and segregation.
During the 1960’s the generation of young people felt like the morals and way of life that was enforced by the older generation was the wrong way to live their lives.The children thought that they had been lied to about the values that America was built on, which caused a generation gap. Their parents had built their lives on materialism, discrimination, and conformity, and the younger generation couldn't understand that they did this because they had lived through the dust bowl, and were afraid of its return. In the song, “The Times They Are A-Changin’” by Bob Dylan, he sings, “Come mothers and fathers/ Throughout the land/ And don’t criticize/ What you can’t understand/ Your sons and your daughters/ Are beyond your command/ Your old road is/ Rapidly agin’”(34-31). The lyrics are stating what everyone in the younger generation is feeling and saying. They want their parents to support their decisions to help change society for the better, but if they don’t support them they will stubbornly change it without them.
The younger generation also witnessed segregation in the 1960’s. They were being taught that African Americans were second class citizens, and it did not agree with what they were told about America. They heard the Pledge of Allegiance every day telling them that they were “...one country under God, indivisible, with liberty, and justice for all.”, but they were not seeing liberty and justice for all in their everyday lives. They listened to “Blowin’ in the Wind”, by Bob Dylan, which only validated their ideas. He sang, “Yes, ‘n’ how many years can some people exist/ Before they’re allowed to be free?/ Yes, ‘n’ how many times can a man turn his head,/ Pretending he just doesn't see?” (19-22). Using the song he points out that African Americans are no different than whites and should be treated as so. This pushed the younger generation of white people into action, using peaceful protests as well as sit ins, they helped integrate schools, as well as… | <urn:uuid:3b73827c-660a-4247-9e65-382af99114b9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Music-Of-The-1960's-534726.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00112.warc.gz | en | 0.984682 | 578 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.13217049837112... | 1 | Music of the 1960’s
The 1960’s, like almost every decade throughout history, had many social and political conflicts. Like every decade, these conflicts forced people to make difficult decisions about their core values and morals, as well as take action to protect these beliefs. Music, just like literature, reflected the issues present in the 1960’s. It helped the younger generation express their feelings and ideas, as well as unite them against a common enemy. Using their music as a shield they battled the generation gap, the war in Vietnam, and segregation.
During the 1960’s the generation of young people felt like the morals and way of life that was enforced by the older generation was the wrong way to live their lives.The children thought that they had been lied to about the values that America was built on, which caused a generation gap. Their parents had built their lives on materialism, discrimination, and conformity, and the younger generation couldn't understand that they did this because they had lived through the dust bowl, and were afraid of its return. In the song, “The Times They Are A-Changin’” by Bob Dylan, he sings, “Come mothers and fathers/ Throughout the land/ And don’t criticize/ What you can’t understand/ Your sons and your daughters/ Are beyond your command/ Your old road is/ Rapidly agin’”(34-31). The lyrics are stating what everyone in the younger generation is feeling and saying. They want their parents to support their decisions to help change society for the better, but if they don’t support them they will stubbornly change it without them.
The younger generation also witnessed segregation in the 1960’s. They were being taught that African Americans were second class citizens, and it did not agree with what they were told about America. They heard the Pledge of Allegiance every day telling them that they were “...one country under God, indivisible, with liberty, and justice for all.”, but they were not seeing liberty and justice for all in their everyday lives. They listened to “Blowin’ in the Wind”, by Bob Dylan, which only validated their ideas. He sang, “Yes, ‘n’ how many years can some people exist/ Before they’re allowed to be free?/ Yes, ‘n’ how many times can a man turn his head,/ Pretending he just doesn't see?” (19-22). Using the song he points out that African Americans are no different than whites and should be treated as so. This pushed the younger generation of white people into action, using peaceful protests as well as sit ins, they helped integrate schools, as well as… | 559 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sor Juana is widely considered one of the finest writers and greatest intellectuals of seventeenth-century Hispanic culture. She pursued knowledge with great fervor and evidenced such genius that, in spite of scant formal education, she had achieved renkown as a gifted writer and thinker by adolescence. Best known for her love lyrics and the long poem "El sueno," she was hailed as "the Tenth Muse of Mexico." Though she lived in a period when writing and scholarly pursuits were considered unseemly occupations for women, she was able to produce works that clearly established her as one of the best female poets, and possibly the best Hispanic poet, of the seventeenth century.
Born out of wedlock to a Spanish father and Creole mother, Sor Juana was raised in the village of her birth, San Miguel de Nepantla, near Mexico Cty. Exceptionally precocious, she began to learn to read at age three. She exhibited a passion for learning, asking her mother to dress her as a boy so she could attend the university in Mexico City. However, women at the time were barred admittance. She was tutored in Latin, the basics of which she quickly mastered. She acquired extensive knowledge in various fields during her teenage years by reading on her own, and began to write verse. She eventually attracted the attention of the viceroy, who brought her to court in Mexico City as a lady-in-waiting to the vicereine. Sor Juana was highly regarded at court for her beauty and talent, and was frequently asked to compose poems or dramatic pieces for various occasions; indeed, most of her total poetic canon consists of occasional pieces. Wishing to test her knowledge, the viceroy arranged to have forty of the city's scholars question Sor Juana, each in his own specialty. Proficient in moral and dogmatic theology, medicine, canon law, astronomy, advanced mathematics, and music, Sor Juana astonished them all; according to the viceroy, she defended herself "like a royal galleon assailed by small launches," greatly increasing her already lofty reputation. Not long afterward, in 1669, Sor Juana entered the convent of San Jerdnimo. The exact reason that Sor Juana took the veil is unknown and a matter of much speculation. What is clear is that she hoped the convent would prove a place where she could most completely give herself over to her studies. Still enjoying considerable renown, she continued to receive visitors and to write for both secular and church events. In time, though, Sor Juana became the focus of ecclesiastical disapproval. She was publicly chided for not paying enough attention to the study of Christ's teachings, and for preferring to study and write on secular subjects. After renouncing her studies, she begged forgiveness of the church and entered into public silence. Eventually she sold all the books in her large private library as well as her numerous musical and scientific instruments, giving the money she received for them to the poor. Sor Juana spent the last three years of her life engaged in her duties at the convent and in acts of charity for the poor of Mexico City. She died while ministering to the ill during an epidemic in 1695.
Although Sor Juana's poetry was influenced by both Luis de Góngora and Pedro Calderón de la Barca, it is generally considered to have transcended the ornamentation of her time. Critical interest has centered on very few poems, most particularly her longest poem, "El sueño" ("The Dream"), often called "Primero sueño" ("First Dream "). Her most celebrated work, "El sueño" describes through the form of a dream the soul's rising toward knowledge, employing extensively Sor Juana's knowledge of the sciences. The poem is very much in the baroque style, yet seems to foreshadow the Enlightenment in its scientifically oriented worldview. Interpretations of "El sueño"are diverse. It has been variously described as metaphysical, as a defense of the private viewpoint, and as a work that in...
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0.031962163746... | 2 | Sor Juana is widely considered one of the finest writers and greatest intellectuals of seventeenth-century Hispanic culture. She pursued knowledge with great fervor and evidenced such genius that, in spite of scant formal education, she had achieved renkown as a gifted writer and thinker by adolescence. Best known for her love lyrics and the long poem "El sueno," she was hailed as "the Tenth Muse of Mexico." Though she lived in a period when writing and scholarly pursuits were considered unseemly occupations for women, she was able to produce works that clearly established her as one of the best female poets, and possibly the best Hispanic poet, of the seventeenth century.
Born out of wedlock to a Spanish father and Creole mother, Sor Juana was raised in the village of her birth, San Miguel de Nepantla, near Mexico Cty. Exceptionally precocious, she began to learn to read at age three. She exhibited a passion for learning, asking her mother to dress her as a boy so she could attend the university in Mexico City. However, women at the time were barred admittance. She was tutored in Latin, the basics of which she quickly mastered. She acquired extensive knowledge in various fields during her teenage years by reading on her own, and began to write verse. She eventually attracted the attention of the viceroy, who brought her to court in Mexico City as a lady-in-waiting to the vicereine. Sor Juana was highly regarded at court for her beauty and talent, and was frequently asked to compose poems or dramatic pieces for various occasions; indeed, most of her total poetic canon consists of occasional pieces. Wishing to test her knowledge, the viceroy arranged to have forty of the city's scholars question Sor Juana, each in his own specialty. Proficient in moral and dogmatic theology, medicine, canon law, astronomy, advanced mathematics, and music, Sor Juana astonished them all; according to the viceroy, she defended herself "like a royal galleon assailed by small launches," greatly increasing her already lofty reputation. Not long afterward, in 1669, Sor Juana entered the convent of San Jerdnimo. The exact reason that Sor Juana took the veil is unknown and a matter of much speculation. What is clear is that she hoped the convent would prove a place where she could most completely give herself over to her studies. Still enjoying considerable renown, she continued to receive visitors and to write for both secular and church events. In time, though, Sor Juana became the focus of ecclesiastical disapproval. She was publicly chided for not paying enough attention to the study of Christ's teachings, and for preferring to study and write on secular subjects. After renouncing her studies, she begged forgiveness of the church and entered into public silence. Eventually she sold all the books in her large private library as well as her numerous musical and scientific instruments, giving the money she received for them to the poor. Sor Juana spent the last three years of her life engaged in her duties at the convent and in acts of charity for the poor of Mexico City. She died while ministering to the ill during an epidemic in 1695.
Although Sor Juana's poetry was influenced by both Luis de Góngora and Pedro Calderón de la Barca, it is generally considered to have transcended the ornamentation of her time. Critical interest has centered on very few poems, most particularly her longest poem, "El sueño" ("The Dream"), often called "Primero sueño" ("First Dream "). Her most celebrated work, "El sueño" describes through the form of a dream the soul's rising toward knowledge, employing extensively Sor Juana's knowledge of the sciences. The poem is very much in the baroque style, yet seems to foreshadow the Enlightenment in its scientifically oriented worldview. Interpretations of "El sueño"are diverse. It has been variously described as metaphysical, as a defense of the private viewpoint, and as a work that in...
(The entire section is 31,924 words.) | 844 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The only type of medieval house that survive today are those of the wealthy. They have survived because they were made out of stone.
The Medieval House in the Early Medieval Period – Noblemen and Women
This medieval cottage from the thirteenth century, has been reconstructed by the Weald and Downland Museum, Sussex, England. It was inhabited by the Lord of the Manor, his family and servants. It has two rooms, one containing the hearth that would have been the main living area. The other room contains a stone oven.
The house would have been very dark and smoky inside as there is no chimney and only a small window. The animals would have been housed in a separate building, probably a wooden barn, and another building would have been used to store crops which were grown on the land around the house.
The Medieval House in the Later Medieval Period – Noblemen and Women
In the later medieval period the houses of the rich were made out of brick. However, brick was very expensive so many chose to make the half-timbered houses that are now commonly referred to as Tudor houses.
Tiles were used on the roofs and some had chimneys and glass in the windows. These houses had two or more floors and the servants slept upstairs.
The Medieval House in the Early Medieval Period – Peasants
Peasants’ houses from this period have not survived because they were made out of sticks, straw and mud. They were one-roomed houses which the family shared with the animals. They made their houses themselves because they could not afford to pay someone to build them. The simplest houses were made out of sticks and straw.
Later Medieval Period – Peasants
The Black Death of 1348 killed a large number of the peasant population. This meant that there were not enough peasants to work in the fields. Landowners desperate for workers to harvest their crops began offering wages to anyone who would work on their land. Peasants were, for the first time, able to offer their services to the landowner that would pay the highest wage.
With more money, peasants were able to afford better housing and many now lived in wattle and daub houses.
Wattle and Daub houses were taller and wider than the simple stick and straw houses. They also offered better protection from the weather. They were made by first constructing a framework of timber, then filling in the spaces with wattle (woven twigs). Finally, the twigs were daubed with mud which, when dried, made a hard wall.
This article is part of our larger selection of posts about the medieval period. To learn more, click here for our comprehensive guide to the Middle Ages.
Cite This Article"Medieval Life – Housing" History on the Net
© 2000-2020, Salem Media.
January 18, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/medieval-life-housing>
More Citation Information. | <urn:uuid:b5ab7c46-65f9-49b3-97d7-8908fb8f4b76> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historyonthenet.com/medieval-life-housing | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00380.warc.gz | en | 0.989188 | 609 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.1776758432... | 1 | The only type of medieval house that survive today are those of the wealthy. They have survived because they were made out of stone.
The Medieval House in the Early Medieval Period – Noblemen and Women
This medieval cottage from the thirteenth century, has been reconstructed by the Weald and Downland Museum, Sussex, England. It was inhabited by the Lord of the Manor, his family and servants. It has two rooms, one containing the hearth that would have been the main living area. The other room contains a stone oven.
The house would have been very dark and smoky inside as there is no chimney and only a small window. The animals would have been housed in a separate building, probably a wooden barn, and another building would have been used to store crops which were grown on the land around the house.
The Medieval House in the Later Medieval Period – Noblemen and Women
In the later medieval period the houses of the rich were made out of brick. However, brick was very expensive so many chose to make the half-timbered houses that are now commonly referred to as Tudor houses.
Tiles were used on the roofs and some had chimneys and glass in the windows. These houses had two or more floors and the servants slept upstairs.
The Medieval House in the Early Medieval Period – Peasants
Peasants’ houses from this period have not survived because they were made out of sticks, straw and mud. They were one-roomed houses which the family shared with the animals. They made their houses themselves because they could not afford to pay someone to build them. The simplest houses were made out of sticks and straw.
Later Medieval Period – Peasants
The Black Death of 1348 killed a large number of the peasant population. This meant that there were not enough peasants to work in the fields. Landowners desperate for workers to harvest their crops began offering wages to anyone who would work on their land. Peasants were, for the first time, able to offer their services to the landowner that would pay the highest wage.
With more money, peasants were able to afford better housing and many now lived in wattle and daub houses.
Wattle and Daub houses were taller and wider than the simple stick and straw houses. They also offered better protection from the weather. They were made by first constructing a framework of timber, then filling in the spaces with wattle (woven twigs). Finally, the twigs were daubed with mud which, when dried, made a hard wall.
This article is part of our larger selection of posts about the medieval period. To learn more, click here for our comprehensive guide to the Middle Ages.
Cite This Article"Medieval Life – Housing" History on the Net
© 2000-2020, Salem Media.
January 18, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/medieval-life-housing>
More Citation Information. | 607 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By the Congress of Vienna, Holland and Belgium with Luxembourg were united under the King of the Netherlands. The King proclaimed that all territories under his government belonged to the kingdom of the Netherlands. Postal services were amalgamated under the Dutch Director-General and in the following 15 years most handstruck markings were translated from French into Dutch or Flemish. These straight-line markings were in turn replaced at the main POs by circular marks which included the dates.
This rapid change from French influence was greatly resented by the Belgians, especially in the southern provinces, and led to a rising against the Dutch in September 1830. On 18 November 1830 a national council proclaimed the country’s independence and in the following year Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha became King of Belgium.
Postal services were reorganized: the 9 provinces were grouped into 2 regions and many places reverted to their French names. As there was a Prussian garrison in Luxembourg, the Belgians were alarmed that the Dutch might use their territory to attack. A Belgian force was maintained to cover this possibility and, by 1837, the first Belgian military marking had appeared.
At the same time, the first mail was being carried on the Belgian railroad system. In 1841 the ‘Service des Postes sur le Chemin de Fer’ was inaugurated and subsequently many train marks began to appear.
Leopold was interested in all modern reforms and in 1849 he decided that Belgium should use postage stamps. This followed his close study of the reforms of Rowland Hill.Top ↑
Belgian stamps followed the British tradition and did not have the name of the country included in the design until after Leopold died in 1865. He was succeeded by Leopold II, and from 1869 the designs included the word ‘Belgique’. First stamps were printed in sheets of 200, but these were increased to 300 stamps per sheet from 1863.
Handstamps issued to offices after stamps had been released are interesting. Initially they were circular with the number allocated to the office in a rectangle surrounded by parallel lines. -The offices (1-208) and TPOs had horizontal bars and the distributions (1-145) had vertical ones. Marks with-out number, using horizontal bars, were issued to postmen to cancel letters handed to them for delivery on the same route. These circular obliterators were replaced in April 1864 by a lozenge of dots similar to French types.Top ↑
Belgium was one of the first signatories of the GPU in 1874, which became the UPU in 1878.
The Flemings complained that the French name for Belgium – ‘Belgique’ – was the only name on the stamps, and from 1893 ‘Belgie’ was added. The name has appeared in both languages ever since.
Between 1893 and 1914 an innovation was tried. All stamps were produced with a detachable label inscribed ‘Do not deliver on a Sunday’ in both French and Flemish. All stamps were printed with these detachable bandalettes, which enabled the sender to indicate whether delivery was to be made on a Sunday.
Belgium’s neutrality was guaranteed by the Treaty of London (1839). It was a breach of this treaty which led to the entry of Britain into World War I.Top ↑
Belgium was invaded by the Germans on 1 August 1914 and quickly occupied except for a small, area, the Ypres salient, which remained in Allied hands throughout most of the war, and the enclave of Baarle Hertog surrounded by Holland which remained in Belgian hands throughout the war. Britain entered the war on 4 August.
The government moved to Le Havre in France on 13 October 1914 and continued to print stamps for use in that locality and in unoccupied Belgium. The Germans issued stamps for use in occupied Belgium on 1 October 1914. These continued in use throughout the war and were used concurrently with the stamps of German Western Military Command from 1916. The latter were also used in the occupied area of northern France.
British Field POs were used in Belgium and, in particular, when a force was sent to Antwerp in October 1914.
Following the collapse of the German army, King Albert re-entered Brussels on 22 November 1918.Top ↑
Belgian troops occupied part of the Rhineland until 1930 and overprinted stamps were issued for this area (see Germany 1919-39). The troops themselves had free postage so no stamps were used. Having withdrawn from occupation, Belgium hoped that neutrality would be maintained, especially with the building of the Maginot and Siegfried Lines further south.
1939 to date
Invaded by Germany on 10 May 1940 and quickly overrun. Some British units were moved up from France but once the king surrendered the Belgian army, withdrawal to Dunkirk was necessary. Several British Field POs were either captured or had their handstamps destroyed by staff.
No overprints were issued: King Leopold remained in Belgium at the start of the German occupation though eventually imprisoned in Germany. The liberation began in August 1944, and in September the king submitted to a regency under his brother Charles. When Leopold was released, the Belgian parliament would not accept him and the regency continued until July 1950, when Leopold again tried to return to Belgium. This caused widespread rioting and the king abdicated in favour of his son – Baudouin (died 1993 and was succeeded by his brother, King Albert II). | <urn:uuid:3cd98c40-6bae-42d2-a9a7-7d26cee3d91f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mystampworld.com/belgian-philately | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00366.warc.gz | en | 0.98742 | 1,145 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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-0.01347720250... | 2 | By the Congress of Vienna, Holland and Belgium with Luxembourg were united under the King of the Netherlands. The King proclaimed that all territories under his government belonged to the kingdom of the Netherlands. Postal services were amalgamated under the Dutch Director-General and in the following 15 years most handstruck markings were translated from French into Dutch or Flemish. These straight-line markings were in turn replaced at the main POs by circular marks which included the dates.
This rapid change from French influence was greatly resented by the Belgians, especially in the southern provinces, and led to a rising against the Dutch in September 1830. On 18 November 1830 a national council proclaimed the country’s independence and in the following year Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha became King of Belgium.
Postal services were reorganized: the 9 provinces were grouped into 2 regions and many places reverted to their French names. As there was a Prussian garrison in Luxembourg, the Belgians were alarmed that the Dutch might use their territory to attack. A Belgian force was maintained to cover this possibility and, by 1837, the first Belgian military marking had appeared.
At the same time, the first mail was being carried on the Belgian railroad system. In 1841 the ‘Service des Postes sur le Chemin de Fer’ was inaugurated and subsequently many train marks began to appear.
Leopold was interested in all modern reforms and in 1849 he decided that Belgium should use postage stamps. This followed his close study of the reforms of Rowland Hill.Top ↑
Belgian stamps followed the British tradition and did not have the name of the country included in the design until after Leopold died in 1865. He was succeeded by Leopold II, and from 1869 the designs included the word ‘Belgique’. First stamps were printed in sheets of 200, but these were increased to 300 stamps per sheet from 1863.
Handstamps issued to offices after stamps had been released are interesting. Initially they were circular with the number allocated to the office in a rectangle surrounded by parallel lines. -The offices (1-208) and TPOs had horizontal bars and the distributions (1-145) had vertical ones. Marks with-out number, using horizontal bars, were issued to postmen to cancel letters handed to them for delivery on the same route. These circular obliterators were replaced in April 1864 by a lozenge of dots similar to French types.Top ↑
Belgium was one of the first signatories of the GPU in 1874, which became the UPU in 1878.
The Flemings complained that the French name for Belgium – ‘Belgique’ – was the only name on the stamps, and from 1893 ‘Belgie’ was added. The name has appeared in both languages ever since.
Between 1893 and 1914 an innovation was tried. All stamps were produced with a detachable label inscribed ‘Do not deliver on a Sunday’ in both French and Flemish. All stamps were printed with these detachable bandalettes, which enabled the sender to indicate whether delivery was to be made on a Sunday.
Belgium’s neutrality was guaranteed by the Treaty of London (1839). It was a breach of this treaty which led to the entry of Britain into World War I.Top ↑
Belgium was invaded by the Germans on 1 August 1914 and quickly occupied except for a small, area, the Ypres salient, which remained in Allied hands throughout most of the war, and the enclave of Baarle Hertog surrounded by Holland which remained in Belgian hands throughout the war. Britain entered the war on 4 August.
The government moved to Le Havre in France on 13 October 1914 and continued to print stamps for use in that locality and in unoccupied Belgium. The Germans issued stamps for use in occupied Belgium on 1 October 1914. These continued in use throughout the war and were used concurrently with the stamps of German Western Military Command from 1916. The latter were also used in the occupied area of northern France.
British Field POs were used in Belgium and, in particular, when a force was sent to Antwerp in October 1914.
Following the collapse of the German army, King Albert re-entered Brussels on 22 November 1918.Top ↑
Belgian troops occupied part of the Rhineland until 1930 and overprinted stamps were issued for this area (see Germany 1919-39). The troops themselves had free postage so no stamps were used. Having withdrawn from occupation, Belgium hoped that neutrality would be maintained, especially with the building of the Maginot and Siegfried Lines further south.
1939 to date
Invaded by Germany on 10 May 1940 and quickly overrun. Some British units were moved up from France but once the king surrendered the Belgian army, withdrawal to Dunkirk was necessary. Several British Field POs were either captured or had their handstamps destroyed by staff.
No overprints were issued: King Leopold remained in Belgium at the start of the German occupation though eventually imprisoned in Germany. The liberation began in August 1944, and in September the king submitted to a regency under his brother Charles. When Leopold was released, the Belgian parliament would not accept him and the regency continued until July 1950, when Leopold again tried to return to Belgium. This caused widespread rioting and the king abdicated in favour of his son – Baudouin (died 1993 and was succeeded by his brother, King Albert II). | 1,233 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Can you tell if someone is smiling even if you aren't looking at them, but just hearing their voice?
Researchers at the University of Portsmouth, in England, have worked on this. They recorded interviews with volunteers who were asked silly questions, the idea being to make them smile as they spoke. Then the researchers played the recordings for another set of volunteers and asked them to identify when the speakers were smiling. And more often than not, they could.
So how is this possible? It's probably mostly that smiling can affect the pitch of your voice, making it sound higher. So the listeners might have been picking up on that cue. They also might've been concentrating on the intensity of the voices. It's not an exact science, obviously, but something was tipping off the listeners.
Eventually, the results of studies like these might help improve voice recognition software as well as synthetic voices for things like computer games. | <urn:uuid:5fbdf008-cc9b-4074-91b6-b77f5fd97922> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://indianapublicmedia.org/amomentofscience/smiley-voices.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00092.warc.gz | en | 0.988629 | 185 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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-0.04015427455306053,
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0.084260277450084... | 3 | Can you tell if someone is smiling even if you aren't looking at them, but just hearing their voice?
Researchers at the University of Portsmouth, in England, have worked on this. They recorded interviews with volunteers who were asked silly questions, the idea being to make them smile as they spoke. Then the researchers played the recordings for another set of volunteers and asked them to identify when the speakers were smiling. And more often than not, they could.
So how is this possible? It's probably mostly that smiling can affect the pitch of your voice, making it sound higher. So the listeners might have been picking up on that cue. They also might've been concentrating on the intensity of the voices. It's not an exact science, obviously, but something was tipping off the listeners.
Eventually, the results of studies like these might help improve voice recognition software as well as synthetic voices for things like computer games. | 182 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Quote of the Day
Where Did Pentecost Come From?
Dr. Ray Pritchard
If you go back and read the Old Testament, you will discover that pentecost was one of the Jewish feast days. Only they didn't call it Pentecost. That's the Greek name. The Jews called it the Feast of Harvest or the Feast of Weeks. It is mentioned five places in the first five books—in Exodus 23:1, Exodus 24:1,Leviticus 16:1, Numbers 28:1, and Deuteronomy 16:1. It was the celebration of the beginning of the early weeks of harvest. In Palestine there were two harvests each year. The early harvest came during the months of May and June; the final harvest came in the Fall. Pentecost was the celebration of the beginning of the early wheat harvest, which meant that Pentecost always fell sometime during the middle of the month of May or sometimes in early June.
There were several festivals, celebrations, or observances that took place before Pentecost. There was��passover, there was Unleavened Bread, and there was the Feast of Firstfruits. The Feast of Firstfruits was the celebration of the beginning of the barley harvest. Here's the way you figured out the date of Pentecost. According to the Old Testament, you would go to the day of the celebration of Firstfruits, and beginning with that day, you would count off 50 days. The fiftieth day would be the Day of Pentecost. So Firstfruits is the beginning of the barley harvest and Pentecost the celebration of the beginning of the wheat harvest. Since it was always 50 days after Firstfruits, and since 50 days equals seven weeks, it always came a "week of weeks" later. Therefore, they either called it the Feast of Harvest or the Feast of Weeks.
There are three things you need to know about Pentecost that will help you understand Acts 2:1. First, Pentecost was a pilgrim festival. That meant that according to Jewish Law, all the adult Jewish men would come from wherever they were living to Jerusalem and personally be in attendance during this celebration. Secondly, Pentecost was a holiday. No servile work was to be done. School was out. The shops were closed. It was party time.
Finally, there were certain celebrations and sacrifices and offerings which were prescribed in the Law for the day of Pentecost. On Pentecost, the High Priest was to take two loaves of freshly baked wheat bread and offer them before the Lord. The wheat bread was made from the newly harvested wheat.
In short, Pentecost in the time of the Apostles was a great and grand harvest celebration. The streets of Jerusalem were clogged with thousands of pilgrims who had come from every point of the compass to celebrate the goodness of God and the bringing in of the wheat harvest.
Excerpted from "the p.u.i.h." from Keep Believing Ministries (used by permission).
why did jesus say "my god, my god..."?
Answered by Greg Laurie
Do you have questions about the life, ministry, and resurrection of Jesus Christ?
Get real answers at Jesus.org. | <urn:uuid:09cdc7a8-161c-4110-89ed-f098caa1f6d3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.crosswalk.com/devotionals/answering-the-mysteries/answering-the-mysteries-of-jesus-christ-june-5.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00033.warc.gz | en | 0.980423 | 681 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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-0.01626665... | 1 | Quote of the Day
Where Did Pentecost Come From?
Dr. Ray Pritchard
If you go back and read the Old Testament, you will discover that pentecost was one of the Jewish feast days. Only they didn't call it Pentecost. That's the Greek name. The Jews called it the Feast of Harvest or the Feast of Weeks. It is mentioned five places in the first five books—in Exodus 23:1, Exodus 24:1,Leviticus 16:1, Numbers 28:1, and Deuteronomy 16:1. It was the celebration of the beginning of the early weeks of harvest. In Palestine there were two harvests each year. The early harvest came during the months of May and June; the final harvest came in the Fall. Pentecost was the celebration of the beginning of the early wheat harvest, which meant that Pentecost always fell sometime during the middle of the month of May or sometimes in early June.
There were several festivals, celebrations, or observances that took place before Pentecost. There was��passover, there was Unleavened Bread, and there was the Feast of Firstfruits. The Feast of Firstfruits was the celebration of the beginning of the barley harvest. Here's the way you figured out the date of Pentecost. According to the Old Testament, you would go to the day of the celebration of Firstfruits, and beginning with that day, you would count off 50 days. The fiftieth day would be the Day of Pentecost. So Firstfruits is the beginning of the barley harvest and Pentecost the celebration of the beginning of the wheat harvest. Since it was always 50 days after Firstfruits, and since 50 days equals seven weeks, it always came a "week of weeks" later. Therefore, they either called it the Feast of Harvest or the Feast of Weeks.
There are three things you need to know about Pentecost that will help you understand Acts 2:1. First, Pentecost was a pilgrim festival. That meant that according to Jewish Law, all the adult Jewish men would come from wherever they were living to Jerusalem and personally be in attendance during this celebration. Secondly, Pentecost was a holiday. No servile work was to be done. School was out. The shops were closed. It was party time.
Finally, there were certain celebrations and sacrifices and offerings which were prescribed in the Law for the day of Pentecost. On Pentecost, the High Priest was to take two loaves of freshly baked wheat bread and offer them before the Lord. The wheat bread was made from the newly harvested wheat.
In short, Pentecost in the time of the Apostles was a great and grand harvest celebration. The streets of Jerusalem were clogged with thousands of pilgrims who had come from every point of the compass to celebrate the goodness of God and the bringing in of the wheat harvest.
Excerpted from "the p.u.i.h." from Keep Believing Ministries (used by permission).
why did jesus say "my god, my god..."?
Answered by Greg Laurie
Do you have questions about the life, ministry, and resurrection of Jesus Christ?
Get real answers at Jesus.org. | 686 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Trojan Horse Story
Just because it wasn't 100% historically accurate does not mean that it is not something that is still talked about. The story of the Trojan War is actually a very interesting one. It got its start when Helen of Sparta was either kidnapped or went on her own to the city of Troy. The Greek armies laid siege against the city and kept it under siege for 10 years. This is an extremely long period of time for a city to be under siege as they would have no food or any other provisions coming into the city during that time. Not only that, but many times the invading army would catapult dead bodies of diseased persons over the wall in order to infect the city. After the army had held the city under siege for that long they came up with an interesting plan to take over the city by surprise.
The plan was to build a large wooden horse, the construction of which was done by Epeius and it was filled with Grecian soldiers led by a man named Odysseus. This large horse was left outside the gate of the city as a peace offering. This was a very common gesture as many times generals would give their horse to the conquering general. The Greek army then pulled away to a safe distance and hid behind another city, even burning their camp as they left to appear as if they were gone for good. The people of Troy brought the large wooden horse into their city and began to celebrate what they thought was the beginning of a peaceful era.
It wasn't until the city became so full of wine that they could not resist that the soldiers came out of the horse and stormed the gate from the inside. Once the gate was opened the Greek army invaded and completely annihilated the city. All of the men were destroyed in the city was then burnt to the ground.
Although the story is considered to be fiction it has lasted for several thousands of years. In fact, even to this day, many people will call a gift with an ulterior evil motive a Trojan horse. | <urn:uuid:15a61d8c-b376-4210-81a2-9c38fe7e78eb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bbs.chinadaily.com.cn/forum.php?mod=viewthread&tid=721953&extra=page%3D1&page=2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00430.warc.gz | en | 0.992393 | 411 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.5136798024177551,... | 1 | The Trojan Horse Story
Just because it wasn't 100% historically accurate does not mean that it is not something that is still talked about. The story of the Trojan War is actually a very interesting one. It got its start when Helen of Sparta was either kidnapped or went on her own to the city of Troy. The Greek armies laid siege against the city and kept it under siege for 10 years. This is an extremely long period of time for a city to be under siege as they would have no food or any other provisions coming into the city during that time. Not only that, but many times the invading army would catapult dead bodies of diseased persons over the wall in order to infect the city. After the army had held the city under siege for that long they came up with an interesting plan to take over the city by surprise.
The plan was to build a large wooden horse, the construction of which was done by Epeius and it was filled with Grecian soldiers led by a man named Odysseus. This large horse was left outside the gate of the city as a peace offering. This was a very common gesture as many times generals would give their horse to the conquering general. The Greek army then pulled away to a safe distance and hid behind another city, even burning their camp as they left to appear as if they were gone for good. The people of Troy brought the large wooden horse into their city and began to celebrate what they thought was the beginning of a peaceful era.
It wasn't until the city became so full of wine that they could not resist that the soldiers came out of the horse and stormed the gate from the inside. Once the gate was opened the Greek army invaded and completely annihilated the city. All of the men were destroyed in the city was then burnt to the ground.
Although the story is considered to be fiction it has lasted for several thousands of years. In fact, even to this day, many people will call a gift with an ulterior evil motive a Trojan horse. | 414 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Many people think that the American War of Independence happened suddenly. On the 17th of April 1775, we were grumbling but at peace. On the 20th, we were at war. (Worse, folk think everything was fine on July 3, 1776, but on the 5th we were at war.)
However, the build-up, including violent clashes, had been going on for years before it turned into open warfare.
The Battle of Golden Hill, which could be considered the first blood spilled in the American revolutionary struggle, happened on this date (January 19) in 1770, five years before Lexington and Concord, before the “Boston Massacre”, before the “Tea Party”, before many of the events that we consider harbingers of the rise in rebellion of the American colonies.
The issue started several years before that, shortly after the Stamp Act, which had given the “no taxation without representation” idea its impetus, was repealed.
On May 21, 1765, the Sons of Liberty, a group dedicated to agitating for liberty in the colonies and their “rights as Englishmen” (Remember, at this time the American colonists thought of themselves as British, not as people of a new nation), erected a “Liberty Pole to commemorate the repeal of the hated Stamp Act. (Note, another source claims the pole was erected on June 4, George III’s birthday.) The pole carried with the words “King, Pitt, and Liberty”. Pitt, was the individual in Parliament who argued the colony’s case.
British officials hated the pole and soon, in retaliation for New York’s government refusing to enforce the Stamp Act, cut it down. A second pole was quickly erected. This, too, was soon cut down.
A third pole was put up which the British, no doubt with much shrugging and shaking of heads (“those crazy Colonials just will not give up”–some British officer, probably). It remained until 1767 when New York celebrated the repeal of the Stamp Act. British officials, in response to this, had this third pole cut down.
The colonials, undeterred, put up a fourth pole. This one secured with iron bands to make it much harder to cut down.
Not long after the erecting of the fourth pole, Parliament passed the Quartering Act, requiring people in the colonies to provide housing for British troops in excess to their local barracks’ capacity. (If you’ve ever wondered why the 3rd Amendment is in the Bill of Rights. This is the reason.) New York, once again, mostly refused to enforce that law. Parliament responded by dissolving the New York government and installing one of their own. The Sons of Liberty responded to this by posting a broadside (basically large posters) titled “To the Betrayed Inhabitants to the City and Colony of New York.” All of this took time, and brings us to the beginning of 1770.
On January 13, 1770 the British military attempted to bring down that fourth liberty pole, using gunpowder (because of the iron bands). This attempt failed but a second on the 16th succeeded. They took the wreckage of the pole and dropped it on front of a tavern owned by a Mr. Montagne–where the Sons of Liberty were wont to meet. They then began their own campaign of broadsides, calling the Sons of Liberty the real enemies of society who thought their freedom depended on a piece of wood.
On January 19th several individuals, including one Isaac Seares, tried to stop some British redcoats from posting their broadsides. Seares managed to capture some of the soldiers while others ran to their barracks to call for reinfocements. Seares marched his prisoners toward the mayor’s office.
The reinforcements, numbering about twenty men, arrived, but so did a crowd of townsfolk. The townsfolk badly outnumbered the soldiers and surrounded them. Other soldiers attempted their rescue but were ordered back to their barracks. While being escorted back to their barracks they had reached Golden Hill when an officer ordered the soldiers to draw bayonets and “cut their way through them.” The soldiers were armed with their bayonets while the citizens were either unarmed or armed with makeshift weapons. According to one source those citizens with sticks stood their ground in the narrow passageway defending their defenseless compatriots.
While the scuffle was going on, more soldiers arrived to disperse the other soldiers before things got totally out of hand.
In the end several soldiers were badly bruised with one being seriously wounded. A number of the townsfolk were wounded. Some sources claim that one townsperson was killed but this is disputed.
Afterward, the Sons of Liberty asked the Mayor for permission to erect a fifth Liberty Pole on public land. This was denied. As a result, the Sons of Liberty bought a parcel of land where they erected their pole. This one had iron bands extending two thirds the way up the pole.
Also, for some strange reason, this fifth pole lacked any mention of the King (or of Pitt). This one simply said “Liberty and Property.” | <urn:uuid:a40f8672-f8c3-48a4-93aa-ae30f8fa2822> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thewriterinblack.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00022.warc.gz | en | 0.981805 | 1,085 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.373856365680... | 11 | Many people think that the American War of Independence happened suddenly. On the 17th of April 1775, we were grumbling but at peace. On the 20th, we were at war. (Worse, folk think everything was fine on July 3, 1776, but on the 5th we were at war.)
However, the build-up, including violent clashes, had been going on for years before it turned into open warfare.
The Battle of Golden Hill, which could be considered the first blood spilled in the American revolutionary struggle, happened on this date (January 19) in 1770, five years before Lexington and Concord, before the “Boston Massacre”, before the “Tea Party”, before many of the events that we consider harbingers of the rise in rebellion of the American colonies.
The issue started several years before that, shortly after the Stamp Act, which had given the “no taxation without representation” idea its impetus, was repealed.
On May 21, 1765, the Sons of Liberty, a group dedicated to agitating for liberty in the colonies and their “rights as Englishmen” (Remember, at this time the American colonists thought of themselves as British, not as people of a new nation), erected a “Liberty Pole to commemorate the repeal of the hated Stamp Act. (Note, another source claims the pole was erected on June 4, George III’s birthday.) The pole carried with the words “King, Pitt, and Liberty”. Pitt, was the individual in Parliament who argued the colony’s case.
British officials hated the pole and soon, in retaliation for New York’s government refusing to enforce the Stamp Act, cut it down. A second pole was quickly erected. This, too, was soon cut down.
A third pole was put up which the British, no doubt with much shrugging and shaking of heads (“those crazy Colonials just will not give up”–some British officer, probably). It remained until 1767 when New York celebrated the repeal of the Stamp Act. British officials, in response to this, had this third pole cut down.
The colonials, undeterred, put up a fourth pole. This one secured with iron bands to make it much harder to cut down.
Not long after the erecting of the fourth pole, Parliament passed the Quartering Act, requiring people in the colonies to provide housing for British troops in excess to their local barracks’ capacity. (If you’ve ever wondered why the 3rd Amendment is in the Bill of Rights. This is the reason.) New York, once again, mostly refused to enforce that law. Parliament responded by dissolving the New York government and installing one of their own. The Sons of Liberty responded to this by posting a broadside (basically large posters) titled “To the Betrayed Inhabitants to the City and Colony of New York.” All of this took time, and brings us to the beginning of 1770.
On January 13, 1770 the British military attempted to bring down that fourth liberty pole, using gunpowder (because of the iron bands). This attempt failed but a second on the 16th succeeded. They took the wreckage of the pole and dropped it on front of a tavern owned by a Mr. Montagne–where the Sons of Liberty were wont to meet. They then began their own campaign of broadsides, calling the Sons of Liberty the real enemies of society who thought their freedom depended on a piece of wood.
On January 19th several individuals, including one Isaac Seares, tried to stop some British redcoats from posting their broadsides. Seares managed to capture some of the soldiers while others ran to their barracks to call for reinfocements. Seares marched his prisoners toward the mayor’s office.
The reinforcements, numbering about twenty men, arrived, but so did a crowd of townsfolk. The townsfolk badly outnumbered the soldiers and surrounded them. Other soldiers attempted their rescue but were ordered back to their barracks. While being escorted back to their barracks they had reached Golden Hill when an officer ordered the soldiers to draw bayonets and “cut their way through them.” The soldiers were armed with their bayonets while the citizens were either unarmed or armed with makeshift weapons. According to one source those citizens with sticks stood their ground in the narrow passageway defending their defenseless compatriots.
While the scuffle was going on, more soldiers arrived to disperse the other soldiers before things got totally out of hand.
In the end several soldiers were badly bruised with one being seriously wounded. A number of the townsfolk were wounded. Some sources claim that one townsperson was killed but this is disputed.
Afterward, the Sons of Liberty asked the Mayor for permission to erect a fifth Liberty Pole on public land. This was denied. As a result, the Sons of Liberty bought a parcel of land where they erected their pole. This one had iron bands extending two thirds the way up the pole.
Also, for some strange reason, this fifth pole lacked any mention of the King (or of Pitt). This one simply said “Liberty and Property.” | 1,077 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Parrots, Dolphins, Seals – And What They Have Taught Us
Parrots can imitate human speech but Irene Pepperberg decided to prove that they can be taught to talk meaningfully. Her African grey parrot named Alex learned over a hundred English words and was able to answer questions and make requests. He could communicate about the colour, shape, material, and size of several objects and understood the concept of sameness and difference as well as the concept of ‘none.’ Alex had some mathematical knowledge: he could count to 6 and add up small numbers. Alex and Pepperberg showed us how intelligent birds are. At the Marine Mammal Laboratory in Hawaii, the bottle-nosed dolphins Akeakamai and Phoenix learned an artificial language consisting of gestures and sounds. They were able to understand individual signals that were equivalent to words. Moreover, they could comprehend combinations of signals that were arranged according to simple grammatical rules; these combinations can be seen as equivalent to sentences. Remarkable mental abilities have also been demonstrated by sea lions, including Rio and Rocky, who learned the meanings of gestural signs and even combinations of signs, were able to classify objects into abstract categories, and could repeatedly outperform human volunteers in intelligence tests. Through all these researches, the illusion of human uniqueness has been refuted once and for all. | <urn:uuid:3a666d6c-bdfd-45fd-a6ff-3a254553e9df> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-030-31806-2_14 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00142.warc.gz | en | 0.980674 | 270 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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Parrots can imitate human speech but Irene Pepperberg decided to prove that they can be taught to talk meaningfully. Her African grey parrot named Alex learned over a hundred English words and was able to answer questions and make requests. He could communicate about the colour, shape, material, and size of several objects and understood the concept of sameness and difference as well as the concept of ‘none.’ Alex had some mathematical knowledge: he could count to 6 and add up small numbers. Alex and Pepperberg showed us how intelligent birds are. At the Marine Mammal Laboratory in Hawaii, the bottle-nosed dolphins Akeakamai and Phoenix learned an artificial language consisting of gestures and sounds. They were able to understand individual signals that were equivalent to words. Moreover, they could comprehend combinations of signals that were arranged according to simple grammatical rules; these combinations can be seen as equivalent to sentences. Remarkable mental abilities have also been demonstrated by sea lions, including Rio and Rocky, who learned the meanings of gestural signs and even combinations of signs, were able to classify objects into abstract categories, and could repeatedly outperform human volunteers in intelligence tests. Through all these researches, the illusion of human uniqueness has been refuted once and for all. | 270 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hi everyone, let’s start this 2020 remembering the African American slave and folk artist Harriet Powers. She is famous for being a quilt maker who used traditional appliqué (ornamental needlework) techniques to record local legends, biblical stories or astronomical events on her quilts.
Unfortunately, only two of her quilts are known to have survived: The Bible Quilt, 1886 and the Pictorial Quilt, 1898. Her quilts are considered as finest examples of the 19th century Southern quilting. Her works are displayed in the National Museum of American History in Washington DC and in the Museum of fine Arts in Boston.
Powers started to exhibit her quilts in 1886. Her first quilt, entitled Bible Quilt was shown at the Athens Cotton Fair, this quilt is now in the Smithsonian Institution. According to artist and art teacher Jennie Smith, from the Lucy Cobb Institute, this quilt was considered remarkable by that time, it was even asked to purchase but Powers refused to sell then. However, years later when Powers faced some financial difficulties, she agreed to sell the piece.
The history of the second quilt is not clear. It was suggested that it was commissioned by the wives of faculty members of Atlanta University, who had seen Powers’ quilts at the Cotton States Exhibition in Atlanta in 1895.
In 2009 was founded a copy of a letter that Powers sent to a prominent Iowa woman in 1896; in this letter Powers shares her insights into her life as a slave, when she learned to write and read, as well as description of at least four quilts she had stitched.
Harriet Powers died on this day in 1910.
- In her quilts Powers explained the themes from her own perspective and experience by using techniques from the age-old crafts of African Americans.
- Powers was a literate woman who might have used her quilts to tell stories, as teaching tools. | <urn:uuid:ec024a63-7e03-41d0-aab9-d60a58352bba> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://womennart.com/2020/01/01/on-this-day-died-harriet-powers/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00102.warc.gz | en | 0.981744 | 394 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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-0.117603741586... | 12 | Hi everyone, let’s start this 2020 remembering the African American slave and folk artist Harriet Powers. She is famous for being a quilt maker who used traditional appliqué (ornamental needlework) techniques to record local legends, biblical stories or astronomical events on her quilts.
Unfortunately, only two of her quilts are known to have survived: The Bible Quilt, 1886 and the Pictorial Quilt, 1898. Her quilts are considered as finest examples of the 19th century Southern quilting. Her works are displayed in the National Museum of American History in Washington DC and in the Museum of fine Arts in Boston.
Powers started to exhibit her quilts in 1886. Her first quilt, entitled Bible Quilt was shown at the Athens Cotton Fair, this quilt is now in the Smithsonian Institution. According to artist and art teacher Jennie Smith, from the Lucy Cobb Institute, this quilt was considered remarkable by that time, it was even asked to purchase but Powers refused to sell then. However, years later when Powers faced some financial difficulties, she agreed to sell the piece.
The history of the second quilt is not clear. It was suggested that it was commissioned by the wives of faculty members of Atlanta University, who had seen Powers’ quilts at the Cotton States Exhibition in Atlanta in 1895.
In 2009 was founded a copy of a letter that Powers sent to a prominent Iowa woman in 1896; in this letter Powers shares her insights into her life as a slave, when she learned to write and read, as well as description of at least four quilts she had stitched.
Harriet Powers died on this day in 1910.
- In her quilts Powers explained the themes from her own perspective and experience by using techniques from the age-old crafts of African Americans.
- Powers was a literate woman who might have used her quilts to tell stories, as teaching tools. | 411 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Operation Keelhaul was a forced repatriation of former Soviet Armed Forces POWs of Germany to the Soviet Union, carried out in Northern Italy by British and American forces between 14 August 1946 and 9 May 1947.Anti-communist Yugoslavs and Hungarians were also forcibly repatriated to their respective governments.
Three volumes of records, entitled "Forcible Repatriation of Displaced Soviet Citizens-Operation Keelhaul," were classified Top Secret by the U.S. Army on September 18, 1948, and bear the secret file number 383.7-14.1.
One of the conclusions of the Yalta Conference was that the western Allies would return all Soviet citizens who found themselves in their zones to the Soviet Union. This immediately affected the liberated Soviet prisoners of war,but also extended to all Soviet citizens, irrespective of their wishes. In exchange, the Soviet government agreed to hand over several thousand western Allied prisoners of war whom they had liberated from German prisoner of war camps.
The refugee columns fleeing the Soviet-occupied parts of Europe included anti-communists, civilians, and Nazi collaborators from eastern European countries. They added to the mass of 'displaced persons' from the Soviet Union already in Western Europe, the vast majority of whom were Soviet prisoners of war and forced laborers (Ost-Arbeiter).
Soviet subjects who had volunteered for the German Army Ostlegionen and/or Waffen SS units were forcibly repatriated. These included Russian Cossacks of the XVth SS Cossack Cavalry Corps with their relatives, who were transported from the Western occupation zones of Allied-occupied Austria to the Soviet occupation zones of Austria and Allied-occupied Germany. Among those handed over were White émigré-Russians who had never been Soviet citizens, but who had fought for Nazi Germany against the Soviets during the war, including General Andrei Shkuro and the Ataman of the Don Cossack host Pyotr Krasnov. This was done despite the official statement of the British Foreign Office policy after the Yalta Conference, that only Soviet citizens who had been such after 1 September 1939, were to be compelled to return to the Soviet Union or handed over to Soviet officials in other locations (see the Repatriation of Cossacks after World War II).
The actual "Operation Keelhaul" was the last forced repatriation and involved the selection and subsequent transfer of approximately one thousand "Russians" from the camps of Bagnoli, Aversa, Pisa, and Riccione.Applying the "McNarney-Clark Directive", subjects who had served in the German Army were selected for shipment, starting on 14 August 1946. The transfer was codenamed "East Wind" and took place at St. Valentin in Austria on 8 and 9 May 1947. This operation marked the end of forced repatriations by the Soviet Union after World War II, and ran parallel to Operation Fling that helped Soviet defectors to escape from the Soviet Union.
On the other side of the exchange, the Soviet leadership found out that despite the demands set forth by Stalin, British intelligence was retaining a number of anti-Communist prisoners with the intention of reviving "anti-Soviet operations" under orders from Churchill.
Author Nikolai Tolstoy described the scene of Americans returning to the internment camp after delivering a shipment of people to the Soviet authorities: "The Americans returned to Plattling visibly shamefaced. Before their departure from the rendezvous in the forest, many had seen rows of bodies already hanging from the branches of nearby trees."
Nigel Nicolson, a former British Army captain, was Nicolai Tolstoy's chief witness in the libel action brought by Lord Aldington. In 1995, he wrote:
Fifty years ago I was a captain in the British Army, and with others I supervised the Jugoslav (Yugoslav) 'repatriation', as it was euphemistically called. We were told not to use force, and forbidden to inform them of their true destination. When they asked us where they were going, we replied that we were transferring them to another British camp in Italy, and they mounted the trains without suspicion. As soon as the sliding doors of the cattle-trucks were padlocked, our soldiers withdrew and Tito's partisans emerged from the station building where they had been hiding, and took over command of the train. The prisoners and refugees could see them through cracks in the boarding, and began hammering on the insides of the wagons, shouting abuse at us for having betrayed them, lied to them, and sentenced at least the men among them to a grotesque death. There is now no doubt about their hideous fate, and to those of us on the spot there was little doubt then. Shortly after the first trainloads had been despatched, we heard the stories of the few survivors who escaped back to Austria, and thousands of manacled skeletons have since been disinterred in Slovenian pits.
Ghinghis Guirey, an American on one of the repatriation screening teams, reported:
The most unpleasant aspect of this unpleasant business was the fear these people displayed. Involuntarily one began to look over one's shoulder. I heard so many threats to commit suicide from people who feared repatriation that it became almost commonplace. And they were not fooling.
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn called this operation "the last secret of World War II."He contributed to a legal defence fund set up to help Tolstoy, who was charged with libel in a 1989 case brought by Lord Aldington over war crimes allegations made by Tolstoy related to this operation. Tolstoy lost the case in the British courts; he avoided paying damages by declaring bankruptcy.
A prisoner of war (POW) is a person, whether a combatant or a non-combatant, who is held captive by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the phrase "prisoner of war" dates back to 1610.
The Yalta Conference, also known as the Crimea Conference and code-named the Argonaut Conference, held February 4–11, 1945, was the World War II meeting of the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union to discuss the postwar reorganization of Germany and Europe. The three states were represented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Premier Joseph Stalin, respectively. The conference was held near Yalta in Crimea, Soviet Union, within the Livadia, Yusupov, and Vorontsov Palaces.
The Russian Liberation Army was a collaborationist formation, primarily composed of Russians, that fought under German command during World War II. The army was led by Andrey Vlasov, a Red Army general who had defected, and members of the army are often referred to as Vlasovtsy (Власовцы). In 1944, it became known as the Armed Forces of the Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia.
Baron Aldington, of Bispham in the County Borough of Blackpool, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 29 January 1962 for the Conservative politician and businessman, Sir Toby Low. On 16 November 1999 he was made a life peer as Baron Low, of Bispham in the County of Lancashire, as were all hereditary peers of the first creation following the House of Lords Act 1999. On his death in 2000 the life peerage became extinct while he was succeeded in the hereditary barony by his son Charles, the second and present holder of the title.
The concept of Western betrayal refers to the view that the United Kingdom and France failed to meet their legal, diplomatic, military, and moral obligations with respect to the Czechoslovak and Polish nations during the prelude to and aftermath of World War II. It also sometimes refers to the treatment of other Central and Eastern European nations at the time.
Count Nikolai Dmitrievich Tolstoy-Miloslavsky is an English-Russian author who writes under the name Nikolai Tolstoy. A member of the Tolstoy family, he is a former parliamentary candidate of the UK Independence Party.
The Bleiburg repatriations occurred in May 1945, at the end of World War II in Europe. Tens of thousands of soldiers and civilians associated with the Axis powers fled Yugoslavia to Austria as the Soviet Union and Yugoslav Partisans took control. The British Army turned them back and forced them to surrender to Partisan forces. The soldiers and others were subjected to forced marches, together with columns captured by the Partisans in Yugoslavia. Tens of thousands of these men were executed; others were taken to forced labor camps, where more died from harsh conditions. The events are named for the Carinthian border town of Bleiburg, where the initial repatriation was conducted.
Andrei Grigoriyevich Shkuro was a Lieutenant General (1919) of the White Army.
Pyotr Nikolayevich Krasnov, sometimes referred to in English as Peter Krasnov, was a Don Cossack historian and officer, promoted to Lieutenant General of the Russian army when the revolution broke out in 1917, one of the leaders of the counter-revolutionary White movement afterwards and a Nazi collaborator who mobilized Cossack forces to fight against the Soviet Union during World War II.
Brigadier Toby Austin Richard William Low, 1st Baron Aldington,, known as Austin Richard William Low until he added 'Toby' as a forename by deed poll on 10 July 1957, was a British Conservative Party politician and businessman.
Helmuth von Pannwitz was a German general who was a cavalry officer during the First and the Second World Wars. Later he became Lieutenant General of the Wehrmacht and of the Waffen-SS, SS-Obergruppenführer, and Supreme Ataman of the XV SS Cossack Cavalry Corps. In 1947 he was tried for war crimes under Ukase 43 by the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union, sentenced to death on 16 January 1947 and executed in Lefortovo Prison the same day. He was rehabilitated by a military prosecutor in Moscow in April 1996. In June 2001, however, the reversal of the conviction of Pannwitz was overturned and his conviction was reinstated.
The Repatriation of Cossacks happened when Cossacks, ethnic Russians and Ukrainians who were against the Soviet Union were handed over by Allied forces to the USSR after the Second World War.
The 1st Russian National Army was a pro-Axis collaborationist army under Boris Smyslovsky during World War II. Initially part of Nazi German Wehrmacht, Smyslovsky's forces were elevated to the 1st Russian National Army on 10 March 1945. On 4 April 1945 it received a status of the independent allied army. Liechtenstein was the only state which denied Soviet demands for the extradition of Russians who fought in the side of the Axis powers.
The 162nd Turkistan Division was a military division that was formed by the German Army during the Second World War. It drew its men from prisoners of war or refugees who came from the Caucasus and from Turkic lands further east.
Victims of Yalta or The Secret Betrayal is a 1977 book by Nikolai Tolstoy that chronicles the fate of Soviet citizens who had been under German control during World War II and at its end fallen into the hands of the Western Allies. According to the secret Moscow agreement from 1944 that was confirmed at the 1945 Yalta conference, all citizens of the Soviet Union were to be repatriated without choice—a death sentence for many by execution or extermination through labour.
Julius Epstein (1901–1975) was a journalist and scholar, an Austrian Jewish émigré who fled Europe in 1938, worked during World War II in the Office of War Information, and then a prominent American anti-communist researcher and critic of the Soviet Union. He was a Research Associate at the Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace for decades and authored a study of Operation Keelhaul that was the first account of the forcible repatriation by the Allies of World War II of several million persons to the Soviet Union and countries in its sphere of influence.
The Minister and the Massacres (1996) is a history written by Nikolai Tolstoy about the 1945 repatriations of Croatian soldiers and civilians and Cossacks, who had crossed into Austria seeking refuge from the Red Army and Partisans who had taken control in Yugoslavia. He criticized the British repatriation of collaborationist troops to Josip Broz Tito's Yugoslav government, attributing the decisions to Harold Macmillan, then UK minister of the Mediterranean, and Lord Aldington. Tolstoy is among historians who say numerous massacres of such soldiers took place after their repatriation. His conclusions about leading British officials were criticized in turn.
Some Soviet prisoners of war who survived German captivity during World War II were accused by the Soviet authorities of collaboration with the Nazis or branded as traitors under Order No. 270, which prohibited any soldier from surrendering.
Twelve Responses to Tragedy, or the Yalta Memorial, is a memorial located in the Yalta Memorial Garden on Cromwell Road in South Kensington in west London. The memorial commemorates people displaced as a result of the Yalta Conference at the conclusion of the Second World War. Created by the British sculptor Angela Conner, the work consists of twelve bronze busts atop a stone base. The memorial was dedicated in 1986 to replace a previous memorial from 1982 that had been repeatedly damaged by vandalism.
Anthony Wilson Cowgill was a British soldier, engineer and researcher. After a 30-year career in the Army he worked for Rolls-Royce and set up a company offering information and access to government. Past retirement age he initiated his own private inquiry into the Repatriation of Cossacks after World War II, and published the English texts of European Union treaties. | <urn:uuid:5886e19f-cde4-4e44-8669-c559038a5de7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wikimili.com/en/Operation_Keelhaul | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00460.warc.gz | en | 0.980238 | 2,905 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.58418697... | 1 | Operation Keelhaul was a forced repatriation of former Soviet Armed Forces POWs of Germany to the Soviet Union, carried out in Northern Italy by British and American forces between 14 August 1946 and 9 May 1947.Anti-communist Yugoslavs and Hungarians were also forcibly repatriated to their respective governments.
Three volumes of records, entitled "Forcible Repatriation of Displaced Soviet Citizens-Operation Keelhaul," were classified Top Secret by the U.S. Army on September 18, 1948, and bear the secret file number 383.7-14.1.
One of the conclusions of the Yalta Conference was that the western Allies would return all Soviet citizens who found themselves in their zones to the Soviet Union. This immediately affected the liberated Soviet prisoners of war,but also extended to all Soviet citizens, irrespective of their wishes. In exchange, the Soviet government agreed to hand over several thousand western Allied prisoners of war whom they had liberated from German prisoner of war camps.
The refugee columns fleeing the Soviet-occupied parts of Europe included anti-communists, civilians, and Nazi collaborators from eastern European countries. They added to the mass of 'displaced persons' from the Soviet Union already in Western Europe, the vast majority of whom were Soviet prisoners of war and forced laborers (Ost-Arbeiter).
Soviet subjects who had volunteered for the German Army Ostlegionen and/or Waffen SS units were forcibly repatriated. These included Russian Cossacks of the XVth SS Cossack Cavalry Corps with their relatives, who were transported from the Western occupation zones of Allied-occupied Austria to the Soviet occupation zones of Austria and Allied-occupied Germany. Among those handed over were White émigré-Russians who had never been Soviet citizens, but who had fought for Nazi Germany against the Soviets during the war, including General Andrei Shkuro and the Ataman of the Don Cossack host Pyotr Krasnov. This was done despite the official statement of the British Foreign Office policy after the Yalta Conference, that only Soviet citizens who had been such after 1 September 1939, were to be compelled to return to the Soviet Union or handed over to Soviet officials in other locations (see the Repatriation of Cossacks after World War II).
The actual "Operation Keelhaul" was the last forced repatriation and involved the selection and subsequent transfer of approximately one thousand "Russians" from the camps of Bagnoli, Aversa, Pisa, and Riccione.Applying the "McNarney-Clark Directive", subjects who had served in the German Army were selected for shipment, starting on 14 August 1946. The transfer was codenamed "East Wind" and took place at St. Valentin in Austria on 8 and 9 May 1947. This operation marked the end of forced repatriations by the Soviet Union after World War II, and ran parallel to Operation Fling that helped Soviet defectors to escape from the Soviet Union.
On the other side of the exchange, the Soviet leadership found out that despite the demands set forth by Stalin, British intelligence was retaining a number of anti-Communist prisoners with the intention of reviving "anti-Soviet operations" under orders from Churchill.
Author Nikolai Tolstoy described the scene of Americans returning to the internment camp after delivering a shipment of people to the Soviet authorities: "The Americans returned to Plattling visibly shamefaced. Before their departure from the rendezvous in the forest, many had seen rows of bodies already hanging from the branches of nearby trees."
Nigel Nicolson, a former British Army captain, was Nicolai Tolstoy's chief witness in the libel action brought by Lord Aldington. In 1995, he wrote:
Fifty years ago I was a captain in the British Army, and with others I supervised the Jugoslav (Yugoslav) 'repatriation', as it was euphemistically called. We were told not to use force, and forbidden to inform them of their true destination. When they asked us where they were going, we replied that we were transferring them to another British camp in Italy, and they mounted the trains without suspicion. As soon as the sliding doors of the cattle-trucks were padlocked, our soldiers withdrew and Tito's partisans emerged from the station building where they had been hiding, and took over command of the train. The prisoners and refugees could see them through cracks in the boarding, and began hammering on the insides of the wagons, shouting abuse at us for having betrayed them, lied to them, and sentenced at least the men among them to a grotesque death. There is now no doubt about their hideous fate, and to those of us on the spot there was little doubt then. Shortly after the first trainloads had been despatched, we heard the stories of the few survivors who escaped back to Austria, and thousands of manacled skeletons have since been disinterred in Slovenian pits.
Ghinghis Guirey, an American on one of the repatriation screening teams, reported:
The most unpleasant aspect of this unpleasant business was the fear these people displayed. Involuntarily one began to look over one's shoulder. I heard so many threats to commit suicide from people who feared repatriation that it became almost commonplace. And they were not fooling.
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn called this operation "the last secret of World War II."He contributed to a legal defence fund set up to help Tolstoy, who was charged with libel in a 1989 case brought by Lord Aldington over war crimes allegations made by Tolstoy related to this operation. Tolstoy lost the case in the British courts; he avoided paying damages by declaring bankruptcy.
A prisoner of war (POW) is a person, whether a combatant or a non-combatant, who is held captive by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the phrase "prisoner of war" dates back to 1610.
The Yalta Conference, also known as the Crimea Conference and code-named the Argonaut Conference, held February 4–11, 1945, was the World War II meeting of the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union to discuss the postwar reorganization of Germany and Europe. The three states were represented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and Premier Joseph Stalin, respectively. The conference was held near Yalta in Crimea, Soviet Union, within the Livadia, Yusupov, and Vorontsov Palaces.
The Russian Liberation Army was a collaborationist formation, primarily composed of Russians, that fought under German command during World War II. The army was led by Andrey Vlasov, a Red Army general who had defected, and members of the army are often referred to as Vlasovtsy (Власовцы). In 1944, it became known as the Armed Forces of the Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia.
Baron Aldington, of Bispham in the County Borough of Blackpool, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 29 January 1962 for the Conservative politician and businessman, Sir Toby Low. On 16 November 1999 he was made a life peer as Baron Low, of Bispham in the County of Lancashire, as were all hereditary peers of the first creation following the House of Lords Act 1999. On his death in 2000 the life peerage became extinct while he was succeeded in the hereditary barony by his son Charles, the second and present holder of the title.
The concept of Western betrayal refers to the view that the United Kingdom and France failed to meet their legal, diplomatic, military, and moral obligations with respect to the Czechoslovak and Polish nations during the prelude to and aftermath of World War II. It also sometimes refers to the treatment of other Central and Eastern European nations at the time.
Count Nikolai Dmitrievich Tolstoy-Miloslavsky is an English-Russian author who writes under the name Nikolai Tolstoy. A member of the Tolstoy family, he is a former parliamentary candidate of the UK Independence Party.
The Bleiburg repatriations occurred in May 1945, at the end of World War II in Europe. Tens of thousands of soldiers and civilians associated with the Axis powers fled Yugoslavia to Austria as the Soviet Union and Yugoslav Partisans took control. The British Army turned them back and forced them to surrender to Partisan forces. The soldiers and others were subjected to forced marches, together with columns captured by the Partisans in Yugoslavia. Tens of thousands of these men were executed; others were taken to forced labor camps, where more died from harsh conditions. The events are named for the Carinthian border town of Bleiburg, where the initial repatriation was conducted.
Andrei Grigoriyevich Shkuro was a Lieutenant General (1919) of the White Army.
Pyotr Nikolayevich Krasnov, sometimes referred to in English as Peter Krasnov, was a Don Cossack historian and officer, promoted to Lieutenant General of the Russian army when the revolution broke out in 1917, one of the leaders of the counter-revolutionary White movement afterwards and a Nazi collaborator who mobilized Cossack forces to fight against the Soviet Union during World War II.
Brigadier Toby Austin Richard William Low, 1st Baron Aldington,, known as Austin Richard William Low until he added 'Toby' as a forename by deed poll on 10 July 1957, was a British Conservative Party politician and businessman.
Helmuth von Pannwitz was a German general who was a cavalry officer during the First and the Second World Wars. Later he became Lieutenant General of the Wehrmacht and of the Waffen-SS, SS-Obergruppenführer, and Supreme Ataman of the XV SS Cossack Cavalry Corps. In 1947 he was tried for war crimes under Ukase 43 by the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the Soviet Union, sentenced to death on 16 January 1947 and executed in Lefortovo Prison the same day. He was rehabilitated by a military prosecutor in Moscow in April 1996. In June 2001, however, the reversal of the conviction of Pannwitz was overturned and his conviction was reinstated.
The Repatriation of Cossacks happened when Cossacks, ethnic Russians and Ukrainians who were against the Soviet Union were handed over by Allied forces to the USSR after the Second World War.
The 1st Russian National Army was a pro-Axis collaborationist army under Boris Smyslovsky during World War II. Initially part of Nazi German Wehrmacht, Smyslovsky's forces were elevated to the 1st Russian National Army on 10 March 1945. On 4 April 1945 it received a status of the independent allied army. Liechtenstein was the only state which denied Soviet demands for the extradition of Russians who fought in the side of the Axis powers.
The 162nd Turkistan Division was a military division that was formed by the German Army during the Second World War. It drew its men from prisoners of war or refugees who came from the Caucasus and from Turkic lands further east.
Victims of Yalta or The Secret Betrayal is a 1977 book by Nikolai Tolstoy that chronicles the fate of Soviet citizens who had been under German control during World War II and at its end fallen into the hands of the Western Allies. According to the secret Moscow agreement from 1944 that was confirmed at the 1945 Yalta conference, all citizens of the Soviet Union were to be repatriated without choice—a death sentence for many by execution or extermination through labour.
Julius Epstein (1901–1975) was a journalist and scholar, an Austrian Jewish émigré who fled Europe in 1938, worked during World War II in the Office of War Information, and then a prominent American anti-communist researcher and critic of the Soviet Union. He was a Research Associate at the Hoover Institution on War, Revolution and Peace for decades and authored a study of Operation Keelhaul that was the first account of the forcible repatriation by the Allies of World War II of several million persons to the Soviet Union and countries in its sphere of influence.
The Minister and the Massacres (1996) is a history written by Nikolai Tolstoy about the 1945 repatriations of Croatian soldiers and civilians and Cossacks, who had crossed into Austria seeking refuge from the Red Army and Partisans who had taken control in Yugoslavia. He criticized the British repatriation of collaborationist troops to Josip Broz Tito's Yugoslav government, attributing the decisions to Harold Macmillan, then UK minister of the Mediterranean, and Lord Aldington. Tolstoy is among historians who say numerous massacres of such soldiers took place after their repatriation. His conclusions about leading British officials were criticized in turn.
Some Soviet prisoners of war who survived German captivity during World War II were accused by the Soviet authorities of collaboration with the Nazis or branded as traitors under Order No. 270, which prohibited any soldier from surrendering.
Twelve Responses to Tragedy, or the Yalta Memorial, is a memorial located in the Yalta Memorial Garden on Cromwell Road in South Kensington in west London. The memorial commemorates people displaced as a result of the Yalta Conference at the conclusion of the Second World War. Created by the British sculptor Angela Conner, the work consists of twelve bronze busts atop a stone base. The memorial was dedicated in 1986 to replace a previous memorial from 1982 that had been repeatedly damaged by vandalism.
Anthony Wilson Cowgill was a British soldier, engineer and researcher. After a 30-year career in the Army he worked for Rolls-Royce and set up a company offering information and access to government. Past retirement age he initiated his own private inquiry into the Repatriation of Cossacks after World War II, and published the English texts of European Union treaties. | 3,057 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It seems like problems solving is the single most important skill that students can get out of attending math class. Organizing ideas and putting together coherent thoughts is a skill that can carry over to many different disciplines and is broadly applicable in and out of school.
One of the pioneers in problem solving that I have been exposed to is Polya. His methods for problem solving in mathematics have lasted the test of time and are just as valid now as when he wrote his problem solving manual "How to Solve It."
Teaching students the methods he presents in his famous work in an explicit step by step manner could have great potential for success on the new SBAC testing that is forthcoming. By teaching students the problem solving process, reenforcing the process continuously, and building in routines that will become second nature to students: we can give our pupils a way to attack these complex and intricate tasks that are coming down the pipeline.
In addition to serving students well during testing situations, these skills can carry over to aid students in organizing their thoughts and intuition into coherent understanding.
There are so many resources out there for Polya and his book on problem solving that I am not going to go into the process here. If you do a quick web search there are multiple summaries on his work. Thought I suggest just buying his book and keeping a copy around for reference if you don't already have one.
By: Mr. Woodford
I will reflect on ideas and practices I learn through my formative years as a classroom math teacher. | <urn:uuid:ec3895b8-0d94-47e3-a6f6-38984efc8618> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.mrwoodford.com/teaching-blog/teaching-problem-solving | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00098.warc.gz | en | 0.980458 | 309 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.2032840549... | 14 | It seems like problems solving is the single most important skill that students can get out of attending math class. Organizing ideas and putting together coherent thoughts is a skill that can carry over to many different disciplines and is broadly applicable in and out of school.
One of the pioneers in problem solving that I have been exposed to is Polya. His methods for problem solving in mathematics have lasted the test of time and are just as valid now as when he wrote his problem solving manual "How to Solve It."
Teaching students the methods he presents in his famous work in an explicit step by step manner could have great potential for success on the new SBAC testing that is forthcoming. By teaching students the problem solving process, reenforcing the process continuously, and building in routines that will become second nature to students: we can give our pupils a way to attack these complex and intricate tasks that are coming down the pipeline.
In addition to serving students well during testing situations, these skills can carry over to aid students in organizing their thoughts and intuition into coherent understanding.
There are so many resources out there for Polya and his book on problem solving that I am not going to go into the process here. If you do a quick web search there are multiple summaries on his work. Thought I suggest just buying his book and keeping a copy around for reference if you don't already have one.
By: Mr. Woodford
I will reflect on ideas and practices I learn through my formative years as a classroom math teacher. | 302 | ENGLISH | 1 |
September 27, 1540: Jesuit order established
On this day in 1540, the Jesuit religious order was founded by St. Ignatius of Loyola. The order has been regarded by many as the principal agent in the Counter-Reformation, converting millions of people to Catholicism. Today, Jesuits are recognized for their dedication to educational, missionary, and charitable works.
Ignatius of Loyola
Ignatius de Loyola was a Spanish soldier-turned-priest. While recovering from a wound received in battle, Ignatius experienced a religious awakening and soon wrote the Spiritual Exercises, a guidebook to growing in union with God. On August 15, 1534, six young men (who had clearly ready his book) joined the priest on a retreat and joined him in vows of poverty, chastity, and a pilgrimage to Jerusalem – it was the unofficial start of the Jesuit movement.
The company of Jesus
Unfortunately, Ignatius and his followers were unable to make it to Jerusalem due to the ongoing Ottoman-Habsburg War (where it should be noted, over 1,000 Christian slaves were used as oarsmen). Forced into coming up with a “Plan B” (and fast), the men decided to offer their services to the pope for apostolic work. They were immediately put into service, working on the holy one’s most pressing needs.
For years, Ignatius worked on drawing up Constitutions for his proposed order, designated by him “The Company of Jesus”, or “Societas Jesu” in Latin. In 1540, Pope Paul III approved his outline and the Jesuit order was born.
After Ignatius’s death in 1556, Jesuits set up ministries around the world. Often, the life of a Jesuit was highly risky – going into hostile foreign lands to convert non-believers is never an easy task. Still, the order has grown to over 24,000 members since its inception (especially since there were just seven).
The Jesuit order continues its missionary work to this day, with a worldwide network of schools educating over one million people, with 29 colleges and universities in the United States alone. St. Ignatius: Still spreading the good word from beyond the grave. | <urn:uuid:0644497e-03e5-4627-9165-e3df658ca7e5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.history101.com/september-27-1540-jesuit-order-established/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00499.warc.gz | en | 0.981278 | 475 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.378249436616... | 7 | September 27, 1540: Jesuit order established
On this day in 1540, the Jesuit religious order was founded by St. Ignatius of Loyola. The order has been regarded by many as the principal agent in the Counter-Reformation, converting millions of people to Catholicism. Today, Jesuits are recognized for their dedication to educational, missionary, and charitable works.
Ignatius of Loyola
Ignatius de Loyola was a Spanish soldier-turned-priest. While recovering from a wound received in battle, Ignatius experienced a religious awakening and soon wrote the Spiritual Exercises, a guidebook to growing in union with God. On August 15, 1534, six young men (who had clearly ready his book) joined the priest on a retreat and joined him in vows of poverty, chastity, and a pilgrimage to Jerusalem – it was the unofficial start of the Jesuit movement.
The company of Jesus
Unfortunately, Ignatius and his followers were unable to make it to Jerusalem due to the ongoing Ottoman-Habsburg War (where it should be noted, over 1,000 Christian slaves were used as oarsmen). Forced into coming up with a “Plan B” (and fast), the men decided to offer their services to the pope for apostolic work. They were immediately put into service, working on the holy one’s most pressing needs.
For years, Ignatius worked on drawing up Constitutions for his proposed order, designated by him “The Company of Jesus”, or “Societas Jesu” in Latin. In 1540, Pope Paul III approved his outline and the Jesuit order was born.
After Ignatius’s death in 1556, Jesuits set up ministries around the world. Often, the life of a Jesuit was highly risky – going into hostile foreign lands to convert non-believers is never an easy task. Still, the order has grown to over 24,000 members since its inception (especially since there were just seven).
The Jesuit order continues its missionary work to this day, with a worldwide network of schools educating over one million people, with 29 colleges and universities in the United States alone. St. Ignatius: Still spreading the good word from beyond the grave. | 485 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Today is International Ninja Day!!
History of International Ninja Day:
To truly understand the history of International Ninja Day, one must first understand the history of the Ninja. The original Ninja were warriors of the Iga Province of Japan during the Sengoku period. These warriors were raised from the basic people of the countryside, without access to proper armor, weapons, or training to use them. This is why so many of the weapons of the Ninja are drawn from agricultural roots, such as the Kunai and sickles, they were also weapons that disguised themselves. No sir, no infiltration focused assassin here, just a humble farmer working his fields.
The “traditional” black clothing of the ninja actually came about as a result of how Ninja were represented in theater. Being the everyday people of their province, they were invisible to the ruling class. You could not identify them by clothing or weapons, banner or nationality, they were the people of their country and therefor invisible. In Theater this was represented by the stage hands playing the part of the Ninjas, they wore black clothes that covered them from head to toe, and made them invisible against the black background of the stage. Also, those who frequented the theater were used to the presence of these stage-hands, and their sudden inclusion in the play came as a shock.
images via Bunnywarez
image via The Pink Samurai | <urn:uuid:a99b9e27-94e6-4f3b-86f0-ba1c1b957c78> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://peewee.com/us-es/2015/12/05/its-international-ninja-day/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00300.warc.gz | en | 0.980984 | 282 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.6161221265792... | 2 | Today is International Ninja Day!!
History of International Ninja Day:
To truly understand the history of International Ninja Day, one must first understand the history of the Ninja. The original Ninja were warriors of the Iga Province of Japan during the Sengoku period. These warriors were raised from the basic people of the countryside, without access to proper armor, weapons, or training to use them. This is why so many of the weapons of the Ninja are drawn from agricultural roots, such as the Kunai and sickles, they were also weapons that disguised themselves. No sir, no infiltration focused assassin here, just a humble farmer working his fields.
The “traditional” black clothing of the ninja actually came about as a result of how Ninja were represented in theater. Being the everyday people of their province, they were invisible to the ruling class. You could not identify them by clothing or weapons, banner or nationality, they were the people of their country and therefor invisible. In Theater this was represented by the stage hands playing the part of the Ninjas, they wore black clothes that covered them from head to toe, and made them invisible against the black background of the stage. Also, those who frequented the theater were used to the presence of these stage-hands, and their sudden inclusion in the play came as a shock.
images via Bunnywarez
image via The Pink Samurai | 276 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Guitar is one of the most influential instruments in today's culture. Besides for piano, the acoustic guitar is among the most popular instruments today and many musicians it Many people can recognize the image and sound of the acoustic guitar, but a few people know its true history. Stringed instruments date back far in time, as far back as the ancient Egyptians. The guitar slowly attained its well-known shape over years 5,000 years ago, ancient Egyptians drew pictures of stringed instruments over a bowl and stretched down a plank of wood. It didn't look like a guitar, but was the foundation for the modern guitar. Several other ancient civilizations created similar instruments, including the lute and the vihuela. These instruments went from having 4 courses of strings, to five. A course of strings is two strings paired together that have the same note but in different octaves, and is meant to be played at the same time. The lute is where the ideas of a guitar truly began to form. The oud was an instrument that was popular in Northeast Africa by the Moors. The Moors brought it to Spain and developed into another popular instrument called the lute. Ukeleles were inspired from the lute. The first guitars were very small and Each pair of strings was called a course. While the lute was still very popular in the 16th century, because of the the popularity of faster, more complex music, Spanish people had to make the lute better. They called it the 'guitarra' it still had 4 strings. The earliest known music for the four-course "chitarra" was written in Spain. This is significant because the guitar was not considered a 'serious' instrument, until the guitarra.
By the 17th century, the guitar had 5 strings. It is also known as the Baroque guitar. It isn't as popular as the vihuela, but it looked like the modern day guitar. Italians first made the 5 course guitar. Even more music became available. | <urn:uuid:798418d0-a913-4815-85d9-482fcf1c6fce> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/217478.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00209.warc.gz | en | 0.988839 | 415 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.27187716960... | 4 | Guitar is one of the most influential instruments in today's culture. Besides for piano, the acoustic guitar is among the most popular instruments today and many musicians it Many people can recognize the image and sound of the acoustic guitar, but a few people know its true history. Stringed instruments date back far in time, as far back as the ancient Egyptians. The guitar slowly attained its well-known shape over years 5,000 years ago, ancient Egyptians drew pictures of stringed instruments over a bowl and stretched down a plank of wood. It didn't look like a guitar, but was the foundation for the modern guitar. Several other ancient civilizations created similar instruments, including the lute and the vihuela. These instruments went from having 4 courses of strings, to five. A course of strings is two strings paired together that have the same note but in different octaves, and is meant to be played at the same time. The lute is where the ideas of a guitar truly began to form. The oud was an instrument that was popular in Northeast Africa by the Moors. The Moors brought it to Spain and developed into another popular instrument called the lute. Ukeleles were inspired from the lute. The first guitars were very small and Each pair of strings was called a course. While the lute was still very popular in the 16th century, because of the the popularity of faster, more complex music, Spanish people had to make the lute better. They called it the 'guitarra' it still had 4 strings. The earliest known music for the four-course "chitarra" was written in Spain. This is significant because the guitar was not considered a 'serious' instrument, until the guitarra.
By the 17th century, the guitar had 5 strings. It is also known as the Baroque guitar. It isn't as popular as the vihuela, but it looked like the modern day guitar. Italians first made the 5 course guitar. Even more music became available. | 417 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For nearly thirty years after the death of her Husband Henry II Catherine de Medici was involved in some deadly struggles to preserve France, her religion and the rights and position of her children. Describe her most challenging struggles and how she attempted to resolve them and serve all those interests simultaneously.
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
Catherine Maria Romola di Lorenzo de Medici was born in 1519 in Italy. She tolerated a solitary childhood, isolated in convents nearly all times, exiled form her rightful place in her own nation. She became a tool in diplomacy of her two uncles who sold her off basically to marry the prospect king of France just like many women of her time. When she was 14 years old, Catherine de Medici was married to Henri II. She tolerated the dominance of Dian de Poitier, Henri’s mistress, with patience and grace for sixteen years. She loved her husband even he obviously preferred the company of his much older mistress. Catherine was able to plan her way via shifting family coalitions, and learned strategy, deception and self-possession. She was led by the twists and turns of life at the French court to form brilliant political skills which held her in stead for the rest of her life.
Catherine had had ten children of which 3 became kings of France, 1 became Queen of Spain- as a wife of Philip the second, her lastborn son was a solemn contender to wed Queen Elizabeth of England. Catherine was launched into three decades as regent and chief advisor of her three sons who ruled France in succession by the unexpected death of Henri II in 1552 at a repartee. Her sons were not powerful kings, thus she become power behind the throne for quite a number of years. She was the all strongest Queen-Mother, the ruler of France in all but name. Catherine earned status as the final schemer, a woman with no bounds or surplus during this time.
She controlled over 8 wars of religion, civil wars between Protestants fighting for their right and freedom to worship freely, and Catholics attempting to preserve their nation from dividing apart. Numerous diplomatic efforts of Catherine to resolve the problems peacefully are discussed by the author. However, disloyal behavior among hardcore Huguenots hardened her attitude finally ending in the St Bartholomew Massacre of 1572 which left as any as 30.000 men, women and children killed all over France. For nearly thirty years after the death of her Husband Henry II Catherine de Medici was involved in some deadly struggles to preserve France, her religion and the rights and position of her children. He did this by helping her sons to rule among many other means. However, the most challenging struggles which Catherine attempted to resolve were catholic league and St. Bartholomew’s day massacre.
Catherine’s attempts to mollify the Huguenots appalled numerous leading Roman Catholics. They had begun to form local leagues to defend their religion following the Edict of Beaulieu. The Duke of Guise was prompted by the death of heir to the throne in 1984 to assume the leadership of the Catholic League. He planned to block succession of Henry of Navarre and put Henry’s Catholic uncle- cardinal Charles de Bourbon- on the throne instead. He employed the great catholic princes, prelates and noble in this cause and signed with Spain the treaty of Joinville, and arranged to make war on the heretics. As a result, Henry III had no option other than going to war against the league by 1585. Hence, Catherine placed it that peace is carried on the stick. She therefore wrote to the king asking him to take care particularly about his people. She said that there would be no much treachery about that she dying of fear.
Henry was not capable of fighting the Protestants and the Catholics at once due to the fact that both of them had powerful armies compared to his own. He was therefore forced to give in to all the league’s demands, even that he pays its troops in the Treaty of Nemours signed on 17th July 1585. He went into hiding to pray and fast, surrounded by a bodyguard called the Forty-five and left Catherine to sort the chaos. The nation’s control had been lost by the monarchy and was not in a position to help England within the face of coming Spanish assault. Philip II was told by the Spanish ambassador that the abscess was nearly bursting. The Roman Catholic repercussion against the Protestants had become a campaign throughout Europe by 1587. On 18th February 1587, Queen of Scots, Elizabeth I of England’s excursion of Mary indignation the catholic world. Invasion of England was prepared by the Philip III of Spain. Much of northern France was controlled by the league so as to protect French ports for his navy.
Admiral Coligny was walking back to his rooms from the Louvre three days later when a shot rang out from a house and injured him in the hand and arm. A smoking arquebus was found out in a window although the criminal had made his escape from the rear of the building on a waiting horse. Coligny was carried to his rooms at the Hotel de Bethisy where Ambroise Pare, a surgeon, removed a bullet from his elbow and cut off a damaged finger with a pair of scissors. Catherine, who was said to have obtained the news without emotion, made a weepy visit to Coligny and assured to punish his attacker. Catherine has been blamed by numerous historians for the Coligny’s attack. However, the bloodbath that followed was beyond control of Catherine or any other leader.
St. Bartholomew’s day massacre
Catherine’s reputation ever since had been stained by the St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre which started 2 days after shooting of Coligny. There is no cause to believe that she was not party to the resolution when Charles IX ordered on 23rd August that then all of them should be killed, all of them should be killed. The thoughts were apparent. Catherine and her consultants anticipated a Huguenot uprising to revenge the assault on Coligny. Hence, they chose to strike first and wipe out the leaders of Huguenot while they were still in Paris following the wedding.
The slaughter in Paris went on for nearly a weak. It spread to numerous parts of France, where it persevered into the autumn. According to words of Jules Michelet, a historian, St. Bartholomew was a season and not a day. Catherine turned to ambassadors and laughed when Navarre knelt before the altar as a roman catholic on 29th September, having converted to avoid being killed. Since this time, dates the legend of wicked Italian queen. Catherine was branded a scheming Italian by Huguenot writers who had acted on Machiavelli’s standards to murder all enemies within one blow.
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0.262124150991... | 1 | For nearly thirty years after the death of her Husband Henry II Catherine de Medici was involved in some deadly struggles to preserve France, her religion and the rights and position of her children. Describe her most challenging struggles and how she attempted to resolve them and serve all those interests simultaneously.
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
Catherine Maria Romola di Lorenzo de Medici was born in 1519 in Italy. She tolerated a solitary childhood, isolated in convents nearly all times, exiled form her rightful place in her own nation. She became a tool in diplomacy of her two uncles who sold her off basically to marry the prospect king of France just like many women of her time. When she was 14 years old, Catherine de Medici was married to Henri II. She tolerated the dominance of Dian de Poitier, Henri’s mistress, with patience and grace for sixteen years. She loved her husband even he obviously preferred the company of his much older mistress. Catherine was able to plan her way via shifting family coalitions, and learned strategy, deception and self-possession. She was led by the twists and turns of life at the French court to form brilliant political skills which held her in stead for the rest of her life.
Catherine had had ten children of which 3 became kings of France, 1 became Queen of Spain- as a wife of Philip the second, her lastborn son was a solemn contender to wed Queen Elizabeth of England. Catherine was launched into three decades as regent and chief advisor of her three sons who ruled France in succession by the unexpected death of Henri II in 1552 at a repartee. Her sons were not powerful kings, thus she become power behind the throne for quite a number of years. She was the all strongest Queen-Mother, the ruler of France in all but name. Catherine earned status as the final schemer, a woman with no bounds or surplus during this time.
She controlled over 8 wars of religion, civil wars between Protestants fighting for their right and freedom to worship freely, and Catholics attempting to preserve their nation from dividing apart. Numerous diplomatic efforts of Catherine to resolve the problems peacefully are discussed by the author. However, disloyal behavior among hardcore Huguenots hardened her attitude finally ending in the St Bartholomew Massacre of 1572 which left as any as 30.000 men, women and children killed all over France. For nearly thirty years after the death of her Husband Henry II Catherine de Medici was involved in some deadly struggles to preserve France, her religion and the rights and position of her children. He did this by helping her sons to rule among many other means. However, the most challenging struggles which Catherine attempted to resolve were catholic league and St. Bartholomew’s day massacre.
Catherine’s attempts to mollify the Huguenots appalled numerous leading Roman Catholics. They had begun to form local leagues to defend their religion following the Edict of Beaulieu. The Duke of Guise was prompted by the death of heir to the throne in 1984 to assume the leadership of the Catholic League. He planned to block succession of Henry of Navarre and put Henry’s Catholic uncle- cardinal Charles de Bourbon- on the throne instead. He employed the great catholic princes, prelates and noble in this cause and signed with Spain the treaty of Joinville, and arranged to make war on the heretics. As a result, Henry III had no option other than going to war against the league by 1585. Hence, Catherine placed it that peace is carried on the stick. She therefore wrote to the king asking him to take care particularly about his people. She said that there would be no much treachery about that she dying of fear.
Henry was not capable of fighting the Protestants and the Catholics at once due to the fact that both of them had powerful armies compared to his own. He was therefore forced to give in to all the league’s demands, even that he pays its troops in the Treaty of Nemours signed on 17th July 1585. He went into hiding to pray and fast, surrounded by a bodyguard called the Forty-five and left Catherine to sort the chaos. The nation’s control had been lost by the monarchy and was not in a position to help England within the face of coming Spanish assault. Philip II was told by the Spanish ambassador that the abscess was nearly bursting. The Roman Catholic repercussion against the Protestants had become a campaign throughout Europe by 1587. On 18th February 1587, Queen of Scots, Elizabeth I of England’s excursion of Mary indignation the catholic world. Invasion of England was prepared by the Philip III of Spain. Much of northern France was controlled by the league so as to protect French ports for his navy.
Admiral Coligny was walking back to his rooms from the Louvre three days later when a shot rang out from a house and injured him in the hand and arm. A smoking arquebus was found out in a window although the criminal had made his escape from the rear of the building on a waiting horse. Coligny was carried to his rooms at the Hotel de Bethisy where Ambroise Pare, a surgeon, removed a bullet from his elbow and cut off a damaged finger with a pair of scissors. Catherine, who was said to have obtained the news without emotion, made a weepy visit to Coligny and assured to punish his attacker. Catherine has been blamed by numerous historians for the Coligny’s attack. However, the bloodbath that followed was beyond control of Catherine or any other leader.
St. Bartholomew’s day massacre
Catherine’s reputation ever since had been stained by the St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre which started 2 days after shooting of Coligny. There is no cause to believe that she was not party to the resolution when Charles IX ordered on 23rd August that then all of them should be killed, all of them should be killed. The thoughts were apparent. Catherine and her consultants anticipated a Huguenot uprising to revenge the assault on Coligny. Hence, they chose to strike first and wipe out the leaders of Huguenot while they were still in Paris following the wedding.
The slaughter in Paris went on for nearly a weak. It spread to numerous parts of France, where it persevered into the autumn. According to words of Jules Michelet, a historian, St. Bartholomew was a season and not a day. Catherine turned to ambassadors and laughed when Navarre knelt before the altar as a roman catholic on 29th September, having converted to avoid being killed. Since this time, dates the legend of wicked Italian queen. Catherine was branded a scheming Italian by Huguenot writers who had acted on Machiavelli’s standards to murder all enemies within one blow.
Most popular orders | 1,480 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Famous people during the Civil War – generals, politicians, civilians etc…
Albert Sidney Johnston was born on February 2nd 1803 in Washington, Kentucky. At the outbreak of the Civil War he immediately resigned his commission in the United States army and promptly joined the Confederate army.
He was given the rank of full general. A rank held only by a handful of other officers. He had dedicated almost his entire adult life to military service.
He had been involved with several wars over his career, such as the Black Hawk War, Texas Revolution, the Mexican-American War and the Utah War in which he led the army that put down a Mormon revolt in Utah. He was regarded at the beginning of the Civil War as the best general in either army.
To learn more about Albert Sidney Johnston take a look at Albert Sidney Johnston: Soldier of Three Republics
Albert Sidney Johnston was second in command of the entire Confederate army. Confederate president Jefferson Davis gave Johnston command of Confederate Department No. 2 which was a huge area that covered the entire western theater of the Civil War. His command stretched from the Appalachians to the Mississippi River. It was a vast territory that was extremely difficult to guard against attack.
Unfortunately for the Confederacy things did not go very well for them in the west. They were defeated at the Battle of Mill Springs in Kentucky on January 19th 1862. In February 1862 Union General Ulysses S. Grant attacked and captured Fort Henry and Fort Donelson. Losing these forts was a devastating blow to the Confederates since they guarded the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers.
These forts were the responsibility of General Johnston and he failed to keep them protected. It is hard however to blame General Johnston for these defeats, the Confederates were outnumbered, had to defend a large territory, and they were always short of supplies and food. General Johnston did the best he could with what he had.
In March 1862 the Union’s objective was Corinth Mississippi.
General Johnston focused his 44,000 strong army at Corinth in order to protect the rail lines which were vital to the region for supply and communication, which the Union was trying to cut. Two Union armies were converging in order to attack the Confederacy in the west and deal a devastating defeat to the rebels. One army with 40,000 men was led by General Grant and the other with 20,000 men was led by General Don Carlos Buell. Once they joined each other they would be an unstoppable force that the Confederates would have little hope in defeating.
In March 1862 General Grant and his army landed at Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee where they set up a base of operations only 22 miles from Corinth Mississippi. There they waited for the arrival of General Buell and his army. General Johnston saw an opportunity to attack the Union army before they were able to join together and hopefully inflict a devastating defeat on them.
Albert Sidney Johnston Death
Albert Sidney Johnston went on to lead the Confederate troops that attacked the Union army at Pittsburg Landing on April 6th 1862. This battle is better known as the Battle of Shiloh.
The first day of fighting went very well for Confederate forces, they pushed the Union army back inflicting great losses on them. While leading his troops on horseback during an attack General Johnston suddenly fainted and slumped over in his saddle. His men quickly removed him from his horse, assuming he was wounded.
They frantically searched his body looking for a wound. It was only after someone noticed his boot was full of blood that they realized he had been struck behind his knee. Johnston not thinking the wound was serious ignored it and continued to lead his men. The would was very serious and he could not be saved. He bled to death minutes later. He was the highest ranking officer from either side of the Civil War to be killed in combat. | <urn:uuid:875bba58-9d1a-4bb8-945e-627ca67f251b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.civilwaracademy.com/category/people | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00036.warc.gz | en | 0.991358 | 780 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.09804308414... | 2 | Famous people during the Civil War – generals, politicians, civilians etc…
Albert Sidney Johnston was born on February 2nd 1803 in Washington, Kentucky. At the outbreak of the Civil War he immediately resigned his commission in the United States army and promptly joined the Confederate army.
He was given the rank of full general. A rank held only by a handful of other officers. He had dedicated almost his entire adult life to military service.
He had been involved with several wars over his career, such as the Black Hawk War, Texas Revolution, the Mexican-American War and the Utah War in which he led the army that put down a Mormon revolt in Utah. He was regarded at the beginning of the Civil War as the best general in either army.
To learn more about Albert Sidney Johnston take a look at Albert Sidney Johnston: Soldier of Three Republics
Albert Sidney Johnston was second in command of the entire Confederate army. Confederate president Jefferson Davis gave Johnston command of Confederate Department No. 2 which was a huge area that covered the entire western theater of the Civil War. His command stretched from the Appalachians to the Mississippi River. It was a vast territory that was extremely difficult to guard against attack.
Unfortunately for the Confederacy things did not go very well for them in the west. They were defeated at the Battle of Mill Springs in Kentucky on January 19th 1862. In February 1862 Union General Ulysses S. Grant attacked and captured Fort Henry and Fort Donelson. Losing these forts was a devastating blow to the Confederates since they guarded the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers.
These forts were the responsibility of General Johnston and he failed to keep them protected. It is hard however to blame General Johnston for these defeats, the Confederates were outnumbered, had to defend a large territory, and they were always short of supplies and food. General Johnston did the best he could with what he had.
In March 1862 the Union’s objective was Corinth Mississippi.
General Johnston focused his 44,000 strong army at Corinth in order to protect the rail lines which were vital to the region for supply and communication, which the Union was trying to cut. Two Union armies were converging in order to attack the Confederacy in the west and deal a devastating defeat to the rebels. One army with 40,000 men was led by General Grant and the other with 20,000 men was led by General Don Carlos Buell. Once they joined each other they would be an unstoppable force that the Confederates would have little hope in defeating.
In March 1862 General Grant and his army landed at Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee where they set up a base of operations only 22 miles from Corinth Mississippi. There they waited for the arrival of General Buell and his army. General Johnston saw an opportunity to attack the Union army before they were able to join together and hopefully inflict a devastating defeat on them.
Albert Sidney Johnston Death
Albert Sidney Johnston went on to lead the Confederate troops that attacked the Union army at Pittsburg Landing on April 6th 1862. This battle is better known as the Battle of Shiloh.
The first day of fighting went very well for Confederate forces, they pushed the Union army back inflicting great losses on them. While leading his troops on horseback during an attack General Johnston suddenly fainted and slumped over in his saddle. His men quickly removed him from his horse, assuming he was wounded.
They frantically searched his body looking for a wound. It was only after someone noticed his boot was full of blood that they realized he had been struck behind his knee. Johnston not thinking the wound was serious ignored it and continued to lead his men. The would was very serious and he could not be saved. He bled to death minutes later. He was the highest ranking officer from either side of the Civil War to be killed in combat. | 808 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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By Confucianism is meant the complex system of moral, social, political, and religious teaching built up by Confucius on the ancient Chinese traditions, and perpetuated as the State religion down to the present day. Confucianism aims at making not simply the man of virtue, but the man of learning and of good manners. The perfect man must combine the qualities of saint, scholar, and gentleman. Confucianism is a religion without positive revelation, with a minimum of dogmatic teaching, whose popular worship is centered in offerings to the dead, in which the notion of duty is extended beyond the sphere of morals proper so as to embrace almost every detail of daily life.
I. THE TEACHER, CONFUCIUS
The chief exponent of this remarkable religion was K'ung-tze, or K'ung-fu-tze, latinized by the early Jesuit missionaries into Confucius . Confucius was born in 551 B.C., in what was then the feudal state of Lu, now included in the modern province of Shan-tung. His parents, while not wealthy, belonged to the superior class. His father was a warrior, distinguished no less for his deeds of valour than for his noble ancestry. Confucius was a mere boy when his father died. From childhood he showed a great aptitude for study, and though, in order to support himself and his mother, he had to labour in his early years as a hired servant in a noble family, he managed to find time to pursue his favourite studies. He made such progress that at the age of twenty-two years he opened a school to which many were attracted by the fame of his learning. His ability and faithful service merited for him promotion to the office of minister of justice. Under his wise administration the State attained to a degree of prosperity and moral order that it had never seen before. But through the intrigues of rival states the Marquis of Lu was led to prefer ignoble pleasures to the preservation of good government. Confucius tried by sound advice to bring his liege lord back to the path of duty, but in vain. He thereupon resigned his high position at the cost of personal ease and comfort, and left the state. For thirteen years, accompanied by faithful disciples, he went about from one state to another, seeking a ruler who would give heed to his counsels. Many were the privations he suffered. More than once he ran imminent risk of being waylaid and killed by his enemies, but his courage and confidence in the providential character of his mission never deserted him. At last he returned to Lu, where he spent the last five years of his long life encouraging others to the study and practice of virtue, and edifying all by his noble example. He died in the year 478 B.C., in the seventy-fourth year of his age. His lifetime almost exactly coincided with that of Buddha, who died two years earlier at the age of eighty.
That Confucius possessed a noble, commanding personality, there can be little doubt. It is shown by his recorded traits of character, by his lofty moral teachings, by the high-minded men that he trained to continue his life-work. In their enthusiastic love and admiration, they declared him the greatest of men, the sage without flaw, the perfect man. That he himself did not make any pretension to possess virtue and wisdom in their fullness is shown by his own recorded sayings. He was conscious of his shortcomings, and this consciousness he made no attempt to keep concealed. But of his love of virtue and wisdom there can be no question. He is described in "Analects", VII, 18, as one "who in the eager pursuit of knowledge, forgot his food, and in the joy of attaining to it forgot his sorrow". Whatever in the traditional records of the past, whether history, lyric poems, or rites and ceremonies, was edifying and conducive to virtue, he sought out with untiring zeal and made known to his disciples. He was a man of affectionate nature, sympathetic, and most considerate towards others. He loved his worthy disciples dearly, and won in turn their undying devotion. He was modest and unaffected in his bearing, inclined to gravity, yet possessing a natural cheerfulness that rarely deserted him. Schooled to adversity from childhood, he learned to find contentment and serenity of mind even where ordinary comforts were lacking. He was very fond of vocal and instrumental music, and often sang, accompanying his voice with the lute. His sense of humour is revealed in a criticism he once made of some boisterous singing "Why use an ox-knife", he said, "to kill a fowl?"
Confucius is often held up as the type of the virtuous man without religion. His teachings, it is alleged, were chiefly ethical, in which one looks in vain for retribution in the next life as a sanction of right conduct. Now an acquaintance with the ancient religion of China and with Confucian texts reveals the emptiness of the assertion that Confucius was devoid of religious thought and feeling. He was religious after the manner of religious men of his age and land. In not appealing to rewards and punishments in the life to come, he was simply following the example of his illustrious Chinese predecessors, whose religious belief did not include this element of future retribution. The Chinese classics that were ancient even in the time of Confucius have nothing to say of hell, but have much to say of the rewards and punishments meted out in the present life by the all-seeing Heaven. There are numbers of texts that show plainly that he did not depart from the traditional belief in the supreme Heaven-god and subordinate spirits, in Divine providence and retribution, and in the conscious existence of souls after death. These religious convictions on his part found expression in many recorded acts of piety and worship.
II. THE CONFUCIAN TEXTS
As Confucianism in its broad sense embraces not only the immediate teaching of Confucius, but also the traditional records customs, and rites to which he gave the sanction of his approval, and which today rest largely upon his authority, there are reckoned among the Confucian texts several that even in his day were venerated as sacred heirlooms of the past. The texts are divided into two categories, known as the "King" (Classics), and the "Shuh" (Books). The texts of the "King", which stand first in importance, are commonly reckoned as five, but sometimes as six.
The first of these is the "Shao-king" (Book of History), a religious and moral work, tracing the hand of xxyyyk.htm">Providence in a series of great events of past history, and inculcating the lesson that the Heaven-god gives prosperity and length of days only to the virtuous ruler who has the true welfare of the people at heart. Its unity of composition may well bring its time of publication down to the sixth century B.C., though the sources on which the earlier chapters are based may be almost contemporaneous with the events related.
The second "King" is the so-called "She-king" (Book of Songs), often spoken of as the "Odes". Of its 305 short lyric poems some belong to the time of the Shang dynasty (1766-1123 B.C.), the remaining, and perhaps larger, part to the first five centuries of the dynasty of Chow, that is, down to about 600 B.C.
The third "King" is the so-called "Y-king" (Book of Changes), an enigmatic treatise on the art of divining with the stalks of a native plant, which after being thrown give different indications according as they conform to one or another of the sixty-four hexagrams made up of three broken and three unbroken lines. The short explanations which accompany them, in large measure arbitrary and fantastic, are assigned to the time of Wan and his illustrious son Wu, founders of the Chow dynasty (1122 B.C.). Since the time of Confucius, the work has been more than doubled by a series of appendixes, ten in number, of which eight are attributed to Confucius. Only a small portion of these, however, are probably authentic.
The fourth "King" is the "Li-ki" (Book of Rites ). In its present form it dates from the second century of our era, being a compilation from a vast number of documents, most of which date from the earlier part of the Chow dynasty. It gives rules of conduct down to the minute details for religious acts of worship, court functions, social and family relations, dress--in short, for every sphere of human action. It remains today the authoritative guide of correct conduct for every cultivated Chinese. In the "Li-ki" are many of Confucius's reputed sayings and two long treatises composed by disciples, which may be said to reflect with substantial accuracy the sayings and teachings of the master. One of these is the treatise known as the "Chung-yung" (Doctrine of the Mean). It forms Book XXVIII of the "Li-ki", and is one of its most valuable treatises. It consists of a collection of sayings of Confucius characterizing the man of perfect virtue. The other treatise, forming Book XXXIX of the "Li-ki", is the so-called "Ta-hio" (Great Learning). It purports to be descriptions of the virtuous ruler by the disciple Tsang-tze, based on the teachings of the master. The fifth "King" is the short historical treatise known as the "Ch'un-ts'ew" (Spring and Autumn), said to have been written by the hand of Confucius himself. It consists of a connected series of bare annals of the state of Lu for the years 722-484 B.C. To these five "Kings" belongs a sixth, the so-called "Hiao-king" (Book of Filial Piety). The Chinese attribute its composition to Confucius, but in the opinion of critical scholars, it is the product of the school of his disciple, Tsang-tze.
Mention has just been made of the two treatises, the "Doctrine of the Mean" and the "Great Learning", embodied in the "Li-ki". In the eleventh century of our era, these two works were united with other Confucian texts, constituting what is known as the "Sze-shuh" (Four Books). First of these is the "Lun-yu" (Analects). It is a work in twenty short chapters, showing what manner of man Confucius was in his daily life, and recording many of his striking sayings on moral and historical topics. It seems to embody the authentic testimony of his disciples written by one of the next generation.
The second place in the "Shuh" is given to the "Book of Mencius". Mencius (Meng-tze), was not an immediate disciple of the master. He lived a century later. He acquired great fame as an exponent of Confucian teaching. His sayings, chiefly on moral topics, were treasured up by disciples, and published in his name. Third and fourth in order of the "Shuh" come the "Great Learning" and the "Doctrine of the Mean".
For our earliest knowledge of the contents of these Confucian texts, we are indebted to the painstaking researches of the Jesuit missionaries in China during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, who, with an heroic zeal for the spread of Christ's kingdom united a diligence and proficiency in the study of Chinese customs, literature, and history that have laid succeeding scholars under lasting obligation. Among these we may mention Fathers Prémare, Régis, Lacharme, Gaubil, Noël, Ignacio da Costa, by whom most of the Confucian texts were translated and elucidated with great erudition. It was but natural that their pioneer studies in so difficult a field should be destined to give place to the more accurate and complete monuments of modern scholarship. But even here they have worthy representatives in such scholars as Father Zottoli and Henri Cordier, whose Chinese studies give evidence of vast erudition. The Confucian texts have been made available to English readers by Professor Legge. Besides his monumental work in seven volumes, entitled "The Chinese Classics" and his version of the "Ch'un ts'ew", he has given the revised translations of the "Shuh", "She", "Ta-hio", "Y", and "Li-Ki" in Volumes III, XVI, XXVII, and XXVIII of "The Sacred Books of the East".
III. THE DOCTRINE A. Religious Groundwork
The religion of ancient China, to which Confucius gave his reverent adhesion was a form of nature-worship very closely approaching to monotheism. While numerous spirits associated with natural phenomena were recognized-- spirits of mountains and rivers, of land and grain, of the four quarters of the heavens, the sun, moon, and stars--they were all subordinated to the supreme Heaven-god, T'ien ( Heaven ) also called Ti (Lord), or Shang-ti (Supreme Lord). All other spirits were but his ministers, acting in obedience to his will. T'ien was the upholder of the moral law, exercising a benign providence over men. Nothing done in secret could escape his all-seeing eye. His punishment for evil deeds took the form either of calamities and early death, or of misfortune laid up for the children of the evil-doer. In numerous passages of the "Shao-" and "She-king", we find this belief asserting itself as a motive to right conduct. That it was not ignored by Confucius himself is shown by his recorded saying, that "he who offends against Heaven has no one to whom he can pray ". Another quasi-religious motive to the practice of virtue was the belief that the souls of the departed relatives were largely dependent for their happiness on the conduct of their living descendants. It was taught that children owed it as a duty to their dead parents to contribute to their glory and happiness by lives of virtue. To judge from the sayings of Confucius that have been preserved, he did not disregard these motives to right conduct, but he laid chief stress on the love of virtue for its own sake. The principles of morality and their concrete application to the varied relations of life were embodied in the sacred texts, which in turn represented the teachings of the great sages of the past raised up by Heaven to instruct mankind. These teachings were not inspired, nor were they revealed, yet they were infallible. The sages were born with wisdom meant by Heaven to enlighten the children of men. It was thus a wisdom that was providential, rather than supernatural. The notion of Divine positive revelation is absent from the Chinese texts. To follow the path of duty as laid down in the authoritative rules of conduct was within the reach of all men, provided that their nature, good at birth, was not hopelessly spoiled by vicious influences. Confucius held the traditional view that all men are born good. Of anything like original sin there is not a trace in his teaching. He seems to have failed to recognize even the existence of vicious hereditary tendencies. In his view, what spoiled men was bad environment, evil example, an inexcusable yielding to evil appetites that everyone by right use of his natural powers could and ought to control. Moral downfall caused by suggestions of evil spirits had no place in his system. Nor is there any notion of Divine grace to strengthen the will and enlighten the mind in the struggle with evil. There are one or two allusions to prayer, but nothing to show that daily prayer was recommended to the aspirant after perfection.
In Confucianism the helps to the cultivation of virtue are natural and providential, nothing more. But in this development of moral perfection Confucius sought to enkindle in others the enthusiastic love of virtue that he felt himself. To make oneself as good as possible, this was with him the main business of life. Everything that was conducive to the practice of goodness was to be eagerly sought and made use of. To this end right knowledge was to be held indispensable. Like Socrates, Confucius taught that vice sprang from ignorance and that knowledge led unfailingly to virtue. The knowledge on which he insisted was not purely scientific learning, but an edifying acquaintance with the sacred texts and the rules of virtue and propriety. Another factor on which he laid great stress was the influence of good example. He loved to hold up to the admiration of his disciples the heroes and sages of the past, an acquaintance with whose noble deeds and sayings he sought to promote by insisting on the study of the ancient classics. Many of his recorded sayings are eulogies of these valiant men of virtue. Nor did he fail to recognize the value of good, high-minded companions. His motto was, to associate with the truly great and to make friends of the most virtuous. Besides association with the good, Confucius urged on his disciples the importance of always welcoming the fraternal correction of one's faults. Then, too, the daily examination of conscience was inculcated. As a further aid to the formation of a virtuous character, he valued highly a certain amount of self-discipline. He recognized the danger, especially in the young, of falling into habits of softness and love of ease. Hence he insisted on a virile indifference to effeminate comforts. In the art of music he also recognized a powerful aid to enkindle enthusiasm for the practice of virtue. He taught his pupils the "Odes" and other edifying songs, which they sang together to the accompaniment of lutes and harps. This together with the magnetism of his personal influence lent a strong emotional quality to his teaching.C. Fundamental Virtues
As a foundation for the life of perfect goodness, Confucius insisted chiefly on the four virtues of sincerity, benevolence, filial piety, and propriety. Sincerity was with him a cardinal virtue. As used by him it meant more than a mere social relation. To be truthful and straightforward in speech, faithful to one's promises, conscientious in the discharge of one's duties to others--this was included in sincerity and something more. The sincere man in Confucius's eyes was the man whose conduct was always based on the love of virtue, and who in consequence sought to observe the rules of right conduct in his heart as well as in outward actions, when alone as well as in the presence of others. Benevolence, showing itself in a kindly regard for the welfare of others and in a readiness to help them in times of need, was also a fundamental element in Confucius's teaching. It was viewed as the characteristic trait of the good man. Mencius, the illustrious exponent of Confucianism, has the remarkable statement: "Benevolence is man" (VII, 16). In the sayings of Confucius we find the Golden Rule in its negative form enunciated several times. In "Analects", XV, 13, we read that when a disciple asked him for a guiding principle for all conduct, the master answered: "Is not mutual goodwill such a principle? What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others". This is strikingly like the form of the Golden Rule found in the first chapter of the "Teaching of the Apostles"--"All things soever that you would not have done to yourself, do not do to another"; also in Tobias, iv, 16, where it appears for the first time in Sacred Scripture . He did not approve the principle held by Lao-tze that injury should be repaid with kindness. His motto was "Requite injury with justice, and kindness with kindness" (Analects, XIV, 36). He seems to have viewed the question from the practical and legal standpoint of social order. "To repay kindness with kindness", he says elsewhere, "acts as an encouragement to the people. To requite injury with injury acts as a warning" (Li-ki, XXIX, 11). The third fundamental virtue in the Confucian system is filial piety. In the "Hiao-king", Confucius is recorded as saying: "Filial piety is the root of all virtue."--"Of all the actions of man there are none greater than those of filial piety." To the Chinese then as now, filial piety prompted the son to love and respect his parents, contribute to their comfort, bring happiness and honour to their name, by honourable success in life. But at the same time it carried that devotion to a degree that was excessive and faulty. In consequence of the patriarchal system there prevailing, filial piety included the obligation of sons to live after marriage under the same roof with the father and to give him a childlike obedience as long as he lived. The will of the parents was declared to be supreme even to the extent that if the son's wife failed to please them he was obliged to divorce her, though it cut him to the heart. If a dutiful son found himself compelled to admonish a wayward father he was taught to give the correction with the utmost meekness; though the parent might beat him till the blood flowed he was not to show any resentment. The father did not forfeit his right to filial respect, no matter how great his wickedness. Another virtue of primary importance in the Confucian system is "propriety". It embraces the whole sphere of human conduct, prompting the superior man always to do the right thing in the right place. It finds expression in the so-called rules of ceremony, which are not confined to religious rites and rules of moral conduct, but extend to the bewildering mass of conventional customs and usages by which Chinese etiquette is regulated. They were distinguished even in Confucius's day by the three hundred greater, and the three thousand lesser, rules of ceremony, all of which had to be carefully learned as a guide to right conduct. The conventional usages as well as the rules of moral conduct brought with them the sense of obligation resting primarily on the authority of the sage-kings and in the last analysis on the will of Heaven. To neglect or deviate from them was equivalent to an act of impiety.
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In the "Li-ki", the chief ceremonial observances are declared to be six: capping, marriage mourning rites, sacrifices, feasts, and interviews. It will be enough to treat briefly of the first four. They have persisted with little change down to the present day. Capping was a joyous ceremony, wherein the son was honoured on reaching his twentieth year. In the presence of relatives and invited guests, the father conferred on his son a special name and a square cornered cap as distinguishing marks of his mature manhood. It was accompanied with a feast. The marriage ceremony was of great importance. To marry with the view of having male children was a grave duty on the part of every son. This was necessary to keep up the patriarchal system and to provide for ancestral worship in after years. The rule as laid down in the "Li-ki" was, that a young man should marry at the age of thirty and a young woman at twenty. The proposal and acceptance pertained not to the young parties directly interested, but to their parents. The preliminary arrangements were made by a go between after it was ascertained by divination that the signs of the proposed union were auspicious. The parties could not be of the same surname, nor related within the fifth degree of kindred. On the day of the wedding the young groom in his best attire came to the house of the bride and led her out to his carriage, in which she rode to his father's home. There he received her, surrounded by the joyous guests. Cups improvised by cutting a melon in halves were filled with sweet spirits and handed to the bride and groom. By taking a sip from each, they signified that they were united in wedlock. The bride thus became a member of the family of her parents-in-law, subject, like her husband, to their authority. Monogamy was encouraged as the ideal condition, but the maintenance of secondary wives known as concubines was not forbidden. It was recommended when the true wife failed to bear male children and was too much loved to be divorced. There were seven causes justifying the repudiation of a wife besides infidelity, and one of these was the absence of male offspring. The mourning rites were likewise of supreme importance. Their exposition takes up the greater part of the "Li-ki". They were most elaborate, varying greatly in details and length of observance, according to the rank and relationship of the deceased. The mourning rites for the father were the most impressive of all. For the first three days, the son, clad in sackcloth of coarse white hemp, fasted, and leaped, and wailed. After the burial, for which there were minute prescriptions, the son had to wear the mourning sackcloth for twenty-seven months, emaciating his body with scanty food, and living in a rude hut erected for the purpose near the grave. In the "Analects", Confucius is said to have condemned with indignation the suggestion of a disciple that the period of the mourning rites might well be shortened to one year. Another class of rites of supreme importance were the sacrifices. They are repeatedly mentioned in the Confucian texts, where instructions are given for their proper celebration. From the Chinese notion of sacrifice the idea of propitiation through blood is entirely absent. It is nothing more than a food-offering expressing the reverent homage of the worshippers, a solemn feast to do honour to the spirit guests, who are invited and are thought to enjoy the entertainment. Meat and drink of great variety are provided. There is also vocal and instrumental music, and pantomimic dancing. The officiating ministers are not priests, but heads of families, the feudal lords, and above all, the king. There is no priesthood in Confucianism.
The worship of the people at large is practically confined to the so-called ancestor-worship. Some think it is hardly proper to call it worship, consisting as it does of feasts in honour of dead relatives. In the days of Confucius, as at present, there was in every family home, from the palace of the king himself down to the humble cabin of the peasant, a chamber or closet called the ancestral shrine, where wooden tablets were reverently kept, inscribed with the names of deceased parents, grandparents, and more remote ancestors. At stated intervals offerings of fruit, wine, and cooked meats were set before these tablets, which the ancestral spirits were fancied to make their temporary resting-place. There was, besides, a public honouring by each local clan of the common ancestors twice a year, in spring and autumn. This was an elaborate banquet with music and solemn dances, to which the dead ancestors were summoned, and in which they were believed to participate along with the living members of the clan. More elaborate and magnificent still were the great triennial and quinquennial feasts given by the king to his ghostly ancestors. This feasting of the dead by families and clans was restricted to such as were united with the living by ties of relationship. There were, however, a few public benefactors whose memory was revered by all the people and to whom offerings of food were made. Confucius himself came be to honoured after death, being regarded as the greatest of public benefactors. Even today in China this religious veneration of the master is faithfully maintained. In the Imperial College in Peking there is a shrine where the tablets of Confucius and his principal disciples are preserved. Twice a year, in spring and autumn, the emperor goes there in state and solemnly presents food-offerings with a prayerful address expressing his gratitude and devotion.
In the fourth book of the "Li-ki" reference is made to the sacrifices which the people were accustomed to offer to the "spirits of the ground", that is to the spirits presiding over the local fields. In the worship of spirits of higher rank, however, the people seem to have taken no active part. This was the concern of their highest representatives, the feudal lords and the king. Each feudal lord offered sacrifice for himself and his subjects to the subordinate spirits supposed to have especial care of his territory. It was the prerogative of the king alone to sacrifice to the spirits, both great and small, of the whole realm, particularly to Heaven and Earth. Several sacrifices of this kind were offered every year. The most important were those at the winter and summer solstice in which Heaven and Earth were respectively worshiped. To account for this anomaly we must bear in mind that sacrifice, as viewed by the Chinese, is a feast to the spirit guests, and that according to their notion of propriety the highest deities should be feted only by the highest representatives of the living. They saw a fitness in the custom that only the king, the Son of Heaven, should, in his own behalf and in behalf of his people, make solemn offering to Heaven. And so it is today. The sacrificial worship of Heaven and Earth is celebrated only by the emperor, with the assistance, indeed, of a small army of attendants, and with a magnificence of ceremonial that is astonishing to behold. To pray privately to Heaven and burn incense to him was a legitimate way for the individual to show his piety to the highest deity, and this is still practised, generally at the full moon.E. Politics
Confucius knew but one form of government, the traditional monarchy of his native land. It was the extension of the patriarchal system to the entire nation. The king exercised an absolute authority over his subjects, as the father over his children. He ruled by right Divine. He was providentially set up by Heaven to enlighten the people by wise laws and to lead them to goodness by his example and authority. Hence his title, the "Son of Heaven ". To merit this title he should reflect the virtue of Heaven. It was only the high-minded king that won Heaven's favour and was rewarded with prosperity. The unworthy king lost Divine assistance and came to naught. The Confucian texts abound in lessons and warnings on this subject of right government. The value of good example in the ruler is emphasized most strongly. The principle is asserted again and again, that the people cannot fail to practise virtue and to prosper when the ruler sets the high example of right conduct. On the other hand the implication is conveyed in more than one place that when crime and misery abound, the cause is to be sought in the unworthy king and his unprincipled ministers.
IV. HISTORY OF CONFUCIANISM
It is doubtless this uncompromising attitude of Confucianism towards vicious self-seeking rulers of the people that all but caused its extinction towards the end of the third century B.C. In the year 213 B.C., the subverter of the Chow dynasty, Shi Hwang-ti, promulgated the decree that all Confucian books, excepting the "Y-king", should be destroyed. The penalty of death was threatened against all scholars who should be found possessing the proscribed books or teaching them to others. Hundreds of Confucian scholars would not comply with the edict, and were buried alive. When the repeal came under the Han dynasty, in 191 B.C., the work of extermination was wellnigh complete. Gradually, however, copies more or less damaged were brought to light, and the Confucian texts were restored to their place of honour. Generations of scholars have devoted their best years to the elucidation of the "King" and "Shuh", with the result that an enormous literature has clustered around them. As the State religion of China, Confucianism has exercised a profound influence on the life of the nation. This influence has been little affected by the lower classes of Taoism and Buddhism, both of which, as popular cults, began to flourish in China towards the end of the first century of our era. In the gross idolatry of these cults the ignorant found a satisfaction for their religious cravings that was not afforded by the religion of the State. But in thus embracing Taoism and Buddhism they did not cease to be Confucianists. These cults were and are nothing more than accretions on the Confucian beliefs and customs of the lower classes, forms of popular devotion clinging like parasites to the ancestral religion. The educated Chinese despises both Buddhist and Taoist superstitions. But while nominally professing Confucianism pure and simple, not a few hold rationalistic views regarding the spirit world. In number the Confucianists amount to about three hundred millions.
V. CONFUCIANISM VERSUS CHRISTIAN CIVILIZATION
In Confucianism there is much to admire. It has taught a noble conception of the supreme Heaven-god. It has inculcated a remarkably high standard of morality. It has prompted, as far as it knew how, the refining influence of literary education and of polite conduct. But it stands today encumbered with the serious defects that characterize the imperfect civilization of its early development. The association of T'ien with innumerable nature-spirits, spirits of sun, moon, and stars, of hills and fields and rivers, the superstitious use of divination by means of stalks and tortoise shells, and the crude notion that the higher spirits, together with the souls of the dead, are regaled by splendid banquets and food-offerings, cannot stand the test of intelligent modern criticism. Nor can a religion answer fully to the religious needs of the heart which withdraws from the active participation of the people the solemn worship of the deity, which has little use of prayer, which recognizes no such thing as grace, which has no definite teaching in regard to the future life. As a social system it has lifted the Chinese to an intermediate grade of culture, but has blocked for ages all further progress. In its rigid insistence on rites and customs that tend to perpetuate the patriarchal system with its attendant evils of polygamy and divorce, of excessive seclusion and repression of women, of an undue hampering of individual freedom, Confucianism stands in painful contrast with progressive Christian civilization.
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By Confucianism is meant the complex system of moral, social, political, and religious teaching built up by Confucius on the ancient Chinese traditions, and perpetuated as the State religion down to the present day. Confucianism aims at making not simply the man of virtue, but the man of learning and of good manners. The perfect man must combine the qualities of saint, scholar, and gentleman. Confucianism is a religion without positive revelation, with a minimum of dogmatic teaching, whose popular worship is centered in offerings to the dead, in which the notion of duty is extended beyond the sphere of morals proper so as to embrace almost every detail of daily life.
I. THE TEACHER, CONFUCIUS
The chief exponent of this remarkable religion was K'ung-tze, or K'ung-fu-tze, latinized by the early Jesuit missionaries into Confucius . Confucius was born in 551 B.C., in what was then the feudal state of Lu, now included in the modern province of Shan-tung. His parents, while not wealthy, belonged to the superior class. His father was a warrior, distinguished no less for his deeds of valour than for his noble ancestry. Confucius was a mere boy when his father died. From childhood he showed a great aptitude for study, and though, in order to support himself and his mother, he had to labour in his early years as a hired servant in a noble family, he managed to find time to pursue his favourite studies. He made such progress that at the age of twenty-two years he opened a school to which many were attracted by the fame of his learning. His ability and faithful service merited for him promotion to the office of minister of justice. Under his wise administration the State attained to a degree of prosperity and moral order that it had never seen before. But through the intrigues of rival states the Marquis of Lu was led to prefer ignoble pleasures to the preservation of good government. Confucius tried by sound advice to bring his liege lord back to the path of duty, but in vain. He thereupon resigned his high position at the cost of personal ease and comfort, and left the state. For thirteen years, accompanied by faithful disciples, he went about from one state to another, seeking a ruler who would give heed to his counsels. Many were the privations he suffered. More than once he ran imminent risk of being waylaid and killed by his enemies, but his courage and confidence in the providential character of his mission never deserted him. At last he returned to Lu, where he spent the last five years of his long life encouraging others to the study and practice of virtue, and edifying all by his noble example. He died in the year 478 B.C., in the seventy-fourth year of his age. His lifetime almost exactly coincided with that of Buddha, who died two years earlier at the age of eighty.
That Confucius possessed a noble, commanding personality, there can be little doubt. It is shown by his recorded traits of character, by his lofty moral teachings, by the high-minded men that he trained to continue his life-work. In their enthusiastic love and admiration, they declared him the greatest of men, the sage without flaw, the perfect man. That he himself did not make any pretension to possess virtue and wisdom in their fullness is shown by his own recorded sayings. He was conscious of his shortcomings, and this consciousness he made no attempt to keep concealed. But of his love of virtue and wisdom there can be no question. He is described in "Analects", VII, 18, as one "who in the eager pursuit of knowledge, forgot his food, and in the joy of attaining to it forgot his sorrow". Whatever in the traditional records of the past, whether history, lyric poems, or rites and ceremonies, was edifying and conducive to virtue, he sought out with untiring zeal and made known to his disciples. He was a man of affectionate nature, sympathetic, and most considerate towards others. He loved his worthy disciples dearly, and won in turn their undying devotion. He was modest and unaffected in his bearing, inclined to gravity, yet possessing a natural cheerfulness that rarely deserted him. Schooled to adversity from childhood, he learned to find contentment and serenity of mind even where ordinary comforts were lacking. He was very fond of vocal and instrumental music, and often sang, accompanying his voice with the lute. His sense of humour is revealed in a criticism he once made of some boisterous singing "Why use an ox-knife", he said, "to kill a fowl?"
Confucius is often held up as the type of the virtuous man without religion. His teachings, it is alleged, were chiefly ethical, in which one looks in vain for retribution in the next life as a sanction of right conduct. Now an acquaintance with the ancient religion of China and with Confucian texts reveals the emptiness of the assertion that Confucius was devoid of religious thought and feeling. He was religious after the manner of religious men of his age and land. In not appealing to rewards and punishments in the life to come, he was simply following the example of his illustrious Chinese predecessors, whose religious belief did not include this element of future retribution. The Chinese classics that were ancient even in the time of Confucius have nothing to say of hell, but have much to say of the rewards and punishments meted out in the present life by the all-seeing Heaven. There are numbers of texts that show plainly that he did not depart from the traditional belief in the supreme Heaven-god and subordinate spirits, in Divine providence and retribution, and in the conscious existence of souls after death. These religious convictions on his part found expression in many recorded acts of piety and worship.
II. THE CONFUCIAN TEXTS
As Confucianism in its broad sense embraces not only the immediate teaching of Confucius, but also the traditional records customs, and rites to which he gave the sanction of his approval, and which today rest largely upon his authority, there are reckoned among the Confucian texts several that even in his day were venerated as sacred heirlooms of the past. The texts are divided into two categories, known as the "King" (Classics), and the "Shuh" (Books). The texts of the "King", which stand first in importance, are commonly reckoned as five, but sometimes as six.
The first of these is the "Shao-king" (Book of History), a religious and moral work, tracing the hand of xxyyyk.htm">Providence in a series of great events of past history, and inculcating the lesson that the Heaven-god gives prosperity and length of days only to the virtuous ruler who has the true welfare of the people at heart. Its unity of composition may well bring its time of publication down to the sixth century B.C., though the sources on which the earlier chapters are based may be almost contemporaneous with the events related.
The second "King" is the so-called "She-king" (Book of Songs), often spoken of as the "Odes". Of its 305 short lyric poems some belong to the time of the Shang dynasty (1766-1123 B.C.), the remaining, and perhaps larger, part to the first five centuries of the dynasty of Chow, that is, down to about 600 B.C.
The third "King" is the so-called "Y-king" (Book of Changes), an enigmatic treatise on the art of divining with the stalks of a native plant, which after being thrown give different indications according as they conform to one or another of the sixty-four hexagrams made up of three broken and three unbroken lines. The short explanations which accompany them, in large measure arbitrary and fantastic, are assigned to the time of Wan and his illustrious son Wu, founders of the Chow dynasty (1122 B.C.). Since the time of Confucius, the work has been more than doubled by a series of appendixes, ten in number, of which eight are attributed to Confucius. Only a small portion of these, however, are probably authentic.
The fourth "King" is the "Li-ki" (Book of Rites ). In its present form it dates from the second century of our era, being a compilation from a vast number of documents, most of which date from the earlier part of the Chow dynasty. It gives rules of conduct down to the minute details for religious acts of worship, court functions, social and family relations, dress--in short, for every sphere of human action. It remains today the authoritative guide of correct conduct for every cultivated Chinese. In the "Li-ki" are many of Confucius's reputed sayings and two long treatises composed by disciples, which may be said to reflect with substantial accuracy the sayings and teachings of the master. One of these is the treatise known as the "Chung-yung" (Doctrine of the Mean). It forms Book XXVIII of the "Li-ki", and is one of its most valuable treatises. It consists of a collection of sayings of Confucius characterizing the man of perfect virtue. The other treatise, forming Book XXXIX of the "Li-ki", is the so-called "Ta-hio" (Great Learning). It purports to be descriptions of the virtuous ruler by the disciple Tsang-tze, based on the teachings of the master. The fifth "King" is the short historical treatise known as the "Ch'un-ts'ew" (Spring and Autumn), said to have been written by the hand of Confucius himself. It consists of a connected series of bare annals of the state of Lu for the years 722-484 B.C. To these five "Kings" belongs a sixth, the so-called "Hiao-king" (Book of Filial Piety). The Chinese attribute its composition to Confucius, but in the opinion of critical scholars, it is the product of the school of his disciple, Tsang-tze.
Mention has just been made of the two treatises, the "Doctrine of the Mean" and the "Great Learning", embodied in the "Li-ki". In the eleventh century of our era, these two works were united with other Confucian texts, constituting what is known as the "Sze-shuh" (Four Books). First of these is the "Lun-yu" (Analects). It is a work in twenty short chapters, showing what manner of man Confucius was in his daily life, and recording many of his striking sayings on moral and historical topics. It seems to embody the authentic testimony of his disciples written by one of the next generation.
The second place in the "Shuh" is given to the "Book of Mencius". Mencius (Meng-tze), was not an immediate disciple of the master. He lived a century later. He acquired great fame as an exponent of Confucian teaching. His sayings, chiefly on moral topics, were treasured up by disciples, and published in his name. Third and fourth in order of the "Shuh" come the "Great Learning" and the "Doctrine of the Mean".
For our earliest knowledge of the contents of these Confucian texts, we are indebted to the painstaking researches of the Jesuit missionaries in China during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, who, with an heroic zeal for the spread of Christ's kingdom united a diligence and proficiency in the study of Chinese customs, literature, and history that have laid succeeding scholars under lasting obligation. Among these we may mention Fathers Prémare, Régis, Lacharme, Gaubil, Noël, Ignacio da Costa, by whom most of the Confucian texts were translated and elucidated with great erudition. It was but natural that their pioneer studies in so difficult a field should be destined to give place to the more accurate and complete monuments of modern scholarship. But even here they have worthy representatives in such scholars as Father Zottoli and Henri Cordier, whose Chinese studies give evidence of vast erudition. The Confucian texts have been made available to English readers by Professor Legge. Besides his monumental work in seven volumes, entitled "The Chinese Classics" and his version of the "Ch'un ts'ew", he has given the revised translations of the "Shuh", "She", "Ta-hio", "Y", and "Li-Ki" in Volumes III, XVI, XXVII, and XXVIII of "The Sacred Books of the East".
III. THE DOCTRINE A. Religious Groundwork
The religion of ancient China, to which Confucius gave his reverent adhesion was a form of nature-worship very closely approaching to monotheism. While numerous spirits associated with natural phenomena were recognized-- spirits of mountains and rivers, of land and grain, of the four quarters of the heavens, the sun, moon, and stars--they were all subordinated to the supreme Heaven-god, T'ien ( Heaven ) also called Ti (Lord), or Shang-ti (Supreme Lord). All other spirits were but his ministers, acting in obedience to his will. T'ien was the upholder of the moral law, exercising a benign providence over men. Nothing done in secret could escape his all-seeing eye. His punishment for evil deeds took the form either of calamities and early death, or of misfortune laid up for the children of the evil-doer. In numerous passages of the "Shao-" and "She-king", we find this belief asserting itself as a motive to right conduct. That it was not ignored by Confucius himself is shown by his recorded saying, that "he who offends against Heaven has no one to whom he can pray ". Another quasi-religious motive to the practice of virtue was the belief that the souls of the departed relatives were largely dependent for their happiness on the conduct of their living descendants. It was taught that children owed it as a duty to their dead parents to contribute to their glory and happiness by lives of virtue. To judge from the sayings of Confucius that have been preserved, he did not disregard these motives to right conduct, but he laid chief stress on the love of virtue for its own sake. The principles of morality and their concrete application to the varied relations of life were embodied in the sacred texts, which in turn represented the teachings of the great sages of the past raised up by Heaven to instruct mankind. These teachings were not inspired, nor were they revealed, yet they were infallible. The sages were born with wisdom meant by Heaven to enlighten the children of men. It was thus a wisdom that was providential, rather than supernatural. The notion of Divine positive revelation is absent from the Chinese texts. To follow the path of duty as laid down in the authoritative rules of conduct was within the reach of all men, provided that their nature, good at birth, was not hopelessly spoiled by vicious influences. Confucius held the traditional view that all men are born good. Of anything like original sin there is not a trace in his teaching. He seems to have failed to recognize even the existence of vicious hereditary tendencies. In his view, what spoiled men was bad environment, evil example, an inexcusable yielding to evil appetites that everyone by right use of his natural powers could and ought to control. Moral downfall caused by suggestions of evil spirits had no place in his system. Nor is there any notion of Divine grace to strengthen the will and enlighten the mind in the struggle with evil. There are one or two allusions to prayer, but nothing to show that daily prayer was recommended to the aspirant after perfection.
In Confucianism the helps to the cultivation of virtue are natural and providential, nothing more. But in this development of moral perfection Confucius sought to enkindle in others the enthusiastic love of virtue that he felt himself. To make oneself as good as possible, this was with him the main business of life. Everything that was conducive to the practice of goodness was to be eagerly sought and made use of. To this end right knowledge was to be held indispensable. Like Socrates, Confucius taught that vice sprang from ignorance and that knowledge led unfailingly to virtue. The knowledge on which he insisted was not purely scientific learning, but an edifying acquaintance with the sacred texts and the rules of virtue and propriety. Another factor on which he laid great stress was the influence of good example. He loved to hold up to the admiration of his disciples the heroes and sages of the past, an acquaintance with whose noble deeds and sayings he sought to promote by insisting on the study of the ancient classics. Many of his recorded sayings are eulogies of these valiant men of virtue. Nor did he fail to recognize the value of good, high-minded companions. His motto was, to associate with the truly great and to make friends of the most virtuous. Besides association with the good, Confucius urged on his disciples the importance of always welcoming the fraternal correction of one's faults. Then, too, the daily examination of conscience was inculcated. As a further aid to the formation of a virtuous character, he valued highly a certain amount of self-discipline. He recognized the danger, especially in the young, of falling into habits of softness and love of ease. Hence he insisted on a virile indifference to effeminate comforts. In the art of music he also recognized a powerful aid to enkindle enthusiasm for the practice of virtue. He taught his pupils the "Odes" and other edifying songs, which they sang together to the accompaniment of lutes and harps. This together with the magnetism of his personal influence lent a strong emotional quality to his teaching.C. Fundamental Virtues
As a foundation for the life of perfect goodness, Confucius insisted chiefly on the four virtues of sincerity, benevolence, filial piety, and propriety. Sincerity was with him a cardinal virtue. As used by him it meant more than a mere social relation. To be truthful and straightforward in speech, faithful to one's promises, conscientious in the discharge of one's duties to others--this was included in sincerity and something more. The sincere man in Confucius's eyes was the man whose conduct was always based on the love of virtue, and who in consequence sought to observe the rules of right conduct in his heart as well as in outward actions, when alone as well as in the presence of others. Benevolence, showing itself in a kindly regard for the welfare of others and in a readiness to help them in times of need, was also a fundamental element in Confucius's teaching. It was viewed as the characteristic trait of the good man. Mencius, the illustrious exponent of Confucianism, has the remarkable statement: "Benevolence is man" (VII, 16). In the sayings of Confucius we find the Golden Rule in its negative form enunciated several times. In "Analects", XV, 13, we read that when a disciple asked him for a guiding principle for all conduct, the master answered: "Is not mutual goodwill such a principle? What you do not want done to yourself, do not do to others". This is strikingly like the form of the Golden Rule found in the first chapter of the "Teaching of the Apostles"--"All things soever that you would not have done to yourself, do not do to another"; also in Tobias, iv, 16, where it appears for the first time in Sacred Scripture . He did not approve the principle held by Lao-tze that injury should be repaid with kindness. His motto was "Requite injury with justice, and kindness with kindness" (Analects, XIV, 36). He seems to have viewed the question from the practical and legal standpoint of social order. "To repay kindness with kindness", he says elsewhere, "acts as an encouragement to the people. To requite injury with injury acts as a warning" (Li-ki, XXIX, 11). The third fundamental virtue in the Confucian system is filial piety. In the "Hiao-king", Confucius is recorded as saying: "Filial piety is the root of all virtue."--"Of all the actions of man there are none greater than those of filial piety." To the Chinese then as now, filial piety prompted the son to love and respect his parents, contribute to their comfort, bring happiness and honour to their name, by honourable success in life. But at the same time it carried that devotion to a degree that was excessive and faulty. In consequence of the patriarchal system there prevailing, filial piety included the obligation of sons to live after marriage under the same roof with the father and to give him a childlike obedience as long as he lived. The will of the parents was declared to be supreme even to the extent that if the son's wife failed to please them he was obliged to divorce her, though it cut him to the heart. If a dutiful son found himself compelled to admonish a wayward father he was taught to give the correction with the utmost meekness; though the parent might beat him till the blood flowed he was not to show any resentment. The father did not forfeit his right to filial respect, no matter how great his wickedness. Another virtue of primary importance in the Confucian system is "propriety". It embraces the whole sphere of human conduct, prompting the superior man always to do the right thing in the right place. It finds expression in the so-called rules of ceremony, which are not confined to religious rites and rules of moral conduct, but extend to the bewildering mass of conventional customs and usages by which Chinese etiquette is regulated. They were distinguished even in Confucius's day by the three hundred greater, and the three thousand lesser, rules of ceremony, all of which had to be carefully learned as a guide to right conduct. The conventional usages as well as the rules of moral conduct brought with them the sense of obligation resting primarily on the authority of the sage-kings and in the last analysis on the will of Heaven. To neglect or deviate from them was equivalent to an act of impiety.
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In the "Li-ki", the chief ceremonial observances are declared to be six: capping, marriage mourning rites, sacrifices, feasts, and interviews. It will be enough to treat briefly of the first four. They have persisted with little change down to the present day. Capping was a joyous ceremony, wherein the son was honoured on reaching his twentieth year. In the presence of relatives and invited guests, the father conferred on his son a special name and a square cornered cap as distinguishing marks of his mature manhood. It was accompanied with a feast. The marriage ceremony was of great importance. To marry with the view of having male children was a grave duty on the part of every son. This was necessary to keep up the patriarchal system and to provide for ancestral worship in after years. The rule as laid down in the "Li-ki" was, that a young man should marry at the age of thirty and a young woman at twenty. The proposal and acceptance pertained not to the young parties directly interested, but to their parents. The preliminary arrangements were made by a go between after it was ascertained by divination that the signs of the proposed union were auspicious. The parties could not be of the same surname, nor related within the fifth degree of kindred. On the day of the wedding the young groom in his best attire came to the house of the bride and led her out to his carriage, in which she rode to his father's home. There he received her, surrounded by the joyous guests. Cups improvised by cutting a melon in halves were filled with sweet spirits and handed to the bride and groom. By taking a sip from each, they signified that they were united in wedlock. The bride thus became a member of the family of her parents-in-law, subject, like her husband, to their authority. Monogamy was encouraged as the ideal condition, but the maintenance of secondary wives known as concubines was not forbidden. It was recommended when the true wife failed to bear male children and was too much loved to be divorced. There were seven causes justifying the repudiation of a wife besides infidelity, and one of these was the absence of male offspring. The mourning rites were likewise of supreme importance. Their exposition takes up the greater part of the "Li-ki". They were most elaborate, varying greatly in details and length of observance, according to the rank and relationship of the deceased. The mourning rites for the father were the most impressive of all. For the first three days, the son, clad in sackcloth of coarse white hemp, fasted, and leaped, and wailed. After the burial, for which there were minute prescriptions, the son had to wear the mourning sackcloth for twenty-seven months, emaciating his body with scanty food, and living in a rude hut erected for the purpose near the grave. In the "Analects", Confucius is said to have condemned with indignation the suggestion of a disciple that the period of the mourning rites might well be shortened to one year. Another class of rites of supreme importance were the sacrifices. They are repeatedly mentioned in the Confucian texts, where instructions are given for their proper celebration. From the Chinese notion of sacrifice the idea of propitiation through blood is entirely absent. It is nothing more than a food-offering expressing the reverent homage of the worshippers, a solemn feast to do honour to the spirit guests, who are invited and are thought to enjoy the entertainment. Meat and drink of great variety are provided. There is also vocal and instrumental music, and pantomimic dancing. The officiating ministers are not priests, but heads of families, the feudal lords, and above all, the king. There is no priesthood in Confucianism.
The worship of the people at large is practically confined to the so-called ancestor-worship. Some think it is hardly proper to call it worship, consisting as it does of feasts in honour of dead relatives. In the days of Confucius, as at present, there was in every family home, from the palace of the king himself down to the humble cabin of the peasant, a chamber or closet called the ancestral shrine, where wooden tablets were reverently kept, inscribed with the names of deceased parents, grandparents, and more remote ancestors. At stated intervals offerings of fruit, wine, and cooked meats were set before these tablets, which the ancestral spirits were fancied to make their temporary resting-place. There was, besides, a public honouring by each local clan of the common ancestors twice a year, in spring and autumn. This was an elaborate banquet with music and solemn dances, to which the dead ancestors were summoned, and in which they were believed to participate along with the living members of the clan. More elaborate and magnificent still were the great triennial and quinquennial feasts given by the king to his ghostly ancestors. This feasting of the dead by families and clans was restricted to such as were united with the living by ties of relationship. There were, however, a few public benefactors whose memory was revered by all the people and to whom offerings of food were made. Confucius himself came be to honoured after death, being regarded as the greatest of public benefactors. Even today in China this religious veneration of the master is faithfully maintained. In the Imperial College in Peking there is a shrine where the tablets of Confucius and his principal disciples are preserved. Twice a year, in spring and autumn, the emperor goes there in state and solemnly presents food-offerings with a prayerful address expressing his gratitude and devotion.
In the fourth book of the "Li-ki" reference is made to the sacrifices which the people were accustomed to offer to the "spirits of the ground", that is to the spirits presiding over the local fields. In the worship of spirits of higher rank, however, the people seem to have taken no active part. This was the concern of their highest representatives, the feudal lords and the king. Each feudal lord offered sacrifice for himself and his subjects to the subordinate spirits supposed to have especial care of his territory. It was the prerogative of the king alone to sacrifice to the spirits, both great and small, of the whole realm, particularly to Heaven and Earth. Several sacrifices of this kind were offered every year. The most important were those at the winter and summer solstice in which Heaven and Earth were respectively worshiped. To account for this anomaly we must bear in mind that sacrifice, as viewed by the Chinese, is a feast to the spirit guests, and that according to their notion of propriety the highest deities should be feted only by the highest representatives of the living. They saw a fitness in the custom that only the king, the Son of Heaven, should, in his own behalf and in behalf of his people, make solemn offering to Heaven. And so it is today. The sacrificial worship of Heaven and Earth is celebrated only by the emperor, with the assistance, indeed, of a small army of attendants, and with a magnificence of ceremonial that is astonishing to behold. To pray privately to Heaven and burn incense to him was a legitimate way for the individual to show his piety to the highest deity, and this is still practised, generally at the full moon.E. Politics
Confucius knew but one form of government, the traditional monarchy of his native land. It was the extension of the patriarchal system to the entire nation. The king exercised an absolute authority over his subjects, as the father over his children. He ruled by right Divine. He was providentially set up by Heaven to enlighten the people by wise laws and to lead them to goodness by his example and authority. Hence his title, the "Son of Heaven ". To merit this title he should reflect the virtue of Heaven. It was only the high-minded king that won Heaven's favour and was rewarded with prosperity. The unworthy king lost Divine assistance and came to naught. The Confucian texts abound in lessons and warnings on this subject of right government. The value of good example in the ruler is emphasized most strongly. The principle is asserted again and again, that the people cannot fail to practise virtue and to prosper when the ruler sets the high example of right conduct. On the other hand the implication is conveyed in more than one place that when crime and misery abound, the cause is to be sought in the unworthy king and his unprincipled ministers.
IV. HISTORY OF CONFUCIANISM
It is doubtless this uncompromising attitude of Confucianism towards vicious self-seeking rulers of the people that all but caused its extinction towards the end of the third century B.C. In the year 213 B.C., the subverter of the Chow dynasty, Shi Hwang-ti, promulgated the decree that all Confucian books, excepting the "Y-king", should be destroyed. The penalty of death was threatened against all scholars who should be found possessing the proscribed books or teaching them to others. Hundreds of Confucian scholars would not comply with the edict, and were buried alive. When the repeal came under the Han dynasty, in 191 B.C., the work of extermination was wellnigh complete. Gradually, however, copies more or less damaged were brought to light, and the Confucian texts were restored to their place of honour. Generations of scholars have devoted their best years to the elucidation of the "King" and "Shuh", with the result that an enormous literature has clustered around them. As the State religion of China, Confucianism has exercised a profound influence on the life of the nation. This influence has been little affected by the lower classes of Taoism and Buddhism, both of which, as popular cults, began to flourish in China towards the end of the first century of our era. In the gross idolatry of these cults the ignorant found a satisfaction for their religious cravings that was not afforded by the religion of the State. But in thus embracing Taoism and Buddhism they did not cease to be Confucianists. These cults were and are nothing more than accretions on the Confucian beliefs and customs of the lower classes, forms of popular devotion clinging like parasites to the ancestral religion. The educated Chinese despises both Buddhist and Taoist superstitions. But while nominally professing Confucianism pure and simple, not a few hold rationalistic views regarding the spirit world. In number the Confucianists amount to about three hundred millions.
V. CONFUCIANISM VERSUS CHRISTIAN CIVILIZATION
In Confucianism there is much to admire. It has taught a noble conception of the supreme Heaven-god. It has inculcated a remarkably high standard of morality. It has prompted, as far as it knew how, the refining influence of literary education and of polite conduct. But it stands today encumbered with the serious defects that characterize the imperfect civilization of its early development. The association of T'ien with innumerable nature-spirits, spirits of sun, moon, and stars, of hills and fields and rivers, the superstitious use of divination by means of stalks and tortoise shells, and the crude notion that the higher spirits, together with the souls of the dead, are regaled by splendid banquets and food-offerings, cannot stand the test of intelligent modern criticism. Nor can a religion answer fully to the religious needs of the heart which withdraws from the active participation of the people the solemn worship of the deity, which has little use of prayer, which recognizes no such thing as grace, which has no definite teaching in regard to the future life. As a social system it has lifted the Chinese to an intermediate grade of culture, but has blocked for ages all further progress. In its rigid insistence on rites and customs that tend to perpetuate the patriarchal system with its attendant evils of polygamy and divorce, of excessive seclusion and repression of women, of an undue hampering of individual freedom, Confucianism stands in painful contrast with progressive Christian civilization.
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Monday, September 30, 2019
Good and Bad public speakers Essay
Martin Luther King achieved equality between black and white people. He was born in 1929 and died in 1968. I think that Martin Luther King is a good speaker because he is confident. This makes people more interested in what he is saying since they believe in him. The fact that Martin Luther King has compassion for what he is saying makes his speeches more effective. With this he achieved desegregation and equality. Martin Luther King also uses appropriate body language, which makes the audience more engaged in what he is trying to say. Martin also controlled his pitch by varying it so that the audience didnââ¬â¢t get bored. He used a mixture of complicated and simple vocabulary so that everyone would be able to understand him. Another reason why Martin Luther King was a good speaker was that he involved the audience by asking them rhetorical questions. This made the audience listen and think about what he was saying. It also made the audience agree and support him because they knew it was the right thing to do. Martin Luther King also used to repeat points to emphasize them. He also used to keep his speeches quite short and simple to keep the audiences attention. Overall due to Martin Luther King being a good and effective speaker he convinced people about black and white people being equal and became part of history. George Bush was born in 1946 and was the 43rd USA President. When speaking publically Bush was known for being a bad public speaker. He always used to make up words that would fill in spaces. He also used to slur a lot as well as mumbling. George Bush also wasnââ¬â¢t motivating and therefore his speeches werenââ¬â¢t effective. He also didnââ¬â¢t use much body language, which didnââ¬â¢t keep his audiences attention. From todayââ¬â¢s lesson, which was when we discussed our chosen speakers was useful. I had to discuss my speakers with Alex who had chosen the same people as me. This meant that we could compare our work. Alex more or less had similar or the same facts as I had. She also included about MLK that he increased his volume to further explain an important point. He repeated phrases such as ââ¬ËI had a dreamââ¬â¢, to male people remember it more. She also included that he speaks in a slow pace with pauses so people can understand him more. Alex also included some information about George Bush. She further added on that he didnââ¬â¢t connect with the audience since he was always looking down at the paper. She also added that he wasnââ¬â¢t convincing/enthusiastic and that his speeches dint flow like Martin Luther Kings. | <urn:uuid:56d01389-318a-42ff-adba-d062c0ada6c1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://customessays-buycheap.blogspot.com/2019/09/good-and-bad-public-speakers-essay.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00122.warc.gz | en | 0.994318 | 589 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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Good and Bad public speakers Essay
Martin Luther King achieved equality between black and white people. He was born in 1929 and died in 1968. I think that Martin Luther King is a good speaker because he is confident. This makes people more interested in what he is saying since they believe in him. The fact that Martin Luther King has compassion for what he is saying makes his speeches more effective. With this he achieved desegregation and equality. Martin Luther King also uses appropriate body language, which makes the audience more engaged in what he is trying to say. Martin also controlled his pitch by varying it so that the audience didnââ¬â¢t get bored. He used a mixture of complicated and simple vocabulary so that everyone would be able to understand him. Another reason why Martin Luther King was a good speaker was that he involved the audience by asking them rhetorical questions. This made the audience listen and think about what he was saying. It also made the audience agree and support him because they knew it was the right thing to do. Martin Luther King also used to repeat points to emphasize them. He also used to keep his speeches quite short and simple to keep the audiences attention. Overall due to Martin Luther King being a good and effective speaker he convinced people about black and white people being equal and became part of history. George Bush was born in 1946 and was the 43rd USA President. When speaking publically Bush was known for being a bad public speaker. He always used to make up words that would fill in spaces. He also used to slur a lot as well as mumbling. George Bush also wasnââ¬â¢t motivating and therefore his speeches werenââ¬â¢t effective. He also didnââ¬â¢t use much body language, which didnââ¬â¢t keep his audiences attention. From todayââ¬â¢s lesson, which was when we discussed our chosen speakers was useful. I had to discuss my speakers with Alex who had chosen the same people as me. This meant that we could compare our work. Alex more or less had similar or the same facts as I had. She also included about MLK that he increased his volume to further explain an important point. He repeated phrases such as ââ¬ËI had a dreamââ¬â¢, to male people remember it more. She also included that he speaks in a slow pace with pauses so people can understand him more. Alex also included some information about George Bush. She further added on that he didnââ¬â¢t connect with the audience since he was always looking down at the paper. She also added that he wasnââ¬â¢t convincing/enthusiastic and that his speeches dint flow like Martin Luther Kings. | 595 | ENGLISH | 1 |
While he was born thousands of years ago, Euclid has made a mark in mathematics that has stood the test of time and continues to shape modern sciences. He discovered classic geometry and wrote many book and papers on mathematics that proved useful to the great thinkers of the time. Having drafted a lot of his finding in his book The Elements, he has made a framework for mathematicians and is, even 23 centuries later, revered as valued information. His years of studying have made him a loved and respected individual. Euclid went from just another well off individual in the times of the great era of Greece to a man still remembered today as “The Father of Geometry”.
Nothing much about Euclid’s life is really known except what the Greek philosopher Proclus has written about in his books on ancient Mathematicians. There have been documents that suggest that Euclid studied in ancient schools build by the great Greek philosopher, Plato, where only the wealthy could afford to learn at. Euclid taught in Alexandria, Egypt, when Ptolemy I Soter was the ruler of Egypt for 38 years, from 323 to 285 BC. People such as translators and editors have often confused him the Greek Euclid of Megara, a philosopher who lived at the same time as the man whose school he may have learned from, Plato, one-hundred years ago.
Euclid arranged his book, The Elements, by using many other works that were written by other mathematicians as references, including work by the ancient Greek Physician, Hippocrates of Chios. The one who had most recently worked on it before Euclid was the ancient Greek Mathematician Theudius, whose textbook was used in Plato’s school, the Academy, and was most likely the book used as a reference by Aristotle, a Greek Philosopher who lived from 384-322 BC. The prior elements were immediately replaced by the work of Euclid and were lost. For his subject matter, Euclid drew from the work of all of his predecessors, but it is obvious that the overall design of his entire work was original, reaching a pinnacle point in the development of the five regular solids, known today as the Platonic solids.
Though Euclid might have discovered classic geometry, his book, The Elements, contains much more in it than just that. Many people have believed it to be a work of pure Geometry, but that can easily be disproved by reading the entirety, since the first few chapters speak exclusively of Geometry. Euclid knew that every... | <urn:uuid:8f8a47b2-1059-499b-a041-85b772546d3b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/euclid-of-alexandria | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00091.warc.gz | en | 0.991166 | 520 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.30253601074... | 1 | While he was born thousands of years ago, Euclid has made a mark in mathematics that has stood the test of time and continues to shape modern sciences. He discovered classic geometry and wrote many book and papers on mathematics that proved useful to the great thinkers of the time. Having drafted a lot of his finding in his book The Elements, he has made a framework for mathematicians and is, even 23 centuries later, revered as valued information. His years of studying have made him a loved and respected individual. Euclid went from just another well off individual in the times of the great era of Greece to a man still remembered today as “The Father of Geometry”.
Nothing much about Euclid’s life is really known except what the Greek philosopher Proclus has written about in his books on ancient Mathematicians. There have been documents that suggest that Euclid studied in ancient schools build by the great Greek philosopher, Plato, where only the wealthy could afford to learn at. Euclid taught in Alexandria, Egypt, when Ptolemy I Soter was the ruler of Egypt for 38 years, from 323 to 285 BC. People such as translators and editors have often confused him the Greek Euclid of Megara, a philosopher who lived at the same time as the man whose school he may have learned from, Plato, one-hundred years ago.
Euclid arranged his book, The Elements, by using many other works that were written by other mathematicians as references, including work by the ancient Greek Physician, Hippocrates of Chios. The one who had most recently worked on it before Euclid was the ancient Greek Mathematician Theudius, whose textbook was used in Plato’s school, the Academy, and was most likely the book used as a reference by Aristotle, a Greek Philosopher who lived from 384-322 BC. The prior elements were immediately replaced by the work of Euclid and were lost. For his subject matter, Euclid drew from the work of all of his predecessors, but it is obvious that the overall design of his entire work was original, reaching a pinnacle point in the development of the five regular solids, known today as the Platonic solids.
Though Euclid might have discovered classic geometry, his book, The Elements, contains much more in it than just that. Many people have believed it to be a work of pure Geometry, but that can easily be disproved by reading the entirety, since the first few chapters speak exclusively of Geometry. Euclid knew that every... | 515 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Second World War was a traumatic time for all peoples of the story. The Nazi regime killed millions of Jews, gypsies. But were you aware of sob pennies Nazi Germany and blacks killing in concentration camps?
Black people in Nazi Germany
In the 1920s, there were more than 24,000 blacks in Germany. They came from German colonies in Africa. Some blacks were married to German women and had children with them. With the rise of Nazism in Germany, living conditions of “Negers” have become extremely complicated. The defeat of the Germans against the French army in 1914-18, the occupation of the Rhineland by the French, Belgian and African soldiers colonized gradually create a nightmarish climate for blacks living in Germany.
The daily life of blacks in Germany from 1933 to 1945
a. At the beginning
At first, the Nazis did not know how to process black. The German Nazis regarded as “inferior race” but they were not a direct threat to them. For a time, the young German even blacks were allowed to join the Hitler Youth. But the loss of colonial territories, following the defeat of the First World War and the occupation of the French, Belgian and Senegalese, Moroccan and Madagascan soldiers in the Rhineland created a tense climate for blacks living in Germany. The Germans felt humiliated and were extremely angry against people of color who fought for France in this period -There. They saw a very dim dating between African soldiers and German women. The Nazis have saw blacks as “beasts or subhumans” and wanted especially not they sully the purity of German blood. Stop supporting this, the Germans began to persecute blacks in Germany.
b. Establishment of a Machiavellian plan against blacks in Germany
First, the Germans set up a racist propaganda campaign against the Jews, but also black. It was called “Die Schwarze chanted (am Rhein) or Die shwarze Schmach (am Rhein)” which means Black shame. Black propaganda depicted the military as “rapists” or carriers of venereal disease from soiling the German woman. This propaganda aimed to criticize the occupation of the Rhineland and the other side to fight for the protection of German blood. For as I said earlier, the Germans had a negative vision about people of color. The mix between German women and black loath them. It was a waste of racial pride!
The friendship between an Aryan and a black woman is a loss of racial pride.
Some examples of discriminatory laws and rules for black:
- Blacks were banned from public life. To avoid problems, many blacks lived in total isolation.
- It withdrew the papers of German nationality black and Birth Germans
- Without status, they had trouble finding a job. Some of them could find work in the show. That is to say, they worked as film actors for the German Ministry of Propaganda. They used by making films about the former German colonies in Africa. Others found work in factories.
- The Reichstag pass a law against marriages between whites and blacks in the African colonies.
- Mixed marriages were forbidden. From 1935, it was impossible to see a marriage between an Aryan and non Aryan (Jews, gypsies, blacks) under pain of severe penalties. If Black had an affair with a German, he risked the death penalty. The Nuremberg Laws were very explicit on that subject.
- The Germans set up very harsh laws against Jews in the Nuremberg Laws. The Nuremberg Laws were also designed the black race because there were laws regarding citizenship and laws protecting German blood.
- The black-German Métis children suffer a lot in German society. They were singled out, marginalized and isolated. They were considered by Hitler as “bastards of the Rhineland. “Hitler did everything to eliminate them because they considered them a stain for the German people. In his book Mein Kampf (My fight), Hitler accused the Jews of having intentionally caused the “Negroes” in the Rhineland, to undermine the white race, by an inevitable degeneration.
- Black colors of students no longer had the right to attend classes. They did not have the right to higher education.
- Many blacks were sterilized, imprisoned, brutalized. The German secret police proceeded constantly discrete raids where they were performing sterilizations on them.
- Blacks were victims of serious medical experiments.
- Those who live in the countries conquered by Germany, were arrested for acts of resistance or belonging to communism.
- Hitler spread his hatred against black athletes. They were ousted competitions sportives.Par example, when Jesse Owens, the star of American athletics, won three gold medals at the 1936 Olympics in Berlin, Hitler refused to be present.
- Rejection of Jazz music by the Nazis. They consider jazz as “Judeo-Negroid music” as Goebbels. Despite the popularity’re black artists in Germany, the Nazis did not hesitate to boycott. Hence, most jazz musicians and decide to leave the country in the early 30s.
The categories of black people affected by Nazism
They can be grouped into 4 categories.
- First, we have Africans who come from German African colonies. There were of African origins of Tanganyika, Cameroon, Finally, and Namibia. Among them, the Hereros had settled in Germany. The Herero people were the first victims of the genocide of the 20th century. The Germans created the first concentration camps against them. They killed more than 80% of the Herero.
- Secondly, the second category were military. They were called “bastards of the Rhine.” The Germans considered children between blacks and German women like dirt of the German race. They have not hesitated to sterilize.
- The third category is the black soldiers (France, America, Belgium) and citizens of the countries occupied by Germany. Many of them were resistant. They were captured and deported to concentration camps. One can quote for example Josephine Baker was an agent of resistance.
- The last category is a small number of black people from around the world who have settled in Germany in the 1920s, mainly of the show.
To conclude, all these examples show how black life was a living hell. They lived in constant fear. Many blacks were persecuted and deported to concentration camps and death camps. The fate was the same for all. Whether you’re black German by birth, fighters or American colonial troops, citizens of occupied countries, strong, you were housed in the same boat.
Feel free to see this documentary on Bile Blacks in Nazi camps! I also suggest you read books on black star Michelle Maillet, “Hitler’s Black Victims’ Clarence Lusane.
Source Usman.org / Serge Bile | <urn:uuid:101d7c72-1011-48da-93b1-18f25023565b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://afroculture.net/black-people-in-nazi-germany/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00379.warc.gz | en | 0.980583 | 1,435 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.46621596813201... | 4 | The Second World War was a traumatic time for all peoples of the story. The Nazi regime killed millions of Jews, gypsies. But were you aware of sob pennies Nazi Germany and blacks killing in concentration camps?
Black people in Nazi Germany
In the 1920s, there were more than 24,000 blacks in Germany. They came from German colonies in Africa. Some blacks were married to German women and had children with them. With the rise of Nazism in Germany, living conditions of “Negers” have become extremely complicated. The defeat of the Germans against the French army in 1914-18, the occupation of the Rhineland by the French, Belgian and African soldiers colonized gradually create a nightmarish climate for blacks living in Germany.
The daily life of blacks in Germany from 1933 to 1945
a. At the beginning
At first, the Nazis did not know how to process black. The German Nazis regarded as “inferior race” but they were not a direct threat to them. For a time, the young German even blacks were allowed to join the Hitler Youth. But the loss of colonial territories, following the defeat of the First World War and the occupation of the French, Belgian and Senegalese, Moroccan and Madagascan soldiers in the Rhineland created a tense climate for blacks living in Germany. The Germans felt humiliated and were extremely angry against people of color who fought for France in this period -There. They saw a very dim dating between African soldiers and German women. The Nazis have saw blacks as “beasts or subhumans” and wanted especially not they sully the purity of German blood. Stop supporting this, the Germans began to persecute blacks in Germany.
b. Establishment of a Machiavellian plan against blacks in Germany
First, the Germans set up a racist propaganda campaign against the Jews, but also black. It was called “Die Schwarze chanted (am Rhein) or Die shwarze Schmach (am Rhein)” which means Black shame. Black propaganda depicted the military as “rapists” or carriers of venereal disease from soiling the German woman. This propaganda aimed to criticize the occupation of the Rhineland and the other side to fight for the protection of German blood. For as I said earlier, the Germans had a negative vision about people of color. The mix between German women and black loath them. It was a waste of racial pride!
The friendship between an Aryan and a black woman is a loss of racial pride.
Some examples of discriminatory laws and rules for black:
- Blacks were banned from public life. To avoid problems, many blacks lived in total isolation.
- It withdrew the papers of German nationality black and Birth Germans
- Without status, they had trouble finding a job. Some of them could find work in the show. That is to say, they worked as film actors for the German Ministry of Propaganda. They used by making films about the former German colonies in Africa. Others found work in factories.
- The Reichstag pass a law against marriages between whites and blacks in the African colonies.
- Mixed marriages were forbidden. From 1935, it was impossible to see a marriage between an Aryan and non Aryan (Jews, gypsies, blacks) under pain of severe penalties. If Black had an affair with a German, he risked the death penalty. The Nuremberg Laws were very explicit on that subject.
- The Germans set up very harsh laws against Jews in the Nuremberg Laws. The Nuremberg Laws were also designed the black race because there were laws regarding citizenship and laws protecting German blood.
- The black-German Métis children suffer a lot in German society. They were singled out, marginalized and isolated. They were considered by Hitler as “bastards of the Rhineland. “Hitler did everything to eliminate them because they considered them a stain for the German people. In his book Mein Kampf (My fight), Hitler accused the Jews of having intentionally caused the “Negroes” in the Rhineland, to undermine the white race, by an inevitable degeneration.
- Black colors of students no longer had the right to attend classes. They did not have the right to higher education.
- Many blacks were sterilized, imprisoned, brutalized. The German secret police proceeded constantly discrete raids where they were performing sterilizations on them.
- Blacks were victims of serious medical experiments.
- Those who live in the countries conquered by Germany, were arrested for acts of resistance or belonging to communism.
- Hitler spread his hatred against black athletes. They were ousted competitions sportives.Par example, when Jesse Owens, the star of American athletics, won three gold medals at the 1936 Olympics in Berlin, Hitler refused to be present.
- Rejection of Jazz music by the Nazis. They consider jazz as “Judeo-Negroid music” as Goebbels. Despite the popularity’re black artists in Germany, the Nazis did not hesitate to boycott. Hence, most jazz musicians and decide to leave the country in the early 30s.
The categories of black people affected by Nazism
They can be grouped into 4 categories.
- First, we have Africans who come from German African colonies. There were of African origins of Tanganyika, Cameroon, Finally, and Namibia. Among them, the Hereros had settled in Germany. The Herero people were the first victims of the genocide of the 20th century. The Germans created the first concentration camps against them. They killed more than 80% of the Herero.
- Secondly, the second category were military. They were called “bastards of the Rhine.” The Germans considered children between blacks and German women like dirt of the German race. They have not hesitated to sterilize.
- The third category is the black soldiers (France, America, Belgium) and citizens of the countries occupied by Germany. Many of them were resistant. They were captured and deported to concentration camps. One can quote for example Josephine Baker was an agent of resistance.
- The last category is a small number of black people from around the world who have settled in Germany in the 1920s, mainly of the show.
To conclude, all these examples show how black life was a living hell. They lived in constant fear. Many blacks were persecuted and deported to concentration camps and death camps. The fate was the same for all. Whether you’re black German by birth, fighters or American colonial troops, citizens of occupied countries, strong, you were housed in the same boat.
Feel free to see this documentary on Bile Blacks in Nazi camps! I also suggest you read books on black star Michelle Maillet, “Hitler’s Black Victims’ Clarence Lusane.
Source Usman.org / Serge Bile | 1,418 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How Popular was the English Church in 1529? (Political and economic power…
How Popular was the English Church in 1529?
Political and economic power of the church
monarch was dependent on the church
relied on the church to to give his position legitimacy- by behing anointed by the archbishop of Canterbury. Henry looked to head of the church to reinforce his authority to govern. also pope could excommunicate the monarch if he was a heretic or tyrant
also, socially, the king was dependent on the church in the sense that he was only known by a small circle of the nobility and not really known outside of that. However, church physical centre of each parish - and everyone knew eachother
English monarchs swore obedience to the pope in rome
popes in Rome claimed to the successors to saint peter- so saw themselves as powerful, legitimate and authoritative
church collected taxes which were sent to rome (tithes- which is 10% of common peoples wages no matter their financial state)
estimated in 1520- rome received about £4500 per year in taxation and religious fees from England. tithes could include crops, wool or even eggs- stored in tithes barn - intended to support poor and help priest but was often sold
the law of the church - canon law was decided by the pope and cardinals in rome
pope had enormous powers- could draw up non- secular laws which applied to all of Christendom
church courts which offered the right to appeal to Rome operated in England to try religious matters
Abbots and Bishops sat in the House of Lords with a right to determine secular legislation
churchmen gained great power and influence as church advisers
Henry's chancellor-= cardinal wolsey- he represented the links between the church and the state. - he was responsible for the day to day gov of the country. he had ultimate authority over the legal system. as cardinal- had loads of authority in church- as cardinals elect the pope. was the archbishop of York, and was legatus latere- had right to act on behalf of the pope (not in all things though)- clear that wolsey exploited position to enhance position further
each settlement had its own priest and parish church- had local authority and collected tithes from community
church had had authority over the whole population- it was church law that people attend services every Sunday- and could be tried and sentenced in the church courts
the importance of giving to the poor was constantly stressed- many of the poor in a parish were able to be supported by gifts of food and clothing from the wealthier people in the community
In most areas there would have been an abbey, monastery or priory (rural= abbeys), (urban =priories), (smaller ones= monasteries).= worked for communities to help with the poor and the sick and education especially for the sons of the gentry
the power of the church= huge and for many was more present than that of the monarch
church's property= greater than any King's. also church has its own legal system and its own system of taxation
beliefs of ordinary people in 1529
fear of eternity spent in hell= very real- with vivid images emphasised through the wall paintings and stained glass in the parish churches
main aim of people= reduce time in purgatory (immediate state after physical death) and wanted to go straight to heaven
masses for the dead, gifts to the church, membership of guilds- helped a persons name be remembered and prayers said to help the soul go straight from purgatory to heaven
pilgrimages =, getting indulgences, praying to saints and viewing holy relics=central to people's everyday lives. so attempts to challenge the doctrine of church- was to result in serious unrest, particularly in areas distant from london
Religious and Social Role of the Church
The Liturgical Year - the majoirty of feast days, holy days- were the days where the community would not work but would celebrate together. - e.g all saint days
Lay Religious Guilds - the wealthy were able to finance the building of personal chantry chapels where a priest would be employed to say masses for the individual or family- for the vast majorirty this was not possible- those who could affors to joined guilds which provided a priest and a chapel for all those who contributed to the common fund. many of these guilds were based on crafts but there were also fraternities which were open to both men and women. Guilds also cared for the living
main goal=to reduce time In purgatory- which could be done by earning indulgences- which might involve going on a pilgrimage or praying to a saint or touching the relics of a saint- wealthier people would sometimes pay people to go on pilgrimages for them.
it was believed that the saint would ask God to help a person on their behalf. Prayers were made to saints by people when they were alive and by relatives on their half when they were dead. also masses for the soul of the dead were believed to reduce the time a person spent in purgatory. Good works also involved giving gifts to the church as well.
transubstantiation= where the priest elevated the host and wine and through his prayers Catholics believed a transformation occured in which they became the body and blood of Christ. The laity would only take the bread once a year at Easter and would never take the wine, which was consumed only by the priest.
The Role of Priesthood- he was central to the spiritual lives of the members of the church. he was central to the forgiving of sins- through penance. also- most of the population were not able to read and write- so they relied on the priest to interpret the word of God- so was important that the priest was capable.
The Importance of Printing - growth of literacy amongst nobility, gentry and merchants- was the result of an increase in grammar schools- taught Latin grammar to the sons of Merchants and the gentry- so meant could read and write- was also encouraged by the growth of printing press and availability of books- meant that no longer did the wealthy have to sit down and listen to a priest reading the bible in church- they could have their own bible and pend time reading the word of God for themselves.. | <urn:uuid:81911857-5dbe-4fab-b620-91736a7d92ff> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://coggle.it/diagram/XDTbv3HdWwZMW0zP/t/how-popular-was-the-english-church-in-1529 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00137.warc.gz | en | 0.988667 | 1,317 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.1825984... | 2 | How Popular was the English Church in 1529? (Political and economic power…
How Popular was the English Church in 1529?
Political and economic power of the church
monarch was dependent on the church
relied on the church to to give his position legitimacy- by behing anointed by the archbishop of Canterbury. Henry looked to head of the church to reinforce his authority to govern. also pope could excommunicate the monarch if he was a heretic or tyrant
also, socially, the king was dependent on the church in the sense that he was only known by a small circle of the nobility and not really known outside of that. However, church physical centre of each parish - and everyone knew eachother
English monarchs swore obedience to the pope in rome
popes in Rome claimed to the successors to saint peter- so saw themselves as powerful, legitimate and authoritative
church collected taxes which were sent to rome (tithes- which is 10% of common peoples wages no matter their financial state)
estimated in 1520- rome received about £4500 per year in taxation and religious fees from England. tithes could include crops, wool or even eggs- stored in tithes barn - intended to support poor and help priest but was often sold
the law of the church - canon law was decided by the pope and cardinals in rome
pope had enormous powers- could draw up non- secular laws which applied to all of Christendom
church courts which offered the right to appeal to Rome operated in England to try religious matters
Abbots and Bishops sat in the House of Lords with a right to determine secular legislation
churchmen gained great power and influence as church advisers
Henry's chancellor-= cardinal wolsey- he represented the links between the church and the state. - he was responsible for the day to day gov of the country. he had ultimate authority over the legal system. as cardinal- had loads of authority in church- as cardinals elect the pope. was the archbishop of York, and was legatus latere- had right to act on behalf of the pope (not in all things though)- clear that wolsey exploited position to enhance position further
each settlement had its own priest and parish church- had local authority and collected tithes from community
church had had authority over the whole population- it was church law that people attend services every Sunday- and could be tried and sentenced in the church courts
the importance of giving to the poor was constantly stressed- many of the poor in a parish were able to be supported by gifts of food and clothing from the wealthier people in the community
In most areas there would have been an abbey, monastery or priory (rural= abbeys), (urban =priories), (smaller ones= monasteries).= worked for communities to help with the poor and the sick and education especially for the sons of the gentry
the power of the church= huge and for many was more present than that of the monarch
church's property= greater than any King's. also church has its own legal system and its own system of taxation
beliefs of ordinary people in 1529
fear of eternity spent in hell= very real- with vivid images emphasised through the wall paintings and stained glass in the parish churches
main aim of people= reduce time in purgatory (immediate state after physical death) and wanted to go straight to heaven
masses for the dead, gifts to the church, membership of guilds- helped a persons name be remembered and prayers said to help the soul go straight from purgatory to heaven
pilgrimages =, getting indulgences, praying to saints and viewing holy relics=central to people's everyday lives. so attempts to challenge the doctrine of church- was to result in serious unrest, particularly in areas distant from london
Religious and Social Role of the Church
The Liturgical Year - the majoirty of feast days, holy days- were the days where the community would not work but would celebrate together. - e.g all saint days
Lay Religious Guilds - the wealthy were able to finance the building of personal chantry chapels where a priest would be employed to say masses for the individual or family- for the vast majorirty this was not possible- those who could affors to joined guilds which provided a priest and a chapel for all those who contributed to the common fund. many of these guilds were based on crafts but there were also fraternities which were open to both men and women. Guilds also cared for the living
main goal=to reduce time In purgatory- which could be done by earning indulgences- which might involve going on a pilgrimage or praying to a saint or touching the relics of a saint- wealthier people would sometimes pay people to go on pilgrimages for them.
it was believed that the saint would ask God to help a person on their behalf. Prayers were made to saints by people when they were alive and by relatives on their half when they were dead. also masses for the soul of the dead were believed to reduce the time a person spent in purgatory. Good works also involved giving gifts to the church as well.
transubstantiation= where the priest elevated the host and wine and through his prayers Catholics believed a transformation occured in which they became the body and blood of Christ. The laity would only take the bread once a year at Easter and would never take the wine, which was consumed only by the priest.
The Role of Priesthood- he was central to the spiritual lives of the members of the church. he was central to the forgiving of sins- through penance. also- most of the population were not able to read and write- so they relied on the priest to interpret the word of God- so was important that the priest was capable.
The Importance of Printing - growth of literacy amongst nobility, gentry and merchants- was the result of an increase in grammar schools- taught Latin grammar to the sons of Merchants and the gentry- so meant could read and write- was also encouraged by the growth of printing press and availability of books- meant that no longer did the wealthy have to sit down and listen to a priest reading the bible in church- they could have their own bible and pend time reading the word of God for themselves.. | 1,326 | ENGLISH | 1 |
From 1965 until 1973, the United States of America was at war with the communist nation of North Vietnam. One of the darkest and most controversial time periods in American History, the involvement of the United States in Vietnam caused drastic cultural changes within the American nation.1 Americans commonly regard the war in Vietnam as a gruesome and brutal war that was a complete failure for the United States armed forces. The media's impact on American culture caused a rapid decrease in the approval of the war and resulted in a political and military defeat for the United States. One of the most significant aspects of this war that made it differ from other wars throughout American history was the lack of support from the American people. The American people reacted to the war in outrage and were the underlying cause for the failure in Vietnam. Beginning with protesting mainly on college campuses, the anti-war, or peace, movements escalated into violent acts in which innocent lives of young Americans were lost. .
The nation became very resentful of the US government and patriotism was rapidly diminishing within the United States. What is often not emphasized when talking about the peace movements of the 60's and 70's is the negative effect they had on the soldiers fighting overseas. With the nation split into two, war supporters and peace supporters, the progress in Vietnam became foggy and morale was weakening. A great deal of the anti-war movements were a result of the media's inaccurate portrayal of the war. The media and the government were sending mixed messages to the American people, creating confusion and loss of confidence in the Vietnam conflict. It was not long before the media had the American people resenting the war and anyone involved in it. The Tet offensive was arguably the most controversial incident that took place during the Vietnam War. .
The surprise attack on the United States Embassy in the city of Saigon on January 30th, 1968 was a major turning point in the war that was negatively affected by the media. | <urn:uuid:221f1a0f-8c9b-4b3e-bacd-2f278b61e6a7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/201566.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00476.warc.gz | en | 0.981038 | 387 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.2505457401275635... | 3 | From 1965 until 1973, the United States of America was at war with the communist nation of North Vietnam. One of the darkest and most controversial time periods in American History, the involvement of the United States in Vietnam caused drastic cultural changes within the American nation.1 Americans commonly regard the war in Vietnam as a gruesome and brutal war that was a complete failure for the United States armed forces. The media's impact on American culture caused a rapid decrease in the approval of the war and resulted in a political and military defeat for the United States. One of the most significant aspects of this war that made it differ from other wars throughout American history was the lack of support from the American people. The American people reacted to the war in outrage and were the underlying cause for the failure in Vietnam. Beginning with protesting mainly on college campuses, the anti-war, or peace, movements escalated into violent acts in which innocent lives of young Americans were lost. .
The nation became very resentful of the US government and patriotism was rapidly diminishing within the United States. What is often not emphasized when talking about the peace movements of the 60's and 70's is the negative effect they had on the soldiers fighting overseas. With the nation split into two, war supporters and peace supporters, the progress in Vietnam became foggy and morale was weakening. A great deal of the anti-war movements were a result of the media's inaccurate portrayal of the war. The media and the government were sending mixed messages to the American people, creating confusion and loss of confidence in the Vietnam conflict. It was not long before the media had the American people resenting the war and anyone involved in it. The Tet offensive was arguably the most controversial incident that took place during the Vietnam War. .
The surprise attack on the United States Embassy in the city of Saigon on January 30th, 1968 was a major turning point in the war that was negatively affected by the media. | 401 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A debate (kathojja or vivāda) is a formal discussion between two or more people holding opposing views conducted in a public forum. Unlike in ancient and medieval Christendom, Indian society has always been very tolerant in religious matters. The pros and cons of different teachings were aired at public debates and discussions and individuals were left to make up their own minds as to whether or not to believe. The Tipiṭaka and other sources give us a good idea of how these debates were conducted. If on being asked a legitimate question for a third time one could not answer, one was considered to have been defeated (M.I,231). Participants were expected to use recognized arguments and adhere to accepted procedures and an adjudicator (pañhavīmaṃsakā) made sure they did (Sn.827). To avoid answering a question by asking another question, to change the subject or to ridicule the questioner, was considered improper. Likewise, to shout down an opponent, catch him up when he hesitated or interrupt from the sidelines was also not allowed (A.I,197; M.II,168).
A teacher who held his own in debate would win honour and respect while the defeated had to slink away in shame. We have a description of a participant in a debate ‘reduced to silence , his head lowered, his eyes downcast, at a loss, unable to make a reply’ while the audience ‘assailed him on all sides with a torrent of abuse and poked fun at him’ (A.I,187). To have ‘one’s wings clipped’ (opakkhiṃ karoti, A.I1,88) in a debate could mean a teacher losing his prestige, his disciples and his supporters. Vague theologies and dreamy doctrines were soon subjected to cold reason , logical scrutiny and demands for evidence. Those that stood the test, like the Buddha ’s Dhamma , flourished, those that did not faded away.
With the stakes so high it is not surprising that these debates could get heated and sometimes even end in blows. It was probably for this reason that during the early part of his career the Buddha avoided such assemblies. He said: ‘Some debates are conducted in a spirit of hostility and some in a spirit of truth . Either way, the sage does not get involved.’ (Sn.780). As a consequence of this, the Buddha was accused of being unable to defend his ideas in the face of careful scrutiny. One critic said of him: ‘Who does the monk Gotama speak to? From whom does he get his lucidity of wisdom ? His wisdom is destroyed by living in solitude , he is unused to discussions, he is no good at speaking, he is completely out of touch. Just as an antelope circles around and keeps to the edges, so does the monk Gotama .’ (D.III,38). It seems that for a long time the Buddha was content to let his Dhamma speak for itself. But as people began to seek deeper explanations of it and it began to be criticized and even misrepresented, he was compelled to participate in public debates and discussions.
Very soon the Buddha earned a reputation for being able to explain his philosophy with great lucidity and to effectively defend it against criticism. He also began to subject the doctrines of others to hard questioning. So successful was he in confounding critics and converting the followers of other religions that he was even accused of using occult means to do this. Someone said of him: ‘The monk Gotama is a magician who uses magic to convert the disciples of others.’ (M.I,381). Of course, there was no truth in this claim. The only ‘magic’ the Buddha used was the appeal to common sense , reason and experience.
The Buddha ’s aim was never to defeat an opponent, silence a critic or ‘win’ disciples , but to lead people from ignorance to clarity and understanding. In one of the most heartfelt appeals he ever made he said: ‘I tell you this. Let an intelligent person who is sincere, honest and straightforward come to me and I will teach him Dhamma . If he practices as he is taught, within seven days and by his own knowledge and vision he will attain that holy life and goal .... Now you may think that I say this just to get disciples or to make you abandon your rules. But this is not so. Keep your teacher and continue to follow your rules. You may think that I say this so you will give up your way of life , follow things you consider bad or reject things you consider good. But this is not so. Live as you see fit and continue to reject things you consider bad and follow things you consider good. But there are states that are unskilful, defiled, leading to rebirth , fearful, causing distress and associated with birth, decay and death , and it is only for the overcoming of these things that I teach the Dhamma .’ (condensed, D.III,56).
Throughout history debates have had an important part to play in protecting and promoting Buddhism. The Samye Debate of 742 in Tibet between Kamalaśīla and Mahāyāna meant that the Indian rather than the Chinese interpretation of Dhamma became dominant in that country. The most significant debate of recent times took place in Panadura in Sri Lanka in 1873 between Venerable M. Guṇānanda and the Wesleyan missionary Reverend David de Silva. The former’s decisive victory gave Buddhists a renewed confidence in themselves and their religion and marked the beginning of a revival of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. | <urn:uuid:2c618636-ef17-4ca9-bb06-7dd26dc1b59b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://chinabuddhismencyclopedia.com/en/index.php?title=Debates | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00492.warc.gz | en | 0.982843 | 1,184 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.5279359817504... | 12 | A debate (kathojja or vivāda) is a formal discussion between two or more people holding opposing views conducted in a public forum. Unlike in ancient and medieval Christendom, Indian society has always been very tolerant in religious matters. The pros and cons of different teachings were aired at public debates and discussions and individuals were left to make up their own minds as to whether or not to believe. The Tipiṭaka and other sources give us a good idea of how these debates were conducted. If on being asked a legitimate question for a third time one could not answer, one was considered to have been defeated (M.I,231). Participants were expected to use recognized arguments and adhere to accepted procedures and an adjudicator (pañhavīmaṃsakā) made sure they did (Sn.827). To avoid answering a question by asking another question, to change the subject or to ridicule the questioner, was considered improper. Likewise, to shout down an opponent, catch him up when he hesitated or interrupt from the sidelines was also not allowed (A.I,197; M.II,168).
A teacher who held his own in debate would win honour and respect while the defeated had to slink away in shame. We have a description of a participant in a debate ‘reduced to silence , his head lowered, his eyes downcast, at a loss, unable to make a reply’ while the audience ‘assailed him on all sides with a torrent of abuse and poked fun at him’ (A.I,187). To have ‘one’s wings clipped’ (opakkhiṃ karoti, A.I1,88) in a debate could mean a teacher losing his prestige, his disciples and his supporters. Vague theologies and dreamy doctrines were soon subjected to cold reason , logical scrutiny and demands for evidence. Those that stood the test, like the Buddha ’s Dhamma , flourished, those that did not faded away.
With the stakes so high it is not surprising that these debates could get heated and sometimes even end in blows. It was probably for this reason that during the early part of his career the Buddha avoided such assemblies. He said: ‘Some debates are conducted in a spirit of hostility and some in a spirit of truth . Either way, the sage does not get involved.’ (Sn.780). As a consequence of this, the Buddha was accused of being unable to defend his ideas in the face of careful scrutiny. One critic said of him: ‘Who does the monk Gotama speak to? From whom does he get his lucidity of wisdom ? His wisdom is destroyed by living in solitude , he is unused to discussions, he is no good at speaking, he is completely out of touch. Just as an antelope circles around and keeps to the edges, so does the monk Gotama .’ (D.III,38). It seems that for a long time the Buddha was content to let his Dhamma speak for itself. But as people began to seek deeper explanations of it and it began to be criticized and even misrepresented, he was compelled to participate in public debates and discussions.
Very soon the Buddha earned a reputation for being able to explain his philosophy with great lucidity and to effectively defend it against criticism. He also began to subject the doctrines of others to hard questioning. So successful was he in confounding critics and converting the followers of other religions that he was even accused of using occult means to do this. Someone said of him: ‘The monk Gotama is a magician who uses magic to convert the disciples of others.’ (M.I,381). Of course, there was no truth in this claim. The only ‘magic’ the Buddha used was the appeal to common sense , reason and experience.
The Buddha ’s aim was never to defeat an opponent, silence a critic or ‘win’ disciples , but to lead people from ignorance to clarity and understanding. In one of the most heartfelt appeals he ever made he said: ‘I tell you this. Let an intelligent person who is sincere, honest and straightforward come to me and I will teach him Dhamma . If he practices as he is taught, within seven days and by his own knowledge and vision he will attain that holy life and goal .... Now you may think that I say this just to get disciples or to make you abandon your rules. But this is not so. Keep your teacher and continue to follow your rules. You may think that I say this so you will give up your way of life , follow things you consider bad or reject things you consider good. But this is not so. Live as you see fit and continue to reject things you consider bad and follow things you consider good. But there are states that are unskilful, defiled, leading to rebirth , fearful, causing distress and associated with birth, decay and death , and it is only for the overcoming of these things that I teach the Dhamma .’ (condensed, D.III,56).
Throughout history debates have had an important part to play in protecting and promoting Buddhism. The Samye Debate of 742 in Tibet between Kamalaśīla and Mahāyāna meant that the Indian rather than the Chinese interpretation of Dhamma became dominant in that country. The most significant debate of recent times took place in Panadura in Sri Lanka in 1873 between Venerable M. Guṇānanda and the Wesleyan missionary Reverend David de Silva. The former’s decisive victory gave Buddhists a renewed confidence in themselves and their religion and marked the beginning of a revival of Buddhism in Sri Lanka. | 1,166 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When the Franciscan and inquisitor Felice Peretti was elected pope in 1585, the Pontifical States were on the verge of moral and financial bankruptcy. Chaos, lawlessness and crime were everyday occurrences. As Pope Sixtus V (1585-1590), Peretti cleaned up with an iron hand and whipped the Papal States into shape. The financial misery he fought by cost-cutting measures, by taxes, and by the outsourcing of church activities. Sixtus' measures were so efficient that he succeeded to accumulate a fortune during his relatively short pontificate. Towards the end of his life, the Pope was one of the wealthiest rulers in Europe. In 1588, Sixtus introduced a new coin, the piastra. The coin's reverse showed Saint Francis of Assisi being inflicted with wounds on his hands and feet. The obverse bore the portrait of the pope. | <urn:uuid:122cb2ae-24af-4565-9a77-59ecdde08a43> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://moneymuseum.com/en/coins?id=748 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00306.warc.gz | en | 0.983594 | 184 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.464959710... | 15 | When the Franciscan and inquisitor Felice Peretti was elected pope in 1585, the Pontifical States were on the verge of moral and financial bankruptcy. Chaos, lawlessness and crime were everyday occurrences. As Pope Sixtus V (1585-1590), Peretti cleaned up with an iron hand and whipped the Papal States into shape. The financial misery he fought by cost-cutting measures, by taxes, and by the outsourcing of church activities. Sixtus' measures were so efficient that he succeeded to accumulate a fortune during his relatively short pontificate. Towards the end of his life, the Pope was one of the wealthiest rulers in Europe. In 1588, Sixtus introduced a new coin, the piastra. The coin's reverse showed Saint Francis of Assisi being inflicted with wounds on his hands and feet. The obverse bore the portrait of the pope. | 194 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Facts about IrenaThe facts above are all taken from Irena, child survivors, or other primary sources...
Facts about Irena which are not generally known. All of these are from primary sources.
Irena Sendler was born as Irena Krzyżanowska on 15 February 1910 in Warsaw to Dr. Stanisław Krzyżanowski, a physician, and his wife, Janina. Her father died in February 1917 from typhus contracted while treating patients whom his colleagues refused to treat in fear of contracting the disease, among them many Jews. After his death, Jewish community leaders offered her mother help in paying for Sendler’s education. Sendler studied Polish literature at Warsaw University. She opposed the ghetto-bench system that existed at some prewar Polish universities and defaced her grade card. As a result of her public protest she was suspended from the University of Warsaw for three years.
Irena was born in Warsaw in 1910, but she grew up in the town of Otwock, Poland.
Irena’s nameday is October 20, while her birthday is February 15.
Irena’s great grandfather led a rebellion against the Czars.
Browse our photo gallery for a photo and information on Irena’s mother and father.
Irena was an only child, but she had a son and a daughter. Her daughter, Janka,still lives in Warsaw, Poland, and her son Adam passed away in 1999 (interestingly enough, the day the Life in a Jar project started on September 23rd). Adam’s daughter, Irena’s granddaughter Agniesa, is the same age as the girls who started the Life in a Jar project.
As early as 1939, when the Germans invaded Warsaw, Irena began helping Jews by offering them food and shelter.
When the Warsaw Ghetto was erected in 1940, Irena could no longer help isolated Jews. The Ghetto was an area the size of New York’s Central Park and 450,000 Jewish people were forced into this area.
Once the Warsaw Ghetto was formed, she started by saving the orphan children.
Irena used her papers as a Polish social worker and papers from one of the workers of the Contagious Disease Department (who was a member of the underground Zegota) to enter the Warsaw Ghetto.
Irena and her helpers made over 3,000 false documents to help Jewish families before she joined Zegota and the children’s division.
Irena was in charge of the Children’s Division of Zegota (a Polish underground group to assist Jewish people).
From Anna Krzyzewska, who is the daughter of Mrs. Maria Kukulska (Anna’s mother helped care for Irena’s children after they left the Ghetto, before they were placed) : Irena Sendlerowa was not only very active in saving Jewish children but also in resistance against the Germans. “She was frequently at our apartment.”
Irena used the old courthouse on the edge of the Warsaw Ghetto (still standing) as one of the main routes of smuggling children out.
Irena Sendlerowa was a Polish woman who, along with her underground network, rescued 2,500 Jewish children in Poland during World War II. Many of this number were already outside of the Ghetto and in hiding.
Irena and the ten who went with her into the ghetto, used many, many methods to smuggle children out. There were five main means of escape: 1 – using an ambulance a child could be taken out hidden under the stretcher. 2 – escape through the courthouse. 3 – a child could be taken out using the sewer pipes or other secret underground passages. 4 – A trolley could carry out children hiding in a sack, in a trunk, a suitcase or something similar. 5 – if a child could pretend to be sick or was actually very ill, it could be legally removed using the ambulance. ****Irena did use a dog on occasion, but very few times out of the many rescues. Also, the number of babies saved was small in relation to the total number of children rescued.
There was a church next to the ghetto, but the entrance leading to it was “sealed” by the Germans. If a child could speak good Polish and rattle off some Christian prayers it could be smuggled in through the “sealed” entrance and later taken to the Aryan side. This was very dangerous since Germans often used a rouse to trick the Poles and then arrest.
Irena and her network made sure that each family hiding a child realized the child must be returned to Jewish relatives after the war.
Irena (code name Jolanta) was arrested on October 20, 1943. When arrested she felt almost liberated. She was placed in the notorious Piawiak prison, where she was constantly questioned and tortured. During the questioning she had her legs and feet fractured.
The German who interrogated her was young, very stylish and spoke perfect Polish. He wanted the names of the Zegota leaders, their addresses and the names of others involved. Irena fed him the version that she and her collaborators had prepared in the event they were captured. The German held up a folder with information of places, times and persons who had informed on her. She received a death sentence. She was to be shot. Unbeknown to her, Zegota had bribed the German executioner who helped her escape. On the following day the Germans loudly proclaimed her execution. Posters were put up all over the city with the news that she was shot. Irena read the posters herself.
During the remaining years of the war, she lived hidden, just like the children she rescued. Irena was the only one who knew where the children were to be found. When the war was finally over, she dug up the bottles and began the job of finding the children and trying to find a living parent.
Almost all the parents of the children Irena saved, died at the Treblinka death camp.
“The names of the saved children I wrote down on thin tissue paper.”
‘Life in a Jar’ started as a National History Day project in September of 1999. Four students (Megan Stewart, Liz Cambers, Sabrina Coons and Jessica Shelton) began looking for information about Irena Sendler. Mr. Conard had given them a clipping he had found in a 1994 issue of U.S. News and World Report. The mention of Irena was in a story called “Other Schindlers.” Only 1 web site on the Internet mentioned Irena, it was not until the students visited Poland in 2001 that Irena’s story became known to the world. At last count there were over 750,000 web sites on the Internet mentioning Irena.
When Irena first heard about the project in Kansas, “I was stunned and fascinated; very, very suprised; interested.” In one of Irena’s first letters to the girls, she wrote, “My emotion is being shadowed by the fact that no one from the circle of my faithful coworkers, who constantly risked their lives, could live long enough to enjoy all the honors that now are falling upon me…. I can’t find the words to thank you, my dear girls…. Before the day you have written the play “Life in a Jar” — nobody in my own country and in the whole world cared about my person and my work during the war …”
The students of the ‘Life in a Jar’ project have gathered over 4,000 pages of primary material and research on the life of Irena Sendler and work of Zegota.
Irena’s story became known to the world through the Life in a Jar project. The author of the Polish book which features Irena’s life story says, “Everybody I talked to in working on this book, said that international and Polish interest in Irena Sendler’s activities was begun and provoked by the activities of the Kansas girls and popularization in the American media.”
Irena Sendler was announced as the 2003 winner of the Jan Karski award for Valor and Courage. The announcement was made on July 24, 2003 and the awards ceremony was on October 23, 2003 in Washington, D.C.
Be careful about Internet facts concerning Irena. snopes.com has much incorrect information. The Life in a Jar cast has gathered over 4,000 pages and thousands of hours of primary research and interviews. | <urn:uuid:1f3d74ac-2b9f-4809-b16e-dbb3ccf93316> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://irenasendler.org/facts-about-irena/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00525.warc.gz | en | 0.981437 | 1,844 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.46181124448... | 27 | Facts about IrenaThe facts above are all taken from Irena, child survivors, or other primary sources...
Facts about Irena which are not generally known. All of these are from primary sources.
Irena Sendler was born as Irena Krzyżanowska on 15 February 1910 in Warsaw to Dr. Stanisław Krzyżanowski, a physician, and his wife, Janina. Her father died in February 1917 from typhus contracted while treating patients whom his colleagues refused to treat in fear of contracting the disease, among them many Jews. After his death, Jewish community leaders offered her mother help in paying for Sendler’s education. Sendler studied Polish literature at Warsaw University. She opposed the ghetto-bench system that existed at some prewar Polish universities and defaced her grade card. As a result of her public protest she was suspended from the University of Warsaw for three years.
Irena was born in Warsaw in 1910, but she grew up in the town of Otwock, Poland.
Irena’s nameday is October 20, while her birthday is February 15.
Irena’s great grandfather led a rebellion against the Czars.
Browse our photo gallery for a photo and information on Irena’s mother and father.
Irena was an only child, but she had a son and a daughter. Her daughter, Janka,still lives in Warsaw, Poland, and her son Adam passed away in 1999 (interestingly enough, the day the Life in a Jar project started on September 23rd). Adam’s daughter, Irena’s granddaughter Agniesa, is the same age as the girls who started the Life in a Jar project.
As early as 1939, when the Germans invaded Warsaw, Irena began helping Jews by offering them food and shelter.
When the Warsaw Ghetto was erected in 1940, Irena could no longer help isolated Jews. The Ghetto was an area the size of New York’s Central Park and 450,000 Jewish people were forced into this area.
Once the Warsaw Ghetto was formed, she started by saving the orphan children.
Irena used her papers as a Polish social worker and papers from one of the workers of the Contagious Disease Department (who was a member of the underground Zegota) to enter the Warsaw Ghetto.
Irena and her helpers made over 3,000 false documents to help Jewish families before she joined Zegota and the children’s division.
Irena was in charge of the Children’s Division of Zegota (a Polish underground group to assist Jewish people).
From Anna Krzyzewska, who is the daughter of Mrs. Maria Kukulska (Anna’s mother helped care for Irena’s children after they left the Ghetto, before they were placed) : Irena Sendlerowa was not only very active in saving Jewish children but also in resistance against the Germans. “She was frequently at our apartment.”
Irena used the old courthouse on the edge of the Warsaw Ghetto (still standing) as one of the main routes of smuggling children out.
Irena Sendlerowa was a Polish woman who, along with her underground network, rescued 2,500 Jewish children in Poland during World War II. Many of this number were already outside of the Ghetto and in hiding.
Irena and the ten who went with her into the ghetto, used many, many methods to smuggle children out. There were five main means of escape: 1 – using an ambulance a child could be taken out hidden under the stretcher. 2 – escape through the courthouse. 3 – a child could be taken out using the sewer pipes or other secret underground passages. 4 – A trolley could carry out children hiding in a sack, in a trunk, a suitcase or something similar. 5 – if a child could pretend to be sick or was actually very ill, it could be legally removed using the ambulance. ****Irena did use a dog on occasion, but very few times out of the many rescues. Also, the number of babies saved was small in relation to the total number of children rescued.
There was a church next to the ghetto, but the entrance leading to it was “sealed” by the Germans. If a child could speak good Polish and rattle off some Christian prayers it could be smuggled in through the “sealed” entrance and later taken to the Aryan side. This was very dangerous since Germans often used a rouse to trick the Poles and then arrest.
Irena and her network made sure that each family hiding a child realized the child must be returned to Jewish relatives after the war.
Irena (code name Jolanta) was arrested on October 20, 1943. When arrested she felt almost liberated. She was placed in the notorious Piawiak prison, where she was constantly questioned and tortured. During the questioning she had her legs and feet fractured.
The German who interrogated her was young, very stylish and spoke perfect Polish. He wanted the names of the Zegota leaders, their addresses and the names of others involved. Irena fed him the version that she and her collaborators had prepared in the event they were captured. The German held up a folder with information of places, times and persons who had informed on her. She received a death sentence. She was to be shot. Unbeknown to her, Zegota had bribed the German executioner who helped her escape. On the following day the Germans loudly proclaimed her execution. Posters were put up all over the city with the news that she was shot. Irena read the posters herself.
During the remaining years of the war, she lived hidden, just like the children she rescued. Irena was the only one who knew where the children were to be found. When the war was finally over, she dug up the bottles and began the job of finding the children and trying to find a living parent.
Almost all the parents of the children Irena saved, died at the Treblinka death camp.
“The names of the saved children I wrote down on thin tissue paper.”
‘Life in a Jar’ started as a National History Day project in September of 1999. Four students (Megan Stewart, Liz Cambers, Sabrina Coons and Jessica Shelton) began looking for information about Irena Sendler. Mr. Conard had given them a clipping he had found in a 1994 issue of U.S. News and World Report. The mention of Irena was in a story called “Other Schindlers.” Only 1 web site on the Internet mentioned Irena, it was not until the students visited Poland in 2001 that Irena’s story became known to the world. At last count there were over 750,000 web sites on the Internet mentioning Irena.
When Irena first heard about the project in Kansas, “I was stunned and fascinated; very, very suprised; interested.” In one of Irena’s first letters to the girls, she wrote, “My emotion is being shadowed by the fact that no one from the circle of my faithful coworkers, who constantly risked their lives, could live long enough to enjoy all the honors that now are falling upon me…. I can’t find the words to thank you, my dear girls…. Before the day you have written the play “Life in a Jar” — nobody in my own country and in the whole world cared about my person and my work during the war …”
The students of the ‘Life in a Jar’ project have gathered over 4,000 pages of primary material and research on the life of Irena Sendler and work of Zegota.
Irena’s story became known to the world through the Life in a Jar project. The author of the Polish book which features Irena’s life story says, “Everybody I talked to in working on this book, said that international and Polish interest in Irena Sendler’s activities was begun and provoked by the activities of the Kansas girls and popularization in the American media.”
Irena Sendler was announced as the 2003 winner of the Jan Karski award for Valor and Courage. The announcement was made on July 24, 2003 and the awards ceremony was on October 23, 2003 in Washington, D.C.
Be careful about Internet facts concerning Irena. snopes.com has much incorrect information. The Life in a Jar cast has gathered over 4,000 pages and thousands of hours of primary research and interviews. | 1,800 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Candles and lanterns were the only sources of light when electricity was not yet invented. Candleholders were used to hold candles. Candleholders can be classified according to purpose: everyday use, ceremonial use, and portable use. Everyday candleholders came in various shapes and many ornaments. Large candleholders were mostly used for palace ceremonies, and they had simple, moderate ornaments. Portable ones were made so they could be moved from one place to another place; some had legs, and others had no legs, but all were made with handles for easy portability. Most candleholders were made of bronze during the Goryeo Dynasty, but a silver inlay over the metal surface became popular during the late Joseon Dynasty. This candleholder was also made of silver and bronze with engravings of deer, pine trees, and other patterns that signified long life and good fortune. A verse of a poem that was engraved with silver inlay on a reflective plate added uniqueness to a candleholder. Today, candleholders are mostly used in interior design or as decoration, for beautification. Artist Mi Hee Hwang’s ‘Beauty Series’ presents white candleholders that are inspired by traditional Korean houses. Beautiful curves from traditional Korean houses, coupled with the pale white color of white porcelain, are modern yet beautiful in the Korean sense. | <urn:uuid:c3817657-eacc-42ba-b4db-77d526b4adc2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sulwhasoo.com/my/en/experience/magazine/1209347_4971.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00136.warc.gz | en | 0.983487 | 276 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.3518477678298... | 3 | Candles and lanterns were the only sources of light when electricity was not yet invented. Candleholders were used to hold candles. Candleholders can be classified according to purpose: everyday use, ceremonial use, and portable use. Everyday candleholders came in various shapes and many ornaments. Large candleholders were mostly used for palace ceremonies, and they had simple, moderate ornaments. Portable ones were made so they could be moved from one place to another place; some had legs, and others had no legs, but all were made with handles for easy portability. Most candleholders were made of bronze during the Goryeo Dynasty, but a silver inlay over the metal surface became popular during the late Joseon Dynasty. This candleholder was also made of silver and bronze with engravings of deer, pine trees, and other patterns that signified long life and good fortune. A verse of a poem that was engraved with silver inlay on a reflective plate added uniqueness to a candleholder. Today, candleholders are mostly used in interior design or as decoration, for beautification. Artist Mi Hee Hwang’s ‘Beauty Series’ presents white candleholders that are inspired by traditional Korean houses. Beautiful curves from traditional Korean houses, coupled with the pale white color of white porcelain, are modern yet beautiful in the Korean sense. | 265 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|A Young People’s History of the United States
By Howard Zinn
Adapted by Rebecca Stefoff
The Arawaks’ Impossible Task:
THE ARAWAK INDIANS who greeted Columbus lived in villages and practiced agriculture. Unlike the Europeans, they had no horses or other work animals, and they had no iron. What they did have was tiny gold ornaments in their ears. Those little ornaments shaped history. Because of them, Columbus started his relationship with the Indians by taking prisoners, thinking that they could lead him to the source of the gold. He sailed to several other Caribbean islands, including Hispaniola, an island now divided between two countries, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. After one of Columbus’s ships ran aground, he used wood from the wreck to build a fort in Haiti.
Then he sailed back to Spain With news of his discovery, leaving thirty-nine crewmen at the fort. Their orders were to find and store the gold. The report Columbus made to the royal spanish court was part fact, part fiction. He claimed to have reached Asia, and he called the Arawaks “Indians," meaning people of the Indies. The islands Columbus had visited must be off the ‘left’ Bartolome de Las Casas coast of China, he said.
Hispaniola is a miracle. Mountains and hills, plains and pastures, are both fertile and beautiful . . . the harbors are unbelievably good and there are many wide rivers of which the majority contain gold. . . . There are many spices, and great mines of gold and other metals.
If the king and queen would give him just a little more help, Columbus said, he would make another voyage. This time he would come back to Spain with “as much gold as they need . . . and as many slaves as they ask.”
Columbus’s promises won him seventeen ships and more than 1,200 men for his second expedition. The aim was clear: slaves and gold. They went from island to island in the Caribbean, capturing Indians. But as word spread among the Indians, the Spaniards found more and more empty villages. When they got to Haiti, they found that the sailors left behind at the fort were dead.
The sailors had roamed the island in gangs looking for gold, taking women and children as slaves, until the Indians had killed them in a battle. Columbus’s men searched Haiti for gold, with no success. They had to fill up the ships returning to Spain with something, so in I49 5 they went on a great slave raid. Afterward, they picked five hundred captives to send to Spain. Two hundred of the Indians died on the voyage. The rest arrived alive in Spain and were put up for sale by a local church oflicial. Columbus, who was full of religious talk, later wrote, Let us in the name of the Holy Trinity go on sending all the slaves that can be sold.”
But too many slaves died in captivity. Columbuswas desperate to show a profit on his voyages. He had to make good on his promises to fill the ships with gold. In a part of Haiti where Columbus and his men imagined there was much gold, they ordered everyone over the age of thirteen to collect gold for them. Indians who did not give gold to the Spaniards had their hands cut off and bled to death. The Indians had been given an impossible task. The only gold around was bits of gold dust in streams. So they ran away. The Spaniards hunted them down with dogs and ldlled them. When they took prisoners, they hanged them or burned them to death. Unable to fight against the Spanish soldiers’ guns, swords, arrnor, and horses, the Arawaks began to commit mass suicide with poison. When the Spanish Search for gold began, there were a quarter of a million Indians on Haiti.
In two years, through murder or suicide, half them were dead. When it was clear that there was no gold left, the Indians were enslaved on the Spaniards’ huge estates. They were overworked and mistreated, and they died by the thousands. By 1550, only five hundred Indians remained. A century later, no Arawaks were left on the island.
Telling Columbus’s Story
WE KNOW WHAT HAPPENED ON THE Caribbean islands after Columbus came because of Bartolomé de Las Casas. He Was a young priest who helped the Spanish conquer Cuba. For a while he owned a plantation Where Indian slaves worked. But then Las Casas gave up his plantation and spoke out against Spanish cruelty. Las Casas made a copy of Columbus’s journal, and he also wrote a book called History of the Indies. In this book, he described the Indians’ society and their customs. He also told how the Spaniards treated the Indians:
As for the newly born, they died early because their mothers, overworked and famished [starving], had no milk to nurse them, and for this reason, while I was in Cuba, 7,000 children died in three months. Some mothers even drowned their babies from sheer desperation. . . . In this way, husbands died in the mines, wives died at work, and children died from lack of milk. . . . My eyes have seen these acts so foreign to human nature, and now I tremble as I write.
This was the start of the history of Europeans in the Americas. It was a history of conquest, slavery, and death. But for a long time, the history books given to children in the United States told a different story-a tale of heroic adventure, not bloodshed. The way the story is taught to young people is just beginning to change.
The story of Columbus and the Indians shows us something about how history gets written. One of the most famous historians to write about Columbus was Samuel Eliot Morison. He even sailed across the Atlantic Ocean himself, retracing Columbus’s route. In 1954 Morison published a popular book called Christopher Columbus, Mariner. He said that cruel treatment by Columbus and the Europeans who came after him caused the “complete genocide” of the Indians. Genocide is a harsh word. It is the name of a terrible crime-the deliberate killing of an entire ethnic or cultural group. Morison did not lie about Columbus. He did not leave out the mass murder. But he mentioned the truth quickly and then went on to other things, By burying the fact of genocide in a lot of other information, he seemed to be saying that the mass murder wasn’t very important in the big picture. By making genocide seem like a small part of the story, he took away its power to make us think differently about Columbus. At the end of the book, Morison summed up his idea of Columbus as a great man. Columbus’s most important quality, Morison said, was his seamanship. A historian must pick and choose among facts, deciding which ones to put into his or her work, which ones to leave out, and which ones to place at the center of the story. Every historian’s own ideas and beliefs go into the way he or she writes history. In turn, the way history is written can shape the ideas and beliefs of the people who read it. A view of history like Morison’s, a picture of the past that sees Columbus and others like him great sailors and discoverers, but says almost nothing about their genocide, can make it seem as though what they did was right.
People who write and read history have gotten used to seeing terrible things such as conquest and murder as the price of progress. This is because many of them think that history is the story of governments, conquerors, and leaders. In this way of looking at the past, history is what happens to states, or nations. The actors in history are kings, presidents, and generals. But what about factory workers, farmers, people of color, women, and children? They make history, too.
The story of any country includes fierce conflicts between conquerors and the conquered, masters and slaves, people with power and those without power. Writing history is always a matter of taking sides. For example, I choose to tell the story of the discovery of America from the point of. View of the Arawaks. I will tell the story of the U.S.
Constitution from the point of view of the slaves, and the story of the Civil War from the point of view of the Irish in New York City.
I believe that history can help us imagine new possibilities for the future. One way it can do this is by letting us see the hidden parts of the past, the times when people showed that they could resist the powerful, or join together. Maybe our future can be found in the past’s moments of kindness and courage rather than its centuries of warfare. That is my approach to the history of the United States, which started with the meeting between Columbus and the Arawaks. | <urn:uuid:92403df1-3fb6-47ab-bf8f-20611c1d1c2f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://essaydocs.org/a-young-peoples-history-of-the-united-states-by-howard-zinn.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00344.warc.gz | en | 0.983254 | 1,872 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.351026296615... | 1 | |A Young People’s History of the United States
By Howard Zinn
Adapted by Rebecca Stefoff
The Arawaks’ Impossible Task:
THE ARAWAK INDIANS who greeted Columbus lived in villages and practiced agriculture. Unlike the Europeans, they had no horses or other work animals, and they had no iron. What they did have was tiny gold ornaments in their ears. Those little ornaments shaped history. Because of them, Columbus started his relationship with the Indians by taking prisoners, thinking that they could lead him to the source of the gold. He sailed to several other Caribbean islands, including Hispaniola, an island now divided between two countries, Haiti and the Dominican Republic. After one of Columbus’s ships ran aground, he used wood from the wreck to build a fort in Haiti.
Then he sailed back to Spain With news of his discovery, leaving thirty-nine crewmen at the fort. Their orders were to find and store the gold. The report Columbus made to the royal spanish court was part fact, part fiction. He claimed to have reached Asia, and he called the Arawaks “Indians," meaning people of the Indies. The islands Columbus had visited must be off the ‘left’ Bartolome de Las Casas coast of China, he said.
Hispaniola is a miracle. Mountains and hills, plains and pastures, are both fertile and beautiful . . . the harbors are unbelievably good and there are many wide rivers of which the majority contain gold. . . . There are many spices, and great mines of gold and other metals.
If the king and queen would give him just a little more help, Columbus said, he would make another voyage. This time he would come back to Spain with “as much gold as they need . . . and as many slaves as they ask.”
Columbus’s promises won him seventeen ships and more than 1,200 men for his second expedition. The aim was clear: slaves and gold. They went from island to island in the Caribbean, capturing Indians. But as word spread among the Indians, the Spaniards found more and more empty villages. When they got to Haiti, they found that the sailors left behind at the fort were dead.
The sailors had roamed the island in gangs looking for gold, taking women and children as slaves, until the Indians had killed them in a battle. Columbus’s men searched Haiti for gold, with no success. They had to fill up the ships returning to Spain with something, so in I49 5 they went on a great slave raid. Afterward, they picked five hundred captives to send to Spain. Two hundred of the Indians died on the voyage. The rest arrived alive in Spain and were put up for sale by a local church oflicial. Columbus, who was full of religious talk, later wrote, Let us in the name of the Holy Trinity go on sending all the slaves that can be sold.”
But too many slaves died in captivity. Columbuswas desperate to show a profit on his voyages. He had to make good on his promises to fill the ships with gold. In a part of Haiti where Columbus and his men imagined there was much gold, they ordered everyone over the age of thirteen to collect gold for them. Indians who did not give gold to the Spaniards had their hands cut off and bled to death. The Indians had been given an impossible task. The only gold around was bits of gold dust in streams. So they ran away. The Spaniards hunted them down with dogs and ldlled them. When they took prisoners, they hanged them or burned them to death. Unable to fight against the Spanish soldiers’ guns, swords, arrnor, and horses, the Arawaks began to commit mass suicide with poison. When the Spanish Search for gold began, there were a quarter of a million Indians on Haiti.
In two years, through murder or suicide, half them were dead. When it was clear that there was no gold left, the Indians were enslaved on the Spaniards’ huge estates. They were overworked and mistreated, and they died by the thousands. By 1550, only five hundred Indians remained. A century later, no Arawaks were left on the island.
Telling Columbus’s Story
WE KNOW WHAT HAPPENED ON THE Caribbean islands after Columbus came because of Bartolomé de Las Casas. He Was a young priest who helped the Spanish conquer Cuba. For a while he owned a plantation Where Indian slaves worked. But then Las Casas gave up his plantation and spoke out against Spanish cruelty. Las Casas made a copy of Columbus’s journal, and he also wrote a book called History of the Indies. In this book, he described the Indians’ society and their customs. He also told how the Spaniards treated the Indians:
As for the newly born, they died early because their mothers, overworked and famished [starving], had no milk to nurse them, and for this reason, while I was in Cuba, 7,000 children died in three months. Some mothers even drowned their babies from sheer desperation. . . . In this way, husbands died in the mines, wives died at work, and children died from lack of milk. . . . My eyes have seen these acts so foreign to human nature, and now I tremble as I write.
This was the start of the history of Europeans in the Americas. It was a history of conquest, slavery, and death. But for a long time, the history books given to children in the United States told a different story-a tale of heroic adventure, not bloodshed. The way the story is taught to young people is just beginning to change.
The story of Columbus and the Indians shows us something about how history gets written. One of the most famous historians to write about Columbus was Samuel Eliot Morison. He even sailed across the Atlantic Ocean himself, retracing Columbus’s route. In 1954 Morison published a popular book called Christopher Columbus, Mariner. He said that cruel treatment by Columbus and the Europeans who came after him caused the “complete genocide” of the Indians. Genocide is a harsh word. It is the name of a terrible crime-the deliberate killing of an entire ethnic or cultural group. Morison did not lie about Columbus. He did not leave out the mass murder. But he mentioned the truth quickly and then went on to other things, By burying the fact of genocide in a lot of other information, he seemed to be saying that the mass murder wasn’t very important in the big picture. By making genocide seem like a small part of the story, he took away its power to make us think differently about Columbus. At the end of the book, Morison summed up his idea of Columbus as a great man. Columbus’s most important quality, Morison said, was his seamanship. A historian must pick and choose among facts, deciding which ones to put into his or her work, which ones to leave out, and which ones to place at the center of the story. Every historian’s own ideas and beliefs go into the way he or she writes history. In turn, the way history is written can shape the ideas and beliefs of the people who read it. A view of history like Morison’s, a picture of the past that sees Columbus and others like him great sailors and discoverers, but says almost nothing about their genocide, can make it seem as though what they did was right.
People who write and read history have gotten used to seeing terrible things such as conquest and murder as the price of progress. This is because many of them think that history is the story of governments, conquerors, and leaders. In this way of looking at the past, history is what happens to states, or nations. The actors in history are kings, presidents, and generals. But what about factory workers, farmers, people of color, women, and children? They make history, too.
The story of any country includes fierce conflicts between conquerors and the conquered, masters and slaves, people with power and those without power. Writing history is always a matter of taking sides. For example, I choose to tell the story of the discovery of America from the point of. View of the Arawaks. I will tell the story of the U.S.
Constitution from the point of view of the slaves, and the story of the Civil War from the point of view of the Irish in New York City.
I believe that history can help us imagine new possibilities for the future. One way it can do this is by letting us see the hidden parts of the past, the times when people showed that they could resist the powerful, or join together. Maybe our future can be found in the past’s moments of kindness and courage rather than its centuries of warfare. That is my approach to the history of the United States, which started with the meeting between Columbus and the Arawaks. | 1,831 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The official money of Switzerland is called the Swiss Franc. Campione d’Italia and Liechtenstein likewise recognize the Swiss Franc as its national currency. The SNB is the entity that is authorized to produce the bank notes of the Franc. SNB is the abbreviation for Swiss National Bank. However, it is the Swiss mint which produces the coins.
Table Of Contents
A Brief History
The Franc’s currency code is CHF. Have you ever wondered what CHF means? CHF stands for Confoederatio Helvetica. You might come across banks that refer to the Swiss Franc as SFr and the shorter Fr. If you look at the coins closely, you will note that the inscriptions are in Latin.
1798 and the Helvetic Republic
During this period, a total of 75 organizations were tasked to make coins in the country of Switzerland. Included in these collectives were the abbeys and the cantons. These groups made an estimated number of 860 types of coins. Each one of these coins was unique in how they were denominated and valued.
The franc was eventually introduced by the Republic in 1798. It has been estimated by historians that the franc’s value was equal to 1.5 times of the French franc and around 6.75 gms of silver.
It wasn’t long before the franc was discontinued. By 1803, the franc ceased to be circulated. However, the franc was brought back in 1815. This was because the Republic wanted a more organized and efficient system for circulating currencies. There were too many varieties of coins in Switzerland. It was estimated that by the year 1820, more than 8,000 coin variants in Switzerland were used as money.
A standardized set of coins were introduced in 1825. This was referred to as a concordat which was singular in scope. There was also the Konkordanz Batzen. It carried a design that was symbolic of the cantos. On its other side, you can find an interesting depiction of the cross of Switzerland. In its centre, you will find a symbol in the shape of the letter “C”.
The Period Of The Confederation From 1850 To Present Day
The Constitution mandated in 1848 that the only institute that could circulate currency in the country of Switzerland was the government. The Coinage Act was enacted into law two years later. With this came the official recognition of the CHF as the medium of exchange in Switzerland.
Switzerland together with Italy, France, and Belgium founded the Latin Monetary Union in 1865. They unanimously agreed to set the value of their countries’ moneys to the equivalent of 4.5 grams of silver.
The Latin Monetary Union ceased its function by 1927. Still, the franc continued to be set at the same value until 1936. By 1945, the Swiss franc was pegged to the equivalent of the US Dollar. This took place after Switzerland joined the Bretton Woods system.
For some time, many investors in the currency market viewed the franc as a stable and safe investment. This was because the money was not at risk of inflation. Additionally, as much as 40% of the franc’s worth was supported or covered by gold. However, a referendum took place on 01 May 2000 which ended the franc’s link with gold. There was a failed attempt to bring back the franc’s support in gold in a 2014 November referendum.
How The Swiss Franc Fell From Grace During The Period Of 2011 – 2014
The 2011 elections in Greece carried consequences that reverberated throughout Europe. Switzerland was no exception. The value of the franc increased beyond $1.30 and pushed Switzerland to open up the supply of money in an attempt to manage the overvaluation of the currency.
The SNB moved to set the franc at 1.20 to the euro on 6 September 2011. The action was intended to help stabilize Switzerland’s economy. It resulted in the franc being sold massively to hit 1.12 to the euro. Consequently, the franc lost 9% in value against the US Dollar. This was the largest decline of the franc to the euro in its history.
The SNB Removes The Cap On The Swiss Franc
As the euro continued its decline, the SNB decided to remove its cap on the franc on 15 January 2015. Once the franc was allowed to float in the currency market, its value rose to 30% versus the euro. Over time, the euro regained its strength. It was short-lived as the franc increased its value by 21% against the US Dollar and by 23% against the euro.
During this period, many of the country’s largest trading companies lost money. The SNB was severely criticized for its apparent inability to protect investors from volatile market conditions as well as secure the value of its currency.
See The Best Options For Travel Money & Transferring Money To Switzerland:
The Coins Of The Helvetic Republic
From the period of 1798 – 1803, it was estimated that there were over one billion coins circulating. The denominations were as follows: 1 batzen, ½ batzen, and 1 centime. How about the silver coins circulating at the time? Its denominations were as follows: 10, 20, and bratzen 40. The 16, 32 coins were in gold and were circulated in 1800.
The Coins Of The Swiss Confederation
In 1850, there were different denominations of coins that were being circulated. Coins that were denominated higher were produced with billion. The silver content was estimated to range from 5% to around 15%. Meanwhile, coins that were denominated lower used bronze. Silver of the highest quality was used to make the coins from 1860 – 1863. By 1879, the billion was replaced by the cupro- nickel. Another type of gold coins, Vreneli were issued and circulated in 1936.
In World War I as well as World War II saw the release of the brass and zinc coins. The nickel was introduced in 1932 and took over the discontinued cupro- nickel.
Toward the end of the 1960’s, silver started to rise in value. It became expensive. Instead, the coins were sent overseas for melting. It did not matter that having the coins melted overseas were deemed illegal by the government. The practice went on until the franc grew higher than silver in terms of value.
Not much changes were done on the coins’ design from the time they began circulating in 1879.
The Banknotes: How Did Paper Money Come About?
In 1907, the SNB was promulgated to be the only entity that can circulate banknotes. The first series of banknotes featured denominations in 50, 100, 500, and 1000. From there, additional denominations in 5, 10, 20, and 25 banknotes were introduced. The SNB ceased the circulation of the 500 and 200 in 1996.
Jorg Zintzmeyer: The Man Who Designed The SNB Currency
There have been eight series of paper money issued. The SNB commissioned designs that have included themes such as discoveries in science. The latest designs were the creation of Jorg Zintzmeyer.
“Quadrilingual” is how Swiss banknotes are written. This means four languages were used on it. These languages were Italian, German, French, and of course, Swiss.
New Banknotes Plan And Launch Year
A new series of banknotes, the ninth, were planned for 2010. These were under the guise of a contest carried out by the SNB. The contest was promoted with the catch phrase, “Switzerland Open To The World”. Unfortunately, the design that won was not popular and this caused its issuance to be postponed to a later year.
The official launch date of the ninth series was finally set on 2015. Over time, it was disclosed that the new designs for the ninth series would be ready for circulation by April of 2016.
The first one to be circulated was the 50 franc note. This was on 12 April 2016. The second design to be released was the 20 franc banknote which as on 17 May 2017. Then five months later, on 18 October 2017, the 10 franc made its debut. The SNB then disclosed that the other banknotes would be circulated either bi-annually or annually. It is hoped that all of the new designs for the banknotes would be in full circulation by 2019. | <urn:uuid:0f913d04-50ed-4eb9-953b-a5ecbb2adab7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://whatcurrency.net/official-money-used-in-switzerland-today/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00372.warc.gz | en | 0.984197 | 1,728 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.05721802... | 1 | The official money of Switzerland is called the Swiss Franc. Campione d’Italia and Liechtenstein likewise recognize the Swiss Franc as its national currency. The SNB is the entity that is authorized to produce the bank notes of the Franc. SNB is the abbreviation for Swiss National Bank. However, it is the Swiss mint which produces the coins.
Table Of Contents
A Brief History
The Franc’s currency code is CHF. Have you ever wondered what CHF means? CHF stands for Confoederatio Helvetica. You might come across banks that refer to the Swiss Franc as SFr and the shorter Fr. If you look at the coins closely, you will note that the inscriptions are in Latin.
1798 and the Helvetic Republic
During this period, a total of 75 organizations were tasked to make coins in the country of Switzerland. Included in these collectives were the abbeys and the cantons. These groups made an estimated number of 860 types of coins. Each one of these coins was unique in how they were denominated and valued.
The franc was eventually introduced by the Republic in 1798. It has been estimated by historians that the franc’s value was equal to 1.5 times of the French franc and around 6.75 gms of silver.
It wasn’t long before the franc was discontinued. By 1803, the franc ceased to be circulated. However, the franc was brought back in 1815. This was because the Republic wanted a more organized and efficient system for circulating currencies. There were too many varieties of coins in Switzerland. It was estimated that by the year 1820, more than 8,000 coin variants in Switzerland were used as money.
A standardized set of coins were introduced in 1825. This was referred to as a concordat which was singular in scope. There was also the Konkordanz Batzen. It carried a design that was symbolic of the cantos. On its other side, you can find an interesting depiction of the cross of Switzerland. In its centre, you will find a symbol in the shape of the letter “C”.
The Period Of The Confederation From 1850 To Present Day
The Constitution mandated in 1848 that the only institute that could circulate currency in the country of Switzerland was the government. The Coinage Act was enacted into law two years later. With this came the official recognition of the CHF as the medium of exchange in Switzerland.
Switzerland together with Italy, France, and Belgium founded the Latin Monetary Union in 1865. They unanimously agreed to set the value of their countries’ moneys to the equivalent of 4.5 grams of silver.
The Latin Monetary Union ceased its function by 1927. Still, the franc continued to be set at the same value until 1936. By 1945, the Swiss franc was pegged to the equivalent of the US Dollar. This took place after Switzerland joined the Bretton Woods system.
For some time, many investors in the currency market viewed the franc as a stable and safe investment. This was because the money was not at risk of inflation. Additionally, as much as 40% of the franc’s worth was supported or covered by gold. However, a referendum took place on 01 May 2000 which ended the franc’s link with gold. There was a failed attempt to bring back the franc’s support in gold in a 2014 November referendum.
How The Swiss Franc Fell From Grace During The Period Of 2011 – 2014
The 2011 elections in Greece carried consequences that reverberated throughout Europe. Switzerland was no exception. The value of the franc increased beyond $1.30 and pushed Switzerland to open up the supply of money in an attempt to manage the overvaluation of the currency.
The SNB moved to set the franc at 1.20 to the euro on 6 September 2011. The action was intended to help stabilize Switzerland’s economy. It resulted in the franc being sold massively to hit 1.12 to the euro. Consequently, the franc lost 9% in value against the US Dollar. This was the largest decline of the franc to the euro in its history.
The SNB Removes The Cap On The Swiss Franc
As the euro continued its decline, the SNB decided to remove its cap on the franc on 15 January 2015. Once the franc was allowed to float in the currency market, its value rose to 30% versus the euro. Over time, the euro regained its strength. It was short-lived as the franc increased its value by 21% against the US Dollar and by 23% against the euro.
During this period, many of the country’s largest trading companies lost money. The SNB was severely criticized for its apparent inability to protect investors from volatile market conditions as well as secure the value of its currency.
See The Best Options For Travel Money & Transferring Money To Switzerland:
The Coins Of The Helvetic Republic
From the period of 1798 – 1803, it was estimated that there were over one billion coins circulating. The denominations were as follows: 1 batzen, ½ batzen, and 1 centime. How about the silver coins circulating at the time? Its denominations were as follows: 10, 20, and bratzen 40. The 16, 32 coins were in gold and were circulated in 1800.
The Coins Of The Swiss Confederation
In 1850, there were different denominations of coins that were being circulated. Coins that were denominated higher were produced with billion. The silver content was estimated to range from 5% to around 15%. Meanwhile, coins that were denominated lower used bronze. Silver of the highest quality was used to make the coins from 1860 – 1863. By 1879, the billion was replaced by the cupro- nickel. Another type of gold coins, Vreneli were issued and circulated in 1936.
In World War I as well as World War II saw the release of the brass and zinc coins. The nickel was introduced in 1932 and took over the discontinued cupro- nickel.
Toward the end of the 1960’s, silver started to rise in value. It became expensive. Instead, the coins were sent overseas for melting. It did not matter that having the coins melted overseas were deemed illegal by the government. The practice went on until the franc grew higher than silver in terms of value.
Not much changes were done on the coins’ design from the time they began circulating in 1879.
The Banknotes: How Did Paper Money Come About?
In 1907, the SNB was promulgated to be the only entity that can circulate banknotes. The first series of banknotes featured denominations in 50, 100, 500, and 1000. From there, additional denominations in 5, 10, 20, and 25 banknotes were introduced. The SNB ceased the circulation of the 500 and 200 in 1996.
Jorg Zintzmeyer: The Man Who Designed The SNB Currency
There have been eight series of paper money issued. The SNB commissioned designs that have included themes such as discoveries in science. The latest designs were the creation of Jorg Zintzmeyer.
“Quadrilingual” is how Swiss banknotes are written. This means four languages were used on it. These languages were Italian, German, French, and of course, Swiss.
New Banknotes Plan And Launch Year
A new series of banknotes, the ninth, were planned for 2010. These were under the guise of a contest carried out by the SNB. The contest was promoted with the catch phrase, “Switzerland Open To The World”. Unfortunately, the design that won was not popular and this caused its issuance to be postponed to a later year.
The official launch date of the ninth series was finally set on 2015. Over time, it was disclosed that the new designs for the ninth series would be ready for circulation by April of 2016.
The first one to be circulated was the 50 franc note. This was on 12 April 2016. The second design to be released was the 20 franc banknote which as on 17 May 2017. Then five months later, on 18 October 2017, the 10 franc made its debut. The SNB then disclosed that the other banknotes would be circulated either bi-annually or annually. It is hoped that all of the new designs for the banknotes would be in full circulation by 2019. | 1,907 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We have had 43 presidents and each one has been an important part of our history. Our presidents are elected every four years on the first Tuesday in November. To run for presidency you have to be born in the United States, be over 35 years old, and have lived in the United States for 14 years or more. After being elected the president is sworn in on January 20 in Washington, D. C. and recites an oath. You can only be president for eight years. The president picks his cabinet members after the inauguration and he and his family move into the White House. I have chosen to research our 6th president, John Quincy Adams.
John Quincy Adams was born on July 11, 1767 on a small farm in Braintree, Massachusetts. His parents are John Adams, our second president, and Abigail Adams. John had two younger brothers and one older sister. In 1787, at 20 years old, John graduated from Harvard College. He became a lawyer and practiced law in Boston in 1790. John got married in 1797 to Louisa Johnson. John and Louisa had three sons, George, John, and Charles, and he had one daughter, Louisa Catherine. John was 58 years old when he was elected president in 1825. He was elected by the House of Representatives and won by one vote against Andrew Jackson.
John picked John C. Calhoun to be his Vice President. John strongly supported using national funds to improve transportation. On October 26, 1825, the first passage of the 363 mile long Erie Canal was completed. There were so many disagreements during his presidency that Democratic – Republican Party split into two parties. John describes his presidency as “the four most miserable years of my life. ” John finished his presidency in 1829 when he was beaten by Andrew Jackson. He returned to Massachusetts where he was convinced to run for congress. John won and served for nine terms from 1830 to 1848.
His most important goal was to fight against slavery. He had a stroke in the Capital Building and died on February 23, 1948, at the age of 80. John served his country to the end. John is remembered for his fight against slavery and for the rights of Native Americans. Historians say John is the most learned person to serve as President. He left his 8,500 volume library to his son Charles. He was called “Old Man Eloquent” because he was such a good speaker. He once said “Old minds are like old horses; you must exercise them if you wish to keep them in working order. ” John Quincy Adams was one of the most respected men in Washington, D. C. | <urn:uuid:59bea1fe-8ec1-4e2a-bcfa-b54bfad2ec64> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://lagas.org/john-quincy-adams-3/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00054.warc.gz | en | 0.991591 | 545 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.3162434995174... | 2 | We have had 43 presidents and each one has been an important part of our history. Our presidents are elected every four years on the first Tuesday in November. To run for presidency you have to be born in the United States, be over 35 years old, and have lived in the United States for 14 years or more. After being elected the president is sworn in on January 20 in Washington, D. C. and recites an oath. You can only be president for eight years. The president picks his cabinet members after the inauguration and he and his family move into the White House. I have chosen to research our 6th president, John Quincy Adams.
John Quincy Adams was born on July 11, 1767 on a small farm in Braintree, Massachusetts. His parents are John Adams, our second president, and Abigail Adams. John had two younger brothers and one older sister. In 1787, at 20 years old, John graduated from Harvard College. He became a lawyer and practiced law in Boston in 1790. John got married in 1797 to Louisa Johnson. John and Louisa had three sons, George, John, and Charles, and he had one daughter, Louisa Catherine. John was 58 years old when he was elected president in 1825. He was elected by the House of Representatives and won by one vote against Andrew Jackson.
John picked John C. Calhoun to be his Vice President. John strongly supported using national funds to improve transportation. On October 26, 1825, the first passage of the 363 mile long Erie Canal was completed. There were so many disagreements during his presidency that Democratic – Republican Party split into two parties. John describes his presidency as “the four most miserable years of my life. ” John finished his presidency in 1829 when he was beaten by Andrew Jackson. He returned to Massachusetts where he was convinced to run for congress. John won and served for nine terms from 1830 to 1848.
His most important goal was to fight against slavery. He had a stroke in the Capital Building and died on February 23, 1948, at the age of 80. John served his country to the end. John is remembered for his fight against slavery and for the rights of Native Americans. Historians say John is the most learned person to serve as President. He left his 8,500 volume library to his son Charles. He was called “Old Man Eloquent” because he was such a good speaker. He once said “Old minds are like old horses; you must exercise them if you wish to keep them in working order. ” John Quincy Adams was one of the most respected men in Washington, D. C. | 593 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It was on January 1st, 1889 that Wovoka had his prophetic vision. It had spread throughout the West, bringing hope to the devastated native populations, and many Lakota were convinced that the Spirit Dance would bring back the vitality of earlier times when life had been better. But people outside the culture were fearful of such a revival of Indian strength and resolve.
Rumors flew that they were praying to bring the ancestors back from the dead, to bring back the buffalo to the Plains (which, remember, had been so carefully and systematically slaughtered in the effort to decimate the People) and sensational journalism helped create and maintain an atmosphere of fear and hysteria leading to the Wounded Knee Massacre.
‘War correspondents’ paid by the word were sent from urban newspapers to report on the Ghost Dance. Their lurid, often fictionalized reports greatly increased the circulation of their employing newspapers. Local news reports repudiated these ideas, but the army had listened and on January 1st, 1891, bodies were being dug out of the frozen ground for mass burial.
A burial party at the scene interred 84 men, 44 women and 18 children in a mass grave with large numbers of ‘souvenirs’ plundered from their bodies. It was cold, desperately cold and at 40 degrees below, the frozen bodies were photographed extensively.
Some of those who survived were eventually taken to the Episcopal mission in Pine Ridge where they lay suffering horrific injuries on the straw-covered floor. Above them was a crudely made decorative banner which, cruelly ironic, read, "Peace on earth, good will to men," | <urn:uuid:816c5911-4bea-4dc3-87a7-2bb604567264> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gonativeamerica.com/single-post/2015/01/02/The-Ghost-Dance-or-the-Spirit-Prayer | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00239.warc.gz | en | 0.988288 | 333 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.36667531728744... | 4 | It was on January 1st, 1889 that Wovoka had his prophetic vision. It had spread throughout the West, bringing hope to the devastated native populations, and many Lakota were convinced that the Spirit Dance would bring back the vitality of earlier times when life had been better. But people outside the culture were fearful of such a revival of Indian strength and resolve.
Rumors flew that they were praying to bring the ancestors back from the dead, to bring back the buffalo to the Plains (which, remember, had been so carefully and systematically slaughtered in the effort to decimate the People) and sensational journalism helped create and maintain an atmosphere of fear and hysteria leading to the Wounded Knee Massacre.
‘War correspondents’ paid by the word were sent from urban newspapers to report on the Ghost Dance. Their lurid, often fictionalized reports greatly increased the circulation of their employing newspapers. Local news reports repudiated these ideas, but the army had listened and on January 1st, 1891, bodies were being dug out of the frozen ground for mass burial.
A burial party at the scene interred 84 men, 44 women and 18 children in a mass grave with large numbers of ‘souvenirs’ plundered from their bodies. It was cold, desperately cold and at 40 degrees below, the frozen bodies were photographed extensively.
Some of those who survived were eventually taken to the Episcopal mission in Pine Ridge where they lay suffering horrific injuries on the straw-covered floor. Above them was a crudely made decorative banner which, cruelly ironic, read, "Peace on earth, good will to men," | 342 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The War of 1812 was fought between the United States and the United Kingdom. Each party had its allies supporting it. The war was fought in North America and in the sea.
The War of 1812 broke out in June 1812 and lasted until February 1815. The Americans declared war against the British because of the conflicts they had at sea. The Royal Navy had a tendency of capturing the Americans in the sea and forcing them to work in the Royal Navy. Americans had had enough of the Royal Navy taking advantage of its superiority in their impressments and blockade activities. Britain blockading America from trading with France further triggered the declaration of the war. The War of 1812 was the first time in history that the Americans declared war against the British.
Forces Involved In the War
The United States Navy was made of 7,250 sailors. The force was well trained and professional because it had had experience in previous wars. The only problem the force experienced was inadequate funding. America was also not well equipped with warships. The opponent, the Royal Navy, was well trained and well-equipped and was the greatest naval power in the world. At this time, the British did not concentrate fully on the war because part of its army was involved in the Napoleonic War which was also being fought at the same time.
Who Won the War of 1812?
By the end of the war, the US has suffered costly defeat in the hands of their rival including the burning of Washington DC. Approximately 15,000 people Americans died during the war and 8,600 British and Canadians also died. The war ended with the signing of Treaty of Ghent which resulted to over a century of peace between the two countries. Consequently, the War of 1812 led to economic stagnation in the economy of America. The British had successfully managed to blockade America’s coastline. Some of the products scarce in the US including cotton clothes.
Case for British Victory
The British claim that they did not take the war seriously as their opponents did. They insist that the Americans took advantage of them being involved in the Napoleonic War which was being fought at the time. The British did not send large troops to support the Royal Navy until 1814. They consider themselves victorious because the war was more of a walk in the park for them, and not a struggle as the Americans consider it. Furthermore, the British argue that the Americans failed to drive them from North America, which implies that they were more powerful.
Case for American Victory
The Americas insist that they won the war for a number of reasons. It was the first time that America was staging a war against Britain, which had the most superior navy in the world. Due to the British sea superiority, it was expected that America would lose some of its territories to the British. However, none of America’s territory was conquered during the war. America’s success in the assertion of its independence from the British also makes them insist that they won the war.
About the Author
John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | <urn:uuid:f962a36c-aef9-4a25-8d0e-5e60e409b1a4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/who-won-the-war-of-1812.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00264.warc.gz | en | 0.987346 | 677 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.107249170... | 2 | The War of 1812 was fought between the United States and the United Kingdom. Each party had its allies supporting it. The war was fought in North America and in the sea.
The War of 1812 broke out in June 1812 and lasted until February 1815. The Americans declared war against the British because of the conflicts they had at sea. The Royal Navy had a tendency of capturing the Americans in the sea and forcing them to work in the Royal Navy. Americans had had enough of the Royal Navy taking advantage of its superiority in their impressments and blockade activities. Britain blockading America from trading with France further triggered the declaration of the war. The War of 1812 was the first time in history that the Americans declared war against the British.
Forces Involved In the War
The United States Navy was made of 7,250 sailors. The force was well trained and professional because it had had experience in previous wars. The only problem the force experienced was inadequate funding. America was also not well equipped with warships. The opponent, the Royal Navy, was well trained and well-equipped and was the greatest naval power in the world. At this time, the British did not concentrate fully on the war because part of its army was involved in the Napoleonic War which was also being fought at the same time.
Who Won the War of 1812?
By the end of the war, the US has suffered costly defeat in the hands of their rival including the burning of Washington DC. Approximately 15,000 people Americans died during the war and 8,600 British and Canadians also died. The war ended with the signing of Treaty of Ghent which resulted to over a century of peace between the two countries. Consequently, the War of 1812 led to economic stagnation in the economy of America. The British had successfully managed to blockade America’s coastline. Some of the products scarce in the US including cotton clothes.
Case for British Victory
The British claim that they did not take the war seriously as their opponents did. They insist that the Americans took advantage of them being involved in the Napoleonic War which was being fought at the time. The British did not send large troops to support the Royal Navy until 1814. They consider themselves victorious because the war was more of a walk in the park for them, and not a struggle as the Americans consider it. Furthermore, the British argue that the Americans failed to drive them from North America, which implies that they were more powerful.
Case for American Victory
The Americas insist that they won the war for a number of reasons. It was the first time that America was staging a war against Britain, which had the most superior navy in the world. Due to the British sea superiority, it was expected that America would lose some of its territories to the British. However, none of America’s territory was conquered during the war. America’s success in the assertion of its independence from the British also makes them insist that they won the war.
About the Author
John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 697 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Approximately 300 million years ago (during a time geologists call the Pennsylvanian Period) Illinois looked nothing like it does today. Much of it was not even dry land. Much of the area that we now call Illinois was a mixture of swampy lowlands and shallow marine bays.
From the northeast flowed at least one major river system. The river(s) built large deltas through the low swamps and into the shallow bays. The mud that the river(s) carried was deposited in these deltas and bays. This mud turned into a rock called the Francis Creek Shale.
In some ways the area might have been similar to southern Louisiana (USA) and the adjacent Gulf of Mexico. However, the plants and animals would have been very different from today. They were different for at least two reasons. First, many of the plants and animals that are common today had not yet evolved at that time. Second, the climate would have been tropical. The tropical climate was a result of continental drift; 300 million years ago the area was just a few degrees north of the equator. | <urn:uuid:7b373e94-ede3-40b7-88c3-237a9933db85> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gemrockauctions.com/auctions/19440-cts-usa-fern-fossil-300-million-yrs-old-ms-455-278081 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00201.warc.gz | en | 0.984634 | 228 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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0.106273353... | 1 | Approximately 300 million years ago (during a time geologists call the Pennsylvanian Period) Illinois looked nothing like it does today. Much of it was not even dry land. Much of the area that we now call Illinois was a mixture of swampy lowlands and shallow marine bays.
From the northeast flowed at least one major river system. The river(s) built large deltas through the low swamps and into the shallow bays. The mud that the river(s) carried was deposited in these deltas and bays. This mud turned into a rock called the Francis Creek Shale.
In some ways the area might have been similar to southern Louisiana (USA) and the adjacent Gulf of Mexico. However, the plants and animals would have been very different from today. They were different for at least two reasons. First, many of the plants and animals that are common today had not yet evolved at that time. Second, the climate would have been tropical. The tropical climate was a result of continental drift; 300 million years ago the area was just a few degrees north of the equator. | 227 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alma Rose was a Jewish concert violinist who created a women’s orchestra in Auschwitz, saving many female musicians from the gas chambers.
Born in Austria in 1906, Alma had an illustrious musical lineage. Her father, Arnold Rose, was a famous conductor who led the Vienna Philharmonic, and her maternal uncle was the great composer Gustav Mahler.
Alma went into the family business, becoming a virtuoso violinist. She founded a women’s orchestra called the Viennese Waltzing Girls, and toured Europe with them throughout the 1930’s.
Like many assimilated European Jews of the time, Alma’s family internalized the virulent anti-Semitism all around them. Alma’s father changed his name from Rosenblum to Rose to sound less Jewish. Alma herself converted to Catholicism and married a non-Jewish Czech violinist. She even got a nose job, which was very rare at the time.
Feeling confident she’d left her Jewish identity behind, Alma continued to tour Europe with her band in the early 1940’s. However, to the Nazis it was irrelevant that she was a practicing Christian with a small nose. They discovered her Jewish heritage, and arrested her in France in 1943.
Alma was sent to Auschwitz. As she was being tattooed with her prisoner number, a fellow inmate recognized her, and mentioned to an SS guard that Alma was the most famous female violinist in Europe. The Nazis enjoyed having Jewish musicians perform for them, especially under physically tortuous conditions. They assigned Alma to a group of amateur female musicians, gave her a violin that was confiscated from another inmate, and told her to create an orchestra.
Alma knew that the better their music sounded, the longer her musicians would be allowed to live. She created a grueling rehearsal schedule of eight hours a day, and incredibly, turned the ragtag band into a professional-sounding symphony orchestra. The Nazi liked their Jewish musicians to suffer while they played – typically they played outside in the rain and snow, barely clothed. Alma’s orchestra was in such demand among Nazi officers that they were given uniforms and allowed to perform indoors.
Some of the performers in the orchestra did not have much musical ability, but Alma refused to fire anybody. Instead she assigned other roles to the weaker musicians, such as being an assistant or score copier.
Sadly, Alma Rose died in Auschwitz of illness on April 4, 1944. She was 36 years old.
For making beautiful music in a hideous place, and protecting the musicians in her remarkable orchestra, we honor Alma Rose as this week’s Thursday Hero.
Get the best of Accidental Talmudist in your inbox: sign up for our monthly newsletter. | <urn:uuid:c9971254-a15d-41af-a02b-5feb987242e3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.accidentaltalmudist.org/heroes/2018/07/12/alma-rose/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00424.warc.gz | en | 0.984996 | 565 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.167502820... | 7 | Alma Rose was a Jewish concert violinist who created a women’s orchestra in Auschwitz, saving many female musicians from the gas chambers.
Born in Austria in 1906, Alma had an illustrious musical lineage. Her father, Arnold Rose, was a famous conductor who led the Vienna Philharmonic, and her maternal uncle was the great composer Gustav Mahler.
Alma went into the family business, becoming a virtuoso violinist. She founded a women’s orchestra called the Viennese Waltzing Girls, and toured Europe with them throughout the 1930’s.
Like many assimilated European Jews of the time, Alma’s family internalized the virulent anti-Semitism all around them. Alma’s father changed his name from Rosenblum to Rose to sound less Jewish. Alma herself converted to Catholicism and married a non-Jewish Czech violinist. She even got a nose job, which was very rare at the time.
Feeling confident she’d left her Jewish identity behind, Alma continued to tour Europe with her band in the early 1940’s. However, to the Nazis it was irrelevant that she was a practicing Christian with a small nose. They discovered her Jewish heritage, and arrested her in France in 1943.
Alma was sent to Auschwitz. As she was being tattooed with her prisoner number, a fellow inmate recognized her, and mentioned to an SS guard that Alma was the most famous female violinist in Europe. The Nazis enjoyed having Jewish musicians perform for them, especially under physically tortuous conditions. They assigned Alma to a group of amateur female musicians, gave her a violin that was confiscated from another inmate, and told her to create an orchestra.
Alma knew that the better their music sounded, the longer her musicians would be allowed to live. She created a grueling rehearsal schedule of eight hours a day, and incredibly, turned the ragtag band into a professional-sounding symphony orchestra. The Nazi liked their Jewish musicians to suffer while they played – typically they played outside in the rain and snow, barely clothed. Alma’s orchestra was in such demand among Nazi officers that they were given uniforms and allowed to perform indoors.
Some of the performers in the orchestra did not have much musical ability, but Alma refused to fire anybody. Instead she assigned other roles to the weaker musicians, such as being an assistant or score copier.
Sadly, Alma Rose died in Auschwitz of illness on April 4, 1944. She was 36 years old.
For making beautiful music in a hideous place, and protecting the musicians in her remarkable orchestra, we honor Alma Rose as this week’s Thursday Hero.
Get the best of Accidental Talmudist in your inbox: sign up for our monthly newsletter. | 565 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The well known scholar and historian Al Hassan Ibn Mohammed Al-Wazzan Al Fassi was better known to western scholars as Leo Africanus. He was a man from Fez in Morocco. He served in the 15th Century both Sultans and Popes. He remained as the west’s foremost authority on the geography, history and culture of the sub-Saharan Africa for 500 years after his own time.
Leo was writing on matters and things that other writers ignored to write about and as such these things had not attracted their attention. He elaborated on how people lived, how they ate and how they dressed. He also shed light on their habits, superstition, customs and cultural lives. Leo travelled extensively in the tradition of the well known “Ibn Battota, Ibn Khaldoon and Ibn Jubayr”. He was known as a historian with many talents, occupations and adventures. He risked his life against attacks of barbarous tribesmen as well as land, sea and lake vicious animals by physically visiting remote areas, climbed mountains, crossed rivers and the Sahara’s vast lands. His philosophy was simple and effective and that was if he were to document historical and cultural facts, he rather has firsthand experience to witness and be able to write about it.
Western knowledge about the continent of Africa was little more than scattered medieval myths of monsters and classical accounts of headless men whose faces were on their torsos! He was considered as the last Muslim intellectual to pass along Islamic learning to the west- the final Steward of a 500 years cultural exchange.
In his book 1 of his History, Leo referred to the Arabians who inhibited the coast of the Mediterranean Sea as people who were greatly addicted to the studies of Art and Science. The Al-Wazzan family were reported to be wealthy and well connected. They probably settled in Fez’s Andalusian quarter, just across the Bon Khareb river from the Karaouine masjid (or Mosque) and its Madrasa which was considered as the most important religious and intellectual centre of a culture deeply devoted to learning. Leo was such a dedicated student that he earned the title of “Qadi” (or judge) at the early age of 14. He travelled and learned a lot from his Al-Wazzan family elders, especially his father, who individually allowed him to join them to many adventurous journeys. His family fled the Spanish conquest of Granada and settled in Fez, Morocco, where Leo attended school at the Karaouine masjid.
He was reported to be frank as well as courageous to write and criticise the barbaric eating habits and the unbecoming behaviours of the rulers, especially the king of Borno who refused to pay his bills on time although he was rich with ready cash to do so. He also cited the destruction of Anfa (now known as Casablanca) which brought tears to his eyes when he surveyed the ruins that were caused by the savage Portuguese attacks. He especially reserved and highlighted the harshest criticism against those who incited disharmony among fellow Muslims and the cloaks of religion. He travelled from Egypt over the desert unto the Red Sea and crossed to Jambu (now known as Yanbu) and Ziddem (Now Jeddah)
African Muslims and even Indians and Asian were often referred to as “Moors”, a term Europeans of the day used freely. As a prisoner, after his ship was attacked and later captured, Leo’s arrival in Rome was chronicled alongside other high-profile events on the Vatican calendar that year, such as baptism of the French Dauphin and the establishment of new churches and religious orders. It was thought that Pope Leo the X might benefit from the unusually knowledgeable “Moor” prisoner when they found in his possession various maps and charts as well as important notes that he carried with him in his travels. Pope Leo the X considered Leo the traveller as no ordinary prisoner since he had intimate knowledge about the Ottoman Turks and the challenges they were facing at the time of Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent against whom the Pope had declared a Crusade.
In addition, this “Moor” Prisoner was thought to possess good knowledge about Africa. That would also be useful for commercial information. Hence, Leo the traveller became a celebrity to the Vatican and to Pope Leo the X himself.
It is believed that Leo the traveller had converted to Christianity. This was apparently common occurrence at the time; Muslims and Jews converted to Christianity; Christians converted to Islam. Leo was therefore baptised on January 6, 1520 by the Pope himself. Leo therefore referred to himself by the Arabic version of his new name as “Yuhana Al-Asad”- (or John the Lion). It is believed that he never heard of his name “Leo the Africanus” which was apparently assigned to him 30 years later by his venetician publisher, Giovanni Battista Ramusio.
Scholars debate the sincerity of Leo’s conversion to Christianity; however the argument is academic, as Leo left no definitive statement on this matter. He did however; leave a hint by relating a story of “a most wily bird” who avoided paying taxes to the king of birds by choosing to live underwater like a fish. And when the king of fish also began demanding payment of taxes, the bird promptly left the water and returned to the sky!
“I will do like the bird,” Leo wrote maintaining that he will eventually return to Africa and then devote himself to his one and only original faith. Hence his seemingly opportunistic survival instinct strategy kept him alive and well long enough to finish writing his book – Cosmographia.
Leo came back to Rome under the protection of Pope Clement VII, who faced at the time various serious challenges including but not limited to the Ottomans encroachment from the east, England’s Henry VIII cutting ties with Rome over Pope Cement’s refusal to grant him a divorce and France’s war on the Holy Empire. While the Pope was preoccupied with those challenges, it is believed that Leo might have probably taken the opportunity to slip away and go back to North Africa. However, there is convincing evidence that Leo, the great Arabian Historian, lived the rest of his days in Tunis (Tunisia).
His books were inspirational as well as informative to those students who were interested to learn and seek knowledge about Africa. Leo Africanus recognised that the Muslim world was approaching a crisis, a transition that later on would lead to partitions and colonisations by foreign powers. Some dimensions of this crisis were the Christian conquest of Spain, the appearance of Sufism and the superstition associated with mysticism, the civil war as well as the decline of the civilization in the Kingdom of Marrakech.
No doubt, Leo’s writings provided vast knowledge, invaluable study material and references to historians dedicated to learn as well as to further their knowledge about Africa. | <urn:uuid:b43a98a0-0fa6-48f9-9959-c99be2bd7adf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://canadiandream.cbet.ca/2016/06/12/leo-africanus-farook-aman/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00065.warc.gz | en | 0.988527 | 1,445 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.1233606338500976... | 2 | The well known scholar and historian Al Hassan Ibn Mohammed Al-Wazzan Al Fassi was better known to western scholars as Leo Africanus. He was a man from Fez in Morocco. He served in the 15th Century both Sultans and Popes. He remained as the west’s foremost authority on the geography, history and culture of the sub-Saharan Africa for 500 years after his own time.
Leo was writing on matters and things that other writers ignored to write about and as such these things had not attracted their attention. He elaborated on how people lived, how they ate and how they dressed. He also shed light on their habits, superstition, customs and cultural lives. Leo travelled extensively in the tradition of the well known “Ibn Battota, Ibn Khaldoon and Ibn Jubayr”. He was known as a historian with many talents, occupations and adventures. He risked his life against attacks of barbarous tribesmen as well as land, sea and lake vicious animals by physically visiting remote areas, climbed mountains, crossed rivers and the Sahara’s vast lands. His philosophy was simple and effective and that was if he were to document historical and cultural facts, he rather has firsthand experience to witness and be able to write about it.
Western knowledge about the continent of Africa was little more than scattered medieval myths of monsters and classical accounts of headless men whose faces were on their torsos! He was considered as the last Muslim intellectual to pass along Islamic learning to the west- the final Steward of a 500 years cultural exchange.
In his book 1 of his History, Leo referred to the Arabians who inhibited the coast of the Mediterranean Sea as people who were greatly addicted to the studies of Art and Science. The Al-Wazzan family were reported to be wealthy and well connected. They probably settled in Fez’s Andalusian quarter, just across the Bon Khareb river from the Karaouine masjid (or Mosque) and its Madrasa which was considered as the most important religious and intellectual centre of a culture deeply devoted to learning. Leo was such a dedicated student that he earned the title of “Qadi” (or judge) at the early age of 14. He travelled and learned a lot from his Al-Wazzan family elders, especially his father, who individually allowed him to join them to many adventurous journeys. His family fled the Spanish conquest of Granada and settled in Fez, Morocco, where Leo attended school at the Karaouine masjid.
He was reported to be frank as well as courageous to write and criticise the barbaric eating habits and the unbecoming behaviours of the rulers, especially the king of Borno who refused to pay his bills on time although he was rich with ready cash to do so. He also cited the destruction of Anfa (now known as Casablanca) which brought tears to his eyes when he surveyed the ruins that were caused by the savage Portuguese attacks. He especially reserved and highlighted the harshest criticism against those who incited disharmony among fellow Muslims and the cloaks of religion. He travelled from Egypt over the desert unto the Red Sea and crossed to Jambu (now known as Yanbu) and Ziddem (Now Jeddah)
African Muslims and even Indians and Asian were often referred to as “Moors”, a term Europeans of the day used freely. As a prisoner, after his ship was attacked and later captured, Leo’s arrival in Rome was chronicled alongside other high-profile events on the Vatican calendar that year, such as baptism of the French Dauphin and the establishment of new churches and religious orders. It was thought that Pope Leo the X might benefit from the unusually knowledgeable “Moor” prisoner when they found in his possession various maps and charts as well as important notes that he carried with him in his travels. Pope Leo the X considered Leo the traveller as no ordinary prisoner since he had intimate knowledge about the Ottoman Turks and the challenges they were facing at the time of Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent against whom the Pope had declared a Crusade.
In addition, this “Moor” Prisoner was thought to possess good knowledge about Africa. That would also be useful for commercial information. Hence, Leo the traveller became a celebrity to the Vatican and to Pope Leo the X himself.
It is believed that Leo the traveller had converted to Christianity. This was apparently common occurrence at the time; Muslims and Jews converted to Christianity; Christians converted to Islam. Leo was therefore baptised on January 6, 1520 by the Pope himself. Leo therefore referred to himself by the Arabic version of his new name as “Yuhana Al-Asad”- (or John the Lion). It is believed that he never heard of his name “Leo the Africanus” which was apparently assigned to him 30 years later by his venetician publisher, Giovanni Battista Ramusio.
Scholars debate the sincerity of Leo’s conversion to Christianity; however the argument is academic, as Leo left no definitive statement on this matter. He did however; leave a hint by relating a story of “a most wily bird” who avoided paying taxes to the king of birds by choosing to live underwater like a fish. And when the king of fish also began demanding payment of taxes, the bird promptly left the water and returned to the sky!
“I will do like the bird,” Leo wrote maintaining that he will eventually return to Africa and then devote himself to his one and only original faith. Hence his seemingly opportunistic survival instinct strategy kept him alive and well long enough to finish writing his book – Cosmographia.
Leo came back to Rome under the protection of Pope Clement VII, who faced at the time various serious challenges including but not limited to the Ottomans encroachment from the east, England’s Henry VIII cutting ties with Rome over Pope Cement’s refusal to grant him a divorce and France’s war on the Holy Empire. While the Pope was preoccupied with those challenges, it is believed that Leo might have probably taken the opportunity to slip away and go back to North Africa. However, there is convincing evidence that Leo, the great Arabian Historian, lived the rest of his days in Tunis (Tunisia).
His books were inspirational as well as informative to those students who were interested to learn and seek knowledge about Africa. Leo Africanus recognised that the Muslim world was approaching a crisis, a transition that later on would lead to partitions and colonisations by foreign powers. Some dimensions of this crisis were the Christian conquest of Spain, the appearance of Sufism and the superstition associated with mysticism, the civil war as well as the decline of the civilization in the Kingdom of Marrakech.
No doubt, Leo’s writings provided vast knowledge, invaluable study material and references to historians dedicated to learn as well as to further their knowledge about Africa. | 1,405 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Britain we are very fortunate that we have a Welfare State. In this country the Welfare State provides free medical care on the NHS, unemployment benefit, child benefit, disability allowance, free education, old age pensions amongst other benefits.
Britain from 1880-1900
However, at the turn of the 20th century there were no such benefits for the people of Great Britain. For the early part of the Victorian era the predominant idea of poverty was that it was the individual’s responsibility to keep out of poverty. If he failed to do this it was assumed that the poverty was the fault of a character defect in the individual rather than as a result of economic forces beyond his control. This was due to the fact that both the Conservative and Liberal governments of the day believed in the policy of Laissez-Faire. Laissez-Faire is the policy of non state intervention. This means that the state did not interfere in the daily lives of its citizens (or help in any way). Their task was to protect the country and to provide a level playing field for their citizens to make the most of their opportunities. Thus people who already had money held an advantage over the poor.
What help was available to those who were poor?
As a result of this way of thinking poor people were treated as little better than criminals. For those who were extremely poor either because of being put out of work, sickness or becoming too old to work, the only option was the workhouse. Work Houses split up families and although they provided the minimum living standards possible they made life as uncomfortable as possible for the poor. This was the last straw for poor people and was the most humiliating thing that could happen to them. Many families were prepared to starve to death rather than be humiliated by going to the workhouse.
Examples such as the American Civil War which stopped the import of raw cotton to the factories from the Southern States caused much hardship in the Midlands and suggested that it was not always the individual’s fault that they were poor.
The various governments did become involved in social policy as a result of the rapid social and economic changes in the nineteenth century. Factory and Mines Acts improved working conditions, Education Acts made primary education compulsory and Public Health Acts were reactions to the devastating cholera outbreaks which were linked to poor sewerage and lack of fresh water in the cities. Therefore it can be argued that governments were increasingly prepared to become involved in social policy.
Although Government was less than willing to get involved, Britain considered itself to be a Christian country and there was a tradition of philanthropy where individuals tried to help. Many charities and voluntary... | <urn:uuid:4f1719fc-60a5-4178-8c86-9a20c6f8ab46> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/victorian-attitudes-to-poverty-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00390.warc.gz | en | 0.988471 | 534 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.21419882774... | 1 | In Britain we are very fortunate that we have a Welfare State. In this country the Welfare State provides free medical care on the NHS, unemployment benefit, child benefit, disability allowance, free education, old age pensions amongst other benefits.
Britain from 1880-1900
However, at the turn of the 20th century there were no such benefits for the people of Great Britain. For the early part of the Victorian era the predominant idea of poverty was that it was the individual’s responsibility to keep out of poverty. If he failed to do this it was assumed that the poverty was the fault of a character defect in the individual rather than as a result of economic forces beyond his control. This was due to the fact that both the Conservative and Liberal governments of the day believed in the policy of Laissez-Faire. Laissez-Faire is the policy of non state intervention. This means that the state did not interfere in the daily lives of its citizens (or help in any way). Their task was to protect the country and to provide a level playing field for their citizens to make the most of their opportunities. Thus people who already had money held an advantage over the poor.
What help was available to those who were poor?
As a result of this way of thinking poor people were treated as little better than criminals. For those who were extremely poor either because of being put out of work, sickness or becoming too old to work, the only option was the workhouse. Work Houses split up families and although they provided the minimum living standards possible they made life as uncomfortable as possible for the poor. This was the last straw for poor people and was the most humiliating thing that could happen to them. Many families were prepared to starve to death rather than be humiliated by going to the workhouse.
Examples such as the American Civil War which stopped the import of raw cotton to the factories from the Southern States caused much hardship in the Midlands and suggested that it was not always the individual’s fault that they were poor.
The various governments did become involved in social policy as a result of the rapid social and economic changes in the nineteenth century. Factory and Mines Acts improved working conditions, Education Acts made primary education compulsory and Public Health Acts were reactions to the devastating cholera outbreaks which were linked to poor sewerage and lack of fresh water in the cities. Therefore it can be argued that governments were increasingly prepared to become involved in social policy.
Although Government was less than willing to get involved, Britain considered itself to be a Christian country and there was a tradition of philanthropy where individuals tried to help. Many charities and voluntary... | 532 | ENGLISH | 1 |
After the Norman Conquest the system of feudal landholding required the lord of the manor to provide a court for his tenants. In 1156, the Manor of Cricklade was held by Warin FitzGerold, the earliest known lord of the manor. By 1245, the Manor, now referred to as the Hundred and Borough of Cricklade, had passed to Baldwin de Redvers, seventh Earl of Devon at the age of 10.
Baldwin died childless and was succeeded by his sister Isabella, wife of William de Forz, sixth Earl of Aumale. This lady, who was as a widow the wealthiest woman in the country, employed as her man of business that most notable rogue, Adam of Stratton. From 1277 Adam held under Isabella, the manor of Sevenhampton, the chamberlainship and Cricklade Hundred and Borough courts. The Hundred and Borough remained in his hands until his forfeiture in 1289, when they passed to the Crown and whence they were assigned as dower to a succession of queens.
At this point a few words explaining the various terms might help. In medieval England criminal jurisdiction was held by the hundred courts; the country was divided into hundreds and there was a hundred court for each of them. Each hundred comprised 100 hides, with each hide being an area of land of variable size that is enough to support one entire household. A tithing was an area of 10 hides, which therefore originally corresponded to about 10 households. The heads of each household were judicially bound to the others in their tithing by an arrangement called frankpledge, which created collective responsibility for behaviour within their tithing. The hundred court monitored this system in a process called ‘view of frankpledge’, with the tithing reporting any wrongdoing in their area and handing over the perpetrators among them. If the wrongdoing was minor it would be dealt with by the hundred court, but serious crimes were passed up to the shire court.
Before feudalism, hundred courts had also dealt with administrative matters within their area, such as bridge repairs, road conditions and so forth, but the manorial courts had largely superseded that in practice and some manorial lords began claiming authority over criminal matters as well. Eventually, the king formally granted certain trusted lords with the legal authority that had been held by the hundred court over the tithings in the lord’s manor; the most important of those being view of frankpledge. The group of tithings that were located within each manor had come to be called a leet and hence in the later Middle Ages these judicial powers came to be called court leet.
The court leet was presided over by the lord’s steward or bailiff and the first known bailiff for the Hundred and Borough of Cricklade was Roger de Writele in 1275.
Both the Lord of the Manor and the Bailiff can be traced over the years to the present day. In 1842 Joseph Pitt and others conveyed to Joseph Neeld of Grittleton, the Hundred, the Borough and the Manor of Cricklade. It has since then remained in the Neeld family and the present Lord of the Manor is Michael Neeld, which he inherited from his father, Ralph Neeld, in 2010
The term “Bailiff” became known as “High Bailiff”, possibly from the time of Joseph Pitt, and the current High Bailiff, appointed in 2006, is Clive Smith.Welcome » The Court » | <urn:uuid:3fbc2183-bc4f-4a6d-8270-a73abc840e4d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.crickladecourtleet.org.uk/the-court/our-history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00544.warc.gz | en | 0.985888 | 739 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.24813991785049... | 15 | After the Norman Conquest the system of feudal landholding required the lord of the manor to provide a court for his tenants. In 1156, the Manor of Cricklade was held by Warin FitzGerold, the earliest known lord of the manor. By 1245, the Manor, now referred to as the Hundred and Borough of Cricklade, had passed to Baldwin de Redvers, seventh Earl of Devon at the age of 10.
Baldwin died childless and was succeeded by his sister Isabella, wife of William de Forz, sixth Earl of Aumale. This lady, who was as a widow the wealthiest woman in the country, employed as her man of business that most notable rogue, Adam of Stratton. From 1277 Adam held under Isabella, the manor of Sevenhampton, the chamberlainship and Cricklade Hundred and Borough courts. The Hundred and Borough remained in his hands until his forfeiture in 1289, when they passed to the Crown and whence they were assigned as dower to a succession of queens.
At this point a few words explaining the various terms might help. In medieval England criminal jurisdiction was held by the hundred courts; the country was divided into hundreds and there was a hundred court for each of them. Each hundred comprised 100 hides, with each hide being an area of land of variable size that is enough to support one entire household. A tithing was an area of 10 hides, which therefore originally corresponded to about 10 households. The heads of each household were judicially bound to the others in their tithing by an arrangement called frankpledge, which created collective responsibility for behaviour within their tithing. The hundred court monitored this system in a process called ‘view of frankpledge’, with the tithing reporting any wrongdoing in their area and handing over the perpetrators among them. If the wrongdoing was minor it would be dealt with by the hundred court, but serious crimes were passed up to the shire court.
Before feudalism, hundred courts had also dealt with administrative matters within their area, such as bridge repairs, road conditions and so forth, but the manorial courts had largely superseded that in practice and some manorial lords began claiming authority over criminal matters as well. Eventually, the king formally granted certain trusted lords with the legal authority that had been held by the hundred court over the tithings in the lord’s manor; the most important of those being view of frankpledge. The group of tithings that were located within each manor had come to be called a leet and hence in the later Middle Ages these judicial powers came to be called court leet.
The court leet was presided over by the lord’s steward or bailiff and the first known bailiff for the Hundred and Borough of Cricklade was Roger de Writele in 1275.
Both the Lord of the Manor and the Bailiff can be traced over the years to the present day. In 1842 Joseph Pitt and others conveyed to Joseph Neeld of Grittleton, the Hundred, the Borough and the Manor of Cricklade. It has since then remained in the Neeld family and the present Lord of the Manor is Michael Neeld, which he inherited from his father, Ralph Neeld, in 2010
The term “Bailiff” became known as “High Bailiff”, possibly from the time of Joseph Pitt, and the current High Bailiff, appointed in 2006, is Clive Smith.Welcome » The Court » | 755 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The ancestors of Napoleon descended from minor Italian nobility of Tuscan origin who had come to Corsica from Liguria in the 16th century.
His family had moved there from Italy in the 16th century. His original name was Napoleone. He had 7 brothers and sisters.
His original nationality was Corsican-Italian. He also despised the French. He thought they were oppressors of his native land.
His father was a lawyer, and was also anti-French. One reason Napoleon may have been such a great leader and revolutionary because was he was raised in a family of radicals.
When Napoleon was nine, his father sent him to Brienne, a French military government school in Paris. While there he was constantly teased by the French students. Because of this Napoleon started having dreams of personal glory and triumph.
From to Napoleon attended the Ecole Militaire in Paris. It was there that he received his military training. He studied to be an artillery man and an officer. He finished his training and he joined the French army when he was just 16 years old.
His father died after that and he had to provide for his entire family. After the French monarchy was overthrown in August of that year, Napoleon started to make a name for himself and become a well known military leader. In Napoleon was promoted to captain. In he was chosen to direct the artillery against the siege in Toulon.
Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military leader and eventual political leader in France who was able to seize power during the end of the French Revolution of the late 's and early 's. Napoleon was the leader of France from to and mostly remembered as a . Napoleon Bonaparte “The human race is governed by its imagination. ”(Napoleon Bonaparte)is This quote by Napoleon shows how he believed that government should be made by the voice of the people. Napoleon Bonaparte was a great leader of war for France, and ruled as a democratic reformer. Businesss Research Papers (20, ) Humanities Essays (12, ) Literature Research Papers (33, ) Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleon Bonaparte, who is also known as the "little Corsican", was born on August 15, in Ajaccio, Corsica. His family had moved there from Italy in the 16th century. His original name was Napoleone.
Soon after that Toulon fell and Napoleon was promoted to brigadier general. Napoleon was made commander of the French army in Italy. He defeated many Austrian Generals. Soon after this Austria and France made peace.
Afterwards Napoleon was relieved of his command. He had been suspected of treason. In he broke up a revolt and saved the French government.Freemasonry and Conspirators.
История фамилии Константинович.
Konstantynowicz Bogdan: family - genealogy - origin - ancestry - history - biography - education - information. Rodzina - genealogia - pochodzenie - biografia - historia - edukacja - informacja. The Russian conspiracy intelligence network - globalism and globalization. The French Revolution (French: Révolution française French pronunciation: [ʁevɔlysjɔ̃ fʁɑ̃sɛːz]) was a period of far-reaching social and political upheaval in France and its colonies beginning in The Revolution overthrew the monarchy, established a republic, catalyzed violent periods of political turmoil, and finally culminated in a dictatorship under Napoleon who brought many.
Napoleon Bonaparte Research Papers Napoleon Bonaparte was born August 15, in the town of Ajaccio, Corsica. Research on Napoleon Bonaparte can focus on his military career, political aspirations or his personal history.
Whatever the need is, the writers at Paper Masters will custom write research on Napoleon Bonaparte. 35 years later an interview with a Vietnam draft resister: 1) At the time did you clearly understand the Vietnam conflict? How did the media portray the issue? Napoleon Bonaparte, who is also known as the “little Corsican”, was born on August 15, in Ajaccio, Corsica.
His family had moved there from Italy in the 16th century. His original name was Napoleone. He had 7 brothers and sisters. His original nationality was Corsican-Italian.
He also despised the French. Napoleon was born the same year the Republic of Genoa, a former commune of Italy, transferred Corsica to France. The state sold sovereign rights a year before his birth in , and the island was conquered by France during the year of his birth and formally incorporated as a province in , after years under nominal Genoese rule and 14 years of independence. | <urn:uuid:c17190f3-69df-45aa-8671-582caad9c893> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://peqiwepunak.tranceformingnlp.com/napolean-bonaparte-research-papers-39076gc.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00547.warc.gz | en | 0.985675 | 1,014 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.250536918640... | 1 | The ancestors of Napoleon descended from minor Italian nobility of Tuscan origin who had come to Corsica from Liguria in the 16th century.
His family had moved there from Italy in the 16th century. His original name was Napoleone. He had 7 brothers and sisters.
His original nationality was Corsican-Italian. He also despised the French. He thought they were oppressors of his native land.
His father was a lawyer, and was also anti-French. One reason Napoleon may have been such a great leader and revolutionary because was he was raised in a family of radicals.
When Napoleon was nine, his father sent him to Brienne, a French military government school in Paris. While there he was constantly teased by the French students. Because of this Napoleon started having dreams of personal glory and triumph.
From to Napoleon attended the Ecole Militaire in Paris. It was there that he received his military training. He studied to be an artillery man and an officer. He finished his training and he joined the French army when he was just 16 years old.
His father died after that and he had to provide for his entire family. After the French monarchy was overthrown in August of that year, Napoleon started to make a name for himself and become a well known military leader. In Napoleon was promoted to captain. In he was chosen to direct the artillery against the siege in Toulon.
Napoleon Bonaparte was a French military leader and eventual political leader in France who was able to seize power during the end of the French Revolution of the late 's and early 's. Napoleon was the leader of France from to and mostly remembered as a . Napoleon Bonaparte “The human race is governed by its imagination. ”(Napoleon Bonaparte)is This quote by Napoleon shows how he believed that government should be made by the voice of the people. Napoleon Bonaparte was a great leader of war for France, and ruled as a democratic reformer. Businesss Research Papers (20, ) Humanities Essays (12, ) Literature Research Papers (33, ) Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleon Bonaparte, who is also known as the "little Corsican", was born on August 15, in Ajaccio, Corsica. His family had moved there from Italy in the 16th century. His original name was Napoleone.
Soon after that Toulon fell and Napoleon was promoted to brigadier general. Napoleon was made commander of the French army in Italy. He defeated many Austrian Generals. Soon after this Austria and France made peace.
Afterwards Napoleon was relieved of his command. He had been suspected of treason. In he broke up a revolt and saved the French government.Freemasonry and Conspirators.
История фамилии Константинович.
Konstantynowicz Bogdan: family - genealogy - origin - ancestry - history - biography - education - information. Rodzina - genealogia - pochodzenie - biografia - historia - edukacja - informacja. The Russian conspiracy intelligence network - globalism and globalization. The French Revolution (French: Révolution française French pronunciation: [ʁevɔlysjɔ̃ fʁɑ̃sɛːz]) was a period of far-reaching social and political upheaval in France and its colonies beginning in The Revolution overthrew the monarchy, established a republic, catalyzed violent periods of political turmoil, and finally culminated in a dictatorship under Napoleon who brought many.
Napoleon Bonaparte Research Papers Napoleon Bonaparte was born August 15, in the town of Ajaccio, Corsica. Research on Napoleon Bonaparte can focus on his military career, political aspirations or his personal history.
Whatever the need is, the writers at Paper Masters will custom write research on Napoleon Bonaparte. 35 years later an interview with a Vietnam draft resister: 1) At the time did you clearly understand the Vietnam conflict? How did the media portray the issue? Napoleon Bonaparte, who is also known as the “little Corsican”, was born on August 15, in Ajaccio, Corsica.
His family had moved there from Italy in the 16th century. His original name was Napoleone. He had 7 brothers and sisters. His original nationality was Corsican-Italian.
He also despised the French. Napoleon was born the same year the Republic of Genoa, a former commune of Italy, transferred Corsica to France. The state sold sovereign rights a year before his birth in , and the island was conquered by France during the year of his birth and formally incorporated as a province in , after years under nominal Genoese rule and 14 years of independence. | 985 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Week of 23 September 2019
Interest in Bugs and Insects
The children really have been enjoying all the bugs and creatures they have been finding in and around our playground. This has been a continuing interest and the teachers have been encouraging further learning by providing materials throughout the classroom to provoke even more thought, reflection and questions.
Friday was a particularly windy day and many leaves had fallen on the playground. Working together with Teacher Kat, the children helped rake the leaves and excitedly worked together to fill our wheelbarrows and push them to the compost bin. While helping Teacher Gloria fill our compost bin, the children noticed some spiders and worms. Teacher Kat helped the children put some of the creatures in a clear viewing bin, a ‘bug box’, so the children could take a closer look!
Some children were very excited to hold the bin and watch the spiders, who were especially fast! Some children were not so sure, especially when the spiders started moving so quickly. Some children shared their thoughts on the roles of the spiders; the larger spider was the ‘dad’ and the smaller spider was the ‘mom.’ Some thought the spiders were sleeping until they jumped and ran quickly through the box! Some children wondered if the spiders and worms were friends or food to each other.
To extend the learning further while the children were so excited, Teacher Kahdijah brought the bug box into the circle time. The box was passed around the circle and the children took turns sharing what they knew about the bugs. They also took turns listening to what other children had to say. After sharing knowledge, the children sang the song, The Itsy Bitsy Spider. Ariyah led the song in English, with a little help from her friend Autumn. Grant then shared that he knew the song in Spanish, and he stood and sang the song for us.
We are looking forward to continuing our study of bugs and other small creatures. – Teacher Helen | <urn:uuid:fa5bc904-a1dd-4389-9674-8a541191b00c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.allfive.org/es/weekly-whatzhappening/week-of-23-september-2019/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00459.warc.gz | en | 0.982613 | 397 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.6336926817... | 3 | Week of 23 September 2019
Interest in Bugs and Insects
The children really have been enjoying all the bugs and creatures they have been finding in and around our playground. This has been a continuing interest and the teachers have been encouraging further learning by providing materials throughout the classroom to provoke even more thought, reflection and questions.
Friday was a particularly windy day and many leaves had fallen on the playground. Working together with Teacher Kat, the children helped rake the leaves and excitedly worked together to fill our wheelbarrows and push them to the compost bin. While helping Teacher Gloria fill our compost bin, the children noticed some spiders and worms. Teacher Kat helped the children put some of the creatures in a clear viewing bin, a ‘bug box’, so the children could take a closer look!
Some children were very excited to hold the bin and watch the spiders, who were especially fast! Some children were not so sure, especially when the spiders started moving so quickly. Some children shared their thoughts on the roles of the spiders; the larger spider was the ‘dad’ and the smaller spider was the ‘mom.’ Some thought the spiders were sleeping until they jumped and ran quickly through the box! Some children wondered if the spiders and worms were friends or food to each other.
To extend the learning further while the children were so excited, Teacher Kahdijah brought the bug box into the circle time. The box was passed around the circle and the children took turns sharing what they knew about the bugs. They also took turns listening to what other children had to say. After sharing knowledge, the children sang the song, The Itsy Bitsy Spider. Ariyah led the song in English, with a little help from her friend Autumn. Grant then shared that he knew the song in Spanish, and he stood and sang the song for us.
We are looking forward to continuing our study of bugs and other small creatures. – Teacher Helen | 391 | ENGLISH | 1 |
‘When it vanishes as a national force (meaning when it can no longer get sufficient votes to hold onto its symbol, the hand), it will not have been the first large Indian party to die,’ says Aakar Patel.
How do political parties die?
It is interesting to look at this as we observe the long and slow death of the Congress. India's oldest party was formed 132 years ago and has been out of power for only three years.
But it is clear that as a national force it is comatose if not dead. Its brand is severely damaged and carries very little that is positive. And it has no real political message for its small base of voters.
When it vanishes as a national force (meaning when it can no longer get sufficient votes to hold onto its symbol, the hand), it will not have been the first large Indian party to die.
The All India Muslim League died because it ran out a reason to exist. The party was set up in the early 20th century to secure the political rights of Muslims and to engage with the colonial power.
It tried and failed to negotiate an arrangement to share power with the Congress (which was seen by many Muslims as a Hindu party, just as the BJP is seen today).
The partition of India came because of the failure to reach an agreement and in India the Muslim League more or less vanished. It went because the party's brand was associated with Partition.
For many years a single MP represented the party under the Indian Union Muslim League name. Though he was repeatedly elected from Kerala, this man, GM Banatwala, was a Gujarati.
In Pakistan, the Muslim League held power for a decade after Partition under various prime ministers. The party's primary platform, the two-nation theory, did not remain relevant in a mostly Muslim nation.
Its two biggest leaders died soon after the creation of the country. Governor General Jinnah died of tuberculosis on September 11, 1948, and prime minister Liaquat Ali Khan was murdered at a public event on October 16, 1951.
When General Ayub Khan seized power a few years later, the party Jinnah had led split and formed the Convention Muslim League. This was the first of many versions of the party in Pakistan. This tradition of the party breaking and reforming itself in support of a military ruler continued over the decades.
General Zia ul Haq's prime minister Muhammad Khan Junejo formed the Muslim League (J) and General Musharraf was supported by the Muslim League (Q). The party in power today, the Pakistan Muslim League (Nawaz) was also formed in the period of Zia.
In India, the Congress remained more or less unified at the national level. The one big split in it happened after Lal Bahadur Shastri died and Indira Gandhi took power. The old men who were Nehru's colleagues formed their own Congress but Indira was strong and captured the organisation because of her charisma and popularity.
The Janata Party which defeated Indira Gandhi was a patchwork coalition of regional parties. The Janata Party was socialist and anti-Congress in its ideology.
It was formed during the Emergency and lost relevance soon after. Its constituents tried to keep the anti Congressism alive through the Janata Dal but that was an insufficient glue and it fractured into south and north versions of the party.
Lal Krishna Advani changed Indian politics with the Ram Janambhoomi movement. The anti Congress impulse of the Janata Party's fragments became an anti Hindutva impulse. This was because they feared the BJP and what it stood for and by now, under Rajiv Gandhi, the Congress stopped standing for anything much.
It did not have any real ideology and this continued under P V Narasimha Rao and Manmohan Singh.
The Congress has lost power in Delhi because it has been squeezed out of states. Its decade in power from 2004-2014 hid some facts.
In large parts of north India it is in permanent opposition. It has not won an election in Gujarat for three decades. In many other large states, where the BJP is either ruling or in opposition, the Congress is fourth or fifth, meaning it is irrelevant.
In the south, it is losing ground to the BJP faster than it thinks and Hindutva continues its patient and relentless march in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Competent Congress leaders in the regions long ago saw the death coming. Some of them successfully captured the party organisation, like Mamata Banerjee in Bengal. Others like Sharad Pawar in Maharashtra were less successful. But even he has no reason to merge his party back into the Congress because the brand is tainted.
As was observed earlier, it does not stand for anything. Reports say the recent hammering the Congress got in Maharashtra's local elections came after candidates got no financial support from the party.
This is a dangerous sign but it is unlikely to be heeded. The party will bumble along because being family-owned, there is no accountability.
It is possible that the Congress may be revived under another leader. But Rahul Gandhi is not an old man. He has a few more decades of activity ahead of him. This will work to the disadvantage of his party as it fades nationally into irrelevance.
Aakar Patel is Executive Director, Amnesty International India. The views expressed here are his own.
- You can read Aakar's earlier columns here.
Image: Congress vice president Rahul Gandhi and his sister Priyanka Gandhi at an election rally. Photograph: Nand Kumar/PTI Photo. | <urn:uuid:13369637-4343-4d78-b652-a0817a60f1b5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.rediff.com/news/column/the-congress-party-is-comatose-if-not-dead/20170303.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00513.warc.gz | en | 0.980541 | 1,154 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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... | 5 | ‘When it vanishes as a national force (meaning when it can no longer get sufficient votes to hold onto its symbol, the hand), it will not have been the first large Indian party to die,’ says Aakar Patel.
How do political parties die?
It is interesting to look at this as we observe the long and slow death of the Congress. India's oldest party was formed 132 years ago and has been out of power for only three years.
But it is clear that as a national force it is comatose if not dead. Its brand is severely damaged and carries very little that is positive. And it has no real political message for its small base of voters.
When it vanishes as a national force (meaning when it can no longer get sufficient votes to hold onto its symbol, the hand), it will not have been the first large Indian party to die.
The All India Muslim League died because it ran out a reason to exist. The party was set up in the early 20th century to secure the political rights of Muslims and to engage with the colonial power.
It tried and failed to negotiate an arrangement to share power with the Congress (which was seen by many Muslims as a Hindu party, just as the BJP is seen today).
The partition of India came because of the failure to reach an agreement and in India the Muslim League more or less vanished. It went because the party's brand was associated with Partition.
For many years a single MP represented the party under the Indian Union Muslim League name. Though he was repeatedly elected from Kerala, this man, GM Banatwala, was a Gujarati.
In Pakistan, the Muslim League held power for a decade after Partition under various prime ministers. The party's primary platform, the two-nation theory, did not remain relevant in a mostly Muslim nation.
Its two biggest leaders died soon after the creation of the country. Governor General Jinnah died of tuberculosis on September 11, 1948, and prime minister Liaquat Ali Khan was murdered at a public event on October 16, 1951.
When General Ayub Khan seized power a few years later, the party Jinnah had led split and formed the Convention Muslim League. This was the first of many versions of the party in Pakistan. This tradition of the party breaking and reforming itself in support of a military ruler continued over the decades.
General Zia ul Haq's prime minister Muhammad Khan Junejo formed the Muslim League (J) and General Musharraf was supported by the Muslim League (Q). The party in power today, the Pakistan Muslim League (Nawaz) was also formed in the period of Zia.
In India, the Congress remained more or less unified at the national level. The one big split in it happened after Lal Bahadur Shastri died and Indira Gandhi took power. The old men who were Nehru's colleagues formed their own Congress but Indira was strong and captured the organisation because of her charisma and popularity.
The Janata Party which defeated Indira Gandhi was a patchwork coalition of regional parties. The Janata Party was socialist and anti-Congress in its ideology.
It was formed during the Emergency and lost relevance soon after. Its constituents tried to keep the anti Congressism alive through the Janata Dal but that was an insufficient glue and it fractured into south and north versions of the party.
Lal Krishna Advani changed Indian politics with the Ram Janambhoomi movement. The anti Congress impulse of the Janata Party's fragments became an anti Hindutva impulse. This was because they feared the BJP and what it stood for and by now, under Rajiv Gandhi, the Congress stopped standing for anything much.
It did not have any real ideology and this continued under P V Narasimha Rao and Manmohan Singh.
The Congress has lost power in Delhi because it has been squeezed out of states. Its decade in power from 2004-2014 hid some facts.
In large parts of north India it is in permanent opposition. It has not won an election in Gujarat for three decades. In many other large states, where the BJP is either ruling or in opposition, the Congress is fourth or fifth, meaning it is irrelevant.
In the south, it is losing ground to the BJP faster than it thinks and Hindutva continues its patient and relentless march in Tamil Nadu and Kerala.
Competent Congress leaders in the regions long ago saw the death coming. Some of them successfully captured the party organisation, like Mamata Banerjee in Bengal. Others like Sharad Pawar in Maharashtra were less successful. But even he has no reason to merge his party back into the Congress because the brand is tainted.
As was observed earlier, it does not stand for anything. Reports say the recent hammering the Congress got in Maharashtra's local elections came after candidates got no financial support from the party.
This is a dangerous sign but it is unlikely to be heeded. The party will bumble along because being family-owned, there is no accountability.
It is possible that the Congress may be revived under another leader. But Rahul Gandhi is not an old man. He has a few more decades of activity ahead of him. This will work to the disadvantage of his party as it fades nationally into irrelevance.
Aakar Patel is Executive Director, Amnesty International India. The views expressed here are his own.
- You can read Aakar's earlier columns here.
Image: Congress vice president Rahul Gandhi and his sister Priyanka Gandhi at an election rally. Photograph: Nand Kumar/PTI Photo. | 1,146 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On 1371, Ma He was born in the southern China region of Yunnan to a Muslim Chinese ethnic family.
Eventually, his home town would be raided by the Ming. During the raid, Ma He was taken away and captured by the Ming.
After Ma He was captured, he was taken to the Nanjing, the captial and eventually befriended the Prince. Here, he rose to the title of Zheng, and he was now called Zheng He.
Confucianism only! No one will be like Zheng He again!
Zheng He Mosque
Thank you Zheng He!
In 1405, the emperor would have a fleet of ships sail the world to trade and explore. Zheng He became the leader and led 7 voyages. His ship was many times the size of Columbus's ship, and he continued until 1433.
Zheng He would come back from his voyages with goods and even animals. With his voyages, he also showed the political and economic powerhouse that was China.
While Zheng He sailed, he promoted Islam and possibly sailed to Mecca to complete the Hajj. After his death, China focused more on confucianism. This disallowed the things that Zheng He did. Because of this, most of his contributions were forgotton. However, in South East Asia we can see some mosques named after Zheng He. This was to show commemoration for his contributions. | <urn:uuid:d6a46857-38e7-4d19-b4fb-d971bed79428> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/9504aa64/zhenge-he-story-board-that | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00213.warc.gz | en | 0.993428 | 287 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.31110194325... | 1 | On 1371, Ma He was born in the southern China region of Yunnan to a Muslim Chinese ethnic family.
Eventually, his home town would be raided by the Ming. During the raid, Ma He was taken away and captured by the Ming.
After Ma He was captured, he was taken to the Nanjing, the captial and eventually befriended the Prince. Here, he rose to the title of Zheng, and he was now called Zheng He.
Confucianism only! No one will be like Zheng He again!
Zheng He Mosque
Thank you Zheng He!
In 1405, the emperor would have a fleet of ships sail the world to trade and explore. Zheng He became the leader and led 7 voyages. His ship was many times the size of Columbus's ship, and he continued until 1433.
Zheng He would come back from his voyages with goods and even animals. With his voyages, he also showed the political and economic powerhouse that was China.
While Zheng He sailed, he promoted Islam and possibly sailed to Mecca to complete the Hajj. After his death, China focused more on confucianism. This disallowed the things that Zheng He did. Because of this, most of his contributions were forgotton. However, in South East Asia we can see some mosques named after Zheng He. This was to show commemoration for his contributions. | 293 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This conically-shaped cast iron object is a by-product known as sprue — a casting jet from the production of iron shot or cannonballs. Twenty of these have been found in fort contexts so far. But while the colony’s early blacksmiths made and worked with wrought iron, there is no evidence they produced cast iron. (Wrought iron was made from iron ore in bloomeries fueled by charcoal. The iron was then worked (wrought) into various shapes by hand. Cast iron was created by smelting iron in blast furnaces under much higher temperatures until the iron became liquid and was poured into molds.) These objects were found in early James Fort contexts, too early for iron casting in America. No evidence for the production of cast iron has been found in the U.S. prior to the 1640s at the Saugus Iron Works in Massachusetts.
So where did this sprue come from? The earliest English cast iron objects were produced in the 16th century: cannon, cannon balls (also known as shot), and cooking pots. These artifacts from James Fort were formed by iron cooling in the funnel-shaped channel cut into the shot mold for pouring in the hot metal. The truncated cone has a rough narrow end where the sprue was knocked off of the shot after the casting mold had cooled. The sprue was packed up with the shot when it was sent from England because it could also be used as ammunition, a form of shrapnel. | <urn:uuid:a7db50f7-a528-4925-8f7d-290440c4b29e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historicjamestowne.org/selected-artifacts/shot-sprue/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00040.warc.gz | en | 0.988796 | 303 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.150653570... | 1 | This conically-shaped cast iron object is a by-product known as sprue — a casting jet from the production of iron shot or cannonballs. Twenty of these have been found in fort contexts so far. But while the colony’s early blacksmiths made and worked with wrought iron, there is no evidence they produced cast iron. (Wrought iron was made from iron ore in bloomeries fueled by charcoal. The iron was then worked (wrought) into various shapes by hand. Cast iron was created by smelting iron in blast furnaces under much higher temperatures until the iron became liquid and was poured into molds.) These objects were found in early James Fort contexts, too early for iron casting in America. No evidence for the production of cast iron has been found in the U.S. prior to the 1640s at the Saugus Iron Works in Massachusetts.
So where did this sprue come from? The earliest English cast iron objects were produced in the 16th century: cannon, cannon balls (also known as shot), and cooking pots. These artifacts from James Fort were formed by iron cooling in the funnel-shaped channel cut into the shot mold for pouring in the hot metal. The truncated cone has a rough narrow end where the sprue was knocked off of the shot after the casting mold had cooled. The sprue was packed up with the shot when it was sent from England because it could also be used as ammunition, a form of shrapnel. | 300 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A discovery off Israel’s coast illustrates how the metal recycling industry dates back more than 1,600 years to Roman times.
Onboard a shipwreck found by divers in 2016 were metal statues of a sun god, moon goddess and whale along with other figurines and coins.
The significance of this find to archeologists was that bronze artifacts from this era are rarely found.
That is because the Romans melted down their statues to make new items and if this garbage boat had not sunk in a storm, these would have been recycled as well.
Greeks and Romans
The fact companies such as Richmond Steel Recycling have been reusing metal since the 1970s might have led some people to think the metal recycling industry is relatively new.
But as a valuable resource that can be used over and over, the material has been put to new uses for centuries – this was particularly the case when coins bearing the face of a Roman emperor were melted to create new ones with the image of his successor.
In fact, the concept of reusing old items has been with us since the times of Ancient Greece – and often it happened when a raw material vital to a cause were in short supply.
During the American Revolutionary War in 1776, leaders such as George Washington and Paul Revere urged patriots to reuse items such as old chains and iron kettles, melting them down for armaments.
Some of their acts were quite symbolic, for example, a gilded statue of King George III was torn down in Lower Manhattan.
This then created 42,000 musket balls used to fight his British army.
But perhaps the first use of recycling as we know it today came in 1890, at a time when incineration was becoming more popular as a way of getting rid of rubbish.
He began setting up waste salvation centres around London which helped the poorer classes, who went around collecting junk from the city and recycling it to make money.
It is during wartime, though, the metal recycling industry can become a key part of efforts – and its use can cut deep into society.
The book Waste into Weapons examined the situation in the U.K. during World War Two – and with a shortage of raw materials for munitions factories, millions of people were enlisted to collect scrap.
Many historical buildings and artifacts were destroyed to help the war economy, with the book detailing the great loss that occurred because of the need for new materials.
Similarly, in the USA, campaigns such as “Save scrap for Victory” saw metal artifacts melted down to make airplanes and ships.
Here in Canada, salvage committees were set up in every town and city in 1941, which coordinated efforts and collection drives.
By 1944, this was so successful that shortage were no more and moves to collect scrap metals, as well as rubber, bones and fats were stopped.
As well as helping to make everyone feel part of the war effort it also showed what could be achieved when efforts are made to find substitutes for materials.
The salvage division formed within the Department of National War Services in January 1941 was perhaps ahead of its time – with every country in the world now having a recycling division of some form.
In times of struggle, making the most of limited resources is always vital – and many Americans also survived the Great Depression in the 1930s by selling bits of scrap.
More and more aluminum recycling facilities and scrap yards then started to appear throughout the 20th century.
But maybe the metal recycling industry as we know it today really does have its origins in the period around when Richmond Steel Recycling started operating.
Following environmental protests in the 1960s, Earth Day was the brainchild of US Senator Gaylord Nelson, and it aimed to raise awareness of green issues and our effect on the planet.
The first was held in 1970 and 12 months later, in a poll of Americans, 25% said protecting the world was an important goal – a 2,500% rise from 1969.
Earth Day has kept growing ever since and is marked annually by hundreds of millions of people around the globe.
While the growth of Richmond Steel Recycling hasn’t been quite as dramatic in the past 48 years, the company is still proud to play its part in conserving the planet’s resources. | <urn:uuid:747c33c5-a95c-45d7-9468-50f808b321ed> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://richmondsteel.ca/when-did-the-metal-recycling-industry-start/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00086.warc.gz | en | 0.981064 | 874 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.393622368574... | 13 | A discovery off Israel’s coast illustrates how the metal recycling industry dates back more than 1,600 years to Roman times.
Onboard a shipwreck found by divers in 2016 were metal statues of a sun god, moon goddess and whale along with other figurines and coins.
The significance of this find to archeologists was that bronze artifacts from this era are rarely found.
That is because the Romans melted down their statues to make new items and if this garbage boat had not sunk in a storm, these would have been recycled as well.
Greeks and Romans
The fact companies such as Richmond Steel Recycling have been reusing metal since the 1970s might have led some people to think the metal recycling industry is relatively new.
But as a valuable resource that can be used over and over, the material has been put to new uses for centuries – this was particularly the case when coins bearing the face of a Roman emperor were melted to create new ones with the image of his successor.
In fact, the concept of reusing old items has been with us since the times of Ancient Greece – and often it happened when a raw material vital to a cause were in short supply.
During the American Revolutionary War in 1776, leaders such as George Washington and Paul Revere urged patriots to reuse items such as old chains and iron kettles, melting them down for armaments.
Some of their acts were quite symbolic, for example, a gilded statue of King George III was torn down in Lower Manhattan.
This then created 42,000 musket balls used to fight his British army.
But perhaps the first use of recycling as we know it today came in 1890, at a time when incineration was becoming more popular as a way of getting rid of rubbish.
He began setting up waste salvation centres around London which helped the poorer classes, who went around collecting junk from the city and recycling it to make money.
It is during wartime, though, the metal recycling industry can become a key part of efforts – and its use can cut deep into society.
The book Waste into Weapons examined the situation in the U.K. during World War Two – and with a shortage of raw materials for munitions factories, millions of people were enlisted to collect scrap.
Many historical buildings and artifacts were destroyed to help the war economy, with the book detailing the great loss that occurred because of the need for new materials.
Similarly, in the USA, campaigns such as “Save scrap for Victory” saw metal artifacts melted down to make airplanes and ships.
Here in Canada, salvage committees were set up in every town and city in 1941, which coordinated efforts and collection drives.
By 1944, this was so successful that shortage were no more and moves to collect scrap metals, as well as rubber, bones and fats were stopped.
As well as helping to make everyone feel part of the war effort it also showed what could be achieved when efforts are made to find substitutes for materials.
The salvage division formed within the Department of National War Services in January 1941 was perhaps ahead of its time – with every country in the world now having a recycling division of some form.
In times of struggle, making the most of limited resources is always vital – and many Americans also survived the Great Depression in the 1930s by selling bits of scrap.
More and more aluminum recycling facilities and scrap yards then started to appear throughout the 20th century.
But maybe the metal recycling industry as we know it today really does have its origins in the period around when Richmond Steel Recycling started operating.
Following environmental protests in the 1960s, Earth Day was the brainchild of US Senator Gaylord Nelson, and it aimed to raise awareness of green issues and our effect on the planet.
The first was held in 1970 and 12 months later, in a poll of Americans, 25% said protecting the world was an important goal – a 2,500% rise from 1969.
Earth Day has kept growing ever since and is marked annually by hundreds of millions of people around the globe.
While the growth of Richmond Steel Recycling hasn’t been quite as dramatic in the past 48 years, the company is still proud to play its part in conserving the planet’s resources. | 898 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who was Alexander Graham Bell?
Alexander Graham Bell was a famous inventor who invented the telephone. He was born on March 3, 1847, in Edinburgh, Scotland.
Alexander’s mother and wife were both deaf. He spent a lot of time studying sound and wanted to send voice signals through a wire. Together with his assistant Thomas Watson, he created the telephone. The first words he spoke through the phone were “Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you”.
Other scientists had similar ideas of a telephone and Alexander had to race to send his work to the patent office. This is something inventors have to do, they need to get their work patented so people know it’s their idea. Alexander was lucky and was the first to get the patent. Soon everyone knew him as the inventor of the telephone.
He came up with other exciting inventions like the metal detector and a tool that helps find icebergs! How cool is that! | <urn:uuid:e23f05b6-113f-4867-bbcf-ff8e32ef78d1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://primaryleap.co.uk/activity/alexander-graham-bell | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00278.warc.gz | en | 0.992946 | 200 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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-0.152802601456642... | 2 | Who was Alexander Graham Bell?
Alexander Graham Bell was a famous inventor who invented the telephone. He was born on March 3, 1847, in Edinburgh, Scotland.
Alexander’s mother and wife were both deaf. He spent a lot of time studying sound and wanted to send voice signals through a wire. Together with his assistant Thomas Watson, he created the telephone. The first words he spoke through the phone were “Mr. Watson, come here, I want to see you”.
Other scientists had similar ideas of a telephone and Alexander had to race to send his work to the patent office. This is something inventors have to do, they need to get their work patented so people know it’s their idea. Alexander was lucky and was the first to get the patent. Soon everyone knew him as the inventor of the telephone.
He came up with other exciting inventions like the metal detector and a tool that helps find icebergs! How cool is that! | 195 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The ancient Babylonians used geometry to calculate the position of Jupiter 1,400 years before scholars in Europe were believed to have come up with the technique. The discovery is the earliest ever example of geometry being used to calculate positions of spacetime – and could indicate Western science was influenced by these ancient astronomers.
Mathieu Ossendrijver, a professor at Humboldt University in Berlin who specializes in Babylonian astronomy, made the discovery by studying five tablets dating to between 350 and 50 BC. He had long known of four of the tablets – but they were damaged, meaning he could not fully translate the information on them. He knew they involved geometrical computations, and thought they may involve Jupiter, but did not have enough information to go on to make any solid claims.
However, in 2015, he came across a set of photographs showing a previously unknown Babylonian astronomical tablet held at the British Museum in London. After examining it, he realized it related to the other four – acting as a key to unlock the information they contained. "The fifth one, was essential for forming a sense of the whole," he told IBTimes UK.
"All these questions were solved by this new tablet. Because it contains exactly the same computation in terms of numbers and it definitely deals with Jupiter. It was then possible to understand the others. It definitely deals with Jupiter. The trapezoid describes the motion of Jupiter. We were then able to reinterpret these tablets in spite of the fact they were damaged. It was a eureka moment."
The tablets contain geometrical calculations based on a trapezoid's area, using its long and short sides. They showed the two intervals from when Jupiter first appears on the horizon, depicting it at 60 and 120 days. They also worked out the time when Jupiter has covered half the 60 day distance by positioning the trapezoid into smaller ones. The findings are published in the journal Science.
Ossendrijver said we already knew a great deal about the ancient Babylonians were advanced in terms of their mathematical and astronomical abilities. "But this bunch of tablets, this kind of geometry that we've now found, is another level of abstraction," he said. "It's a kind of geometry that is not found anywhere else in antiquity. It's geometrical objects in this trapezoid – essentially a rectangle with a slanted top. This trapezoid is not located in real space, like our 3D space in which we are living, in which the planets are moving. But it's found in a more abstract mathematical space. It describes how Jupiter's velocity changes with time.
"The horizontal axis is time, the vertical axis is velocity. This slanted topside which is orientated downwards represents how Jupiter's velocity decreases from day zero to day 60. So it's like a modern graph. This is totally new. We thought this was invented in 14th century in Oxford and Paris – groups of mathematicians were inventing these methods."
Jupiter was particularly important to the Babylonians. The five tablets analyzed were most likely found in Babylon and were written by astronomers who served as priests in the main temple. This temple was dedicated to Marduk, a god from ancient Mesopotamia patron deity of the city of Babylon. All of the gods were assigned a star or planet to represent – Marduk's was Jupiter.
Ossendrijver said it would have been no coincidence that five tablets with the same geometrical method dealt only with Jupiter and the same 60-day interval. While there is no evidence, he speculates that the priests would have had good reason to study Jupiter more intensely than the other planets. Whether Jupiter was used as a proof of concept, or whether they used this method to track the other planets is not yet known.
"I would like to think this method was also applied to other planets and maybe such tablets will be found one day. I simply don't know. It could be that it's one very clever astronomer who came up with this new method and he thought let's work it out with Jupiter and see where we go from there. Maybe it was not continued, or maybe we don't have the tablets that were produced after that for the other planets. Time will tell."
While the Babylonians are known to have been very advanced, the latest find adds to the complexity and sophistication of their astronomy. It shows, Ossendrijver said, that they understood connections between time, velocity and distance travelled in a modern way – something he says is quite amazing.
How and why they were doing these calculations is unclear – researchers only have tablets with instructions on how to do something. There are no tablets explaining how they came up with something.
"These tablets are very rare or non-existent. So we can only speculate what they were actually thinking about with this method – how they perceived it. I like to think of the Babylonians as fully modern people that had the same cognitive skills as us, so I like to think that the astronomer who invented this was very proud of it or understood that it was something very new and very special."
Ossendrijver will continue to work with these other Babylonian astronomical tablets. He released his first book on them in 2012, and is currently in the process of writing a second that involves tables and numbers that describe positions in the sky.
Furthermore he is working with a colleague from Oxford to find links between the Babylonians and late Egyptian texts from the Roman period. The texts were found to have Babylonian astronomy relating to Mercury – showing their work had travelled to Egypt and the people there.
Summing up the latest research, astronomy historian John Steele of Brown University (who was not involved in the study), told Science Magazine Ossendrijver's finding was "an extremely important contribution to the history of Babylonian astronomy, and more generally to the history of science." | <urn:uuid:62291b53-64b1-4d6d-8ef1-e7f4158ceeb1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.businessinsider.com/babylon-used-geometry-to-track-jupiter-2016-1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00011.warc.gz | en | 0.982561 | 1,209 | 4.3125 | 4 | [
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0.414148... | 1 | The ancient Babylonians used geometry to calculate the position of Jupiter 1,400 years before scholars in Europe were believed to have come up with the technique. The discovery is the earliest ever example of geometry being used to calculate positions of spacetime – and could indicate Western science was influenced by these ancient astronomers.
Mathieu Ossendrijver, a professor at Humboldt University in Berlin who specializes in Babylonian astronomy, made the discovery by studying five tablets dating to between 350 and 50 BC. He had long known of four of the tablets – but they were damaged, meaning he could not fully translate the information on them. He knew they involved geometrical computations, and thought they may involve Jupiter, but did not have enough information to go on to make any solid claims.
However, in 2015, he came across a set of photographs showing a previously unknown Babylonian astronomical tablet held at the British Museum in London. After examining it, he realized it related to the other four – acting as a key to unlock the information they contained. "The fifth one, was essential for forming a sense of the whole," he told IBTimes UK.
"All these questions were solved by this new tablet. Because it contains exactly the same computation in terms of numbers and it definitely deals with Jupiter. It was then possible to understand the others. It definitely deals with Jupiter. The trapezoid describes the motion of Jupiter. We were then able to reinterpret these tablets in spite of the fact they were damaged. It was a eureka moment."
The tablets contain geometrical calculations based on a trapezoid's area, using its long and short sides. They showed the two intervals from when Jupiter first appears on the horizon, depicting it at 60 and 120 days. They also worked out the time when Jupiter has covered half the 60 day distance by positioning the trapezoid into smaller ones. The findings are published in the journal Science.
Ossendrijver said we already knew a great deal about the ancient Babylonians were advanced in terms of their mathematical and astronomical abilities. "But this bunch of tablets, this kind of geometry that we've now found, is another level of abstraction," he said. "It's a kind of geometry that is not found anywhere else in antiquity. It's geometrical objects in this trapezoid – essentially a rectangle with a slanted top. This trapezoid is not located in real space, like our 3D space in which we are living, in which the planets are moving. But it's found in a more abstract mathematical space. It describes how Jupiter's velocity changes with time.
"The horizontal axis is time, the vertical axis is velocity. This slanted topside which is orientated downwards represents how Jupiter's velocity decreases from day zero to day 60. So it's like a modern graph. This is totally new. We thought this was invented in 14th century in Oxford and Paris – groups of mathematicians were inventing these methods."
Jupiter was particularly important to the Babylonians. The five tablets analyzed were most likely found in Babylon and were written by astronomers who served as priests in the main temple. This temple was dedicated to Marduk, a god from ancient Mesopotamia patron deity of the city of Babylon. All of the gods were assigned a star or planet to represent – Marduk's was Jupiter.
Ossendrijver said it would have been no coincidence that five tablets with the same geometrical method dealt only with Jupiter and the same 60-day interval. While there is no evidence, he speculates that the priests would have had good reason to study Jupiter more intensely than the other planets. Whether Jupiter was used as a proof of concept, or whether they used this method to track the other planets is not yet known.
"I would like to think this method was also applied to other planets and maybe such tablets will be found one day. I simply don't know. It could be that it's one very clever astronomer who came up with this new method and he thought let's work it out with Jupiter and see where we go from there. Maybe it was not continued, or maybe we don't have the tablets that were produced after that for the other planets. Time will tell."
While the Babylonians are known to have been very advanced, the latest find adds to the complexity and sophistication of their astronomy. It shows, Ossendrijver said, that they understood connections between time, velocity and distance travelled in a modern way – something he says is quite amazing.
How and why they were doing these calculations is unclear – researchers only have tablets with instructions on how to do something. There are no tablets explaining how they came up with something.
"These tablets are very rare or non-existent. So we can only speculate what they were actually thinking about with this method – how they perceived it. I like to think of the Babylonians as fully modern people that had the same cognitive skills as us, so I like to think that the astronomer who invented this was very proud of it or understood that it was something very new and very special."
Ossendrijver will continue to work with these other Babylonian astronomical tablets. He released his first book on them in 2012, and is currently in the process of writing a second that involves tables and numbers that describe positions in the sky.
Furthermore he is working with a colleague from Oxford to find links between the Babylonians and late Egyptian texts from the Roman period. The texts were found to have Babylonian astronomy relating to Mercury – showing their work had travelled to Egypt and the people there.
Summing up the latest research, astronomy historian John Steele of Brown University (who was not involved in the study), told Science Magazine Ossendrijver's finding was "an extremely important contribution to the history of Babylonian astronomy, and more generally to the history of science." | 1,214 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Before the main commemorations for Armistice Day on November 11, French President Emmanuel Macron and Malian President Ibrahim Boubacar Keita honored African troops who fought for France in World War I.
On November 6, the French and Malian presidents inaugurated a monument and laid wreaths at the Parc Champagne to honor the African troops.
Keita’s great-grandfather fought and died in the Battle of Verdun in eastern France.
Until now, France has been accused of ignoring the contribution of the nearly 200,000 African soldiers from all over West Africa who were referred to as “Senegalese tirailleurs” (French for “riflemen”).
It is estimated that up to one-quarter of those conscripted died on the battlefield, and thousands more died from cold and illnesses that their bodies were unaccustomed to.
Most African were conscripted into service from 1915–1917, but were eventually promised benefits, such as passports or pensions.
Those military pensions were much lower than for their European counterparts, and passports were rarely delivered.
African troops were the subject of a recent photography exhibit in a Paris suburb intended to address the French public’s “amnesia” about their service during World War I.
Macron has called France’s colonialism “a crime against humanity,” including such historical injustices as abuses by French troops in the Algerian independence struggle.
Sources: News24, Sunday Times (South Africa) | <urn:uuid:4f7f2023-8b91-4f8c-a3dd-452678a0e445> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://newsdaylighter.com/this-armistice-day-africas-200000-were-finally-remembered/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00170.warc.gz | en | 0.983127 | 318 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.81527376174926... | 12 | Before the main commemorations for Armistice Day on November 11, French President Emmanuel Macron and Malian President Ibrahim Boubacar Keita honored African troops who fought for France in World War I.
On November 6, the French and Malian presidents inaugurated a monument and laid wreaths at the Parc Champagne to honor the African troops.
Keita’s great-grandfather fought and died in the Battle of Verdun in eastern France.
Until now, France has been accused of ignoring the contribution of the nearly 200,000 African soldiers from all over West Africa who were referred to as “Senegalese tirailleurs” (French for “riflemen”).
It is estimated that up to one-quarter of those conscripted died on the battlefield, and thousands more died from cold and illnesses that their bodies were unaccustomed to.
Most African were conscripted into service from 1915–1917, but were eventually promised benefits, such as passports or pensions.
Those military pensions were much lower than for their European counterparts, and passports were rarely delivered.
African troops were the subject of a recent photography exhibit in a Paris suburb intended to address the French public’s “amnesia” about their service during World War I.
Macron has called France’s colonialism “a crime against humanity,” including such historical injustices as abuses by French troops in the Algerian independence struggle.
Sources: News24, Sunday Times (South Africa) | 305 | ENGLISH | 1 |
s also depicted as the god of music and medicine. Apollo was a gifted musician and also a great athlete. He was the first victor at the Olympic games. He
pleased gods with his playing of the lyre. Apollo’s role in Greek mythology was to aid people when he
would be asked to foretell the future. He also would help someone if he knew they were going to have
problems. Apollo was said to have been “the most Greek of all gods” (Hamilton 30). This quote probably
came about because of his body, personality, and his knack for helping people. Apollo didn’t always
perform good deeds. Sometimes his wrath overcame him causing him to do things to people who didn’t
deserve it. Overall Apollo was your average god.
Apollo is often referred to as the god of light and the god of truth for there was no evil in him.
Born on the island of Delos, Apollo, the son of Zeus and Leto, was also tagged the Delian god from Delos.
He had no flaws. The town of Delphi was the most sacred and holy shrine of all. This was where Apollo’s
oracle was based. An oracle is a shrine consecrated to the worship and consultation of a prophetic deity, as
that of Apollo at Delphi. Many pilgrims from far and wide came to see the oracle. A priestess at the oracle
was believed to go into a trance and talk to Apollo and tell “the truth of life” to his followers.
Apollo once had an encounter with the three-headed serpent, the Python, a fabled monster. The
three-headed serpent had killed many people if they had not paid his tax. One day, Apollo was passing
through the Mountains of Parnassus, when he was asked by the Python to pay to pass through the Parnassus
pass. Apollo refused causing the fight. Apollo took out his bow and his silver arrows and killed the Python.
Thus, giving him the name the Pythian god. Delphi was at the base of Parnassus. That is why Apollo’s
oracle was at Delphi. (“Apollo”)
Sometimes Apollo was cruel and shrewd. In the Homeric epic, the Iliad, Apollo was summoned
by a priest named Chryses to release his daughter from the Greek general, Agamemnon who lead the siege
of Troy. He did this by shooting fiery-red pestilence arrows in to Agamemnon’s Greek Army killing many
soldiers who were merely doing their jobs. In another instance, he abducted the Athenian princess Creusa,
and then abandoned her and their child born to Creusa.
In conclusion, Apollo fulfilled his role to help people in distress. Apollo was regarded more
favorable than unethical because he rarely did bad things; but he did kill innocent soldiers and abandoned
his child and the child’s mother. Apollo’s good qualities show from the good deeds he did such as killing
the Python who killed other people for an unnecessary tax. Apollo was the most Greek of all gods. | <urn:uuid:fcd1dbd2-131a-48a5-bdd6-bc77671e082b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://santosforcongress.com/apollo-was-the-greek-god-of-prophecy-although-he-i/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00265.warc.gz | en | 0.990602 | 673 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.449480712413787... | 4 | s also depicted as the god of music and medicine. Apollo was a gifted musician and also a great athlete. He was the first victor at the Olympic games. He
pleased gods with his playing of the lyre. Apollo’s role in Greek mythology was to aid people when he
would be asked to foretell the future. He also would help someone if he knew they were going to have
problems. Apollo was said to have been “the most Greek of all gods” (Hamilton 30). This quote probably
came about because of his body, personality, and his knack for helping people. Apollo didn’t always
perform good deeds. Sometimes his wrath overcame him causing him to do things to people who didn’t
deserve it. Overall Apollo was your average god.
Apollo is often referred to as the god of light and the god of truth for there was no evil in him.
Born on the island of Delos, Apollo, the son of Zeus and Leto, was also tagged the Delian god from Delos.
He had no flaws. The town of Delphi was the most sacred and holy shrine of all. This was where Apollo’s
oracle was based. An oracle is a shrine consecrated to the worship and consultation of a prophetic deity, as
that of Apollo at Delphi. Many pilgrims from far and wide came to see the oracle. A priestess at the oracle
was believed to go into a trance and talk to Apollo and tell “the truth of life” to his followers.
Apollo once had an encounter with the three-headed serpent, the Python, a fabled monster. The
three-headed serpent had killed many people if they had not paid his tax. One day, Apollo was passing
through the Mountains of Parnassus, when he was asked by the Python to pay to pass through the Parnassus
pass. Apollo refused causing the fight. Apollo took out his bow and his silver arrows and killed the Python.
Thus, giving him the name the Pythian god. Delphi was at the base of Parnassus. That is why Apollo’s
oracle was at Delphi. (“Apollo”)
Sometimes Apollo was cruel and shrewd. In the Homeric epic, the Iliad, Apollo was summoned
by a priest named Chryses to release his daughter from the Greek general, Agamemnon who lead the siege
of Troy. He did this by shooting fiery-red pestilence arrows in to Agamemnon’s Greek Army killing many
soldiers who were merely doing their jobs. In another instance, he abducted the Athenian princess Creusa,
and then abandoned her and their child born to Creusa.
In conclusion, Apollo fulfilled his role to help people in distress. Apollo was regarded more
favorable than unethical because he rarely did bad things; but he did kill innocent soldiers and abandoned
his child and the child’s mother. Apollo’s good qualities show from the good deeds he did such as killing
the Python who killed other people for an unnecessary tax. Apollo was the most Greek of all gods. | 635 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Last Updated: 2013 viewswith
In October 1941 after three years of occupation the exiled Czechoslovak government in England decided that a show of strength was required. Operation Anthropoid was a World War 2 military operation with a specific assignment for two young allied paratroopers namely the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich. By the end of June 1942, Heydrich was dead, the paratroopers were dead, two villages had been destroyed and effective Czech resistance had ended. How did it come to this?
Remember that a graphic description of the events surrounding Operation Anthropoid is included in the World War Two walking tour.
The Characters and Places
Reinhard Heydrich, acting-Reichsprotektor in Bohemia and Moravia (70% of the present day Czech Republic). Number 1 Nazi in the country and heir-apparent to Hitler. On his arrival in Czech he had thousands of prisoners executed. He put in place the mechanism resulting in 90% of the destruction of the Jewish population 1941-42. He had two other main duties, firstly to suppress resistance and secondly to make sure that sufficient vehicles from Czech factories were being produced.
Jan Kubiš, Czech paratrooper, Operation ANTHROPOID.
Josef Gabčík, Slovak paratrooper, Operation ANTHROPOID.
Karel Čurda, Czech paratrooper, Operation OUT DISTANCE.
Lidice and Ležáky, Czech villages.
St Cyril and St Methodius, a church in Resslova close to Charles Square.
On December 28th 1941 the two paratroopers along with other soldiers parachuted into Czechoslovakia and made contact with the resistance. They considered three possible plans for killing Heydrich and finally settled on an attack on his car as he was being driven from his home.
On May 27th 1942 at 1030 in the morning and having picked their spot on a tight bend that would have caused the car to slow down, they put their plan into action. It was chaos. As the car slowed, Gabčík commenced firing with a machine gun only for it to jam. By now Heydrich had stopped the car and was shooting at the paratroopers. Kubiš then threw an anti-tank grenade at the car which exploded causing Heydrich, his driver, two bystanders and the paratroopers to be temporarily stunned (Kubiš was also injured by the blast). We know this because even at a range of less than 20 feet, Heydrich, Gabčík and an injured Kubiš fired more than 20 rounds between them and hit nothing. Both paratroopers then ran from the scene still being shot at by Heydrich and chased by the driver but they escaped.
In the heat of the moment with adrenalin pumping, Heydrich apparently did not know that he was injured otherwise he would surely not have sent his driver after them. His injuries included a collapsed lung, fractured rib and damaged spleen from the shrapnel caused by the blast. Aged 38 and by all accounts a fit man he was treated and by June 2nd looked to be on the way to recovery but on June 3rd he collapsed into a coma and died on June 4th. Several causes have been put forward for his death including blood clots causing a heart attack, poisoning and more likely septicemia (blood poisoning). It was also speculated that horse hair seat stuffing blown into his body by the blast was the cause of the septicemia.
The Nazis wanted immediate payback and two villages were proven to have supported the attack on Heydrich or to have actively supported the resistance. On June 10th the people of Lidice were rounded up, any male over 15 was shot, almost everybody else sent to death camps (young babies were adopted) and the village was destroyed. On June 24th a similar fate awaited Ležáky. In fact Ležáky was never rebuilt and exists today only as a memorial. Following the attack on Heydrich the Nazis enacted something called “Collective Punishment”, simply put it meant that combatants friends, relatives and neighbours of anybody connected with the resistance were arrested and in many cases killed. 262 of the friends and relatives of the paratroopers were arrested as a result of the betrayal and were executed at Mauthausen concentration camp in Austria. Several plaques in Prague show the date of death as October 24th 1942.
Gabčík, Kubiš and others were on the run moving between “safe” houses until what was left of their group sought refuge at the St Cyrilus and St Methodius church in the street called Resslova.
On June 16th a man called Karel Čurda, a British trained paratrooper on a separate mission, entered Gestapo headquarters and said he knew who killed Heydrich. He named Gabčík and Kubiš plus a number of locations where they may be found. Finally the group was surrounded at the St Cyril and St Methodius church on June 18th and were either killed or committed suicide in the crypt. Karel Čurda identified the bodies out on the street in front of the church. By the end of 1942 nearly 5000 people of the resistance and/or connected to the Heydrich assassination had been captured or killed.
Karel Čurda was arrested at the end of the war, tried for treason and hanged on 29th April 1947. The crypt at St Cyril and St Methodius is open to the public as a museum and memorial. Candles and flowers can very often be seen outside on respective birthdays plus June 18th and November 17th. I wrote a separate post about my Visit to the St Cyril and St Methodius Church Crypt.
If you really want to get into this story then you have to read this file. | <urn:uuid:d89b29c7-efab-4ab4-83ee-5279e58367fb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://livingprague.com/politics-and-history/operation-anthropoid/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00543.warc.gz | en | 0.983313 | 1,225 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.41331577301025... | 1 | Last Updated: 2013 viewswith
In October 1941 after three years of occupation the exiled Czechoslovak government in England decided that a show of strength was required. Operation Anthropoid was a World War 2 military operation with a specific assignment for two young allied paratroopers namely the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich. By the end of June 1942, Heydrich was dead, the paratroopers were dead, two villages had been destroyed and effective Czech resistance had ended. How did it come to this?
Remember that a graphic description of the events surrounding Operation Anthropoid is included in the World War Two walking tour.
The Characters and Places
Reinhard Heydrich, acting-Reichsprotektor in Bohemia and Moravia (70% of the present day Czech Republic). Number 1 Nazi in the country and heir-apparent to Hitler. On his arrival in Czech he had thousands of prisoners executed. He put in place the mechanism resulting in 90% of the destruction of the Jewish population 1941-42. He had two other main duties, firstly to suppress resistance and secondly to make sure that sufficient vehicles from Czech factories were being produced.
Jan Kubiš, Czech paratrooper, Operation ANTHROPOID.
Josef Gabčík, Slovak paratrooper, Operation ANTHROPOID.
Karel Čurda, Czech paratrooper, Operation OUT DISTANCE.
Lidice and Ležáky, Czech villages.
St Cyril and St Methodius, a church in Resslova close to Charles Square.
On December 28th 1941 the two paratroopers along with other soldiers parachuted into Czechoslovakia and made contact with the resistance. They considered three possible plans for killing Heydrich and finally settled on an attack on his car as he was being driven from his home.
On May 27th 1942 at 1030 in the morning and having picked their spot on a tight bend that would have caused the car to slow down, they put their plan into action. It was chaos. As the car slowed, Gabčík commenced firing with a machine gun only for it to jam. By now Heydrich had stopped the car and was shooting at the paratroopers. Kubiš then threw an anti-tank grenade at the car which exploded causing Heydrich, his driver, two bystanders and the paratroopers to be temporarily stunned (Kubiš was also injured by the blast). We know this because even at a range of less than 20 feet, Heydrich, Gabčík and an injured Kubiš fired more than 20 rounds between them and hit nothing. Both paratroopers then ran from the scene still being shot at by Heydrich and chased by the driver but they escaped.
In the heat of the moment with adrenalin pumping, Heydrich apparently did not know that he was injured otherwise he would surely not have sent his driver after them. His injuries included a collapsed lung, fractured rib and damaged spleen from the shrapnel caused by the blast. Aged 38 and by all accounts a fit man he was treated and by June 2nd looked to be on the way to recovery but on June 3rd he collapsed into a coma and died on June 4th. Several causes have been put forward for his death including blood clots causing a heart attack, poisoning and more likely septicemia (blood poisoning). It was also speculated that horse hair seat stuffing blown into his body by the blast was the cause of the septicemia.
The Nazis wanted immediate payback and two villages were proven to have supported the attack on Heydrich or to have actively supported the resistance. On June 10th the people of Lidice were rounded up, any male over 15 was shot, almost everybody else sent to death camps (young babies were adopted) and the village was destroyed. On June 24th a similar fate awaited Ležáky. In fact Ležáky was never rebuilt and exists today only as a memorial. Following the attack on Heydrich the Nazis enacted something called “Collective Punishment”, simply put it meant that combatants friends, relatives and neighbours of anybody connected with the resistance were arrested and in many cases killed. 262 of the friends and relatives of the paratroopers were arrested as a result of the betrayal and were executed at Mauthausen concentration camp in Austria. Several plaques in Prague show the date of death as October 24th 1942.
Gabčík, Kubiš and others were on the run moving between “safe” houses until what was left of their group sought refuge at the St Cyrilus and St Methodius church in the street called Resslova.
On June 16th a man called Karel Čurda, a British trained paratrooper on a separate mission, entered Gestapo headquarters and said he knew who killed Heydrich. He named Gabčík and Kubiš plus a number of locations where they may be found. Finally the group was surrounded at the St Cyril and St Methodius church on June 18th and were either killed or committed suicide in the crypt. Karel Čurda identified the bodies out on the street in front of the church. By the end of 1942 nearly 5000 people of the resistance and/or connected to the Heydrich assassination had been captured or killed.
Karel Čurda was arrested at the end of the war, tried for treason and hanged on 29th April 1947. The crypt at St Cyril and St Methodius is open to the public as a museum and memorial. Candles and flowers can very often be seen outside on respective birthdays plus June 18th and November 17th. I wrote a separate post about my Visit to the St Cyril and St Methodius Church Crypt.
If you really want to get into this story then you have to read this file. | 1,277 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Beginning in the war years and through the s, the state resumed an industrialization process that had been interrupted by the Great Depression. Arkansans migrated from the countryside to the cities and participated in the expanding consumer economy. Federal dollars subsidized infrastructure improvements.
Later, the British claimed the city at the straits "de troit" -- "the strait" and in it became part of the Territory of Michigan, owned by the fledgling United States of America. The city survived on fur trapping and trading before it moved on to processing iron ore, building stoves, railroad cars and finally automobiles.
The growth and prosperity of the city brought many job seekers to Detroit. In the Great Migration of African-American people of the World War I era, thousands of black people from the American South came north for jobs, many finding a home in Detroit and a job in the auto factories.
Growth of the auto industry in the s, s and s brought more people into the city. During the war years of the s when factories hummed round the clock building war goods, housing was particularly scarce. The city reached its population peak of almost two million people in the prosperous post-war s.
It was a busy big city of single-family homes with yards, good schools and pretty parks. This part of town was called Black Bottom because of its rich black soil. A vibrant neighborhood grew in this area, centered on St Antoine and Vernor; it included many night clubs, restaurants and other small businesses.
The area came to be known as Paradise Valley. The housing in Paradise Valley was old, and families lived in crowded conditions, but this was where black people could live; other areas of the city were not available to them.
Harmonie Park downtown photo at right has been redeveloped as a remembrance of Paradise Valley. Buck, who devoted herself to preserving the memory of Paradise Valley. The bulldozers rolled into Paradise Valley, and the Chrysler Freeway completely erased Hastings Street, while to the east of the freeway, new highrise buildings and suburban-style low-rise apartments and townhouses replaced the old neighborhood.
Ossian Sweet, purchased a house on Garland Street at Charlevoix, an attractive home where he and his wife and baby daughter could live. It meant they could move out of their current living arrangement, with Mrs.
The neighborhood was occupied by all white families, mostly blue collar tradesmen and clerks, some of whom had made threats as they realized their new neighbors were to be a black family. Sweet notified the police when he would be moving in, requesting protection. The police department responded by stationing cops near the house.
Moving day went okay, but by the next evening a hostile crowd had gathered in front of the house. Sweet had grown up in Florida where he had seen Negroes killed by white mobs. He had been in the thick of a riot, a white mob invading black neighborhoods, when he was attending medical school in Washington DC.
His wife Gladys had grown up in Detroit, actually living in a white neighborhood, and did not have the same level of fear of her new neighbors. Sweet, with his memories of racial violence, had recruited friends for protection and had stocked a closet with guns, just in case he had to actually defend those inside.
The baby was staying with relatives. The crowd grew noisy and some threw rocks at the windows. Sweet thought he heard someone breaking in and, in fear, distributed the guns to the men inside the house.
Amid the turmoil, a car pulled up with Dr. Shots were fired from the Sweet house and several men who were in the street were hit; one of them was killed. The police, who had not done much to disperse the crowd or protect the people in the house, demanded entry and began arresting everyone.
Dr Sweet, his wife and nine companions were tried for murder. They hired famous attorney Clarence Darrow to defend those charged in the case.
The trial was a national sensation, but ended in a hung jury.The National Association of the Advancement of Colored People began to challenge segregation in court.
Before World War 2, there were some significant victories.
Guinn v. the United States (), Buchanan v. Warley (), and Gaines v. Canada () were only a few. During the World War 2 and after challenges to segregation became more and. This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable monstermanfilm.comced material may be challenged and removed. (September ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message). Detroit, the most populous city in Michigan and the Metro Detroit area, serves as a major port connecting the Great Lakes to the Saint Lawrence Seaway.
Detroit is also known as the traditional automotive center of the world and its name is synonymous for the US auto industry, as well as its musical legacies, which have earned it the nicknames Motor City and Motown.
Racial segregation in the United States, as a general term, includes the segregation or separation of access to facilities, services, and opportunities such as housing, medical care, education, employment, and transportation along racial lines.
The U.S. produced more than planes and tanks during World War II. "Perhaps the most amazing thing was the speed in which they changed over from cars to war machines," said Bob Kreipke, Ford's. Educational materials were deve loped through the Teaching American History in Baltimore City Program, a partnership between the Baltimore. | <urn:uuid:14394419-530c-4003-97ee-d7c430532168> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://burutufalizid.monstermanfilm.com/segregation-in-detroit-before-world-war-3600rc.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00314.warc.gz | en | 0.984082 | 1,128 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.2471688836812973,... | 2 | Beginning in the war years and through the s, the state resumed an industrialization process that had been interrupted by the Great Depression. Arkansans migrated from the countryside to the cities and participated in the expanding consumer economy. Federal dollars subsidized infrastructure improvements.
Later, the British claimed the city at the straits "de troit" -- "the strait" and in it became part of the Territory of Michigan, owned by the fledgling United States of America. The city survived on fur trapping and trading before it moved on to processing iron ore, building stoves, railroad cars and finally automobiles.
The growth and prosperity of the city brought many job seekers to Detroit. In the Great Migration of African-American people of the World War I era, thousands of black people from the American South came north for jobs, many finding a home in Detroit and a job in the auto factories.
Growth of the auto industry in the s, s and s brought more people into the city. During the war years of the s when factories hummed round the clock building war goods, housing was particularly scarce. The city reached its population peak of almost two million people in the prosperous post-war s.
It was a busy big city of single-family homes with yards, good schools and pretty parks. This part of town was called Black Bottom because of its rich black soil. A vibrant neighborhood grew in this area, centered on St Antoine and Vernor; it included many night clubs, restaurants and other small businesses.
The area came to be known as Paradise Valley. The housing in Paradise Valley was old, and families lived in crowded conditions, but this was where black people could live; other areas of the city were not available to them.
Harmonie Park downtown photo at right has been redeveloped as a remembrance of Paradise Valley. Buck, who devoted herself to preserving the memory of Paradise Valley. The bulldozers rolled into Paradise Valley, and the Chrysler Freeway completely erased Hastings Street, while to the east of the freeway, new highrise buildings and suburban-style low-rise apartments and townhouses replaced the old neighborhood.
Ossian Sweet, purchased a house on Garland Street at Charlevoix, an attractive home where he and his wife and baby daughter could live. It meant they could move out of their current living arrangement, with Mrs.
The neighborhood was occupied by all white families, mostly blue collar tradesmen and clerks, some of whom had made threats as they realized their new neighbors were to be a black family. Sweet notified the police when he would be moving in, requesting protection. The police department responded by stationing cops near the house.
Moving day went okay, but by the next evening a hostile crowd had gathered in front of the house. Sweet had grown up in Florida where he had seen Negroes killed by white mobs. He had been in the thick of a riot, a white mob invading black neighborhoods, when he was attending medical school in Washington DC.
His wife Gladys had grown up in Detroit, actually living in a white neighborhood, and did not have the same level of fear of her new neighbors. Sweet, with his memories of racial violence, had recruited friends for protection and had stocked a closet with guns, just in case he had to actually defend those inside.
The baby was staying with relatives. The crowd grew noisy and some threw rocks at the windows. Sweet thought he heard someone breaking in and, in fear, distributed the guns to the men inside the house.
Amid the turmoil, a car pulled up with Dr. Shots were fired from the Sweet house and several men who were in the street were hit; one of them was killed. The police, who had not done much to disperse the crowd or protect the people in the house, demanded entry and began arresting everyone.
Dr Sweet, his wife and nine companions were tried for murder. They hired famous attorney Clarence Darrow to defend those charged in the case.
The trial was a national sensation, but ended in a hung jury.The National Association of the Advancement of Colored People began to challenge segregation in court.
Before World War 2, there were some significant victories.
Guinn v. the United States (), Buchanan v. Warley (), and Gaines v. Canada () were only a few. During the World War 2 and after challenges to segregation became more and. This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable monstermanfilm.comced material may be challenged and removed. (September ) (Learn how and when to remove this template message). Detroit, the most populous city in Michigan and the Metro Detroit area, serves as a major port connecting the Great Lakes to the Saint Lawrence Seaway.
Detroit is also known as the traditional automotive center of the world and its name is synonymous for the US auto industry, as well as its musical legacies, which have earned it the nicknames Motor City and Motown.
Racial segregation in the United States, as a general term, includes the segregation or separation of access to facilities, services, and opportunities such as housing, medical care, education, employment, and transportation along racial lines.
The U.S. produced more than planes and tanks during World War II. "Perhaps the most amazing thing was the speed in which they changed over from cars to war machines," said Bob Kreipke, Ford's. Educational materials were deve loped through the Teaching American History in Baltimore City Program, a partnership between the Baltimore. | 1,106 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The New Deal: Why Franklin Roosevelt Is Amazing
WPA Road Project
Franklin D. Roosevelt is yet another figure in history I admire, thanks to the learning I have achieved with motivation by my upcoming CSET exam.
The New Deal was a remarkable set of programs started by Roosevelt. Most of the programs were implemented in the first 100 days of his 12-year presidency, in 1932. Many of the programs were aimed at improving the state of the economy and assisting the poor, as the Great Depression was affecting the United States and morale was dropping with the stock market crash and job losses.
The First New Deal created short-term solutions like relief programs for the nation's problems, while the Second New Deal worked on more comprehensive distribution of resources.
The Works Progress Administration (WPA) helped create jobs for more than two million people, including photographers and musicians. The United States Bank Holiday closed banks until they could be certified (if applicable) by federal reviewers. The Indian Reorganization Act tried to prevent assimilation. I was amazed at the range of actions taken by the various programs of the New Deal; it was almost as if the Roosevelt administration felt that if changes were to be made, they might as well work improve any possible issue that might hold the United States back from making progress.
Many of the programs still remain today, such as the Social Security Act; the Fair Labor Standards Act, which set the workweek at 40 hours and outlawed forms of child labor; the Tennessee Valley Authority, which helped modernize the poor area; and the National Labor Relations Act.
I think that initiating these programs took a lot of thought, responsibility, understanding, and conviction. Actions were taken after looking at the problems, where they started, and how they were perpetuated.
People did criticize the New Deal for increasing federal power, for slowing long-term growth, and for weakening business, calling him a capitalist. Many reforms were made after Roosevelt's terms in office. However, I think the federal government needed to step in to slow the effects of the Great Depression effectively. Drastic measures needed to be taken, and though it didn't end the Great Depression, I think the New Deal did a fine job at working with it. While it didn't solve every problem sufficiently and not every program succeeded, Roosevelt's ambition gave enough people hope to overcome the nation's financial woes of the time, especially compared to other nations. | <urn:uuid:6bc04cca-902a-4a1f-8c55-e4e445d8a629> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://hubpages.com/education/The-New-Deal--Why-Franklin-Roosevelt-is-amazing | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00300.warc.gz | en | 0.981641 | 491 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.369172781705856... | 3 | The New Deal: Why Franklin Roosevelt Is Amazing
WPA Road Project
Franklin D. Roosevelt is yet another figure in history I admire, thanks to the learning I have achieved with motivation by my upcoming CSET exam.
The New Deal was a remarkable set of programs started by Roosevelt. Most of the programs were implemented in the first 100 days of his 12-year presidency, in 1932. Many of the programs were aimed at improving the state of the economy and assisting the poor, as the Great Depression was affecting the United States and morale was dropping with the stock market crash and job losses.
The First New Deal created short-term solutions like relief programs for the nation's problems, while the Second New Deal worked on more comprehensive distribution of resources.
The Works Progress Administration (WPA) helped create jobs for more than two million people, including photographers and musicians. The United States Bank Holiday closed banks until they could be certified (if applicable) by federal reviewers. The Indian Reorganization Act tried to prevent assimilation. I was amazed at the range of actions taken by the various programs of the New Deal; it was almost as if the Roosevelt administration felt that if changes were to be made, they might as well work improve any possible issue that might hold the United States back from making progress.
Many of the programs still remain today, such as the Social Security Act; the Fair Labor Standards Act, which set the workweek at 40 hours and outlawed forms of child labor; the Tennessee Valley Authority, which helped modernize the poor area; and the National Labor Relations Act.
I think that initiating these programs took a lot of thought, responsibility, understanding, and conviction. Actions were taken after looking at the problems, where they started, and how they were perpetuated.
People did criticize the New Deal for increasing federal power, for slowing long-term growth, and for weakening business, calling him a capitalist. Many reforms were made after Roosevelt's terms in office. However, I think the federal government needed to step in to slow the effects of the Great Depression effectively. Drastic measures needed to be taken, and though it didn't end the Great Depression, I think the New Deal did a fine job at working with it. While it didn't solve every problem sufficiently and not every program succeeded, Roosevelt's ambition gave enough people hope to overcome the nation's financial woes of the time, especially compared to other nations. | 493 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Eratosthenes is considered to be the first scientist in world history who managed to measure with excellent precision the circumference of our earth at a time when people thought that the world instead of being round was flat.
Eratosthenes was an important Greek mathematician and astronomer, who for many decades was director of the Alexandria library and was recognized as one of the most important minds of his time.
Cyrene Eratosthenes was born in 276 B.C. in Cyrene, North Africa, and died in 194 B.C. in Alexandria, Egypt. He was a disciple of the Greek poet Callimachus of Cyrene, and the grammarian Lysanias, director of the Library of Alexandria and friend of Archimedes. His enemies called him the “Beta“, because according to what they thought, he was the second best in everything. Those who knew and appreciated him, however, called him the “Alpha,” because they knew he was first in almost everything.
Eratosthenes ended his days dying of voluntary starvation at the age of 80, because he was extremely depressed because he had lost his sight.
One of the main contributions of Eratosthenes to science and astronomy was his important work regarding the measurement of the earth. Eratosthenes, studying the papyri of the Alexandria library, found a report in which it was said that when the sun’s rays fall on a rod during the midday of the summer solstice no shade was produced.
He correctly assumed that, if the Sun was located at a great distance, when its rays reached the earth, they should reach it in parallel, supposing that the earth was flat as it was considered at that time and therefore, there should be differences between the shadows projected by objects at the same time of the same day, regardless of the place. However, by proving that this did happen, he deduced that the earth was not flat and using the known distance between the two cities and the measured angle of the shadows, he calculated the circumference of the earth in approximately 250 stadiums, about 40,000 kilometers, an estimate that was almost close to reality.
Other of his contributions was that he was able to calculate the distance to the Sun in 804. 000. 000 stadiums and the distance to the Moon in 780. 000 stadiums. He was able to measure the inclination of the ecliptic quite well and with great precision at 23º 51′ 15″.
Another of his important astronomical works was a catalogue of about 675 stars. He also created one of the most advanced calendars for his time and a chronological history of the world since the beginning of the Trojan War.
He researched geography by drawing maps of the known world, large stretches of the Nile River and described the region of Eudaemony, which we now know as Yemen in Arabia. He also invented the Eratosthenes sieve.
Screening is a method that allows us to find all prime numbers smaller than a given natural “N” number. This algorithm could be summarized as follows:
In order to take measurements of the earth, he invented and used a trigonometric method, different notions of latitude and longitude that had already been introduced in the area of science, apparently by Dicearco, so he deserves the title of father of geodesy.
His importance in the modern world is not only based on the fact that he made important progress in geometry; he was responsible for the “Eratosthenes sieve“, a system for determining prime numbers. He was one of the most important geographers and mapped the Nile River to Khartoum, in which he showed its two Ethiopian tributaries, and gave the first satisfactory explanation as to why the Nile River was flooded. In addition, he elaborated a calendar with leap years, elaborated a small stellar catalogue, was a poet and wrote treatises on Ethics.
Among his most important works we can mention the following:
There are no recognized Eratosthenes phrases, but there are two phrases written by Carl Sagan that reflect his essence: | <urn:uuid:4bbeff04-1fa6-4d14-b262-a4ff369c24c9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.euston96.com/en/eratosthenes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00274.warc.gz | en | 0.985811 | 852 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.6600471735000... | 3 | Eratosthenes is considered to be the first scientist in world history who managed to measure with excellent precision the circumference of our earth at a time when people thought that the world instead of being round was flat.
Eratosthenes was an important Greek mathematician and astronomer, who for many decades was director of the Alexandria library and was recognized as one of the most important minds of his time.
Cyrene Eratosthenes was born in 276 B.C. in Cyrene, North Africa, and died in 194 B.C. in Alexandria, Egypt. He was a disciple of the Greek poet Callimachus of Cyrene, and the grammarian Lysanias, director of the Library of Alexandria and friend of Archimedes. His enemies called him the “Beta“, because according to what they thought, he was the second best in everything. Those who knew and appreciated him, however, called him the “Alpha,” because they knew he was first in almost everything.
Eratosthenes ended his days dying of voluntary starvation at the age of 80, because he was extremely depressed because he had lost his sight.
One of the main contributions of Eratosthenes to science and astronomy was his important work regarding the measurement of the earth. Eratosthenes, studying the papyri of the Alexandria library, found a report in which it was said that when the sun’s rays fall on a rod during the midday of the summer solstice no shade was produced.
He correctly assumed that, if the Sun was located at a great distance, when its rays reached the earth, they should reach it in parallel, supposing that the earth was flat as it was considered at that time and therefore, there should be differences between the shadows projected by objects at the same time of the same day, regardless of the place. However, by proving that this did happen, he deduced that the earth was not flat and using the known distance between the two cities and the measured angle of the shadows, he calculated the circumference of the earth in approximately 250 stadiums, about 40,000 kilometers, an estimate that was almost close to reality.
Other of his contributions was that he was able to calculate the distance to the Sun in 804. 000. 000 stadiums and the distance to the Moon in 780. 000 stadiums. He was able to measure the inclination of the ecliptic quite well and with great precision at 23º 51′ 15″.
Another of his important astronomical works was a catalogue of about 675 stars. He also created one of the most advanced calendars for his time and a chronological history of the world since the beginning of the Trojan War.
He researched geography by drawing maps of the known world, large stretches of the Nile River and described the region of Eudaemony, which we now know as Yemen in Arabia. He also invented the Eratosthenes sieve.
Screening is a method that allows us to find all prime numbers smaller than a given natural “N” number. This algorithm could be summarized as follows:
In order to take measurements of the earth, he invented and used a trigonometric method, different notions of latitude and longitude that had already been introduced in the area of science, apparently by Dicearco, so he deserves the title of father of geodesy.
His importance in the modern world is not only based on the fact that he made important progress in geometry; he was responsible for the “Eratosthenes sieve“, a system for determining prime numbers. He was one of the most important geographers and mapped the Nile River to Khartoum, in which he showed its two Ethiopian tributaries, and gave the first satisfactory explanation as to why the Nile River was flooded. In addition, he elaborated a calendar with leap years, elaborated a small stellar catalogue, was a poet and wrote treatises on Ethics.
Among his most important works we can mention the following:
There are no recognized Eratosthenes phrases, but there are two phrases written by Carl Sagan that reflect his essence: | 862 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The lecture on week 7 of the course ‘Introduction to Responsible Innovation’ contained three presentations, the interactive ‘Lagerhuis’ debate on several statements which relate to the course material, and the asked the students to apply the core definitions of the course to their SPGs.
The lectures were given by Matthijs Kosicki, Daniel Helder and Anouk Visser. Daniel covered the topic ‘Value Sensitive Design’(VSD), which can be described as the expression of moral values in engineering design. He talked about its emergence within the technological innovation process. It was stated that values should be the driving factors in technology. Matthijs talked about the reasons for using a Value Sensitive Design and it’s the positive or negative implications for society. The last presentation was given by Anouk. She discussed the relevance of VSD in Responsible Innovation. VSD is relevant to all types of innovation, design of new technology and technological artefacts. She answered three questions in her presentation. The first question stating whether technology is able to embody values. This question can be answered from three different theoretical points of view; instrumentalism, substantivism and interactionism. The second was asking which values should be included in the design of innovation. Since there are multiple important values which might be contradict each other in their result (for example honesty and integrity). Thirdly Anouk raised the question of how these values could be translated into design requirements. This is possible through the creation of a Values Hierarchy.
The feedback on the presentations was favourable. The students mentioned that the lectures were interesting, clear, concise and that the explanations were easy to grasp. Caroline stated that the lectures were of a good quality.
In the second part of our lecture we conducted a Lagerhuis debate. We separated the group in two and let them sit in two rows of chairs opposite each other. One side would represent people in favour of a certain statement and the other side would present arguments against a certain statement. Which side was for or against a statement was decided by the toss of a coin. We provided the group with seven statements which were related to the lecture materials. We started with an explanation of the core concepts of lecture 1, then provided the students with a statement and afterwards tossed the coin, following this the debate would start. At the end of each debate, which was timed to last for 3 minutes, the students who orchestrated the lecture gave a summary of the points made during the debate. To make sure that the debates were lively or started at all, Valérie of the week 7 group, was active in making arguments and provoke a debate.
The feedback from the students on the lagerhuis debates were enthusiastic. They liked that they were able to do something more interactive and participate. However they said that some of the statements were hard to grasp or formulate an opinion on. They also gave the advice to make 2 lagerhuis debate groups, which are both smaller, to really force everyone to participate and make it easier to state your opinion in the given timeframe. Caroline told us that she liked the lagerhuis debates. However she felt that there was a lack of energy within the group. People were hesitant to stand up. This happens often during such debates and usually presents a challenge. She also stated that some of the students got confused by the phrasing of the statements. The chapter 7 group was advised to stear clear of double negatives within the statements.
The review of the core concepts of the weekly lecture materials was well liked and found to be clear and concise.
The third part of the lecture gave the students the opportunity to apply the core concepts of the weekly lectures on their Student Project Groups and their research. We gave the students about twenty minutes to think about these core concepts – such as; values, risk and responsibility – and relate them to their project research and achievements. After these 20 minutes the SPGs were asked to present their findings to the class, after which they got relevant feedback on their findings.
Many of the students found this exercise to be really helpful. It was also interesting to notice that social cohesion was a value that often arose. | <urn:uuid:fc6f4b21-b076-4c8a-af56-11d9bc3d86bf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://surf.ginger-acceptatie.driebit.net/page/25034/evaluation-process-overview-week-7 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00429.warc.gz | en | 0.98017 | 853 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.1032577902078... | 2 | The lecture on week 7 of the course ‘Introduction to Responsible Innovation’ contained three presentations, the interactive ‘Lagerhuis’ debate on several statements which relate to the course material, and the asked the students to apply the core definitions of the course to their SPGs.
The lectures were given by Matthijs Kosicki, Daniel Helder and Anouk Visser. Daniel covered the topic ‘Value Sensitive Design’(VSD), which can be described as the expression of moral values in engineering design. He talked about its emergence within the technological innovation process. It was stated that values should be the driving factors in technology. Matthijs talked about the reasons for using a Value Sensitive Design and it’s the positive or negative implications for society. The last presentation was given by Anouk. She discussed the relevance of VSD in Responsible Innovation. VSD is relevant to all types of innovation, design of new technology and technological artefacts. She answered three questions in her presentation. The first question stating whether technology is able to embody values. This question can be answered from three different theoretical points of view; instrumentalism, substantivism and interactionism. The second was asking which values should be included in the design of innovation. Since there are multiple important values which might be contradict each other in their result (for example honesty and integrity). Thirdly Anouk raised the question of how these values could be translated into design requirements. This is possible through the creation of a Values Hierarchy.
The feedback on the presentations was favourable. The students mentioned that the lectures were interesting, clear, concise and that the explanations were easy to grasp. Caroline stated that the lectures were of a good quality.
In the second part of our lecture we conducted a Lagerhuis debate. We separated the group in two and let them sit in two rows of chairs opposite each other. One side would represent people in favour of a certain statement and the other side would present arguments against a certain statement. Which side was for or against a statement was decided by the toss of a coin. We provided the group with seven statements which were related to the lecture materials. We started with an explanation of the core concepts of lecture 1, then provided the students with a statement and afterwards tossed the coin, following this the debate would start. At the end of each debate, which was timed to last for 3 minutes, the students who orchestrated the lecture gave a summary of the points made during the debate. To make sure that the debates were lively or started at all, Valérie of the week 7 group, was active in making arguments and provoke a debate.
The feedback from the students on the lagerhuis debates were enthusiastic. They liked that they were able to do something more interactive and participate. However they said that some of the statements were hard to grasp or formulate an opinion on. They also gave the advice to make 2 lagerhuis debate groups, which are both smaller, to really force everyone to participate and make it easier to state your opinion in the given timeframe. Caroline told us that she liked the lagerhuis debates. However she felt that there was a lack of energy within the group. People were hesitant to stand up. This happens often during such debates and usually presents a challenge. She also stated that some of the students got confused by the phrasing of the statements. The chapter 7 group was advised to stear clear of double negatives within the statements.
The review of the core concepts of the weekly lecture materials was well liked and found to be clear and concise.
The third part of the lecture gave the students the opportunity to apply the core concepts of the weekly lectures on their Student Project Groups and their research. We gave the students about twenty minutes to think about these core concepts – such as; values, risk and responsibility – and relate them to their project research and achievements. After these 20 minutes the SPGs were asked to present their findings to the class, after which they got relevant feedback on their findings.
Many of the students found this exercise to be really helpful. It was also interesting to notice that social cohesion was a value that often arose. | 844 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the late summer of 1944, Hitler pulled all Wehrmacht troops out of the Balkans to help stop the Soviets and the Allies as they raced towards Germany. Hitler’s Balkan allies, Romania and Bulgaria, sought an accommodation with the Soviet Union and switch sides. In Yugoslavia, Josef Tito’s highly organized communist partisans filled the vacuum left by the retreating Germans and successfully stiff armed “liberating” Soviet troops. In Greece however, the partisans were generally divided into two camps that were hostile to each other. The first were the various factions supported by Tito’s Partisans and the Soviet Union, the National Liberation Front (EAM), and the other was composed of the various groups and reformed army units supporting the Greek Government in Exile, backed by Great Britain.
Winston Churchill foresaw the coming post war conflict with Communism and vowed Stalin would not have direct access to a port on the Mediterranean. All through 1944, the British made a point of securing German occupied islands in the Eastern Mediterranean and Aegean Seas. The stage set, Winston Churchill quietly pulled British units out of Italy and the Middle East to accompany the return of the Greek Government in Exile after the Germans departed. On 3 October, British and Greek units occupied Athens and began funneling supplies to allied militias and disarming the EAM and the Greek Communist Party.
The EAM organized a general strike and on 3 December staged a massive protest in Athens to stop the complete erosion of communist power in Greece. The protest degenerated into a riot and eventually into open street fighting by the EAM against Greek soldiers, police and militias and their British backers. On 12 December, the tough 4th Indian Division, veterans of the 2nd Battle of Monte Cassino, arrived from Italy and this turned the tide against the Communists. By late January, the EAM was defeated. In February the various parties signed a ceasefire, supported by the US, Great Britain and even the Soviet Union. Stalin knew he could then use Churchill’s intervention in Greece as a pretext to openly do in Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, and Hungary what he was already doing in secret.
The Greek Civil War began in earnest in March 1946 when the Yugoslav and Soviet backed Democratic Army of Greece (DSE) attacked Greek policemen across the country (the DSE was formed from the remnants of the EAM). Great Britain was bankrupt from six years of war and asked for the United States to take their place as the Greek government’s patron.
In 1945, President Truman recognized America’s new found leadership role in the Free World, and with Secretary of State George C Marshall developed and adopted the “Truman Doctrine”, which vowed America would stop the spread of Communism, starting with Greece.
In the autumn of 1989, the people of Eastern Europe had had enough of Socialism. In Poland in September, Lech Walesa and Solidarity formed the first non-Communist government in a Warsaw Pact nation. In Czechoslovakia, Vaclav Havel was organizing the Velvet Revolution from his prison cell, and thousands of East Germans were openly using the West German Embassy in Prague to escape their Stasi-controlled socialist paradise. In Hungary, the border was effectively open and tens of thousands of Eastern European “tourists” were flooding Austria, never to return.
In East Germany, and Berlin in particular, massive but peaceful protests rocked the Communist government. In early November, the protesters stopped chanting “We want out!” and began chanting “We are staying!”. The new East German leader, Egon Krenz, recognized that he would not be in power for long if some changes were not made. On 9 November 1989, he and his advisors finished reviewing the new rules which greatly lessened the restrictions on travel and the burdensome bureaucratic process needed to obtain approval, but it did not open the border.
A note about the new regulations was passed to his spokesman, Gunter Schabowski, who was having a press conference that evening. Schabowski told reporters that there would be changes to the regulations, but not the details since he didn’t have them. When asked, Schabowski assumed they would also include Berlin and that they were effective immediately. The reporters then assumed the changes would open the border as it was in Hungary, and ran with it. This was most definitely not the case, but within the hour, it was broadcast around the world that the inter-German border was open.
Thousands descended upon the gates in the Berlin Wall demanding that they be allowed to cross into West Berlin, because “Schabowski said we could”. East German Stasi Lieutenant Colonel Harald Jager of the Bornholmer Street Gate made repeated calls to his superiors asking for clarification. His superiors mocked him and told him to use force to clear the protesters since they knew nothing of the new regulations, despite it being all over the news. Jager refused and let the East Berliners through. They were met by celebrating West Berliners. Within days all of the gates in the Berlin Wall were open and several new ones were established when jubilant Berliners smashed through with pick axes and bulldozers.
The Cold War was over.
For seven weeks starting in April 1989, university students occupied Tiananmen Square in Beijing and the Communists were terrified. Though there were some hardliners, the Communists understood the need for economic reforms. They did not want a repeat of the disastrous Cultural Revolution of the 60s when Maoists doubled down on statism and Communism, and 30 million people died as a result. The Chinese people remembered this devastation from a scant twenty years before. In the spring of 1989, they would not stand for it again. In support of the students, millions protested across China for market reforms, free speech, free press, and a way to remove the intolerably corrupt politicians of the Communist government.
But unlike the Soviets and the communists of Eastern Europe, the Chinese Communists were under no illusions about what would happen if they held elections. However, they did have one advantage that the other communist governments did not have: the People’s Liberation Army was not state controlled as in the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc, they were party controlled. They could be relied upon for use against the Chinese people. First subjugation, then economic reforms. In early May 1989, a concerted effort was made to mobilize and bring formations up to fighting standard, and on 20 May 1989, the communists declared martial law.
250,000 PLA soldiers descended on Beijing. However, by 24 May, they were stopped cold by millions of peaceful protesters. For a week there was an impasse, but on 3 June, the communists had had enough. They ordered the PLA to use force to remove the protestors. Although some units refused to shoot civilians, thousands were killed when communist soldiers opened fire that night and into the next day. Almost immediately, vicious street battles broke out after students and shopkeepers banded to together to fight tanks and machine guns with rocks and fists. By the end of 4 June at least three thousand lay dead, and many more wounded. The fighting was largely unnoticed by the outside world.
The communists, like all tyrannical governments, feared scrutiny and transparency so they either coopted or coerced the domestic media into submission. But their censors did not apply to foreign journalists so they had placed severe restrictions on them, including harassment, isolation, and cutting their communications. Nevertheless, on 5 June 1989, those journalists locked in the Beijing Hotel witnessed an amazing event from their balconies. As a column of Type 59 tanks approached Tiananmen Square on Chang’an Avenue, an unnamed man crossed the broad street carrying two bags of groceries. The lead tank came to a stop just before hitting the man. The man, looking up, stood in front of the tank and then refused to move. The driver attempted to go around him, but the young man moved with it. The driver eventually stopped and shut down his engine, and soon the entire column did the same. For a long moment, it seemed that this one courageous individual had defeated the communist regime. The young man talked with the tank crew for a while, but was eventually seized by two goons from the People’s Security Bureau. The column continued on. Tank Man was never identified, nor was he seen or heard from again.
Despite the international exposure that the photos of Tank Man gave the events in China of early June 1989, the PLA successfully dispersed the protestors by 7th of that month. Afterwards, the communists rounded up and arrested anyone with connections to the protests. The People’s Republic of China is one of the few communist regimes that survived 1989. Today, due to censorship, Tank Man is unrecognized and unknown in China.
In April 1989, Lech Walesa’s Solidarity movement in Poland won the right to run candidates in the first fairly free parliamentary elections since before Poland was invaded by Germany and the Soviet Union 50 years before. On 4 June 1989, the Polish people headed to the polls (Ha!).
The Communists knew they were not popular, but they had several critical advantages. First, they still controlled the bureaucracy and the election apparatus. Also, their commissars still controlled the Polish military. Furthermore, more than half of the seats were rigged so only communists were allowed on the ballot. And finally, there was still 60,000 Red Army soldiers stationed on Polish soil.
The Communists believed they could not possibly lose the election utilizing these and every plausibly deniable, and not so deniable, electoral dirty trick. And many Solidarity candidates agreed with them. But the Polish people’s dissatisfaction with Communism’s inherent hypocrisy and corruption ran deep. Despite bureaucratic harassment, voter intimidation, and widespread election fraud, observers estimated that 98% of eligible voters turned out, virtually all for Solidarity.
Early ballot counts immediately showed that Solidarity and its allies had won a decisive victory. By the next day, it was confirmed: Solidarity had won 90% of the seats. Even seats where there was only a communist name on the ballot were lost to write-in candidates. It was a stinging rebuke of collectivism.
However, there was still the specter of military intervention. Fortunately, cooler heads prevailed. Polish military units began marginalizing, neutralizing or even out right arresting their commissars after the election, particularly if they attempted to take over units from their commanders. The Polish Army would not influence the election and the Poles did not have to worry about the Soviets. Like everything else about communism, the Red Army in 1989 was a facade. The Soviet 6th Motorized Rifle Division and 20th Tank Division had not received fuel or spare parts in months, because their supply system was so horribly corrupt. They had huge discipline problems and soldier-gangs ruled the barracks, where officers refused to go. What soldiers they did have control of were needed to tend the farms around the cantonment areas, which was the only way the divisions could be fed adequately. The Brezhnev Doctrine was dead, not because Gorbachev disavowed it, but because he had no choice.
Solidarity’s landslide victory was a reality on 6 June, 1989.
In July, the communists managed to hold onto the presidency through a series of back room deals, but a Solidarity candidate became prime minister in August. In September, 1989, the first non-communist government in the Eastern bloc in was sworn in.
The rest of Eastern Europe took notice
Since 1988, two former Soviet Republics, Armenia and Azerbaijan fought over the Nagorno-Karabakh region in the Lesser Caucuses Mountains after the Armenian population voted to secede from Azerbaijan and join Armenia. The Nagorno-Karabakh War was fought through the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. On 5 May 1994, Armenia and Azerbaijan signed a cease fire agreement in Bishkek, the capital of Kyrgyzstan, temporarily halting their destructive war. The agreement left the unrecognized Republic of Artsakh as the defacto ruling government of the area as neither Armenia could annex the region nor Azerbaijan control it.
Throughout the late 80s, Communism’s inherent flaws and fundamental inconsistencies could no longer be covered up with propaganda by state controlled media or coercion and terror waged by internal security forces. This was especially true in the more liberal (relative to the Soviet Union) states of the Warsaw Pact: Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary. Some political and economic concessions had already been made, but their people clamored for more. When this happened in previous decades, the Soviet Union responded with force. But in 1988 and 1989, the Soviet Union had just withdrawn in defeat from Afghanistan and the Red Army was paralyzed from corruption and the need for its soldiers to participate in the spring planting, lest they starve. Furthermore, the Soviet Union was going through an economic crisis that was 40 years in the making. Soviet Russia could only look on.
Events came to a head in the spring of 1989. Two symbolic events in April 1989 stood out. First, the Solidarity movement in Poland gained a crucial victory when it secured permission to participate in parliamentary elections in June. (They would go on to win 90% of the seats.) But it was the second that was most distressing to the Soviets at the time because they relied on the false perception that Communism was for “the people”. In a reaction to Solidarity’s victory, the Hungarian parliament, who saw the writing on the wall, unanimously voted to change the official name of the country from “The People’s Republic of Hungary” to “The Republic of Hungary” which was more in line with the names of Western governments. This removed the farcical “People’s” from the name. By the late 80s, it was obvious Communism only served a totalitarian, oligarchic, and bureaucratic elite in the name of the “Greater Good”. Still, the name change was only a symbolic gesture, but the reformers in the Hungarian Parliament, who were the sons and daughters of those curb stomped by the Soviets in 1956, knew it was an important one.
On 2 May 1989, that symbolic gesture had substantial consequences. On that day, the Hungarian Border Police, following the lead of their Parliament’s vote, began removing the border fence with Austria, to kick start improved economic ties with the West. Although there were hundreds of small symbolic acts of defiance against the Soviets that spring, the dismantling of the Hungarian border fence was the first concrete act by a Warsaw Pact government toward a peaceful end to the Cold War.
As a popular tourist destination for Warsaw Pact subjects, Hungary was relatively easy for East German, Czech, and Polish families to obtain travel papers. Tens of thousands of “holdiaymakers” fled their countries for the West by ostensibly going to Hungary for vacation. The summer of 1989 was the most successful tourist season in Hungary’s history.
Just a little over a month after he was elected Pope of the Catholic Church and sovereign of Vatican City, Pope John Paul I died in his bed on 28 September 1978. Two weeks later on 16 October the Second Papal Conclave of 1978 elected Pope John Paul II after two days of deliberations. Pope John Paul II was the greatest Roman Catholic Pope of the modern age.
Born Karol Wojtyla outside of Krakow, Poland, he was the son of a Polish Army noncommissioned officer and attended university in Krakow where he studied history and languages until the Nazis closed it down in 1939. By 1941, his entire family was killed by the Germans, but Wojkyla survived by taking jobs in factories that got him exempted from the random detention and execution of Polish civilians. He spent his free time studying at an underground seminary while protecting and hiding Polish Jews from the Nazis.
After the war, Wojtyla was ordained a priest and spent the next 30 years in the difficult position of an outspoken Roman Catholic in a country dominated by Communism. His unpretentious demeanor and wise counsel earned him the nickname “Uncle” which his parishioners and peers used until he was elected Pope in 1978, when he took the name John Paul II.
Pope John Paul II was the first non-Italian pope in 500 years, and one of the youngest and healthiest. He had a worldly view that contrasted greatly with previous popes. Pope John Paul II spoke eight languages fluently and was the most widely traveled pope in history. He spent much energy repairing relations with the other world religions and was the first Pope ever to pray in a mosque. Pope John Paul II was not against contraception for health reasons i.e. to prevent the spread of HIV, and routinely affirmed Catholicism’s stance that evolution and creationism are not mutually exclusive. He publicly apologized for many of Roman Catholicism’s historical sins, and the first ever papal email was sent apologizing for the church sex abuse scandals.
Despite this, Pope John Paul II was hated throughout much of the world due to his staunch and outspoken nature against totalitarianism. He specifically decried Apartheid in South Africa, the Mafia in southern Italy, Latin and South American dictators, Socialist Liberation Theology, and was the one of the few world leaders with the courage to call the fighting in Rwanda what it was: genocide. He was a consistent opponent of war in general, but more importantly, Pope John Paul II was the world’s moral leader against Communism.
He survived numerous attempts at humiliation (a favored tactic of socialists) and two actual assassination attempts, one of which was bankrolled by the KGB, due to his voracious anti-communism. His homilies and sermons on the evils of Communism and Socialism gave hope to hundreds of millions of oppressed people around the world, particularly in Eastern Europe. Most historians agree with Polish Solidarity leader Lech Walesa and former Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev, both of whom said that without Pope John Paul II there would have been no Solidarity, and without Solidarity there would not have been the Fall of the Iron Curtain and Berlin Wall in 1989.
In 2004, Pope John Paul II was diagnosed with Parkinson’s Disease and died in the Vatican on 2 April 2005. On 8 April 2005, four million people packed into Rome, St Peter’s Square, and the Vatican to attend the funeral of Pope John Paul II. His funeral is the single largest gathering in the history of Christendom. It was attended by over 90 heads of state, and in a historical anomaly, was attended by the spiritual leaders of 14 of the world’s largest religions, including Islam, Judaism, the various Protestant denominations, and Eastern Orthodoxy. It was the first time the Archbishop of Canterbury attended Catholic Mass since the 16th Century, and the first time the Patriarch attended a papal funeral since the Great Schism between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches a thousand years before.
He was canonized St. John Paul II on 27 April 2014.
Flight Lt Victor Belenko was one of the Soviet’s best and most experienced pilots, and in 1972 was assigned to fly the newest fighter in the Communist arsenal: the MIG-25 Foxbat. (Cue ominous music)
In the early 70s the Foxbat was the Boogie Man. It’s radar could see farther than any comparable American or NATO system, and the plane itself could accelerate, cruise, and climb faster, with greater range, than any fighter in the Free World. The CIA, much less the US Air Force, knew precious little about it, and what they did was only picked up from electronic hints by SR-71 Blackbird reconnaissance pilots trying to outrun its missiles.
Belenko was the training officer for a MIG-25P fighter squadron outside Vladivostok in eastern Siberia. As such, he was responsible for not only flight instruction but political indoctrination, which he considered a waste of precious time. He was a smart and practical man, and for several years, struggled with the cognitive dissonance inherent in a Communist society. The propaganda simply did not match reality. As a fighter pilot, he intimately knew the consequences of ignoring information that contradicts a perceived situation. But unlike most of his peers whom just became subdued cynics, Belenko turned skeptical of the entire system.
He was constantly bombarded by his commissars about “the greatness of the Soviet state and progressive society”, but he slowly noticed evidence to the contrary. His base conditions were horrible, and was called a “Bad Communist” for suggesting improvements to his men’s quarters. Due to a horribly inefficient and under funded maintenance system, he was routinely forced by his superiors to doctor training records, an act the commissars threatened with imprisonment. He found the entire system rife with corruption, and had to use his wife’s party connections to get anything done.
Belenko began to question everything. “If Communism worked, why did he, an elite fighter pilot, have to help with the harvest?”, “If America was backwards, why were their fighters so much better in Vietnam?” and, “If the West was falling apart why did they have so many more Nobel prize winners in science?” were just a few. Soon after his wife’s divorce due to their bleak existence in Siberia, Belenko reached the tipping point when he was presented with unmistakable proof of the commissars’ lies.
In June 1976, Belenko and his squadron were shown films of homelessness and poverty in American cities as affirmation of the failure of Capitalism. However, a closer analysis of the films’ backgrounds revealed stunning discoveries: he saw stores, but no massive queues. And they were lit with signs, and large windows that showcased huge varieties of goods. One film had a woman with bags of groceries with toilet paper poking out the top. (He “hadn’t used toilet paper in years”. He and his wife “cleaned themselves with old copies of the Pravda.”) Moreover, there were single houses completely at odds with the massive drab poorly maintained tenement block that he was forced to live in. Great swaths of Soviet society lived much worse than what he saw in the background of the propaganda films. The “‘Eureka!’ moment” came as cars drove past in all colors, shapes, and sizes. In a few frames passing by in a split second, he noticed “a Cadillac driven by a black man!”
The propagandists had said that African Americans were the most oppressed minority in the United States, but “how much worse must Communism be if a member of this oppressed minority can own a Cadillac, while I, an elite pilot high in the system, must wait for years on a list for a much smaller car?”
Belenko was convinced the propagandists were lying, and with no more ties to the USSR, decided to defect. Because the Soviets didn’t trust the pilots with a full tank of fuel for that very reason, he overstated his usage on a previous mission, and bribed his maintenance chief not to check. The next mission he received his allotment and with the prior overage, he figured he had enough to make the trip to Japan. Belenko smuggled operators and maintenance manuals into the cockpit, and hoped to buy his life in the West with his knowledge and his plane (the commissars told him the West tortured and killed prisoners).
On the afternoon of 6 September 1976, he broke formation, dove for the wave tops, slammed the plane into afterburner, and sped for Japan. Before his wingman could react, Belenko was gone.
He landed at Hakedate airport on the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido, with just 30 seconds of fuel left. Opening his cockpit, he fired two rounds in the air, and gave the startled white flag carrying Japanese officials a pre-written note asking for concealment of his plane, contact with American analysts, and asylum in the US (which he was eventually granted).
Belenko and his Foxbat were an intelligence windfall. The Air Force dissected the MIG-25 and found it to be far from the Boogie Man: it was a One Trick Pony. The Foxbat was the second fastest plane on the planet, but it was unmaneuverable, overly heavy, maintenance intensive, and extremely fragile. It was still a generation behind its contemporary the F-15 Eagle in all aspects but raw power.
Unfortunately, the Foxbat’s stay was much shorter than its pilot’s. The plane was ordered returned to the Soviets by President Jimmy Carter who wanted to increase goodwill with the Communists. The Air Force did exactly as the President ordered, but to their credit, with a bit of panache – the plane was completely disassembled down to individual bolts, and returned in thirty crates. Attached was a note that said:
“Dear Russian Bear, the US has everything we need anyway so here are the pieces to prove it. With best wishes, the Secretary of the Air Force.
PS: Nice plane, but nothing we need to keep.”
The passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the beginning of serious American involvement in Vietnam in 1965 began a new and more volatile phase in America’s Civil Rights Movement. The booming post war economy of the 50s and early 60s couldn’t keep up with the competing fiscal requirements of enforcement of the CRA, Johnson’s Great Society Programs, and the Cold War. A combination of Southern Democrats (for mostly racial reasons) and Northeastern Republicans (for mostly economic and political reasons) consistently steered money away from urban programs creating a widening economic gulf in America. In response to this, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr, at the forefront of America’s Civil Rights Movement, organized the Poor People’s Campaign in late 1967 and early 1968, focusing on jobs and income for America’s urban poor.
As part of this campaign, Dr. King traveled to Memphis Tennessee in March 1968 to give support to the plight of black sanitation workers who received unequal pay and benefits compared to their white counterparts. Memphis was no stranger to Dr. King: he was there often and routinely stayed in the same hotel, even the same room. At 6pm on 4 April 1968, a gunman, James Earl Ray, took advantage of this situation. Ray shot and killed Dr. King as he stood on the 2nd floor balcony of his usual room in the Lorraine Hotel. Ray would escape, but would be captured in London two months later.
Later that evening, at a campaign stop in Indianapolis, Senator Robert Kennedy learned of Dr. King’s assassination. He had one last campaign speech to make that day but he tore up his remarks. During this impromptu address he gave one of the most memorable speeches in American history. He focused on Dr. King’s belief of non-violence and abhorrence of racial divisiveness. He concluded by saying,
“What we need in the United States is not division; what we need in the United States is not hatred; what we need in the United States is not violence or lawlessness, but love and wisdom, and compassion toward one another, and a feeling of justice towards those who still suffer within our country, whether they be white or whether they be black.” | <urn:uuid:4a99a6d3-313f-4d6a-9b0d-59d6f270c32a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bukowo.com/tag/coldwar/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00365.warc.gz | en | 0.980711 | 5,661 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.52371025085... | 1 | In the late summer of 1944, Hitler pulled all Wehrmacht troops out of the Balkans to help stop the Soviets and the Allies as they raced towards Germany. Hitler’s Balkan allies, Romania and Bulgaria, sought an accommodation with the Soviet Union and switch sides. In Yugoslavia, Josef Tito’s highly organized communist partisans filled the vacuum left by the retreating Germans and successfully stiff armed “liberating” Soviet troops. In Greece however, the partisans were generally divided into two camps that were hostile to each other. The first were the various factions supported by Tito’s Partisans and the Soviet Union, the National Liberation Front (EAM), and the other was composed of the various groups and reformed army units supporting the Greek Government in Exile, backed by Great Britain.
Winston Churchill foresaw the coming post war conflict with Communism and vowed Stalin would not have direct access to a port on the Mediterranean. All through 1944, the British made a point of securing German occupied islands in the Eastern Mediterranean and Aegean Seas. The stage set, Winston Churchill quietly pulled British units out of Italy and the Middle East to accompany the return of the Greek Government in Exile after the Germans departed. On 3 October, British and Greek units occupied Athens and began funneling supplies to allied militias and disarming the EAM and the Greek Communist Party.
The EAM organized a general strike and on 3 December staged a massive protest in Athens to stop the complete erosion of communist power in Greece. The protest degenerated into a riot and eventually into open street fighting by the EAM against Greek soldiers, police and militias and their British backers. On 12 December, the tough 4th Indian Division, veterans of the 2nd Battle of Monte Cassino, arrived from Italy and this turned the tide against the Communists. By late January, the EAM was defeated. In February the various parties signed a ceasefire, supported by the US, Great Britain and even the Soviet Union. Stalin knew he could then use Churchill’s intervention in Greece as a pretext to openly do in Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, and Hungary what he was already doing in secret.
The Greek Civil War began in earnest in March 1946 when the Yugoslav and Soviet backed Democratic Army of Greece (DSE) attacked Greek policemen across the country (the DSE was formed from the remnants of the EAM). Great Britain was bankrupt from six years of war and asked for the United States to take their place as the Greek government’s patron.
In 1945, President Truman recognized America’s new found leadership role in the Free World, and with Secretary of State George C Marshall developed and adopted the “Truman Doctrine”, which vowed America would stop the spread of Communism, starting with Greece.
In the autumn of 1989, the people of Eastern Europe had had enough of Socialism. In Poland in September, Lech Walesa and Solidarity formed the first non-Communist government in a Warsaw Pact nation. In Czechoslovakia, Vaclav Havel was organizing the Velvet Revolution from his prison cell, and thousands of East Germans were openly using the West German Embassy in Prague to escape their Stasi-controlled socialist paradise. In Hungary, the border was effectively open and tens of thousands of Eastern European “tourists” were flooding Austria, never to return.
In East Germany, and Berlin in particular, massive but peaceful protests rocked the Communist government. In early November, the protesters stopped chanting “We want out!” and began chanting “We are staying!”. The new East German leader, Egon Krenz, recognized that he would not be in power for long if some changes were not made. On 9 November 1989, he and his advisors finished reviewing the new rules which greatly lessened the restrictions on travel and the burdensome bureaucratic process needed to obtain approval, but it did not open the border.
A note about the new regulations was passed to his spokesman, Gunter Schabowski, who was having a press conference that evening. Schabowski told reporters that there would be changes to the regulations, but not the details since he didn’t have them. When asked, Schabowski assumed they would also include Berlin and that they were effective immediately. The reporters then assumed the changes would open the border as it was in Hungary, and ran with it. This was most definitely not the case, but within the hour, it was broadcast around the world that the inter-German border was open.
Thousands descended upon the gates in the Berlin Wall demanding that they be allowed to cross into West Berlin, because “Schabowski said we could”. East German Stasi Lieutenant Colonel Harald Jager of the Bornholmer Street Gate made repeated calls to his superiors asking for clarification. His superiors mocked him and told him to use force to clear the protesters since they knew nothing of the new regulations, despite it being all over the news. Jager refused and let the East Berliners through. They were met by celebrating West Berliners. Within days all of the gates in the Berlin Wall were open and several new ones were established when jubilant Berliners smashed through with pick axes and bulldozers.
The Cold War was over.
For seven weeks starting in April 1989, university students occupied Tiananmen Square in Beijing and the Communists were terrified. Though there were some hardliners, the Communists understood the need for economic reforms. They did not want a repeat of the disastrous Cultural Revolution of the 60s when Maoists doubled down on statism and Communism, and 30 million people died as a result. The Chinese people remembered this devastation from a scant twenty years before. In the spring of 1989, they would not stand for it again. In support of the students, millions protested across China for market reforms, free speech, free press, and a way to remove the intolerably corrupt politicians of the Communist government.
But unlike the Soviets and the communists of Eastern Europe, the Chinese Communists were under no illusions about what would happen if they held elections. However, they did have one advantage that the other communist governments did not have: the People’s Liberation Army was not state controlled as in the Soviet Union and Eastern Bloc, they were party controlled. They could be relied upon for use against the Chinese people. First subjugation, then economic reforms. In early May 1989, a concerted effort was made to mobilize and bring formations up to fighting standard, and on 20 May 1989, the communists declared martial law.
250,000 PLA soldiers descended on Beijing. However, by 24 May, they were stopped cold by millions of peaceful protesters. For a week there was an impasse, but on 3 June, the communists had had enough. They ordered the PLA to use force to remove the protestors. Although some units refused to shoot civilians, thousands were killed when communist soldiers opened fire that night and into the next day. Almost immediately, vicious street battles broke out after students and shopkeepers banded to together to fight tanks and machine guns with rocks and fists. By the end of 4 June at least three thousand lay dead, and many more wounded. The fighting was largely unnoticed by the outside world.
The communists, like all tyrannical governments, feared scrutiny and transparency so they either coopted or coerced the domestic media into submission. But their censors did not apply to foreign journalists so they had placed severe restrictions on them, including harassment, isolation, and cutting their communications. Nevertheless, on 5 June 1989, those journalists locked in the Beijing Hotel witnessed an amazing event from their balconies. As a column of Type 59 tanks approached Tiananmen Square on Chang’an Avenue, an unnamed man crossed the broad street carrying two bags of groceries. The lead tank came to a stop just before hitting the man. The man, looking up, stood in front of the tank and then refused to move. The driver attempted to go around him, but the young man moved with it. The driver eventually stopped and shut down his engine, and soon the entire column did the same. For a long moment, it seemed that this one courageous individual had defeated the communist regime. The young man talked with the tank crew for a while, but was eventually seized by two goons from the People’s Security Bureau. The column continued on. Tank Man was never identified, nor was he seen or heard from again.
Despite the international exposure that the photos of Tank Man gave the events in China of early June 1989, the PLA successfully dispersed the protestors by 7th of that month. Afterwards, the communists rounded up and arrested anyone with connections to the protests. The People’s Republic of China is one of the few communist regimes that survived 1989. Today, due to censorship, Tank Man is unrecognized and unknown in China.
In April 1989, Lech Walesa’s Solidarity movement in Poland won the right to run candidates in the first fairly free parliamentary elections since before Poland was invaded by Germany and the Soviet Union 50 years before. On 4 June 1989, the Polish people headed to the polls (Ha!).
The Communists knew they were not popular, but they had several critical advantages. First, they still controlled the bureaucracy and the election apparatus. Also, their commissars still controlled the Polish military. Furthermore, more than half of the seats were rigged so only communists were allowed on the ballot. And finally, there was still 60,000 Red Army soldiers stationed on Polish soil.
The Communists believed they could not possibly lose the election utilizing these and every plausibly deniable, and not so deniable, electoral dirty trick. And many Solidarity candidates agreed with them. But the Polish people’s dissatisfaction with Communism’s inherent hypocrisy and corruption ran deep. Despite bureaucratic harassment, voter intimidation, and widespread election fraud, observers estimated that 98% of eligible voters turned out, virtually all for Solidarity.
Early ballot counts immediately showed that Solidarity and its allies had won a decisive victory. By the next day, it was confirmed: Solidarity had won 90% of the seats. Even seats where there was only a communist name on the ballot were lost to write-in candidates. It was a stinging rebuke of collectivism.
However, there was still the specter of military intervention. Fortunately, cooler heads prevailed. Polish military units began marginalizing, neutralizing or even out right arresting their commissars after the election, particularly if they attempted to take over units from their commanders. The Polish Army would not influence the election and the Poles did not have to worry about the Soviets. Like everything else about communism, the Red Army in 1989 was a facade. The Soviet 6th Motorized Rifle Division and 20th Tank Division had not received fuel or spare parts in months, because their supply system was so horribly corrupt. They had huge discipline problems and soldier-gangs ruled the barracks, where officers refused to go. What soldiers they did have control of were needed to tend the farms around the cantonment areas, which was the only way the divisions could be fed adequately. The Brezhnev Doctrine was dead, not because Gorbachev disavowed it, but because he had no choice.
Solidarity’s landslide victory was a reality on 6 June, 1989.
In July, the communists managed to hold onto the presidency through a series of back room deals, but a Solidarity candidate became prime minister in August. In September, 1989, the first non-communist government in the Eastern bloc in was sworn in.
The rest of Eastern Europe took notice
Since 1988, two former Soviet Republics, Armenia and Azerbaijan fought over the Nagorno-Karabakh region in the Lesser Caucuses Mountains after the Armenian population voted to secede from Azerbaijan and join Armenia. The Nagorno-Karabakh War was fought through the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991. On 5 May 1994, Armenia and Azerbaijan signed a cease fire agreement in Bishkek, the capital of Kyrgyzstan, temporarily halting their destructive war. The agreement left the unrecognized Republic of Artsakh as the defacto ruling government of the area as neither Armenia could annex the region nor Azerbaijan control it.
Throughout the late 80s, Communism’s inherent flaws and fundamental inconsistencies could no longer be covered up with propaganda by state controlled media or coercion and terror waged by internal security forces. This was especially true in the more liberal (relative to the Soviet Union) states of the Warsaw Pact: Poland, Czechoslovakia, and Hungary. Some political and economic concessions had already been made, but their people clamored for more. When this happened in previous decades, the Soviet Union responded with force. But in 1988 and 1989, the Soviet Union had just withdrawn in defeat from Afghanistan and the Red Army was paralyzed from corruption and the need for its soldiers to participate in the spring planting, lest they starve. Furthermore, the Soviet Union was going through an economic crisis that was 40 years in the making. Soviet Russia could only look on.
Events came to a head in the spring of 1989. Two symbolic events in April 1989 stood out. First, the Solidarity movement in Poland gained a crucial victory when it secured permission to participate in parliamentary elections in June. (They would go on to win 90% of the seats.) But it was the second that was most distressing to the Soviets at the time because they relied on the false perception that Communism was for “the people”. In a reaction to Solidarity’s victory, the Hungarian parliament, who saw the writing on the wall, unanimously voted to change the official name of the country from “The People’s Republic of Hungary” to “The Republic of Hungary” which was more in line with the names of Western governments. This removed the farcical “People’s” from the name. By the late 80s, it was obvious Communism only served a totalitarian, oligarchic, and bureaucratic elite in the name of the “Greater Good”. Still, the name change was only a symbolic gesture, but the reformers in the Hungarian Parliament, who were the sons and daughters of those curb stomped by the Soviets in 1956, knew it was an important one.
On 2 May 1989, that symbolic gesture had substantial consequences. On that day, the Hungarian Border Police, following the lead of their Parliament’s vote, began removing the border fence with Austria, to kick start improved economic ties with the West. Although there were hundreds of small symbolic acts of defiance against the Soviets that spring, the dismantling of the Hungarian border fence was the first concrete act by a Warsaw Pact government toward a peaceful end to the Cold War.
As a popular tourist destination for Warsaw Pact subjects, Hungary was relatively easy for East German, Czech, and Polish families to obtain travel papers. Tens of thousands of “holdiaymakers” fled their countries for the West by ostensibly going to Hungary for vacation. The summer of 1989 was the most successful tourist season in Hungary’s history.
Just a little over a month after he was elected Pope of the Catholic Church and sovereign of Vatican City, Pope John Paul I died in his bed on 28 September 1978. Two weeks later on 16 October the Second Papal Conclave of 1978 elected Pope John Paul II after two days of deliberations. Pope John Paul II was the greatest Roman Catholic Pope of the modern age.
Born Karol Wojtyla outside of Krakow, Poland, he was the son of a Polish Army noncommissioned officer and attended university in Krakow where he studied history and languages until the Nazis closed it down in 1939. By 1941, his entire family was killed by the Germans, but Wojkyla survived by taking jobs in factories that got him exempted from the random detention and execution of Polish civilians. He spent his free time studying at an underground seminary while protecting and hiding Polish Jews from the Nazis.
After the war, Wojtyla was ordained a priest and spent the next 30 years in the difficult position of an outspoken Roman Catholic in a country dominated by Communism. His unpretentious demeanor and wise counsel earned him the nickname “Uncle” which his parishioners and peers used until he was elected Pope in 1978, when he took the name John Paul II.
Pope John Paul II was the first non-Italian pope in 500 years, and one of the youngest and healthiest. He had a worldly view that contrasted greatly with previous popes. Pope John Paul II spoke eight languages fluently and was the most widely traveled pope in history. He spent much energy repairing relations with the other world religions and was the first Pope ever to pray in a mosque. Pope John Paul II was not against contraception for health reasons i.e. to prevent the spread of HIV, and routinely affirmed Catholicism’s stance that evolution and creationism are not mutually exclusive. He publicly apologized for many of Roman Catholicism’s historical sins, and the first ever papal email was sent apologizing for the church sex abuse scandals.
Despite this, Pope John Paul II was hated throughout much of the world due to his staunch and outspoken nature against totalitarianism. He specifically decried Apartheid in South Africa, the Mafia in southern Italy, Latin and South American dictators, Socialist Liberation Theology, and was the one of the few world leaders with the courage to call the fighting in Rwanda what it was: genocide. He was a consistent opponent of war in general, but more importantly, Pope John Paul II was the world’s moral leader against Communism.
He survived numerous attempts at humiliation (a favored tactic of socialists) and two actual assassination attempts, one of which was bankrolled by the KGB, due to his voracious anti-communism. His homilies and sermons on the evils of Communism and Socialism gave hope to hundreds of millions of oppressed people around the world, particularly in Eastern Europe. Most historians agree with Polish Solidarity leader Lech Walesa and former Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev, both of whom said that without Pope John Paul II there would have been no Solidarity, and without Solidarity there would not have been the Fall of the Iron Curtain and Berlin Wall in 1989.
In 2004, Pope John Paul II was diagnosed with Parkinson’s Disease and died in the Vatican on 2 April 2005. On 8 April 2005, four million people packed into Rome, St Peter’s Square, and the Vatican to attend the funeral of Pope John Paul II. His funeral is the single largest gathering in the history of Christendom. It was attended by over 90 heads of state, and in a historical anomaly, was attended by the spiritual leaders of 14 of the world’s largest religions, including Islam, Judaism, the various Protestant denominations, and Eastern Orthodoxy. It was the first time the Archbishop of Canterbury attended Catholic Mass since the 16th Century, and the first time the Patriarch attended a papal funeral since the Great Schism between the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches a thousand years before.
He was canonized St. John Paul II on 27 April 2014.
Flight Lt Victor Belenko was one of the Soviet’s best and most experienced pilots, and in 1972 was assigned to fly the newest fighter in the Communist arsenal: the MIG-25 Foxbat. (Cue ominous music)
In the early 70s the Foxbat was the Boogie Man. It’s radar could see farther than any comparable American or NATO system, and the plane itself could accelerate, cruise, and climb faster, with greater range, than any fighter in the Free World. The CIA, much less the US Air Force, knew precious little about it, and what they did was only picked up from electronic hints by SR-71 Blackbird reconnaissance pilots trying to outrun its missiles.
Belenko was the training officer for a MIG-25P fighter squadron outside Vladivostok in eastern Siberia. As such, he was responsible for not only flight instruction but political indoctrination, which he considered a waste of precious time. He was a smart and practical man, and for several years, struggled with the cognitive dissonance inherent in a Communist society. The propaganda simply did not match reality. As a fighter pilot, he intimately knew the consequences of ignoring information that contradicts a perceived situation. But unlike most of his peers whom just became subdued cynics, Belenko turned skeptical of the entire system.
He was constantly bombarded by his commissars about “the greatness of the Soviet state and progressive society”, but he slowly noticed evidence to the contrary. His base conditions were horrible, and was called a “Bad Communist” for suggesting improvements to his men’s quarters. Due to a horribly inefficient and under funded maintenance system, he was routinely forced by his superiors to doctor training records, an act the commissars threatened with imprisonment. He found the entire system rife with corruption, and had to use his wife’s party connections to get anything done.
Belenko began to question everything. “If Communism worked, why did he, an elite fighter pilot, have to help with the harvest?”, “If America was backwards, why were their fighters so much better in Vietnam?” and, “If the West was falling apart why did they have so many more Nobel prize winners in science?” were just a few. Soon after his wife’s divorce due to their bleak existence in Siberia, Belenko reached the tipping point when he was presented with unmistakable proof of the commissars’ lies.
In June 1976, Belenko and his squadron were shown films of homelessness and poverty in American cities as affirmation of the failure of Capitalism. However, a closer analysis of the films’ backgrounds revealed stunning discoveries: he saw stores, but no massive queues. And they were lit with signs, and large windows that showcased huge varieties of goods. One film had a woman with bags of groceries with toilet paper poking out the top. (He “hadn’t used toilet paper in years”. He and his wife “cleaned themselves with old copies of the Pravda.”) Moreover, there were single houses completely at odds with the massive drab poorly maintained tenement block that he was forced to live in. Great swaths of Soviet society lived much worse than what he saw in the background of the propaganda films. The “‘Eureka!’ moment” came as cars drove past in all colors, shapes, and sizes. In a few frames passing by in a split second, he noticed “a Cadillac driven by a black man!”
The propagandists had said that African Americans were the most oppressed minority in the United States, but “how much worse must Communism be if a member of this oppressed minority can own a Cadillac, while I, an elite pilot high in the system, must wait for years on a list for a much smaller car?”
Belenko was convinced the propagandists were lying, and with no more ties to the USSR, decided to defect. Because the Soviets didn’t trust the pilots with a full tank of fuel for that very reason, he overstated his usage on a previous mission, and bribed his maintenance chief not to check. The next mission he received his allotment and with the prior overage, he figured he had enough to make the trip to Japan. Belenko smuggled operators and maintenance manuals into the cockpit, and hoped to buy his life in the West with his knowledge and his plane (the commissars told him the West tortured and killed prisoners).
On the afternoon of 6 September 1976, he broke formation, dove for the wave tops, slammed the plane into afterburner, and sped for Japan. Before his wingman could react, Belenko was gone.
He landed at Hakedate airport on the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido, with just 30 seconds of fuel left. Opening his cockpit, he fired two rounds in the air, and gave the startled white flag carrying Japanese officials a pre-written note asking for concealment of his plane, contact with American analysts, and asylum in the US (which he was eventually granted).
Belenko and his Foxbat were an intelligence windfall. The Air Force dissected the MIG-25 and found it to be far from the Boogie Man: it was a One Trick Pony. The Foxbat was the second fastest plane on the planet, but it was unmaneuverable, overly heavy, maintenance intensive, and extremely fragile. It was still a generation behind its contemporary the F-15 Eagle in all aspects but raw power.
Unfortunately, the Foxbat’s stay was much shorter than its pilot’s. The plane was ordered returned to the Soviets by President Jimmy Carter who wanted to increase goodwill with the Communists. The Air Force did exactly as the President ordered, but to their credit, with a bit of panache – the plane was completely disassembled down to individual bolts, and returned in thirty crates. Attached was a note that said:
“Dear Russian Bear, the US has everything we need anyway so here are the pieces to prove it. With best wishes, the Secretary of the Air Force.
PS: Nice plane, but nothing we need to keep.”
The passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the beginning of serious American involvement in Vietnam in 1965 began a new and more volatile phase in America’s Civil Rights Movement. The booming post war economy of the 50s and early 60s couldn’t keep up with the competing fiscal requirements of enforcement of the CRA, Johnson’s Great Society Programs, and the Cold War. A combination of Southern Democrats (for mostly racial reasons) and Northeastern Republicans (for mostly economic and political reasons) consistently steered money away from urban programs creating a widening economic gulf in America. In response to this, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr, at the forefront of America’s Civil Rights Movement, organized the Poor People’s Campaign in late 1967 and early 1968, focusing on jobs and income for America’s urban poor.
As part of this campaign, Dr. King traveled to Memphis Tennessee in March 1968 to give support to the plight of black sanitation workers who received unequal pay and benefits compared to their white counterparts. Memphis was no stranger to Dr. King: he was there often and routinely stayed in the same hotel, even the same room. At 6pm on 4 April 1968, a gunman, James Earl Ray, took advantage of this situation. Ray shot and killed Dr. King as he stood on the 2nd floor balcony of his usual room in the Lorraine Hotel. Ray would escape, but would be captured in London two months later.
Later that evening, at a campaign stop in Indianapolis, Senator Robert Kennedy learned of Dr. King’s assassination. He had one last campaign speech to make that day but he tore up his remarks. During this impromptu address he gave one of the most memorable speeches in American history. He focused on Dr. King’s belief of non-violence and abhorrence of racial divisiveness. He concluded by saying,
“What we need in the United States is not division; what we need in the United States is not hatred; what we need in the United States is not violence or lawlessness, but love and wisdom, and compassion toward one another, and a feeling of justice towards those who still suffer within our country, whether they be white or whether they be black.” | 5,792 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The documented history of the Yoruba people begins with the Oyo Empire, which became dominant in the early 17th century. Older traditions of the formerly dominant Ife kingdom are sparse and unreliable.
The peoples who lived in Yorubaland, at least by the seventh century BC, were not initially known as the Yoruba, although they shared a common ethnicity and language group.
The historical Yoruba develop in situ, out of earlier (Mesolithic) Volta-Niger populations, by the 1st millennium B.C.E.
Archaeologically, the settlement at Ife can be dated to the 4th century BC, with urban structures appearing in the 12th century (the urban phase of Ife before the rise of Oyo, ca. 1100-1600, is sometimes described as a "golden age" of Ife).
Ife was surpassed by the Oyo Empire as the dominant Yoruba military and political power between 1600 CE and 1800 CE.
The nearby kingdom of Benin was also a powerful force between 1300 and 1850 CE.
Most of the city states were controlled by Obas, elected priestly monarchs, and councils made up of Oloyes, recognised leaders of royal, noble and, often, even common descent, who joined them in ruling over the kingdoms through a series of guilds and cults. Different states saw differing ratios of power between the kingship and the chiefs' council. Some, such as Oyo, had powerful, autocratic monarchs with almost total control, while in others such as the Ijebu city-states, the senatorial councils were supreme and the Ọba served as something of a figurehead. | <urn:uuid:c02e8537-0671-4c94-863e-1b90b01686be> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://upge.wn.com/?query=yoruba_history&pagenum=2&language_id=1&template=cheetah-photo-search%2Findex.txt | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00377.warc.gz | en | 0.98309 | 348 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.42506718... | 3 | The documented history of the Yoruba people begins with the Oyo Empire, which became dominant in the early 17th century. Older traditions of the formerly dominant Ife kingdom are sparse and unreliable.
The peoples who lived in Yorubaland, at least by the seventh century BC, were not initially known as the Yoruba, although they shared a common ethnicity and language group.
The historical Yoruba develop in situ, out of earlier (Mesolithic) Volta-Niger populations, by the 1st millennium B.C.E.
Archaeologically, the settlement at Ife can be dated to the 4th century BC, with urban structures appearing in the 12th century (the urban phase of Ife before the rise of Oyo, ca. 1100-1600, is sometimes described as a "golden age" of Ife).
Ife was surpassed by the Oyo Empire as the dominant Yoruba military and political power between 1600 CE and 1800 CE.
The nearby kingdom of Benin was also a powerful force between 1300 and 1850 CE.
Most of the city states were controlled by Obas, elected priestly monarchs, and councils made up of Oloyes, recognised leaders of royal, noble and, often, even common descent, who joined them in ruling over the kingdoms through a series of guilds and cults. Different states saw differing ratios of power between the kingship and the chiefs' council. Some, such as Oyo, had powerful, autocratic monarchs with almost total control, while in others such as the Ijebu city-states, the senatorial councils were supreme and the Ọba served as something of a figurehead. | 368 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Forces that Shape Macbeth’s Destiny
William Shakespeare’s play Macbeth tells the story of a Scottish general, Macbeth, who has seen victory in battle just as he meets with three witches up on the moors. These witches tell him he will first become Thane of Cawdor and then that he will become King of Scotland, both positions already taken. However, hearing the news, Macbeth’s wife is unwilling to allow time to lay the course and convinces Macbeth to murder the present king that very evening. This, of course, leads to increasing levels of violence as Macbeth attempts to retain control of the crown and secure his position. As this progression unfolds, it can be seen that Macbeth must contend with various commitments – his commitment to his king, his commitment to his wife, and his commitment to evil. Although the witches are often blamed for his downfall, Macbeth is responsible for his own downfall as he fails to properly balance his various commitments.
As the play opens, Macbeth’s commitment to King Duncan is revealed as this is his employer and his lord. The first two acts don’t even see Macbeth as he is busy on the battlefield, attempting to defend Duncan’s kingdom from the forces of Macdonwald, a man from the ‘Western Isles.’ Macbeth’s loyalty is shown in the fierceness of the battle being fought as it is reported by the wounded captain in Act I, Scene ii. He tells the king the battle was “As two spent swimmers that do cling together / And choke their art” (I, ii, 8-9), indicating that the two sides were equally matched and Fortune was favoring Macdonwald. “But all’s too weak / For brave Macbeth (well he deserves that name) / Disdaining Fortune, with his brandished steel … unseamed him from the nave to th’ chops” (I, ii, 15-17, 22). In addition to fighting for his king, Macbeth is quickly and well rewarded for his efforts as King Duncan quickly makes him the new Thane of Cawdor. Macbeth himself acknowledges his debt to Duncan as he considers the idea of assassination: “He’s here in double trust: / First, as I am his kinsman and his subject, / Strong both against the deed; then, as his host, / Who should against his murderer shut the door” (I, vii, 12-15). Beyond this, he also knows that Duncan has been a good and fair king and killing him is unjustified.
Of course, his recent elevation to Cawdor reinforces the information Macbeth has been given on the moors by the witches, which introduces another, stronger commitment, which is to his own personal interests, such as his wife and the betterment of his position. His commitment to his wife is illustrated as he addresses her in his letter, “This have I thought good to deliver thee, my dearest partner of greatness” (I, v). This commitment plays a large role in his actions, decisions and mental state in ensuing scenes. Although at first Macbeth seems to waver on whether he should force the hand of fate or allow things to happen in due course, Lady Macbeth urges him to go forward with their scheme by appealing to the commitment promised between them as a part of their marriage vows. When Macbeth decides for honor’s sake that he will not kill Duncan this night, it is Lady Macbeth who spurs him forward with the plan anyway, asking if all his resolve was just a show and promising “From this time / Such I account thy love. Art thou afeard / To be the same in thine own act and valor / As thou art in desire?” (I, vii, 38-41). In making this speech, Lady Macbeth not only calls into question the strength of Macbeth’s commitment to her, but also his commitment to himself and his manhood, something that was even more important to the individual then than it is today.
Macbeth’s commitment to evil, though, is a slowly developing process that only begins with his letter to his wife. Although he knows he has no reason to move against his king other than “vaunting ambition, which o’erleaps itself” (I, vii, 25-27), his commitment to his wife and his greed proves overpowering, forcing him to the act. This single evil action thus commits him to further evil acts. When Macbeth willingly participates in murder, this quickly escalates to massacres of perceived enemies and the propagation of lies and deceits as a means of maintaining the perception others have of him. His own deceit of Duncan forces him to consider the possible schemes of Banquo, thus leading him to order murder once again. To avenge himself on Macduff for having escaped him, Macbeth orders the massacre of Macduff’s family, and the evil flows on. Macbeth’s insecurities lead him to seek additional advice from the witches, thus intentionally seeking out evil rather than waiting for it to come to him, eventually losing his heath and sanity in the process.
Although the women of the play are often blamed for Macbeth’s downfall – the witches through their prophesies and his wife through her encouragement – it is ultimately Macbeth who makes the final decisions as to what action should be taken. By exploring the theme of commitment that runs through Shakespeare’s Macbeth, one can begin to trace how Shakespeare judged his fellow man. Macbeth loses his honor, his integrity and his life as a result of his placing devotion to self and family at the expense of the crown and the people. That he is supported in this by his wife is perhaps not surprising, but demonstrates the failure of both to adhere to the Old Codes of honor and hospitality even as it undeniably goes against Christian morality. In the end, Macbeth illustrates the importance of placing commitments carefully and in balancing them between house and state or self and other.
Shakespeare, William. “Macbeth.” William Shakespeare: The Complete Works. Alfred Harbage (Ed.). New York: Penguin Books, 1969: 1107-1135. | <urn:uuid:9eb5095e-1c05-4bdb-87a2-f162fbd1f40f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://summarystory.com/macbeth/the-forces-that-shape-macbeths-destiny/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00430.warc.gz | en | 0.984927 | 1,339 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.181935414671... | 10 | The Forces that Shape Macbeth’s Destiny
William Shakespeare’s play Macbeth tells the story of a Scottish general, Macbeth, who has seen victory in battle just as he meets with three witches up on the moors. These witches tell him he will first become Thane of Cawdor and then that he will become King of Scotland, both positions already taken. However, hearing the news, Macbeth’s wife is unwilling to allow time to lay the course and convinces Macbeth to murder the present king that very evening. This, of course, leads to increasing levels of violence as Macbeth attempts to retain control of the crown and secure his position. As this progression unfolds, it can be seen that Macbeth must contend with various commitments – his commitment to his king, his commitment to his wife, and his commitment to evil. Although the witches are often blamed for his downfall, Macbeth is responsible for his own downfall as he fails to properly balance his various commitments.
As the play opens, Macbeth’s commitment to King Duncan is revealed as this is his employer and his lord. The first two acts don’t even see Macbeth as he is busy on the battlefield, attempting to defend Duncan’s kingdom from the forces of Macdonwald, a man from the ‘Western Isles.’ Macbeth’s loyalty is shown in the fierceness of the battle being fought as it is reported by the wounded captain in Act I, Scene ii. He tells the king the battle was “As two spent swimmers that do cling together / And choke their art” (I, ii, 8-9), indicating that the two sides were equally matched and Fortune was favoring Macdonwald. “But all’s too weak / For brave Macbeth (well he deserves that name) / Disdaining Fortune, with his brandished steel … unseamed him from the nave to th’ chops” (I, ii, 15-17, 22). In addition to fighting for his king, Macbeth is quickly and well rewarded for his efforts as King Duncan quickly makes him the new Thane of Cawdor. Macbeth himself acknowledges his debt to Duncan as he considers the idea of assassination: “He’s here in double trust: / First, as I am his kinsman and his subject, / Strong both against the deed; then, as his host, / Who should against his murderer shut the door” (I, vii, 12-15). Beyond this, he also knows that Duncan has been a good and fair king and killing him is unjustified.
Of course, his recent elevation to Cawdor reinforces the information Macbeth has been given on the moors by the witches, which introduces another, stronger commitment, which is to his own personal interests, such as his wife and the betterment of his position. His commitment to his wife is illustrated as he addresses her in his letter, “This have I thought good to deliver thee, my dearest partner of greatness” (I, v). This commitment plays a large role in his actions, decisions and mental state in ensuing scenes. Although at first Macbeth seems to waver on whether he should force the hand of fate or allow things to happen in due course, Lady Macbeth urges him to go forward with their scheme by appealing to the commitment promised between them as a part of their marriage vows. When Macbeth decides for honor’s sake that he will not kill Duncan this night, it is Lady Macbeth who spurs him forward with the plan anyway, asking if all his resolve was just a show and promising “From this time / Such I account thy love. Art thou afeard / To be the same in thine own act and valor / As thou art in desire?” (I, vii, 38-41). In making this speech, Lady Macbeth not only calls into question the strength of Macbeth’s commitment to her, but also his commitment to himself and his manhood, something that was even more important to the individual then than it is today.
Macbeth’s commitment to evil, though, is a slowly developing process that only begins with his letter to his wife. Although he knows he has no reason to move against his king other than “vaunting ambition, which o’erleaps itself” (I, vii, 25-27), his commitment to his wife and his greed proves overpowering, forcing him to the act. This single evil action thus commits him to further evil acts. When Macbeth willingly participates in murder, this quickly escalates to massacres of perceived enemies and the propagation of lies and deceits as a means of maintaining the perception others have of him. His own deceit of Duncan forces him to consider the possible schemes of Banquo, thus leading him to order murder once again. To avenge himself on Macduff for having escaped him, Macbeth orders the massacre of Macduff’s family, and the evil flows on. Macbeth’s insecurities lead him to seek additional advice from the witches, thus intentionally seeking out evil rather than waiting for it to come to him, eventually losing his heath and sanity in the process.
Although the women of the play are often blamed for Macbeth’s downfall – the witches through their prophesies and his wife through her encouragement – it is ultimately Macbeth who makes the final decisions as to what action should be taken. By exploring the theme of commitment that runs through Shakespeare’s Macbeth, one can begin to trace how Shakespeare judged his fellow man. Macbeth loses his honor, his integrity and his life as a result of his placing devotion to self and family at the expense of the crown and the people. That he is supported in this by his wife is perhaps not surprising, but demonstrates the failure of both to adhere to the Old Codes of honor and hospitality even as it undeniably goes against Christian morality. In the end, Macbeth illustrates the importance of placing commitments carefully and in balancing them between house and state or self and other.
Shakespeare, William. “Macbeth.” William Shakespeare: The Complete Works. Alfred Harbage (Ed.). New York: Penguin Books, 1969: 1107-1135. | 1,278 | ENGLISH | 1 |
American Civil War – Introduction
The American Civil War was fought between 23 northern states (known as the Union) and 11 southern states (known as the Confederates, or sometimes the Slave States). The war started in 1861 and ended four years later in 1865. The North won.
Although slavery was one of the main issues, the southern states’ rift with the north was caused as much by the Government’s imposition of tariffs on imported goods. The tariffs hit the southern states hard because they imported far more goods than the industrialised north.
NOTE: Apart from the Northern and Southern States, there were also several “Border States” in between. These were “Slave States” that decided not to join with the Confederates. We will look at these later.
The following pages should help you remember some of the facts about the American Civil War and some key people involved in it. | <urn:uuid:9b78b3fe-a670-4f7a-a712-9d3b0daf0912> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mammothmemory.net/history/american-history/the-american-civil-war/american-civil-war--introduction.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00009.warc.gz | en | 0.983879 | 186 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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The American Civil War was fought between 23 northern states (known as the Union) and 11 southern states (known as the Confederates, or sometimes the Slave States). The war started in 1861 and ended four years later in 1865. The North won.
Although slavery was one of the main issues, the southern states’ rift with the north was caused as much by the Government’s imposition of tariffs on imported goods. The tariffs hit the southern states hard because they imported far more goods than the industrialised north.
NOTE: Apart from the Northern and Southern States, there were also several “Border States” in between. These were “Slave States” that decided not to join with the Confederates. We will look at these later.
The following pages should help you remember some of the facts about the American Civil War and some key people involved in it. | 187 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Claude-Achille Debussy (French:[klod aʃil dəbysi]; 22 August 1862– 25 March 1918) was a French composer. Along with Maurice Ravel, he was one of the most prominent figures associated with Impressionist music, though he himself disliked the term when applied to his compositions. He was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honour in his native France in 1903. Debussy was among the most influential composers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and his use of non-traditional scales and chromaticism influenced many composers who followed.
Debussy's music is noted for its sensory content and frequent usage of nontraditional tonalities. The prominent French literary style of his period was known as Symbolism, and this movement directly inspired Debussy both as a composer and as an active cultural participant. | <urn:uuid:d34666da-3bc5-4d2b-ab91-87733003995d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ro.wn.com/Paysage_Sentimental_L._45_Claude_Debussy | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00441.warc.gz | en | 0.986893 | 179 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.127912372350692... | 2 | Claude-Achille Debussy (French:[klod aʃil dəbysi]; 22 August 1862– 25 March 1918) was a French composer. Along with Maurice Ravel, he was one of the most prominent figures associated with Impressionist music, though he himself disliked the term when applied to his compositions. He was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honour in his native France in 1903. Debussy was among the most influential composers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and his use of non-traditional scales and chromaticism influenced many composers who followed.
Debussy's music is noted for its sensory content and frequent usage of nontraditional tonalities. The prominent French literary style of his period was known as Symbolism, and this movement directly inspired Debussy both as a composer and as an active cultural participant. | 195 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Among others famous Venetians, Marco Polo best describes the very heart of Venice sharing its merchant and cultural history.
Marco Polo was born in Venice on 1254 a.C. from a merchant family. After losing his mother, an aunt and uncle raised him. They educated him in mercantile subjects until 1269, when his father came back from Asia and met the young Marco for the first time.
In 1271, Marco Polo, his father and his uncle set off to Asia again and here the adventures of Marco Polo start, as later written in Il Milione.
Once in China, Marco became a trusted man of Kublai Khan, for his intelligence and his capacity to see through appearances.
That is the reason why Kublai Khan refuses to let Marco Polo return to Venice many times.
During these years, Marco Polo travelled extensively in China, as foreign emissary of the same Kublai Khan.
Only in 1295, after 24 years, he was able to go back to Venice after travelling more than 20,000 km.
However, his adventures, did not end. One year later, he was captured and imprisoned by Genoans, against whom Venice was at war.
During this captivity, Marco Polo was able to dictate his book to a fellow inmate, Rustichello da Pisa.
The book, called The Travels of Marco Polo or Il Milione, was the first comprehensive travel book about China and a worldwide literature masterpiece. The same book became so famous among European merchants that it inspired many others, like Chistopher Columbus.
In 1299 Marco Polo came back to Venice and he became a wealthy merchant, married and with three children. He died in 1324.
Marco Polo is particularly loved in Venice because, in his life, he mixed some of the most important elements of Venice: the merchant nature, but also the importance of culture and a strong patriotism. | <urn:uuid:15bb6dcd-9bff-4e57-9c12-e9d209ce9a77> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.venicebyvenetians.com/marco-polo/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00238.warc.gz | en | 0.985407 | 393 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.29749825596... | 19 | Among others famous Venetians, Marco Polo best describes the very heart of Venice sharing its merchant and cultural history.
Marco Polo was born in Venice on 1254 a.C. from a merchant family. After losing his mother, an aunt and uncle raised him. They educated him in mercantile subjects until 1269, when his father came back from Asia and met the young Marco for the first time.
In 1271, Marco Polo, his father and his uncle set off to Asia again and here the adventures of Marco Polo start, as later written in Il Milione.
Once in China, Marco became a trusted man of Kublai Khan, for his intelligence and his capacity to see through appearances.
That is the reason why Kublai Khan refuses to let Marco Polo return to Venice many times.
During these years, Marco Polo travelled extensively in China, as foreign emissary of the same Kublai Khan.
Only in 1295, after 24 years, he was able to go back to Venice after travelling more than 20,000 km.
However, his adventures, did not end. One year later, he was captured and imprisoned by Genoans, against whom Venice was at war.
During this captivity, Marco Polo was able to dictate his book to a fellow inmate, Rustichello da Pisa.
The book, called The Travels of Marco Polo or Il Milione, was the first comprehensive travel book about China and a worldwide literature masterpiece. The same book became so famous among European merchants that it inspired many others, like Chistopher Columbus.
In 1299 Marco Polo came back to Venice and he became a wealthy merchant, married and with three children. He died in 1324.
Marco Polo is particularly loved in Venice because, in his life, he mixed some of the most important elements of Venice: the merchant nature, but also the importance of culture and a strong patriotism. | 405 | ENGLISH | 1 |
John Fitzgerald Kennedy
John Fitzgerald Kennedy was the 35th president of the United States. He was the youngest president ever to be elected, the first Roman Catholic president, and the first president to be born in the 20th century. Although, he didn’t get the chance to live out his term and possible another one, he changed the entire world. No other president was so popular, especially with the young people. John F. Kennedy was born May 29th, 1917, child of Joseph P. and Rose Kennedy. John had eight brothers and sisters: Joseph P. Jr.. Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert F. Jean and Edward M. All of the children were born in Brookline, Massachusetts.
John grew up in Brookline, Massachusetts. John once said, “life is unfair,” but for him the statement was not true. He had a great childhood. Coming from a wealthy family let him do what most kids couldn’t. That still didn’t keep him from behaving like other kids. He and his brothers and sisters all took place in things such as sailboat races, tennis matches, or even just a simple game of touch football. All family members were always encouraged to get involved with government issues. Small talk wasn’t allowed at the Kennedy dinner table 2. They discussed world and national issues.
The impact of these discussions wouldn’t be seen until later. Joseph and Rose were trying to prepare their sons for public life and prepare their daughters for marriages to distinguished young men. In 1937, the Kennedy family moved to Great Britain so that John’s father could become the American ambassador there for three years. John stayed in the United States for an education at Harvard University. John was a very good student at Harvard, yet he didn’t make the high grades that his brother had. So, John joined two clubs and spent most of his time working on a newspaper published at Harvard, “Crimson”3.
When he had finished his school term his father decided to let him tour Europe. When he was there he started to become interested in wars and politics, after noticing Hitler’s actions. John went back there the following summer and saw how Hitler never gave up and continued to strengthen his army. He knew of the war that was soon coming. The United States had sided with Great Britain, so he knew he would have to go into the war. So, he went to enter the Air Corps, but was turned away because of his back problems. Instead he went for the position on naval officer and passes the health analysis.
He was assigned to the intelligence division, he thought it was very boring. Shortly after Pearl Harbor was attacked, John was sent for motor torpedo (PT boat) training 4. Officer Kennedy soon became Lieutenant Kennedy. In Tulagi, John was assigned to a dirty old looking boat that had already been through nine months of combat. John experienced his first real combat when his boat was attacked by a Japanese fighter plane. Only two men were injured that time. They continued to stay there until one night when a full size Japanese ship came full speed at Kennedy’s boat.
The boat was demolished and the Japanese thought that all of the men had been killed. All of the men were forced to swim to Plum Pudding Island , three and one half miles away, with Kennedy leading them. After his triumph he was promoted to Full Lieutenant and was awarded the Navy and Marine Corps Medal for saving his crew. He also received a Purple Heart for the severe back injury he suffered from the collision. After that, he took command of another PT boat and took part in many more missions. For John one particularly bad thing happened in this war, his brother died. Which impacted his life so greatly.
The family had expected his brother Joe to run for public office. Now that he was gone, John was now the eldest son and it was now his responsibility. In 1946, he had the chance to run for Congress. Though he was still weak from his war injuries, he campaigned aggressively. He won that election that November, he was only 295. He served three terms as a Democratic Congressman, from 1947 until 1953. In 1952 he ran for U. S. senate against Henry Cabot Lodge. He won that election and less than a year later he enhanced his appeal to the people. He married Jacqueline Lee Bouvier on September 12, 1953.
He was a very popular and successful Senator. He had almost become Stevenson’s vice presidential running mate in 1956. His speech on concession brought him into over 40 million homes in America. He quickly became one of the most famous political figures in the country. Already his campaign for 1960 nomination had begun. Kennedy had to make extreme efforts toward this campaign. People were saying that no Roman Catholic man could ever become president. His mission was to prove them wrong. The press loved him, he and his wife appeared on magazine covers, photographers followed them everywhere.
He had to do a number of speeches and appearances. So, to transport him and his staff around the country, his father bought him a forty passenger Convair aircraft 6. In January 1960, Kennedy formally announced his presidential candidacy. His rivals were Senators Hubert H. Humphrey of Minnesota and Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas. Kennedy knocked Humphrey out of the way and was still battling the rumors of a catholic president. He dealt with that by winning the primary in West Virginia, which is primarily Protestant. He was nominated on the first ballot, and chose Johnson as his running mate.
Kennedy narrowly won the general election against Nixon. He was inaugurated on January 20, 1961. At the inauguration is where he made his famous speech. The speech was about America’s revolutionary heritage. Which is when he made this famous quote,” Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country. “7 Kennedy’s first year in office brought him considerable success. Congress passed a bill increasing minimum wage, and Congress passed his bill to create the Peace Corps. Which was an agency to perform social and humanitarian services overseas. The program’s goal was to create peace and friendship with nations.
Within two years the Peace Corps were working in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Kennedy ran into some problems after the conservative Republicans joined with the Southern Democrats to stop legislation they didn’t like. A Medicare bill, a civil rights bill, and a bill to create a Cabinet-level Department of Urban Affairs were all defeated 8. Kennedy didn’t lose all of his approval because he get some of his bills passed. Congress passed a bill to lower tariffs, authorized a purchase of over $100 million in United Nations bonds, and Congress appropriated more than $1 billion dollars to send a man to the moon.
Kennedy began to lose popularity after he started forcing universities in the south to accept black students. People thought that he was limiting their rights as citizens. He continued to speak out against segregation and lost even more popularity. In 1959, after several attempts, a revolution led by Fidel Castro finally overthrew the Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista y Zaldivar. During the next two years Castro became very hostile towards the United States. After some problems with $1 billion dollars in properties and companies owned by the U. S.
Castro began to proclaim his belief in Communism. Cuba then became part of the cold war. Kennedy approved an invasion of Cuba by CIA trained Cuban exiles. In April 1961, more then 1000 exiles landed in Cuba at a place called Bay of Pigs. Their plan was to move inland and join with anti-Castro forces to stage a revolt. Castro’s forces were there to meet the invaders, and the revolt didn’t happen. The CIA promised air support, but that never came. The exiles were taken as prisoners. The prisoners were released in exchange for food and medical supplies valued at $53 million.
In March 1961, Kennedy introduced the Alliance for Progress, which would strengthen democratic institution in the Latin American nation to prevent them from doing what Cuba did. In August in was established by the charter of Punte del Este. This would be a Latin American version of the Marshall Plan. All Latin American nations except Cuba joined , pledging ” to bring our people accelerated economic progress and broader social justice within the framework of personal dignity and individual liberty. “9 This brought the U. S popularity in Latin America.
On June 3, 1961, in Vienna, Autstria, Kennedy and Khrushchev met and reviewed the relationship between the U. S and the U. S. S. R. . There was a lot of hostility, considering that there was a shooting down of a U. S spy plane in Soviet air space. The Bay of Pigs invasion created hostility too. NO agreements were reached on any important issues. The Soviet premier actually made it clear that the policies toward the Untied States would be even more strict. In August 1961, the Communists ordered that there be a wall put up between East and West Berlin. West Germany was under the control of the US, France and Britain.
Those countries protested the wall, but since East Germany was Communist, it was done anyway. Allied forced weren’t even allowed to travel through Berlin. This was the beginning of the Cuban Missile Crisis. This was the closest the world’s ever been to nuclear war. Khrushchev decided to supply Cuba with nuclear missiles that would be in range of the Eastern United States. He denied it when asked if he was supplying Cuba with missiles, but in the summer or 1962 there a US spy plane photographed a construction site managed by the Soviets and then spotted a missile on October 14th.
For seven days Kennedy met with advisors on how to handle and respond to this, while the administration carried on as if nothing was wrong. On October 22nd, Kennedy told the nation about the missiles, demanded that the USSR remove the missiles and declared the water around Cuba a quarantine zone. Kennedy warned the USSR that if Cuba attacked the US it would be considered an attack on the US by USSR itself. Troops were sent to Florida to prepare for invading Cuba and air units were alerted. American vessels blockaded any Soviet ships that looked suspicious and searched them.
For several days Soviet ships avoided the quarantine zone while Kennedy and Khrushchev discussed this. On October 26th Khrushchev agreed to remove all of the missiles. Before the US could respond to that note, Krushchev sent another trying to negotiate other terms. The USSR removed and dismantled all of the missiles and offered the US an on-site inspection. Kennedy promised not to invade Cuba and to remove missiles from Turkey. Cuba, angry at the Soviet submission refused the promised inspection. US spy planes revealed that the missile bases were being dismantled.
Kennedy was a hero, he had avoided nuclear war and possibly World War III. As a result of him displaying courage and strength. On November 22, 1963, The President and Mrs. Kennedy were in Dallas, Texas. They were trying to win support from the state that Kennedy had barely carried in 1960. AS the President approached an underpass, two shots were fired. One bullet passed through Kennedy’s neck and struck Governor Connally in the back. The other bullet hit the president in the head. His car sped to Park land Hospital.
At 1:00PM he was pronounced dead, he had never regained consciousness. Less then 2 hours after the shooting, on the residential plane, Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn in as the 36th president of the United States. That afternoon, Lee Harvey Oswald, who was employed in the warehouse, was arrested in a movie theater and charged with murder. On November 24 the body of President Kennedy was carried on a horse drawn carriage from the White House to the Rotunda of the Capitol. 10 Hundreds of thousands of people filed passed the coffin of the president. The grave was marked by an eternal flame. | <urn:uuid:8e988fe0-892a-4339-83ad-88f6073418d9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://benjaminbarber.org/john-fitzgerald-kennedy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00441.warc.gz | en | 0.989528 | 2,457 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.53078818321228... | 1 | John Fitzgerald Kennedy
John Fitzgerald Kennedy was the 35th president of the United States. He was the youngest president ever to be elected, the first Roman Catholic president, and the first president to be born in the 20th century. Although, he didn’t get the chance to live out his term and possible another one, he changed the entire world. No other president was so popular, especially with the young people. John F. Kennedy was born May 29th, 1917, child of Joseph P. and Rose Kennedy. John had eight brothers and sisters: Joseph P. Jr.. Rosemary, Kathleen, Eunice, Patricia, Robert F. Jean and Edward M. All of the children were born in Brookline, Massachusetts.
John grew up in Brookline, Massachusetts. John once said, “life is unfair,” but for him the statement was not true. He had a great childhood. Coming from a wealthy family let him do what most kids couldn’t. That still didn’t keep him from behaving like other kids. He and his brothers and sisters all took place in things such as sailboat races, tennis matches, or even just a simple game of touch football. All family members were always encouraged to get involved with government issues. Small talk wasn’t allowed at the Kennedy dinner table 2. They discussed world and national issues.
The impact of these discussions wouldn’t be seen until later. Joseph and Rose were trying to prepare their sons for public life and prepare their daughters for marriages to distinguished young men. In 1937, the Kennedy family moved to Great Britain so that John’s father could become the American ambassador there for three years. John stayed in the United States for an education at Harvard University. John was a very good student at Harvard, yet he didn’t make the high grades that his brother had. So, John joined two clubs and spent most of his time working on a newspaper published at Harvard, “Crimson”3.
When he had finished his school term his father decided to let him tour Europe. When he was there he started to become interested in wars and politics, after noticing Hitler’s actions. John went back there the following summer and saw how Hitler never gave up and continued to strengthen his army. He knew of the war that was soon coming. The United States had sided with Great Britain, so he knew he would have to go into the war. So, he went to enter the Air Corps, but was turned away because of his back problems. Instead he went for the position on naval officer and passes the health analysis.
He was assigned to the intelligence division, he thought it was very boring. Shortly after Pearl Harbor was attacked, John was sent for motor torpedo (PT boat) training 4. Officer Kennedy soon became Lieutenant Kennedy. In Tulagi, John was assigned to a dirty old looking boat that had already been through nine months of combat. John experienced his first real combat when his boat was attacked by a Japanese fighter plane. Only two men were injured that time. They continued to stay there until one night when a full size Japanese ship came full speed at Kennedy’s boat.
The boat was demolished and the Japanese thought that all of the men had been killed. All of the men were forced to swim to Plum Pudding Island , three and one half miles away, with Kennedy leading them. After his triumph he was promoted to Full Lieutenant and was awarded the Navy and Marine Corps Medal for saving his crew. He also received a Purple Heart for the severe back injury he suffered from the collision. After that, he took command of another PT boat and took part in many more missions. For John one particularly bad thing happened in this war, his brother died. Which impacted his life so greatly.
The family had expected his brother Joe to run for public office. Now that he was gone, John was now the eldest son and it was now his responsibility. In 1946, he had the chance to run for Congress. Though he was still weak from his war injuries, he campaigned aggressively. He won that election that November, he was only 295. He served three terms as a Democratic Congressman, from 1947 until 1953. In 1952 he ran for U. S. senate against Henry Cabot Lodge. He won that election and less than a year later he enhanced his appeal to the people. He married Jacqueline Lee Bouvier on September 12, 1953.
He was a very popular and successful Senator. He had almost become Stevenson’s vice presidential running mate in 1956. His speech on concession brought him into over 40 million homes in America. He quickly became one of the most famous political figures in the country. Already his campaign for 1960 nomination had begun. Kennedy had to make extreme efforts toward this campaign. People were saying that no Roman Catholic man could ever become president. His mission was to prove them wrong. The press loved him, he and his wife appeared on magazine covers, photographers followed them everywhere.
He had to do a number of speeches and appearances. So, to transport him and his staff around the country, his father bought him a forty passenger Convair aircraft 6. In January 1960, Kennedy formally announced his presidential candidacy. His rivals were Senators Hubert H. Humphrey of Minnesota and Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas. Kennedy knocked Humphrey out of the way and was still battling the rumors of a catholic president. He dealt with that by winning the primary in West Virginia, which is primarily Protestant. He was nominated on the first ballot, and chose Johnson as his running mate.
Kennedy narrowly won the general election against Nixon. He was inaugurated on January 20, 1961. At the inauguration is where he made his famous speech. The speech was about America’s revolutionary heritage. Which is when he made this famous quote,” Ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country. “7 Kennedy’s first year in office brought him considerable success. Congress passed a bill increasing minimum wage, and Congress passed his bill to create the Peace Corps. Which was an agency to perform social and humanitarian services overseas. The program’s goal was to create peace and friendship with nations.
Within two years the Peace Corps were working in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Kennedy ran into some problems after the conservative Republicans joined with the Southern Democrats to stop legislation they didn’t like. A Medicare bill, a civil rights bill, and a bill to create a Cabinet-level Department of Urban Affairs were all defeated 8. Kennedy didn’t lose all of his approval because he get some of his bills passed. Congress passed a bill to lower tariffs, authorized a purchase of over $100 million in United Nations bonds, and Congress appropriated more than $1 billion dollars to send a man to the moon.
Kennedy began to lose popularity after he started forcing universities in the south to accept black students. People thought that he was limiting their rights as citizens. He continued to speak out against segregation and lost even more popularity. In 1959, after several attempts, a revolution led by Fidel Castro finally overthrew the Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista y Zaldivar. During the next two years Castro became very hostile towards the United States. After some problems with $1 billion dollars in properties and companies owned by the U. S.
Castro began to proclaim his belief in Communism. Cuba then became part of the cold war. Kennedy approved an invasion of Cuba by CIA trained Cuban exiles. In April 1961, more then 1000 exiles landed in Cuba at a place called Bay of Pigs. Their plan was to move inland and join with anti-Castro forces to stage a revolt. Castro’s forces were there to meet the invaders, and the revolt didn’t happen. The CIA promised air support, but that never came. The exiles were taken as prisoners. The prisoners were released in exchange for food and medical supplies valued at $53 million.
In March 1961, Kennedy introduced the Alliance for Progress, which would strengthen democratic institution in the Latin American nation to prevent them from doing what Cuba did. In August in was established by the charter of Punte del Este. This would be a Latin American version of the Marshall Plan. All Latin American nations except Cuba joined , pledging ” to bring our people accelerated economic progress and broader social justice within the framework of personal dignity and individual liberty. “9 This brought the U. S popularity in Latin America.
On June 3, 1961, in Vienna, Autstria, Kennedy and Khrushchev met and reviewed the relationship between the U. S and the U. S. S. R. . There was a lot of hostility, considering that there was a shooting down of a U. S spy plane in Soviet air space. The Bay of Pigs invasion created hostility too. NO agreements were reached on any important issues. The Soviet premier actually made it clear that the policies toward the Untied States would be even more strict. In August 1961, the Communists ordered that there be a wall put up between East and West Berlin. West Germany was under the control of the US, France and Britain.
Those countries protested the wall, but since East Germany was Communist, it was done anyway. Allied forced weren’t even allowed to travel through Berlin. This was the beginning of the Cuban Missile Crisis. This was the closest the world’s ever been to nuclear war. Khrushchev decided to supply Cuba with nuclear missiles that would be in range of the Eastern United States. He denied it when asked if he was supplying Cuba with missiles, but in the summer or 1962 there a US spy plane photographed a construction site managed by the Soviets and then spotted a missile on October 14th.
For seven days Kennedy met with advisors on how to handle and respond to this, while the administration carried on as if nothing was wrong. On October 22nd, Kennedy told the nation about the missiles, demanded that the USSR remove the missiles and declared the water around Cuba a quarantine zone. Kennedy warned the USSR that if Cuba attacked the US it would be considered an attack on the US by USSR itself. Troops were sent to Florida to prepare for invading Cuba and air units were alerted. American vessels blockaded any Soviet ships that looked suspicious and searched them.
For several days Soviet ships avoided the quarantine zone while Kennedy and Khrushchev discussed this. On October 26th Khrushchev agreed to remove all of the missiles. Before the US could respond to that note, Krushchev sent another trying to negotiate other terms. The USSR removed and dismantled all of the missiles and offered the US an on-site inspection. Kennedy promised not to invade Cuba and to remove missiles from Turkey. Cuba, angry at the Soviet submission refused the promised inspection. US spy planes revealed that the missile bases were being dismantled.
Kennedy was a hero, he had avoided nuclear war and possibly World War III. As a result of him displaying courage and strength. On November 22, 1963, The President and Mrs. Kennedy were in Dallas, Texas. They were trying to win support from the state that Kennedy had barely carried in 1960. AS the President approached an underpass, two shots were fired. One bullet passed through Kennedy’s neck and struck Governor Connally in the back. The other bullet hit the president in the head. His car sped to Park land Hospital.
At 1:00PM he was pronounced dead, he had never regained consciousness. Less then 2 hours after the shooting, on the residential plane, Lyndon B. Johnson was sworn in as the 36th president of the United States. That afternoon, Lee Harvey Oswald, who was employed in the warehouse, was arrested in a movie theater and charged with murder. On November 24 the body of President Kennedy was carried on a horse drawn carriage from the White House to the Rotunda of the Capitol. 10 Hundreds of thousands of people filed passed the coffin of the president. The grave was marked by an eternal flame. | 2,523 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1919, few Canadian suffragists believed that democracy had arrived. While celebrating the passage of the federal “Act to Confer the Electoral Franchise Upon Women” (May 24, 1918), which came into effect on January 1st, they challenged politics as usual (and for that matter continuing social and economic subordination) at home and abroad. Favorite targets were Canada’s many own provincial and territorial holdouts and long called for legislative reforms (from minimum wage to mothers’ pensions and guardianship of children) in jurisdictions where women had the vote. They also remained, as they had been since the 19th century, globally minded. 1919 gave Canadians a front row seat on determined struggles by American suffragists to win ratification of the 19th amendment and by global feminists to gain recognition in the newly formed League of Nations. While Canada’s own discrimination against Asian and Indigenous women was ignored, suffragists, like the labour movement, stood at the heart of fierce debates about the shape of the brave new post-World War One world. | <urn:uuid:b488008f-4073-47c5-ba66-279ba050c096> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://continuingstudies.uvic.ca/humanities-and-social-sciences/courses/1919-on-the-edge-of-a-brave-new-world/8480 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00236.warc.gz | en | 0.981679 | 214 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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-0.125724375247955... | 2 | In 1919, few Canadian suffragists believed that democracy had arrived. While celebrating the passage of the federal “Act to Confer the Electoral Franchise Upon Women” (May 24, 1918), which came into effect on January 1st, they challenged politics as usual (and for that matter continuing social and economic subordination) at home and abroad. Favorite targets were Canada’s many own provincial and territorial holdouts and long called for legislative reforms (from minimum wage to mothers’ pensions and guardianship of children) in jurisdictions where women had the vote. They also remained, as they had been since the 19th century, globally minded. 1919 gave Canadians a front row seat on determined struggles by American suffragists to win ratification of the 19th amendment and by global feminists to gain recognition in the newly formed League of Nations. While Canada’s own discrimination against Asian and Indigenous women was ignored, suffragists, like the labour movement, stood at the heart of fierce debates about the shape of the brave new post-World War One world. | 228 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This paper focuses on the lives of Monks and Nuns, the formation of Sangha and the acceptance of women in the order.
Monks were defined as men who belonged to a certain brotherhood. They were committed towards behaving in a certain way according to their order. They spent their lives in monasteries where they prayed and meditated as they took care of other people. A monastery was a place where religious and medical services were offered concurrently. The monasteries also functioned like schools since basic reading and writing skills were taught.
The Lives of Monks and Nuns
A big proportion of the lives of Monks and Nuns was spent in prayer and meditation and carrying out activities such as teaching, preparing medicine, writing or sewing. They were generally busy, organized and orderly people. They had a timetable that outlined the order of their prayers, the first one being the Opus Dei.
The first prayer began in the wee hours of the morning while the last one was conducted at mid night. The timetable was first introduced by Italian Saint Benedict before it gained popularity among all the Monks and Nuns in other parts of Europe. All their activities including preparation of the timetable were conducted at the monastery (Gombrich and Heinz 1991,40).
Among the works of Monks and Nuns was the Cloister which took place in the monastery. The Monks were good at writing neatly and drawing, and as a result, they used their hands to publish their books. The initial letter of each paragraph was neatly decorated to make it attractive. At times, they used gold to produce fancy writings. People who converted into Buddhism were required to make three vows.
The first vow was the vow of poverty which implied that one had to abandon all personal possessions. The second one was the vow of chastity which required individuals to stay single while the third one, the vow of obedience, called for one to show obedience to the monastery and the church.
However, after sometime, some Monks and Nuns did not adhere to some of the vows they had made. This led to the diminishing of the Benedict law and accumulation of wealth by some monarchies. A section of Monks and Nuns introduced a new order known as Cistercian which was initially respected by all. A Cistercian belonged to a monastery that was situated away from the towns (Gombrich and Heinz 1991,53).
Different Cistercian monasteries were designed for various purposes. For instance, those who experienced problems in memorizing their Latin studies went to special monasteries reserved for that purpose.
The monasteries were usually very poor but they accepted those who wanted to join them. Members of the Cistercian were referred to as lay brothers and assisted in the monastery estates by doing some work in the church. Church going was mandatory for most people and they were compelled to pay taxes for developing the churches.
Monks and Nuns were characterized by specific habits which included particular types of clothes and uniforms. Some wore hairy shirts that made them scratch themselves and remind themselves of how Jesus suffered. Their eating place was known as a refectory and while eating, silence was maintained apart from the priest who was allowed to read the bible. A lot of fancy food was incorporated in their menu when some monasteries gained a lot of wealth (Gombrich and Heinz 1991, 45).
Despite the fact that Monks and Nuns had made vows of poverty, some of them became very wealthy. They became members of monasteries with the intention of getting preferential treatment. For instance, some of them owned large pieces of land. Majority of the monasteries were turned into learning centers and sheltered travelers, the sick and poor people.
A period of economic anarchy came about when the Carolingian Empire took power causing a fall in the economic system. People found it difficult to survive as the monasteries were burned down. Monks and Nuns were rendered homeless and the most important thing for them was to save their lives and their belongings.
Monks and Nuns carried out different functions during the middle age period. They taught basic reading and writing skills, provided shelter, made clothes, prepared medicine and helped others whenever their help was needed.
At first, their commitment to God was evident as they vowed to remain obedient, chaste and poor. However, the power and wealth associated with orders drew some monks and Nuns in order to get money and power. Most of the monasteries were retained as crucial centers for caring and providing education (Gethin 1998,120).
Formation of Sangha
The question of why human beings suffered was one of the questions that troubled Buddha for a long period of time. He spent six years meditating to get an answer to the problem but after the period, he felt that he had not found what he was looking for. He remembered an experience he had during his youth as he quietly rested under the shade of an apple tree.
His mind was in an awesome state of peace and calm. According to Buddhist tradition, this state was referred to as the first meditation. He reflected and it dawned on him that he could only find what he was looking for if he allowed himself to be in such a peaceful state of mind.
This required him to nourish his body in order to gain strength because his companions thought that he had given up the quest and left him alone. It was during this time that a young woman known as Sujata offered him milk-rice.
He was nourished and resumed his position under a Bodhi tree to continue with his quest. Buddha resolved hat he was not to give up his quest until he got an answer to his problem. Before he received the milk-rice from Sujata, he was near death and his quest could not continue. However, this gave him strength to continue with his quest until he achieved enlightenment (Gombrich and Heinz 1991,53)
The development of Sangha started after the enlightenment of Buddha. While enjoying the shade of the Bodhi Tree, two merchants by the names Bhalluka and Tapussa paid him a visit, eight weeks after his enlightenment.
They offered him rice cake mixed with molasses and ghee in a bowl that had been provided by the four guardians of the directions. After Bhalluka and Tapussa offered their gifts to Buddha, they were given relics of Buddha’s hair. They immediately assumed the two fold refuge in Dharma and Buddha.
The two merchants were regarded as the first laymen disciples. They went to their native city with the relics and deposited them in a splendid Chaitya that had been constructed for that purpose. They continued to visit the Buddha at Rajagriha until Tapassu changed his name. Bhallika became a member of the Sangha and was converted into an Arhat.
These two merchants together with the five ascetics with whom Buddha practiced with formed the Sangha. The Buddha decided to visit Uddaka Ramaputta and Alara Kalama who had taught him, to narrate to them his findings but they had already passed on (Strong 2008,100).
After Buddha discovered that his former teachers had died, he went to Deer Park which was close to Varanasi. At the park, his union with the five colleagues with whom they had journeyed together towards enlightenment was revived. He gave them his first sermon setting the Wheel of Dharma in motion. They joined hands and together, the first Sangha was formed. Their coming together completed the Triple Gem which was comprised of the Dharma, Buddha and Sangha. After a short duration of time, the five individuals turned into Arahants.
Yasa later brought fifty four friends all of whom joined the Buddhist religion. Within the first 2 months after Dharma Chakra had begun, there was a total of sixty Arahants. Kasyapa brothers were later converted, together with their disciples making the total number of Sangha members more than one thousand.
The size of Sangha continued growing as the members increased from seven to thousands of Monks. Arahants were released to go to different regions to spread the Buddhist religion among the commons (Stevens 1998 34).
Buddha welcomed individuals to join Sangha with rules being developed after the formulation of the Sangha code of conduct. The Sanghas had a set of ten rules which they were supposed to follow.
Members wishing to join Sangha were required to shave their hair and beards, wear a yellow robe placed on one shoulder and pay homage at the feet of the Monks.
This was turned into an induction ceremony for everybody who wanted to join Sangha. Many monasteries were established for the Sangha with the most famous one being built on the park of Prince Jeta. Its name later changed to Jeta Grove Monastery (Stevens 34).
Acceptance of Women in the Order
The role of women among the Monks and the Nuns was looked at in various dimensions. For instance, a comparison was made between the position given to women in secular and religious realms before Buddhism and after its introduction.
It was also important to consider if the Buddhist teachings introduced a radical change or not. This revealed whether the Buddhist teachings gave women positions that differed from the ones given to men as it happened in other religions. In ancient India, women were considered to be family burdens because men had the responsibility of taking care of them.
Besides, they did not have the ability to conduct religious rites for the dead parents hence they were considered less useful. As a result, the birth of a female child was regarded as a great misfortune to the family. The prayers of many parents were that they gave birth to sons to carry on the family name and conduct religious rites to appease them in their death (Strong 2008, 175).
However, this changed with the introduction of Buddhism since women were accepted in the new order of Monks and Nuns. In this order, women were not considered inferior to men. While the physical and biological differences between men and women were acknowledged in this order, both men and women were considered to be equally useful.
The Monks and Nuns emphasized that a woman had an important role to play in a family as a good mother and wife. This in turn brought success to the family. Wives and Husbands in the family took equal responsibility and performed their tasks with equal commitment. The husband was advised to perceive the wife as a companion, friend and a partner.
The wife was expected to take the place of the husband whenever the husband was not at home to discharge his duties. As a matter of fact, wives were expected to familiarize themselves with the trades their husbands were involved in order to manage the affairs of their husbands in their absence. This indicated that women in the Buddhist religion were accepted and treated equally with men (Strong 2001, 176).
The Monks and the Nuns constituted an important component of Buddhism. This paper has focused on their lives and the unique roles they played within the order. The formation of Sangha was also a critical aspect of the Buddhist religion that provided important information on Buddhism.
Acceptance of women in the order was portrayed through non-restriction of educational opportunities and religious freedom for women. It was accepted that women had the capacity to realize the truth just as men did. This was why women were accepted in the order although there were initial feelings that their acceptance was bound to cause problems. The capability of women that led to their acceptance within the order was recorded in Buddhist texts.
Gethin, Rupet. The Foundations of Buddhism. New York: Oxford University Press , 1998.Print
Gombrich, Richard and Bechert Heinz. The World of Buddhism: Buddhist Monks and Nuns in Society and Culture : With 297 Illustrations, 82 in Colour, 215 Photographs, Drawings and Maps. London: Thames and Hudson, 1991.Print
Stevens, John. The marathon monks of Mount Hiei. London: Shambala, 1988.Print
Strong, John. Buddha: A Short Biography. London: Oneworld, 2001.Print
Strong,John. The Experience of Buddhism: Sources and Interpretations. Belmont: CA:Thomson/Wadsworth, 2008.Print | <urn:uuid:28039410-97bd-48dd-9108-f228146c9bfe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://lucasdipasquale.com/monks-and-nuns-the-formation-of-sangha/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00076.warc.gz | en | 0.991493 | 2,520 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.186506122... | 5 | This paper focuses on the lives of Monks and Nuns, the formation of Sangha and the acceptance of women in the order.
Monks were defined as men who belonged to a certain brotherhood. They were committed towards behaving in a certain way according to their order. They spent their lives in monasteries where they prayed and meditated as they took care of other people. A monastery was a place where religious and medical services were offered concurrently. The monasteries also functioned like schools since basic reading and writing skills were taught.
The Lives of Monks and Nuns
A big proportion of the lives of Monks and Nuns was spent in prayer and meditation and carrying out activities such as teaching, preparing medicine, writing or sewing. They were generally busy, organized and orderly people. They had a timetable that outlined the order of their prayers, the first one being the Opus Dei.
The first prayer began in the wee hours of the morning while the last one was conducted at mid night. The timetable was first introduced by Italian Saint Benedict before it gained popularity among all the Monks and Nuns in other parts of Europe. All their activities including preparation of the timetable were conducted at the monastery (Gombrich and Heinz 1991,40).
Among the works of Monks and Nuns was the Cloister which took place in the monastery. The Monks were good at writing neatly and drawing, and as a result, they used their hands to publish their books. The initial letter of each paragraph was neatly decorated to make it attractive. At times, they used gold to produce fancy writings. People who converted into Buddhism were required to make three vows.
The first vow was the vow of poverty which implied that one had to abandon all personal possessions. The second one was the vow of chastity which required individuals to stay single while the third one, the vow of obedience, called for one to show obedience to the monastery and the church.
However, after sometime, some Monks and Nuns did not adhere to some of the vows they had made. This led to the diminishing of the Benedict law and accumulation of wealth by some monarchies. A section of Monks and Nuns introduced a new order known as Cistercian which was initially respected by all. A Cistercian belonged to a monastery that was situated away from the towns (Gombrich and Heinz 1991,53).
Different Cistercian monasteries were designed for various purposes. For instance, those who experienced problems in memorizing their Latin studies went to special monasteries reserved for that purpose.
The monasteries were usually very poor but they accepted those who wanted to join them. Members of the Cistercian were referred to as lay brothers and assisted in the monastery estates by doing some work in the church. Church going was mandatory for most people and they were compelled to pay taxes for developing the churches.
Monks and Nuns were characterized by specific habits which included particular types of clothes and uniforms. Some wore hairy shirts that made them scratch themselves and remind themselves of how Jesus suffered. Their eating place was known as a refectory and while eating, silence was maintained apart from the priest who was allowed to read the bible. A lot of fancy food was incorporated in their menu when some monasteries gained a lot of wealth (Gombrich and Heinz 1991, 45).
Despite the fact that Monks and Nuns had made vows of poverty, some of them became very wealthy. They became members of monasteries with the intention of getting preferential treatment. For instance, some of them owned large pieces of land. Majority of the monasteries were turned into learning centers and sheltered travelers, the sick and poor people.
A period of economic anarchy came about when the Carolingian Empire took power causing a fall in the economic system. People found it difficult to survive as the monasteries were burned down. Monks and Nuns were rendered homeless and the most important thing for them was to save their lives and their belongings.
Monks and Nuns carried out different functions during the middle age period. They taught basic reading and writing skills, provided shelter, made clothes, prepared medicine and helped others whenever their help was needed.
At first, their commitment to God was evident as they vowed to remain obedient, chaste and poor. However, the power and wealth associated with orders drew some monks and Nuns in order to get money and power. Most of the monasteries were retained as crucial centers for caring and providing education (Gethin 1998,120).
Formation of Sangha
The question of why human beings suffered was one of the questions that troubled Buddha for a long period of time. He spent six years meditating to get an answer to the problem but after the period, he felt that he had not found what he was looking for. He remembered an experience he had during his youth as he quietly rested under the shade of an apple tree.
His mind was in an awesome state of peace and calm. According to Buddhist tradition, this state was referred to as the first meditation. He reflected and it dawned on him that he could only find what he was looking for if he allowed himself to be in such a peaceful state of mind.
This required him to nourish his body in order to gain strength because his companions thought that he had given up the quest and left him alone. It was during this time that a young woman known as Sujata offered him milk-rice.
He was nourished and resumed his position under a Bodhi tree to continue with his quest. Buddha resolved hat he was not to give up his quest until he got an answer to his problem. Before he received the milk-rice from Sujata, he was near death and his quest could not continue. However, this gave him strength to continue with his quest until he achieved enlightenment (Gombrich and Heinz 1991,53)
The development of Sangha started after the enlightenment of Buddha. While enjoying the shade of the Bodhi Tree, two merchants by the names Bhalluka and Tapussa paid him a visit, eight weeks after his enlightenment.
They offered him rice cake mixed with molasses and ghee in a bowl that had been provided by the four guardians of the directions. After Bhalluka and Tapussa offered their gifts to Buddha, they were given relics of Buddha’s hair. They immediately assumed the two fold refuge in Dharma and Buddha.
The two merchants were regarded as the first laymen disciples. They went to their native city with the relics and deposited them in a splendid Chaitya that had been constructed for that purpose. They continued to visit the Buddha at Rajagriha until Tapassu changed his name. Bhallika became a member of the Sangha and was converted into an Arhat.
These two merchants together with the five ascetics with whom Buddha practiced with formed the Sangha. The Buddha decided to visit Uddaka Ramaputta and Alara Kalama who had taught him, to narrate to them his findings but they had already passed on (Strong 2008,100).
After Buddha discovered that his former teachers had died, he went to Deer Park which was close to Varanasi. At the park, his union with the five colleagues with whom they had journeyed together towards enlightenment was revived. He gave them his first sermon setting the Wheel of Dharma in motion. They joined hands and together, the first Sangha was formed. Their coming together completed the Triple Gem which was comprised of the Dharma, Buddha and Sangha. After a short duration of time, the five individuals turned into Arahants.
Yasa later brought fifty four friends all of whom joined the Buddhist religion. Within the first 2 months after Dharma Chakra had begun, there was a total of sixty Arahants. Kasyapa brothers were later converted, together with their disciples making the total number of Sangha members more than one thousand.
The size of Sangha continued growing as the members increased from seven to thousands of Monks. Arahants were released to go to different regions to spread the Buddhist religion among the commons (Stevens 1998 34).
Buddha welcomed individuals to join Sangha with rules being developed after the formulation of the Sangha code of conduct. The Sanghas had a set of ten rules which they were supposed to follow.
Members wishing to join Sangha were required to shave their hair and beards, wear a yellow robe placed on one shoulder and pay homage at the feet of the Monks.
This was turned into an induction ceremony for everybody who wanted to join Sangha. Many monasteries were established for the Sangha with the most famous one being built on the park of Prince Jeta. Its name later changed to Jeta Grove Monastery (Stevens 34).
Acceptance of Women in the Order
The role of women among the Monks and the Nuns was looked at in various dimensions. For instance, a comparison was made between the position given to women in secular and religious realms before Buddhism and after its introduction.
It was also important to consider if the Buddhist teachings introduced a radical change or not. This revealed whether the Buddhist teachings gave women positions that differed from the ones given to men as it happened in other religions. In ancient India, women were considered to be family burdens because men had the responsibility of taking care of them.
Besides, they did not have the ability to conduct religious rites for the dead parents hence they were considered less useful. As a result, the birth of a female child was regarded as a great misfortune to the family. The prayers of many parents were that they gave birth to sons to carry on the family name and conduct religious rites to appease them in their death (Strong 2008, 175).
However, this changed with the introduction of Buddhism since women were accepted in the new order of Monks and Nuns. In this order, women were not considered inferior to men. While the physical and biological differences between men and women were acknowledged in this order, both men and women were considered to be equally useful.
The Monks and Nuns emphasized that a woman had an important role to play in a family as a good mother and wife. This in turn brought success to the family. Wives and Husbands in the family took equal responsibility and performed their tasks with equal commitment. The husband was advised to perceive the wife as a companion, friend and a partner.
The wife was expected to take the place of the husband whenever the husband was not at home to discharge his duties. As a matter of fact, wives were expected to familiarize themselves with the trades their husbands were involved in order to manage the affairs of their husbands in their absence. This indicated that women in the Buddhist religion were accepted and treated equally with men (Strong 2001, 176).
The Monks and the Nuns constituted an important component of Buddhism. This paper has focused on their lives and the unique roles they played within the order. The formation of Sangha was also a critical aspect of the Buddhist religion that provided important information on Buddhism.
Acceptance of women in the order was portrayed through non-restriction of educational opportunities and religious freedom for women. It was accepted that women had the capacity to realize the truth just as men did. This was why women were accepted in the order although there were initial feelings that their acceptance was bound to cause problems. The capability of women that led to their acceptance within the order was recorded in Buddhist texts.
Gethin, Rupet. The Foundations of Buddhism. New York: Oxford University Press , 1998.Print
Gombrich, Richard and Bechert Heinz. The World of Buddhism: Buddhist Monks and Nuns in Society and Culture : With 297 Illustrations, 82 in Colour, 215 Photographs, Drawings and Maps. London: Thames and Hudson, 1991.Print
Stevens, John. The marathon monks of Mount Hiei. London: Shambala, 1988.Print
Strong, John. Buddha: A Short Biography. London: Oneworld, 2001.Print
Strong,John. The Experience of Buddhism: Sources and Interpretations. Belmont: CA:Thomson/Wadsworth, 2008.Print | 2,567 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alexander E. Whitney was born in Iowa in 1873. In 1888 he started to work for Illinois Central Railroad. The Brotherhood of Railway Trainmen (BRT) was organized on 23 September 1883, and later moved its headquarters to Cleveland, Ohio. The BRT restricted membership to whites. Whitney joined the Brotherhood in 1898. He was appointed a vice president in 1907. Whitney was elected president of the Brotherhood on 1 July 1928. He succeeded William Granville Lee.
Whitney took office at the start of the Great Depression. A Department of Labor study of veteran railway employees showed that between July 1929 and April 1933 two thirds reported that their earnings had dropped by at least 20%, and two fifths said earnings had dropped by 30% or more. This did not count workers who had lost their jobs. By the spring of 1933 the national unemployment rate was 25%. However, Whitney and other labor leaders were opposed to Roosevelt's Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), a government relief program that provided simple jobs paying $1 per day. He said the CCC, "would place Government's endorsement upon poverty at a bare subsistence level."
Whitney soon became an important public figure, representing the trainmen in many discussions with government and business. During his tenure the Brotherhood of Railway Trainmen grew to 215,000 members. From 1932 to 1934 Whitney was chairman of the Railway Labor Executives' Association. David B. Robertson of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen stepped down in 1932 to devote more time to his union, and Whitney was elected his successor. In 1932 Whitney was among the labor leaders whom the American Federation of Labor was considering endorsing for the position of Secretary of Labor in Roosevelt's government, although Daniel J. Tobin of the Teamsters came to be favored. In the end the president selected Frances Perkins, who took office on 5 March 1933.
After President Franklin D. Roosevelt took office in 1933, he appointed a committee to draw up new legislation for the railroads. Their draft included various measures to improve efficiency. On 3 April 1933 Whitney said the plan could throw from 50,000 to 350,000 men out of work, and would violate contracts related to security of employment. He called for guarantees that the government would ensure absorptive employment, consult with the unions on any changes and prevent carriers from interfering with labor's right to organize. The Emergency Railroad Transportation Act of 16 June 1933 essentially met these conditions, and was seen by the union leaders as a great victory.
In September 1933 Whitney attended a conference in Chicago organized by the League for Independent Political Action, and was one of the signatories to the call for a new political order. It said "We the masses of the people must rise up and win economic and political control. We must organize to establish a new social order, a scientifically planned system. We must own and control the means of production and distribution." The Farmer-Labor Political Federation was founded at the conference, headed by Thomas Ryum Amlie. Despite this radical position, Amlie was strongly opposed to Communism, and communists were not welcome in the federation.
In 1935 Whitney was a co-sponsor of the Railroad Retirement Act.
At times, the BRT came into conflict with other unions. Thus, in 1937 Whitney informed mayor Fiorello La Guardia of New York City that the BRT planned to start organizing Independent Subway System (ISS) motormen and conductors. At first, LaGuardia said he had no objection. Then it emerged that the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen was also thinking of organizing the ISS workers, and that the non-segregated Amalgamated Association of Street Railway and Motor Coach Employees might be more appropriate given the number of black ISS conductors.
Whitney and Alvanley Johnston, leader of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers (BLE), often worked together. They backed Harry S. Truman in his 1940 Senate race, putting up most of the money for his campaign. Truman was a long-time friend of Whitney but disliked Johnston, whom he called a "damned Republican." In 1943, during World War II (1939-1945), the government seized the railroads. Johnston and Whitney were made labor consultants.
Whitney favored James F. Byrnes as vice-presidential candidate in Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1944 campaign for re-election, until it became clear that Roosevelt preferred Truman. He wrote to a colleague on 12 July 1944, "our friend, Jimmy Byrnes ... will not only strengthen the ticket if nominated ... but [is] a man who will fill this high office with dignity." In the 1944 Democratic National Convention in Chicago in 19–21 July 1944 he threw his weight behind Truman.
After the war ended, towards the end of 1945 Whitney and the leaders of the other main railroad unions demanded pay increases and a forty-hour work week from the railroad companies, in line with other industries. Negotiations stalled in January 1946. Three of the unions were willing to suspend their demands, but Johnston and Whitney called a strike of the Engineers and Trainmen to start on 16 March 1946. President Truman set up a board to hear the grievances and make recommendations. Negotiations broke down in April, and Whitney and Johnston set 18 May 1946 as the strike date. Whitney's union represented 211,000 trainmen and Johnston represented 78,000 engineers. They could halt all railway traffic nationwide. Truman felt betrayed, writing on 17 May 1946 "Lewis, Whitney, Johnston, Murray and all other labor leaders made me certain promises when I took over. They all lied to me."
Three days before the deadline for the strike, Truman met Whitney and Johnston in the Oval Office. He told them, "If you think I'm going to sit here and let you tie up this whole country, you're crazy as hell." Whitney apologized but said "We've got to go through with this, Mr. President. Our men are demanding it." Truman responding by saying that if the labor leaders did not make a settlement within two days he would take over the railroads. The day before the walkout was due Truman seized the railroads by executive order as he had promised. Whitney and Johnston again agreed to postpone the strike for five days.
However, after hearing Truman's compromise pay offer their members voted to go on strike on 23 May 1946. The strike stranded travelers, prevented movement of perishable goods and caused concern that many people in war-devastated Europe would starve if grain shipments were delayed. Truman broadcast an appeal to the strikers to return to work, saying "It is inconceivable that in our democracy any two men should be placed in a position where they can completely stifle our economy and ultimately destroy our country." He threatened to call out the army to end the strike. On 25 May Truman was addressing Congress, calling for drastic legislation under which strikers could be drafted into the army, when word came that the strikers had accepted his terms and the strike had ended.
In the immediate aftermath of the May 1946 strike Whitney was reported to have said the Brotherhood would use all of its capital of $47 million to defeat Truman if he sought reelection. After Henry A. Wallace was dismissed from the Truman administration in September 1946, Whitney was among the labor leaders who considered supporting him as a presidential candidate in the 1948 election. Later, Whitney and most other labor leaders abandoned Wallace as being too far to the left.
Whitney was a bitter opponent of Senator Robert A. Taft, saying that his Labor Management Relations Act of 1947 would put the U.S. "one step from Hitler's form of government." After the Taft-Hartley bill was passed despite Truman's veto, on 20 July 1947 Whitney said that Truman's veto of the bill had "vindicated him in the eyes of labor". He ruled out Wallace, saying a third party was now "out of the question." A spokesman for the Brotherhood said "our Brotherhood will throw all its resources behind President Truman and his Administration in an effort to elect a Congress which will back the President's liberal program."
Alexander F. Whitney died of a heart attack on 16 July 1949 at the age of 76. He was succeeded as president of the BRT by William Parker Kennedy. | <urn:uuid:fcf4dde2-98d1-43e3-a048-e7d5a8043bb7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Alexander-F-Whitney | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00478.warc.gz | en | 0.980125 | 1,677 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.0082350429147... | 2 | Alexander E. Whitney was born in Iowa in 1873. In 1888 he started to work for Illinois Central Railroad. The Brotherhood of Railway Trainmen (BRT) was organized on 23 September 1883, and later moved its headquarters to Cleveland, Ohio. The BRT restricted membership to whites. Whitney joined the Brotherhood in 1898. He was appointed a vice president in 1907. Whitney was elected president of the Brotherhood on 1 July 1928. He succeeded William Granville Lee.
Whitney took office at the start of the Great Depression. A Department of Labor study of veteran railway employees showed that between July 1929 and April 1933 two thirds reported that their earnings had dropped by at least 20%, and two fifths said earnings had dropped by 30% or more. This did not count workers who had lost their jobs. By the spring of 1933 the national unemployment rate was 25%. However, Whitney and other labor leaders were opposed to Roosevelt's Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), a government relief program that provided simple jobs paying $1 per day. He said the CCC, "would place Government's endorsement upon poverty at a bare subsistence level."
Whitney soon became an important public figure, representing the trainmen in many discussions with government and business. During his tenure the Brotherhood of Railway Trainmen grew to 215,000 members. From 1932 to 1934 Whitney was chairman of the Railway Labor Executives' Association. David B. Robertson of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen stepped down in 1932 to devote more time to his union, and Whitney was elected his successor. In 1932 Whitney was among the labor leaders whom the American Federation of Labor was considering endorsing for the position of Secretary of Labor in Roosevelt's government, although Daniel J. Tobin of the Teamsters came to be favored. In the end the president selected Frances Perkins, who took office on 5 March 1933.
After President Franklin D. Roosevelt took office in 1933, he appointed a committee to draw up new legislation for the railroads. Their draft included various measures to improve efficiency. On 3 April 1933 Whitney said the plan could throw from 50,000 to 350,000 men out of work, and would violate contracts related to security of employment. He called for guarantees that the government would ensure absorptive employment, consult with the unions on any changes and prevent carriers from interfering with labor's right to organize. The Emergency Railroad Transportation Act of 16 June 1933 essentially met these conditions, and was seen by the union leaders as a great victory.
In September 1933 Whitney attended a conference in Chicago organized by the League for Independent Political Action, and was one of the signatories to the call for a new political order. It said "We the masses of the people must rise up and win economic and political control. We must organize to establish a new social order, a scientifically planned system. We must own and control the means of production and distribution." The Farmer-Labor Political Federation was founded at the conference, headed by Thomas Ryum Amlie. Despite this radical position, Amlie was strongly opposed to Communism, and communists were not welcome in the federation.
In 1935 Whitney was a co-sponsor of the Railroad Retirement Act.
At times, the BRT came into conflict with other unions. Thus, in 1937 Whitney informed mayor Fiorello La Guardia of New York City that the BRT planned to start organizing Independent Subway System (ISS) motormen and conductors. At first, LaGuardia said he had no objection. Then it emerged that the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and Enginemen was also thinking of organizing the ISS workers, and that the non-segregated Amalgamated Association of Street Railway and Motor Coach Employees might be more appropriate given the number of black ISS conductors.
Whitney and Alvanley Johnston, leader of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers (BLE), often worked together. They backed Harry S. Truman in his 1940 Senate race, putting up most of the money for his campaign. Truman was a long-time friend of Whitney but disliked Johnston, whom he called a "damned Republican." In 1943, during World War II (1939-1945), the government seized the railroads. Johnston and Whitney were made labor consultants.
Whitney favored James F. Byrnes as vice-presidential candidate in Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1944 campaign for re-election, until it became clear that Roosevelt preferred Truman. He wrote to a colleague on 12 July 1944, "our friend, Jimmy Byrnes ... will not only strengthen the ticket if nominated ... but [is] a man who will fill this high office with dignity." In the 1944 Democratic National Convention in Chicago in 19–21 July 1944 he threw his weight behind Truman.
After the war ended, towards the end of 1945 Whitney and the leaders of the other main railroad unions demanded pay increases and a forty-hour work week from the railroad companies, in line with other industries. Negotiations stalled in January 1946. Three of the unions were willing to suspend their demands, but Johnston and Whitney called a strike of the Engineers and Trainmen to start on 16 March 1946. President Truman set up a board to hear the grievances and make recommendations. Negotiations broke down in April, and Whitney and Johnston set 18 May 1946 as the strike date. Whitney's union represented 211,000 trainmen and Johnston represented 78,000 engineers. They could halt all railway traffic nationwide. Truman felt betrayed, writing on 17 May 1946 "Lewis, Whitney, Johnston, Murray and all other labor leaders made me certain promises when I took over. They all lied to me."
Three days before the deadline for the strike, Truman met Whitney and Johnston in the Oval Office. He told them, "If you think I'm going to sit here and let you tie up this whole country, you're crazy as hell." Whitney apologized but said "We've got to go through with this, Mr. President. Our men are demanding it." Truman responding by saying that if the labor leaders did not make a settlement within two days he would take over the railroads. The day before the walkout was due Truman seized the railroads by executive order as he had promised. Whitney and Johnston again agreed to postpone the strike for five days.
However, after hearing Truman's compromise pay offer their members voted to go on strike on 23 May 1946. The strike stranded travelers, prevented movement of perishable goods and caused concern that many people in war-devastated Europe would starve if grain shipments were delayed. Truman broadcast an appeal to the strikers to return to work, saying "It is inconceivable that in our democracy any two men should be placed in a position where they can completely stifle our economy and ultimately destroy our country." He threatened to call out the army to end the strike. On 25 May Truman was addressing Congress, calling for drastic legislation under which strikers could be drafted into the army, when word came that the strikers had accepted his terms and the strike had ended.
In the immediate aftermath of the May 1946 strike Whitney was reported to have said the Brotherhood would use all of its capital of $47 million to defeat Truman if he sought reelection. After Henry A. Wallace was dismissed from the Truman administration in September 1946, Whitney was among the labor leaders who considered supporting him as a presidential candidate in the 1948 election. Later, Whitney and most other labor leaders abandoned Wallace as being too far to the left.
Whitney was a bitter opponent of Senator Robert A. Taft, saying that his Labor Management Relations Act of 1947 would put the U.S. "one step from Hitler's form of government." After the Taft-Hartley bill was passed despite Truman's veto, on 20 July 1947 Whitney said that Truman's veto of the bill had "vindicated him in the eyes of labor". He ruled out Wallace, saying a third party was now "out of the question." A spokesman for the Brotherhood said "our Brotherhood will throw all its resources behind President Truman and his Administration in an effort to elect a Congress which will back the President's liberal program."
Alexander F. Whitney died of a heart attack on 16 July 1949 at the age of 76. He was succeeded as president of the BRT by William Parker Kennedy. | 1,883 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who Was Edward the Confessor?
Edward the Confessor was king of England from 1042 to 1066. Edward’s death was to transform Medieval England and led to the reign of the Norman William the Conqueror with all that his rule meant to Medieval England – castles, the Domesday Book and feudalism.
Edward the Confessor as
Edward the Confessor’s Early Life
Edward the Confessor was born in about 1003. Edward’s father was Ethelred the Unready and his mother was Emma of Normandy. Edward spent the first part of his life in Normandy. He grew up with deep religious views and gained the nickname “Confessor”. However, away from his family and in a strange land, it is said that Edward’s childhood was not a happy one.
Edward the Confessor’s Reign
In 1040, Edward was re-called to England by his half-brother Hardicanute who had succeeded Ethelred in the same year. Hardicanute died after a drinking party in 1042 and Edward became king of England.
According to those who compiled the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the first thing Edward did, despite his religious views, was to deprive his mother of all of her estates and reduce her to relative poverty. It is said that Edward blamed her for his miserable and lonely childhood.
Edward married in 1045. His wife, Edith, was the daughter of Godwin of Wessex, the most important nobleman in England. They had no children as Edward had taken a vow of celibacy.
In 1051, a number of Normans were killed in a brawl in Dover, Kent. Edward still had influential friends in Normandy and he wanted the people of Dover punished for this. Edward ordered Earl Godwin to do this. Godwin refused and raised an army against the king instead. Two other senior noblemen, the earls of Mercia and Northumbria, remained loyal to Edward, and outnumbered, Godwin agreed to leave England and live with his family in Flanders
Between 1051 and 1052, Edward increased the number of Normans who advised him at court. This angered the Witan – a body of English advisors made up of the most important noblemen in England – and in 1052, Earl Godwin returned to England with an army. This army was commanded by his two sons, Harold and Tostig. Edward was unable to raise an army to fight Godwin as no nobleman was willing to support the king. Edward was forced to send back to Normandy his Norman advisors and he had to return to Godwin all his estates and accept him back into the kingdom. Despite being king of England, Edward had no choice but to do this.
In 1053 Godwin died. His title was taken by Harold who became known as Harold of Wessex. He was the most powerful nobleman in England.
Between 1052 and 1066, Edward contented himself with putting all of his energy into the building of Westminster Abbey in London. The Witan maintained its political and advisory power. Having ‘tasted’ its power once in 1052, Edward had no desire to challenge it again.
Harold of Wessex commanded the king’s army when it was required and gained a reputation as a skilled leader. | <urn:uuid:7a8897e6-21eb-4b34-a93b-85f700082a72> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/medieval-england/edward-the-confessor/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00274.warc.gz | en | 0.988564 | 686 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.01545081... | 10 | Who Was Edward the Confessor?
Edward the Confessor was king of England from 1042 to 1066. Edward’s death was to transform Medieval England and led to the reign of the Norman William the Conqueror with all that his rule meant to Medieval England – castles, the Domesday Book and feudalism.
Edward the Confessor as
Edward the Confessor’s Early Life
Edward the Confessor was born in about 1003. Edward’s father was Ethelred the Unready and his mother was Emma of Normandy. Edward spent the first part of his life in Normandy. He grew up with deep religious views and gained the nickname “Confessor”. However, away from his family and in a strange land, it is said that Edward’s childhood was not a happy one.
Edward the Confessor’s Reign
In 1040, Edward was re-called to England by his half-brother Hardicanute who had succeeded Ethelred in the same year. Hardicanute died after a drinking party in 1042 and Edward became king of England.
According to those who compiled the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the first thing Edward did, despite his religious views, was to deprive his mother of all of her estates and reduce her to relative poverty. It is said that Edward blamed her for his miserable and lonely childhood.
Edward married in 1045. His wife, Edith, was the daughter of Godwin of Wessex, the most important nobleman in England. They had no children as Edward had taken a vow of celibacy.
In 1051, a number of Normans were killed in a brawl in Dover, Kent. Edward still had influential friends in Normandy and he wanted the people of Dover punished for this. Edward ordered Earl Godwin to do this. Godwin refused and raised an army against the king instead. Two other senior noblemen, the earls of Mercia and Northumbria, remained loyal to Edward, and outnumbered, Godwin agreed to leave England and live with his family in Flanders
Between 1051 and 1052, Edward increased the number of Normans who advised him at court. This angered the Witan – a body of English advisors made up of the most important noblemen in England – and in 1052, Earl Godwin returned to England with an army. This army was commanded by his two sons, Harold and Tostig. Edward was unable to raise an army to fight Godwin as no nobleman was willing to support the king. Edward was forced to send back to Normandy his Norman advisors and he had to return to Godwin all his estates and accept him back into the kingdom. Despite being king of England, Edward had no choice but to do this.
In 1053 Godwin died. His title was taken by Harold who became known as Harold of Wessex. He was the most powerful nobleman in England.
Between 1052 and 1066, Edward contented himself with putting all of his energy into the building of Westminster Abbey in London. The Witan maintained its political and advisory power. Having ‘tasted’ its power once in 1052, Edward had no desire to challenge it again.
Harold of Wessex commanded the king’s army when it was required and gained a reputation as a skilled leader. | 708 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Teaching Botanist
#OTD It's the birthday of John Hope, who lived during the Scottish enlightenment; he was a botanist, a famous professor, and founder of one of the leading botanical gardens in Europe, born on this day in 1725.
Hope produced considerable work on plant classification and physiology. He was appointed to positions of the King's botanist for Scotland and superintendent of the Royal Garden in Edinburgh.
At the time, Edinburgh was THE place to study medicine, and all medical students had to take botany courses. Hope created a school for botanists after spinning off the materia medica (pharmacy) department of the school, which allowed him to specialize exclusively on botany. Hope was a captivating instructor. He was one of the first two people to teach the Linnean system, and he also taught the natural system. He was one of the first instructors to use big teaching diagrams or visual aids to teach his lectures. His students traveled from all over the world, Europe, America, and India. Hope taught over 1,700 students during his tenure and they included the likes of James Edward Smith, founder and first President of the Linnaean Society, Charles Drayton and Benjamin Rush. A field botanist, Hope encouraged his students to go out and investigate the Flora of Scotland, and he awarded a medal every year to the student who collected the best herbarium.
With Hope's impressive resume came impressive wealth. By the time Hope died, he had amassed more than £12,000, which he had left for his wife. | <urn:uuid:fb314079-33bd-4e28-8865-d3b6657c0602> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thedailygardener.org/john-hope/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00032.warc.gz | en | 0.980867 | 329 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.43727225065231323... | 3 | The Teaching Botanist
#OTD It's the birthday of John Hope, who lived during the Scottish enlightenment; he was a botanist, a famous professor, and founder of one of the leading botanical gardens in Europe, born on this day in 1725.
Hope produced considerable work on plant classification and physiology. He was appointed to positions of the King's botanist for Scotland and superintendent of the Royal Garden in Edinburgh.
At the time, Edinburgh was THE place to study medicine, and all medical students had to take botany courses. Hope created a school for botanists after spinning off the materia medica (pharmacy) department of the school, which allowed him to specialize exclusively on botany. Hope was a captivating instructor. He was one of the first two people to teach the Linnean system, and he also taught the natural system. He was one of the first instructors to use big teaching diagrams or visual aids to teach his lectures. His students traveled from all over the world, Europe, America, and India. Hope taught over 1,700 students during his tenure and they included the likes of James Edward Smith, founder and first President of the Linnaean Society, Charles Drayton and Benjamin Rush. A field botanist, Hope encouraged his students to go out and investigate the Flora of Scotland, and he awarded a medal every year to the student who collected the best herbarium.
With Hope's impressive resume came impressive wealth. By the time Hope died, he had amassed more than £12,000, which he had left for his wife. | 331 | ENGLISH | 1 |
HMS Warrior is considered to be 'rather unique' as a warship - as she was equipped with both sails, and a steam engine (that was fuelled by coal):
This meant that she could navigate the oceans of the World, using one of three modes: i) just her sails. ii) just her steam engine. iii) both her sails and her steam engine - when speed was of the essence! Her sails, though retained from the days of HMS Victory (1803), also meant that Warrior had a useful fallback, in the event that she run out of coal. Despite this, her steam engine was connected to a single propeller, which could be regarded as the grandfather of all modern ship propellers (because it was of a simpler design - with only two blades). In any case, Warrior's propeller was designed, to push her 9000 tons, through the sea lanes of the British Empire. | <urn:uuid:b0e9287e-b608-415f-b7c2-a5023946808c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nebulahawk.com/steam-engine-tag.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00067.warc.gz | en | 0.989123 | 186 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.22217045724391... | 2 | HMS Warrior is considered to be 'rather unique' as a warship - as she was equipped with both sails, and a steam engine (that was fuelled by coal):
This meant that she could navigate the oceans of the World, using one of three modes: i) just her sails. ii) just her steam engine. iii) both her sails and her steam engine - when speed was of the essence! Her sails, though retained from the days of HMS Victory (1803), also meant that Warrior had a useful fallback, in the event that she run out of coal. Despite this, her steam engine was connected to a single propeller, which could be regarded as the grandfather of all modern ship propellers (because it was of a simpler design - with only two blades). In any case, Warrior's propeller was designed, to push her 9000 tons, through the sea lanes of the British Empire. | 191 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The New Bedford River, also known as the Hundred Foot Drain because of the distance between the tops of the two embankments on either side of the river, is a man-made cut-off or by-pass channel of the River Great Ouse in the Fens of Cambridgeshire, England. It provides an almost straight channel between Earith and Denver Sluices. It is tidal, with reverse tidal flow being clearly visible at Welney, some 19 miles (31km) from the sea.
In the 1620s, there was discontent in the region through which the New Bedford River now flows, as the land was regularly inundated by flood water. Francis Russell, 4th Earl of Bedford, who owned large tracts of land in the vicinity, agreed to carry out drainage works in 1630, in return for 95,000 acres (38,000ha) of the land which would be reclaimed. He was joined in the project by thirteen other adventurers, who formed a corporation and obtained a charter to carry out the work in 1634. The Dutch engineer Cornelius Vermuyden was engaged to oversee the work, which included nine major drainage channels, including the Bedford River, which ran from Earith to Salter's Lode. The tract of land through which it ran became known as the Bedford Level, and the scheme was declared to be complete in 1637. However, in 1638, that decision was reversed, and King Charles I became the undertaker to ensure the work was completed. The adventurers were given 40,000 acres (16,000ha) for the work that had already been carried out, and further work was again to be overseen by Vermuyden, but little work was done, as the English Civil War intervened. The existing works were neglected, and some were deliberately damaged during the hostilities.
Before the 17th century, the Wampanoag, who had settlements throughout southeastern Massachusetts and Rhode Island, including Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket, were the only inhabitants of the lands along the Acushnet River. Their population is believed to have been about 12,000. While exploring New England, Bartholomew Gosnold landed on Cuttyhunk island on May 15, 1602. From there, he explored Cape Cod and the neighboring areas, including present-day New Bedford. However, rather than settle the area, he returned to England at the request of his crew.
Bedford Depot is a historic railroad depot at 80 Loomis Street and 120 South Road in Bedford, Massachusetts. Bedford was the junction of the Reformatory Branch and the Lexington Branch of the Boston and Maine Railroad; it saw passenger service until 1977 as the stub of the Lexington Branch. The original 1874 depot and 1877 freight house are listed on the National Register of Historic Places; along with a restored Budd Rail Diesel Car, they form the centerpieces of the Bedford Depot Park.
The Lexington and West Cambridge Railroad was built to what is now Lexington Center in 1845-46, and bought by the Boston and Lowell Railroad in 1870 in order to prevent the line from building an alternate route to Lowell via Bedford. In August 1873, the subsidiary Middlesex Central Railroad opened an extension to Concord Center via Bedford. A Victorian-style passenger station was built in 1874.
In 1877, the Billerica and Bedford Railroad, a 2ft (610mm) narrow-gauge line, opened from Bedford Depot to North Billerica. The line built a two-stall engine house and a turntable at the Bedford terminus. The Billerica and Bedford was markedly unsuccessful, and closed down in 1878. In 1879, the Middlesex Central was extended to Reformatory station in Concord; this permitted short-lived through service to Nashua via a connection to the Nashua, Acton, and Boston Railroad. In 1885, the Boston & Lowell rebuilt the route to Billerica as part of their standard gauge network. The depot, originally west of South Road, was moved to its present location at the junction. The narrow gauge engine house was also moved and turned into a freight depot. Two years later, the Boston and Maine Railroad absorbed the Boston & Lowell, including the two routes through Bedford. | <urn:uuid:afc6d37d-0710-4226-b2d0-a96e30d62aee> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wn.com/New_Bedford_River | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00325.warc.gz | en | 0.980637 | 868 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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-0.0695590674... | 1 | The New Bedford River, also known as the Hundred Foot Drain because of the distance between the tops of the two embankments on either side of the river, is a man-made cut-off or by-pass channel of the River Great Ouse in the Fens of Cambridgeshire, England. It provides an almost straight channel between Earith and Denver Sluices. It is tidal, with reverse tidal flow being clearly visible at Welney, some 19 miles (31km) from the sea.
In the 1620s, there was discontent in the region through which the New Bedford River now flows, as the land was regularly inundated by flood water. Francis Russell, 4th Earl of Bedford, who owned large tracts of land in the vicinity, agreed to carry out drainage works in 1630, in return for 95,000 acres (38,000ha) of the land which would be reclaimed. He was joined in the project by thirteen other adventurers, who formed a corporation and obtained a charter to carry out the work in 1634. The Dutch engineer Cornelius Vermuyden was engaged to oversee the work, which included nine major drainage channels, including the Bedford River, which ran from Earith to Salter's Lode. The tract of land through which it ran became known as the Bedford Level, and the scheme was declared to be complete in 1637. However, in 1638, that decision was reversed, and King Charles I became the undertaker to ensure the work was completed. The adventurers were given 40,000 acres (16,000ha) for the work that had already been carried out, and further work was again to be overseen by Vermuyden, but little work was done, as the English Civil War intervened. The existing works were neglected, and some were deliberately damaged during the hostilities.
Before the 17th century, the Wampanoag, who had settlements throughout southeastern Massachusetts and Rhode Island, including Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket, were the only inhabitants of the lands along the Acushnet River. Their population is believed to have been about 12,000. While exploring New England, Bartholomew Gosnold landed on Cuttyhunk island on May 15, 1602. From there, he explored Cape Cod and the neighboring areas, including present-day New Bedford. However, rather than settle the area, he returned to England at the request of his crew.
Bedford Depot is a historic railroad depot at 80 Loomis Street and 120 South Road in Bedford, Massachusetts. Bedford was the junction of the Reformatory Branch and the Lexington Branch of the Boston and Maine Railroad; it saw passenger service until 1977 as the stub of the Lexington Branch. The original 1874 depot and 1877 freight house are listed on the National Register of Historic Places; along with a restored Budd Rail Diesel Car, they form the centerpieces of the Bedford Depot Park.
The Lexington and West Cambridge Railroad was built to what is now Lexington Center in 1845-46, and bought by the Boston and Lowell Railroad in 1870 in order to prevent the line from building an alternate route to Lowell via Bedford. In August 1873, the subsidiary Middlesex Central Railroad opened an extension to Concord Center via Bedford. A Victorian-style passenger station was built in 1874.
In 1877, the Billerica and Bedford Railroad, a 2ft (610mm) narrow-gauge line, opened from Bedford Depot to North Billerica. The line built a two-stall engine house and a turntable at the Bedford terminus. The Billerica and Bedford was markedly unsuccessful, and closed down in 1878. In 1879, the Middlesex Central was extended to Reformatory station in Concord; this permitted short-lived through service to Nashua via a connection to the Nashua, Acton, and Boston Railroad. In 1885, the Boston & Lowell rebuilt the route to Billerica as part of their standard gauge network. The depot, originally west of South Road, was moved to its present location at the junction. The narrow gauge engine house was also moved and turned into a freight depot. Two years later, the Boston and Maine Railroad absorbed the Boston & Lowell, including the two routes through Bedford. | 947 | ENGLISH | 1 |
These early Cretans were of unknown race, but probably of a race akin to the Iberians of Spain and Western Europe and the dark whites of Asia Minor and North Africa, and their language is unknown. This race lived not only in Crete, but in Cyprus, Greece, Asia Minor, Sicily, and South Italy. It was a civilized people for long ages before the fair Aryan Greeks spread southward through Macedonia. At Cnossos, in Crete, there have been found the most astonishing ruins and remains, and Cnossos, therefore, is apt to overshadow the rest of these settlements in people's imaginations, but it is well to bear in mind that, though Cnossos was no doubt a chief city of this Ægean civilization, these "Ægeans" had in the fullness of their time many cities and a wide range. Possibly, all that we know of them now are but the vestiges of a far more extensive heliolithic Neolithic civilization which is now submerged under the waters of the Mediterranean.
At Cnossos there are Neolithic remains as old or older than any of the pre-dynastic remains of Egypt. The Bronze Age began in Crete as soon as it did in Egypt, and there have been vases found by Flinders Petrie in Egypt and referred by him to the Ist Dynasty, which he declared to be importations from Crete. Stone vessels have been found in Crete of forms characteristic of the IVth (pyramid-building) Dynasty, and there can be no doubt that there was a vigorous trade between Crete and Egypt in the time of the XIIth Dynasty. This continued until about 1000 b.c. It is clear that this island civilization arising upon the soil of Crete is at least as old as the Egyptian, and that it was already launched upon the sea as early as 4000 b.c.
The great days of Crete were not so early as this. It was only about 2500 b.c. that the island appears to have been unified under one ruler. Then began an age of peace and prosperity unexampled in the history of the ancient world. Secure from invasion, living in a delightful climate, trading with every civilized community in the world, the Cretans were free to develop all the arts and amenities of life. This Cnossos was not so much a town as the vast palace of the king and his people. It was not even forti- | <urn:uuid:926840e6-9b3e-41ee-9bf4-2c545921ac27> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu/237 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00232.warc.gz | en | 0.986868 | 514 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.50965541... | 1 | These early Cretans were of unknown race, but probably of a race akin to the Iberians of Spain and Western Europe and the dark whites of Asia Minor and North Africa, and their language is unknown. This race lived not only in Crete, but in Cyprus, Greece, Asia Minor, Sicily, and South Italy. It was a civilized people for long ages before the fair Aryan Greeks spread southward through Macedonia. At Cnossos, in Crete, there have been found the most astonishing ruins and remains, and Cnossos, therefore, is apt to overshadow the rest of these settlements in people's imaginations, but it is well to bear in mind that, though Cnossos was no doubt a chief city of this Ægean civilization, these "Ægeans" had in the fullness of their time many cities and a wide range. Possibly, all that we know of them now are but the vestiges of a far more extensive heliolithic Neolithic civilization which is now submerged under the waters of the Mediterranean.
At Cnossos there are Neolithic remains as old or older than any of the pre-dynastic remains of Egypt. The Bronze Age began in Crete as soon as it did in Egypt, and there have been vases found by Flinders Petrie in Egypt and referred by him to the Ist Dynasty, which he declared to be importations from Crete. Stone vessels have been found in Crete of forms characteristic of the IVth (pyramid-building) Dynasty, and there can be no doubt that there was a vigorous trade between Crete and Egypt in the time of the XIIth Dynasty. This continued until about 1000 b.c. It is clear that this island civilization arising upon the soil of Crete is at least as old as the Egyptian, and that it was already launched upon the sea as early as 4000 b.c.
The great days of Crete were not so early as this. It was only about 2500 b.c. that the island appears to have been unified under one ruler. Then began an age of peace and prosperity unexampled in the history of the ancient world. Secure from invasion, living in a delightful climate, trading with every civilized community in the world, the Cretans were free to develop all the arts and amenities of life. This Cnossos was not so much a town as the vast palace of the king and his people. It was not even forti- | 517 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Feast day: 22 November
The details of St Cecilia’s life are mostly legend, though her martyrdom is a historical fact. Most authorities agree that she was born in Rome in the second century AD and was martyred there under the Emperor Alexander Severus. Others say she died in Sicily in the reign of Marcus Aurelius. It is said that despite having taken a vow of virginity at an early age, her parents forced her to marry a young man named Valerian, who was a pagan. On her wedding night, Cecilia told her husband that she had an angel protecting her, who would punish him if he tried to consummate the marriage but would love him if he respected her virginity. Valerian asked to see the angel and was told by Cecilia that if he went to the third milestone on the Via Appia and was baptized by Pope Urban I he would see this angel. Valerian did as he was told and saw the angel standing beside his wife, crowning her with a chaplet of roses and lilies.
Valerian and his brother were executed for helping to bury martyred Christians, together with the Roman soldier Maximus, who was supposed to execute them. Cecilia continued this work and was condemned to death by being suffocated in her own bathhouse. However she remained unharmed. Following this the executioner tried to behead her, striking her in the neck three times. This too failed to kill her and by law he was forbidden to strike again. She lay dying for three days. She was buried in the catacomb of Callixtus. In the ninth century Pope Paschal wanted to rebury the relics in the church named after the saint in Trastevere, which was said to have been built on the site of Cecilia’s house. He had difficuly in finding her remains, but in a dream St Cecilia encouraged him to go on searching. The body were eventually found; it was wrapped in costly gold material and reburied under the high altar in the church at Trastevere. In 1599 when the church was being renovated her remains were found to be incorrupt - she looked as though she was sleeping.
Much of Cecilia’s life story was written in the fifth century AD and probably is not historical. However legend carries its own truth and Cecilia became an inspiration like Saints Ursula and Lucy, particularly as the patroness of musicians. The story goes that she sang in her heart to her true spouse, Jesus, on her wedding day. Purcell, Handel, Gounod and Benjamin Britten were among the composers who wrote music in her honour. Dryden and Alexander Pope wrote poems about her and she is the subject of Geoffrey Chaucer’s Second Nun’s Tale. She is one of the seven women, apart from Our Lady, mentioned in the canon of the mass.
St Cecilia, patroness of musicians, pray for us. | <urn:uuid:609e3d47-6276-4bc2-a4d4-cfec2da29a62> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.galwaycathedral.ie/news/saint-month-saint-cecilia | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00344.warc.gz | en | 0.993645 | 612 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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The details of St Cecilia’s life are mostly legend, though her martyrdom is a historical fact. Most authorities agree that she was born in Rome in the second century AD and was martyred there under the Emperor Alexander Severus. Others say she died in Sicily in the reign of Marcus Aurelius. It is said that despite having taken a vow of virginity at an early age, her parents forced her to marry a young man named Valerian, who was a pagan. On her wedding night, Cecilia told her husband that she had an angel protecting her, who would punish him if he tried to consummate the marriage but would love him if he respected her virginity. Valerian asked to see the angel and was told by Cecilia that if he went to the third milestone on the Via Appia and was baptized by Pope Urban I he would see this angel. Valerian did as he was told and saw the angel standing beside his wife, crowning her with a chaplet of roses and lilies.
Valerian and his brother were executed for helping to bury martyred Christians, together with the Roman soldier Maximus, who was supposed to execute them. Cecilia continued this work and was condemned to death by being suffocated in her own bathhouse. However she remained unharmed. Following this the executioner tried to behead her, striking her in the neck three times. This too failed to kill her and by law he was forbidden to strike again. She lay dying for three days. She was buried in the catacomb of Callixtus. In the ninth century Pope Paschal wanted to rebury the relics in the church named after the saint in Trastevere, which was said to have been built on the site of Cecilia’s house. He had difficuly in finding her remains, but in a dream St Cecilia encouraged him to go on searching. The body were eventually found; it was wrapped in costly gold material and reburied under the high altar in the church at Trastevere. In 1599 when the church was being renovated her remains were found to be incorrupt - she looked as though she was sleeping.
Much of Cecilia’s life story was written in the fifth century AD and probably is not historical. However legend carries its own truth and Cecilia became an inspiration like Saints Ursula and Lucy, particularly as the patroness of musicians. The story goes that she sang in her heart to her true spouse, Jesus, on her wedding day. Purcell, Handel, Gounod and Benjamin Britten were among the composers who wrote music in her honour. Dryden and Alexander Pope wrote poems about her and she is the subject of Geoffrey Chaucer’s Second Nun’s Tale. She is one of the seven women, apart from Our Lady, mentioned in the canon of the mass.
St Cecilia, patroness of musicians, pray for us. | 607 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Aryabhatta was an extraordinary teacher and scholar who had immense knowledge about mathematics and astronomy. He suggested the heliocentric theory which proved that the sun is located in the centre of the solar system and all the planets revolve around it. In fact he made this discovery way before Copernicus made this discovery in the West.
Aryabhatta was born in Kerala and lived from 476 AD to 550 AD, he completed his education from the ancient university of Nalanda and later he moved to Bihar and continued his studies in the great centre of learning located in close proximity to Kusumapura in Bihar and lived in Taregana District in Bihar in the late 5th and early 6th century.
The astronomical calculations and deductions suggested by Aryabhatta are extraordinary by the fact that he didn’t have any modern equipment or instrument to do it. He had a very sharp brain and his dedication and hard work led him to solve the various mysteries of the solar system. He also deduced that the earth is round in shape and rotates along its own axis, which forms the existence of day and night. Many superstitious beliefs were challenged by him and he presented scientific reasons to prove them wrong.
He also said that the moon has no light and shines because it reflects light from the sun. He also proved wrong the false belief that eclipse is caused because of the shadows formed by the shadows cast by the earth and the moon. Aryabhatta used epicycles in a similar manner to the Greek Philosopher Ptolemy to illustrate the inconsistent movement of some planets. This great astronomer wrote the famous treatise Aryabhatiya, which was based on astronomy
in 499 AD. This treatise was acknowledged as a masterpiece. In honour of this excellent work Aryabhatta was made head of the Nalanda University by the Gupta ruler Buddhagupta
Read more about this genius @
Secondly read his book .. The Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata:
Thirdly you are now a very knowledgeable person who can pass this knowledge to others
In 499 CE, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata mentioned in his Aryabhatiya that reflected sunlight is the cause of the shining of the moon....well how many figured this out | <urn:uuid:dbdbaa9d-1d55-4885-9821-ab6118213d8b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ashtarcommandcrew.net/forum/topics/india-s-ancient-genius-unraveling-the-story-of-aryabhatta-s-1?page=1&commentId=2859786%3AComment%3A3200213&x=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00031.warc.gz | en | 0.986258 | 466 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.60299521... | 2 | Aryabhatta was an extraordinary teacher and scholar who had immense knowledge about mathematics and astronomy. He suggested the heliocentric theory which proved that the sun is located in the centre of the solar system and all the planets revolve around it. In fact he made this discovery way before Copernicus made this discovery in the West.
Aryabhatta was born in Kerala and lived from 476 AD to 550 AD, he completed his education from the ancient university of Nalanda and later he moved to Bihar and continued his studies in the great centre of learning located in close proximity to Kusumapura in Bihar and lived in Taregana District in Bihar in the late 5th and early 6th century.
The astronomical calculations and deductions suggested by Aryabhatta are extraordinary by the fact that he didn’t have any modern equipment or instrument to do it. He had a very sharp brain and his dedication and hard work led him to solve the various mysteries of the solar system. He also deduced that the earth is round in shape and rotates along its own axis, which forms the existence of day and night. Many superstitious beliefs were challenged by him and he presented scientific reasons to prove them wrong.
He also said that the moon has no light and shines because it reflects light from the sun. He also proved wrong the false belief that eclipse is caused because of the shadows formed by the shadows cast by the earth and the moon. Aryabhatta used epicycles in a similar manner to the Greek Philosopher Ptolemy to illustrate the inconsistent movement of some planets. This great astronomer wrote the famous treatise Aryabhatiya, which was based on astronomy
in 499 AD. This treatise was acknowledged as a masterpiece. In honour of this excellent work Aryabhatta was made head of the Nalanda University by the Gupta ruler Buddhagupta
Read more about this genius @
Secondly read his book .. The Aryabhatiya of Aryabhata:
Thirdly you are now a very knowledgeable person who can pass this knowledge to others
In 499 CE, the Indian astronomer Aryabhata mentioned in his Aryabhatiya that reflected sunlight is the cause of the shining of the moon....well how many figured this out | 475 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Children are born as empathetic beings, who love and understand others around them. Often trying to fix something at any cost, I used to lose sight of things and rushed. The most obvious example of this is an apology.
I have always wanted to teach my children to recognize and understand different types of emotions, both in themselves and in others. I wanted to raise a child who respects and appreciates other person’s time, body, personality, space, and possession. An empathetic child who understands why it is wrong to hurt others in any way. A child honest in his words and in his heart, towards himself and towards others. I wanted all of this from my children, but I did not think that they can achieve all of that by themselves.
Many parents sooner or later become concerned about their children’s behavior. Although it may seem that they have gotten out of control, there are methods that can help your child learn and feel the magic word “sorry.”
I would definitely agree that toddlers should not be forced to say “sorry” when they do something wrong. I have learned that very quickly. However, this does not mean that children should be completely free in their everyday behavior. Adults should teach children why something they did is not good, and at the same time give them a lesson in manners. For example, forcing a child to say “sorry” after striking or biting another child, forces an unconvincing and insincere “sorry”, after which their behavior will not change.
Experts have different views, but I generally agree that it is best when you give your children space to think what is wrong with what they did, why it is bad, and how it has affected the other child or person. After giving them some time to think, ask them what they would do to change the situation. If a kid just offers an apology or a hug, then that’s his own idea, and it’s certainly honest. Parents often think that some children’s procedures are immediate and will not happen again. However, if you remain silent, you are letting the child know that what he or she is doing is not so important and that there will necessarily be no consequences.
At preschool, children will begin to learn about empathy, and those feelings are often very strong. When a child learns that his or her actions have made another child feel sad or angry, for example, it can have a greater impact on him or her than any punishment. The role of the adult should be to help the child understand, first, that his or her behavior has caused the other child to feel unwell (either physically or emotionally) and then to accept responsibility and to feel responsible for their actions.
Good communication with kindergarten educators is extremely important. I was applying certain lessons and teaching methods to my children at home, and I thought it would be a good idea to inform the kindergarten teacher about this. That way, I was sure that my children are in good hands even when I am not present.
I learned that it takes confidence and it takes time. All the courtesy words my children learned, they learned by observing and following my example: words such as thank you, goodbye, good afternoon. I never said that he and she should persecute the elderly, so they always did it infallibly because they have listened to and learned from me. So it is with the word “sorry”. How often does a child hear us say that? How often do we apologize to others when we mess up? Are we the parents who keep our backs and represent ourselves as infallible, or do we allow ourselves to show our humanity, and weaknesses in front of our children? In acknowledging our mistakes, we tell the child that it is OK to go wrong and admit it. Appearing to be perfect, we indirectly tell him that mistakes are not allowed to them.
One more word of advice: Never let your child feel disturbed when they do something wrong. Remember the old saying, “I love you, but I don’t like your behavior”. | <urn:uuid:42c9790c-4f3b-429f-9af5-19a2623bdf3c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://theparents.com/how-to-teach-your-toddler-to-say-sorry/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00326.warc.gz | en | 0.983985 | 847 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.1634809374... | 3 | Children are born as empathetic beings, who love and understand others around them. Often trying to fix something at any cost, I used to lose sight of things and rushed. The most obvious example of this is an apology.
I have always wanted to teach my children to recognize and understand different types of emotions, both in themselves and in others. I wanted to raise a child who respects and appreciates other person’s time, body, personality, space, and possession. An empathetic child who understands why it is wrong to hurt others in any way. A child honest in his words and in his heart, towards himself and towards others. I wanted all of this from my children, but I did not think that they can achieve all of that by themselves.
Many parents sooner or later become concerned about their children’s behavior. Although it may seem that they have gotten out of control, there are methods that can help your child learn and feel the magic word “sorry.”
I would definitely agree that toddlers should not be forced to say “sorry” when they do something wrong. I have learned that very quickly. However, this does not mean that children should be completely free in their everyday behavior. Adults should teach children why something they did is not good, and at the same time give them a lesson in manners. For example, forcing a child to say “sorry” after striking or biting another child, forces an unconvincing and insincere “sorry”, after which their behavior will not change.
Experts have different views, but I generally agree that it is best when you give your children space to think what is wrong with what they did, why it is bad, and how it has affected the other child or person. After giving them some time to think, ask them what they would do to change the situation. If a kid just offers an apology or a hug, then that’s his own idea, and it’s certainly honest. Parents often think that some children’s procedures are immediate and will not happen again. However, if you remain silent, you are letting the child know that what he or she is doing is not so important and that there will necessarily be no consequences.
At preschool, children will begin to learn about empathy, and those feelings are often very strong. When a child learns that his or her actions have made another child feel sad or angry, for example, it can have a greater impact on him or her than any punishment. The role of the adult should be to help the child understand, first, that his or her behavior has caused the other child to feel unwell (either physically or emotionally) and then to accept responsibility and to feel responsible for their actions.
Good communication with kindergarten educators is extremely important. I was applying certain lessons and teaching methods to my children at home, and I thought it would be a good idea to inform the kindergarten teacher about this. That way, I was sure that my children are in good hands even when I am not present.
I learned that it takes confidence and it takes time. All the courtesy words my children learned, they learned by observing and following my example: words such as thank you, goodbye, good afternoon. I never said that he and she should persecute the elderly, so they always did it infallibly because they have listened to and learned from me. So it is with the word “sorry”. How often does a child hear us say that? How often do we apologize to others when we mess up? Are we the parents who keep our backs and represent ourselves as infallible, or do we allow ourselves to show our humanity, and weaknesses in front of our children? In acknowledging our mistakes, we tell the child that it is OK to go wrong and admit it. Appearing to be perfect, we indirectly tell him that mistakes are not allowed to them.
One more word of advice: Never let your child feel disturbed when they do something wrong. Remember the old saying, “I love you, but I don’t like your behavior”. | 810 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Royal Library of Ashurbanipal had more than 30,000 clay tablets and fragments containing different texts from the 7th century, BC. It is the first library in the Near East with a systematical organization of its material.
The library was created for the royal family, and it contained the king’s personal collection, but it was also opened to priests and respected scholars. The library was named after Ashurbanipal, the last great king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.
The library was built in modern-day northern Iraq, near the city of Mosul. The materials from the library have been discovered by Sir Austen Henry Layard, an English traveler, and archaeologist, in the archaeological site of Kouyunjik, Nineveh.
According to some theories, the Library of Alexandria was inspired by the Library of Ashurbanipal. Alexander the Great was amused by it and wanted to create one in his kingdom. He started the project which was completed by Ptolemy after Alexander’s death.
Ashurbanipal was an educated man and proud of it. He had stated: “I, Assurbanipal within (the palace), took care of the wisdom of Nebo, of all the inscribed and clay tablets, of their mysteries and difficulties which I solved.”
He was an excellent mathematician and one of the very few Kings who were able to read the cuneiform script in Akkadian and Sumerian.
He reigned from 668 to 627 BC, and during this time he collected texts from all over Mesopotamia, especially from Babylonia. Much of the original material has been damaged and impossible for reconstruction. Many of the tablets and writing boards are severely damaged fragments.
The collected texts were on medicine, astronomy, and literature. Over 6,000 of the discovered tablets’ content was on legislation, foreign correspondences and engagements, aristocratic declarations, and financial matters. The rest was on divinations, omens, incantations, and hymns to various gods.
Most of the texts were mainly written in Akkadian in the cuneiform script while others were written in Assyrian.
Among the epics and myths was the masterpiece “Epic of Gilgamesh,” the myth of Adapa, the Babylonian creation myth “Enûma Eliš,” and stories such as “The Poor Man of Nippur.”
It is ascertained that the library burned in a fire during 612 BC when Nineveh was destroyed. However, in the fire were preserved the tablets for the next two millennia until their rediscovery in 1849.
All of the discovered Ashurbanipal Library’s collection is now part of the British Museum’s holdings. | <urn:uuid:03f5b9db-d036-4eed-9637-b57b15841ce0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thevintagenews.com/2016/11/30/the-royal-library-of-ashurbanipal-had-over-30000-clay-tablets-among-them-is-the-original-epic-of-gilgamesh/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00207.warc.gz | en | 0.983414 | 574 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.322277367... | 9 | The Royal Library of Ashurbanipal had more than 30,000 clay tablets and fragments containing different texts from the 7th century, BC. It is the first library in the Near East with a systematical organization of its material.
The library was created for the royal family, and it contained the king’s personal collection, but it was also opened to priests and respected scholars. The library was named after Ashurbanipal, the last great king of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.
The library was built in modern-day northern Iraq, near the city of Mosul. The materials from the library have been discovered by Sir Austen Henry Layard, an English traveler, and archaeologist, in the archaeological site of Kouyunjik, Nineveh.
According to some theories, the Library of Alexandria was inspired by the Library of Ashurbanipal. Alexander the Great was amused by it and wanted to create one in his kingdom. He started the project which was completed by Ptolemy after Alexander’s death.
Ashurbanipal was an educated man and proud of it. He had stated: “I, Assurbanipal within (the palace), took care of the wisdom of Nebo, of all the inscribed and clay tablets, of their mysteries and difficulties which I solved.”
He was an excellent mathematician and one of the very few Kings who were able to read the cuneiform script in Akkadian and Sumerian.
He reigned from 668 to 627 BC, and during this time he collected texts from all over Mesopotamia, especially from Babylonia. Much of the original material has been damaged and impossible for reconstruction. Many of the tablets and writing boards are severely damaged fragments.
The collected texts were on medicine, astronomy, and literature. Over 6,000 of the discovered tablets’ content was on legislation, foreign correspondences and engagements, aristocratic declarations, and financial matters. The rest was on divinations, omens, incantations, and hymns to various gods.
Most of the texts were mainly written in Akkadian in the cuneiform script while others were written in Assyrian.
Among the epics and myths was the masterpiece “Epic of Gilgamesh,” the myth of Adapa, the Babylonian creation myth “Enûma Eliš,” and stories such as “The Poor Man of Nippur.”
It is ascertained that the library burned in a fire during 612 BC when Nineveh was destroyed. However, in the fire were preserved the tablets for the next two millennia until their rediscovery in 1849.
All of the discovered Ashurbanipal Library’s collection is now part of the British Museum’s holdings. | 565 | ENGLISH | 1 |
S OME of you may have seen a picture of a brown-faced sailor sitting by the seashore, telling stories of travel and adventure to two boys. The one boy lies upon the sand with his chin in his hands listening but carelessly, the other with his hands clasped about his knees listens eagerly. His face is rapt, his eyes the eyes of a poet and a dreamer. This picture is called The Boyhood of Raleigh, and was painted by one of our great painters, Sir John Millais. In it he pictures a scene that we should like to believe was common in Sir Walter Raleigh's boyhood, but we cannot tell if it were really so or not. Beyond the fact that he was born in a white-walled thatched-roofed farmhouse, near Budleigh Salterton in Devonshire, about the year 1552, we know nothing of Raleigh's childhood. But from the rising ground near Hayes Barton, the house in which he was born, we catch sight of the sea. It seems not too much to believe that many a time Walter and his brother Carew, wandered through the woods and over the common the two and a half miles to the bay. So that from his earliest days Walter Raleigh breathed in a love and knowledge of the sea. We like to think these things, but we can only make believe to ourselves as Millais did when he went to Budleigh Salterton and painted that picture.
When still quite a boy, Walter Raleigh went to Oriel College, Oxford, but we know nothing of what he did there, and the next we hear of him is that he is fighting for the Huguenots in France. How long he remained in France, and what he did there beyond this fighting, we do not know. But this we know, that when he went to France he was a mere boy, with no knowledge of fighting, no knowledge of the world. When he left he was a man and a tried soldier, a captain and leader of men.
When next we hear of Raleigh he is in Ireland fighting the rebels. There he did some brave deeds, some cruel deeds, there he lived to the full the life of a soldier as it was in those rough times, making all Ireland ring with his name. But although Raleigh had won for himself a name among soldiers, he was as yet unknown to the Queen; his fortune was still unmade.
You have all heard the story of how Raleigh first met the Queen. The first notice we have of this story is in a book from which I have already quoted more than once—The Worthies of England.
"This Captain Raleigh," says Fuller, "coming out of Ireland to the English Court in good habit (his clothes being then a considerable part of his estate), found the Queen walking, till, meeting with a plashy place, she seemed to scruple going thereon. Presently Raleigh cast and spread his new plush cloak on the ground, whereon the Queen trod gently, rewarding him afterwards with many suits for his so free and seasonable tender of so fair a foot cloth."
Thomas Fuller, who wrote the book in which this story is found, was only a boy of ten when Raleigh died, so he could not have known the great man himself, but he must have heard many stories about him from those who had, and we need not disbelieve this one. It is one of those things which might very well have happened even if it did not.
And whether Raleigh first came into Queen Elizabeth's notice in this manner or not, after he did become known to her, he soon rose in her favor. He rose so quickly that he almost feared the giddy height to which he rose. According to another story of Fuller's, "This made him write in a glasse window, obvious to the Queen's eye,
'Fain would I climb, yet fear I to fall.'
"Her Majesty, either espying or being shown it, did underwrite:
'If thy heart fails thee, climb not at all.'
"However he at last climbed up by the stairs of his own desert."
Honors and favors were heaped upon Raleigh, and from being a poor soldier and country gentleman he became rich and powerful, the lord of lands in five counties, and Captain of the Queen's Own Body-Guard. Haughty of manner, splendid in dress, loving jewels more than even a woman does, Raleigh became as fine a courtier as he was a brave soldier. But soldier though Raleigh was, courtier though he was, loving ease and wealth and fine clothes, he was at heart a sailor and adventurer, and the sea he had loved as a boy called to him.
Like many another of his age Raleigh, hearing the call of the waves ever in his ears, felt the desire to explore tug at his heart-strings. For in those days America had been discovered, and the quest for the famous North-West passage had begun. And Raleigh longed to set forth with other men to conquer new worlds, to find new paths across the waves. But above all he longed to fight the Spaniards, who were the great sea kings of those days. Raleigh however could not be a courtier and a sailor at one and the same time. He was meanwhile high in the Queen's favor, and she would not let him go from her. So all that Raleigh could do, was to venture his money, and fit out a ship to which he gave his own name. This he sent to sail along with others under the command of his step-brother Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who was setting out upon a voyage of discovery. It was on this voyage that Sir Humphrey found and claimed Newfoundland as an English possession, setting up there "the Arms of England ingraven in lead and infixed upon a pillar of wood." But the expedition was unfortunate, most of the men and ships were lost, Sir Humphrey himself being drowned on his way home. He was brave and fearless to the last. "We are as near to Heaven by sea as by land," he said, a short time before his ship went down. One vessel only "in great torment of weather and peril of drowning" reached home safely, "all the men tired with the tediousness of so unprofitable a voyage to their seeming." Yet though they knew it not they had helped to lay the foundation of Greater Britain.
Nothing daunted by this loss, six months later Raleigh sent out another expedition. This time it was to the land south of Newfoundland that the ships took their way. There they set up the arms of England, and named the new possession Virginia in honor of the virgin Queen. This expedition was little more successful than Sir Humphrey Gilbert's, but nothing seemed to discourage Raleigh. He was bent on founding a colony, and again and yet again he sent out ships and men, spending all the wealth which the Queen heaped upon him in trying to extend her dominions beyond the seas. Hope was strong within him. "I shall yet live to see it an English nation," he said.
And while Raleigh's captains tried to found a new England in the New World, Raleigh himself worked at home to bring order into the vast estates the Queen had given to him in Ireland. This land had belonged to the rebel Earl of Desmond. At one time no doubt it had been fertile, but rebellion and war had laid it waste. "The land was so barren both of man and beast that whosoever did travel from one end of all Munster . . . . he should not meet man, woman, or child, saving in cities or towns, nor yet see any beast, save foxes, wolves, or the ravening beasts." And barren and desolate as it was when Raleigh received it, it soon became known as the best tilled land in all the country-side. For he brought workers and tenants from his old Devon home to take the place of the beggared or slain Irish. He introduced new and better ways of tilling, and also he brought to Ireland a strange new root. For it is interesting to remember that it was in Raleigh's Irish estates that potatoes were first grown in our Islands.
Raleigh took a great interest in these estates, so perhaps it was not altogether a hardship to him, finding himself out of favor with his Queen, to go to Ireland for a time. And although they had known each other before, it was then that his friendship with Spenser began. Spenser read his Faery Queen to Raleigh, and perhaps Raleigh read to Spenser his poem Cynthia written in honor of Queen Elizabeth. But of that poem nearly all has been lost. Elizabeth was not as yet very angry with Raleigh, still he felt the loss of her favor, for Spenser tells us:—
"His song was all a lamentable lay,
Of great unkindness and of usage hard,
Of Cynthia, the Lady of the Sea,
Which from her presence faultless him debarred.
And ever and anon with singults rife,
He criéd out, to make his undersong,
'Ah! my love's Queen, and goddess of my life,
Who shal me pity when thou doest me wrong?' "
But Raleigh soon decided to return to court, and persuaded Spenser
"To wend with him his Cynthia to see,
Whose grace was great and bounty most rewardful"
You know how Spenser was received and how he fared. But Raleigh himself after he had introduced his friend did not stay long at court. Quarrels with his rivals soon drove him forth again.
It was soon after this that he published the first writing which gives him a claim to the name of author. This was an account of the fight between a little ship called the Revenge and a Spanish fleet.
Although with the destruction of the Invincible Armada the sea power of Spain had been crippled, it had not been utterly broken, and still whenever Spanish and English ships met on the seas, there was sure to be battle. It being known that a fleet of Spanish treasure-ships would pass the Azores, islands in the mid- Atlantic, a fleet of English ships under Lord Thomas Howard was sent to attack them. But the English ships had to wait so long at the Azores for the coming of the Spanish fleet that the news of the intended attack reached Spain, and the Spaniards sent a strong fleet to help and protect their treasure-ships. The English in turn hearing of this sent a swift little boat to warn Lord Thomas. The warning arrived almost too late. Many of the Englishmen were sick and ashore, and before all could be gathered the fleet of fifty-three great Spanish ships was upon them. Still Lord Thomas managed to slip away. Only the last ship, the Revenge, commanded by the Rear-Admiral Sir Richard Grenville, lost the wind and was caught between two great squadrons of the Spanish. Whereupon Sir Richard "was persuaded," Sir Walter says, "by the Master and others to cut his main-sail, and cast about, and to trust to the sailing of the ship. . . . But Sir Richard utterly refused to turn from the enemy, alleging that he would rather choose to die, than to dishonour himself, his country, and her Majesty's ship, persuading his company that he would pass through the two squadrons, in despite of them."
For a little time it seemed as if Sir Richard's daring might succeed. But a great ship, the San Philip, came between him and the wind "and coming towards him, becalmed his sails in such sort, as the ship could neither make way, nor feel the helm: so huge and high-carged was the Spanish ship. . . . The fight thus beginning at three of the clock of the afternoon continued very terrible all that evening. But the great San Philip having received the lower tier of the Revenge, discharged with cross-bar shot, shifted herself with all diligence from her sides, utterly misliking her first entertainment. . . . The Spanish ships were filled with companies of soldiers, in some two hundred, besides the mariners; in some five, in other eight hundred. In ours there were none at all beside the mariners, but the servants of the commanders and some few voluntary gentlemen only." And yet the Spaniards "were still repulsed, again and again, and at all times beaten back into their own ships, or into the seas."
In the beginning of the fight one little store ship of the English fleet hovered near. It was small and of no use in fighting. Now it came close to the Revenge and the Captain asked Sir Richard what he should do, and "Sir Richard bid him save himself, and leave him to his fortune." So the gallant Revenge was left to fight alone. For fifteen hours the battle lasted, Sir Richard himself was sorely wounded, and when far into the night the fighting ceased, two of the Spanish vessels were sunk "and in many other of the Spanish ships great slaughter was made." "But the Spanish ships which attempted to board the Revenge, as they were wounded and beaten off, so always others came in their places, she having never less than two mighty galleons by her sides and aboard her. So that ere the morning, from three of the clock the day before, there had fifteen several Armadas assailed her. And all so ill approved their entertainment, as they were, by the break of day, far more willing to hearken to a composition than hastily to make any more assaults or entries.
"But as the day increased so our men decreased. And as the light grew more and more, by so much more grew our discomforts. For none appeared in sight but enemies, saving one small ship called the Pilgrim, commanded by Jacob Whiddon, who hovered all night to see the success. But in the morning bearing with the Revenge, she was hunted like a hare amongst many ravenous hounds, but escaped.
"All the powder of the Revenge to the last barrel was now spent, all her pikes broken, forty of her best men slain, and the most part of the rest hurt. In the beginning of the fight she had but one hundred free from sickness and four score and ten sick, laid in hold upon the ballast. A small troop to man such a ship, and a weak garrison to resist so mighty an army. By those hundred all was sustained, the volleys, boarding and enterings of fifteen ships of war, besides those which beat her at large.
"On the contrary, the Spanish were always supplied with soldiers brought from every squadron; all manner of arms and power at will. Unto ours there remained no comfort at all, no hope, no supply either of ships, men, or weapons; the masts all beaten overboard, all her tackle cut asunder, her upper work altogether razed, and in effect evened she was with the water, but the very foundation of a ship, nothing being left overhead for flight or defence.
"Sir Richard finding himself in this distress and unable any longer to make resistance, having endured in this fifteen hours' fight the assault of fifteen several Armadas, all by turns aboard him, and by estimation eight hundred shot of great artillery besides many assaults and entries; and (seeing) that himself and the ship must needs be possessed of the enemy who were now all cast in a ring round about him, the Revenge not able to move one way or another, but as she was moved by the waves and billow of the sea, commanded the Master Gunner, whom he knew to be a most resolute man, to split and sink the ship, that thereby nothing might remain of glory or victory to the Spaniards: seeing in so many hours' fight, and with so great a navy, they were not able to take her, having had fifteen hours' time, above ten thousand men, and fifty and three sail of men of war to perform it withal. And (he) persuaded the company, or as many as he could induce, to yield themselves unto God, and to the mercy of none else, but as they had, like valiant resolute men, repulsed so many enemies, they should not now shorten the honour of their nation, by prolonging their own lives by a few hours, or a few days. The Master Gunner readily condescended and divers others. But the Captain and the Master were of another opinion, and besought Sir Richard to have care of them, alleging that the Spaniard would be as ready to entertain a composition as they were willing to offer the same. And (they said) that there being divers sufficient and valiant men yet living, and whose wounds were not mortal, they might do their country and their Prince acceptable service hereafter. And whereas Sir Richard alleged that the Spaniards should never glory to have taken one ship of her Majesty, seeing they had so long and so notably defended themselves; they answered that the ship had six foot water in hold, three shot under water, which were so weakly stopped as with the first working of the sea, she must needs sink, and was besides so crushed and bruised, as she could never be removed out of the place.
"And as the matter was thus in dispute, and Sir Richard refusing to hearken to any of those reasons, the Master of the Revenge (while the Captain won unto him the greater party) was convoyed aboard the General Don Alfonso Baçan. Who (finding none overhasty to enter the Revenge again, doubting lest Sir Richard would have blown them up and himself, and perceiving by the report of the Master of the Revenge his dangerous disposition) yielded that all their lives should be saved, the company sent for England, and the better sort to pay such reasonable ransom as their estate would bear, and in the mean season to be free from galley or imprisonment. To this he so much the better condescended as well, as I have said, for fear of further loss and mischief to themselves, as also for the desire he had to recover Sir Richard Grenville, whom for his notable valour he seemed greatly to honour and admire.
"When this answer was returned, and that safety of life was promised, the common sort being now at the end of their peril the most drew back from Sir Richard and the Master Gunner, (it) being no hard matter to dissuade men from death to life. The Master Gunner finding himself and Sir Richard thus prevented and mastered by the greater number, would have slain himself with a sword, had he not been by force with-held and locked into his cabin. Then the General sent many boats aboard the Revenge, and divers of our men fearing Sir Richard's disposition, stole away aboard the General and other ships. Sir Richard thus over-matched was sent unto by Alfonso Baçan to remove out of the Revenge, the ship being marvellous unsavoury, filled with blood and bodies of dead, and wounded men, like a slaughterhouse.
"Sir Richard answered he might do with his body what he list, for he esteemed it not. And as he was carried out of the ship he swooned, and reviving again desired the company to pray for him.
"The General used Sir Richard with all humanity, and left nothing unattempted that tended to his recovery, highly commending his valour and worthiness, and greatly bewailing the danger in which he was, being unto them a rare spectacle, and a resolution seldom approved, to see one ship turn toward so many enemies, to endure the charge and boarding of so many huge Armadas, and to resist and repel the assaults and entries of so many soldiers.
"There were slain and drowned in this fight well near one thousand of the enemies, and two special commanders. . . . besides divers others of special account.
"Sir Richard died as it is said, the second or third day aboard the General and was by them greatly bewailed. What became of his body, whether it were buried in the sea or on the land, we known not. The comfort that remaineth to his friends is, that he hath ended his life honourably in respect of the reputation won to his nation and country and of the same to his posterity, and that being dead, he hath not outlived his own honour."
This gallant fight of the little Revenge against the huge navy of Spain is one of the great things in the story of the sea; that is why I have chosen it out of all that Sir Walter wrote to give you as a specimen of English prose in Queen Elizabeth's time. As long as brave deeds are remembered, it will be told how Sir Richard Grenville "walled round with wooden castles on the wave" bid defiance to the might and pride of Spain, "hoping the splendour of some lucky star." The fight was a hopeless one from the very beginning, but it was as gallant a one as ever took place. Even his foes were forced to admire Sir Richard's dauntless courage, for when he was carried aboard Don Alfonso's ship "the captain and gentlemen went to visit him, and to comfort him in his hard fortune, wondering at his courageous stout heart for that he showed not any sign of faintness nor changing of colour. But feeling the hour of death to approach, he spake these words in Spanish and said, 'Here die I, Richard Grenville, with a joyful and quiet mind, for that I have ended my life as a true soldier ought to do, and hath fought for his country, Queen, religion, and honour, whereby my soul most joyful departeth out of this body, and shall always leave behind it an everlasting fame of a valiant and true soldier that hath done his duty as he was bound to do.' When he had finished these or other like words he gave up the Ghost, with great and stout courage, and no man could perceive any true signs of heaviness in him."
Poets of the time made ballads of this fight. Raleigh wrote of it as you have just read, and in our own day the great laureate Lord Tennyson made the story live again in his poem The Revenge. Tennyson tells how after the fight a great storm arose:
"And or ever that evening ended a great gale blew
And a wave like the wave that is raised by an earthquake grew,
Till it smote on their hulls and their sails and their masts and their flags,
And the whole sea plunged and fell on the shot-shatter'd navy of Spain.
And the little Revenge herself went down by the island crags
To be lost evermore in the main."
So neither the gallant captain nor his little ship were led home to the triumph of Spain.
It is interesting to remember that had it not been for the caprice of the Queen, Raleigh himself would have been in Sir Richard Grenville's place. For he had orders to go on this voyage, but at the last moment he was recalled, and Sir Richard was sent instead. | <urn:uuid:d9a8bb88-99b0-43b8-8a96-8fe6e14f969e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/displayitem.php?item=books/marshall/literature/raleigh | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00426.warc.gz | en | 0.988692 | 4,769 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.2799541950225... | 1 | S OME of you may have seen a picture of a brown-faced sailor sitting by the seashore, telling stories of travel and adventure to two boys. The one boy lies upon the sand with his chin in his hands listening but carelessly, the other with his hands clasped about his knees listens eagerly. His face is rapt, his eyes the eyes of a poet and a dreamer. This picture is called The Boyhood of Raleigh, and was painted by one of our great painters, Sir John Millais. In it he pictures a scene that we should like to believe was common in Sir Walter Raleigh's boyhood, but we cannot tell if it were really so or not. Beyond the fact that he was born in a white-walled thatched-roofed farmhouse, near Budleigh Salterton in Devonshire, about the year 1552, we know nothing of Raleigh's childhood. But from the rising ground near Hayes Barton, the house in which he was born, we catch sight of the sea. It seems not too much to believe that many a time Walter and his brother Carew, wandered through the woods and over the common the two and a half miles to the bay. So that from his earliest days Walter Raleigh breathed in a love and knowledge of the sea. We like to think these things, but we can only make believe to ourselves as Millais did when he went to Budleigh Salterton and painted that picture.
When still quite a boy, Walter Raleigh went to Oriel College, Oxford, but we know nothing of what he did there, and the next we hear of him is that he is fighting for the Huguenots in France. How long he remained in France, and what he did there beyond this fighting, we do not know. But this we know, that when he went to France he was a mere boy, with no knowledge of fighting, no knowledge of the world. When he left he was a man and a tried soldier, a captain and leader of men.
When next we hear of Raleigh he is in Ireland fighting the rebels. There he did some brave deeds, some cruel deeds, there he lived to the full the life of a soldier as it was in those rough times, making all Ireland ring with his name. But although Raleigh had won for himself a name among soldiers, he was as yet unknown to the Queen; his fortune was still unmade.
You have all heard the story of how Raleigh first met the Queen. The first notice we have of this story is in a book from which I have already quoted more than once—The Worthies of England.
"This Captain Raleigh," says Fuller, "coming out of Ireland to the English Court in good habit (his clothes being then a considerable part of his estate), found the Queen walking, till, meeting with a plashy place, she seemed to scruple going thereon. Presently Raleigh cast and spread his new plush cloak on the ground, whereon the Queen trod gently, rewarding him afterwards with many suits for his so free and seasonable tender of so fair a foot cloth."
Thomas Fuller, who wrote the book in which this story is found, was only a boy of ten when Raleigh died, so he could not have known the great man himself, but he must have heard many stories about him from those who had, and we need not disbelieve this one. It is one of those things which might very well have happened even if it did not.
And whether Raleigh first came into Queen Elizabeth's notice in this manner or not, after he did become known to her, he soon rose in her favor. He rose so quickly that he almost feared the giddy height to which he rose. According to another story of Fuller's, "This made him write in a glasse window, obvious to the Queen's eye,
'Fain would I climb, yet fear I to fall.'
"Her Majesty, either espying or being shown it, did underwrite:
'If thy heart fails thee, climb not at all.'
"However he at last climbed up by the stairs of his own desert."
Honors and favors were heaped upon Raleigh, and from being a poor soldier and country gentleman he became rich and powerful, the lord of lands in five counties, and Captain of the Queen's Own Body-Guard. Haughty of manner, splendid in dress, loving jewels more than even a woman does, Raleigh became as fine a courtier as he was a brave soldier. But soldier though Raleigh was, courtier though he was, loving ease and wealth and fine clothes, he was at heart a sailor and adventurer, and the sea he had loved as a boy called to him.
Like many another of his age Raleigh, hearing the call of the waves ever in his ears, felt the desire to explore tug at his heart-strings. For in those days America had been discovered, and the quest for the famous North-West passage had begun. And Raleigh longed to set forth with other men to conquer new worlds, to find new paths across the waves. But above all he longed to fight the Spaniards, who were the great sea kings of those days. Raleigh however could not be a courtier and a sailor at one and the same time. He was meanwhile high in the Queen's favor, and she would not let him go from her. So all that Raleigh could do, was to venture his money, and fit out a ship to which he gave his own name. This he sent to sail along with others under the command of his step-brother Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who was setting out upon a voyage of discovery. It was on this voyage that Sir Humphrey found and claimed Newfoundland as an English possession, setting up there "the Arms of England ingraven in lead and infixed upon a pillar of wood." But the expedition was unfortunate, most of the men and ships were lost, Sir Humphrey himself being drowned on his way home. He was brave and fearless to the last. "We are as near to Heaven by sea as by land," he said, a short time before his ship went down. One vessel only "in great torment of weather and peril of drowning" reached home safely, "all the men tired with the tediousness of so unprofitable a voyage to their seeming." Yet though they knew it not they had helped to lay the foundation of Greater Britain.
Nothing daunted by this loss, six months later Raleigh sent out another expedition. This time it was to the land south of Newfoundland that the ships took their way. There they set up the arms of England, and named the new possession Virginia in honor of the virgin Queen. This expedition was little more successful than Sir Humphrey Gilbert's, but nothing seemed to discourage Raleigh. He was bent on founding a colony, and again and yet again he sent out ships and men, spending all the wealth which the Queen heaped upon him in trying to extend her dominions beyond the seas. Hope was strong within him. "I shall yet live to see it an English nation," he said.
And while Raleigh's captains tried to found a new England in the New World, Raleigh himself worked at home to bring order into the vast estates the Queen had given to him in Ireland. This land had belonged to the rebel Earl of Desmond. At one time no doubt it had been fertile, but rebellion and war had laid it waste. "The land was so barren both of man and beast that whosoever did travel from one end of all Munster . . . . he should not meet man, woman, or child, saving in cities or towns, nor yet see any beast, save foxes, wolves, or the ravening beasts." And barren and desolate as it was when Raleigh received it, it soon became known as the best tilled land in all the country-side. For he brought workers and tenants from his old Devon home to take the place of the beggared or slain Irish. He introduced new and better ways of tilling, and also he brought to Ireland a strange new root. For it is interesting to remember that it was in Raleigh's Irish estates that potatoes were first grown in our Islands.
Raleigh took a great interest in these estates, so perhaps it was not altogether a hardship to him, finding himself out of favor with his Queen, to go to Ireland for a time. And although they had known each other before, it was then that his friendship with Spenser began. Spenser read his Faery Queen to Raleigh, and perhaps Raleigh read to Spenser his poem Cynthia written in honor of Queen Elizabeth. But of that poem nearly all has been lost. Elizabeth was not as yet very angry with Raleigh, still he felt the loss of her favor, for Spenser tells us:—
"His song was all a lamentable lay,
Of great unkindness and of usage hard,
Of Cynthia, the Lady of the Sea,
Which from her presence faultless him debarred.
And ever and anon with singults rife,
He criéd out, to make his undersong,
'Ah! my love's Queen, and goddess of my life,
Who shal me pity when thou doest me wrong?' "
But Raleigh soon decided to return to court, and persuaded Spenser
"To wend with him his Cynthia to see,
Whose grace was great and bounty most rewardful"
You know how Spenser was received and how he fared. But Raleigh himself after he had introduced his friend did not stay long at court. Quarrels with his rivals soon drove him forth again.
It was soon after this that he published the first writing which gives him a claim to the name of author. This was an account of the fight between a little ship called the Revenge and a Spanish fleet.
Although with the destruction of the Invincible Armada the sea power of Spain had been crippled, it had not been utterly broken, and still whenever Spanish and English ships met on the seas, there was sure to be battle. It being known that a fleet of Spanish treasure-ships would pass the Azores, islands in the mid- Atlantic, a fleet of English ships under Lord Thomas Howard was sent to attack them. But the English ships had to wait so long at the Azores for the coming of the Spanish fleet that the news of the intended attack reached Spain, and the Spaniards sent a strong fleet to help and protect their treasure-ships. The English in turn hearing of this sent a swift little boat to warn Lord Thomas. The warning arrived almost too late. Many of the Englishmen were sick and ashore, and before all could be gathered the fleet of fifty-three great Spanish ships was upon them. Still Lord Thomas managed to slip away. Only the last ship, the Revenge, commanded by the Rear-Admiral Sir Richard Grenville, lost the wind and was caught between two great squadrons of the Spanish. Whereupon Sir Richard "was persuaded," Sir Walter says, "by the Master and others to cut his main-sail, and cast about, and to trust to the sailing of the ship. . . . But Sir Richard utterly refused to turn from the enemy, alleging that he would rather choose to die, than to dishonour himself, his country, and her Majesty's ship, persuading his company that he would pass through the two squadrons, in despite of them."
For a little time it seemed as if Sir Richard's daring might succeed. But a great ship, the San Philip, came between him and the wind "and coming towards him, becalmed his sails in such sort, as the ship could neither make way, nor feel the helm: so huge and high-carged was the Spanish ship. . . . The fight thus beginning at three of the clock of the afternoon continued very terrible all that evening. But the great San Philip having received the lower tier of the Revenge, discharged with cross-bar shot, shifted herself with all diligence from her sides, utterly misliking her first entertainment. . . . The Spanish ships were filled with companies of soldiers, in some two hundred, besides the mariners; in some five, in other eight hundred. In ours there were none at all beside the mariners, but the servants of the commanders and some few voluntary gentlemen only." And yet the Spaniards "were still repulsed, again and again, and at all times beaten back into their own ships, or into the seas."
In the beginning of the fight one little store ship of the English fleet hovered near. It was small and of no use in fighting. Now it came close to the Revenge and the Captain asked Sir Richard what he should do, and "Sir Richard bid him save himself, and leave him to his fortune." So the gallant Revenge was left to fight alone. For fifteen hours the battle lasted, Sir Richard himself was sorely wounded, and when far into the night the fighting ceased, two of the Spanish vessels were sunk "and in many other of the Spanish ships great slaughter was made." "But the Spanish ships which attempted to board the Revenge, as they were wounded and beaten off, so always others came in their places, she having never less than two mighty galleons by her sides and aboard her. So that ere the morning, from three of the clock the day before, there had fifteen several Armadas assailed her. And all so ill approved their entertainment, as they were, by the break of day, far more willing to hearken to a composition than hastily to make any more assaults or entries.
"But as the day increased so our men decreased. And as the light grew more and more, by so much more grew our discomforts. For none appeared in sight but enemies, saving one small ship called the Pilgrim, commanded by Jacob Whiddon, who hovered all night to see the success. But in the morning bearing with the Revenge, she was hunted like a hare amongst many ravenous hounds, but escaped.
"All the powder of the Revenge to the last barrel was now spent, all her pikes broken, forty of her best men slain, and the most part of the rest hurt. In the beginning of the fight she had but one hundred free from sickness and four score and ten sick, laid in hold upon the ballast. A small troop to man such a ship, and a weak garrison to resist so mighty an army. By those hundred all was sustained, the volleys, boarding and enterings of fifteen ships of war, besides those which beat her at large.
"On the contrary, the Spanish were always supplied with soldiers brought from every squadron; all manner of arms and power at will. Unto ours there remained no comfort at all, no hope, no supply either of ships, men, or weapons; the masts all beaten overboard, all her tackle cut asunder, her upper work altogether razed, and in effect evened she was with the water, but the very foundation of a ship, nothing being left overhead for flight or defence.
"Sir Richard finding himself in this distress and unable any longer to make resistance, having endured in this fifteen hours' fight the assault of fifteen several Armadas, all by turns aboard him, and by estimation eight hundred shot of great artillery besides many assaults and entries; and (seeing) that himself and the ship must needs be possessed of the enemy who were now all cast in a ring round about him, the Revenge not able to move one way or another, but as she was moved by the waves and billow of the sea, commanded the Master Gunner, whom he knew to be a most resolute man, to split and sink the ship, that thereby nothing might remain of glory or victory to the Spaniards: seeing in so many hours' fight, and with so great a navy, they were not able to take her, having had fifteen hours' time, above ten thousand men, and fifty and three sail of men of war to perform it withal. And (he) persuaded the company, or as many as he could induce, to yield themselves unto God, and to the mercy of none else, but as they had, like valiant resolute men, repulsed so many enemies, they should not now shorten the honour of their nation, by prolonging their own lives by a few hours, or a few days. The Master Gunner readily condescended and divers others. But the Captain and the Master were of another opinion, and besought Sir Richard to have care of them, alleging that the Spaniard would be as ready to entertain a composition as they were willing to offer the same. And (they said) that there being divers sufficient and valiant men yet living, and whose wounds were not mortal, they might do their country and their Prince acceptable service hereafter. And whereas Sir Richard alleged that the Spaniards should never glory to have taken one ship of her Majesty, seeing they had so long and so notably defended themselves; they answered that the ship had six foot water in hold, three shot under water, which were so weakly stopped as with the first working of the sea, she must needs sink, and was besides so crushed and bruised, as she could never be removed out of the place.
"And as the matter was thus in dispute, and Sir Richard refusing to hearken to any of those reasons, the Master of the Revenge (while the Captain won unto him the greater party) was convoyed aboard the General Don Alfonso Baçan. Who (finding none overhasty to enter the Revenge again, doubting lest Sir Richard would have blown them up and himself, and perceiving by the report of the Master of the Revenge his dangerous disposition) yielded that all their lives should be saved, the company sent for England, and the better sort to pay such reasonable ransom as their estate would bear, and in the mean season to be free from galley or imprisonment. To this he so much the better condescended as well, as I have said, for fear of further loss and mischief to themselves, as also for the desire he had to recover Sir Richard Grenville, whom for his notable valour he seemed greatly to honour and admire.
"When this answer was returned, and that safety of life was promised, the common sort being now at the end of their peril the most drew back from Sir Richard and the Master Gunner, (it) being no hard matter to dissuade men from death to life. The Master Gunner finding himself and Sir Richard thus prevented and mastered by the greater number, would have slain himself with a sword, had he not been by force with-held and locked into his cabin. Then the General sent many boats aboard the Revenge, and divers of our men fearing Sir Richard's disposition, stole away aboard the General and other ships. Sir Richard thus over-matched was sent unto by Alfonso Baçan to remove out of the Revenge, the ship being marvellous unsavoury, filled with blood and bodies of dead, and wounded men, like a slaughterhouse.
"Sir Richard answered he might do with his body what he list, for he esteemed it not. And as he was carried out of the ship he swooned, and reviving again desired the company to pray for him.
"The General used Sir Richard with all humanity, and left nothing unattempted that tended to his recovery, highly commending his valour and worthiness, and greatly bewailing the danger in which he was, being unto them a rare spectacle, and a resolution seldom approved, to see one ship turn toward so many enemies, to endure the charge and boarding of so many huge Armadas, and to resist and repel the assaults and entries of so many soldiers.
"There were slain and drowned in this fight well near one thousand of the enemies, and two special commanders. . . . besides divers others of special account.
"Sir Richard died as it is said, the second or third day aboard the General and was by them greatly bewailed. What became of his body, whether it were buried in the sea or on the land, we known not. The comfort that remaineth to his friends is, that he hath ended his life honourably in respect of the reputation won to his nation and country and of the same to his posterity, and that being dead, he hath not outlived his own honour."
This gallant fight of the little Revenge against the huge navy of Spain is one of the great things in the story of the sea; that is why I have chosen it out of all that Sir Walter wrote to give you as a specimen of English prose in Queen Elizabeth's time. As long as brave deeds are remembered, it will be told how Sir Richard Grenville "walled round with wooden castles on the wave" bid defiance to the might and pride of Spain, "hoping the splendour of some lucky star." The fight was a hopeless one from the very beginning, but it was as gallant a one as ever took place. Even his foes were forced to admire Sir Richard's dauntless courage, for when he was carried aboard Don Alfonso's ship "the captain and gentlemen went to visit him, and to comfort him in his hard fortune, wondering at his courageous stout heart for that he showed not any sign of faintness nor changing of colour. But feeling the hour of death to approach, he spake these words in Spanish and said, 'Here die I, Richard Grenville, with a joyful and quiet mind, for that I have ended my life as a true soldier ought to do, and hath fought for his country, Queen, religion, and honour, whereby my soul most joyful departeth out of this body, and shall always leave behind it an everlasting fame of a valiant and true soldier that hath done his duty as he was bound to do.' When he had finished these or other like words he gave up the Ghost, with great and stout courage, and no man could perceive any true signs of heaviness in him."
Poets of the time made ballads of this fight. Raleigh wrote of it as you have just read, and in our own day the great laureate Lord Tennyson made the story live again in his poem The Revenge. Tennyson tells how after the fight a great storm arose:
"And or ever that evening ended a great gale blew
And a wave like the wave that is raised by an earthquake grew,
Till it smote on their hulls and their sails and their masts and their flags,
And the whole sea plunged and fell on the shot-shatter'd navy of Spain.
And the little Revenge herself went down by the island crags
To be lost evermore in the main."
So neither the gallant captain nor his little ship were led home to the triumph of Spain.
It is interesting to remember that had it not been for the caprice of the Queen, Raleigh himself would have been in Sir Richard Grenville's place. For he had orders to go on this voyage, but at the last moment he was recalled, and Sir Richard was sent instead. | 4,716 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Cistern of Masada
Cisterns Herod built to provide water during times of siege and to fill his luxurious swimming pools and supply his bathing complexes. The amount of water needed was staggering. There were several swimming pools on top of the desert mountain, where little rain fell. The main bath complex was one of the largest in Israel, and there were several smaller, private ones for Herod in each of his palaces.
Since the floods in the wadi below were unreliable, Herod needed water sufficient for his family and staff. One scholar has estimated that if all the cisterns were half full, there would be enough water to sustain thousands of people for ten years.
The contrast between the surrounding desert and the abundance of water inside the fortress would have impressed anyone who visited this place. They probably marveled at the vision and ingenuity of Herod, a result that he passionately desired.
The water flowed into cisterns cut into the base of the mountain on the western side. It was then carried to the top of the mountain and emptied into cisterns like this one, which held more than 1 million gallons. The cistern was originally a quarry that provided stone for the buildings on Masada.
It has been noted that Herod frequently defied nature in his attempt to build a legacy for himself. Providing the amount of water needed on Masada was part of that legacy. Visitors to Israel are still amazed at the great vision Herod displayed in his building programs.
See all posts in Glossary
|Mar 30 — Apr 08, 2020|
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|Nov 01 — Nov 15, 2020|
|Nov 14 — Nov 28, 2020| | <urn:uuid:245ba190-c9fb-455c-934d-3be0726573c3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://underthefigtree.org/glossary/cistern-of-masada/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00046.warc.gz | en | 0.985651 | 346 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.2194066345... | 1 | Cistern of Masada
Cisterns Herod built to provide water during times of siege and to fill his luxurious swimming pools and supply his bathing complexes. The amount of water needed was staggering. There were several swimming pools on top of the desert mountain, where little rain fell. The main bath complex was one of the largest in Israel, and there were several smaller, private ones for Herod in each of his palaces.
Since the floods in the wadi below were unreliable, Herod needed water sufficient for his family and staff. One scholar has estimated that if all the cisterns were half full, there would be enough water to sustain thousands of people for ten years.
The contrast between the surrounding desert and the abundance of water inside the fortress would have impressed anyone who visited this place. They probably marveled at the vision and ingenuity of Herod, a result that he passionately desired.
The water flowed into cisterns cut into the base of the mountain on the western side. It was then carried to the top of the mountain and emptied into cisterns like this one, which held more than 1 million gallons. The cistern was originally a quarry that provided stone for the buildings on Masada.
It has been noted that Herod frequently defied nature in his attempt to build a legacy for himself. Providing the amount of water needed on Masada was part of that legacy. Visitors to Israel are still amazed at the great vision Herod displayed in his building programs.
See all posts in Glossary
|Mar 30 — Apr 08, 2020|
|Jun 28 — Jul 12, 2020|
|Nov 01 — Nov 15, 2020|
|Nov 14 — Nov 28, 2020| | 382 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Maya Angelou had an incredible life, and Wednesday’s Google Doodle celebrates it.
Angelou is now known as a world-famous author and poet who published seven autobiographies and several books of poetry, but her early life was traumatic. At the age of 7 she was sexually abused and raped by her mother’s boyfriend. He was released from jail after one day. Four days later he was murdered, and Angelou became mute for five years. Later Angelou would say, “I thought, my voice killed him; I killed that man, because I told his name.”
During this specific period of her life she became engrossed in the written word. She read Shakespeare, Dickens and Edgar Allen Poe and became interested in black artists like Frances Harper, Anne Spencer and Jessie Fauset.
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, her best-known work, was crucial to the development of what many refer to as autobiographical fiction. Her work focused on issues such as racism and identity.
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0.13531099259853... | 2 | Maya Angelou had an incredible life, and Wednesday’s Google Doodle celebrates it.
Angelou is now known as a world-famous author and poet who published seven autobiographies and several books of poetry, but her early life was traumatic. At the age of 7 she was sexually abused and raped by her mother’s boyfriend. He was released from jail after one day. Four days later he was murdered, and Angelou became mute for five years. Later Angelou would say, “I thought, my voice killed him; I killed that man, because I told his name.”
During this specific period of her life she became engrossed in the written word. She read Shakespeare, Dickens and Edgar Allen Poe and became interested in black artists like Frances Harper, Anne Spencer and Jessie Fauset.
I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, her best-known work, was crucial to the development of what many refer to as autobiographical fiction. Her work focused on issues such as racism and identity.
She passed away in May 28, 2014. Today would have been her 90th birthday. | 229 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paper type: Essay Pages: 7 (1617 words)
Anton Drexlers establishment of the National Socialist German Workers Party in 1920, brought about the rise of Adolf Hitler who led the most significant German political party of the twentieth century. By famous historians such as Alan Bullock, the Nazi Party is regarded as an organized conspiracy against the State which pursued power and position, for the sole object was to secure power by one means or another. Therefore, it may be misunderstood that Hitler and his Party gained considerable support, thereby controlled the Weimar Republic from its creation until the end of World War ||.
There is a large degree of truth that Hitler gained support from 1919 to 1923, when the Weimar was surviving a series of severe crises consisted of inflation (1923), invasion of the Ruhr (1924) by the Allied powers, and left/right wing rebellions (1919-23) within the nation.
Hitler promised people better lives and sought solutions to the German problems through targeting the scapegoats. Moreover, in 1933, Hitler eventually was given power by Hindenburg as the steep decline of the German economy renewed instability to democracy.
However, 1924-1929 indeed have been the years of declining for the Nazi Party in which they lost power due to several varying reasons, such as the Golden Years led by the German foreign minister Gustav Stresemann, and the disorganized Nazi Party as a consequence of the leaders that were arrested after the failure of the Munich Beer Hall Putsch, including Hitler becoming banned from speaking publicly until 1928.
One major reason for the greatly weakening Nazi Party in the mid-20s was due to the prosperity of the Stresemann years, as he brought about the era of calm and serenity where economic recovery and political stability was achieved to a large extent. As the following examples prove, Weimar Germany 1924-9 was undergoing a renaissance. Under Stresemanns policies, recovery was helped by the adoption of the Dawes Plan in 1924, which allowed Germany to extend the period over which reparations had to be paid, and stimulated a large loan from Wall Street that helped Germany to keep up with its payments. At the same time Stresemann took drastic measures to end inflation and restore German currency. This clearly affected the Nazi Party, for the hyperinflation of 1923 had been ruining the middle class and Hitler saw this crisis as an opportunity too good to miss as a tool for gaining power. Stresemann withdrew oldmarks from circulating and replaced by new rentenmarks, which gave people more confidence and enabled a temporary economic recovery.
Furthermore, the French occupation of the Ruhr was ended in 1925 and the Locarno Treaty created a greater sense of security in Europe as it guaranteed the inviolability of the shared German, French, and Belgian borders. Even one of the most important steps in Germanys return to full freedom was achieved, which was the admission to the League of Nations in September 1926. In result, the German industry had survived the galloping inflation reasonably and Germany was able to make its reparations payments to the powers of the Entente; they repaid their war debts to the US, and from there the money flowed back to Germany in the form of loans. This effective system revived the German economy with unusual speed from 1924 to 1929, and German production increased in volume by 50 percent, and many industries were able to regain their dominant position in world markets. Apparently, in the middle 1920s Germany regained her pre-war standard of living, although the real strength of the German recovery is, however, still controversial, for political and economic weaknesses continued.
It has been stated in The Rise and Fall of Third Reich (1959) by William Shirer, an American journalist who lived in Germany from 1926 to 1941:Support for the Nazi Party had grown due to the countrys problems of hyperinflation and the French invasion of the Ruhr. By 1928 Nazism appeared to be a dying cause. Now that Germanys outlook was suddenly bright, the Nazi Party was rapidly withering away. One scarcely heard of Hitler or the Nazis except as a joke.As this statement implies, the Gold Age of the Reichstag meant that the Nazis message became less appealing and the party lost support for the Nazi Partys ideologies were too extreme and was mostly based on expressing German hatred toward the Treaty of Versailles, the current status of Germany and the inferior race, to gain support. However, the happier the Germans felt toward the economic prosperity brought by Stresemanns policies, the greater they became uninterested in extremists politics. In result, the extremist party did badly at the elections.
As shown in the table , in three elections held between 1924-9 their representation in the Reichstag was very low compared to other parties and was politically very weak. Thus, it remained the smallest Party in the Reichstag up to 1928. As unemployment fell and Germany was changing radically for the better, people were less discontented, and this resulted on the decline in support for the extreme right and the extreme left, also due to peoples lack of interest in the views of those who desired to overthrow the prosperous Weimar regime. On the other hand, the relative stability coincided with the increase in support for the Social Democratic Party which gradually regrouped and played the leader of the opposition lending its support to Stresemanns policies, which the Nazi Party detested.
The failure of the Munich Beer Hall Putsch weakened Hitler and withered his Party due to the many leaders being arrested and sentenced to jail, as well as Hitler being banned from speaking publicly until the end of 1920s. During Hitlers years in prison turning the energies to writing his autobiography Mein Kampf, the Nazi Party had broken up almost completely. The end of 1923 and 1924 had been followed by the arrest or flight of the leaders from the Party. For example, the Nazi commander-in-chief Hermann Goring remained abroad until 1927, Hitlers chief advisor Scheubner-Richter had been killed, and Dietrich Eckart, a journalist who was a key early member in the Nazi died at the end of 1923 due to illness. Furthermore, what disabled Hitler from gaining back support was the banning from speaking publicly until 1928, which was caused by the two new objectives set by Hitler in 1925 when he was released from prison. Hitlers new policies alarmed the authorities especially on legality which they viewed as hostility towards the Republic with the purpose of overthrowing the government.
Thereby, Hitler was immediately prohibited from speaking in public, first in Bavaria until May 1927, and soon this prohibition extended to other German states as well which lasted until 1928. Sure enough, this was a severe handicap for a leader whose greatest asset was his ability as a speaker. Some may argue that the ban on his public speaking allowed Hitler to turn more to writing between 1925 and 1928, and therefore cannot be counted as the major reason to why Hitler and his Party had lost power. However, although during these years Hitler wrote the first (1925) and second volume of his autobiography Mein Kampf, the book was filled with pages of turgid discussion of Hitlers ideas, written in a verbose style which was both difficult and dull to read, to the extent that Max Amann, who was to publish the book, was deeply disappointed.
According to one of Britains most distinguished scholars, Alan Bullock, Mein Kamf was an interesting book for anyone trying to understand Hitlers mind, but as a party tract or a political best-seller it was a failure because only a few, even among the party members had the patience to read due to his thwarted intellectual ambition, the desire to make people to take him seriously as an original thinker and the use of long words and constant repetitions. In fact, the book sold 9,473 copies the year it was published, but sales went down from 6,913 in 1926 to 3,015 in 1928, which shows how the Germans were getting uninterested in his extreme policies.
However, in the year that set an end to the Golden Age when the Germans needed answers to their problems encountered again, the sales more than doubled and shot up to 50,000 in 1930 and 1931. By 1940, six million copies had been sold. This proves how Hitler was ignored by people in the mid-20s due to his lack of communication and unstable Party, but gained support almost immediately as the Great Depression started as people were in need of solutions to their struggles.
For Hitler and his Nazi Party, 1924 to 1929 had been the years of decline and reorganizing for the rise of power. During this period of economic recovery and political stability, the extreme right wing Party had been losing support due to the bright vision of future Germany and the ineffectiveness of the Party itself. They were eventually saved by the Wall Street Crash of October 1929, the event which was crucial to the Nazis as higher levels of unemployment was gradually emerging as a problem and people were unhappy with their living standards. The world-wide slump and the decline of the German economy, though not a sufficient explanation, was certainly an essential precondition for the Nazified Germany. In our world today, the rise of the Nazis is regarded inevitable; however, regardless of the fundamental flaws of the Reichstag, the period of Golden Age for the Weimar Republic suggested the possibility of preventing the worlds greatest tragedy from occurring to a certain extent.
Hitler, A Study In Tyranny, Alan Bullock p.176Germany A New History, Hagen Schulze p.215http://www.johndclare.net/Weimar6.htmhttp://www.johndclare.net/Weimar6.htmHitler, A Study In Tyranny, Alan Bullock p.122Hitler, A Study In Tyranny, Alan Bullock p.131Hitler, A Study In Tyranny, Alan Bullock
Cite this page
Why Did Hitler Lose Support from 1924-1929?. (2016, Jul 06). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/why-did-hitler-lose-support-from-1924-1929-essay | <urn:uuid:6bd99824-6773-4fc0-8761-07cce0c1b82c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/why-did-hitler-lose-support-from-1924-1929-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00103.warc.gz | en | 0.981082 | 2,084 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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Anton Drexlers establishment of the National Socialist German Workers Party in 1920, brought about the rise of Adolf Hitler who led the most significant German political party of the twentieth century. By famous historians such as Alan Bullock, the Nazi Party is regarded as an organized conspiracy against the State which pursued power and position, for the sole object was to secure power by one means or another. Therefore, it may be misunderstood that Hitler and his Party gained considerable support, thereby controlled the Weimar Republic from its creation until the end of World War ||.
There is a large degree of truth that Hitler gained support from 1919 to 1923, when the Weimar was surviving a series of severe crises consisted of inflation (1923), invasion of the Ruhr (1924) by the Allied powers, and left/right wing rebellions (1919-23) within the nation.
Hitler promised people better lives and sought solutions to the German problems through targeting the scapegoats. Moreover, in 1933, Hitler eventually was given power by Hindenburg as the steep decline of the German economy renewed instability to democracy.
However, 1924-1929 indeed have been the years of declining for the Nazi Party in which they lost power due to several varying reasons, such as the Golden Years led by the German foreign minister Gustav Stresemann, and the disorganized Nazi Party as a consequence of the leaders that were arrested after the failure of the Munich Beer Hall Putsch, including Hitler becoming banned from speaking publicly until 1928.
One major reason for the greatly weakening Nazi Party in the mid-20s was due to the prosperity of the Stresemann years, as he brought about the era of calm and serenity where economic recovery and political stability was achieved to a large extent. As the following examples prove, Weimar Germany 1924-9 was undergoing a renaissance. Under Stresemanns policies, recovery was helped by the adoption of the Dawes Plan in 1924, which allowed Germany to extend the period over which reparations had to be paid, and stimulated a large loan from Wall Street that helped Germany to keep up with its payments. At the same time Stresemann took drastic measures to end inflation and restore German currency. This clearly affected the Nazi Party, for the hyperinflation of 1923 had been ruining the middle class and Hitler saw this crisis as an opportunity too good to miss as a tool for gaining power. Stresemann withdrew oldmarks from circulating and replaced by new rentenmarks, which gave people more confidence and enabled a temporary economic recovery.
Furthermore, the French occupation of the Ruhr was ended in 1925 and the Locarno Treaty created a greater sense of security in Europe as it guaranteed the inviolability of the shared German, French, and Belgian borders. Even one of the most important steps in Germanys return to full freedom was achieved, which was the admission to the League of Nations in September 1926. In result, the German industry had survived the galloping inflation reasonably and Germany was able to make its reparations payments to the powers of the Entente; they repaid their war debts to the US, and from there the money flowed back to Germany in the form of loans. This effective system revived the German economy with unusual speed from 1924 to 1929, and German production increased in volume by 50 percent, and many industries were able to regain their dominant position in world markets. Apparently, in the middle 1920s Germany regained her pre-war standard of living, although the real strength of the German recovery is, however, still controversial, for political and economic weaknesses continued.
It has been stated in The Rise and Fall of Third Reich (1959) by William Shirer, an American journalist who lived in Germany from 1926 to 1941:Support for the Nazi Party had grown due to the countrys problems of hyperinflation and the French invasion of the Ruhr. By 1928 Nazism appeared to be a dying cause. Now that Germanys outlook was suddenly bright, the Nazi Party was rapidly withering away. One scarcely heard of Hitler or the Nazis except as a joke.As this statement implies, the Gold Age of the Reichstag meant that the Nazis message became less appealing and the party lost support for the Nazi Partys ideologies were too extreme and was mostly based on expressing German hatred toward the Treaty of Versailles, the current status of Germany and the inferior race, to gain support. However, the happier the Germans felt toward the economic prosperity brought by Stresemanns policies, the greater they became uninterested in extremists politics. In result, the extremist party did badly at the elections.
As shown in the table , in three elections held between 1924-9 their representation in the Reichstag was very low compared to other parties and was politically very weak. Thus, it remained the smallest Party in the Reichstag up to 1928. As unemployment fell and Germany was changing radically for the better, people were less discontented, and this resulted on the decline in support for the extreme right and the extreme left, also due to peoples lack of interest in the views of those who desired to overthrow the prosperous Weimar regime. On the other hand, the relative stability coincided with the increase in support for the Social Democratic Party which gradually regrouped and played the leader of the opposition lending its support to Stresemanns policies, which the Nazi Party detested.
The failure of the Munich Beer Hall Putsch weakened Hitler and withered his Party due to the many leaders being arrested and sentenced to jail, as well as Hitler being banned from speaking publicly until the end of 1920s. During Hitlers years in prison turning the energies to writing his autobiography Mein Kampf, the Nazi Party had broken up almost completely. The end of 1923 and 1924 had been followed by the arrest or flight of the leaders from the Party. For example, the Nazi commander-in-chief Hermann Goring remained abroad until 1927, Hitlers chief advisor Scheubner-Richter had been killed, and Dietrich Eckart, a journalist who was a key early member in the Nazi died at the end of 1923 due to illness. Furthermore, what disabled Hitler from gaining back support was the banning from speaking publicly until 1928, which was caused by the two new objectives set by Hitler in 1925 when he was released from prison. Hitlers new policies alarmed the authorities especially on legality which they viewed as hostility towards the Republic with the purpose of overthrowing the government.
Thereby, Hitler was immediately prohibited from speaking in public, first in Bavaria until May 1927, and soon this prohibition extended to other German states as well which lasted until 1928. Sure enough, this was a severe handicap for a leader whose greatest asset was his ability as a speaker. Some may argue that the ban on his public speaking allowed Hitler to turn more to writing between 1925 and 1928, and therefore cannot be counted as the major reason to why Hitler and his Party had lost power. However, although during these years Hitler wrote the first (1925) and second volume of his autobiography Mein Kampf, the book was filled with pages of turgid discussion of Hitlers ideas, written in a verbose style which was both difficult and dull to read, to the extent that Max Amann, who was to publish the book, was deeply disappointed.
According to one of Britains most distinguished scholars, Alan Bullock, Mein Kamf was an interesting book for anyone trying to understand Hitlers mind, but as a party tract or a political best-seller it was a failure because only a few, even among the party members had the patience to read due to his thwarted intellectual ambition, the desire to make people to take him seriously as an original thinker and the use of long words and constant repetitions. In fact, the book sold 9,473 copies the year it was published, but sales went down from 6,913 in 1926 to 3,015 in 1928, which shows how the Germans were getting uninterested in his extreme policies.
However, in the year that set an end to the Golden Age when the Germans needed answers to their problems encountered again, the sales more than doubled and shot up to 50,000 in 1930 and 1931. By 1940, six million copies had been sold. This proves how Hitler was ignored by people in the mid-20s due to his lack of communication and unstable Party, but gained support almost immediately as the Great Depression started as people were in need of solutions to their struggles.
For Hitler and his Nazi Party, 1924 to 1929 had been the years of decline and reorganizing for the rise of power. During this period of economic recovery and political stability, the extreme right wing Party had been losing support due to the bright vision of future Germany and the ineffectiveness of the Party itself. They were eventually saved by the Wall Street Crash of October 1929, the event which was crucial to the Nazis as higher levels of unemployment was gradually emerging as a problem and people were unhappy with their living standards. The world-wide slump and the decline of the German economy, though not a sufficient explanation, was certainly an essential precondition for the Nazified Germany. In our world today, the rise of the Nazis is regarded inevitable; however, regardless of the fundamental flaws of the Reichstag, the period of Golden Age for the Weimar Republic suggested the possibility of preventing the worlds greatest tragedy from occurring to a certain extent.
Hitler, A Study In Tyranny, Alan Bullock p.176Germany A New History, Hagen Schulze p.215http://www.johndclare.net/Weimar6.htmhttp://www.johndclare.net/Weimar6.htmHitler, A Study In Tyranny, Alan Bullock p.122Hitler, A Study In Tyranny, Alan Bullock p.131Hitler, A Study In Tyranny, Alan Bullock
Cite this page
Why Did Hitler Lose Support from 1924-1929?. (2016, Jul 06). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/why-did-hitler-lose-support-from-1924-1929-essay | 2,244 | ENGLISH | 1 |
After the American wars of independence, the continental congress gathered in Philadelphia and wanted to adopt a new language for the future of US. When the decision had to be made on basis of voting, English had won over German as the language of the new republic but this happened by only one vote. The German language is a part of Indo-European language family. During some point of the disintegration of the Indo-European community, a group of tribes headed towards north-west Europe. It was there that developed a Bronze age culture mostly around 2000 BC. To know more about the language and the history of German language, one should try for German Classes in Velachery.
The Indo-European dialect of the settlers went onto to have changes which made it a new language. This is now known as Germanic or Primitive Germanic. The nomadic tribes began to expand from their well spread north German and Scandinavian communities into the central parts of the European continent by 500 BC. This continued until they were stopped on the frontiers of the Roman Empire. The German Coaching in Chennai is the best to gain command over the language of German.
In the following centuries, there was no particular standard language of the people. But there were a variety of dialects present. In the northern part of Germany, the Low German dialects were present and in the middle and southern Germany, the high German dialects were present. There were many regional variations. East middle German is the basis of the modern German we know today. To shine well in your career in foreign countries, learn German through German Training in Velachery. | <urn:uuid:332279e6-31c4-485a-ab91-da1fb7d54c9f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://englishlabs.in/german-language-classes-velachery/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00243.warc.gz | en | 0.986035 | 325 | 4 | 4 | [
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0.19901970028... | 2 | After the American wars of independence, the continental congress gathered in Philadelphia and wanted to adopt a new language for the future of US. When the decision had to be made on basis of voting, English had won over German as the language of the new republic but this happened by only one vote. The German language is a part of Indo-European language family. During some point of the disintegration of the Indo-European community, a group of tribes headed towards north-west Europe. It was there that developed a Bronze age culture mostly around 2000 BC. To know more about the language and the history of German language, one should try for German Classes in Velachery.
The Indo-European dialect of the settlers went onto to have changes which made it a new language. This is now known as Germanic or Primitive Germanic. The nomadic tribes began to expand from their well spread north German and Scandinavian communities into the central parts of the European continent by 500 BC. This continued until they were stopped on the frontiers of the Roman Empire. The German Coaching in Chennai is the best to gain command over the language of German.
In the following centuries, there was no particular standard language of the people. But there were a variety of dialects present. In the northern part of Germany, the Low German dialects were present and in the middle and southern Germany, the high German dialects were present. There were many regional variations. East middle German is the basis of the modern German we know today. To shine well in your career in foreign countries, learn German through German Training in Velachery. | 324 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Egbert the Saxon lived at the same time as did Harun-al-Rashid and Charlemagne. He was the first king who ruled all England as one kingdom. Long before his birth the people who are known to us as Britons lived there, and they gave to the island the name Britain .
But Britain was invaded by the Romans under Julius Cesar and his successors, and all that part of it which we now call England was added to the Empire of Rome. The Britons were driven into Wales and Cornwall , the western sections of the island.
The Romans kept possession of the island for nearly four hundred years. They did not leave it until 410, the year that Alaric sacked the city of Rome . At this time the Roman legions were withdrawn from Britain .
Some years before this the Saxons, Angles and Jutes, German tribes, had settled near the shores of the North Sea . They learned much about Britain ; for trading vessels, even at that early day, crossed the Channel. Among other things, the men from the north learned that Britain was crossed with good Roman roads, and dotted with houses of brick and stone; that walled cities had taken the place of tented camps, and that the country for miles round each city was green every spring with waving wheat, or white with orchard blossoms.
After the Roman legions had left Britain , the Jutes, led, it is said, by two great captains named Hengist and Horsa, landed upon the southeastern coast and made a settlement.
Britain proved a pleasant place to live in, and soon the Angles and Saxons also left the North Sea shores and invaded the beautiful island.
The new invaders met with brave resistance. The Britons were headed by King Arthur, about whom many marvelous stories are told. His court was held at Caerleon (car'-le-on), in North Wales , where his hundred and fifty knights banqueted at their famous "Round Table."
The British king and his knights fought with desperate heroism. But they could not drive back the Saxons and their companions and were obliged to seek refuge in the western mountainous parts of the island, just as their forefathers had done when the Romans invaded Britain . Thus nearly all England came into the possession of the three invading tribes. | <urn:uuid:6013e2ff-d9da-4b0d-8c22-ca18a2739067> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://e-reading.mobi/chapter.php/70959/48/Haaren_-_Famous_Men_of_The_Middle_Ages.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00357.warc.gz | en | 0.986095 | 473 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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-0.1799312531... | 1 | Egbert the Saxon lived at the same time as did Harun-al-Rashid and Charlemagne. He was the first king who ruled all England as one kingdom. Long before his birth the people who are known to us as Britons lived there, and they gave to the island the name Britain .
But Britain was invaded by the Romans under Julius Cesar and his successors, and all that part of it which we now call England was added to the Empire of Rome. The Britons were driven into Wales and Cornwall , the western sections of the island.
The Romans kept possession of the island for nearly four hundred years. They did not leave it until 410, the year that Alaric sacked the city of Rome . At this time the Roman legions were withdrawn from Britain .
Some years before this the Saxons, Angles and Jutes, German tribes, had settled near the shores of the North Sea . They learned much about Britain ; for trading vessels, even at that early day, crossed the Channel. Among other things, the men from the north learned that Britain was crossed with good Roman roads, and dotted with houses of brick and stone; that walled cities had taken the place of tented camps, and that the country for miles round each city was green every spring with waving wheat, or white with orchard blossoms.
After the Roman legions had left Britain , the Jutes, led, it is said, by two great captains named Hengist and Horsa, landed upon the southeastern coast and made a settlement.
Britain proved a pleasant place to live in, and soon the Angles and Saxons also left the North Sea shores and invaded the beautiful island.
The new invaders met with brave resistance. The Britons were headed by King Arthur, about whom many marvelous stories are told. His court was held at Caerleon (car'-le-on), in North Wales , where his hundred and fifty knights banqueted at their famous "Round Table."
The British king and his knights fought with desperate heroism. But they could not drive back the Saxons and their companions and were obliged to seek refuge in the western mountainous parts of the island, just as their forefathers had done when the Romans invaded Britain . Thus nearly all England came into the possession of the three invading tribes. | 473 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Bullitt Memories | Bullitt's Lick's salty past
Native Americans had known about salt licks in Kentucky for centuries, and French explorers were in the region as early as 1739. So by 1773, when Capt. Thomas Bullitt visited what would become known as Bullitt's Lick, the licks' locations were common knowledge.
In 1774 John Floyd led a group of surveyors into Kentucky with the task of surveying tracts of land for men in Virginia who had received land grants for military service in the French and Indian War. Thomas Hanson kept a journal of the trip.
According to Hanson's journal, on May 12, 1774, James Douglass, or another member of the Floyd party, surveyed 1,000 acres for William Christian that included Big Bone Lick, located in what is now Boone County. An entry on June 13, 1774, indicates that Douglass surveyed another 1,000 acres for Christian that included Bullitt's Lick, west of what is now Shepherdsville.
Thus, Col. William Christian laid claim to the two most significant salt licks in Kentucky. I speculate that he had been specific in his instructions to include the licks in his claimed land, knowing their value.
Last Week in Bullitt Memories: Bullitt Memories | A salute to bus drivers
He was well connected, having married Patrick Henry's sister, and distinguished himself as a military officer. For his service, he was awarded numerous Kentucky land grants.
However, Christian himself played no part in the day-to-day operations of the saltworks that developed at either location. In fact, he sold the Big Bone Lick site to David Ross in 1780 for 1,350 pounds, much more than nearby tracts were bringing. While he did move to the Louisville area in 1785 from Virginia, he left the operation of Bullitt's Lick in the hands of an agent.
Moses Moore leased the entire lick from Christian's agent and sublet it to a number of independent furnace operators.
When Christian was killed in 1786 while pursuing an Indian party, his will left "Saltsburg," as he called the works at Bullitt's Lick, to his infant son, with the boy's mother as guardian. When she, too, died, Patrick Henry, the boy's uncle, was made his guardian. But nothing really changed at Bullitt's Lick. Moore traveled to Virginia and secured a new lease directly from Henry.
Robert McDowell identified a number of the men who, at one time or another, leased furnace locations from Moore. They included Archer Dickinson, T.W. Cochran, Witle Barrow, Daniel Banta, William Hines, Nathaniel Harris, Isaac Skinner, John McDowell, James Latham, Andrew Price, Jesse Hood, Benjamin Stebbins, Samuel Hancock and John Moore.
And then there was Jonathan Irons who, according to McDowell, "could handle his rowdy crew of saltmakers except when he was drunk — which unfortunately appeared to be most of the time."
He purchased land on the buffalo track that ran from Bullitt's Lick to the lick located along Long Lick Creek. His land lay on both sides of the Salt River where the track crossed it, and he began prospecting for saltwater. Luck was with him, and he found it almost in the river's bed, just steps from the buffalo track. Thus Iron's Lick joined the growing list of saltworks in this area.
Henry Crist bought part of Bullitt's Lick in 1814 and eventually acquired the whole lick, but by that time saltmaking was barely profitable with the discovery of cheaper sources elsewhere.
The saltworks operated until about 1830 when the fires were allowed to go out under the last kettle, and an era came to an end. Today, Bullitt's Lick is quiet; gone are the wells, the fires, the bubbling kettles, the sweat-streaked men. Nothing remains but a historical marker to show that it ever existed at all.
© Charles Hartley, Shepherdsville, Ky. | <urn:uuid:2294a1ef-fd3b-4c36-a859-f0fca63b1a93> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.courier-journal.com/story/news/local/bullitt/2014/09/06/bullitt-history-bullitts-lick-salty-past/15085367/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00455.warc.gz | en | 0.980473 | 846 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.0609548091888... | 1 | Bullitt Memories | Bullitt's Lick's salty past
Native Americans had known about salt licks in Kentucky for centuries, and French explorers were in the region as early as 1739. So by 1773, when Capt. Thomas Bullitt visited what would become known as Bullitt's Lick, the licks' locations were common knowledge.
In 1774 John Floyd led a group of surveyors into Kentucky with the task of surveying tracts of land for men in Virginia who had received land grants for military service in the French and Indian War. Thomas Hanson kept a journal of the trip.
According to Hanson's journal, on May 12, 1774, James Douglass, or another member of the Floyd party, surveyed 1,000 acres for William Christian that included Big Bone Lick, located in what is now Boone County. An entry on June 13, 1774, indicates that Douglass surveyed another 1,000 acres for Christian that included Bullitt's Lick, west of what is now Shepherdsville.
Thus, Col. William Christian laid claim to the two most significant salt licks in Kentucky. I speculate that he had been specific in his instructions to include the licks in his claimed land, knowing their value.
Last Week in Bullitt Memories: Bullitt Memories | A salute to bus drivers
He was well connected, having married Patrick Henry's sister, and distinguished himself as a military officer. For his service, he was awarded numerous Kentucky land grants.
However, Christian himself played no part in the day-to-day operations of the saltworks that developed at either location. In fact, he sold the Big Bone Lick site to David Ross in 1780 for 1,350 pounds, much more than nearby tracts were bringing. While he did move to the Louisville area in 1785 from Virginia, he left the operation of Bullitt's Lick in the hands of an agent.
Moses Moore leased the entire lick from Christian's agent and sublet it to a number of independent furnace operators.
When Christian was killed in 1786 while pursuing an Indian party, his will left "Saltsburg," as he called the works at Bullitt's Lick, to his infant son, with the boy's mother as guardian. When she, too, died, Patrick Henry, the boy's uncle, was made his guardian. But nothing really changed at Bullitt's Lick. Moore traveled to Virginia and secured a new lease directly from Henry.
Robert McDowell identified a number of the men who, at one time or another, leased furnace locations from Moore. They included Archer Dickinson, T.W. Cochran, Witle Barrow, Daniel Banta, William Hines, Nathaniel Harris, Isaac Skinner, John McDowell, James Latham, Andrew Price, Jesse Hood, Benjamin Stebbins, Samuel Hancock and John Moore.
And then there was Jonathan Irons who, according to McDowell, "could handle his rowdy crew of saltmakers except when he was drunk — which unfortunately appeared to be most of the time."
He purchased land on the buffalo track that ran from Bullitt's Lick to the lick located along Long Lick Creek. His land lay on both sides of the Salt River where the track crossed it, and he began prospecting for saltwater. Luck was with him, and he found it almost in the river's bed, just steps from the buffalo track. Thus Iron's Lick joined the growing list of saltworks in this area.
Henry Crist bought part of Bullitt's Lick in 1814 and eventually acquired the whole lick, but by that time saltmaking was barely profitable with the discovery of cheaper sources elsewhere.
The saltworks operated until about 1830 when the fires were allowed to go out under the last kettle, and an era came to an end. Today, Bullitt's Lick is quiet; gone are the wells, the fires, the bubbling kettles, the sweat-streaked men. Nothing remains but a historical marker to show that it ever existed at all.
© Charles Hartley, Shepherdsville, Ky. | 874 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Health care researchers are finding that the medical problems that can saddle people with high costs often begin in childhood.
This is particularly the case with obesity, a problem that has become more pronounced in school systems across the country.
Schools have tried to respond to the obesity problem by implementing new steps to make healthier food available in cafeterias and to stop selling products like soda. However, there have also been warnings that along with diet, children need a greater emphasis on physical activities in order to maintain a healthy weight later in life.
A report in the Houston Chronicle says that more than two-thirds of the school children in Texas were unable to pass the state’s basic physical fitness test this year. According to the newspaper, third-grade girls had the best results, with 37 percent passing all six of the tests included in the assessment.
The newspaper quotes Sarah Barlow of the Center for Childhood Obesity as saying the results are “very concerning” and “very dramatic.” By addressing weight issues early in life, people are likely to live longer and avoid the high health and life insurance costs that come with chronic health conditions like diabetes. | <urn:uuid:90ef71d2-2f98-4b00-805b-fcd631236092> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://articles.lifequotes.com/how-weight-loss-can-lower-your-life-insurance-premium/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00325.warc.gz | en | 0.980456 | 235 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.187973454594... | 1 | Health care researchers are finding that the medical problems that can saddle people with high costs often begin in childhood.
This is particularly the case with obesity, a problem that has become more pronounced in school systems across the country.
Schools have tried to respond to the obesity problem by implementing new steps to make healthier food available in cafeterias and to stop selling products like soda. However, there have also been warnings that along with diet, children need a greater emphasis on physical activities in order to maintain a healthy weight later in life.
A report in the Houston Chronicle says that more than two-thirds of the school children in Texas were unable to pass the state’s basic physical fitness test this year. According to the newspaper, third-grade girls had the best results, with 37 percent passing all six of the tests included in the assessment.
The newspaper quotes Sarah Barlow of the Center for Childhood Obesity as saying the results are “very concerning” and “very dramatic.” By addressing weight issues early in life, people are likely to live longer and avoid the high health and life insurance costs that come with chronic health conditions like diabetes. | 224 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mexican Americans turned on each other during the Civil War
The Civil War was one that changed the landscape of modern landscape of the United States, and we’re not talking about superheroes fighting each other, either. For four long years, the country clashed between various issues, including slavery and expansion. During this battle, some unexpected people managed to get their hands a bit dirty.
Joining the fight
Many Mexican Americans didn’t have many kind things to say about America. Years before the Civil War, the Mexican-American War was a battle for the land right of Texas. In the end, over 1,700 were killed in battle with 25,000 civilians caught in the crossfire.
Looking at the Civil War, some Mexican Americans felt like they had to step in. Unfortunately, they were seen as turncoats from the start by both sides. They could’ve easily sat with a nice tequila and watched both sides simply destroy each other. Instead, several of them decided to showcase their newfound loyalty to the country.
Friends into enemies
With the split, many friends and family chose to fight for their own beliefs. While this was mainly about doing what’s right, Mexican Americans saw this as a great payday. Many of them stood with the Union during this tough time. Those that served with them gained a $300 bonus.
While $300 might not be a lot now, it was a huge paycheck for soldiers. That kind of money was enough to cover rent for the whole year. With the inflation rate, that paycheck would be $9,124.30 today.
This too shall pass
One major situation involving Mexican American soldiers was the Battle of Glorieta Pass. This three-day battle took place in a somewhat familiar territory: New Mexico. Armies of Mexican Americans cranked things up on the battlefield with a victory for the Union.
In the end, the Union took it home following Robert E. Lee surrendering. Unfortunately, this war had one of the biggest casualty rates with 750,000 people dead. Any remaining Mexican American soldiers reunited with loved ones they once faced on the field. | <urn:uuid:88dd9ef0-57c1-4d52-98b5-1bea561fdc34> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.history101.com/mexican-americans-civil-war/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00056.warc.gz | en | 0.981017 | 438 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.067280948162... | 3 | Mexican Americans turned on each other during the Civil War
The Civil War was one that changed the landscape of modern landscape of the United States, and we’re not talking about superheroes fighting each other, either. For four long years, the country clashed between various issues, including slavery and expansion. During this battle, some unexpected people managed to get their hands a bit dirty.
Joining the fight
Many Mexican Americans didn’t have many kind things to say about America. Years before the Civil War, the Mexican-American War was a battle for the land right of Texas. In the end, over 1,700 were killed in battle with 25,000 civilians caught in the crossfire.
Looking at the Civil War, some Mexican Americans felt like they had to step in. Unfortunately, they were seen as turncoats from the start by both sides. They could’ve easily sat with a nice tequila and watched both sides simply destroy each other. Instead, several of them decided to showcase their newfound loyalty to the country.
Friends into enemies
With the split, many friends and family chose to fight for their own beliefs. While this was mainly about doing what’s right, Mexican Americans saw this as a great payday. Many of them stood with the Union during this tough time. Those that served with them gained a $300 bonus.
While $300 might not be a lot now, it was a huge paycheck for soldiers. That kind of money was enough to cover rent for the whole year. With the inflation rate, that paycheck would be $9,124.30 today.
This too shall pass
One major situation involving Mexican American soldiers was the Battle of Glorieta Pass. This three-day battle took place in a somewhat familiar territory: New Mexico. Armies of Mexican Americans cranked things up on the battlefield with a victory for the Union.
In the end, the Union took it home following Robert E. Lee surrendering. Unfortunately, this war had one of the biggest casualty rates with 750,000 people dead. Any remaining Mexican American soldiers reunited with loved ones they once faced on the field. | 440 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Think about your earliest memories and try to remember the first early memory you had. Maybe it’s a walk you had through a park with your grandmother or learning how to ride a bike. Or maybe your first memory goes as far as your first step or the first time you ate solid food. A lot of people believe they have memories from the first two years of their life or that they have memories of events that happened before they turned two.
According to a study by Shazia Akhtar from the University of London, from 6,642 participants, 2,487 had memories that date back when they were two or even earlier. That’s 40% of participants which is a noteworthy finding. Why? According to almost any research, a brain can’t retain memories from the age of two and earlier than that.
So, what about 40 % of people who have memories from the first couple of years of their life. Is it impossible to have memories of Christmas morning when you were only two years old?
Toddlers’ brains don’t encode memories and events that happened when we knew only a few words or none at all. From the other side, that’s the period when we start to retain motor or language skills. However, explicit memories (facts and stories of events that happened in our life) are stored in the part of our brain called the hippocampus. This region of our brain is crucial for memories. When someone has an injury to their hippocampus they will lose memories from their past, or they will lose the ability to create new memories, something along the lines from the movie, Memento. Still, even those who have anterograde amnesia due to hippocampus injury will remember how to tie a shoelace or how to ride a bike.
Toddler’s hippocampus is growing fast and memories can be stored but they will quickly be written off and pushed away by the memories. According to a study, a baby of up to two months can retain a memory up to one day. Additionally, a baby who is 18 months old can retain a memory up to 13 weeks and then those memories are written off and replaced by new events. Even a two-year-old has a hard time hanging on to memories. Four-year-old children are better than a two-year-old toddler. Eight-year-olds are better than four-year-old and adults have the best abilities to retain memories of events.
So, if memories from pre-schools aren’t real, how many of us have memories that should be written off a long time ago.
Here is a catch, you don’t remember the earliest years of your life but those who you grew around do remember. The people who raised you or who watched you grow up remember the moment when you made the first step. They will tell you stories of you growing up, hilarious stories of when you were a child and you teased your cousin. You create a memory based on the stories you were told. You see the surroundings, you see everyone around you when you were a child but the memory is only your imagination of an event that you heard happened when you were only two years old.
The first time you hear that story, you feel like you have learned something new about yourself, but after hearing that story for 10th time you might feel like you remember that event and re-tell it like it’s your own memory. Needless to say, we humans often unconsciously add parts to the story that did not even happen and suddenly we have a memory that never happened or a story with parts which are part of our imagination. | <urn:uuid:74e3c814-9350-49c3-b343-bc448ccb2e20> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gildshire.com/why-your-earliest-memories-could-be-only-your-imagination/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00349.warc.gz | en | 0.980771 | 747 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.618458509445... | 7 | Think about your earliest memories and try to remember the first early memory you had. Maybe it’s a walk you had through a park with your grandmother or learning how to ride a bike. Or maybe your first memory goes as far as your first step or the first time you ate solid food. A lot of people believe they have memories from the first two years of their life or that they have memories of events that happened before they turned two.
According to a study by Shazia Akhtar from the University of London, from 6,642 participants, 2,487 had memories that date back when they were two or even earlier. That’s 40% of participants which is a noteworthy finding. Why? According to almost any research, a brain can’t retain memories from the age of two and earlier than that.
So, what about 40 % of people who have memories from the first couple of years of their life. Is it impossible to have memories of Christmas morning when you were only two years old?
Toddlers’ brains don’t encode memories and events that happened when we knew only a few words or none at all. From the other side, that’s the period when we start to retain motor or language skills. However, explicit memories (facts and stories of events that happened in our life) are stored in the part of our brain called the hippocampus. This region of our brain is crucial for memories. When someone has an injury to their hippocampus they will lose memories from their past, or they will lose the ability to create new memories, something along the lines from the movie, Memento. Still, even those who have anterograde amnesia due to hippocampus injury will remember how to tie a shoelace or how to ride a bike.
Toddler’s hippocampus is growing fast and memories can be stored but they will quickly be written off and pushed away by the memories. According to a study, a baby of up to two months can retain a memory up to one day. Additionally, a baby who is 18 months old can retain a memory up to 13 weeks and then those memories are written off and replaced by new events. Even a two-year-old has a hard time hanging on to memories. Four-year-old children are better than a two-year-old toddler. Eight-year-olds are better than four-year-old and adults have the best abilities to retain memories of events.
So, if memories from pre-schools aren’t real, how many of us have memories that should be written off a long time ago.
Here is a catch, you don’t remember the earliest years of your life but those who you grew around do remember. The people who raised you or who watched you grow up remember the moment when you made the first step. They will tell you stories of you growing up, hilarious stories of when you were a child and you teased your cousin. You create a memory based on the stories you were told. You see the surroundings, you see everyone around you when you were a child but the memory is only your imagination of an event that you heard happened when you were only two years old.
The first time you hear that story, you feel like you have learned something new about yourself, but after hearing that story for 10th time you might feel like you remember that event and re-tell it like it’s your own memory. Needless to say, we humans often unconsciously add parts to the story that did not even happen and suddenly we have a memory that never happened or a story with parts which are part of our imagination. | 732 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Between the years 1933 and 1945, millions of innocent people were systematically slaughtered on command in Nazi Germany. This mass genocide could have only been carried out by copious amounts of people obeying orders.
Early psychological research into the Holocaust focused on the concept that Germans had a character deficit which lead to them having the high levels of conformity and obedience necessary for genocide to take place. This hypothesis is an example of dispositional attribution as it argues that the cause of behaviour was due to the Nazis personal characteristics and personality.
Differently, Stanley Milgram – a psychologist at Yale University – set out to question this dispositional attribution of the Germans as he believed that the situation itself was what led to the inhumane behaviours carried out by the Nazis, and that anybody would have shown the high levels of obedience they did under the same circumstances.
Milgram argued that people would commit almost any barbaric act if they were commanded to do so by an authoritative figure.
Aim of Study
To investigate what level of obedience would be shown when participants were told by an authority figure to administer electric shocks to another person.
Participants / Sample
The sample was 40 males between the ages of 20 and 50, who were residents in New Haven and the surrounding communities.
There were a wide range of occupations represented in the sample. These included: postal clerks, high school teachers, salesmen engineers and laborers (builders, etc.).
Not only did the participants show a range of occupations, but there was a variety of educational levels from one who had not completed elementary school to those who had doctorates and other high-level degrees.
Sampling Method (How the sample was collected) :
The sampling method used by Milgram to collect his participants was self-selected. It falls into the self-selected sampling category as all participants were obtained through a newspaper advertisement as well as direct mailing. Those who responded to the appeal believed that they were participating in a study of memory and learning at Yale University.
They were paid $4.50 for their participation. They were informed that the money was for them to keep regardless on the outcome of the experiment.
Self-selected sampling can target people who posses the features under investigation (in this case, men between the ages of 20 and 50 – not including high school and college students), which is incredibly practical. However, one could argue that only certain types of people would apply to participate as only motivated people would do so. The offering of $4.50 upon participation may suggest that mostly people who are very money-driven would apply which would lead to the sample potentially being unrepresentative of the target population
Milgram’s study is an observation as there was no independent variable meaning that it cannot be technically classed as an experiment. (Experiments must have both an IV and a DV to be classed as an experiment).
This observation was controlled as it took place in a setting manipulated by the researchers – in this case it was a laboratory setting. The controlled environment allowed data validity to be high compared to a naturalistic observation, as the recording of the data would likely be reliable.
However, because the environment was unfamiliar to the participants, and the scenario was unnatural, their behaviours would have been skewed, lowering ecological validity. As the participants were aware of the fact they were being observed, demand characteristics were likely to have been displayed.
Participants were obtained by the means of newspaper advertising, and were promised $4.50 for their time, including 50 cents for travel. It was made clear that the payment was just for turning up to the study and was theirs regardless of if they complete the procedure.
When each participant arrived at Yale University, he was met by an “experimenter” who had a stern expression and a lab coat to simulate an authority figure. The experimenter introduced the naïve participant to a confederate who he believed to be another participant, and then briefed on the supposed purpose of the experiment, which was described to them as an investigation of the effect of punishment on memory and learning.
The confederate selected was a 47-year-old accountant who was chosen because he was mild-mannered and likeable.
The confederate and the naïve participant were informed that one of them would play teacher, and the other would play learner to decide who would be “punished”, and this was decided through drawing slips of paper from a hat to determine the roles. The draw was rigged so that the naïve participant would always be the teacher –as far as the participant knew, the draw was fair.
The assigned teacher and learner were then taken to an adjacent room where the confederate was strapped into an “electric chair”. An electrode, which the experimenter claimed was attached to a shock generator, was attached to the “learner’s” wrist, and electrode paste was applied to avoid burns and blistering.
They were then shown the electric shock generator. This had a row of switches, each labelled with a voltage, rising in 15-volt intervals from 15V up to 450V. Additionally, different verbal designation was labelled on the shock generator, ranging from “slight shock” all the way up to “ Danger: Severe Shock”, and “XXX”.
Despite the sinister labels, participants were informed by the experimenter that “although the shocks can be extremely painful, they cause no permanent tissue damage”.
There was a wall between the teacher and the learner, meaning that the confederate could be heard, but not seen.
The lesson administered by the participant ( in the role of teacher) was a word-pair task in which the teacher read a range of word pairs and then read the first word of the pair, followed by four words. The learner was to indicate which of the four additional words was originally paired with the first one. His answer was communicated by pressing one of four switches in front of him, which lit up one of four numbered quadrants in an answer-box located at the top of the phony shock generator.
Each time the confederate-learner made a mistake, the naïve participant was instructed to administer a shock. The shocks grew with intensity each time a mistake was made; however, no shock was administered. There was no way for the participant to know this.
The learner gave a predetermined set of answers to the word-pair test, based on the ratio of three wrong answers to one correct answer. Up to 300V the confederate-learner did not signal any bad response to the shocks, but at 300V and 315V, he kicked the wall. After that, he was silent and gave no further responses. This suggested that he was hurt, potentially unconscious, or dead.
At this point, when the participants look to the experimenter for guidance, they were informed to treat no response as an incorrect answer. When they protested, they were met with four prods to encourage them to continue: “Please continue”/”please go on”, “The experiment requires you to continue”, “It is absolutely essential that you continue”, and “You have no choice, you must go on”.
Each participant had “completed” the procedure when they had either refused to give any more shocks despite the four prods, or when they reached maximum voltage (450V) on the shock machine.
Following the experiment, participants were interviewed. During this interview, they were asked to rate on a scale of 0-14 how painful they believed that last few shocks were. They were then informed that the shocks were not real, and that the real purpose of the study was to investigate obedience.
A friendly reconciliation was arranged between the confederate and participant in an attempt to reduce any tension that came about as a result of the study to try to ensure that the participant left the laboratory in the same mental state in which they entered.
- The confederate and the experimenter were played by the same people during every run of the experiment
- Prods given to participant by the experimenter
Results (Qualitative) :
- With few exceptions, subjects were convinced that the experiment was real and that they were administering shocks to another person, most of which painful
- Signs of extreme tension from many participants: sweating, trembling, stuttering, lip biting, groaning, digging of fingernails into own flesh, typical responses
- Quite common sign of tension was nervous laughing fits.
- The individuals that had laughing fits reassured the post-experimental interviewers that they were not the sadistic type and stressed that the laughter did not mean they enjoyed shocking the victim.
- A few full-blown uncontrollable seizures were observed.
- On one occasion, 46-year old encyclopaedia salesman had a violent convulsive seizure that resulted in the experiment being halted
- After the maximum shocks had been delivered, the experimenter told the obedient subjects to stop; many of them heaved sighs of relief, mopped their brows, rubbed their fingers over their eyes or fumbled cigarettes nervously. Some shook their heads, apparently in regret.
- Of the 65% who carried out the whole experiment, some remained calm throughout the experiment and only displayed minimal signs of tension throughout
- “How painful to the learner were the last few shocks”, subjects indicated their answers on a 14-point scale. The mode response was 13.42/14
- All 40 participants obeyed up to 300 volts, at this point 5 refused to continue.
- 4 gave one further shock before refusing
- 1 person dropped off each at 345, 360, and 37
- 14/40 (35%) defied the experimenter and 26 (65%) obeyed
- 14/40 participants had nervous laughing fits
- 3/40 participants experienced uncontrollable seizures
Three Reasons Obedience Levels Were So High:
Being paid from just showing up could have increased the sense of obligation and the need to earn the money that they were given so as not to feel as though they were given handouts.
As far as they were concerned, the roles of learner and teacher had been allocated fairly and therefore the participants could not feel that the roles were allocated unfairly.
The participants were assured that the shocks were “painful but not dangerous” and the short-term pain was therefore worth it for the long-term advance in knowledge and understanding of “Learning processes”
Milgram’s study supported the situational hypothesis rather than the dispositional hypothesis.
Milgram drew up two main conclusions from this study:
People are much more obedient to destructive orders than expected and estimated by psychology students. Most people are willing to obey destructive orders.
Despite being surprisingly obedient, people find the experience of receiving and obeying destructive orders highly stressful and obey despite emotional responses.
The situation triggers a conflict between two deeply ingrained tendencies: to obey those in authority, and not to harm people.
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0.135288789... | 1 | Between the years 1933 and 1945, millions of innocent people were systematically slaughtered on command in Nazi Germany. This mass genocide could have only been carried out by copious amounts of people obeying orders.
Early psychological research into the Holocaust focused on the concept that Germans had a character deficit which lead to them having the high levels of conformity and obedience necessary for genocide to take place. This hypothesis is an example of dispositional attribution as it argues that the cause of behaviour was due to the Nazis personal characteristics and personality.
Differently, Stanley Milgram – a psychologist at Yale University – set out to question this dispositional attribution of the Germans as he believed that the situation itself was what led to the inhumane behaviours carried out by the Nazis, and that anybody would have shown the high levels of obedience they did under the same circumstances.
Milgram argued that people would commit almost any barbaric act if they were commanded to do so by an authoritative figure.
Aim of Study
To investigate what level of obedience would be shown when participants were told by an authority figure to administer electric shocks to another person.
Participants / Sample
The sample was 40 males between the ages of 20 and 50, who were residents in New Haven and the surrounding communities.
There were a wide range of occupations represented in the sample. These included: postal clerks, high school teachers, salesmen engineers and laborers (builders, etc.).
Not only did the participants show a range of occupations, but there was a variety of educational levels from one who had not completed elementary school to those who had doctorates and other high-level degrees.
Sampling Method (How the sample was collected) :
The sampling method used by Milgram to collect his participants was self-selected. It falls into the self-selected sampling category as all participants were obtained through a newspaper advertisement as well as direct mailing. Those who responded to the appeal believed that they were participating in a study of memory and learning at Yale University.
They were paid $4.50 for their participation. They were informed that the money was for them to keep regardless on the outcome of the experiment.
Self-selected sampling can target people who posses the features under investigation (in this case, men between the ages of 20 and 50 – not including high school and college students), which is incredibly practical. However, one could argue that only certain types of people would apply to participate as only motivated people would do so. The offering of $4.50 upon participation may suggest that mostly people who are very money-driven would apply which would lead to the sample potentially being unrepresentative of the target population
Milgram’s study is an observation as there was no independent variable meaning that it cannot be technically classed as an experiment. (Experiments must have both an IV and a DV to be classed as an experiment).
This observation was controlled as it took place in a setting manipulated by the researchers – in this case it was a laboratory setting. The controlled environment allowed data validity to be high compared to a naturalistic observation, as the recording of the data would likely be reliable.
However, because the environment was unfamiliar to the participants, and the scenario was unnatural, their behaviours would have been skewed, lowering ecological validity. As the participants were aware of the fact they were being observed, demand characteristics were likely to have been displayed.
Participants were obtained by the means of newspaper advertising, and were promised $4.50 for their time, including 50 cents for travel. It was made clear that the payment was just for turning up to the study and was theirs regardless of if they complete the procedure.
When each participant arrived at Yale University, he was met by an “experimenter” who had a stern expression and a lab coat to simulate an authority figure. The experimenter introduced the naïve participant to a confederate who he believed to be another participant, and then briefed on the supposed purpose of the experiment, which was described to them as an investigation of the effect of punishment on memory and learning.
The confederate selected was a 47-year-old accountant who was chosen because he was mild-mannered and likeable.
The confederate and the naïve participant were informed that one of them would play teacher, and the other would play learner to decide who would be “punished”, and this was decided through drawing slips of paper from a hat to determine the roles. The draw was rigged so that the naïve participant would always be the teacher –as far as the participant knew, the draw was fair.
The assigned teacher and learner were then taken to an adjacent room where the confederate was strapped into an “electric chair”. An electrode, which the experimenter claimed was attached to a shock generator, was attached to the “learner’s” wrist, and electrode paste was applied to avoid burns and blistering.
They were then shown the electric shock generator. This had a row of switches, each labelled with a voltage, rising in 15-volt intervals from 15V up to 450V. Additionally, different verbal designation was labelled on the shock generator, ranging from “slight shock” all the way up to “ Danger: Severe Shock”, and “XXX”.
Despite the sinister labels, participants were informed by the experimenter that “although the shocks can be extremely painful, they cause no permanent tissue damage”.
There was a wall between the teacher and the learner, meaning that the confederate could be heard, but not seen.
The lesson administered by the participant ( in the role of teacher) was a word-pair task in which the teacher read a range of word pairs and then read the first word of the pair, followed by four words. The learner was to indicate which of the four additional words was originally paired with the first one. His answer was communicated by pressing one of four switches in front of him, which lit up one of four numbered quadrants in an answer-box located at the top of the phony shock generator.
Each time the confederate-learner made a mistake, the naïve participant was instructed to administer a shock. The shocks grew with intensity each time a mistake was made; however, no shock was administered. There was no way for the participant to know this.
The learner gave a predetermined set of answers to the word-pair test, based on the ratio of three wrong answers to one correct answer. Up to 300V the confederate-learner did not signal any bad response to the shocks, but at 300V and 315V, he kicked the wall. After that, he was silent and gave no further responses. This suggested that he was hurt, potentially unconscious, or dead.
At this point, when the participants look to the experimenter for guidance, they were informed to treat no response as an incorrect answer. When they protested, they were met with four prods to encourage them to continue: “Please continue”/”please go on”, “The experiment requires you to continue”, “It is absolutely essential that you continue”, and “You have no choice, you must go on”.
Each participant had “completed” the procedure when they had either refused to give any more shocks despite the four prods, or when they reached maximum voltage (450V) on the shock machine.
Following the experiment, participants were interviewed. During this interview, they were asked to rate on a scale of 0-14 how painful they believed that last few shocks were. They were then informed that the shocks were not real, and that the real purpose of the study was to investigate obedience.
A friendly reconciliation was arranged between the confederate and participant in an attempt to reduce any tension that came about as a result of the study to try to ensure that the participant left the laboratory in the same mental state in which they entered.
- The confederate and the experimenter were played by the same people during every run of the experiment
- Prods given to participant by the experimenter
Results (Qualitative) :
- With few exceptions, subjects were convinced that the experiment was real and that they were administering shocks to another person, most of which painful
- Signs of extreme tension from many participants: sweating, trembling, stuttering, lip biting, groaning, digging of fingernails into own flesh, typical responses
- Quite common sign of tension was nervous laughing fits.
- The individuals that had laughing fits reassured the post-experimental interviewers that they were not the sadistic type and stressed that the laughter did not mean they enjoyed shocking the victim.
- A few full-blown uncontrollable seizures were observed.
- On one occasion, 46-year old encyclopaedia salesman had a violent convulsive seizure that resulted in the experiment being halted
- After the maximum shocks had been delivered, the experimenter told the obedient subjects to stop; many of them heaved sighs of relief, mopped their brows, rubbed their fingers over their eyes or fumbled cigarettes nervously. Some shook their heads, apparently in regret.
- Of the 65% who carried out the whole experiment, some remained calm throughout the experiment and only displayed minimal signs of tension throughout
- “How painful to the learner were the last few shocks”, subjects indicated their answers on a 14-point scale. The mode response was 13.42/14
- All 40 participants obeyed up to 300 volts, at this point 5 refused to continue.
- 4 gave one further shock before refusing
- 1 person dropped off each at 345, 360, and 37
- 14/40 (35%) defied the experimenter and 26 (65%) obeyed
- 14/40 participants had nervous laughing fits
- 3/40 participants experienced uncontrollable seizures
Three Reasons Obedience Levels Were So High:
Being paid from just showing up could have increased the sense of obligation and the need to earn the money that they were given so as not to feel as though they were given handouts.
As far as they were concerned, the roles of learner and teacher had been allocated fairly and therefore the participants could not feel that the roles were allocated unfairly.
The participants were assured that the shocks were “painful but not dangerous” and the short-term pain was therefore worth it for the long-term advance in knowledge and understanding of “Learning processes”
Milgram’s study supported the situational hypothesis rather than the dispositional hypothesis.
Milgram drew up two main conclusions from this study:
People are much more obedient to destructive orders than expected and estimated by psychology students. Most people are willing to obey destructive orders.
Despite being surprisingly obedient, people find the experience of receiving and obeying destructive orders highly stressful and obey despite emotional responses.
The situation triggers a conflict between two deeply ingrained tendencies: to obey those in authority, and not to harm people.
AND Class Notes from 2018 | 2,271 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The French Take Fort William Henry
Movement Against Louisbourg Stalled
In Halifax, preparations for the siege of Louisbourg were already compromised by poor weather when Loudoun learned early in August that a French fleet had recently arrived there. Because he was no longer assured of naval superiority, and because he felt that it was too late in the year, he decided to cancel the whole operation. In England, public opinion showed impatience and Loudoun became the scapegoat for everything that went wrong during the year. Pitt recalled him to England for reasons more political than military.
At the end of 1757 the boundaries of New France remained unchanged. France's military position had declined considerably in Europe, however, requiring mobilization of its war effort on that side of the Atlantic, while England concentrated most of its efforts in North America.
- Date modified: | <urn:uuid:afda8531-84b6-4f33-a5c1-03dbdadce357> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://cmhg-phmc.forces.gc.ca/cmh-pmc/page-240-eng.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00535.warc.gz | en | 0.981885 | 170 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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Movement Against Louisbourg Stalled
In Halifax, preparations for the siege of Louisbourg were already compromised by poor weather when Loudoun learned early in August that a French fleet had recently arrived there. Because he was no longer assured of naval superiority, and because he felt that it was too late in the year, he decided to cancel the whole operation. In England, public opinion showed impatience and Loudoun became the scapegoat for everything that went wrong during the year. Pitt recalled him to England for reasons more political than military.
At the end of 1757 the boundaries of New France remained unchanged. France's military position had declined considerably in Europe, however, requiring mobilization of its war effort on that side of the Atlantic, while England concentrated most of its efforts in North America.
- Date modified: | 173 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In this section
When we are making decisions about treatment for a child our first priority should be doing what is best for them. Sometimes this means we have to separate out what we want, from what they would want, or what would be best overall for them.
For an adult, medical decisions are usually based on what the patient wants. We can ask them whether they would like treatment. If they are very sick or infirm they may not be able to tell us, but often we have a pretty good idea what they would have wanted.
For children we can't make decisions that way. Very young children can't tell us what they want. Older children may be able to tell us their views, but they sometimes don't understand the risks and benefits of medical treatment. So, parents and doctors usually try to work out what would be best for the child and decide on their behalf. This is sometimes called acting in the child's 'best interests'.
One thing that makes it hard is that parents in this situation may feel torn between different needs and desires. It is often incredibly hard to figure out what the best thing to do, because strong emotions of love may make us want to believe that the child will get better even when they can't.
There are different ways of trying to work out what would be best for a child.
One way is to imagine ourselves in their situation and try to work out what we would choose.
Another way is to try to weigh up the pros and cons of different choices.
Both can be difficult.
It can be very hard to work out what would be best for a child. We might ask ourselves, 'what would the child say, if he or she could talk right now?'
Sometimes it helps to try to imagine what we would choose for ourselves if we were in the child's situation. Would we want life support to continue, or would we want doctors to focus on our comfort instead?
Imagining such a choice isn't always easy, particularly if we are thinking about children who have been born with serious health problems. For example, it is pretty hard for someone able to move normally to imagine what it would be like to be paralysed. What treatment would we want if that happened to us? It is even harder to imagine what it would be like never to have been able to move. If adults are making decisions for a baby, should they think of themselves deciding as babies or as adults?
It can help sometimes to speak to other parents who have been in the same situation or to people who have faced similar health problems. It is important to remember, though, that the choices they made may not be right for your child.
Another way of working out what would be best is to try to weigh up the advantages and disadvantages. For example, some people find it helpful to write a list of the positives and negatives with continuing life support treatment, or with stopping life support. You could talk these through with the doctors and nurses, or with a social worker or counsellor. When we think carefully in this way, sometimes it becomes clear that life support treatment is doing more harm than good, or alternatively that it is worth giving it a go.
Again though, it isn't easy to work out what to put on the list. Some things may be more important than others. Different families will place more or less emphasis on different things. Families or doctors may reach different answers about whether life support treatment is best for a child. These decisions are very complicated, and reasonable people have different views. There may not be a right and wrong answer.
If you are in that situation, ask your child's doctor why they have reached their view. If you can, explain to the doctor how you reached yours. That may help you both understand why you reached a different answer.
You can ask your doctor for help in working out what would be best to do for your child (See Who decides).
"we were like you know we'll give her a chance and that's our mentality"
"I had decided it was going to be quality over quantity. That a good life didn't necessarily have to be a long one"
Children can sometimes provide very important information about their experience, and what it has been like for them to be in hospital and receive medical treatment. That experience can be very important in working out what would be best.
Every child is different, and you are likely to know them best. Some children are too young to understand about what is happening. Others may have only been sick for a short period. Still others have a long experience of being sick over their lifetime. Their views about their illness are important.
Speak to your doctor if you are unsure how to talk to your child about their illness. You can also find support and information for talking to children about life-limiting illnesses in Further information, Links, Bibliography
Older children may be able to communicate their wishes about life support treatment. It is important to listen to them, and where possible to include children in discussions with doctors about treatment.
Some children may have very clear views about what they want and do not want. This is especially common in children who have a long experience of illness and medical treatment. It is important to talk to older children about what is happening, and to give them a chance to express their views. A child's views about treatment can be an important help in working out what would be in their best interests.
However, it is also important to try to talk with a child about why they have particular views. For example, a child may be afraid of treatment because they worry that they will be in pain, or will be separated from their family. Or, a child may be afraid of stopping treatment because they worry that they will be abandoned, in pain, or that they will be separated from their family. Talking through and addressing these fears can be very important in caring for the child. It may lead your child to come to a different view about treatment.
Your child's doctors and nurses may be able to help you talk with your child about treatment options. In some situations a psychologist or other counsellor may be helpful to talk with the child about their thoughts, feelings and wishes. | <urn:uuid:d5fbe13e-d841-4948-8427-cf979993783a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.rch.org.au/caringdecisions/chapters/Doing_what_is_best/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00297.warc.gz | en | 0.983923 | 1,272 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.50669413805007... | 13 | In this section
When we are making decisions about treatment for a child our first priority should be doing what is best for them. Sometimes this means we have to separate out what we want, from what they would want, or what would be best overall for them.
For an adult, medical decisions are usually based on what the patient wants. We can ask them whether they would like treatment. If they are very sick or infirm they may not be able to tell us, but often we have a pretty good idea what they would have wanted.
For children we can't make decisions that way. Very young children can't tell us what they want. Older children may be able to tell us their views, but they sometimes don't understand the risks and benefits of medical treatment. So, parents and doctors usually try to work out what would be best for the child and decide on their behalf. This is sometimes called acting in the child's 'best interests'.
One thing that makes it hard is that parents in this situation may feel torn between different needs and desires. It is often incredibly hard to figure out what the best thing to do, because strong emotions of love may make us want to believe that the child will get better even when they can't.
There are different ways of trying to work out what would be best for a child.
One way is to imagine ourselves in their situation and try to work out what we would choose.
Another way is to try to weigh up the pros and cons of different choices.
Both can be difficult.
It can be very hard to work out what would be best for a child. We might ask ourselves, 'what would the child say, if he or she could talk right now?'
Sometimes it helps to try to imagine what we would choose for ourselves if we were in the child's situation. Would we want life support to continue, or would we want doctors to focus on our comfort instead?
Imagining such a choice isn't always easy, particularly if we are thinking about children who have been born with serious health problems. For example, it is pretty hard for someone able to move normally to imagine what it would be like to be paralysed. What treatment would we want if that happened to us? It is even harder to imagine what it would be like never to have been able to move. If adults are making decisions for a baby, should they think of themselves deciding as babies or as adults?
It can help sometimes to speak to other parents who have been in the same situation or to people who have faced similar health problems. It is important to remember, though, that the choices they made may not be right for your child.
Another way of working out what would be best is to try to weigh up the advantages and disadvantages. For example, some people find it helpful to write a list of the positives and negatives with continuing life support treatment, or with stopping life support. You could talk these through with the doctors and nurses, or with a social worker or counsellor. When we think carefully in this way, sometimes it becomes clear that life support treatment is doing more harm than good, or alternatively that it is worth giving it a go.
Again though, it isn't easy to work out what to put on the list. Some things may be more important than others. Different families will place more or less emphasis on different things. Families or doctors may reach different answers about whether life support treatment is best for a child. These decisions are very complicated, and reasonable people have different views. There may not be a right and wrong answer.
If you are in that situation, ask your child's doctor why they have reached their view. If you can, explain to the doctor how you reached yours. That may help you both understand why you reached a different answer.
You can ask your doctor for help in working out what would be best to do for your child (See Who decides).
"we were like you know we'll give her a chance and that's our mentality"
"I had decided it was going to be quality over quantity. That a good life didn't necessarily have to be a long one"
Children can sometimes provide very important information about their experience, and what it has been like for them to be in hospital and receive medical treatment. That experience can be very important in working out what would be best.
Every child is different, and you are likely to know them best. Some children are too young to understand about what is happening. Others may have only been sick for a short period. Still others have a long experience of being sick over their lifetime. Their views about their illness are important.
Speak to your doctor if you are unsure how to talk to your child about their illness. You can also find support and information for talking to children about life-limiting illnesses in Further information, Links, Bibliography
Older children may be able to communicate their wishes about life support treatment. It is important to listen to them, and where possible to include children in discussions with doctors about treatment.
Some children may have very clear views about what they want and do not want. This is especially common in children who have a long experience of illness and medical treatment. It is important to talk to older children about what is happening, and to give them a chance to express their views. A child's views about treatment can be an important help in working out what would be in their best interests.
However, it is also important to try to talk with a child about why they have particular views. For example, a child may be afraid of treatment because they worry that they will be in pain, or will be separated from their family. Or, a child may be afraid of stopping treatment because they worry that they will be abandoned, in pain, or that they will be separated from their family. Talking through and addressing these fears can be very important in caring for the child. It may lead your child to come to a different view about treatment.
Your child's doctors and nurses may be able to help you talk with your child about treatment options. In some situations a psychologist or other counsellor may be helpful to talk with the child about their thoughts, feelings and wishes. | 1,249 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The history of human beings’ existence in California goes back to 10,000 BC. The native people lived in tiny villages and hunting was the only source of their livelihood. Europeans started to set foot on California’s soil in 1542. Many sailors explored the coast of California during the course of history. However, European settlement in the region began in the 18th century.
Mexico and the USA entered into a war which continued from 1846 to 1848. After the war came to an end, Mexico gave up California and it was declared as a territory of the USA. The population of California began to rise as gold prospectors came here in large numbers. On September 9, 1850, California gained status as the 31st state of the union. The discovery of silver and the orange industry invited more and more people to California. Rail routes were established to make transportation easy to and fro from the East. Regular arrival of settlers also led to multiple battles were fought against the Native Americans. As a result of these battles, Native Americans were compelled to lead a reserved life in the region.
On April 18, 1906, a heavy earthquake did massive damage to San Francisco. This led to a huge loss of life and property. Later, fire broke out and it caused much more loss. It took three years for the fire to completely end. Hundreds of thousands of people were rendered homeless while thousands of buildings were destroyed. There’s no exact figure as to how many people died.
San Francisco stood up once again.
In the early 20th century, California was strong and thriving. Both the oil industry and the filmmaking industry of California witnessed huge growth during that period. In the 1950s, people in California lived a prosperous life. The next decade was a period of protests by the Native Americans. Two more earthquakes hit California later on, one in 1989 and another in 1994. | <urn:uuid:fc72e585-8cd7-4bfc-b0b8-e85a5c1e1c6c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://top10cannabisshops.com/history-of-california | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00377.warc.gz | en | 0.985155 | 381 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.2725060284137726,... | 11 | The history of human beings’ existence in California goes back to 10,000 BC. The native people lived in tiny villages and hunting was the only source of their livelihood. Europeans started to set foot on California’s soil in 1542. Many sailors explored the coast of California during the course of history. However, European settlement in the region began in the 18th century.
Mexico and the USA entered into a war which continued from 1846 to 1848. After the war came to an end, Mexico gave up California and it was declared as a territory of the USA. The population of California began to rise as gold prospectors came here in large numbers. On September 9, 1850, California gained status as the 31st state of the union. The discovery of silver and the orange industry invited more and more people to California. Rail routes were established to make transportation easy to and fro from the East. Regular arrival of settlers also led to multiple battles were fought against the Native Americans. As a result of these battles, Native Americans were compelled to lead a reserved life in the region.
On April 18, 1906, a heavy earthquake did massive damage to San Francisco. This led to a huge loss of life and property. Later, fire broke out and it caused much more loss. It took three years for the fire to completely end. Hundreds of thousands of people were rendered homeless while thousands of buildings were destroyed. There’s no exact figure as to how many people died.
San Francisco stood up once again.
In the early 20th century, California was strong and thriving. Both the oil industry and the filmmaking industry of California witnessed huge growth during that period. In the 1950s, people in California lived a prosperous life. The next decade was a period of protests by the Native Americans. Two more earthquakes hit California later on, one in 1989 and another in 1994. | 415 | ENGLISH | 1 |
recognize that three examples of reflective writing include
The student will write in a variety of forms to include narrative, expository, persuasive, and reflective with an emphasis on expository and persuasive writing.
No resources have been tagged as aligned with this standard.
collaborative—which is centered on team dynamics, how everyone worked together and why, and what worked or did not work and why.
individual—focuses on questions such as, “What did I learn?” “How did I learn it?” and “What could I have done better?”
technical—which includes what worked or did not work and reasons why, problem-solving techniques, and theories that were used or tested | <urn:uuid:26f4e819-06b4-418c-b922-a5d0150ca85d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sharemylesson.com/standards/virginia-doe/w.7.7.eksp.11 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00107.warc.gz | en | 0.981065 | 151 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.1425011008... | 1 | recognize that three examples of reflective writing include
The student will write in a variety of forms to include narrative, expository, persuasive, and reflective with an emphasis on expository and persuasive writing.
No resources have been tagged as aligned with this standard.
collaborative—which is centered on team dynamics, how everyone worked together and why, and what worked or did not work and why.
individual—focuses on questions such as, “What did I learn?” “How did I learn it?” and “What could I have done better?”
technical—which includes what worked or did not work and reasons why, problem-solving techniques, and theories that were used or tested | 134 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The early modern period time frame is presumed to have occurred during the 1300-1600. During this period, we saw the development of the renaissance, experimental science, accelerated travel and increasingly rapid development in technology. Many believe that this period is what shaped today’s society. As there were many discoveries made during this period, an important one was made, the printing press. With invention of the printing press by Johannes Guthenberg’s, it opened up communication lines to the world. The printing press allowing the growth of literacy, new economies and institutions to emerge and finally implementing a system of centralized governments.
As the emergence of the printing press came along with it, a growth in literacy. There were many illiterate people because many people were denied the right to learn due to the class system that was implemented at that time. As people began to learn how to read, there was a expansion in the urban middle class. Many middle class people in Europe began to travel the globe in search of new trade opportunities. As the came across many trade networking opportunities like China, Japan and many others, along came mass communication. The printing press allowed many middle class business owners to mass print flyer and brochures as this allowed them to attract business from all over the world and it also taught them how to market themselves. This was the early stages of what modern day marketing would look like for companies like Apple. | <urn:uuid:7f315bc8-3897-4544-a11a-4060cf5dd34f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://michiganboergoat.org/the-search-of-new-trade-opportunities-as-the-came/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00537.warc.gz | en | 0.980151 | 282 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.1886168718338... | 1 | The early modern period time frame is presumed to have occurred during the 1300-1600. During this period, we saw the development of the renaissance, experimental science, accelerated travel and increasingly rapid development in technology. Many believe that this period is what shaped today’s society. As there were many discoveries made during this period, an important one was made, the printing press. With invention of the printing press by Johannes Guthenberg’s, it opened up communication lines to the world. The printing press allowing the growth of literacy, new economies and institutions to emerge and finally implementing a system of centralized governments.
As the emergence of the printing press came along with it, a growth in literacy. There were many illiterate people because many people were denied the right to learn due to the class system that was implemented at that time. As people began to learn how to read, there was a expansion in the urban middle class. Many middle class people in Europe began to travel the globe in search of new trade opportunities. As the came across many trade networking opportunities like China, Japan and many others, along came mass communication. The printing press allowed many middle class business owners to mass print flyer and brochures as this allowed them to attract business from all over the world and it also taught them how to market themselves. This was the early stages of what modern day marketing would look like for companies like Apple. | 285 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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