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Anthony Gambrill | Christmas Day 1831
Samuel ‘Daddy’ Sharpe was born a slave in St James in 1780. Thanks to his leadership qualities and his innate intelligence, he was to become a prominent Baptist deacon in Montego Bay. Over time, he had limited freedom to travel throughout western Jamaica to preach the gospel and had devised a strategy of passive resistance, persuading slaves to refuse to work on Christmas Day and to return to the cane fields and boiler house until they were paid a working wage and given better treatment.
After one of his regular prayer meetings in mid-December 1831, Sharpe gathered together a group of his flock and set out his plan for the campaign of passive resistance. Not coincidentally, Sharpe and his followers were aware of rancorous debates taking place in the British Parliament between the abolitionists and those opposing emancipation.
In fact, Thomas Burchell, a Baptist missionary, who was returning from Britain in December, was rumoured (incorrectly as it happened) to be carrying instructions from the king announcing the end of slavery. To show their commitment to his strategy and to demonstrate their loyalty, Sharpe’s supporters each kissed the Bible.
The plan quickly spread through the parishes, but news of it soon reached the ears of the plantation owners. Troops were sent to St James with warships anchored off Montego Bay and Black River, with their guns trained on the two towns.
When their demands were not met, it almost was inevitable that the slaves, especially in the western parishes, would abandon a peaceful campaign for open rebellion.
Known as the Baptist War or Christmas Rebellion, the strike escalated after Kensington Estate in St James was put to the torch on December 27, where cane fields were set on fire and the great house burnt to the ground.
The uprising quickly spread and in a matter of days, 60,000 of the 300,000 slaves in the island took up arms – machetes at first but guns later – after they had destroyed great houses. A slave known as Colonel Johnson formed a black ‘regiment’ and confronted St James militias, who had to retreat to Montego Bay in disarray.
At first, the British troops who were brought in were driven back but received assistance provided by the Accompong Maroons. Colonel William Grignon of the militia led his volunteers against the rebel at Belvedere estate but soon withdrew, leaving the slaves in command of much of rural St James.
Sir Willoughby Litton’s regular army experienced similar setbacks, and with the support of the Maroons, were able to overcome the rebels, killing one of Sharpe’s deputies, Campbell, and capture another, Dehany.
The Baptist War ended during the first week of 1832, although resistance continued for two more months primarily as a result of guerrilla warfare carried out by those slaves who had taken to the mountains. While approximately 200 rebels were killed and many more were to be executed, often for minor offences, just 14 whites lost their lives. Samuel ‘Daddy’ Sharpe was hanged on May 23, 1832.
The brutality of the plantocracy during the rebellion contributed to accelerating the political process in Britain towards the abolition of slavery. It shocked the British government, who saw the cost (£25 million pounds in today’s currency) of such an event, along with the growing likelihood of further uprisings. Just a week after Sharpe’s death, it appointed a committee to consider ways of ending slavery. Emancipation was to begin in 1834 with the unconditional emancipation of chattel slavery in 1838.
The Scarlett family, wealthy owners of land in four English counties, were eventually to play a part in the Christmas Rebellion. Captain Frances Scarlett emigrated to Jamaica shortly after the arrival of Penn & Venables, and by 1670, is recorded as having been granted 1,000 acres of land along the Wag Water river in St Andrew, to which he was to add nearby Temple Hall estate. In 1680-1681, he served in the Assembly but returned to the United Kingdom, dying a bachelor and leaving his Jamaican property to his nephew, William.
William, a merchant of Port Royal, in 1705 married Judith Lecount of St Jago at St Andrew Parish Church, a young heiress still in her prime. Some time after, they sold their property in St Andrew and moved to western Jamaica.
His son, Robert, in 1765, married Elizabeth Anglin, widow of John Wright, who had been murdered before her eyes by rebellious slaves two years earlier. Robert now owned Duckett’s Spring, Success, and Forest Pen, all in rural St James. Robert and Elizabeth had 13 children, of whom only seven survived.
The boys included a doctor, a plantation owner (Cambridge), a chief justice of Jamaica, and James, who came to be known as ‘the silver-tongued Scarlett’, thanks to his success as a barrister in the UK. For his legal and political service, he eventually was granted the title of Lord Abinger. At the time of Frank Cundall’s ‘Historic Jamaica’, there were five reproductions of paintings of Scarlett’s in the Institute of Jamaica.
During the Baptist War of 1831, the great houses and sugar works of Duckett’s Spring and Success Estate were destroyed. Grim ruins remain bearing witness of the uprising.
Adolph Duperley’s familiar painting of Roehampton Estate in flames is a dramatic portrayal of the rebellion. At Emancipation, nine Scarletts still owned estates in six parishes and had received substantial compensation. Future generations would seek their fortunes elsewhere.
- Anthony Gambrill is a playwright. Email feedback to email@example.com | <urn:uuid:c04fae68-696b-422c-b80c-bf22fd56599b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://cmslocal.gleanerjm.com/article/focus/20191208/anthony-gambrill-christmas-day-1831 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00478.warc.gz | en | 0.983932 | 1,210 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.31872019171... | 1 | Anthony Gambrill | Christmas Day 1831
Samuel ‘Daddy’ Sharpe was born a slave in St James in 1780. Thanks to his leadership qualities and his innate intelligence, he was to become a prominent Baptist deacon in Montego Bay. Over time, he had limited freedom to travel throughout western Jamaica to preach the gospel and had devised a strategy of passive resistance, persuading slaves to refuse to work on Christmas Day and to return to the cane fields and boiler house until they were paid a working wage and given better treatment.
After one of his regular prayer meetings in mid-December 1831, Sharpe gathered together a group of his flock and set out his plan for the campaign of passive resistance. Not coincidentally, Sharpe and his followers were aware of rancorous debates taking place in the British Parliament between the abolitionists and those opposing emancipation.
In fact, Thomas Burchell, a Baptist missionary, who was returning from Britain in December, was rumoured (incorrectly as it happened) to be carrying instructions from the king announcing the end of slavery. To show their commitment to his strategy and to demonstrate their loyalty, Sharpe’s supporters each kissed the Bible.
The plan quickly spread through the parishes, but news of it soon reached the ears of the plantation owners. Troops were sent to St James with warships anchored off Montego Bay and Black River, with their guns trained on the two towns.
When their demands were not met, it almost was inevitable that the slaves, especially in the western parishes, would abandon a peaceful campaign for open rebellion.
Known as the Baptist War or Christmas Rebellion, the strike escalated after Kensington Estate in St James was put to the torch on December 27, where cane fields were set on fire and the great house burnt to the ground.
The uprising quickly spread and in a matter of days, 60,000 of the 300,000 slaves in the island took up arms – machetes at first but guns later – after they had destroyed great houses. A slave known as Colonel Johnson formed a black ‘regiment’ and confronted St James militias, who had to retreat to Montego Bay in disarray.
At first, the British troops who were brought in were driven back but received assistance provided by the Accompong Maroons. Colonel William Grignon of the militia led his volunteers against the rebel at Belvedere estate but soon withdrew, leaving the slaves in command of much of rural St James.
Sir Willoughby Litton’s regular army experienced similar setbacks, and with the support of the Maroons, were able to overcome the rebels, killing one of Sharpe’s deputies, Campbell, and capture another, Dehany.
The Baptist War ended during the first week of 1832, although resistance continued for two more months primarily as a result of guerrilla warfare carried out by those slaves who had taken to the mountains. While approximately 200 rebels were killed and many more were to be executed, often for minor offences, just 14 whites lost their lives. Samuel ‘Daddy’ Sharpe was hanged on May 23, 1832.
The brutality of the plantocracy during the rebellion contributed to accelerating the political process in Britain towards the abolition of slavery. It shocked the British government, who saw the cost (£25 million pounds in today’s currency) of such an event, along with the growing likelihood of further uprisings. Just a week after Sharpe’s death, it appointed a committee to consider ways of ending slavery. Emancipation was to begin in 1834 with the unconditional emancipation of chattel slavery in 1838.
The Scarlett family, wealthy owners of land in four English counties, were eventually to play a part in the Christmas Rebellion. Captain Frances Scarlett emigrated to Jamaica shortly after the arrival of Penn & Venables, and by 1670, is recorded as having been granted 1,000 acres of land along the Wag Water river in St Andrew, to which he was to add nearby Temple Hall estate. In 1680-1681, he served in the Assembly but returned to the United Kingdom, dying a bachelor and leaving his Jamaican property to his nephew, William.
William, a merchant of Port Royal, in 1705 married Judith Lecount of St Jago at St Andrew Parish Church, a young heiress still in her prime. Some time after, they sold their property in St Andrew and moved to western Jamaica.
His son, Robert, in 1765, married Elizabeth Anglin, widow of John Wright, who had been murdered before her eyes by rebellious slaves two years earlier. Robert now owned Duckett’s Spring, Success, and Forest Pen, all in rural St James. Robert and Elizabeth had 13 children, of whom only seven survived.
The boys included a doctor, a plantation owner (Cambridge), a chief justice of Jamaica, and James, who came to be known as ‘the silver-tongued Scarlett’, thanks to his success as a barrister in the UK. For his legal and political service, he eventually was granted the title of Lord Abinger. At the time of Frank Cundall’s ‘Historic Jamaica’, there were five reproductions of paintings of Scarlett’s in the Institute of Jamaica.
During the Baptist War of 1831, the great houses and sugar works of Duckett’s Spring and Success Estate were destroyed. Grim ruins remain bearing witness of the uprising.
Adolph Duperley’s familiar painting of Roehampton Estate in flames is a dramatic portrayal of the rebellion. At Emancipation, nine Scarletts still owned estates in six parishes and had received substantial compensation. Future generations would seek their fortunes elsewhere.
- Anthony Gambrill is a playwright. Email feedback to email@example.com | 1,216 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Last Updated on : 25/10/2019)
The erstwhile Nawab of Bengal
, Mir Qasim replaced his father in law, Mir Jafar
and ruled for a period of 3 years from 1760 to 1763. The British Empire
initially supported Mir Jafar for his claim to be a Nawab after his role in the Battle of Plassey
and later they supported Mir Qasim as well.
Reign of Mir Qasim
Upon ascending the throne, Mir Qasim repaid the British with lavish gifts. To please the British, he robbed people, confiscated lands, and reduced the royal treasury that was once created by Mir Jafar. However, soon Mir Qasim became tired of the British interference and like Mir Jafar before him, yearned to break free of the colonial influence. He shifted his capital from Murshidabad
in present day Bihar
where he raised independent army, financing them by streamlining tax collection.
He opposed the British East India Company
's position that their imperial Mughal licence meant that they could trade
without paying taxes. Frustrated at the British refusal to pay these taxes, Mir Qasim abolished taxes on the local traders as well. This upset the advantage that the British traders had been enjoying so far, and hostilities built up. Mir Qasim overran the Company offices in Patna in 1763, killing several Europeans including the Resident. Mir Qasim allied with Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh and Shah Alam II, the itinerant Mughal emperor
, who were also threatened by the British. However, their combined forces were defeated in the Battle of Buxar
Mir Qasim had also attacked Nepal during the reign of Prithvi Narayan Shah, the King of Nepal. He was badly defeated as the Nepali soldiers had various advantages including terrain, climate and good leadership.
The short campaign of Mir Qasim was significant as a direct fight against British outsiders. Unlike Siraj-ud-Daulah before him, Mir Qasim was an effective and popular ruler. The success at Buxar established the British East India company as a powerful force in the province of Bengal in a much more real sense than the Battle of Plassey seven years earlier and the Battle of Bedara 5 years earlier. By 1793 British East India company abolished Nizamat (Mughal suzerainty) and were completely in charge of this former Mughal province.
Mir Qasim was defeated by during the Battle of Murshidabad, Battle of Gherain and the Battle of Udhwa nala. Mir Qasim died in obscurity and abject poverty possibly from dropsy, at Kotwal, near Delhi on 8 May 1777. | <urn:uuid:41421c32-9d8f-4544-b673-33d7d863c2a5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/43/mir_qasim.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00068.warc.gz | en | 0.983172 | 582 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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-0.14758361876010... | 2 | (Last Updated on : 25/10/2019)
The erstwhile Nawab of Bengal
, Mir Qasim replaced his father in law, Mir Jafar
and ruled for a period of 3 years from 1760 to 1763. The British Empire
initially supported Mir Jafar for his claim to be a Nawab after his role in the Battle of Plassey
and later they supported Mir Qasim as well.
Reign of Mir Qasim
Upon ascending the throne, Mir Qasim repaid the British with lavish gifts. To please the British, he robbed people, confiscated lands, and reduced the royal treasury that was once created by Mir Jafar. However, soon Mir Qasim became tired of the British interference and like Mir Jafar before him, yearned to break free of the colonial influence. He shifted his capital from Murshidabad
in present day Bihar
where he raised independent army, financing them by streamlining tax collection.
He opposed the British East India Company
's position that their imperial Mughal licence meant that they could trade
without paying taxes. Frustrated at the British refusal to pay these taxes, Mir Qasim abolished taxes on the local traders as well. This upset the advantage that the British traders had been enjoying so far, and hostilities built up. Mir Qasim overran the Company offices in Patna in 1763, killing several Europeans including the Resident. Mir Qasim allied with Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh and Shah Alam II, the itinerant Mughal emperor
, who were also threatened by the British. However, their combined forces were defeated in the Battle of Buxar
Mir Qasim had also attacked Nepal during the reign of Prithvi Narayan Shah, the King of Nepal. He was badly defeated as the Nepali soldiers had various advantages including terrain, climate and good leadership.
The short campaign of Mir Qasim was significant as a direct fight against British outsiders. Unlike Siraj-ud-Daulah before him, Mir Qasim was an effective and popular ruler. The success at Buxar established the British East India company as a powerful force in the province of Bengal in a much more real sense than the Battle of Plassey seven years earlier and the Battle of Bedara 5 years earlier. By 1793 British East India company abolished Nizamat (Mughal suzerainty) and were completely in charge of this former Mughal province.
Mir Qasim was defeated by during the Battle of Murshidabad, Battle of Gherain and the Battle of Udhwa nala. Mir Qasim died in obscurity and abject poverty possibly from dropsy, at Kotwal, near Delhi on 8 May 1777. | 601 | ENGLISH | 1 |
MIT’s magazine Technology Review has a neat section in the back called “Puzzle Corner.” The section always has clever problems, though I’ve never thought to share one with the kids until seeing the most recent issue. It was problem N/D #3 that caught my attention this week:
Link to the November / December Puzzle Corner
The problem is referred to as a “famous problem” though I have not seen it before. Here’s the statement:
“Some men sat in a circle, so that each had two neighbors.
Each had a certain number of coins. The first had one coin more
than the second, who had one coin more than the third, and so
on. The first gave one coin to the second, who gave two coins to
the third, and so on, each giving one coin more than he received,
for as long as possible. There were then two neighbors, one of
whom had four times as much as the other.”
The two questions are (1) how many people were in the circle, and (2) how much money did they have?
Although putting together a full solution to this problem on their own is almost certainly too advanced for my kids, the neat thing about this problem is that it is still accessible to them. They are able to play around with some of the simple situations and notice the key ideas. Turing those ideas into algebraic equations was difficult for them, though hopefully instructive nonetheless. At the beginning of this project I wasn’t sure if we’d make it all the way to the end, but I was pleasantly surprised to find that we did. Here’s how our morning went:
We began with an introduction to the problem and then worked through a few simple examples. Right from the start my younger son started noticing some of the patterns in the problem that lead you down the path to the solution. Having the Lego figures and snap cubes for visual cues seemed to really help the kids notice these patterns:
Next we moved on to a slightly more complicated example. We noticed a pattern about one of the players in the game running out of money. It is interesting to hear kids talk about these patterns when they don’t quite have the mathematical language in their vocabulary to describe them. The cool thing for me in this part is that my younger son began to describe the patterns in terms of “n”.
Continuing with our exploration, we now looked at a situation where the person with the lowest amount of money at the start had more than one coin. The specific case we look at here starts with the person with the least amount of money having two coins. The three things that I was pleased about here were:
(1) the boys continued to describe the patterns with “n”‘s,
(2) they noticed what the pattern of money would be at the end of the game, and
(3) they formed a theory about who would run out of money.
I was happy to hear all of these conversations.
The next step – translating the patters that we’ve seen into math – was probably the most difficult. This discussion went a little long, but I thought it was important for them to try to figure out the equations on their own. There was one little stumbling block coming from the fact that there are two variables, but overall they made good progress translating their ideas to math:
So, having written down some expressions for the number of coins at the beginning and the end of the game in the last video, we now use the fact that the total number of coins doesn’t change during the game to write down an equation that will help us solve the puzzle. The main math involved in this stage is evaluating the sum 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . . + (n-1). My older son was able to remember the clever idea that makes adding up this set numbers really easy!
Looking at this piece now, I wish I had done a better job explaining the process. The first expression that we write down is the number of coins at the beginning of the game. The second expression is the number of coins at the end of the game. Since those expressions have to be the same, we can solve for the complicated expression that gives the “large” number of coins that the one player has when the game stops. I need to go back in time and add that explanation in to the video!
Next up is solving the equation we wrote down in the last video. This part is just a little bit of algebra, though the expressions involved are complicated enough that we have to be extra careful not to make any mistakes. Luckily (and maybe miraculously!) we work through the algebra without a mistake. Amazingly, solving our complicated equation just boils down to a problem about prime numbers!
Now my favorite part – after slogging through all the algebra in the last three videos we got an answer. The problem was engaging enough for the boys that their reaction to getting that answer was “should we try it?”! Super happy to see that level of engagement, and glad that they found this problem to be as fun as I did. The last step here was just checking the result:
So, I think this problem in Technology Review is a great problem to work through with kids. There are so many great opportunities to notice and speculate about patterns, and that process is such an important part of learning math. Also, even if turning the ideas in the patterns into algebraic equations is near the edge of their mathematical ability – as is the case with my kids – they should still be able to learn something from looking at the equations. At least in this experiment today, the kids were able to stay engaged with the problem through the 10 minutes discussion of that algebra. At the end they were really excited to see that the solution we found actually worked! Thanks to “Puzzle Corner” for this super fun problem. | <urn:uuid:b01e95cd-3c1f-4c86-81c6-21219ca22b60> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mikesmathpage.wordpress.com/2014/12/21/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00115.warc.gz | en | 0.982151 | 1,241 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.3730911612... | 7 | MIT’s magazine Technology Review has a neat section in the back called “Puzzle Corner.” The section always has clever problems, though I’ve never thought to share one with the kids until seeing the most recent issue. It was problem N/D #3 that caught my attention this week:
Link to the November / December Puzzle Corner
The problem is referred to as a “famous problem” though I have not seen it before. Here’s the statement:
“Some men sat in a circle, so that each had two neighbors.
Each had a certain number of coins. The first had one coin more
than the second, who had one coin more than the third, and so
on. The first gave one coin to the second, who gave two coins to
the third, and so on, each giving one coin more than he received,
for as long as possible. There were then two neighbors, one of
whom had four times as much as the other.”
The two questions are (1) how many people were in the circle, and (2) how much money did they have?
Although putting together a full solution to this problem on their own is almost certainly too advanced for my kids, the neat thing about this problem is that it is still accessible to them. They are able to play around with some of the simple situations and notice the key ideas. Turing those ideas into algebraic equations was difficult for them, though hopefully instructive nonetheless. At the beginning of this project I wasn’t sure if we’d make it all the way to the end, but I was pleasantly surprised to find that we did. Here’s how our morning went:
We began with an introduction to the problem and then worked through a few simple examples. Right from the start my younger son started noticing some of the patterns in the problem that lead you down the path to the solution. Having the Lego figures and snap cubes for visual cues seemed to really help the kids notice these patterns:
Next we moved on to a slightly more complicated example. We noticed a pattern about one of the players in the game running out of money. It is interesting to hear kids talk about these patterns when they don’t quite have the mathematical language in their vocabulary to describe them. The cool thing for me in this part is that my younger son began to describe the patterns in terms of “n”.
Continuing with our exploration, we now looked at a situation where the person with the lowest amount of money at the start had more than one coin. The specific case we look at here starts with the person with the least amount of money having two coins. The three things that I was pleased about here were:
(1) the boys continued to describe the patterns with “n”‘s,
(2) they noticed what the pattern of money would be at the end of the game, and
(3) they formed a theory about who would run out of money.
I was happy to hear all of these conversations.
The next step – translating the patters that we’ve seen into math – was probably the most difficult. This discussion went a little long, but I thought it was important for them to try to figure out the equations on their own. There was one little stumbling block coming from the fact that there are two variables, but overall they made good progress translating their ideas to math:
So, having written down some expressions for the number of coins at the beginning and the end of the game in the last video, we now use the fact that the total number of coins doesn’t change during the game to write down an equation that will help us solve the puzzle. The main math involved in this stage is evaluating the sum 0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + . . . . + (n-1). My older son was able to remember the clever idea that makes adding up this set numbers really easy!
Looking at this piece now, I wish I had done a better job explaining the process. The first expression that we write down is the number of coins at the beginning of the game. The second expression is the number of coins at the end of the game. Since those expressions have to be the same, we can solve for the complicated expression that gives the “large” number of coins that the one player has when the game stops. I need to go back in time and add that explanation in to the video!
Next up is solving the equation we wrote down in the last video. This part is just a little bit of algebra, though the expressions involved are complicated enough that we have to be extra careful not to make any mistakes. Luckily (and maybe miraculously!) we work through the algebra without a mistake. Amazingly, solving our complicated equation just boils down to a problem about prime numbers!
Now my favorite part – after slogging through all the algebra in the last three videos we got an answer. The problem was engaging enough for the boys that their reaction to getting that answer was “should we try it?”! Super happy to see that level of engagement, and glad that they found this problem to be as fun as I did. The last step here was just checking the result:
So, I think this problem in Technology Review is a great problem to work through with kids. There are so many great opportunities to notice and speculate about patterns, and that process is such an important part of learning math. Also, even if turning the ideas in the patterns into algebraic equations is near the edge of their mathematical ability – as is the case with my kids – they should still be able to learn something from looking at the equations. At least in this experiment today, the kids were able to stay engaged with the problem through the 10 minutes discussion of that algebra. At the end they were really excited to see that the solution we found actually worked! Thanks to “Puzzle Corner” for this super fun problem. | 1,191 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Polished plaster history is far longer and much more involved than you might think. So many of us associate polished plaster with a sophisticated modern design that we assume it must be a relatively modern invention, but that is far from the case – it actually dates back thousands of years!
The history of polished plaster
Some of the oldest recorded examples of plaster were found in Mesopotamia in the Kuwait, Iran, Turkey and Syrian regions of the world. They date back to approximately 9000 BC and are closer to modern polished plaster than you might think.
Usually made from limestone and marble powder chips, unlike today’s plasters, they were found to contain unusual ingredients such as goats’ milk and animal blood – something that would surely not be used to mix plaster with today!
Archaeological digs in Jordan, at Ain Ghazal, found that plasters made from a mixture of unheated limestone was used as a type of flooring, and decoration for walls and hearth areas as far back as 7500 BC. Once the floors and walls covered, their owners would often decorate them by hand with red-pigmented patterns that we, today, would recognise as finger-painting.
In ancient India and China clay and gypsum, plasters were often used to render ragged stone and mud-brick walls with a smoother appearance, which would suggest that the cultures at that time used plaster for its aesthetical properties, much like we do today.
This kind of coating was also used in ancient Egyptian tombs, which suggests that it must have been a highly prized form of building decoration. It is also thought that the ancient Egyptians were well aware of its anti-mould and mildew properties.
Polished plaster history also stretches quite far back in European history. It was found at the Tarxien complexin Malta – a number of excavations at that location – dating back to 3000 BC. However, it was not until approximately 900 BC that the polished, or Venetian plaster that we now know so well became popular in countries like Greece and Rome.
The history of polished plaster in Greece really took off when Greek architects and builders took the Egyptians’ recipe for plaster and made their own modifications to it, experimenting with different formulations to improve it.
In 360 BC, the Greek philosopher and historian Theofrast wrote down the process for both making and applying polished plaster in great detail.
In the 4th Century BC, polished plaster history took another turn when the Romans discovered the hydraulic set principles of lime.
They also began to use volcanic ash and other pozzolanic materials to create plaster that would set faster and harder than ever before.
When marble dust was later used in the plaster, harder, smoother finished could be created, and it was also possible to mould attractive decorations, something that the Romans did regularly. Unfortunately, these techniques were lost with the Roman Empire and not discovered again until the Renaissance period.
During the mid-13th century, gypsum plaster was widely used to create decorative adornments on many important buildings, such as churches and cathedrals, both in and outdoors. Animal hair was used to strengthen this kind of plaster, and additives such as beer, milk and eggs were used to improve its plasticity and help it to set.
In 14th Century Southern-England, decorative trawled plaster was widely used to decorate wooden-framed buildings. Lime putty and lime-gypsum mixes were most commonly used for this purpose, adding another chapter to the history of polished plaster.
Shortly after this, in the 15th Century, Marmorino, used for the external coating of buildings, was devised by highly-skilled Venetian workers.
In the 16th Century, numerous developments in the manufacture and use of plaster were made. In Bavaria, for example, a new kind of highly decorative plaster called scagliola was created. It was made from a mix of gypsum plaster, animal glues and pigments, and lime or marble dust, and occasionally sand. The finish was highly polished and coloured stoned could be used to create the kind of marble effects that we know and love today.
Although scagliola plaster was created in the 16th Century, it was Italian monks working in the 17th Century who perfected the technique.
Also in the 17th Century, Italian artists came up with a technique known as the sgraffito technique, which was a kind of scratch of graffito process. This was often combined with stucco model decorating techniques perfected in Germany to create unique decorative architecture for the facades of buildings.
From the 16th to the 18th Centuries, a popular form of plaster-based architecture was used widely. It was based on the work of the famous Italian architect Andrea Palladio (1508-1580) who pioneered the neo-classical homes and villas that you can still see some evidence of in Rome today.
He was a major influence for a number of prominent British architects including Inigo Jones, who’s Covent Square Garden design has been a major influence on the West End of London over the years, and the much-loved Christopher Wren whose creations include St. Paul’s Cathedral and the south front of Hampton Court Palace, ensuring that polished plaster history and Georgian architecture were synonymous.
Since then, polished plaster has become even more popular and has gone under a variety of names from Venetian plaster to Stucco and even Spatulato plaster, but it has always remained a stylish and popular way of decorating homes and public buildings.
Of course, today, you won’t find any animal blood or beer in your polished plaster, but you will find that it can be used to create a wide range of looks from the classic to the modern luxe.
Here at Evoke Polished Plaster Interiors, we recognise the beauty of Venetian plaster and we work hard to ensure that our clients get exactly what they want from the medium.
Our experts use well-practised techniques to help you add personality, style and extreme durability to your home via the medium of polished plaster. Get in touch with us at email@example.com to find out more. | <urn:uuid:2d16820d-ea95-4cd1-9aa5-cc3f340205c4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.evokepolishedplastering.co.uk/2019/09/18/history-of-polished-plaster/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00146.warc.gz | en | 0.980829 | 1,295 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.31191259... | 4 | Polished plaster history is far longer and much more involved than you might think. So many of us associate polished plaster with a sophisticated modern design that we assume it must be a relatively modern invention, but that is far from the case – it actually dates back thousands of years!
The history of polished plaster
Some of the oldest recorded examples of plaster were found in Mesopotamia in the Kuwait, Iran, Turkey and Syrian regions of the world. They date back to approximately 9000 BC and are closer to modern polished plaster than you might think.
Usually made from limestone and marble powder chips, unlike today’s plasters, they were found to contain unusual ingredients such as goats’ milk and animal blood – something that would surely not be used to mix plaster with today!
Archaeological digs in Jordan, at Ain Ghazal, found that plasters made from a mixture of unheated limestone was used as a type of flooring, and decoration for walls and hearth areas as far back as 7500 BC. Once the floors and walls covered, their owners would often decorate them by hand with red-pigmented patterns that we, today, would recognise as finger-painting.
In ancient India and China clay and gypsum, plasters were often used to render ragged stone and mud-brick walls with a smoother appearance, which would suggest that the cultures at that time used plaster for its aesthetical properties, much like we do today.
This kind of coating was also used in ancient Egyptian tombs, which suggests that it must have been a highly prized form of building decoration. It is also thought that the ancient Egyptians were well aware of its anti-mould and mildew properties.
Polished plaster history also stretches quite far back in European history. It was found at the Tarxien complexin Malta – a number of excavations at that location – dating back to 3000 BC. However, it was not until approximately 900 BC that the polished, or Venetian plaster that we now know so well became popular in countries like Greece and Rome.
The history of polished plaster in Greece really took off when Greek architects and builders took the Egyptians’ recipe for plaster and made their own modifications to it, experimenting with different formulations to improve it.
In 360 BC, the Greek philosopher and historian Theofrast wrote down the process for both making and applying polished plaster in great detail.
In the 4th Century BC, polished plaster history took another turn when the Romans discovered the hydraulic set principles of lime.
They also began to use volcanic ash and other pozzolanic materials to create plaster that would set faster and harder than ever before.
When marble dust was later used in the plaster, harder, smoother finished could be created, and it was also possible to mould attractive decorations, something that the Romans did regularly. Unfortunately, these techniques were lost with the Roman Empire and not discovered again until the Renaissance period.
During the mid-13th century, gypsum plaster was widely used to create decorative adornments on many important buildings, such as churches and cathedrals, both in and outdoors. Animal hair was used to strengthen this kind of plaster, and additives such as beer, milk and eggs were used to improve its plasticity and help it to set.
In 14th Century Southern-England, decorative trawled plaster was widely used to decorate wooden-framed buildings. Lime putty and lime-gypsum mixes were most commonly used for this purpose, adding another chapter to the history of polished plaster.
Shortly after this, in the 15th Century, Marmorino, used for the external coating of buildings, was devised by highly-skilled Venetian workers.
In the 16th Century, numerous developments in the manufacture and use of plaster were made. In Bavaria, for example, a new kind of highly decorative plaster called scagliola was created. It was made from a mix of gypsum plaster, animal glues and pigments, and lime or marble dust, and occasionally sand. The finish was highly polished and coloured stoned could be used to create the kind of marble effects that we know and love today.
Although scagliola plaster was created in the 16th Century, it was Italian monks working in the 17th Century who perfected the technique.
Also in the 17th Century, Italian artists came up with a technique known as the sgraffito technique, which was a kind of scratch of graffito process. This was often combined with stucco model decorating techniques perfected in Germany to create unique decorative architecture for the facades of buildings.
From the 16th to the 18th Centuries, a popular form of plaster-based architecture was used widely. It was based on the work of the famous Italian architect Andrea Palladio (1508-1580) who pioneered the neo-classical homes and villas that you can still see some evidence of in Rome today.
He was a major influence for a number of prominent British architects including Inigo Jones, who’s Covent Square Garden design has been a major influence on the West End of London over the years, and the much-loved Christopher Wren whose creations include St. Paul’s Cathedral and the south front of Hampton Court Palace, ensuring that polished plaster history and Georgian architecture were synonymous.
Since then, polished plaster has become even more popular and has gone under a variety of names from Venetian plaster to Stucco and even Spatulato plaster, but it has always remained a stylish and popular way of decorating homes and public buildings.
Of course, today, you won’t find any animal blood or beer in your polished plaster, but you will find that it can be used to create a wide range of looks from the classic to the modern luxe.
Here at Evoke Polished Plaster Interiors, we recognise the beauty of Venetian plaster and we work hard to ensure that our clients get exactly what they want from the medium.
Our experts use well-practised techniques to help you add personality, style and extreme durability to your home via the medium of polished plaster. Get in touch with us at email@example.com to find out more. | 1,268 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the late thirteenth century, northern Italian cities such as Genoa, Florence, and Venice began an economic resurgence that made them into the most important economic centers of Europe. By the seventeenth century, however, other European powers had taken over, as the Italian cities lost much of their economic might. This decline can be seen clearly in the changes that affected Venetian shipping and trade. First, Venice's intermediary functions in the Adriatic Sea, where it had dominated the business of shipping for other parties, were lost to direct trading. In the fifteenth century there was little problem recruiting sailors to row the galleys (large ships propelled by oars): guilds (business associations) were required to provide rowers, and through a draft system free citizens served compulsorily when called for. In the early sixteenth century the shortage of rowers was not serious because the demand for galleys was limited by a move to round ships (round-hulled ships with more cargo space), with required fewer rowers. But the shortage of crews proved to be a greater and greater problem, despite continuous appeal to Venic's tradition of maritime greatness. Even though sailors' wages doubled among the northern Italian cities from 1550 to 1590, this did not elicit an increased supply. The problem in shipping extended to the Arsenale, Venice's huge and powerful shipyard. Timber ran short, and it was necessary to procure it from farther and farther away. In ancient Roman times, the Italian peninsula had great forest of fir preferred for warships, but scarcity was apparent as early as the early fourteenth century. Arsenale officers first brought timber from the foothills of the Alps, then from north toward Trieste, and finally from across the Adriatic. Private shipbuilders were required to buy their oak abroad. As the costs of shipbuilding rose, Venice clung to its outdated standard while the Dutch were innovation in the lighter and more easily handled ships. The step from buying foreign timber to buying foreign ships was regarded as a short one, especially when complaints were heard in the latter sixteenth century that the standards and traditions of the Arsenale were running down. Work was stretched out and done poorly. Older workers had been allowed to stop work a half hour before the regular time, and in 1601 younger works left with them. Merchants complained that the privileges reserved for Venetian-built and owned ships were first extended to those Venetians who bought ships from abroad and then to foreign-built and owned vessels. Historian Frederic Lane observes that after the loss of ships in battle in the late sixteenth century, the shipbuilding industry no longer had the capacity to recover that it had displayed at the start of the century. The conventional explanation for the loss of Venetian dominance in trade is establishment of the Portuguese direct sea route to the East, replacing the overland Silk Road from the Black sea and the highly profitable Indian Ocean-caravan – eastern Mediterranean route to Venice. The Portuguese Vasco da Gama' Voyage around southern Africa to India took place at the end of the fifteenth century, and by 1502 the trans-Abrabian caravan route had been cut off by political unrest. The Venetian Council finally allowed round ships to enter the trade that was previously reserved for merchant galleys, thus reducing transport cost by one third. Prices of spices delivered by ship from the eastern Mediterranean came to equal those of spices transported by Paortuguese vessels, but the increase in quantity with both routes in operation drove the price far down. Gradually, Venice's role as a storage and distribution center for spices and silk, dyes cotton, and gold decayed, and by the early seventeenth century Venice had lost its monopoly in markets such as France and southern Germany. Venetian shipping had started to decline from about 1530 – before the entry into the Mediterranean of large volumes of Dutch and British shipping – and was clearly outclassed by the end of the century. A contemporary of Shakespeare (1564-1616) observed that the productivity of Italian shipping had declined, compared with that of the British, because of conservatism and loss of expertise. Moreover, Italian sailors were deserting and emigrating, and captains, no longer recruited from the ranks of nobles, were weak on navigations. | <urn:uuid:a37394a9-17b5-41e3-82ce-64d9b67bb172> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.peakgmt.com/web/5X3566_V0BY9I4HUO$.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00526.warc.gz | en | 0.983041 | 880 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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0.4223979... | 1 | In the late thirteenth century, northern Italian cities such as Genoa, Florence, and Venice began an economic resurgence that made them into the most important economic centers of Europe. By the seventeenth century, however, other European powers had taken over, as the Italian cities lost much of their economic might. This decline can be seen clearly in the changes that affected Venetian shipping and trade. First, Venice's intermediary functions in the Adriatic Sea, where it had dominated the business of shipping for other parties, were lost to direct trading. In the fifteenth century there was little problem recruiting sailors to row the galleys (large ships propelled by oars): guilds (business associations) were required to provide rowers, and through a draft system free citizens served compulsorily when called for. In the early sixteenth century the shortage of rowers was not serious because the demand for galleys was limited by a move to round ships (round-hulled ships with more cargo space), with required fewer rowers. But the shortage of crews proved to be a greater and greater problem, despite continuous appeal to Venic's tradition of maritime greatness. Even though sailors' wages doubled among the northern Italian cities from 1550 to 1590, this did not elicit an increased supply. The problem in shipping extended to the Arsenale, Venice's huge and powerful shipyard. Timber ran short, and it was necessary to procure it from farther and farther away. In ancient Roman times, the Italian peninsula had great forest of fir preferred for warships, but scarcity was apparent as early as the early fourteenth century. Arsenale officers first brought timber from the foothills of the Alps, then from north toward Trieste, and finally from across the Adriatic. Private shipbuilders were required to buy their oak abroad. As the costs of shipbuilding rose, Venice clung to its outdated standard while the Dutch were innovation in the lighter and more easily handled ships. The step from buying foreign timber to buying foreign ships was regarded as a short one, especially when complaints were heard in the latter sixteenth century that the standards and traditions of the Arsenale were running down. Work was stretched out and done poorly. Older workers had been allowed to stop work a half hour before the regular time, and in 1601 younger works left with them. Merchants complained that the privileges reserved for Venetian-built and owned ships were first extended to those Venetians who bought ships from abroad and then to foreign-built and owned vessels. Historian Frederic Lane observes that after the loss of ships in battle in the late sixteenth century, the shipbuilding industry no longer had the capacity to recover that it had displayed at the start of the century. The conventional explanation for the loss of Venetian dominance in trade is establishment of the Portuguese direct sea route to the East, replacing the overland Silk Road from the Black sea and the highly profitable Indian Ocean-caravan – eastern Mediterranean route to Venice. The Portuguese Vasco da Gama' Voyage around southern Africa to India took place at the end of the fifteenth century, and by 1502 the trans-Abrabian caravan route had been cut off by political unrest. The Venetian Council finally allowed round ships to enter the trade that was previously reserved for merchant galleys, thus reducing transport cost by one third. Prices of spices delivered by ship from the eastern Mediterranean came to equal those of spices transported by Paortuguese vessels, but the increase in quantity with both routes in operation drove the price far down. Gradually, Venice's role as a storage and distribution center for spices and silk, dyes cotton, and gold decayed, and by the early seventeenth century Venice had lost its monopoly in markets such as France and southern Germany. Venetian shipping had started to decline from about 1530 – before the entry into the Mediterranean of large volumes of Dutch and British shipping – and was clearly outclassed by the end of the century. A contemporary of Shakespeare (1564-1616) observed that the productivity of Italian shipping had declined, compared with that of the British, because of conservatism and loss of expertise. Moreover, Italian sailors were deserting and emigrating, and captains, no longer recruited from the ranks of nobles, were weak on navigations. | 893 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This article discusses the historical development of the concept of corporate law. There was a time when people used to opt for the sole proprietorship or partnership as this form of business-suited the most and people were more reluctant to invest their money and earn profit for themselves out of it with the help of these forms of business. These kinds of businesses do exist in today’s world as well but they are not preferable forms that one would like to opt for doing business.
This is because the technology had advanced to the next level, changes in consumers can be seen and so on. All these reasons have the nature of demanding a huge fund and since only a few people form the part of a partnership or sole proprietorship pursuant to which, it becomes difficult for them to manage the funds. Hence, in order to fulfill all those needs of the business which was not possible with the help of the above-mentioned forms, there came a concept of another form of business known as a company.
Not only this but along with the passage of time, the shift from the traditional goods was also seen to the technological products as well as the capital goods. This form required a lot of labour as well as the capital and it was next to impossible for these handfuls of people to supply all the required things.
There were a lot of associations that were prevalent in the market as per the medieval law, which helps us to trace the evolution of the theme of incorporation from that medieval period. In the very starting, it was thought that the incorporation can be related only with the concepts of public bodies as well as ecclesiastical in the forms of chapters, boroughs along the monasteries. These forms were having the personality of the juristic person, which was provided to them by the charter passed by the crown.
CORPORATION AS PER THE LAW IN ROME
The Romans were not having a very wide concept of legal personality when it comes to the context of an entity while the entity has its own duties and rights. There is no particular set of terms and conditions for any legal person or corporation. However, they did provide some particular capacities as well as powers to the certain aggregation of persons.
In addition to it, they also endowed the legal notion that was underlying and was also hovered between all the corporate powers as per the concepts of modern law. The modern law also gave an insight into the use of powers by corporate persons. But, all these collective powers can be traced from the acts of the state.
ENGLISH COMPANY LAW
In the very starting, it was thought that the incorporation can be related only with the concepts of public bodies as well as ecclesiastical in the forms of chapters, boroughs along the monasteries. These forms were having the personality of the juristic person, which was provided to them by the charter passed by the crown.
However, at the very same time in the sphere of the commercial world, the main associations of the medieval time formed the part of the guilds of merchants as well as for those organizations that were possessing some features of the modern-day companies but also corresponded to the associations for the protection of trade roughly.
The title of the company was associated with the adventures of merchants for the purpose of overseas trading. They formed the very first type of organization to which the name of the company was applied. It was in the fourteenth century when the royal charter was passed in order to confer privileges on such companies. But these privileges were extended to these companies only till the time when the foreign trade got extended along with their settlement during the sixteenth century when these companies or organizations became part of commons.
The earliest types were the so-called regulated companies which were virtually extensions of the guild principles into the foreign sphere and which retained much of the ceremonial and freemasonry of the domestic guilds. Each member traded with his own stock and on his own account, subject to obeying the rules of the company and incorporation was not essential since the trading liability of each member would be entirely separate from that of the company and the other members.
At first, the concept was separate trading by each member with his own stock but later instead of it, they started to operate on a joint account and with a joint-stock. This process can be traced in the development of the famous East India Company, which received its first charter in 1600, granting it a monopoly of trade with the Indies.
But even after that until the second half of the seventeenth-century differentiation between the two types of company (unincorporated partnerships and incorporated companies) was not firmly established. At this time there was no limit to the number of partners, but in fact, they were generally small in number and additional capital was raised by calls on the existing members rather than by invitations to the public.
MODERN COMPANY LAW
The history of modern company law in England began in 1844 when the Joint Stock Companies Act was passed. The Act provided for the first time that a company could be incorporated by registration without obtaining a Royal Charter or sanction by a special Act of Parliament.
The office of the Registrar of Joint Stock Companies was also created. But the Act denied to the members the facility of limited liability. The English Parliament in 1855 passed the Limited Liability Act providing for limited liability to the members of a registered company. The act of 1844 was superseded by a comprehensive Act of 1856, which marked the beginning of a new era in company law in England. This Act introduced the modern mode of creating companies by means of memorandum and articles of associations.
The first enactment to bear the title of Companies Act was the companies Act, 1862. By these acts, some of the modern provisions of the company were clearly laid down. First of all, two documents, namely, (a) the memorandum of association, and (b) articles of association formed an integral part of the formation of a limited liability company. Secondly, a company could be formed with liability limited by guarantee. Thirdly, any alteration in the object clause of the memorandum of association was prohibited.
Provisions for winding up were also introduced. Thus, the basic structure of the company as we know had taken shape. Sir Francis Palmer described this Act as the Magna Carta of co-operative enterprises.
But the companies (Memorandum of Association) Act, 1890 made relaxation with regard to change in the object clause under the leave of the court obtained on the basis of a special resolution passed by the members in general meeting. Then the liability of the directors of a company was introduced by the Directors’ liability Act, 1890 and the compulsory audit of the company’s accounts was enforced under the Companies Act, 1900.
The concept of a private company was introduced for the first time in the companies Act, 1908 (the earlier ones were called public companies). Two subsequent acts were passed in 1908 and 1929 to consolidate the earlier Acts. The companies Act 1948, which was the Principal Act in force in England was based on the report of a committee under Lord Cohen. This Act introduced inter alia another new form of a company known as an exempt private company.
Another outstanding feature of the 1948 Act was the emphasis on the public accountability of the company. Generally recognized principles of accountancy were given statutory force and had to be applied in the preparation of the balance sheet and profit and loss account.
Further, the 1948 legislation extended the protection of the minority (Section 210) and the powers of the Board of Trade to order an investigation of the company’s affairs (section 164- 175); and for the first time, the shareholders in general meeting were given the power to remove a director before the expiration of his period of office. The independence of auditors vis-à-vis the directors was strengthened.
These were a type of corporations that evolved in the early modern era in Europe. They enjoyed certain rights and privileges and were bound by certain obligations, under a special charter granted to them by the sovereign authority of the state, such charter defining and limiting those rights, privileges, and obligations and the localities in which they were to be exercised. The charter usually conferred a trading monopoly upon the company in a specific geographic area or for a specific type of trade item.
The earliest English chartered companies were the Merchant Adventurers and the Merchant Staplers. Such early companies were regulated companies, deriving the principles of their organization from the medieval merchant guilds. The regulated company was a corporation of merchants, each of whom traded on his own account but was subjected to a rigid set of common rules that regulated his operations within narrow limits.
A great increase in the number and activities of the chartered companies took place during the second half of the 16th century, when the English, French, and Dutch governments were ready to assist trade and encourage overseas exploration. Changes also occurred in the organization of chartered companies.
The regulated company, which had been very convenient for trading with countries where conditions were stable, was not so suitable for ventures to remoter lands, where the risks, commercial and political, were greater. To meet the requirements of the new trading conditions, the joint-stock organization, in which the capital was provided by shareholders who then participated in the profits from the joint enterprise, was evolved. In some cases, the companies alternated between one form and the other. In all charters, provisions were inserted to secure the “good government” of the company.
In North America, the English chartered companies had colonizing as well as a trading purpose. Although the Hudson’s Bay Company was almost wholly devoted to trading, most companies–such as the London Company, the Plymouth Company, and the Massachusetts Bay Company–were directly involved in the settlement of colonists.
Elsewhere, chartered English companies continued to be formed for the development of new trade–for instance, the short-lived Canary Company in 1665, the Royal African Company in 1672, and the South Sea Company in 1711. There was frantic speculation in the shares of the South Sea Company, resulting in a severe setback to a joint-stock enterprise. The Bubble Act of 1720 was designed to make it much more difficult to obtain a charter.
In France and the Netherlands, chartered companies had also been used for similar purposes by the governments. In France, from 1599 to 1789, more than 70 such companies came into existence. Under J.B. Colbert the French East India Company was founded (1664), and the colonial and Indian trade was placed in the hands of chartered companies in which the king himself had large financial interests.
The French companies, however, were largely destroyed by the “Mississippi scheme” of John Law, in which trading companies like Senegal and French East India companies were incorporated in a plan to take over the public debt. The financial crash in 1720 destroyed public confidence, and although a new Company of the Indies existed until 1769, the chartered company was virtually dead.
In the Netherlands, the Dutch East India and West India companies were the basis of the commercial and maritime supremacy of the Dutch in the 17th century. The success of the East India companies caused the foundation of the Ostend Company, whereby the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI sought unsuccessfully to acquire the trade of England and the Netherlands.
The development of the modern limited-liability company or corporation under successive companies acts led to a decline in the importance of chartered companies. Some of the older ones still exist, however, including the Hudson’s Bay Company. | <urn:uuid:9e866c00-42f8-42c1-bd12-525ed61bba73> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.legalbites.in/historical-development-of-the-concept-of-corporate-law/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00132.warc.gz | en | 0.98508 | 2,349 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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-0.2116... | 1 | This article discusses the historical development of the concept of corporate law. There was a time when people used to opt for the sole proprietorship or partnership as this form of business-suited the most and people were more reluctant to invest their money and earn profit for themselves out of it with the help of these forms of business. These kinds of businesses do exist in today’s world as well but they are not preferable forms that one would like to opt for doing business.
This is because the technology had advanced to the next level, changes in consumers can be seen and so on. All these reasons have the nature of demanding a huge fund and since only a few people form the part of a partnership or sole proprietorship pursuant to which, it becomes difficult for them to manage the funds. Hence, in order to fulfill all those needs of the business which was not possible with the help of the above-mentioned forms, there came a concept of another form of business known as a company.
Not only this but along with the passage of time, the shift from the traditional goods was also seen to the technological products as well as the capital goods. This form required a lot of labour as well as the capital and it was next to impossible for these handfuls of people to supply all the required things.
There were a lot of associations that were prevalent in the market as per the medieval law, which helps us to trace the evolution of the theme of incorporation from that medieval period. In the very starting, it was thought that the incorporation can be related only with the concepts of public bodies as well as ecclesiastical in the forms of chapters, boroughs along the monasteries. These forms were having the personality of the juristic person, which was provided to them by the charter passed by the crown.
CORPORATION AS PER THE LAW IN ROME
The Romans were not having a very wide concept of legal personality when it comes to the context of an entity while the entity has its own duties and rights. There is no particular set of terms and conditions for any legal person or corporation. However, they did provide some particular capacities as well as powers to the certain aggregation of persons.
In addition to it, they also endowed the legal notion that was underlying and was also hovered between all the corporate powers as per the concepts of modern law. The modern law also gave an insight into the use of powers by corporate persons. But, all these collective powers can be traced from the acts of the state.
ENGLISH COMPANY LAW
In the very starting, it was thought that the incorporation can be related only with the concepts of public bodies as well as ecclesiastical in the forms of chapters, boroughs along the monasteries. These forms were having the personality of the juristic person, which was provided to them by the charter passed by the crown.
However, at the very same time in the sphere of the commercial world, the main associations of the medieval time formed the part of the guilds of merchants as well as for those organizations that were possessing some features of the modern-day companies but also corresponded to the associations for the protection of trade roughly.
The title of the company was associated with the adventures of merchants for the purpose of overseas trading. They formed the very first type of organization to which the name of the company was applied. It was in the fourteenth century when the royal charter was passed in order to confer privileges on such companies. But these privileges were extended to these companies only till the time when the foreign trade got extended along with their settlement during the sixteenth century when these companies or organizations became part of commons.
The earliest types were the so-called regulated companies which were virtually extensions of the guild principles into the foreign sphere and which retained much of the ceremonial and freemasonry of the domestic guilds. Each member traded with his own stock and on his own account, subject to obeying the rules of the company and incorporation was not essential since the trading liability of each member would be entirely separate from that of the company and the other members.
At first, the concept was separate trading by each member with his own stock but later instead of it, they started to operate on a joint account and with a joint-stock. This process can be traced in the development of the famous East India Company, which received its first charter in 1600, granting it a monopoly of trade with the Indies.
But even after that until the second half of the seventeenth-century differentiation between the two types of company (unincorporated partnerships and incorporated companies) was not firmly established. At this time there was no limit to the number of partners, but in fact, they were generally small in number and additional capital was raised by calls on the existing members rather than by invitations to the public.
MODERN COMPANY LAW
The history of modern company law in England began in 1844 when the Joint Stock Companies Act was passed. The Act provided for the first time that a company could be incorporated by registration without obtaining a Royal Charter or sanction by a special Act of Parliament.
The office of the Registrar of Joint Stock Companies was also created. But the Act denied to the members the facility of limited liability. The English Parliament in 1855 passed the Limited Liability Act providing for limited liability to the members of a registered company. The act of 1844 was superseded by a comprehensive Act of 1856, which marked the beginning of a new era in company law in England. This Act introduced the modern mode of creating companies by means of memorandum and articles of associations.
The first enactment to bear the title of Companies Act was the companies Act, 1862. By these acts, some of the modern provisions of the company were clearly laid down. First of all, two documents, namely, (a) the memorandum of association, and (b) articles of association formed an integral part of the formation of a limited liability company. Secondly, a company could be formed with liability limited by guarantee. Thirdly, any alteration in the object clause of the memorandum of association was prohibited.
Provisions for winding up were also introduced. Thus, the basic structure of the company as we know had taken shape. Sir Francis Palmer described this Act as the Magna Carta of co-operative enterprises.
But the companies (Memorandum of Association) Act, 1890 made relaxation with regard to change in the object clause under the leave of the court obtained on the basis of a special resolution passed by the members in general meeting. Then the liability of the directors of a company was introduced by the Directors’ liability Act, 1890 and the compulsory audit of the company’s accounts was enforced under the Companies Act, 1900.
The concept of a private company was introduced for the first time in the companies Act, 1908 (the earlier ones were called public companies). Two subsequent acts were passed in 1908 and 1929 to consolidate the earlier Acts. The companies Act 1948, which was the Principal Act in force in England was based on the report of a committee under Lord Cohen. This Act introduced inter alia another new form of a company known as an exempt private company.
Another outstanding feature of the 1948 Act was the emphasis on the public accountability of the company. Generally recognized principles of accountancy were given statutory force and had to be applied in the preparation of the balance sheet and profit and loss account.
Further, the 1948 legislation extended the protection of the minority (Section 210) and the powers of the Board of Trade to order an investigation of the company’s affairs (section 164- 175); and for the first time, the shareholders in general meeting were given the power to remove a director before the expiration of his period of office. The independence of auditors vis-à-vis the directors was strengthened.
These were a type of corporations that evolved in the early modern era in Europe. They enjoyed certain rights and privileges and were bound by certain obligations, under a special charter granted to them by the sovereign authority of the state, such charter defining and limiting those rights, privileges, and obligations and the localities in which they were to be exercised. The charter usually conferred a trading monopoly upon the company in a specific geographic area or for a specific type of trade item.
The earliest English chartered companies were the Merchant Adventurers and the Merchant Staplers. Such early companies were regulated companies, deriving the principles of their organization from the medieval merchant guilds. The regulated company was a corporation of merchants, each of whom traded on his own account but was subjected to a rigid set of common rules that regulated his operations within narrow limits.
A great increase in the number and activities of the chartered companies took place during the second half of the 16th century, when the English, French, and Dutch governments were ready to assist trade and encourage overseas exploration. Changes also occurred in the organization of chartered companies.
The regulated company, which had been very convenient for trading with countries where conditions were stable, was not so suitable for ventures to remoter lands, where the risks, commercial and political, were greater. To meet the requirements of the new trading conditions, the joint-stock organization, in which the capital was provided by shareholders who then participated in the profits from the joint enterprise, was evolved. In some cases, the companies alternated between one form and the other. In all charters, provisions were inserted to secure the “good government” of the company.
In North America, the English chartered companies had colonizing as well as a trading purpose. Although the Hudson’s Bay Company was almost wholly devoted to trading, most companies–such as the London Company, the Plymouth Company, and the Massachusetts Bay Company–were directly involved in the settlement of colonists.
Elsewhere, chartered English companies continued to be formed for the development of new trade–for instance, the short-lived Canary Company in 1665, the Royal African Company in 1672, and the South Sea Company in 1711. There was frantic speculation in the shares of the South Sea Company, resulting in a severe setback to a joint-stock enterprise. The Bubble Act of 1720 was designed to make it much more difficult to obtain a charter.
In France and the Netherlands, chartered companies had also been used for similar purposes by the governments. In France, from 1599 to 1789, more than 70 such companies came into existence. Under J.B. Colbert the French East India Company was founded (1664), and the colonial and Indian trade was placed in the hands of chartered companies in which the king himself had large financial interests.
The French companies, however, were largely destroyed by the “Mississippi scheme” of John Law, in which trading companies like Senegal and French East India companies were incorporated in a plan to take over the public debt. The financial crash in 1720 destroyed public confidence, and although a new Company of the Indies existed until 1769, the chartered company was virtually dead.
In the Netherlands, the Dutch East India and West India companies were the basis of the commercial and maritime supremacy of the Dutch in the 17th century. The success of the East India companies caused the foundation of the Ostend Company, whereby the Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI sought unsuccessfully to acquire the trade of England and the Netherlands.
The development of the modern limited-liability company or corporation under successive companies acts led to a decline in the importance of chartered companies. Some of the older ones still exist, however, including the Hudson’s Bay Company. | 2,390 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Character of Lincoln
WHILE I speak to you to-day, the body of the President who ruled this people is lying honored and loved, in our city. It is impossible with that sacred presence in our midst for me to stand and speak of the ordinary topics which occupy the pulpit. I must speak of him today; and I therefore undertake to do what I had intended to do at some future time, to invite you to study with me the character of Abraham Lincoln, the impulses of his life, and the causes of his death. I know how hard it is to do it rightly, how impossible it is to do it worthily. But I shall speak with confidence because I speak to those who loved him, and whose ready love will fill out the deficiencies in a picture which my words will weakly try to draw. I can only promise you to speak calmly, conscientiously, affectionately, and with what understanding of him I can command.
We take it for granted first of all, that there is an essential connection between Mr. Lincoln's character and his violent and bloody death. It is no accident, no arbitrary decree of Providence. He lived as he did, and he died as he did, because he was
viwhat he was. The more we see of events the less We come to believe in any fate or destiny except the destiny of character. It will be our duty, then, to see what there was in the character of our great President that created the history of his life and at last produced the catastrophy of his cruel death. After the first trembling horror, the first outburst of indignant sorrow has grown calm, these are the questions which we are bound to ask and answer.
It is not necessary for me even to sketch the biography of Mr. Lincoln. He was born in Kentucky, fifty-six years ago, when Kentucky was a pioneer State. He lived, as boy and man, the hard and needy life of a backwoodsman, a farmer, a river boatman, and finally, by his own efforts at self-education, of an active, respected, influential citizen in the half-organized and manifold interests of a new and energetic community. From his boyhood up he lived in direct and vigorous contact with men and things, not as in older states and easier conditions with words and theories; and both his moral convictions and his intellectual opinions gathered from that contact a supreme degree of that character by which men knew him -- that character which Is the most distinctive possession of the best American nature -- that almost indiscribable quality which we call in general clearness or truth, and which appears in the physical structure as health, in the moral constitution as honesty, in the mental structure as sagacity, and in the region of active life as practicalness. This one character, with many sides all shaped by the same essential force and
viitestifying to the same inner influences, was what was powerful in him and decreed for him the life he was to live and the death he was to die. We must take no smaller view than this of what he was. Even his physical conditions are not to be forgotten in making up his character. We make too little always of the physical; certainly we make too little of it here if we lose out of sight the strength and muscular activity, the power of doing and enduring, which the backwoods-boy inherited from generations of hard-living ancestors, and appropriated for his own by a long discipline of bodily toil. He brought to the solution of the question of labor in this country, not merely a mind but a body thoroughly in sympathy with labor, full of the culture of labor, bearing witness to the dignity and excellence of work in every muscle that work had toughened and every sense that work had made clear and true. He could not have brought the mind for his task so perfectly, unless he had first brought the body whose rugged and stubborn health was always contradicting to him the false theories of labor, and always asserting the true. Who shall say that even with David the son of Jesse, there was not a physical as well as a spiritual culture in the struggle with the lion and the bear which occurred among the sheepfolds, out of which God took him to be the ruler of his people.
As to the moral and mental powers which distinguished him, all embraceable under this general description of clearness or truth, the most remarkable thing in the way in which they blend with one
viiianother, so that it is next to Impossible to examine them in separation. A great many people have discussed very crudely whether Abraham Lincoln was an intelligent man or not; as if intellect were a thing always of the same sort, which you could precipitate from the other constituents of a man's nature and weight by itself, and compare by pounds and ounces in this man with another. The fact is that in all the simplest characters the line between the mental and moral natures is always vague and indistinct. They run together, and in their best combinations you are unable to discriminate in the wisdom which is their result, how much is moral and how much is intellectual. You are unable to tell whether in the wise acts and words which issue from such a life there is more of the righteousness that comes of a clear conscience or of the sagacity that comes of a clear brain. In more complex characters and under more complex conditions, the moral and the mental lives come to be less healthily combined. They cooperate, they help each other less. They come even to stand over against each other as antagonists; till we have that vague but most melancholy notion which pervades the life of all elaborate civilization, that goodness and greatness, as we call them, are not to be looked for together, till we expect to see and so do see a feeble and narrow conscientiousness on the one hand and a bad unprincipled Intelligence on the other, dividing the suffrages of men.
It is the great boon of such characters as Mr. Lincoln's, that they reunite what God has joined together
ixand man has put asunder. In him was vindicated the greatness of real goodness and the goodness of real greatness. The twain were one flesh. Not one of all the multitudes who stood and looked up to him for direction with such a loving and implicit trust can tell you to-day whether the wise judgments that he gave came most from a strong head or a sound heart. If you ask them they are puzzled. There are men as good as he, but they do bad things. There are men as intelligent as he, but they do foolish things. In him goodness and Intelligence combined and made their best result of wisdom. For perfect truth consists not merely in the right constituents of character, but in their right and intimate conjunction. This union of the mental and moral into a life of admirable simplicity is what we most admire in children, but in them it is unsettled and unpractical. But when it is preserved into a manhood, deepened into reliability and maturity, it is that glorified childlikeness, that high and reverend simplicity which shames and baffles the most accomplished astuteness, and is chosen by God to fill his purposes when he needs a ruler for his people of faithful and true heart, such as he had who was our President.
Another evident quality of such a character as this, will be its freshness or newness, so to speak. Its freshness, or readiness -- call it what you will -- its ability to take up new duties and do them in a new way will result of necessity from its truth and clearness. The simple natures and forces will always be the most pliant ones. Water bends and shapes itself
xto any channel. Air folds and adapts itself to each new figure. They are the simplest and the most infinitely active things in nature. So this nature, in very virtue of its simplicity, must be also free, always fitting itself to each new need. It will always start from the most fundamental and eternal conditions, and work in the straightest even although they be the newest ways to the present prescribed purpose. In one word it must be broad and independent and radical. So that freedom and radicalness in the character of Abraham Lincoln were not separate qualities, but the necessary results of his simplicity and childlikeness and truth.
Here then we have some conception of the man. Out of this character came the life which we admire and the death which we lament to-day. He was called in that character to that life and death. It was just the nature, as you see, which a new nation such as ours ought to produce. All the conditions of his birth, his youth, his manhood, which made him what he was, were not irregular and exceptional, but were the normal conditions of a new and simple country. His pioneer home in Indiana, was a type of the pioneer land in which he lived. If ever there was a man who was a part of the time and country he lived in this was he. The same simple respect for labor won in the school of work and incorporated into blood and muscle; the same unassuming loyalty to the simple virtues of temperance and industry and integrity; the same sagacious judgment which had learned to be quick-eyed and quick-brained in the
xiconstant presence of emergency; the same direct and clear thought about things, social, political and religious, that was in him supremely, was in the people he was sent to rule. Surely, with such a type-man for ruler, there would seem to be but a smooth and even road over which he might lead the people whose character he represented into the new region of national happiness and comfort and usefulness, for which that character had been designed.
But then we come to the beginning of all trouble. Abraham Lincoln was the type-man of the country, but not of the whole country. This character which we have been trying to describe was the character of an American under the discipline of freedom. There was another American character which had been developed under the influence of slavery. There was no one American character embracing the land. There were two characters, with Impulses of irrepressible and deadly conflict. This citizen whom we have been honoring and praising represented one. The whole great scheme with which he was ultimately brought in conflict, and which has finally killed him, represented the other. Beside this nature, true and fresh and new, there was another nature false and effete and old. The one nature found itself in a new World, and set itself to discover the new ways for the new duties that were given it. The other nature, full of the false pride of blood, set itself to reproduce in a new world the institutions and the spirit of the old, to build anew the structure of a feudalism which had been corrupt in its own days, and which had been left
xiifar behind by the advancing conscience and needs of the progressing race. The one nature magnified labor, the other nature depreciated and despised it. The one honored the laborer and the other scorned him. The one was simple and direct. The other complex, full of sophistries and self-excuses. The one was free to look all that claimed to be truth in the face, and separate the error from the truth that might be in it. The other did not dare to investigate because its own established prides and systems were dearer to it than the truth itself, and so even truth went about in it doing the work of error. The one was ready to state broad principles, of the brotherhood of man, the universal fatherhood and justice of God, however imperfectly it might realize them in practice. The other denied even the principles, and so dug deep and laid below its special sins the broad foundation of a consistent acknowledged sinfulness. In a word, one nature was full of the influences of Freedom, the other nature was full of the influences of Slavery.
Here then we have the two. The history of our country for many years is the history of how these two elements of American life approached collision. They wrought their separate reactions on each other. Men debate and quarrel even now about the rise of Northern abolitionism, about whether the Northern abolitionists were right or wrong, whether they did harm or good. How vain the quarrel is! It was
xiiiinevitable. It was inevitable in the nature of things that two such natures living here together should be set violently against each other. It is inevitable, till man be far more unfeeling and untrue to his convictions than he has always been, that a great wrong asserting itself vehemently should arouse to no less vehement assertion the opposing right. The only wonder is that there was not more of it. The only wonder is that so few were swept away to take by an impulse they could not resist their stand of hatred to the wicked institution. The only wonder is that only one brave, reckless man came forth to cast himself, almost single-handed, with a hopeless hope, against the proud power that he hated, and trust to the influence of a soul marching on into the history of his countrymen to stir them to a vindication of the truth he loved. At any rate, whether the abolitionists were wrong or right, there grew up about their violence, as there always will about the extremism of extreme reformers, a great mass of feeling, catching their spirit and asserting it firmly though in more moderate degrees and methods. About the nucleus of Abolitionism grew up a great American Anti-slavery determination, which at last gathered strength enough to take its stand, to insist upon the checking and limiting the extension of the power of slavery, and to put the type-man whom God had been preparing for the task, before the world to do the work on which it had resolved. Then came discontent, secession, treason. The two American natures long advancing to encounter, met at last and a whole
xivcountry yet trembling with the shock, bears witness how terrible the meeting was.
Thus I have tried briefly to trace out the gradual course by which God brought the character which he designed to be the controlling character of this new world into distinct collision with the hostile character which it was to destroy and absorb, and set it in the person of its type-man in the seat of highest power. The character formed under the discipline of Freedom, and the character formed under the discipline of Slavery, developed all their difference and met in hostile conflict when this war began. Notice, it was not only in what he did and was towards the slave, it was in all he did and was everywhere that we accept Mr. Lincoln's character as the true result of our free life and institutions. Nowhere else could have come forth that genuine love of the people, which in him no one could suspect of being either the cheap flattery of the demagogue or the abstract philanthropy of the philosopher, which made our President, while he lived, the centre of a great household land, and when he died so cruelly, made every humblest household thrill with a sense of personal bereavement which the death of rulers is not apt to bring. Nowhere else than out of the life of freedom could have come that personal unselfishness and generosity which made so gracious a part of this good man's character.
Now it was in this character rather than in any
xvmere political position that the fitness of Mr. Lincoln to stand forth in the struggle of the two American natures really lay. We are told that he did not come to the Presidential chair pledged to the abolition of Slavery. When will we learn that with all true men it is not what they intend to do, but it is what the qualities of their natures bind them to do that determines their career? The President came to his power full of the blood, strong in the strength of Freedom. He came there free and hating slavery. He came there, leaving on record words like these spoken three years before and never contradicted. He had said, "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this Government cannot endure, permanently, half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved. I do not expect the house to fall; but I expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing or all the other." When the question came he knew which thing he meant that it should be. His whole nature settled that question for him. With such a man, intentions far ahead meant little. Such a man must always live as he used to say he lived, (and was blamed for saying it) "controlled by events, not controlling them." And with a reverent and clear mind to be controlled by events, means to be controlled by God. For such a man there was no hesitation when God brought him up face to face with Slavery and put the sword into his hand and said, "Strike it down dead." He was a willing servant then. If ever the face of a man writing solemn words glowed with a solemn
xvijoy, it must have been the face of Abraham Lincoln, as he bent over the page where the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 was growing into shape, and giving manhood and freedom as he wrote it to hundreds of thousands of his fellowmen. Here was a work in which his whole nature could rejoice. Here was an act that crowned the whole culture of his life-All the past, the free boyhood in the woods, the free youth upon the farm, the free manhood in the honorable citizen's employments -- all his freedom gathered and completed itself in this. And as the swathy multitudes came in ragged, and tired, and hungry and ignorant, but free forever from anything but the memorial scars of the fetters and the whip, singing rude songs in which the new triumph of freedom Struggled and heaved below the sad melody that had been shaped for bondage; as in their camps and hovels there grew up to their half-superstitious eyes he image of a great Father almost more than man whom they owed their freedom; were they not half ight? For it was not to one man, driven by stress of policy, or swept on by a whim of pity that the noble act was due. It was to the American nature long kept by God in his own intentions till his time should come, at last emerging into sight and power, and bound up and embodied in this best and most American of all Americans, to whom we and those poor frightened slaves at last might look up together and love to call him with one voice, our Father.
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0.342755198478698... | 4 | The Character of Lincoln
WHILE I speak to you to-day, the body of the President who ruled this people is lying honored and loved, in our city. It is impossible with that sacred presence in our midst for me to stand and speak of the ordinary topics which occupy the pulpit. I must speak of him today; and I therefore undertake to do what I had intended to do at some future time, to invite you to study with me the character of Abraham Lincoln, the impulses of his life, and the causes of his death. I know how hard it is to do it rightly, how impossible it is to do it worthily. But I shall speak with confidence because I speak to those who loved him, and whose ready love will fill out the deficiencies in a picture which my words will weakly try to draw. I can only promise you to speak calmly, conscientiously, affectionately, and with what understanding of him I can command.
We take it for granted first of all, that there is an essential connection between Mr. Lincoln's character and his violent and bloody death. It is no accident, no arbitrary decree of Providence. He lived as he did, and he died as he did, because he was
viwhat he was. The more we see of events the less We come to believe in any fate or destiny except the destiny of character. It will be our duty, then, to see what there was in the character of our great President that created the history of his life and at last produced the catastrophy of his cruel death. After the first trembling horror, the first outburst of indignant sorrow has grown calm, these are the questions which we are bound to ask and answer.
It is not necessary for me even to sketch the biography of Mr. Lincoln. He was born in Kentucky, fifty-six years ago, when Kentucky was a pioneer State. He lived, as boy and man, the hard and needy life of a backwoodsman, a farmer, a river boatman, and finally, by his own efforts at self-education, of an active, respected, influential citizen in the half-organized and manifold interests of a new and energetic community. From his boyhood up he lived in direct and vigorous contact with men and things, not as in older states and easier conditions with words and theories; and both his moral convictions and his intellectual opinions gathered from that contact a supreme degree of that character by which men knew him -- that character which Is the most distinctive possession of the best American nature -- that almost indiscribable quality which we call in general clearness or truth, and which appears in the physical structure as health, in the moral constitution as honesty, in the mental structure as sagacity, and in the region of active life as practicalness. This one character, with many sides all shaped by the same essential force and
viitestifying to the same inner influences, was what was powerful in him and decreed for him the life he was to live and the death he was to die. We must take no smaller view than this of what he was. Even his physical conditions are not to be forgotten in making up his character. We make too little always of the physical; certainly we make too little of it here if we lose out of sight the strength and muscular activity, the power of doing and enduring, which the backwoods-boy inherited from generations of hard-living ancestors, and appropriated for his own by a long discipline of bodily toil. He brought to the solution of the question of labor in this country, not merely a mind but a body thoroughly in sympathy with labor, full of the culture of labor, bearing witness to the dignity and excellence of work in every muscle that work had toughened and every sense that work had made clear and true. He could not have brought the mind for his task so perfectly, unless he had first brought the body whose rugged and stubborn health was always contradicting to him the false theories of labor, and always asserting the true. Who shall say that even with David the son of Jesse, there was not a physical as well as a spiritual culture in the struggle with the lion and the bear which occurred among the sheepfolds, out of which God took him to be the ruler of his people.
As to the moral and mental powers which distinguished him, all embraceable under this general description of clearness or truth, the most remarkable thing in the way in which they blend with one
viiianother, so that it is next to Impossible to examine them in separation. A great many people have discussed very crudely whether Abraham Lincoln was an intelligent man or not; as if intellect were a thing always of the same sort, which you could precipitate from the other constituents of a man's nature and weight by itself, and compare by pounds and ounces in this man with another. The fact is that in all the simplest characters the line between the mental and moral natures is always vague and indistinct. They run together, and in their best combinations you are unable to discriminate in the wisdom which is their result, how much is moral and how much is intellectual. You are unable to tell whether in the wise acts and words which issue from such a life there is more of the righteousness that comes of a clear conscience or of the sagacity that comes of a clear brain. In more complex characters and under more complex conditions, the moral and the mental lives come to be less healthily combined. They cooperate, they help each other less. They come even to stand over against each other as antagonists; till we have that vague but most melancholy notion which pervades the life of all elaborate civilization, that goodness and greatness, as we call them, are not to be looked for together, till we expect to see and so do see a feeble and narrow conscientiousness on the one hand and a bad unprincipled Intelligence on the other, dividing the suffrages of men.
It is the great boon of such characters as Mr. Lincoln's, that they reunite what God has joined together
ixand man has put asunder. In him was vindicated the greatness of real goodness and the goodness of real greatness. The twain were one flesh. Not one of all the multitudes who stood and looked up to him for direction with such a loving and implicit trust can tell you to-day whether the wise judgments that he gave came most from a strong head or a sound heart. If you ask them they are puzzled. There are men as good as he, but they do bad things. There are men as intelligent as he, but they do foolish things. In him goodness and Intelligence combined and made their best result of wisdom. For perfect truth consists not merely in the right constituents of character, but in their right and intimate conjunction. This union of the mental and moral into a life of admirable simplicity is what we most admire in children, but in them it is unsettled and unpractical. But when it is preserved into a manhood, deepened into reliability and maturity, it is that glorified childlikeness, that high and reverend simplicity which shames and baffles the most accomplished astuteness, and is chosen by God to fill his purposes when he needs a ruler for his people of faithful and true heart, such as he had who was our President.
Another evident quality of such a character as this, will be its freshness or newness, so to speak. Its freshness, or readiness -- call it what you will -- its ability to take up new duties and do them in a new way will result of necessity from its truth and clearness. The simple natures and forces will always be the most pliant ones. Water bends and shapes itself
xto any channel. Air folds and adapts itself to each new figure. They are the simplest and the most infinitely active things in nature. So this nature, in very virtue of its simplicity, must be also free, always fitting itself to each new need. It will always start from the most fundamental and eternal conditions, and work in the straightest even although they be the newest ways to the present prescribed purpose. In one word it must be broad and independent and radical. So that freedom and radicalness in the character of Abraham Lincoln were not separate qualities, but the necessary results of his simplicity and childlikeness and truth.
Here then we have some conception of the man. Out of this character came the life which we admire and the death which we lament to-day. He was called in that character to that life and death. It was just the nature, as you see, which a new nation such as ours ought to produce. All the conditions of his birth, his youth, his manhood, which made him what he was, were not irregular and exceptional, but were the normal conditions of a new and simple country. His pioneer home in Indiana, was a type of the pioneer land in which he lived. If ever there was a man who was a part of the time and country he lived in this was he. The same simple respect for labor won in the school of work and incorporated into blood and muscle; the same unassuming loyalty to the simple virtues of temperance and industry and integrity; the same sagacious judgment which had learned to be quick-eyed and quick-brained in the
xiconstant presence of emergency; the same direct and clear thought about things, social, political and religious, that was in him supremely, was in the people he was sent to rule. Surely, with such a type-man for ruler, there would seem to be but a smooth and even road over which he might lead the people whose character he represented into the new region of national happiness and comfort and usefulness, for which that character had been designed.
But then we come to the beginning of all trouble. Abraham Lincoln was the type-man of the country, but not of the whole country. This character which we have been trying to describe was the character of an American under the discipline of freedom. There was another American character which had been developed under the influence of slavery. There was no one American character embracing the land. There were two characters, with Impulses of irrepressible and deadly conflict. This citizen whom we have been honoring and praising represented one. The whole great scheme with which he was ultimately brought in conflict, and which has finally killed him, represented the other. Beside this nature, true and fresh and new, there was another nature false and effete and old. The one nature found itself in a new World, and set itself to discover the new ways for the new duties that were given it. The other nature, full of the false pride of blood, set itself to reproduce in a new world the institutions and the spirit of the old, to build anew the structure of a feudalism which had been corrupt in its own days, and which had been left
xiifar behind by the advancing conscience and needs of the progressing race. The one nature magnified labor, the other nature depreciated and despised it. The one honored the laborer and the other scorned him. The one was simple and direct. The other complex, full of sophistries and self-excuses. The one was free to look all that claimed to be truth in the face, and separate the error from the truth that might be in it. The other did not dare to investigate because its own established prides and systems were dearer to it than the truth itself, and so even truth went about in it doing the work of error. The one was ready to state broad principles, of the brotherhood of man, the universal fatherhood and justice of God, however imperfectly it might realize them in practice. The other denied even the principles, and so dug deep and laid below its special sins the broad foundation of a consistent acknowledged sinfulness. In a word, one nature was full of the influences of Freedom, the other nature was full of the influences of Slavery.
Here then we have the two. The history of our country for many years is the history of how these two elements of American life approached collision. They wrought their separate reactions on each other. Men debate and quarrel even now about the rise of Northern abolitionism, about whether the Northern abolitionists were right or wrong, whether they did harm or good. How vain the quarrel is! It was
xiiiinevitable. It was inevitable in the nature of things that two such natures living here together should be set violently against each other. It is inevitable, till man be far more unfeeling and untrue to his convictions than he has always been, that a great wrong asserting itself vehemently should arouse to no less vehement assertion the opposing right. The only wonder is that there was not more of it. The only wonder is that so few were swept away to take by an impulse they could not resist their stand of hatred to the wicked institution. The only wonder is that only one brave, reckless man came forth to cast himself, almost single-handed, with a hopeless hope, against the proud power that he hated, and trust to the influence of a soul marching on into the history of his countrymen to stir them to a vindication of the truth he loved. At any rate, whether the abolitionists were wrong or right, there grew up about their violence, as there always will about the extremism of extreme reformers, a great mass of feeling, catching their spirit and asserting it firmly though in more moderate degrees and methods. About the nucleus of Abolitionism grew up a great American Anti-slavery determination, which at last gathered strength enough to take its stand, to insist upon the checking and limiting the extension of the power of slavery, and to put the type-man whom God had been preparing for the task, before the world to do the work on which it had resolved. Then came discontent, secession, treason. The two American natures long advancing to encounter, met at last and a whole
xivcountry yet trembling with the shock, bears witness how terrible the meeting was.
Thus I have tried briefly to trace out the gradual course by which God brought the character which he designed to be the controlling character of this new world into distinct collision with the hostile character which it was to destroy and absorb, and set it in the person of its type-man in the seat of highest power. The character formed under the discipline of Freedom, and the character formed under the discipline of Slavery, developed all their difference and met in hostile conflict when this war began. Notice, it was not only in what he did and was towards the slave, it was in all he did and was everywhere that we accept Mr. Lincoln's character as the true result of our free life and institutions. Nowhere else could have come forth that genuine love of the people, which in him no one could suspect of being either the cheap flattery of the demagogue or the abstract philanthropy of the philosopher, which made our President, while he lived, the centre of a great household land, and when he died so cruelly, made every humblest household thrill with a sense of personal bereavement which the death of rulers is not apt to bring. Nowhere else than out of the life of freedom could have come that personal unselfishness and generosity which made so gracious a part of this good man's character.
Now it was in this character rather than in any
xvmere political position that the fitness of Mr. Lincoln to stand forth in the struggle of the two American natures really lay. We are told that he did not come to the Presidential chair pledged to the abolition of Slavery. When will we learn that with all true men it is not what they intend to do, but it is what the qualities of their natures bind them to do that determines their career? The President came to his power full of the blood, strong in the strength of Freedom. He came there free and hating slavery. He came there, leaving on record words like these spoken three years before and never contradicted. He had said, "A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this Government cannot endure, permanently, half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved. I do not expect the house to fall; but I expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing or all the other." When the question came he knew which thing he meant that it should be. His whole nature settled that question for him. With such a man, intentions far ahead meant little. Such a man must always live as he used to say he lived, (and was blamed for saying it) "controlled by events, not controlling them." And with a reverent and clear mind to be controlled by events, means to be controlled by God. For such a man there was no hesitation when God brought him up face to face with Slavery and put the sword into his hand and said, "Strike it down dead." He was a willing servant then. If ever the face of a man writing solemn words glowed with a solemn
xvijoy, it must have been the face of Abraham Lincoln, as he bent over the page where the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 was growing into shape, and giving manhood and freedom as he wrote it to hundreds of thousands of his fellowmen. Here was a work in which his whole nature could rejoice. Here was an act that crowned the whole culture of his life-All the past, the free boyhood in the woods, the free youth upon the farm, the free manhood in the honorable citizen's employments -- all his freedom gathered and completed itself in this. And as the swathy multitudes came in ragged, and tired, and hungry and ignorant, but free forever from anything but the memorial scars of the fetters and the whip, singing rude songs in which the new triumph of freedom Struggled and heaved below the sad melody that had been shaped for bondage; as in their camps and hovels there grew up to their half-superstitious eyes he image of a great Father almost more than man whom they owed their freedom; were they not half ight? For it was not to one man, driven by stress of policy, or swept on by a whim of pity that the noble act was due. It was to the American nature long kept by God in his own intentions till his time should come, at last emerging into sight and power, and bound up and embodied in this best and most American of all Americans, to whom we and those poor frightened slaves at last might look up together and love to call him with one voice, our Father.
So let him lie here in our midst to-day, and let our | 3,820 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Great Italian Wars have been given many names before. These names include the Italian Wars, the Great Wars of Italy, the Renaissance Wars, and even the Habsburg–Valois Wars. All refer to a sequence of conflicts that took place between 1494 and 1459. The parties that were involved in the conflicts included the Papal States, the Republic of Venice, the Ottoman Empire, and some influential countries from Europe like Spain and France.
8. First Italian War or King Charles VIII's War (1494–1498)
This war started when Milan’s Ludovico Sforza sought out France’s Charles VIII with a proposal of an alliance against Venice. Upon the death of Naples’s Ferdinand I, France invaded Italy with 25,000 men including 8,000 mercenaries. Charles tore through Italy until he reached Naples where the famed "sack of Naples" happened. The French killed everyone in the fort during the sack. Consequently, northern Italian cities formed an alliance, the League of Venice, to oppose the French. Even Milan was part of the league. The two met in Fornovo in 1495 where the French were deemed to be the victorious party. France sowed the seeds for future wars as it showed that Italian cities were rich and weak.
7. Second Italian War or King Louis XII's War (1499–1504)
Louis XII took over France after Charles died and then went ahead and took Milan from Sforza in 1499. All this began when the Holy Roman Empire invaded Italy to resolve Florence and Pisa’s ongoing conflict. After Florence was defeated by the empire, they sought out the French to aid them in retaking Pisa. With 27,000 men, Louis invaded Italy in 1499 and neutralized all resistance until he took over Milan. Florence approached Louis and demanded his help in retaking Pisa even though Florence remained neutral during France’s invasion. Eventually, France tried to help Florence retake Pisa but failed. Louis decided to ally with the Spanish to take and divide Naples which was the beginning of the end for Louis as he lost key battles and eventually his share of Naples to Spain.
6. War of the League of Cambrai (1508–1516)
Pope Julius II was afraid of Venice and its growing power. Louis XII of France, Emperor Maximilian of the holy empire, and Naples’s Ferdinand also had issues with Venice. The Pope formed the League of Cambrai with Spain, France, and others in order to deal with Venice. In 1509, the league failed to defeat Venice's army in Agnadello. The Pope allied with Venice to deal with France after relations broke down. The Holy War the pope proclaimed on France eventually defeated the French in Milan. However, after the death of the pope and Louis XII, Francis I took over France and allied with Venice in order to defeat the Holy League which was leaderless. In 1516, all of northern Italy was under France and Venice.
5. Italian War of 1521–1526
Just when Francis I was to be named the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles of Spain took the title. Relations soured between the two and war began brewing. When Francis was ready to attack Charles, the pope withdrew his support and allied with Charles instead. A succession of events ultimately concluded with Francis losing Milan to Charles in 1521 and the restoration of a Sforza. The Spanish’s arquebusier methods were too much for the French. Francis then led his army to take Lombardy but failed and was captured in 1525 at Pavia. His imprisonment led to an unlikely alliance between France and the Ottomans which led to his release in 1526 after he signed the Treaty of Madrid where he gave up claims to Italy, Burgundy, and Flanders.
4. War of the League of Cognac (1526–1530)
Afraid of the Empire, Pope Clement VII assembled the League of Cognac to deal with Charles. The league wanted to take advantage of discontent among the empire soldiers. Among the league members was Francis I hoping to take back Milan. A timed threat from the emperor’s army commander that he would use Colonna and Siena against the pope should he ally with the French made the pope withdraw his forces. The withdrawal coincided with the arrival of the French forces and the league was in disarray. Venice, another league member, had also suffered heavy losses in other battles and refused to participate further. Ultimately, France left Italy, the pope was captured, Florence was once again under a Medici, and Venice made peace with Charles (all under the Treaty of Cambrai).
3. Italian War of 1536–1538
After the above treaty, Charles headed to Italy to cement his hold. However, Sforza died in 1535 and had no heirs leaving a vacuum which was promptly filled by a representative from Charles. Francis was livid when Milan went to Philip’s son and vowed to take it back. Francis also came close to admitting Louis’s mistake in letting the Spanish have a part of Naples. In 1536, 27,000 French troops invaded Milan but failed in the attempt but captured Turin. Charles tried to take Turin but was rebuffed by Francis and his Ottoman allies which led to the signing of the Treaty of Nice leaving Turin under Francis.
2. Italian War of 1542–1546
Milan was the reason for war when Francis allied with the Ottomans again. Even then, Francis failed to go further than Lombardy. A series of events happened in Florence when the duke was assassinated by a distance cousin. The ensuing revolt in Florence saw Francis allying with factions against the assassin. In turn, Spain allied with the faction of the assassin and defeated the French and their allies in 1544. Spain then allied with England and almost took Paris but were uncoordinated and rebuffed. Had the two been more committed and dedicated in their joint attacks, they may very well have taken France.
1. Italian War of 1551–1559
After Francis died in 1547, his son Henry II took over and went to war with Charles over Italy but the invasion was stopped in 1553 in Tuscany. Charles abdicated his two titles in 1556; the Empire to Ferdinand I (his brother) and Spain to Phillip (his son). While weaker after the division, Phillip managed to defeat the French with the help of Savoy in 1157 at St. Quentin. England’s involvement in 1557 led to the French capturing Calais and other Spanish towns. Henry completely gave up in 1558 after signing the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis. Effectively, the treaty stated that France's Henry II have up any and all claims he may have had over Italy.
About the Author
Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace.
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0.8670501708... | 2 | The Great Italian Wars have been given many names before. These names include the Italian Wars, the Great Wars of Italy, the Renaissance Wars, and even the Habsburg–Valois Wars. All refer to a sequence of conflicts that took place between 1494 and 1459. The parties that were involved in the conflicts included the Papal States, the Republic of Venice, the Ottoman Empire, and some influential countries from Europe like Spain and France.
8. First Italian War or King Charles VIII's War (1494–1498)
This war started when Milan’s Ludovico Sforza sought out France’s Charles VIII with a proposal of an alliance against Venice. Upon the death of Naples’s Ferdinand I, France invaded Italy with 25,000 men including 8,000 mercenaries. Charles tore through Italy until he reached Naples where the famed "sack of Naples" happened. The French killed everyone in the fort during the sack. Consequently, northern Italian cities formed an alliance, the League of Venice, to oppose the French. Even Milan was part of the league. The two met in Fornovo in 1495 where the French were deemed to be the victorious party. France sowed the seeds for future wars as it showed that Italian cities were rich and weak.
7. Second Italian War or King Louis XII's War (1499–1504)
Louis XII took over France after Charles died and then went ahead and took Milan from Sforza in 1499. All this began when the Holy Roman Empire invaded Italy to resolve Florence and Pisa’s ongoing conflict. After Florence was defeated by the empire, they sought out the French to aid them in retaking Pisa. With 27,000 men, Louis invaded Italy in 1499 and neutralized all resistance until he took over Milan. Florence approached Louis and demanded his help in retaking Pisa even though Florence remained neutral during France’s invasion. Eventually, France tried to help Florence retake Pisa but failed. Louis decided to ally with the Spanish to take and divide Naples which was the beginning of the end for Louis as he lost key battles and eventually his share of Naples to Spain.
6. War of the League of Cambrai (1508–1516)
Pope Julius II was afraid of Venice and its growing power. Louis XII of France, Emperor Maximilian of the holy empire, and Naples’s Ferdinand also had issues with Venice. The Pope formed the League of Cambrai with Spain, France, and others in order to deal with Venice. In 1509, the league failed to defeat Venice's army in Agnadello. The Pope allied with Venice to deal with France after relations broke down. The Holy War the pope proclaimed on France eventually defeated the French in Milan. However, after the death of the pope and Louis XII, Francis I took over France and allied with Venice in order to defeat the Holy League which was leaderless. In 1516, all of northern Italy was under France and Venice.
5. Italian War of 1521–1526
Just when Francis I was to be named the Holy Roman Emperor, Charles of Spain took the title. Relations soured between the two and war began brewing. When Francis was ready to attack Charles, the pope withdrew his support and allied with Charles instead. A succession of events ultimately concluded with Francis losing Milan to Charles in 1521 and the restoration of a Sforza. The Spanish’s arquebusier methods were too much for the French. Francis then led his army to take Lombardy but failed and was captured in 1525 at Pavia. His imprisonment led to an unlikely alliance between France and the Ottomans which led to his release in 1526 after he signed the Treaty of Madrid where he gave up claims to Italy, Burgundy, and Flanders.
4. War of the League of Cognac (1526–1530)
Afraid of the Empire, Pope Clement VII assembled the League of Cognac to deal with Charles. The league wanted to take advantage of discontent among the empire soldiers. Among the league members was Francis I hoping to take back Milan. A timed threat from the emperor’s army commander that he would use Colonna and Siena against the pope should he ally with the French made the pope withdraw his forces. The withdrawal coincided with the arrival of the French forces and the league was in disarray. Venice, another league member, had also suffered heavy losses in other battles and refused to participate further. Ultimately, France left Italy, the pope was captured, Florence was once again under a Medici, and Venice made peace with Charles (all under the Treaty of Cambrai).
3. Italian War of 1536–1538
After the above treaty, Charles headed to Italy to cement his hold. However, Sforza died in 1535 and had no heirs leaving a vacuum which was promptly filled by a representative from Charles. Francis was livid when Milan went to Philip’s son and vowed to take it back. Francis also came close to admitting Louis’s mistake in letting the Spanish have a part of Naples. In 1536, 27,000 French troops invaded Milan but failed in the attempt but captured Turin. Charles tried to take Turin but was rebuffed by Francis and his Ottoman allies which led to the signing of the Treaty of Nice leaving Turin under Francis.
2. Italian War of 1542–1546
Milan was the reason for war when Francis allied with the Ottomans again. Even then, Francis failed to go further than Lombardy. A series of events happened in Florence when the duke was assassinated by a distance cousin. The ensuing revolt in Florence saw Francis allying with factions against the assassin. In turn, Spain allied with the faction of the assassin and defeated the French and their allies in 1544. Spain then allied with England and almost took Paris but were uncoordinated and rebuffed. Had the two been more committed and dedicated in their joint attacks, they may very well have taken France.
1. Italian War of 1551–1559
After Francis died in 1547, his son Henry II took over and went to war with Charles over Italy but the invasion was stopped in 1553 in Tuscany. Charles abdicated his two titles in 1556; the Empire to Ferdinand I (his brother) and Spain to Phillip (his son). While weaker after the division, Phillip managed to defeat the French with the help of Savoy in 1157 at St. Quentin. England’s involvement in 1557 led to the French capturing Calais and other Spanish towns. Henry completely gave up in 1558 after signing the Peace of Cateau-Cambrésis. Effectively, the treaty stated that France's Henry II have up any and all claims he may have had over Italy.
About the Author
Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace.
Your MLA Citation
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Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 1,553 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The first Electoral College is chosen
On this day in history, January 7, 1789, the first Electoral College is chosen. They would cast their votes for President on February 4 and would unanimously choose George Washington as the first President of the United States.
The election of 1789 was a unique one in American history. Only ten of the original thirteen colonies would vote in the election. North Carolina and Rhode Island had not yet even ratified the Constitution, so were not yet part of the United States. New York had ratified the Constitution, but a deadlock in the legislature prevented them from appointing their electors by the appointed date of January 7, meaning there were no electors to vote for president on February 4th from New York. At the time, each state was allowed to decide its own method of choosing electors who would then vote for President. Each state was given a number of electors equal to its number of senators and representatives in Congress.
Electors were chosen by the legislature in 5 states – Connecticut, Georgia, New Jersey, New York and South Carolina. Virginia and Delaware divided the state into districts and one elector was chosen by each district. Maryland and Pennsylvania chose electors by popular vote. In Massachusetts, two electors were appointed by the legislature, while the remaining electors were chosen by the legislature from a list of the top two vote receivers in each congressional district. In New Hampshire, a statewide vote was held with the legislature making the decision in case of a tie.
In the election of 1789, Pennsylvania, Virginia and Massachusetts had 10 votes each; Connecticut and South Carolina had 7; New Jersey and Maryland had 6; New Hampshire and Georgia had 5; and Delaware had 3, for a total of 69 votes. Maryland could have had 2 more votes, but two electors failed to vote in February. Virginia also could have had two more votes, but the election returns in one district did not come in in time and one elector failed to attend the vote in February.
Each elector was able to cast 2 votes for President and one of the votes had to be for someone outside of his own home state. There was no question that George Washington would be the first President, even before the electors were chosen. The country was unanimous in its choice. The only question that really remained was who would be Vice-President. At the time, Presidents and Vice-Presidents did not run together on a ticket as they do today. Instead, all of them were presidential contenders with the highest vote getter becoming President and the runner up becoming Vice-President.
In 1789, all 69 electors cast 1 vote for George Washington (the only President to win a unanimous electoral college vote, both in 1789 and in 1792).The remaining votes were split between John Adams, John Jay, John Rutledge, John Hancock and some others, with John Adams receiving the most, 34, making him Washington’s Vice-President.
National Society Sons of the American Revolution
"[A] wise and frugal government … shall restrain men from injuring one another, shall leave them otherwise free to regulate their own pursuits of industry and improvement, and shall not take from the mouth of labor the bread it has earned. This is the sum of good government."
Thomas Jefferson (1801) | <urn:uuid:e3fad0bd-6502-486d-a42e-99f137b1ccda> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blog.alssar.org/uncategorized/the-first-electoral-college-is-chosen-5/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00016.warc.gz | en | 0.987559 | 660 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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On this day in history, January 7, 1789, the first Electoral College is chosen. They would cast their votes for President on February 4 and would unanimously choose George Washington as the first President of the United States.
The election of 1789 was a unique one in American history. Only ten of the original thirteen colonies would vote in the election. North Carolina and Rhode Island had not yet even ratified the Constitution, so were not yet part of the United States. New York had ratified the Constitution, but a deadlock in the legislature prevented them from appointing their electors by the appointed date of January 7, meaning there were no electors to vote for president on February 4th from New York. At the time, each state was allowed to decide its own method of choosing electors who would then vote for President. Each state was given a number of electors equal to its number of senators and representatives in Congress.
Electors were chosen by the legislature in 5 states – Connecticut, Georgia, New Jersey, New York and South Carolina. Virginia and Delaware divided the state into districts and one elector was chosen by each district. Maryland and Pennsylvania chose electors by popular vote. In Massachusetts, two electors were appointed by the legislature, while the remaining electors were chosen by the legislature from a list of the top two vote receivers in each congressional district. In New Hampshire, a statewide vote was held with the legislature making the decision in case of a tie.
In the election of 1789, Pennsylvania, Virginia and Massachusetts had 10 votes each; Connecticut and South Carolina had 7; New Jersey and Maryland had 6; New Hampshire and Georgia had 5; and Delaware had 3, for a total of 69 votes. Maryland could have had 2 more votes, but two electors failed to vote in February. Virginia also could have had two more votes, but the election returns in one district did not come in in time and one elector failed to attend the vote in February.
Each elector was able to cast 2 votes for President and one of the votes had to be for someone outside of his own home state. There was no question that George Washington would be the first President, even before the electors were chosen. The country was unanimous in its choice. The only question that really remained was who would be Vice-President. At the time, Presidents and Vice-Presidents did not run together on a ticket as they do today. Instead, all of them were presidential contenders with the highest vote getter becoming President and the runner up becoming Vice-President.
In 1789, all 69 electors cast 1 vote for George Washington (the only President to win a unanimous electoral college vote, both in 1789 and in 1792).The remaining votes were split between John Adams, John Jay, John Rutledge, John Hancock and some others, with John Adams receiving the most, 34, making him Washington’s Vice-President.
National Society Sons of the American Revolution
"[A] wise and frugal government … shall restrain men from injuring one another, shall leave them otherwise free to regulate their own pursuits of industry and improvement, and shall not take from the mouth of labor the bread it has earned. This is the sum of good government."
Thomas Jefferson (1801) | 699 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Preview referat: D-Day
Germany knew that the Allies would try something and would probably attack the coast, but was not sure on exactly where the attack would occur. Hitler decided to use the help of retired Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt and made him Commander and Chief. Field Marshal Rundstedt who had not lost a campaign during the war, and directed the blitzkrieg that crushed France, Holland, and Belgium. He was given the task to protect the coast from the German boarder in the north all the way to the Italian frontier, which was about 3,000 miles.
To do this heavy defenses were placed along the coastline, and sixty divisions of soldiers of poor health and Soviet prisoners of war (who were glade to fight against Marshal Stalin but did not care about fighting the Americans or British armies). These defenses started strengthening the "Atlantic Wall" as soon as 1942. Which was a line of fortifications, which the German army was believed to be invulnerable behind. Some of the obstacles were miles and miles of barbed wire, mines, Belgian Gates, teller mines, ramps, hedgehogs, pillboxes, and concrete bunkers.
Mines were placed in the water and on land. On land mines and barbed wire were crisscrossed along the beaches and paths leading off the beaches. Belgian gates were 10 foot-high steel framed structures set parallel to the beach, with antitank mines attached to the top. Teller mines were on posts angled seaward, covered at high tide and placed 200 yards from the shore. Ramps were mine-tipped logs driven into the sand facing the shore. Hedgehogs were 6 foot high obstacles constructed of steel rails with mine-tipped ends, out together to rip out the bottom of landing crafts at high tide, Pill boxes were on the sea wall, these concrete bunkers shielded machine gun nests and antitank guns. « mai multe referate din Engleza | <urn:uuid:3cb998e8-b26e-4ece-b083-a952f7b3416d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.e-referate.ro/referate/D-Day2015-10-13.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00280.warc.gz | en | 0.982266 | 402 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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Germany knew that the Allies would try something and would probably attack the coast, but was not sure on exactly where the attack would occur. Hitler decided to use the help of retired Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt and made him Commander and Chief. Field Marshal Rundstedt who had not lost a campaign during the war, and directed the blitzkrieg that crushed France, Holland, and Belgium. He was given the task to protect the coast from the German boarder in the north all the way to the Italian frontier, which was about 3,000 miles.
To do this heavy defenses were placed along the coastline, and sixty divisions of soldiers of poor health and Soviet prisoners of war (who were glade to fight against Marshal Stalin but did not care about fighting the Americans or British armies). These defenses started strengthening the "Atlantic Wall" as soon as 1942. Which was a line of fortifications, which the German army was believed to be invulnerable behind. Some of the obstacles were miles and miles of barbed wire, mines, Belgian Gates, teller mines, ramps, hedgehogs, pillboxes, and concrete bunkers.
Mines were placed in the water and on land. On land mines and barbed wire were crisscrossed along the beaches and paths leading off the beaches. Belgian gates were 10 foot-high steel framed structures set parallel to the beach, with antitank mines attached to the top. Teller mines were on posts angled seaward, covered at high tide and placed 200 yards from the shore. Ramps were mine-tipped logs driven into the sand facing the shore. Hedgehogs were 6 foot high obstacles constructed of steel rails with mine-tipped ends, out together to rip out the bottom of landing crafts at high tide, Pill boxes were on the sea wall, these concrete bunkers shielded machine gun nests and antitank guns. « mai multe referate din Engleza | 411 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Modernism is defined in Merriam-Webster's Dictionary as "a self-conscious break with the past and a search for new forms of expression." While this explanation does relate what modernism means, the intricacies of the term go much deeper. Modernism began around 1890 and waned around 1922. Virginia Wolf once wrote, "In or about December, 1910, human character changed." (Hurt and Wilkie 1443). D.H. Lawrence wrote a similar statement about 1915: "It was 1915 the old world ended." (Hurt and Wilkie 1444). The importance of the exact dates of the Modernist period are not so relevant as the fact that new ideas were implemented in the era. Ideas that had never before been approached in the world of literature suddenly began emerging in the works of many great authors. Two of the pioneer Modernist writers were Joseph Conrad and T.S. Eliot. The tendencies to question the incontestable beliefs embedded in all thinking and to focus on the inner self dominated. Old viewpoints were tossed aside to make way for the discovery of modern man's personal spirituality. Two works that are considered important forbears in the Modern period are T.S. Eliot's The Wasteland and Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness.
One attribute of Modernist writing is Experimentation. This called for using new techniques and disregarding the old. Previous writing was often even considered "stereotyped and inadequate" (Holcombe and Torres). Modern writers thrived on originality and honesty to themselves and their tenets. They wrote of things that had never been advanced before and their subjects were far from those of the past eras. It could be observed that the Modernist writing completely contradicted its predecessors. The past was rejected with vigor and Experimentation played a key role in the new Modernist way of writing. The Modernist writers did not try to censure what they felt was the truth. Stepping outside of the box, they wrote what they perceived in their own minds to be reality. The readers in turn were given a new form of literature that was not written on the basis of beliefs that earlier had seemed indisputable. Not only were old belief systems disregarded, they were openly opposed. Even more surprising, the new thoughts were acceptable, and in turn provided an alternative route for thinking that had not formerly been considered.
Anti-Realism is another feature of Modernism. This element included the use of myth and allusion in writing. Description was a prominent feature in literature before the Modernist period; writers had set the scene using an exactness that left little room for a reader's imagination. With Modernism emerged the allusion, which meant that only certain aspects of the setting or scene were revealed. This provided freedom for the reader to think about what the author was presenting through the text. The work was created through the inner feelings and workings of the characters and the symbols hidden in the plot and setting. The way... | <urn:uuid:dd96e4c7-e380-41c5-a196-e1be992f5d08> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/modernism-14 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00265.warc.gz | en | 0.980557 | 600 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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-0.04780792... | 1 | Modernism is defined in Merriam-Webster's Dictionary as "a self-conscious break with the past and a search for new forms of expression." While this explanation does relate what modernism means, the intricacies of the term go much deeper. Modernism began around 1890 and waned around 1922. Virginia Wolf once wrote, "In or about December, 1910, human character changed." (Hurt and Wilkie 1443). D.H. Lawrence wrote a similar statement about 1915: "It was 1915 the old world ended." (Hurt and Wilkie 1444). The importance of the exact dates of the Modernist period are not so relevant as the fact that new ideas were implemented in the era. Ideas that had never before been approached in the world of literature suddenly began emerging in the works of many great authors. Two of the pioneer Modernist writers were Joseph Conrad and T.S. Eliot. The tendencies to question the incontestable beliefs embedded in all thinking and to focus on the inner self dominated. Old viewpoints were tossed aside to make way for the discovery of modern man's personal spirituality. Two works that are considered important forbears in the Modern period are T.S. Eliot's The Wasteland and Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness.
One attribute of Modernist writing is Experimentation. This called for using new techniques and disregarding the old. Previous writing was often even considered "stereotyped and inadequate" (Holcombe and Torres). Modern writers thrived on originality and honesty to themselves and their tenets. They wrote of things that had never been advanced before and their subjects were far from those of the past eras. It could be observed that the Modernist writing completely contradicted its predecessors. The past was rejected with vigor and Experimentation played a key role in the new Modernist way of writing. The Modernist writers did not try to censure what they felt was the truth. Stepping outside of the box, they wrote what they perceived in their own minds to be reality. The readers in turn were given a new form of literature that was not written on the basis of beliefs that earlier had seemed indisputable. Not only were old belief systems disregarded, they were openly opposed. Even more surprising, the new thoughts were acceptable, and in turn provided an alternative route for thinking that had not formerly been considered.
Anti-Realism is another feature of Modernism. This element included the use of myth and allusion in writing. Description was a prominent feature in literature before the Modernist period; writers had set the scene using an exactness that left little room for a reader's imagination. With Modernism emerged the allusion, which meant that only certain aspects of the setting or scene were revealed. This provided freedom for the reader to think about what the author was presenting through the text. The work was created through the inner feelings and workings of the characters and the symbols hidden in the plot and setting. The way... | 626 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William Phips faced a dilemma in August of 1676. At his shipyard in Woolwich, Maine he had built his first merchant vessel and was planning to make a voyage to deliver lumber to Boston. A young man of 26, he had big dreams and was set to make a nice score.
But the Wabanaki Confederacy, a group of American Indian tribes then at war (King Philips War) with the colonists had other ideas. As the Indians prepared to attack, Phips changed his plans. He loaded his vessel with as many colonists as he could and, leaving his lumber behind, sailed for Boston where he was hailed as a hero.
Heroisim did not pay the bills, however, and Phips again set up in Boston as a shipbuilder. But rather than stay ashore, he decided the real money lay in recovering treasure, usually Spanish treasure, that was lost at sea.
He set out for the Bahamas and, after picking over some wreck sites, provided his investors a reasonable return. For his next voyage, he travelled to England to gain backing. Among his investors was King Charles II. This two-year voyage did not go well. It was beset with problems, from delays in getting supplies to a mutinous crew. It recorded a loss.
Phip’s third voyage, however, was a different story. Some of his investors were reluctant to back the treasure hunter again because of his failure. But he managed to round up funds with the backing of the Duke of Albermarle.
The voyage got underway in 1687, and Phip soon found what he was after in the waters north of the Dominican Republic. A Spanish ship, Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, had gone down in 1641 with a massive horde of silver, gold and jewelry on board bound from South America and to Spain.
Phips’ crew worked feverishly until they exhausted their supplies. They returned to England in the summer of 1687 with somewhere between 210,000 and 300,000 pounds. The find earned Phips a knighthood, 11,000 pounds as his share of the haul and appointment as sheriff of the Dominion of New England. He was celebrated in London.
Phips departed England in 1688 to return to New England and take up his post. | <urn:uuid:2992f13d-f7e7-4256-8c30-12d7dc424791> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/william-phips-goes-sea-making-colonial-sheriff/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00402.warc.gz | en | 0.990179 | 474 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.1126307... | 6 | William Phips faced a dilemma in August of 1676. At his shipyard in Woolwich, Maine he had built his first merchant vessel and was planning to make a voyage to deliver lumber to Boston. A young man of 26, he had big dreams and was set to make a nice score.
But the Wabanaki Confederacy, a group of American Indian tribes then at war (King Philips War) with the colonists had other ideas. As the Indians prepared to attack, Phips changed his plans. He loaded his vessel with as many colonists as he could and, leaving his lumber behind, sailed for Boston where he was hailed as a hero.
Heroisim did not pay the bills, however, and Phips again set up in Boston as a shipbuilder. But rather than stay ashore, he decided the real money lay in recovering treasure, usually Spanish treasure, that was lost at sea.
He set out for the Bahamas and, after picking over some wreck sites, provided his investors a reasonable return. For his next voyage, he travelled to England to gain backing. Among his investors was King Charles II. This two-year voyage did not go well. It was beset with problems, from delays in getting supplies to a mutinous crew. It recorded a loss.
Phip’s third voyage, however, was a different story. Some of his investors were reluctant to back the treasure hunter again because of his failure. But he managed to round up funds with the backing of the Duke of Albermarle.
The voyage got underway in 1687, and Phip soon found what he was after in the waters north of the Dominican Republic. A Spanish ship, Nuestra Señora de la Concepción, had gone down in 1641 with a massive horde of silver, gold and jewelry on board bound from South America and to Spain.
Phips’ crew worked feverishly until they exhausted their supplies. They returned to England in the summer of 1687 with somewhere between 210,000 and 300,000 pounds. The find earned Phips a knighthood, 11,000 pounds as his share of the haul and appointment as sheriff of the Dominion of New England. He was celebrated in London.
Phips departed England in 1688 to return to New England and take up his post. | 496 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who sees? Who is blind? Why? Compare one character’s insight to another character’s lack of understanding, either in the same text or through a comparative reading. What thematic purpose is served...
Who sees? Who is blind? Why? Compare one character’s insight to another character’s lack of understanding, either in the same text or through a comparative reading. What thematic purpose is served by the author presenting some characters as either “blind” to certain knowledge, or as gaining some sort of insight?
The narrator and her husband make an excellent duo for this question.
The narrator likely suffers from postpartum depression, as evidenced by the baby who is also in the household and by her symptoms; the narrator has great intuition about what she needs. She realizes that being near her baby makes her increasingly "nervous." She looks out the (barred) windows of her room and enjoys the natural beauty there; she imagines the conversations of people who might pass by, longing for socialization herself. The narrator realizes that being confined in a former nursery with her current mental delicacies toward her own child leave her feeling disjointed, and she cannot stand the confinement. She is in tune with the way her body needs healing: nature, social interactions, and freedom. She sees the truth of how harmful it is to be confined and kept quiet for an extended period of time.
Her husband believes himself to fully see his wife's situation, yet his efforts to help her only make the symptoms worse. He dismisses his wife's requests for a bedroom with roses on the windows. He tells her that if she feels "sensitive," she simply lacks proper "self-control." He "hardly lets [her] stir without special direction." When his wife laments about the horrid confinement with the wallpaper that she cannot escape, he calls her his "blessed little goose" and dismisses her once again. He cannot see the truth of the situation—that he does not know what is best for his wife and that it is physically and psychologically harming her with each passing day.
Thematically, the husband's "blindness" represents the historical context in which the story was written. Dr. Silas Weir Mitchell, who is referenced in the story, was a doctor in the late 1800s who treated women in much the same way that the narrator's physician husband believes in treating her. Dr. Weir Mitchell forbade women from talking, writing, or reading, a therapy referred to as the "rest cure." Thus, women were basically in solitary confinement, imprisoned in their own homes and with no outlet for creative expression or other means of processing their various illnesses. The husband represents a male perspective that he is more knowledgeable of his wife's health than she could possibly be; thus, he is blind to the arrogance inherent in such a position. The narrator sees clearly the path to healing but is dismissed, because she exists in a patriarchal society which doesn't value her insights—or even her knowledge of her own body.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:b5fd7bb1-5061-43a4-a365-752c13288e36> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/who-sees-who-is-blind-why-compare-one-character-s-2069379 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00490.warc.gz | en | 0.982156 | 632 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.057275332510471344... | 1 | Who sees? Who is blind? Why? Compare one character’s insight to another character’s lack of understanding, either in the same text or through a comparative reading. What thematic purpose is served...
Who sees? Who is blind? Why? Compare one character’s insight to another character’s lack of understanding, either in the same text or through a comparative reading. What thematic purpose is served by the author presenting some characters as either “blind” to certain knowledge, or as gaining some sort of insight?
The narrator and her husband make an excellent duo for this question.
The narrator likely suffers from postpartum depression, as evidenced by the baby who is also in the household and by her symptoms; the narrator has great intuition about what she needs. She realizes that being near her baby makes her increasingly "nervous." She looks out the (barred) windows of her room and enjoys the natural beauty there; she imagines the conversations of people who might pass by, longing for socialization herself. The narrator realizes that being confined in a former nursery with her current mental delicacies toward her own child leave her feeling disjointed, and she cannot stand the confinement. She is in tune with the way her body needs healing: nature, social interactions, and freedom. She sees the truth of how harmful it is to be confined and kept quiet for an extended period of time.
Her husband believes himself to fully see his wife's situation, yet his efforts to help her only make the symptoms worse. He dismisses his wife's requests for a bedroom with roses on the windows. He tells her that if she feels "sensitive," she simply lacks proper "self-control." He "hardly lets [her] stir without special direction." When his wife laments about the horrid confinement with the wallpaper that she cannot escape, he calls her his "blessed little goose" and dismisses her once again. He cannot see the truth of the situation—that he does not know what is best for his wife and that it is physically and psychologically harming her with each passing day.
Thematically, the husband's "blindness" represents the historical context in which the story was written. Dr. Silas Weir Mitchell, who is referenced in the story, was a doctor in the late 1800s who treated women in much the same way that the narrator's physician husband believes in treating her. Dr. Weir Mitchell forbade women from talking, writing, or reading, a therapy referred to as the "rest cure." Thus, women were basically in solitary confinement, imprisoned in their own homes and with no outlet for creative expression or other means of processing their various illnesses. The husband represents a male perspective that he is more knowledgeable of his wife's health than she could possibly be; thus, he is blind to the arrogance inherent in such a position. The narrator sees clearly the path to healing but is dismissed, because she exists in a patriarchal society which doesn't value her insights—or even her knowledge of her own body.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 617 | ENGLISH | 1 |
June 21, 1945 – Fall Of Okinawa
June 21, 1945 – Word had flashed across newswires that the island of Okinawa, after some 82 days of endless siege, with some 250,000 casualties, Okinawa fell to the allies. After a long campaign of island-hopping, the island of Okinawa was only some 340 miles from the Japanese mainland, which would make it crucial as an air field for aerial assaults on Japan, but also a primary staging area for an eventual invasion of Japan itself.
It was by far the bloodiest campaign in the Pacific Theatre, with Japanese losses at around 80,000 and American losses at some 15,000 while native Okinawans suffered the worst, with almost 150,000 killed during the fighting, or by suicide when a U.S. victory seemed imminent.
One of the interesting sidelights to this battle, aside from its strategic importance,was the fact this the Battle of Okinawa had the largest number of cases of mental breakdown of any battle during the war up to this point. Many attributed the breakdowns to the near constant bombardment from artillery and mortars, and the high number of casualties led to a record amount of combat fatigue among the troops. Morale on the part of the U.S. forces was at a dangerous low by May. The sight of thousands of dead, both Americans and Japanese laying unburied where they fell had a marked affect on morale, along with reports of atrocities committed by the Japanese, as well as using Okinawan civilians as human shields made this one of the worst episodes of the war.
But on June 21st it was mostly all over. Save for a few pockets of resistance, the island of Okinawa was now in allied hands. And here is the direct report as relayed from Guam via NBC Radio. | <urn:uuid:1f5f99cd-52bb-4ee7-ad9b-d9733064ee56> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://pastdaily.com/2017/06/21/june-21-1945-fall-okinawa/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00035.warc.gz | en | 0.980228 | 362 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.9084764719009399... | 3 | June 21, 1945 – Fall Of Okinawa
June 21, 1945 – Word had flashed across newswires that the island of Okinawa, after some 82 days of endless siege, with some 250,000 casualties, Okinawa fell to the allies. After a long campaign of island-hopping, the island of Okinawa was only some 340 miles from the Japanese mainland, which would make it crucial as an air field for aerial assaults on Japan, but also a primary staging area for an eventual invasion of Japan itself.
It was by far the bloodiest campaign in the Pacific Theatre, with Japanese losses at around 80,000 and American losses at some 15,000 while native Okinawans suffered the worst, with almost 150,000 killed during the fighting, or by suicide when a U.S. victory seemed imminent.
One of the interesting sidelights to this battle, aside from its strategic importance,was the fact this the Battle of Okinawa had the largest number of cases of mental breakdown of any battle during the war up to this point. Many attributed the breakdowns to the near constant bombardment from artillery and mortars, and the high number of casualties led to a record amount of combat fatigue among the troops. Morale on the part of the U.S. forces was at a dangerous low by May. The sight of thousands of dead, both Americans and Japanese laying unburied where they fell had a marked affect on morale, along with reports of atrocities committed by the Japanese, as well as using Okinawan civilians as human shields made this one of the worst episodes of the war.
But on June 21st it was mostly all over. Save for a few pockets of resistance, the island of Okinawa was now in allied hands. And here is the direct report as relayed from Guam via NBC Radio. | 409 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Inspiration from John F. Kennedy
Estimated Lesson Time: 2 minutes
John F. Kennedy (1917-1963) was the 35th President of the United States.
Success is determination and perseverance. Growing up, John was in constant competition with his older brother Joe who had the advantage of being physically stronger and earning better grades in school. John never gave in or gave up and pushed himself to make many great accomplishments.
Success is having an attractive personality. Many respected President Kennedy’s coolness when faced with difficult decisions—like what to do about the missiles in Cuba. Others admired his ability to inspire people with his eloquent speeches. Still others thought his compassion and his willingness to fight for new government programs to help the poor, the elderly and the ill were most important.
Success is making waves. In addition to being the youngest President ever elected at age 43, President Kennedy was also the first Roman Catholic President.
Success is making the best use of your time. In 1955, while recuperating from a back operation, Kennedy wrote Profiles in Courage, which won the Pulitzer Prize in history.
Success is understanding the power of goals. From the moment President Kennedy took office, he implemented and executed both short-term and long-term goals. In his short term in office, he had accomplished more than most Presidents had in their complete terms.
Success is sharing and caring. President Kennedy established the Peace Corps in March 1961. Through this program many young Americans were encouraged to contribute their skills to “sharing in the great common task of bringing to man that decent way of life which is the foundation of freedom and a condition of peace.”
Success is understanding the importance of family. When President Kennedy was in office, the White House was reported to have seemed like a “fun place,” because of the Kennedy’s two young children, Caroline and John-John. There was a pre-school, a swimming pool, and a tree house outside on the White House lawn. President Kennedy was probably the busiest man in the country, but he still found time to laugh and play with his children.
Success is making informed decisions based on adequate information. President Kennedy read several newspapers while eating breakfast, had meetings with important people throughout the day, and read several reports from his advisers. He understood that better information led to better decisions.
Success is earning the admiration of others. John F. Kennedy was most admired for his winning personality, his lively family, his intelligence and his tireless energy, and people respected his courage in time of decision.
[Sources: http://www.biography.com, http://www.whitehouse.gov, http://www.jfklibrary.org]
Take Your Year To Success To the Next Level
If you like what you are reading, please consider these options in addition to this course. They include a hardcopy of the book and an intensive course with action steps, assignments, and personal coaching from Bo.
- Buy the Book. Year To Success - Available in hardcover, signed by the author. Also available in ebook, paperback, and audio from Amazon.com.
- Enroll in Bo's Life Mastery Online Course. This is a course that covers hundreds of life-enhancing topics that they never taught in school, but should. This is more than a course on self-improvement; it is a course on mastering life.
Some discussion questions (some may not apply to this lesson):
- Have you implemented this idea in your life? How has it been working for you?
- Do you have any interesting stories related to this lesson? Do tell!
- What do you admire most about this person? (success biography days) | <urn:uuid:3555cedb-ebca-45bf-a9f3-4fbe4b803ff8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.virversity.com/tools/oc/courses/yeartosuccess/Apj2jvEbYH | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00475.warc.gz | en | 0.98307 | 767 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.32804507017135... | 1 | Inspiration from John F. Kennedy
Estimated Lesson Time: 2 minutes
John F. Kennedy (1917-1963) was the 35th President of the United States.
Success is determination and perseverance. Growing up, John was in constant competition with his older brother Joe who had the advantage of being physically stronger and earning better grades in school. John never gave in or gave up and pushed himself to make many great accomplishments.
Success is having an attractive personality. Many respected President Kennedy’s coolness when faced with difficult decisions—like what to do about the missiles in Cuba. Others admired his ability to inspire people with his eloquent speeches. Still others thought his compassion and his willingness to fight for new government programs to help the poor, the elderly and the ill were most important.
Success is making waves. In addition to being the youngest President ever elected at age 43, President Kennedy was also the first Roman Catholic President.
Success is making the best use of your time. In 1955, while recuperating from a back operation, Kennedy wrote Profiles in Courage, which won the Pulitzer Prize in history.
Success is understanding the power of goals. From the moment President Kennedy took office, he implemented and executed both short-term and long-term goals. In his short term in office, he had accomplished more than most Presidents had in their complete terms.
Success is sharing and caring. President Kennedy established the Peace Corps in March 1961. Through this program many young Americans were encouraged to contribute their skills to “sharing in the great common task of bringing to man that decent way of life which is the foundation of freedom and a condition of peace.”
Success is understanding the importance of family. When President Kennedy was in office, the White House was reported to have seemed like a “fun place,” because of the Kennedy’s two young children, Caroline and John-John. There was a pre-school, a swimming pool, and a tree house outside on the White House lawn. President Kennedy was probably the busiest man in the country, but he still found time to laugh and play with his children.
Success is making informed decisions based on adequate information. President Kennedy read several newspapers while eating breakfast, had meetings with important people throughout the day, and read several reports from his advisers. He understood that better information led to better decisions.
Success is earning the admiration of others. John F. Kennedy was most admired for his winning personality, his lively family, his intelligence and his tireless energy, and people respected his courage in time of decision.
[Sources: http://www.biography.com, http://www.whitehouse.gov, http://www.jfklibrary.org]
Take Your Year To Success To the Next Level
If you like what you are reading, please consider these options in addition to this course. They include a hardcopy of the book and an intensive course with action steps, assignments, and personal coaching from Bo.
- Buy the Book. Year To Success - Available in hardcover, signed by the author. Also available in ebook, paperback, and audio from Amazon.com.
- Enroll in Bo's Life Mastery Online Course. This is a course that covers hundreds of life-enhancing topics that they never taught in school, but should. This is more than a course on self-improvement; it is a course on mastering life.
Some discussion questions (some may not apply to this lesson):
- Have you implemented this idea in your life? How has it been working for you?
- Do you have any interesting stories related to this lesson? Do tell!
- What do you admire most about this person? (success biography days) | 741 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“Marley was dead to begin with.” These six words may be, at least, one of the most famous lines in all of literature. In 1843 Charles Dickens was short on funds. In order to help himself make the money he needed he came up with the idea of a Christmas book. He was considering the circumstances of the poor and how to get a message out to the people about the circumstances of the poor and how to help. Thus was born A Christmas Carol.
The book took Dickens 6 weeks to write and he enjoyed every minute of the work. When he was done he decided to publish it on his own. He designed the cover as chose the illustrator, John Leech. He opted to have 6000 copies printed, which at the time was not a small number. The book was released December 17, 1843 and with in four days all the copies were sold. The book was printed again and has not been out of print since its publication.
A Christmas Carol is not written in chapters but in staves as in the lines of a song, Dickens Carol has five staves.
The first stave of A Christmas Carol is Marley’s Ghost. In this Stave we meet our main Character Ebenezer Scrooge. It is interesting to note here that name Ebenezer has a biblical meaning. When the Hebrew nation won a battle against their enemies with God’s help they were instructed to set up an Ebenezer stone. This stone would mark the place where God delivered them from their enemies. In so doing they were to remember who delivered them. So the name Ebenezer in a way means something to remember what God has done for you.
Scrooge himself was described by Dickens as a “tight fisted hand at the grindstone, Scrooge! A squeezing, wrenching, grasping, clutching, covetous old sinner!…and as solitary as an oyster”. So immediately we find out that Scrooge hoarded money, he wanted what others had, and he held on to it. He didn’t want others around him unless absolutely necessary.
We learn that Scrooge owns a business and had once had a partner named Jacob Marley and that Marley had died seven years ago that very night, Christmas Eve. We also find out that on the day of Marley’s funeral Scrooge made a bargain with the undertaker so funeral would be cheap. We later find that Scrooge was Marley’s heir and took everything that belonged to his dead partner.
In the first stave we meet Scrooge’s clerk, Bob Cratchit, who we are to find has a wife and five children, Scrooge pays Bob 15 shillings a week which in the money of the day was about $3.67. Prices were different in those days but it was still hard to get by on that small amount.
We also meet Scrooge’s nephew, Fred. Who comes to the office to wish his uncle a Merry Christmas. Fred is Scrooge’s only living relative. He is the son of Scrooge’s sister Fan, who has passed away. Scrooge tells his nephew that Christmas is a humbug. Humbug is a deception or something that is false. Scrooge goes on to say that “anyone who goes about with a merry Christmas on his lips should be boiled with his own pudding ( an English Christmas dessert) and buried with a stake of holly through his heart.” Scrooge’s nephew is appalled by his uncle’s words. Fred tells Scrooge that Christmas is a warm, charitable time. A time when “men open their shut up hearts freely and think of people below them as fellow passengers to the grave and not another race of creatures bound on other journeys.”
It is interesting to note here, though Dickens never outright says that Christmas is the birth of Jesus, he often alludes to it. When Fred first begins to talk about Christmas he says, “ I have always thought of Christmas-time, when it has come around – apart from the veneration due to its sacred name and origin, if anything belonging to it could be apart from that.” Fred is telling Scrooge that Christmas is a day that is sacred and a day to be venerated because of the birth of Jesus. He also questions whether anything belonging to Christmas can be separated from Christ’s birth.
Scrooge immediately shuts his nephew down and refuses to hear any more of it. Fred even invites Scrooge to Christmas dinner, to which Scrooge replied in the vernacular of the day, that he would see his nephew in hell first. Scrooge’s nephew never loses his good cheer and as he leaves he wishes his uncle a merry Christmas and a happy New Year.
When Scrooge’s nephew leaves two more gentlemen visit Scrooge. They are there to collect money for food and drink and means of warmth for the poor. They tell him that this time of year “want is keenly felt, and abundance rejoices.” It is the same with us today. People can be in all kinds of want at Christmas time. Sometimes it is for material goods like food and clothing. Sometimes it is for other types of needs like loneliness and depression. If we have lost someone during the year it is at Christmas that the loss is felt more deeply.
But we must also remember that men stated that “abundance rejoices”. In other words people come together to help the poor this time of year. Donations of toys and clothing and food and money are distributed. The Salvation Army can be seen collecting money for those in need in many places and they use this money to help care for others all year.
Scrooge’s answer to these men was to the point; he tells them that if there were people in need they should go to poor houses and work the treadmill. Both were very horrible places and few wanted to go there. Families would be separated with no guarantee that they would see each other again. The work was hard and degrading. Scrooge told the men that he paid taxes for these places and he would give no more to help them. He states that these people must go there.
One of the men responded that “Many can’t go there and many would rather die.” Scrooge’s answer to that was that” if they would rather die they should do it and decrease the surplus population.” These words he would later regret.
The two men after hearing left the office. The hour of closing came around and Scrooge reluctantly let his clerk know this. Before he left the office Scrooge grudgingly gives his clerk Christmas day off, but with the stipulation the clerk should come in early the next morning.
Scrooge has dinner and goes home to the house that used to belong to his partner, Jacob Marley. It is when putting his key into the door that Scrooge sees Marley for the first time as knocker turn into Marley’s face. Scrooge does not accept what he sees and goes in to the house. Once entering the part of the house he occupies, he double locks the door and checks all around the room to make sure everything is as it should be, he is a little nervous about what he has seen though he won’t admit it to himself.
As Scrooge sits down by the fire to take a bit of gruel, a very watery oat meal with a lot of milk, some butter and few oats, bells start to clang in the house and then Scrooge hears chains coming up the stairs and towards his door and then enters the Ghost of Jacob Marley.
Scrooge does not believe what he is seeing. He blames it on indigestion and tells Marley that he is a bit of cheese or under cooked beef, or a blob of mustard. At this the ghost raises and shakes his chains and gives off a terrifying howl. After this Scrooge unwillingly believes in what he is seeing.
Marley tells Scrooge that he, also, is wearing a long chain like Marley’s but bigger as Scrooge has had seven more years to work on it. He goes on to say that the chain is forged in this life if we ignore the need to help others and he admits this was his failing and he will now regret it for all eternity.
Marley asks Scrooge, “Why did I walk through crowds of fellow beings with my eyes turned down, and never raise them to that blessed star which led Wise Men to a poor abode? Were there no poor homes to which its light would have conducted me?”
In essence Marley was asking Scrooge a question that Scrooge could not answer, as Scrooge lived the same way. Always looking down and keeping himself to himself. Never wondering about or caring for anyone else beyond himself. Totally self absorbed. This is why Marley had come.
Marley tells Scrooge that he has been able to get Scrooge a chance to escape his doom. He tells Scrooge that he will be visited by three Sprits, and that without their help Scrooge could not be saved. Scrooge tells Marley that he would rather not have these visitations. But Marley really doesn’t give his ex partner a chance to refuse and tells Scrooge that the first spirit will come tomorrow when the bells tolls one, the second the next night at the same hour and the third the following night when “the last stroke of twelve ceases to vibrate.”
Marley then leaves Scrooge by walking backward toward the window as the window slowly raises itself.
Marley beckons Scrooge to look and when Scrooge does he sees many Spirits outside all roped around by chains and all suffering as they cannot help a poor woman and a child shivering in the outside cold. Scrooge on seeing this cannot take anymore and runs to his bed covering himself in fear.
Marley has done much for Scrooge. These days we would call his work an intervention. An intervention is when a group of friends gather together to help you see where you are messing up your life. This could an addiction area or trouble in your home or in your marriage. Of course this kind of help does not have to be done in groups. Real friends will tell you what you need to hear when you need to hear it. A friend like that is not one to get angry at but one you should treasure.
At the end of Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone Professor Dumbledore gives Neville Longbottom 50 extra points for his house because Neville had the courage to stand up to his friends, which is harder to do that to stand up to your enemies.
So what about us? Are we looking down, not noticing the suffering around us. Do we hoard what we have instead of helping others? Are we so self centered that we cannot see a friend that has a need? These are the questions we should ask ourselves as we close the book on Stave one of A Christmas Carol. | <urn:uuid:90c5cb66-5b0c-4c2b-8de5-262766dcec5d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://pop-culture.net/5-days-5-staves-christmas-carol-day-one | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00045.warc.gz | en | 0.984309 | 2,353 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.1557181477... | 9 | “Marley was dead to begin with.” These six words may be, at least, one of the most famous lines in all of literature. In 1843 Charles Dickens was short on funds. In order to help himself make the money he needed he came up with the idea of a Christmas book. He was considering the circumstances of the poor and how to get a message out to the people about the circumstances of the poor and how to help. Thus was born A Christmas Carol.
The book took Dickens 6 weeks to write and he enjoyed every minute of the work. When he was done he decided to publish it on his own. He designed the cover as chose the illustrator, John Leech. He opted to have 6000 copies printed, which at the time was not a small number. The book was released December 17, 1843 and with in four days all the copies were sold. The book was printed again and has not been out of print since its publication.
A Christmas Carol is not written in chapters but in staves as in the lines of a song, Dickens Carol has five staves.
The first stave of A Christmas Carol is Marley’s Ghost. In this Stave we meet our main Character Ebenezer Scrooge. It is interesting to note here that name Ebenezer has a biblical meaning. When the Hebrew nation won a battle against their enemies with God’s help they were instructed to set up an Ebenezer stone. This stone would mark the place where God delivered them from their enemies. In so doing they were to remember who delivered them. So the name Ebenezer in a way means something to remember what God has done for you.
Scrooge himself was described by Dickens as a “tight fisted hand at the grindstone, Scrooge! A squeezing, wrenching, grasping, clutching, covetous old sinner!…and as solitary as an oyster”. So immediately we find out that Scrooge hoarded money, he wanted what others had, and he held on to it. He didn’t want others around him unless absolutely necessary.
We learn that Scrooge owns a business and had once had a partner named Jacob Marley and that Marley had died seven years ago that very night, Christmas Eve. We also find out that on the day of Marley’s funeral Scrooge made a bargain with the undertaker so funeral would be cheap. We later find that Scrooge was Marley’s heir and took everything that belonged to his dead partner.
In the first stave we meet Scrooge’s clerk, Bob Cratchit, who we are to find has a wife and five children, Scrooge pays Bob 15 shillings a week which in the money of the day was about $3.67. Prices were different in those days but it was still hard to get by on that small amount.
We also meet Scrooge’s nephew, Fred. Who comes to the office to wish his uncle a Merry Christmas. Fred is Scrooge’s only living relative. He is the son of Scrooge’s sister Fan, who has passed away. Scrooge tells his nephew that Christmas is a humbug. Humbug is a deception or something that is false. Scrooge goes on to say that “anyone who goes about with a merry Christmas on his lips should be boiled with his own pudding ( an English Christmas dessert) and buried with a stake of holly through his heart.” Scrooge’s nephew is appalled by his uncle’s words. Fred tells Scrooge that Christmas is a warm, charitable time. A time when “men open their shut up hearts freely and think of people below them as fellow passengers to the grave and not another race of creatures bound on other journeys.”
It is interesting to note here, though Dickens never outright says that Christmas is the birth of Jesus, he often alludes to it. When Fred first begins to talk about Christmas he says, “ I have always thought of Christmas-time, when it has come around – apart from the veneration due to its sacred name and origin, if anything belonging to it could be apart from that.” Fred is telling Scrooge that Christmas is a day that is sacred and a day to be venerated because of the birth of Jesus. He also questions whether anything belonging to Christmas can be separated from Christ’s birth.
Scrooge immediately shuts his nephew down and refuses to hear any more of it. Fred even invites Scrooge to Christmas dinner, to which Scrooge replied in the vernacular of the day, that he would see his nephew in hell first. Scrooge’s nephew never loses his good cheer and as he leaves he wishes his uncle a merry Christmas and a happy New Year.
When Scrooge’s nephew leaves two more gentlemen visit Scrooge. They are there to collect money for food and drink and means of warmth for the poor. They tell him that this time of year “want is keenly felt, and abundance rejoices.” It is the same with us today. People can be in all kinds of want at Christmas time. Sometimes it is for material goods like food and clothing. Sometimes it is for other types of needs like loneliness and depression. If we have lost someone during the year it is at Christmas that the loss is felt more deeply.
But we must also remember that men stated that “abundance rejoices”. In other words people come together to help the poor this time of year. Donations of toys and clothing and food and money are distributed. The Salvation Army can be seen collecting money for those in need in many places and they use this money to help care for others all year.
Scrooge’s answer to these men was to the point; he tells them that if there were people in need they should go to poor houses and work the treadmill. Both were very horrible places and few wanted to go there. Families would be separated with no guarantee that they would see each other again. The work was hard and degrading. Scrooge told the men that he paid taxes for these places and he would give no more to help them. He states that these people must go there.
One of the men responded that “Many can’t go there and many would rather die.” Scrooge’s answer to that was that” if they would rather die they should do it and decrease the surplus population.” These words he would later regret.
The two men after hearing left the office. The hour of closing came around and Scrooge reluctantly let his clerk know this. Before he left the office Scrooge grudgingly gives his clerk Christmas day off, but with the stipulation the clerk should come in early the next morning.
Scrooge has dinner and goes home to the house that used to belong to his partner, Jacob Marley. It is when putting his key into the door that Scrooge sees Marley for the first time as knocker turn into Marley’s face. Scrooge does not accept what he sees and goes in to the house. Once entering the part of the house he occupies, he double locks the door and checks all around the room to make sure everything is as it should be, he is a little nervous about what he has seen though he won’t admit it to himself.
As Scrooge sits down by the fire to take a bit of gruel, a very watery oat meal with a lot of milk, some butter and few oats, bells start to clang in the house and then Scrooge hears chains coming up the stairs and towards his door and then enters the Ghost of Jacob Marley.
Scrooge does not believe what he is seeing. He blames it on indigestion and tells Marley that he is a bit of cheese or under cooked beef, or a blob of mustard. At this the ghost raises and shakes his chains and gives off a terrifying howl. After this Scrooge unwillingly believes in what he is seeing.
Marley tells Scrooge that he, also, is wearing a long chain like Marley’s but bigger as Scrooge has had seven more years to work on it. He goes on to say that the chain is forged in this life if we ignore the need to help others and he admits this was his failing and he will now regret it for all eternity.
Marley asks Scrooge, “Why did I walk through crowds of fellow beings with my eyes turned down, and never raise them to that blessed star which led Wise Men to a poor abode? Were there no poor homes to which its light would have conducted me?”
In essence Marley was asking Scrooge a question that Scrooge could not answer, as Scrooge lived the same way. Always looking down and keeping himself to himself. Never wondering about or caring for anyone else beyond himself. Totally self absorbed. This is why Marley had come.
Marley tells Scrooge that he has been able to get Scrooge a chance to escape his doom. He tells Scrooge that he will be visited by three Sprits, and that without their help Scrooge could not be saved. Scrooge tells Marley that he would rather not have these visitations. But Marley really doesn’t give his ex partner a chance to refuse and tells Scrooge that the first spirit will come tomorrow when the bells tolls one, the second the next night at the same hour and the third the following night when “the last stroke of twelve ceases to vibrate.”
Marley then leaves Scrooge by walking backward toward the window as the window slowly raises itself.
Marley beckons Scrooge to look and when Scrooge does he sees many Spirits outside all roped around by chains and all suffering as they cannot help a poor woman and a child shivering in the outside cold. Scrooge on seeing this cannot take anymore and runs to his bed covering himself in fear.
Marley has done much for Scrooge. These days we would call his work an intervention. An intervention is when a group of friends gather together to help you see where you are messing up your life. This could an addiction area or trouble in your home or in your marriage. Of course this kind of help does not have to be done in groups. Real friends will tell you what you need to hear when you need to hear it. A friend like that is not one to get angry at but one you should treasure.
At the end of Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone Professor Dumbledore gives Neville Longbottom 50 extra points for his house because Neville had the courage to stand up to his friends, which is harder to do that to stand up to your enemies.
So what about us? Are we looking down, not noticing the suffering around us. Do we hoard what we have instead of helping others? Are we so self centered that we cannot see a friend that has a need? These are the questions we should ask ourselves as we close the book on Stave one of A Christmas Carol. | 2,266 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Malcolm's struggle against Mael Snechta made him an ally of Moray's traditional foe, the earl of Orkney, whose close relative Ingibiorg he married. Malcolm was already a widower, however, when the Anglo-Saxon royal family fled to Scotland in 1070, and he took Edgar Atheling's sister Margaret as his second wife. Malcolm supported her zeal for ecclesiastical reform. His attention now focused on Northumbria, which he raided repeatedly despite submitting to William the Conqueror in 1072 at Abernethy (south-east of Perth). In August 1093 he laid the foundation stone of Durham cathedral; two months later he was killed on a raid at Alnwick.
Malcolm III (died 1093), the king of Scotland from 1058 to 1093, established the Canmore dynasty, which ruled Scotland for two centuries. His reign was marked by the introduction into Scotland of English influences.
Malcolm was a claimant to the Scottish kingship as the son and heir of Duncan I, who had been displaced by Macbeth in 1040. Although the principle of royal succession by right of primogeniture had not been usual in Scotland, Malcolm did have precedent in the career of Duncan, and he was influenced by his knowledge of the operation of the rule in England. For him to unseat Macbeth was either to assert a valid claim of direct inheritance or to win the throne by making war on the incumbent, the way to kingship long recognized and accepted in Scottish history. After Malcolm defeated Macbeth on the field of battle, the Celts of the north resisted him as a representative of Saxon and alien influences by installing Lulach, Macbeth's stepson, as king. Malcolm defeated Lulach four months later and secured the crown in 1058.
Malcolm married twice, and in each case there was some political advantage to be had. By marrying Ingibiorg, heiress of the Earl of Orkney, he conciliated the nativist opposition forces that had supported Lulach. Although his marriage to Margaret, a princess of the Saxon royal house and a fugitive from William the Conqueror, undid the work of the first marriage, it did offer Malcolm an excuse to launch campaigns into England.
From his first marriage Malcolm had one son, Duncan; from his second, six sons were produced. Four of the six were given English names: Alexander and David were named for heroes of the past. Not only in the names of her sons did Margaret introduce Saxon elements of life into Scotland. Devoted to religion, she was instrumental in bringing about reforms in religious observances and clerical discipline, so that the Christian life and Church in Scotland followed more closely practices in England and on the Continent. So widely beloved was Margaret that immediately upon her death she was declared a saint, and yet in one part of Scotland her anti-Celtic ecclesiastical reforms had produced a rallying point for a Celtic party that appeared when Malcolm died.
Malcolm's relations with England revolved around claims to lands that he held there in his own right or in the name of Margaret and his desire to expand his realm to the south, where the boundaries were undefined. Five times he campaigned; and five times he was defeated; in his last endeavor he lost his life. The epithet Canmore (big head) was originally descriptive of Malcolm's physical attributes; in later years it was used as a surname for his descendants.
A shrewd assessment of Malcolm's accomplishments is in William Croft Dickinson, A New History of Scotland, vol. 1: Scotland from the Earliest Times to 1603 (1961; rev. ed. 1965). A brief but sound summary is in the paperback work of J. D. Mackie, A History of Scotland (1964). A simple but colorful story is available in Elise Thornton Cook, Their Majesties of Scotland (1928). For an analysis of the work of Margaret see Sir Robert Rait and George S. Pryde, Scotland (1934; 2d ed. 1955). □ | <urn:uuid:48896c5b-a2d7-48bf-9abb-182c3c571d9d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/history/british-and-irish-history-biographies/malcolm-iii | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00316.warc.gz | en | 0.983382 | 839 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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-0.26950103... | 1 | Malcolm's struggle against Mael Snechta made him an ally of Moray's traditional foe, the earl of Orkney, whose close relative Ingibiorg he married. Malcolm was already a widower, however, when the Anglo-Saxon royal family fled to Scotland in 1070, and he took Edgar Atheling's sister Margaret as his second wife. Malcolm supported her zeal for ecclesiastical reform. His attention now focused on Northumbria, which he raided repeatedly despite submitting to William the Conqueror in 1072 at Abernethy (south-east of Perth). In August 1093 he laid the foundation stone of Durham cathedral; two months later he was killed on a raid at Alnwick.
Malcolm III (died 1093), the king of Scotland from 1058 to 1093, established the Canmore dynasty, which ruled Scotland for two centuries. His reign was marked by the introduction into Scotland of English influences.
Malcolm was a claimant to the Scottish kingship as the son and heir of Duncan I, who had been displaced by Macbeth in 1040. Although the principle of royal succession by right of primogeniture had not been usual in Scotland, Malcolm did have precedent in the career of Duncan, and he was influenced by his knowledge of the operation of the rule in England. For him to unseat Macbeth was either to assert a valid claim of direct inheritance or to win the throne by making war on the incumbent, the way to kingship long recognized and accepted in Scottish history. After Malcolm defeated Macbeth on the field of battle, the Celts of the north resisted him as a representative of Saxon and alien influences by installing Lulach, Macbeth's stepson, as king. Malcolm defeated Lulach four months later and secured the crown in 1058.
Malcolm married twice, and in each case there was some political advantage to be had. By marrying Ingibiorg, heiress of the Earl of Orkney, he conciliated the nativist opposition forces that had supported Lulach. Although his marriage to Margaret, a princess of the Saxon royal house and a fugitive from William the Conqueror, undid the work of the first marriage, it did offer Malcolm an excuse to launch campaigns into England.
From his first marriage Malcolm had one son, Duncan; from his second, six sons were produced. Four of the six were given English names: Alexander and David were named for heroes of the past. Not only in the names of her sons did Margaret introduce Saxon elements of life into Scotland. Devoted to religion, she was instrumental in bringing about reforms in religious observances and clerical discipline, so that the Christian life and Church in Scotland followed more closely practices in England and on the Continent. So widely beloved was Margaret that immediately upon her death she was declared a saint, and yet in one part of Scotland her anti-Celtic ecclesiastical reforms had produced a rallying point for a Celtic party that appeared when Malcolm died.
Malcolm's relations with England revolved around claims to lands that he held there in his own right or in the name of Margaret and his desire to expand his realm to the south, where the boundaries were undefined. Five times he campaigned; and five times he was defeated; in his last endeavor he lost his life. The epithet Canmore (big head) was originally descriptive of Malcolm's physical attributes; in later years it was used as a surname for his descendants.
A shrewd assessment of Malcolm's accomplishments is in William Croft Dickinson, A New History of Scotland, vol. 1: Scotland from the Earliest Times to 1603 (1961; rev. ed. 1965). A brief but sound summary is in the paperback work of J. D. Mackie, A History of Scotland (1964). A simple but colorful story is available in Elise Thornton Cook, Their Majesties of Scotland (1928). For an analysis of the work of Margaret see Sir Robert Rait and George S. Pryde, Scotland (1934; 2d ed. 1955). □ | 881 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Music enthusiasts consider the turntable as one of the most authentic ways to listen to many legendary songs or albums in music history. This is because some renowned artists, bands, or singers have first produced singles and albums using vinyl, a type of record used to play music on the turntable. Several notable music artists that have released popular music primarily for vinyl are the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, Queen, and Michael Jackson.
But what exactly is a turntable, and how is it able to play music using vinyl? To answer this question, here is a short history of the turntable from its creation to its resurgence.
Thomas Edison’s Phonograph
Before the turntable, there was first the phonograph, a device developed by Thomas Edison from May to July 1877. But even before the invention of the phonograph, there were already experiments made by several people to record sound, one of which is the paleophone conceptualized by Charles Cros. Because Cros is unable to build a working model of the paleophone, he just gave his ideas to the public domain to let other people build the device and improve upon it.
The paleophone paved the way for other inventors to use photoengraving, a method wherein the device will be able to engrave the waves through a metal plate using a stylus or a needle attached to it. The metal plate allows other players to replicate the up and down motion of the waves.
It was only through the reveal of Thomas Edison’s invention on November 21, 1877, that a device able to record and play sound was properly demonstrated.
For the phonograph, Edison assigned his trusted workman John Kreusi to build the device. The stylus of the phonograph etched waves on a cylinder made of tinfoil, and one of the first successful sound bites reproduced using the cylinder was “Mary had a little lamb,” which was shouted by Kreusi during testing.
After Thomas Edison’s invention, Alexander Graham Bell and his Volta Laboratory came up with an improved model of the phonograph called the graphophone in 1881. Instead of using tinfoil, which was considered impractical due to how it can easily tear or deteriorate, Bell used a cardboard cylinder coated in wax that is not only more durable than the tinfoil cylinder but can also produce better sound quality.
The graphophone was then sold commercially when the Volta Graphophone Company was created on January 6, 1886. The company later merged with the American Graphophone Company in order to produce more graphophones, and this merger between the two companies eventually led to the creation of Columbia Records.
Berliner’s Gramophone and Disc Records
A year after the commercialization of the graphophone, another inventor named Emile Berliner used discs made of zinc instead of cylinders to create sound on his gramophone in 1892. When playing a disc, the gramophone’s stylus would move from the side to the center.
The gramophone was then commercially produced the same year, becoming the first disc record player available in the market. The zinc used for the disc was later replaced by shellac in 1895, but it didn’t improve the sound quality of the records, which was deemed much poorer than the cylinders. But Eldridge R. Johnson, an engineer and the founder of the Victor Talking Machine Company that produced gramophones, improved the sound of the shellac disc to match the sound produced by cylinders.
Disc records became much more popular than cylindrical ones due to the fact that cylinders are much more fragile, and disc records can save more space in storage since you can stack multiple discs together. Sales for the cylinders declined in 1912, forcing Edison to slowly abandon the production of cylindrical records and begin making discs for his record players, resulting in the creation of the Edison Disc Record. Edison and his company stopped making cylinders by 1929.
Rise of the Vinyl Record
During the 1920s, radio became much more used by people than the gramophone, leading to the poor sales of the disc record player. In addition, many companies that produce record players went bankrupt in the middle of the Great Depression in the 1930s, further decreasing the popularity of the gramophone.
However, when home players that could serve both as a record player and a radio were invented in the 1940s, disc records rose to popularity once again.
During this period, vinyl replaced shellac as the primary material used for making disc records for radio commercials and transcriptions, but it wasn’t until 1945 that the Victor Company began selling vinyl records for home use.
Other types and sizes for vinyl disc records also became prominent during this era; these kinds include 33 1/3 rpm, 45 rpm, and 78 rpm records.
After World War II, companies were now able to produce78 rpm long-playing records (commonly known today as LPs or albums) that were able to record multiple songs. In addition, 45 rpm records are called “singles” during that period because they usually contain one hit song that became popular on the radio. Companies have also developed improvements to the 45s, and these improvements include its ability to play another song on their back side and their added capacity to contain two songs for each side of the vinyl.
However, despite several enhancements, vinyl records were far from perfect. One of the downsides to vinyl discs is that the waves on the surface can easily get scratched by a heavy stylus. If the scratches get too deep, the stylus would often be unable to play that damaged part and would instead produce a popping noise. The term used for this problem is skipping, which is still a common issue for vinyl records today.
The Golden Age of Vinyl
Record players became much more common in homes during the 1960s, and with the incredible rise of a band from Liverpool, England called the Beatles, vinyl records containing their hit singles and albums skyrocketed to sell millions, creating what is now known as the golden age of vinyl that lasted from the 1960s to the 1970s.
During this era, companies have begun producing cheaper record players to meet the demand. Moreover, record players that can stack multiple vinyl records were invented, but they are still not as widely seen as the standard player since they usually have heavier styluses that can damage the records.
It was also during this time that space-age aesthetic became popular due to the booming interest of the people in space exploration. As such, record players that feature futuristic designs became available, and one of the most well-known players to have the said design is the Apollo Record Player, which eerily looks like a UFO from a distance.
DJs and Scratching
By the late 1970s to the early 1980s, heavy-duty record players like Technics 1200MK2 became prominent in clubs and bars. These rigid players were able to handle a new way of playing vinyl records called scratching.
By scratching, disk jockeys (DJs) were able to manipulate the sound produced by the records by performing rhythmic back and forth motions on the record player. Some DJs would use a song from a vinyl record and use another one for scratching.
On the other hand, it was during the late 1980s that CDs and cassette tapes sold much more than vinyl, but despite the decrease in sales, vinyl still became the go-to type of record for DJs because of how they can control the music much easier than CDs.
Because the CD is much cheaper to produce and has better quality audio than vinyl, record manufacturers have shifted their focus on creating CDs and CD players during the early 1990s.
Pioneer created CD turntables to imitate the functionality of vinyl and to replace them in the disco club scene, but most DJs still favored using vinyl record players.
Sales for vinyl continued to decrease until the late 2000s when digital media software like iTunes and MusicBee became popular, which also prompted the decline of CDs since downloading songs is much more convenient and cheaper than buying CDs.
Digital media is still prospering today, and CD players are becoming almost obsolete, but vinyl is surprisingly still alive thanks to its resurging presence in hipster culture from the early 2010s up to now. The revival of vinyl also prompted some companies like Audio Technica and Denon to produce record players with modern features such as Bluetooth and transferring songs on vinyl to a computer in MP3 format.
Also, famous music artists would often release their singles and album in vinyl, and some of them would even produce special edition records that are translucent or have different colors in them so it would look nicer while playing on the turntable. | <urn:uuid:ff8eda7f-c05b-488f-808e-b3b3d05ede17> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://soundgenetics.com/the-history-of-the-turntable-and-vinyl/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00221.warc.gz | en | 0.980814 | 1,780 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.116487696766... | 5 | Music enthusiasts consider the turntable as one of the most authentic ways to listen to many legendary songs or albums in music history. This is because some renowned artists, bands, or singers have first produced singles and albums using vinyl, a type of record used to play music on the turntable. Several notable music artists that have released popular music primarily for vinyl are the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, Queen, and Michael Jackson.
But what exactly is a turntable, and how is it able to play music using vinyl? To answer this question, here is a short history of the turntable from its creation to its resurgence.
Thomas Edison’s Phonograph
Before the turntable, there was first the phonograph, a device developed by Thomas Edison from May to July 1877. But even before the invention of the phonograph, there were already experiments made by several people to record sound, one of which is the paleophone conceptualized by Charles Cros. Because Cros is unable to build a working model of the paleophone, he just gave his ideas to the public domain to let other people build the device and improve upon it.
The paleophone paved the way for other inventors to use photoengraving, a method wherein the device will be able to engrave the waves through a metal plate using a stylus or a needle attached to it. The metal plate allows other players to replicate the up and down motion of the waves.
It was only through the reveal of Thomas Edison’s invention on November 21, 1877, that a device able to record and play sound was properly demonstrated.
For the phonograph, Edison assigned his trusted workman John Kreusi to build the device. The stylus of the phonograph etched waves on a cylinder made of tinfoil, and one of the first successful sound bites reproduced using the cylinder was “Mary had a little lamb,” which was shouted by Kreusi during testing.
After Thomas Edison’s invention, Alexander Graham Bell and his Volta Laboratory came up with an improved model of the phonograph called the graphophone in 1881. Instead of using tinfoil, which was considered impractical due to how it can easily tear or deteriorate, Bell used a cardboard cylinder coated in wax that is not only more durable than the tinfoil cylinder but can also produce better sound quality.
The graphophone was then sold commercially when the Volta Graphophone Company was created on January 6, 1886. The company later merged with the American Graphophone Company in order to produce more graphophones, and this merger between the two companies eventually led to the creation of Columbia Records.
Berliner’s Gramophone and Disc Records
A year after the commercialization of the graphophone, another inventor named Emile Berliner used discs made of zinc instead of cylinders to create sound on his gramophone in 1892. When playing a disc, the gramophone’s stylus would move from the side to the center.
The gramophone was then commercially produced the same year, becoming the first disc record player available in the market. The zinc used for the disc was later replaced by shellac in 1895, but it didn’t improve the sound quality of the records, which was deemed much poorer than the cylinders. But Eldridge R. Johnson, an engineer and the founder of the Victor Talking Machine Company that produced gramophones, improved the sound of the shellac disc to match the sound produced by cylinders.
Disc records became much more popular than cylindrical ones due to the fact that cylinders are much more fragile, and disc records can save more space in storage since you can stack multiple discs together. Sales for the cylinders declined in 1912, forcing Edison to slowly abandon the production of cylindrical records and begin making discs for his record players, resulting in the creation of the Edison Disc Record. Edison and his company stopped making cylinders by 1929.
Rise of the Vinyl Record
During the 1920s, radio became much more used by people than the gramophone, leading to the poor sales of the disc record player. In addition, many companies that produce record players went bankrupt in the middle of the Great Depression in the 1930s, further decreasing the popularity of the gramophone.
However, when home players that could serve both as a record player and a radio were invented in the 1940s, disc records rose to popularity once again.
During this period, vinyl replaced shellac as the primary material used for making disc records for radio commercials and transcriptions, but it wasn’t until 1945 that the Victor Company began selling vinyl records for home use.
Other types and sizes for vinyl disc records also became prominent during this era; these kinds include 33 1/3 rpm, 45 rpm, and 78 rpm records.
After World War II, companies were now able to produce78 rpm long-playing records (commonly known today as LPs or albums) that were able to record multiple songs. In addition, 45 rpm records are called “singles” during that period because they usually contain one hit song that became popular on the radio. Companies have also developed improvements to the 45s, and these improvements include its ability to play another song on their back side and their added capacity to contain two songs for each side of the vinyl.
However, despite several enhancements, vinyl records were far from perfect. One of the downsides to vinyl discs is that the waves on the surface can easily get scratched by a heavy stylus. If the scratches get too deep, the stylus would often be unable to play that damaged part and would instead produce a popping noise. The term used for this problem is skipping, which is still a common issue for vinyl records today.
The Golden Age of Vinyl
Record players became much more common in homes during the 1960s, and with the incredible rise of a band from Liverpool, England called the Beatles, vinyl records containing their hit singles and albums skyrocketed to sell millions, creating what is now known as the golden age of vinyl that lasted from the 1960s to the 1970s.
During this era, companies have begun producing cheaper record players to meet the demand. Moreover, record players that can stack multiple vinyl records were invented, but they are still not as widely seen as the standard player since they usually have heavier styluses that can damage the records.
It was also during this time that space-age aesthetic became popular due to the booming interest of the people in space exploration. As such, record players that feature futuristic designs became available, and one of the most well-known players to have the said design is the Apollo Record Player, which eerily looks like a UFO from a distance.
DJs and Scratching
By the late 1970s to the early 1980s, heavy-duty record players like Technics 1200MK2 became prominent in clubs and bars. These rigid players were able to handle a new way of playing vinyl records called scratching.
By scratching, disk jockeys (DJs) were able to manipulate the sound produced by the records by performing rhythmic back and forth motions on the record player. Some DJs would use a song from a vinyl record and use another one for scratching.
On the other hand, it was during the late 1980s that CDs and cassette tapes sold much more than vinyl, but despite the decrease in sales, vinyl still became the go-to type of record for DJs because of how they can control the music much easier than CDs.
Because the CD is much cheaper to produce and has better quality audio than vinyl, record manufacturers have shifted their focus on creating CDs and CD players during the early 1990s.
Pioneer created CD turntables to imitate the functionality of vinyl and to replace them in the disco club scene, but most DJs still favored using vinyl record players.
Sales for vinyl continued to decrease until the late 2000s when digital media software like iTunes and MusicBee became popular, which also prompted the decline of CDs since downloading songs is much more convenient and cheaper than buying CDs.
Digital media is still prospering today, and CD players are becoming almost obsolete, but vinyl is surprisingly still alive thanks to its resurging presence in hipster culture from the early 2010s up to now. The revival of vinyl also prompted some companies like Audio Technica and Denon to produce record players with modern features such as Bluetooth and transferring songs on vinyl to a computer in MP3 format.
Also, famous music artists would often release their singles and album in vinyl, and some of them would even produce special edition records that are translucent or have different colors in them so it would look nicer while playing on the turntable. | 1,817 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In a perfect world, once a law or constitutional amendment is passed, the resources necessary to enforce it are plentiful and effective. Prohibition, unfortunately for its supporters, was not so easily enforced. Many challenges quickly surfaced when it came time to keep demon rum from being bought, sold or imported.
- Gangs of illegal alcohol traffickers, comparable to today's illegal drug rings, became common. They were able to charge a steep price for sneaking alcohol into the country — and they thrived in the process.
- It became obvious that bootlegging had reached an all-time high when the demand for $10,000 notes reached an unprecedented level in 1926. Critics of Prohibition recognized this as a telltale sign of large transactions between bootleggers.
- European "rum fleets" proliferated. Small boats would sail out to ships waiting in international waters and bring back large quantities of alcohol. It was also very easy to smuggle alcohol from Canada.
- Political corruption reached new levels, as those who were profiting from illegal trafficking lined the pockets of crooked politicians.
- Illegal speakeasies flourished. Prior to Prohibition, there were fewer than 15,000 legal bars in the United States. By 1927, however, more than 30,000 speakeasies were serving illegally across the country. Approximately 100,000 people brewed alcohol illegally from home.
- Undercover police officers were trying to do their jobs, but the available manpower was still tiny in comparison with the thriving industry. Even when arrests were made, corruption made it nearly impossible to convict anyone. For example, during one time period more than 7,000 arrests were made in New York for alcohol violations, and only 17 of those ended in conviction. Many states eventually grew tired of the hassle. In fact, by 1925 six states had developed laws that kept police from investigating infractions. Cities in the Midwest and Northeast were particularly uninterested in enforcing Prohibition.
Fiorello LaGuardia, mayor of New York City, testified before the Senate judiciary committee and had this to say about Prohibition: "It is impossible to tell whether Prohibition is a good thing or a bad thing. It has never been enforced in this country." | <urn:uuid:e8874b25-aa02-4502-aef2-f92f0f9e79f7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://history.howstuffworks.com/historical-events/prohibition3.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00104.warc.gz | en | 0.981809 | 444 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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-0.059965036809... | 1 | In a perfect world, once a law or constitutional amendment is passed, the resources necessary to enforce it are plentiful and effective. Prohibition, unfortunately for its supporters, was not so easily enforced. Many challenges quickly surfaced when it came time to keep demon rum from being bought, sold or imported.
- Gangs of illegal alcohol traffickers, comparable to today's illegal drug rings, became common. They were able to charge a steep price for sneaking alcohol into the country — and they thrived in the process.
- It became obvious that bootlegging had reached an all-time high when the demand for $10,000 notes reached an unprecedented level in 1926. Critics of Prohibition recognized this as a telltale sign of large transactions between bootleggers.
- European "rum fleets" proliferated. Small boats would sail out to ships waiting in international waters and bring back large quantities of alcohol. It was also very easy to smuggle alcohol from Canada.
- Political corruption reached new levels, as those who were profiting from illegal trafficking lined the pockets of crooked politicians.
- Illegal speakeasies flourished. Prior to Prohibition, there were fewer than 15,000 legal bars in the United States. By 1927, however, more than 30,000 speakeasies were serving illegally across the country. Approximately 100,000 people brewed alcohol illegally from home.
- Undercover police officers were trying to do their jobs, but the available manpower was still tiny in comparison with the thriving industry. Even when arrests were made, corruption made it nearly impossible to convict anyone. For example, during one time period more than 7,000 arrests were made in New York for alcohol violations, and only 17 of those ended in conviction. Many states eventually grew tired of the hassle. In fact, by 1925 six states had developed laws that kept police from investigating infractions. Cities in the Midwest and Northeast were particularly uninterested in enforcing Prohibition.
Fiorello LaGuardia, mayor of New York City, testified before the Senate judiciary committee and had this to say about Prohibition: "It is impossible to tell whether Prohibition is a good thing or a bad thing. It has never been enforced in this country." | 480 | ENGLISH | 1 |
BY ZOEHRIYA ANWAR, STAFF WRITER
The Declaration of Independence says “all men are created equal.”
What about women? Aren’t we created equal too? As I wake up in the morning and head to my classes, these are the questions I ponder.
I first learned about the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) during my junior year of high school while engaging in a political conversation with one of my friends. The ERA was originally written by Alice Paul and Crystal Eastman as an extension of the women’s suffrage movement and was proposed in Congress in December 1923. It initially stated that “men and women shall have equal rights throughout the U.S. and in every place subjected to its jurisdiction.”
However, Paul rewrote the amendment in order to incorporate components of the 14th, 15th and 19th Amendments. Currently, the ERA states that: “Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the U.S. or by any State on account of sex.”
The ERA can be compared to a refurbished laptop. It is old and new at the same time. It was passed by the U.S Senate and House of Representatives in 1972 and sent to the states to be ratified. However, the ERA received backlash from right-wing leaders and fundamentalist religious groups who argued that the ERA would make it more difficult for a woman to be supported by her husband. These opponents anticipated women joining the military, same-sex marriage and abortion rights — which they felt threatened their traditional values.
There was also backlash from some feminists who challenged how the amendment was written. Unfortunately, opposition crushed statewide support for the ERA and caused its demise in 1982, as only 35 of the requisite 38 states agreed to ratify the amendment.
The ERA made a significant comeback in 2017. Nevada became the 36th state to ratify the amendment. Since then, it has been ratified in Illinois. However, backlash from opponents in regards to the ERA continues to linger. Five states have revoked their decision to ratify the ERA. On the other hand, supporters of the ERA still continuing to push for ratification in 13 states, including Virginia.
As a college student and centrist, I perceive the ERA as a bipartisan issue that must be addressed by Congress. The women’s suffrage movement provided the basis to tackle sex-based discrimination by emphasizing one goal: providing women the right to vote by passing the 19th Amendment. That does not mean they wanted to stop there. The suffragettes also believed that states should not interfere with a woman’s political citizenship or rights.
The passage of the 19th Amendment began a new era for women, but there were still a lack of protections in place. Congress has since passed the Pregnancy Discrimination Act and the Violence Against Women Act, but these laws do not do enough to tackle sex-based discrimination. According to data collected by the Pew Research Center, 42 percent of working women in America have been discriminated against in the workplace based on their gender.
As a woman, I worry about facing discrimination in the potential workforce which makes me consider whether the magnitude of my degree is enough. Even if I graduated summa cum laude in computer science and had a long list of work experiences, it is possible that my potential coworkers would discriminate against me based on my sex and not on my potential to get the job done.
Women are more likely to be subjected to sex-based discrimination based on preconceived notions about them. However, men can be subjected to sex-based discrimination as well. The ERA would protect the rights of both men and women in the workplace and in public institutions, such as universities.
Skepticism about the ERA dates back to when it was first introduced in Congress in 1923. I hope that challenges to the ERA can lead to reforms to make it better. As it was with the fight to pass the 19th Amendment, I anticipate the battle to ratify the ERA will linger for years to come.
However, the importance of the ERA shall not fade. | <urn:uuid:dcf286b0-ac20-433d-ba19-e5c40aebd8d2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://gmufourthestate.com/2019/11/18/yes-the-equal-rights-amendment-matters/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00270.warc.gz | en | 0.980502 | 840 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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-0.09768073... | 7 | BY ZOEHRIYA ANWAR, STAFF WRITER
The Declaration of Independence says “all men are created equal.”
What about women? Aren’t we created equal too? As I wake up in the morning and head to my classes, these are the questions I ponder.
I first learned about the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) during my junior year of high school while engaging in a political conversation with one of my friends. The ERA was originally written by Alice Paul and Crystal Eastman as an extension of the women’s suffrage movement and was proposed in Congress in December 1923. It initially stated that “men and women shall have equal rights throughout the U.S. and in every place subjected to its jurisdiction.”
However, Paul rewrote the amendment in order to incorporate components of the 14th, 15th and 19th Amendments. Currently, the ERA states that: “Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the U.S. or by any State on account of sex.”
The ERA can be compared to a refurbished laptop. It is old and new at the same time. It was passed by the U.S Senate and House of Representatives in 1972 and sent to the states to be ratified. However, the ERA received backlash from right-wing leaders and fundamentalist religious groups who argued that the ERA would make it more difficult for a woman to be supported by her husband. These opponents anticipated women joining the military, same-sex marriage and abortion rights — which they felt threatened their traditional values.
There was also backlash from some feminists who challenged how the amendment was written. Unfortunately, opposition crushed statewide support for the ERA and caused its demise in 1982, as only 35 of the requisite 38 states agreed to ratify the amendment.
The ERA made a significant comeback in 2017. Nevada became the 36th state to ratify the amendment. Since then, it has been ratified in Illinois. However, backlash from opponents in regards to the ERA continues to linger. Five states have revoked their decision to ratify the ERA. On the other hand, supporters of the ERA still continuing to push for ratification in 13 states, including Virginia.
As a college student and centrist, I perceive the ERA as a bipartisan issue that must be addressed by Congress. The women’s suffrage movement provided the basis to tackle sex-based discrimination by emphasizing one goal: providing women the right to vote by passing the 19th Amendment. That does not mean they wanted to stop there. The suffragettes also believed that states should not interfere with a woman’s political citizenship or rights.
The passage of the 19th Amendment began a new era for women, but there were still a lack of protections in place. Congress has since passed the Pregnancy Discrimination Act and the Violence Against Women Act, but these laws do not do enough to tackle sex-based discrimination. According to data collected by the Pew Research Center, 42 percent of working women in America have been discriminated against in the workplace based on their gender.
As a woman, I worry about facing discrimination in the potential workforce which makes me consider whether the magnitude of my degree is enough. Even if I graduated summa cum laude in computer science and had a long list of work experiences, it is possible that my potential coworkers would discriminate against me based on my sex and not on my potential to get the job done.
Women are more likely to be subjected to sex-based discrimination based on preconceived notions about them. However, men can be subjected to sex-based discrimination as well. The ERA would protect the rights of both men and women in the workplace and in public institutions, such as universities.
Skepticism about the ERA dates back to when it was first introduced in Congress in 1923. I hope that challenges to the ERA can lead to reforms to make it better. As it was with the fight to pass the 19th Amendment, I anticipate the battle to ratify the ERA will linger for years to come.
However, the importance of the ERA shall not fade. | 846 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Nikita Khrushchev was the leader of the Soviet Union during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1963. When Khrushchev backed down and removed Soviet nuclear missiles from Cuba, his credibility was in tatters within the Soviet Union’s political hierarchy and it was only a matter of time before he was edged out of office.
Nikita Khrushchev was born in 1894 at Kalinovka near to the Ukraine border. He was the son of a mineworker. Such a background politicised Khrushchev and he fought for the Red Army during the Russian Civil War. After the Bolshevik success in this and with the war ending, Khrushchev became a miner. While working as a miner, he continued his education by attending high school. Khrushchev worked for the Communist Party in Kiev and then in Moscow. While in the capital, he gained a reputation for efficiency and in 1935 Khrushchev was appointed Secretary of the Moscow Regional Committee. He would have needed the support of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin to have held such a post. Khrushchev further enhanced his reputation by being very closely associated with the building of the Moscow Underground – the construction of which was deemed an engineering success and a sign to the world of Soviet skills that were more closely associated with the West. While it was the engineers who were rightly credited with the success of this project, the managerial skills of Khrushchev within such a prestigious project were also recognised.
Between 1938 and 1947, Khrushchev was mainly involved in affairs that affected the Ukraine. During World War Two, Khrushchev assisted military commanders fighting there, primarily in the Kursk Salient. Khrushchev was Prime Minister of the Ukrainian Soviet Republic from the time the Nazis were expelled to 1947.
In 1947, Stalin selected Khrushchev to reorganise the Soviet Union’s agricultural production. There can be little doubt that Stalin trusted his ability and by the time of Stalin’s death in 1953, Khrushchev was a member of the Communist Party’s Presidium. On September 12th 1953, he was appointed First Secretary of the Party. Such a position allowed Khrushchev to build up supporters throughout the Party’s administrative machinery and to develop his power base. He used his influence to get Bulganin, his nominee, elected as Premier in February 1955. Few doubted that while Bulganin was the political figurehead of the USSR, the man with the real power was Khrushchev.
In January 1956, Khrushchev made his boldest move for power. At the 20th Party Congress he attacked Stalin and the ‘cult of personality’ he had developed. The 1956 Suez Crisis diverted the West’s attention away from the USSR for a short time while the USSR’s grip on the Warsaw Pact was increased when Hungary was invaded and the short-lived uprising brutally suppressed.
On March 27th 1958, Khrushchev became Premier of the USSR while he continued to hold the post of First Secretary after Bulganin was effectively pushed to one side. Khrushchev gave the appearance of wanting to introduce a thaw in the Cold War and his appointment was greeted with cautious optimism in the West, especially after the austere rule of Stalin. However, his seeming feelers for peace were mixed with more hostile statements and Khrushchev became a hard man to predict – whether it was taking off his shoe and banging it on a table as he did at the UN to emphasise a point he was making or storming out of an international meeting in Geneva leaving others sitting there without the leader of the world’s second most powerful nation. Yet this was also the man who within his own country went out to meet the people – something Stalin never did. Whether his posturing on the international stage was mere showmanship is difficult to tell – however, it was certainly unusual in an age when diplomatic work was carried out invariably in a genteel manner and ‘by the book’.
Whether Khrushchev was a ‘hawk’ or a ‘dove’ is also difficult to tell. After the Cuban Missile Crisis most, if not all, assumed he was a ‘hawk’. However, this may not have been an accurate assessment. Khrushchev, along with many other members of the Politburo, was angered that America had placed military equipment, including B52 bombers, in Turkey. However, as Turkey was a member of NATO, from the West’s point of view, this was entirely legal and acceptable. To the Soviet Union it was provocative behaviour as Turkey shared a border with the USSR. When Khrushchev had the opportunity to counter this by placing medium range nuclear missiles in Cuba, he took it. He argued that they gave the Communist Caribbean island greater protection against another Bay of Pigs incident.
During the crisis, Khrushchev gave no indication of climbing down against J F Kennedy. When he did, it greatly weakened his political position at home despite his arguments that he had got America to promise never to invade Cuba. His colleagues in Moscow were also very concerned that the traditional positive relationship between the USSR and Communist China was also deteriorating and that border issues might spark off a Sino-Soviet war. Khrushchev was levered out of office in October 1964 and succeeded by Alexei Kosygin, as Prime Minister, and Leonid Brezhnez as Party Leader. Khrushchev spent the rest of his years in retirement and died in 1971. | <urn:uuid:52808b5c-efbc-46fe-b3b2-616769c53292> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/modern-world-history-1918-to-1980/the-cold-war/nikita-khrushchev/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00389.warc.gz | en | 0.990133 | 1,119 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.328068196773529... | 9 | Nikita Khrushchev was the leader of the Soviet Union during the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1963. When Khrushchev backed down and removed Soviet nuclear missiles from Cuba, his credibility was in tatters within the Soviet Union’s political hierarchy and it was only a matter of time before he was edged out of office.
Nikita Khrushchev was born in 1894 at Kalinovka near to the Ukraine border. He was the son of a mineworker. Such a background politicised Khrushchev and he fought for the Red Army during the Russian Civil War. After the Bolshevik success in this and with the war ending, Khrushchev became a miner. While working as a miner, he continued his education by attending high school. Khrushchev worked for the Communist Party in Kiev and then in Moscow. While in the capital, he gained a reputation for efficiency and in 1935 Khrushchev was appointed Secretary of the Moscow Regional Committee. He would have needed the support of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin to have held such a post. Khrushchev further enhanced his reputation by being very closely associated with the building of the Moscow Underground – the construction of which was deemed an engineering success and a sign to the world of Soviet skills that were more closely associated with the West. While it was the engineers who were rightly credited with the success of this project, the managerial skills of Khrushchev within such a prestigious project were also recognised.
Between 1938 and 1947, Khrushchev was mainly involved in affairs that affected the Ukraine. During World War Two, Khrushchev assisted military commanders fighting there, primarily in the Kursk Salient. Khrushchev was Prime Minister of the Ukrainian Soviet Republic from the time the Nazis were expelled to 1947.
In 1947, Stalin selected Khrushchev to reorganise the Soviet Union’s agricultural production. There can be little doubt that Stalin trusted his ability and by the time of Stalin’s death in 1953, Khrushchev was a member of the Communist Party’s Presidium. On September 12th 1953, he was appointed First Secretary of the Party. Such a position allowed Khrushchev to build up supporters throughout the Party’s administrative machinery and to develop his power base. He used his influence to get Bulganin, his nominee, elected as Premier in February 1955. Few doubted that while Bulganin was the political figurehead of the USSR, the man with the real power was Khrushchev.
In January 1956, Khrushchev made his boldest move for power. At the 20th Party Congress he attacked Stalin and the ‘cult of personality’ he had developed. The 1956 Suez Crisis diverted the West’s attention away from the USSR for a short time while the USSR’s grip on the Warsaw Pact was increased when Hungary was invaded and the short-lived uprising brutally suppressed.
On March 27th 1958, Khrushchev became Premier of the USSR while he continued to hold the post of First Secretary after Bulganin was effectively pushed to one side. Khrushchev gave the appearance of wanting to introduce a thaw in the Cold War and his appointment was greeted with cautious optimism in the West, especially after the austere rule of Stalin. However, his seeming feelers for peace were mixed with more hostile statements and Khrushchev became a hard man to predict – whether it was taking off his shoe and banging it on a table as he did at the UN to emphasise a point he was making or storming out of an international meeting in Geneva leaving others sitting there without the leader of the world’s second most powerful nation. Yet this was also the man who within his own country went out to meet the people – something Stalin never did. Whether his posturing on the international stage was mere showmanship is difficult to tell – however, it was certainly unusual in an age when diplomatic work was carried out invariably in a genteel manner and ‘by the book’.
Whether Khrushchev was a ‘hawk’ or a ‘dove’ is also difficult to tell. After the Cuban Missile Crisis most, if not all, assumed he was a ‘hawk’. However, this may not have been an accurate assessment. Khrushchev, along with many other members of the Politburo, was angered that America had placed military equipment, including B52 bombers, in Turkey. However, as Turkey was a member of NATO, from the West’s point of view, this was entirely legal and acceptable. To the Soviet Union it was provocative behaviour as Turkey shared a border with the USSR. When Khrushchev had the opportunity to counter this by placing medium range nuclear missiles in Cuba, he took it. He argued that they gave the Communist Caribbean island greater protection against another Bay of Pigs incident.
During the crisis, Khrushchev gave no indication of climbing down against J F Kennedy. When he did, it greatly weakened his political position at home despite his arguments that he had got America to promise never to invade Cuba. His colleagues in Moscow were also very concerned that the traditional positive relationship between the USSR and Communist China was also deteriorating and that border issues might spark off a Sino-Soviet war. Khrushchev was levered out of office in October 1964 and succeeded by Alexei Kosygin, as Prime Minister, and Leonid Brezhnez as Party Leader. Khrushchev spent the rest of his years in retirement and died in 1971. | 1,204 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Last Updated on : 29/03/2010)
Ambasthas as a tribe existed at least as early as the time of the Aitareya Brahmana, when they were probably settled in the Punjab; and they can be traced up to the present day in parts of Bengal and Bihar
, from where they migrated in later times. In the Aitareya Brahmana King Ambasthya is mentioned as having been consecrated with the Aindra Mahabhiseka along with nine other kings. The Mahabharata mentions the Ambasthas along with the Sivis, Kusudrakas, Malavas and other north-western tribes. In the Bhisma and Drona Parva
, the Ambasthas are referred to as having taken part in the Kurukshetra war, on the side of the Kurus; while in the Karna Parva
, Srutayuh, the valiant Kshatriya, who was killed by Arjuna
, is described as a king of the Ambasthas. The Ambasthas were also once defeated by Nakula
, the fourth Pandava, along with the Sivis, Trigarttas and Malavas and Srutayuh was among those who did homage to Yudhisthir
after the defeat.
In the Indian Puranas
, the Ambasthas are represented as Anava Kshatriyas, and are said to have originated from Suvrata, son of Usinara; they were thus intimately related to the Yaudheyas and the Sivis, and were settled on the eastern border of the Punjab
. The country is mentioned in the Barhaspatya Arthasashtra where it has been associated with Sindh.
The Puranas seem to represent the Ambasthas as Kshatriyas, descended as they were from Usinara; and, as we have seen, that Mahabharata
refers to their King Srutayuh as 'the best of Kshatriyas'. But the evidence of Smriti literature seems to point to their mixed origin.
According to the Gautama-Dharmasutra children born of wives of the next, second or third lower castes become Sabarnas, Ambasthas, Ugras, Nisadhas, Dausyantas or Parasaras. The Ambasthas would thus be descendants of Brahmanas by Kshatriya, Vaisya or Sudra wives.
In the Ambattha Sutta an Ambattha is called a Brahmana; but, according to the Jatakas, the Ambasthas were farmers, while Manu describes them as a people who practised the art of healing. Some historical reference says that Ambasthas were a tribe who in the beginning were a fighting race but in the later ages they took to different professions like being priests, farmers, writers and physicians.
History says that tribe seems to have migrated eastwards as well because even today a class of Kayasthas known as Ambastha Kayasthas can be traced in Bihar; while the Vaidyas of Bengal claim to be designated as Ambasthas. | <urn:uuid:1cba6aea-dff2-43cf-af47-3695a0fff3ff> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/47/ambasthas.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00408.warc.gz | en | 0.986394 | 684 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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Ambasthas as a tribe existed at least as early as the time of the Aitareya Brahmana, when they were probably settled in the Punjab; and they can be traced up to the present day in parts of Bengal and Bihar
, from where they migrated in later times. In the Aitareya Brahmana King Ambasthya is mentioned as having been consecrated with the Aindra Mahabhiseka along with nine other kings. The Mahabharata mentions the Ambasthas along with the Sivis, Kusudrakas, Malavas and other north-western tribes. In the Bhisma and Drona Parva
, the Ambasthas are referred to as having taken part in the Kurukshetra war, on the side of the Kurus; while in the Karna Parva
, Srutayuh, the valiant Kshatriya, who was killed by Arjuna
, is described as a king of the Ambasthas. The Ambasthas were also once defeated by Nakula
, the fourth Pandava, along with the Sivis, Trigarttas and Malavas and Srutayuh was among those who did homage to Yudhisthir
after the defeat.
In the Indian Puranas
, the Ambasthas are represented as Anava Kshatriyas, and are said to have originated from Suvrata, son of Usinara; they were thus intimately related to the Yaudheyas and the Sivis, and were settled on the eastern border of the Punjab
. The country is mentioned in the Barhaspatya Arthasashtra where it has been associated with Sindh.
The Puranas seem to represent the Ambasthas as Kshatriyas, descended as they were from Usinara; and, as we have seen, that Mahabharata
refers to their King Srutayuh as 'the best of Kshatriyas'. But the evidence of Smriti literature seems to point to their mixed origin.
According to the Gautama-Dharmasutra children born of wives of the next, second or third lower castes become Sabarnas, Ambasthas, Ugras, Nisadhas, Dausyantas or Parasaras. The Ambasthas would thus be descendants of Brahmanas by Kshatriya, Vaisya or Sudra wives.
In the Ambattha Sutta an Ambattha is called a Brahmana; but, according to the Jatakas, the Ambasthas were farmers, while Manu describes them as a people who practised the art of healing. Some historical reference says that Ambasthas were a tribe who in the beginning were a fighting race but in the later ages they took to different professions like being priests, farmers, writers and physicians.
History says that tribe seems to have migrated eastwards as well because even today a class of Kayasthas known as Ambastha Kayasthas can be traced in Bihar; while the Vaidyas of Bengal claim to be designated as Ambasthas. | 660 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Nellie Tayloe Ross was destined for politics even if her indoctrination was indirect. Nellie Taylor could claim a distant relation to George Washington on her mother’s side of the family. On her father’s side, his family built the Octagon House where President James Madison and his wife, Dolley Payne Todd Madison, lived when the British burned down the White House in 1812.
Nellie had a brief teaching career before she met the man she would marry. She and her family moved to Omaha, Nebraska after Nellie completed high school in Kansas. She attended a teacher-training college and taught kindergarten. During a respite to visit relatives in Tennessee, she met William Bradford Ross, a shopkeeper who engaged in the practice of law. They were soon married and moved to Cheyenne, Wyoming.
William Ross ran for office and, after a number of attempts, finally was elected to the office of Governor of Wyoming in 1922. Less than two years later, he underwent an appendectomy and died from complications after surgery. It was just a few short weeks prior to the 1924 election in which Ross was again running for the office of Governor.
The Democratic Party needed a candidate and made an offer to Nellie to run in her husband’s place. When Nellie did not respond to the offer, the party nominated her anyway.
Nellie accepted the nomination even though she had no political experience. She viewed it as a way to cope with her widowhood. More than likely, Ross won sympathy for being a new widow with three children. Regardless of the reason for her winning the election, on Jan. 5, 1925, Nellie Tayloe Ross became the first woman Governor in the United States.
Once in office, Ross continued her husband’s platform but being a Democrat in a Republican state didn’t make the job easy. She was able to achieve state assistance tot he struggling agricultural industry as well as protective legislation for miners, women and children. But a request to ratify an amendment prohibiting child labor was unsuccessful.
Ross vetoed a bill to hold a special election to fill a Wyoming vacancy in the Senate as opposed to filling it with an official appointed by the Governor. This action made her very unpopular with the Republicans who wanted a Republican to fill that seat. It was this veto which may have cost her the 1926 election.
Once defeated in 1926, Ross turned to lecturing and writing articles, particularly about her tenure as Governor. She became active in politics, serving as committeewoman to the Democratic National Committee and working on the campaign to elect Franklin D. Roosevelt as President.
When Roosevelt was elected, he returned the favor by appointing Ross the Director of the U.S. Mint. Again, Ross established another first for women: she was the first woman to head a federal agency.
Ross excelled in this capacity, streamlining the U.S. Mint operations. She returned about $1 million of her $4.8 million appropriation and reduced the number of employees at the mint from 4000 to 1000. Ross remained the Director of the U.S. Mint until the end of the Roosevelt administration.
Ross continued contributing articles to women’s magazines and traveling well into her nineties. She visited the state of Wyoming for the last time at the age of 96.
Ross died Dec. 17, 1977 at the age of 101.
The Ross home, where two Wyoming governers lived – both William and Nellie – is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The book “Governor Lady: The Life and Times of Nellie Tayloe Ross” by Teva J. Scheer was published by the University of Missouri Press, November 2005. | <urn:uuid:357e7f40-1fda-4941-bb01-d4d898801aaa> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sawpan.com/nellie-tayloe-ross-making-history-in-wyoming/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00037.warc.gz | en | 0.983444 | 768 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.0532508343458... | 2 | Nellie Tayloe Ross was destined for politics even if her indoctrination was indirect. Nellie Taylor could claim a distant relation to George Washington on her mother’s side of the family. On her father’s side, his family built the Octagon House where President James Madison and his wife, Dolley Payne Todd Madison, lived when the British burned down the White House in 1812.
Nellie had a brief teaching career before she met the man she would marry. She and her family moved to Omaha, Nebraska after Nellie completed high school in Kansas. She attended a teacher-training college and taught kindergarten. During a respite to visit relatives in Tennessee, she met William Bradford Ross, a shopkeeper who engaged in the practice of law. They were soon married and moved to Cheyenne, Wyoming.
William Ross ran for office and, after a number of attempts, finally was elected to the office of Governor of Wyoming in 1922. Less than two years later, he underwent an appendectomy and died from complications after surgery. It was just a few short weeks prior to the 1924 election in which Ross was again running for the office of Governor.
The Democratic Party needed a candidate and made an offer to Nellie to run in her husband’s place. When Nellie did not respond to the offer, the party nominated her anyway.
Nellie accepted the nomination even though she had no political experience. She viewed it as a way to cope with her widowhood. More than likely, Ross won sympathy for being a new widow with three children. Regardless of the reason for her winning the election, on Jan. 5, 1925, Nellie Tayloe Ross became the first woman Governor in the United States.
Once in office, Ross continued her husband’s platform but being a Democrat in a Republican state didn’t make the job easy. She was able to achieve state assistance tot he struggling agricultural industry as well as protective legislation for miners, women and children. But a request to ratify an amendment prohibiting child labor was unsuccessful.
Ross vetoed a bill to hold a special election to fill a Wyoming vacancy in the Senate as opposed to filling it with an official appointed by the Governor. This action made her very unpopular with the Republicans who wanted a Republican to fill that seat. It was this veto which may have cost her the 1926 election.
Once defeated in 1926, Ross turned to lecturing and writing articles, particularly about her tenure as Governor. She became active in politics, serving as committeewoman to the Democratic National Committee and working on the campaign to elect Franklin D. Roosevelt as President.
When Roosevelt was elected, he returned the favor by appointing Ross the Director of the U.S. Mint. Again, Ross established another first for women: she was the first woman to head a federal agency.
Ross excelled in this capacity, streamlining the U.S. Mint operations. She returned about $1 million of her $4.8 million appropriation and reduced the number of employees at the mint from 4000 to 1000. Ross remained the Director of the U.S. Mint until the end of the Roosevelt administration.
Ross continued contributing articles to women’s magazines and traveling well into her nineties. She visited the state of Wyoming for the last time at the age of 96.
Ross died Dec. 17, 1977 at the age of 101.
The Ross home, where two Wyoming governers lived – both William and Nellie – is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. The book “Governor Lady: The Life and Times of Nellie Tayloe Ross” by Teva J. Scheer was published by the University of Missouri Press, November 2005. | 788 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Elizabeth B. Custer
Since the Battle of Little Bighorn, George Armstrong Custer (1839-1876) has possessed one of the most unique places in American history.
Although he was a capable cavalry officer who served honorably during the Civil War, he remains one of the most instantly identifiable and famous military men in American history due to the fact he was killed during one of the country’s most well known and ignominious defeats, the Battle of Little Bighorn.
And yet, this one relatively insignificant battle during America’s Indian Wars has become one of the country’s most mythologized events and continues to fascinate Americans nearly 140 years later.
Though he’s now best remembered for “Custer’s Last Stand”, George Armstrong Custer began June 25, 1876 as one of America’s better regarded cavalry officers, and a man whose ambitions might one day take him to higher office.
In fact, decades before radio and television existed, Custer mastered the art of public relations, dressing impeccably and having newspaper correspondents accompany him on campaign, all in an effort to help cultivate and enhance his legacy.
Custer’s efforts worked, with one biographer noting that Americans during the 19th century viewed him as “a cavalier without fear and beyond reproach." Much like famous Confederate cavalry leader JEB Stuart, Custer added substance to the style.
Custer’s success continued through until the end of the war, with his men playing an integral role during the Appomattox Campaign that forced the surrender of Robert E. Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia.
Had Custer’s career ended there, he would have been both successful and largely forgotten. Instead, the last 10 years of his life were full of political and military intrigue, as he attempted to position himself both in politics and the Army while making himself one of the best known fighters of the Indian Wars.
Those actions, along with the Battle of Little Bighorn, made him controversial even in his day, but with his death coming to be widely viewed as a sacrifice for his country, his legend and legacy grew throughout the nation. No matter what critics or supporters thought of him, George Armstrong Custer was unquestionably relevant. | <urn:uuid:f0c62787-ed2a-471c-ba64-5fbf135396ef> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://store.nationalcowboymuseum.org/products/boots-and-saddles-or-life-in-dakota-with-general-custer | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00231.warc.gz | en | 0.981398 | 478 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.23141837120... | 2 | By Elizabeth B. Custer
Since the Battle of Little Bighorn, George Armstrong Custer (1839-1876) has possessed one of the most unique places in American history.
Although he was a capable cavalry officer who served honorably during the Civil War, he remains one of the most instantly identifiable and famous military men in American history due to the fact he was killed during one of the country’s most well known and ignominious defeats, the Battle of Little Bighorn.
And yet, this one relatively insignificant battle during America’s Indian Wars has become one of the country’s most mythologized events and continues to fascinate Americans nearly 140 years later.
Though he’s now best remembered for “Custer’s Last Stand”, George Armstrong Custer began June 25, 1876 as one of America’s better regarded cavalry officers, and a man whose ambitions might one day take him to higher office.
In fact, decades before radio and television existed, Custer mastered the art of public relations, dressing impeccably and having newspaper correspondents accompany him on campaign, all in an effort to help cultivate and enhance his legacy.
Custer’s efforts worked, with one biographer noting that Americans during the 19th century viewed him as “a cavalier without fear and beyond reproach." Much like famous Confederate cavalry leader JEB Stuart, Custer added substance to the style.
Custer’s success continued through until the end of the war, with his men playing an integral role during the Appomattox Campaign that forced the surrender of Robert E. Lee’s Army of Northern Virginia.
Had Custer’s career ended there, he would have been both successful and largely forgotten. Instead, the last 10 years of his life were full of political and military intrigue, as he attempted to position himself both in politics and the Army while making himself one of the best known fighters of the Indian Wars.
Those actions, along with the Battle of Little Bighorn, made him controversial even in his day, but with his death coming to be widely viewed as a sacrifice for his country, his legend and legacy grew throughout the nation. No matter what critics or supporters thought of him, George Armstrong Custer was unquestionably relevant. | 462 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Leonardo Da Vinci made sketches of a humanoid robot using metal linkages and a lot of mechanical gears. It was possibly capable of sitting up, waving its arms, flexing its neck, moving its neck, and moving an anatomically correct jaw and was powered by falling weights.
It would not have been possessed of any intelligence, and would really have fallen under the category of Automaton although it was bolder than any that had come before it.
This was done in around 1495, before he painted The Last Supper. Some even say he may have built it. The design notes for the robot appear in sketchbooks that were rediscovered in the 1950s. It is considered the first known design for a robot.
It was in the mould of a human scale armoured knight. Its shell was an authentic German-Italian armour from the late 15th century.
It is theorised that he may have had inspiration from Greek texts. Al Jazari? an earlier Arabic inventor, had similar intentions. | <urn:uuid:d3474b0c-3293-4969-b6e2-43329e7326a3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://orionrobots.co.uk/wiki/leonardo_da_vincis_robot/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00243.warc.gz | en | 0.991889 | 207 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.48157852888107... | 1 | Leonardo Da Vinci made sketches of a humanoid robot using metal linkages and a lot of mechanical gears. It was possibly capable of sitting up, waving its arms, flexing its neck, moving its neck, and moving an anatomically correct jaw and was powered by falling weights.
It would not have been possessed of any intelligence, and would really have fallen under the category of Automaton although it was bolder than any that had come before it.
This was done in around 1495, before he painted The Last Supper. Some even say he may have built it. The design notes for the robot appear in sketchbooks that were rediscovered in the 1950s. It is considered the first known design for a robot.
It was in the mould of a human scale armoured knight. Its shell was an authentic German-Italian armour from the late 15th century.
It is theorised that he may have had inspiration from Greek texts. Al Jazari? an earlier Arabic inventor, had similar intentions. | 211 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The painting depicts an event which happened in real life, but it didn't aim to be an accurate record of the Temeraire's last voyage. Turner wanted viewers of his painting to think about how the Temeraire had served her country in the past, and how Britain now seemed to have turned its back on her.
When he exhibited the picture in 1839, he included these lines in the display:
The flag which braved the battle and the breeze,
No Longer owns her.
Indeed, the Temeraire doesn't fly the union flag any more. Instead, a white flag flutters from the mast of the tug. This shows that a ship was in commercial hands.
However, it also makes the Temeraire look as if she's being brought in under a flag of surrender, a further insult to her memory. | <urn:uuid:f43d4d37-800c-4675-8976-22c6fa8e96a6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/learn-about-art/paintings-in-depth/heroine-of-trafalgar-the-fighting-temeraire?viewPage=2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00040.warc.gz | en | 0.983642 | 173 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.389796853065... | 2 | The painting depicts an event which happened in real life, but it didn't aim to be an accurate record of the Temeraire's last voyage. Turner wanted viewers of his painting to think about how the Temeraire had served her country in the past, and how Britain now seemed to have turned its back on her.
When he exhibited the picture in 1839, he included these lines in the display:
The flag which braved the battle and the breeze,
No Longer owns her.
Indeed, the Temeraire doesn't fly the union flag any more. Instead, a white flag flutters from the mast of the tug. This shows that a ship was in commercial hands.
However, it also makes the Temeraire look as if she's being brought in under a flag of surrender, a further insult to her memory. | 170 | ENGLISH | 1 |
8 May 1945 – VE (Victory in Europe) Day – was one that remained in the memory of all those who witnessed it. It meant an end to nearly six years of a war that had cost the lives of millions; had destroyed homes, families, and cities; and had brought huge suffering and privations to the populations of entire countries.
On 7 May, at his headquarters in Reims, France, Supreme Allied Commander General Eisenhower accepted the unconditional surrender of all German forces. The document of surrender was signed on behalf of Germany by General Alfred Jodl and came into effect the following day.
Millions of people rejoiced in the news that Germany had surrendered, relieved that the intense strain of total war was finally over. In towns and cities across the world, people marked the victory with street parties, dancing and singing.
But it was not the end of the conflict, nor was it an end to the impact the war had on people. The war against Japan did not end until August 1945, and the political, social and economic repercussions of the Second World War were felt long after Germany and Japan surrendered.
A German delegation arrived at the headquarters of British Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery at Lüneburg Heath, east of Hamburg, on 4 May. There, Montgomery accepted the unconditional surrender of German forces in the Netherlands, northwest Germany and Denmark. | <urn:uuid:96d50556-4842-4cb4-b74e-ceaff0f67f50> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://northdevonmaritimemuseum.moonfruit.com/ve-day/4594789170 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00434.warc.gz | en | 0.983135 | 276 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.57066690921... | 3 | 8 May 1945 – VE (Victory in Europe) Day – was one that remained in the memory of all those who witnessed it. It meant an end to nearly six years of a war that had cost the lives of millions; had destroyed homes, families, and cities; and had brought huge suffering and privations to the populations of entire countries.
On 7 May, at his headquarters in Reims, France, Supreme Allied Commander General Eisenhower accepted the unconditional surrender of all German forces. The document of surrender was signed on behalf of Germany by General Alfred Jodl and came into effect the following day.
Millions of people rejoiced in the news that Germany had surrendered, relieved that the intense strain of total war was finally over. In towns and cities across the world, people marked the victory with street parties, dancing and singing.
But it was not the end of the conflict, nor was it an end to the impact the war had on people. The war against Japan did not end until August 1945, and the political, social and economic repercussions of the Second World War were felt long after Germany and Japan surrendered.
A German delegation arrived at the headquarters of British Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery at Lüneburg Heath, east of Hamburg, on 4 May. There, Montgomery accepted the unconditional surrender of German forces in the Netherlands, northwest Germany and Denmark. | 281 | ENGLISH | 1 |
I like managing several people and leading them to a greater self, both in work life and personal life(in a Way)
E. Jonathan, Content Team Lead, Degree in Literature, Los Angeles, California
Answered Dec 11, 2019
Armistice Day was the original name given for this celebration. The celebration of Armistice Day was announced by President Woodrow Wilson in 1919 to honor every serviceman who participated in World War I, which ended on November 11, 1918. Armistice Day actually became a federal holiday after it was passed by the legislature in 1938, as a special day to celebrate the end of World War 1. However, the US Congress decided to change the name of the celebration from Armistice Day to Veterans Day.
The implication of this is that Veterans Day will not only be for those who fought during World War I, but it will also be a special day for every serviceman who fought during Korean War and World War II, including other important wars. It is important to know that Veterans Day is not the same as Memorial Day and that Veterans Day was once celebrated on October 25, but it was later returned to its original date.
Armistice Day was the original name given for this celebration. The celebration of Armistice Day was announced by President Woodrow Wilson in 1919 to honor every s...Read More | <urn:uuid:cf429bac-ce9a-44e8-a343-acde7bfd4c98> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.proprofs.com/discuss/q/1796086/what-is-the-history-of-veterans-day | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00545.warc.gz | en | 0.981031 | 276 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | I like managing several people and leading them to a greater self, both in work life and personal life(in a Way)
E. Jonathan, Content Team Lead, Degree in Literature, Los Angeles, California
Answered Dec 11, 2019
Armistice Day was the original name given for this celebration. The celebration of Armistice Day was announced by President Woodrow Wilson in 1919 to honor every serviceman who participated in World War I, which ended on November 11, 1918. Armistice Day actually became a federal holiday after it was passed by the legislature in 1938, as a special day to celebrate the end of World War 1. However, the US Congress decided to change the name of the celebration from Armistice Day to Veterans Day.
The implication of this is that Veterans Day will not only be for those who fought during World War I, but it will also be a special day for every serviceman who fought during Korean War and World War II, including other important wars. It is important to know that Veterans Day is not the same as Memorial Day and that Veterans Day was once celebrated on October 25, but it was later returned to its original date.
Armistice Day was the original name given for this celebration. The celebration of Armistice Day was announced by President Woodrow Wilson in 1919 to honor every s...Read More | 298 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Leon Trotsky birth was on 7 November 1989. His birthplace was Yanovka, Ukraine where he was a key figure in the creation of the Soviet Union. His recognizable name among many people was Lenin's right-hand man, and his name at birth was Lev Davidovich Bronstein. He was also a conspicuous figure in early Soviet Union and has repeatedly been evaluated by a lot of people and historians.
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
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There has been a lot of compromise concerning the career analysis of Leon Trotsky, and some of the political campaign used waged war on him in the 1930s by Stalin. Trotsky was lauded as Lenin’s right-man, Trotsky in the revolution aftermath that was immediate. Following Lenin’s death, Stalin got to portray himself as a traitor to a Nazi agent of Germany also to the Revolution. The orthodoxy among communities in the rest of the world and Russia came to be due to this series of events that were occurring at that time. On the other hand, Trotsky himself got to produce a lucid account about his own life thereby presenting himself as a victim in Stalin’s quest for power.
There was careful documentation of that account. It was so deeply detailed, and had such awesome documentation, that it got the chance to become one of the many sources that was necessary for historians from the West who were studying that period. The fact which never appeared to surprised many was when they decided to take Trotsky’s role in a more sympathetic manner. Historians had only been able to present a more balanced view of Trotsky’s career in the recent times than there was before, since there was a lot of research done at the time.
The people who et to admire Trotsky’s political achievement and his military ones are those who get to view him in a more sympathetic manner. They also get to admire his excellent intellectual capability as well as his idealism. Also, they get to admire his dedication to the cause of revolution. Trotsky’s has critics who also get to acknowledge the successes that he had during the time of the Revolution also during the time of the Civil War. Trotsky was the one who got to organize the coup, getting to arrange the armies by the Red Guards, so as to capture buildings that were key to the public, and the installations that were in Moscow and Petrograd. Since he was thoroughly prepared, the cities fell with relatively little bloodshed.
A historian, whose name was Isaac Deutcher, gets to doubt that there could be any leader that could do what Trotsky did, since even Stalin recognized his crucial role in those early days. Trotsky was later given the role and task of negotiating the Brest-Litovsk treaty which he got to do despite his own worries. In late that year he a given the task of rebuilding the army of the Russians and defeating the whites when they conquered during the civil war.
Trotsky got to show and demonstrate his abilities as a speaker later on during that time, also as a strategic planner who knows how to do his work and how to organize individuals. It is so clear that indeed without him, the Red army would unlikely have won the civil war. Stabilizing the Russian economy was where Trotsky got to turn his attention to later on, and the policy he helped come up with became to be known as NEP. He argued that the peasants would need a heavier taxation so as to raise enough capital needed to finance industrialization.
This view eventually prevailed, therefore, getting to see that Trotsky’s role was particularly crucial in 1971-1921. Stalinist historian’s accounts of Trotsky’s life have not disputed this though a few accounts of his own life have disputed. However, it is not all of Trotsky’s career assessments are accomplished. One case is about his heavy criticism against his actions during the Civil War that seem to be ruthless. He was responsible for conscription re-introduction and that of the death penalty for cases of dissertation. He also got to order the Red Army to crush the Kronstadt sailors, which got to result to the deaths of many men, who had once been supporters of the revolution and were intensely loyal.
His inabilities to formulate realistic policies following Lenin’s death have also got to be criticized by a lot of people. He got to continue supporting the ‘permanent revolution’ in particular at a time when such policies had little hope of success. Trotsky’s character is also blamed for allegedly alienating supporters who were potentiality mighty in the power struggle with Stalin. They believe that his lofty manner and arrogance and his naivety in his politics made him leadership unsuitable. Therefore, it is exceedingly difficult to obtain a balanced view of Leon Trotsky though history has been kind enough to him than it has to his political rival Stalin.
Trotsky’s role in history has divided historians in some way, but they condemn Stalin as a killer and a dictator. Trotsky though gets to win in this conflict.
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:a0f66df3-5d8e-4f40-80a0-77dfaeed699f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essaysexperts.com/essays/history/leon-trotsky.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00133.warc.gz | en | 0.991795 | 1,067 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.2464988380... | 1 | Leon Trotsky birth was on 7 November 1989. His birthplace was Yanovka, Ukraine where he was a key figure in the creation of the Soviet Union. His recognizable name among many people was Lenin's right-hand man, and his name at birth was Lev Davidovich Bronstein. He was also a conspicuous figure in early Soviet Union and has repeatedly been evaluated by a lot of people and historians.
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
There has been a lot of compromise concerning the career analysis of Leon Trotsky, and some of the political campaign used waged war on him in the 1930s by Stalin. Trotsky was lauded as Lenin’s right-man, Trotsky in the revolution aftermath that was immediate. Following Lenin’s death, Stalin got to portray himself as a traitor to a Nazi agent of Germany also to the Revolution. The orthodoxy among communities in the rest of the world and Russia came to be due to this series of events that were occurring at that time. On the other hand, Trotsky himself got to produce a lucid account about his own life thereby presenting himself as a victim in Stalin’s quest for power.
There was careful documentation of that account. It was so deeply detailed, and had such awesome documentation, that it got the chance to become one of the many sources that was necessary for historians from the West who were studying that period. The fact which never appeared to surprised many was when they decided to take Trotsky’s role in a more sympathetic manner. Historians had only been able to present a more balanced view of Trotsky’s career in the recent times than there was before, since there was a lot of research done at the time.
The people who et to admire Trotsky’s political achievement and his military ones are those who get to view him in a more sympathetic manner. They also get to admire his excellent intellectual capability as well as his idealism. Also, they get to admire his dedication to the cause of revolution. Trotsky’s has critics who also get to acknowledge the successes that he had during the time of the Revolution also during the time of the Civil War. Trotsky was the one who got to organize the coup, getting to arrange the armies by the Red Guards, so as to capture buildings that were key to the public, and the installations that were in Moscow and Petrograd. Since he was thoroughly prepared, the cities fell with relatively little bloodshed.
A historian, whose name was Isaac Deutcher, gets to doubt that there could be any leader that could do what Trotsky did, since even Stalin recognized his crucial role in those early days. Trotsky was later given the role and task of negotiating the Brest-Litovsk treaty which he got to do despite his own worries. In late that year he a given the task of rebuilding the army of the Russians and defeating the whites when they conquered during the civil war.
Trotsky got to show and demonstrate his abilities as a speaker later on during that time, also as a strategic planner who knows how to do his work and how to organize individuals. It is so clear that indeed without him, the Red army would unlikely have won the civil war. Stabilizing the Russian economy was where Trotsky got to turn his attention to later on, and the policy he helped come up with became to be known as NEP. He argued that the peasants would need a heavier taxation so as to raise enough capital needed to finance industrialization.
This view eventually prevailed, therefore, getting to see that Trotsky’s role was particularly crucial in 1971-1921. Stalinist historian’s accounts of Trotsky’s life have not disputed this though a few accounts of his own life have disputed. However, it is not all of Trotsky’s career assessments are accomplished. One case is about his heavy criticism against his actions during the Civil War that seem to be ruthless. He was responsible for conscription re-introduction and that of the death penalty for cases of dissertation. He also got to order the Red Army to crush the Kronstadt sailors, which got to result to the deaths of many men, who had once been supporters of the revolution and were intensely loyal.
His inabilities to formulate realistic policies following Lenin’s death have also got to be criticized by a lot of people. He got to continue supporting the ‘permanent revolution’ in particular at a time when such policies had little hope of success. Trotsky’s character is also blamed for allegedly alienating supporters who were potentiality mighty in the power struggle with Stalin. They believe that his lofty manner and arrogance and his naivety in his politics made him leadership unsuitable. Therefore, it is exceedingly difficult to obtain a balanced view of Leon Trotsky though history has been kind enough to him than it has to his political rival Stalin.
Trotsky’s role in history has divided historians in some way, but they condemn Stalin as a killer and a dictator. Trotsky though gets to win in this conflict.
Most popular orders | 1,041 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Julia Jarman Visit
We were so lucky to have the fantastic Julia Jarman come into school to tell us all about her job as an author. It was amazing to find out about all of the research that she has to do before writing a book. We are very excited to have some of her books in school to read!
In English we have been learning about explanations. We are going to explain the process of making gingerbread. To help us to understand all of the steps and why we needed to them we made our own gingerbread men.
We looked at some art by David Hockney and thought about the techniques that he used. To create texture in water we used wax crayons then covered this with water colour paints. The paint resisted the wax crayon and this helped to create some fantastic water pictures.
As part of Anti-Bully Week we all wore odd socks! This is to raise awareness of bullying and remind us how unique and special we all are. We have also taken part in class and group discussions and activities to ensure children understand what bullying is, the impact it has on individuals and how to get help if needed.
As part of DT we had to design and make an instrument that would measure the weather. We made rain gauges to measure how much rain we have. We had to make sure that we used a waterproof material, ensured it would not blow away and made an accurate scale to measure the amount of rainfall. After we made them we put them outside so we can collect weather data each day.
Our topic this half term is Wild Weather. We have looked at different ways in which weather is observed and measured including looking at temperature, wind speed and wind direction.
In art we have experimented with different sketching pencils to look at which would produce the best effects for sketching Iron Age round houses. Look at the different effects that we managed to create.
After learning about the monument that started to be built during the Stone Age, we made some models of Stone Henge using clay. Some children made sections of Stone Henge and there was one amazing attempt to make the the whole of Stone Henge!
Year 3 enjoyed a Futsal skills session.
In science this half term we have been learning all about plants. As part of this topic we have looked at the process of pollination. To help us to understand this process we made some flowers and insects and acted it out. Here is a video of some of the children explaining the process.
After studying Stone Age tools, we had a try at making our own. We used slate stones because they looked and were shaped like flint and we used sticks. To join the materials together we used string. We designed our tools and choose the equipment carefully.
On Thursday Year 3 were very lucky and they got to look at and handle some objects linked to the Stone Age that we have borrowed from Tyne and Wear Museums . The children looked closely at the tools and talked about how they were made. They were fascinated to discover that Stone Age people wore jewelry and discussed the different things that it was made from.
Year 3 investigated Stone Age diets. To help us understand what food was available we went to forest school and had a try at hunting and gathering the different foods. We talked about how Stone Age people would have done this. | <urn:uuid:83b7f8a2-29b7-4d07-9b11-17d9baccddd1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.lingeyhouseprimary.org/y3-f/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00470.warc.gz | en | 0.981372 | 681 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | Julia Jarman Visit
We were so lucky to have the fantastic Julia Jarman come into school to tell us all about her job as an author. It was amazing to find out about all of the research that she has to do before writing a book. We are very excited to have some of her books in school to read!
In English we have been learning about explanations. We are going to explain the process of making gingerbread. To help us to understand all of the steps and why we needed to them we made our own gingerbread men.
We looked at some art by David Hockney and thought about the techniques that he used. To create texture in water we used wax crayons then covered this with water colour paints. The paint resisted the wax crayon and this helped to create some fantastic water pictures.
As part of Anti-Bully Week we all wore odd socks! This is to raise awareness of bullying and remind us how unique and special we all are. We have also taken part in class and group discussions and activities to ensure children understand what bullying is, the impact it has on individuals and how to get help if needed.
As part of DT we had to design and make an instrument that would measure the weather. We made rain gauges to measure how much rain we have. We had to make sure that we used a waterproof material, ensured it would not blow away and made an accurate scale to measure the amount of rainfall. After we made them we put them outside so we can collect weather data each day.
Our topic this half term is Wild Weather. We have looked at different ways in which weather is observed and measured including looking at temperature, wind speed and wind direction.
In art we have experimented with different sketching pencils to look at which would produce the best effects for sketching Iron Age round houses. Look at the different effects that we managed to create.
After learning about the monument that started to be built during the Stone Age, we made some models of Stone Henge using clay. Some children made sections of Stone Henge and there was one amazing attempt to make the the whole of Stone Henge!
Year 3 enjoyed a Futsal skills session.
In science this half term we have been learning all about plants. As part of this topic we have looked at the process of pollination. To help us to understand this process we made some flowers and insects and acted it out. Here is a video of some of the children explaining the process.
After studying Stone Age tools, we had a try at making our own. We used slate stones because they looked and were shaped like flint and we used sticks. To join the materials together we used string. We designed our tools and choose the equipment carefully.
On Thursday Year 3 were very lucky and they got to look at and handle some objects linked to the Stone Age that we have borrowed from Tyne and Wear Museums . The children looked closely at the tools and talked about how they were made. They were fascinated to discover that Stone Age people wore jewelry and discussed the different things that it was made from.
Year 3 investigated Stone Age diets. To help us understand what food was available we went to forest school and had a try at hunting and gathering the different foods. We talked about how Stone Age people would have done this. | 668 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(Last Updated on : 07/10/2013)
Sikander Adil Shah ascended the throne of the kingdom of Bijapur
in 1672, at the tender age of four. The period of 1672 till 1686 was marked by the reign of Sikander Adil Shah, which consisted of frequent wars. The battles were fought mainly between ministers and nobles with the objective of gaining independence from provincial governors. There were numerous Mughal invasions during the rule of this emperor and secret alliances with the Maratha
s. Eventually, Bijapur was annexed by the Mughal Empire
Sikander Adil Shah was insulted by the many internal conflicts which perturbed his empire, and for which Diler Khan, the Mughal General was responsible. He made some brave attempts to retrieve his kingdom from the Mughals, but all his efforts were in vain since the Mughals refused to give up Adil Shah's empire. Sikander Shah's alliance with Sambhaji went a step further to sour the relationship between the king of the then empire of Bijapur and the Mughals.
Finally, the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb
was determined to conquer Bijapur and initiated his progress by laying a siege around Bijapur in about 1685 to 1686. Sikander Shah was not capable of checking the advancement of Aurangzeb into his empire. He was compelled to surrender Bijapur Fort
and Bijapur was absorbed into the Mughal Empire.
Aurangzeb had ensured that Sikander Adil Shah captured in silver chains and brought in front of him. Sikander Shah and his companions were sent away to Daulatabad Fort
, where he had died in captivity. He was buried in the open compound in the New Market area of Bijapur. This led to the decline of the Adil Shahi Dynasty
This article is a stub. You can enrich by adding more information to it. Send your Write Up to email@example.com | <urn:uuid:857d7a11-9f72-4aac-a434-de972526bd37> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.indianetzone.com/69/sikander_adil_shah.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00305.warc.gz | en | 0.984556 | 423 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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Sikander Adil Shah ascended the throne of the kingdom of Bijapur
in 1672, at the tender age of four. The period of 1672 till 1686 was marked by the reign of Sikander Adil Shah, which consisted of frequent wars. The battles were fought mainly between ministers and nobles with the objective of gaining independence from provincial governors. There were numerous Mughal invasions during the rule of this emperor and secret alliances with the Maratha
s. Eventually, Bijapur was annexed by the Mughal Empire
Sikander Adil Shah was insulted by the many internal conflicts which perturbed his empire, and for which Diler Khan, the Mughal General was responsible. He made some brave attempts to retrieve his kingdom from the Mughals, but all his efforts were in vain since the Mughals refused to give up Adil Shah's empire. Sikander Shah's alliance with Sambhaji went a step further to sour the relationship between the king of the then empire of Bijapur and the Mughals.
Finally, the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb
was determined to conquer Bijapur and initiated his progress by laying a siege around Bijapur in about 1685 to 1686. Sikander Shah was not capable of checking the advancement of Aurangzeb into his empire. He was compelled to surrender Bijapur Fort
and Bijapur was absorbed into the Mughal Empire.
Aurangzeb had ensured that Sikander Adil Shah captured in silver chains and brought in front of him. Sikander Shah and his companions were sent away to Daulatabad Fort
, where he had died in captivity. He was buried in the open compound in the New Market area of Bijapur. This led to the decline of the Adil Shahi Dynasty
This article is a stub. You can enrich by adding more information to it. Send your Write Up to email@example.com | 428 | ENGLISH | 1 |
March is Women’s History Month.
Nowadays, the fact that women have accomplishments and responsibilities outside of the traditional female sphere seems normal. But the reality is that it was not too long ago that women had no rights and had to fight for even the most basic of rights that men take for granted. The 19th Amendment was only ratified in 1920.
Don’t get me wrong, our accomplishments in only a few generations are nothing short of breathtaking. When our fore mothers were simply fighting for the right to vote and have a voice in their government, they might not have foreseen the snowball effect of wanting to vote. The educational and professional opportunities that were once closed to us are now ours for the taking. We can choose if and when we marry and have children. Our lives are our own.
But even with all of that, there are still many battles to fight:
- Equal pay for equal work.
- Safety from sexual violence, at home, on the street and at work.
- Easy access to safe and reliable birth control.
This war is not over and will not be over until women are seen and treated as equals to men. While that day has not come yet, it will come. We just have to keep working and fighting for it. | <urn:uuid:1f986638-a88f-42a7-8b88-8403c0bdc3ed> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://writergurlny.wordpress.com/2018/03/02/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00032.warc.gz | en | 0.990567 | 262 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.3107526004314422... | 14 | March is Women’s History Month.
Nowadays, the fact that women have accomplishments and responsibilities outside of the traditional female sphere seems normal. But the reality is that it was not too long ago that women had no rights and had to fight for even the most basic of rights that men take for granted. The 19th Amendment was only ratified in 1920.
Don’t get me wrong, our accomplishments in only a few generations are nothing short of breathtaking. When our fore mothers were simply fighting for the right to vote and have a voice in their government, they might not have foreseen the snowball effect of wanting to vote. The educational and professional opportunities that were once closed to us are now ours for the taking. We can choose if and when we marry and have children. Our lives are our own.
But even with all of that, there are still many battles to fight:
- Equal pay for equal work.
- Safety from sexual violence, at home, on the street and at work.
- Easy access to safe and reliable birth control.
This war is not over and will not be over until women are seen and treated as equals to men. While that day has not come yet, it will come. We just have to keep working and fighting for it. | 258 | ENGLISH | 1 |
You need to know that teaching your children how to read at an early age is very important. This is because it creates a foundation for the education they will get in the future. Also, people should make sure they teach their children how to read because most people consider it to be the heart of all formal education. Note that most people have embraced early literacy for their children because they have learned about the various benefits which are associated with it. Some of the benefits associated with promoting the ability of your child to read early may include the following neurological reasons, educational reasons, psychological reasons, and many others.
It is important to understand that developing early reading for your children will provide them with neurological benefits. Research has shown that early reading can develop the brains of young children. Note that children can learn and grasp things faster in their first six years than at any other time. You need to know that normal children are born with billions of neurons or active brain cells. In a case where these neurons are stimulated they sprout up into thousands of synapses and dendrites connections which provide an opportunity to store more information. Note that this stimulation will only take place when the child is taken through early learning. Also, children’s brain cells become stronger and manage to form new links when parents take their time to read, teach and sing for them. Research shows that most children will grasp so many things when they are taught at an early age compared to when they are taught as they grow. Early reading has a greater impact on the entire development and functioning of the child’s brain. However, children tend to love learning and reading if they start being taught at an early age because during those times they can accommodate additional information.
Another reason why parents should provide their children with early reading is educational reasons. Early literacy will promote the love for learning in your child and also result in higher grades in the future. Many studies explain that the basis for literacy development is formed by the oral language skills provided to the children at an early stage. Children will become fluent readers in the future if only good time is spent on teaching them how to read at an early age. This is because at that age most of the children are able to store more information which will help them in developing their vocabulary and also increasing their levels of general knowledge. Also, most children are able to concentrate and pay attention to what they are being taught at an early age than when they are growing. Furthermore, early readers are able to analyze and understand the environment they are living in because early reading will help them to recognize many words by sight. Many early readers become competent researchers because they are able to understand what they are reading and this helps them to remove relevant information from what they are reading. | <urn:uuid:af7cd514-f516-47a7-9a73-921c625ff302> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://premier-edu.us/2019/12/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00524.warc.gz | en | 0.981088 | 552 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.67677640914916... | 12 | You need to know that teaching your children how to read at an early age is very important. This is because it creates a foundation for the education they will get in the future. Also, people should make sure they teach their children how to read because most people consider it to be the heart of all formal education. Note that most people have embraced early literacy for their children because they have learned about the various benefits which are associated with it. Some of the benefits associated with promoting the ability of your child to read early may include the following neurological reasons, educational reasons, psychological reasons, and many others.
It is important to understand that developing early reading for your children will provide them with neurological benefits. Research has shown that early reading can develop the brains of young children. Note that children can learn and grasp things faster in their first six years than at any other time. You need to know that normal children are born with billions of neurons or active brain cells. In a case where these neurons are stimulated they sprout up into thousands of synapses and dendrites connections which provide an opportunity to store more information. Note that this stimulation will only take place when the child is taken through early learning. Also, children’s brain cells become stronger and manage to form new links when parents take their time to read, teach and sing for them. Research shows that most children will grasp so many things when they are taught at an early age compared to when they are taught as they grow. Early reading has a greater impact on the entire development and functioning of the child’s brain. However, children tend to love learning and reading if they start being taught at an early age because during those times they can accommodate additional information.
Another reason why parents should provide their children with early reading is educational reasons. Early literacy will promote the love for learning in your child and also result in higher grades in the future. Many studies explain that the basis for literacy development is formed by the oral language skills provided to the children at an early stage. Children will become fluent readers in the future if only good time is spent on teaching them how to read at an early age. This is because at that age most of the children are able to store more information which will help them in developing their vocabulary and also increasing their levels of general knowledge. Also, most children are able to concentrate and pay attention to what they are being taught at an early age than when they are growing. Furthermore, early readers are able to analyze and understand the environment they are living in because early reading will help them to recognize many words by sight. Many early readers become competent researchers because they are able to understand what they are reading and this helps them to remove relevant information from what they are reading. | 545 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Templates for "Notes of Invitation": Impacts on Minorities and Education
This section on notes of invitation, gives clear instruction on how to properly write formal invitations in the contemporary style for 1882. The section has several templates for different types of invitations such as party invitations, or for dinner. There are detailed instructions on how to receive and send letters, including how the letters are to be addressed and to be mailed including how they are to be received by private messengers. There are also grammatical formalities such as the use of the third person in these invitations. The instructions for invitations include writing styles for a person as important as the president, suggesting that this guide was for use by people of high social status. Many of these instructions include the type of paper to use and to use woodcut and print if at all possible.
This example of writing in proper etiquette demonstrates a fundamental divide in the education of the upper class compared to education received by those of lower social status. This work is clearly aimed at the highly educated people of importance because of the types of letter associated with it. Templates for "Notes of Invitation" assumes that many of the people receiving these letters would have personal messengers to bring them their letters. Another indication of the status of the recipients is the expectation of membership to a college or society that can afford woodcuts for letters. This guide was very well decorated and the sides of its pages were colored gold further indicating how it was meant for a more exclusive audience. This is in extreme contrast to what the Native american education was at the time in mission or industrial schools. The exclusive nature of this book means that it was . We know that Native Americans were able to get college educations and succeed as evidenced by Zitkala Sa’s successful writing career. However, etiquette books like this may not have been taught because of their race, and an expectation that Native Americans would never climb in social status. This expectation is clearly shown in Zitkala Sa’s account of her writing competition where she was states, “Here again was a strong prejudice against my people.” Despite this being a public event where she is a representative of her university she is expected to lose and openly mocked for her race despite her qualifications. Until she wins the prejudice is still very clear as she still “saw the white flag still floating insolently in the air.” Zitkala Sa was college educated and would go on to be a famous writer, but even then she expected to be less educated that her white peers. Exclusive works like Gaskell's Compendium of Forms, Social, Educational, Legal & Commercial form which this excerpt comes created a barrier to education that was even greater than basic schooling. This artificial barrier attempts to justify expansion and forcibly educating people despite this education not teaching etiquette like this. | <urn:uuid:2e52f21f-9e75-4daa-ac6b-e1bc224930ad> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://texasheritage.omeka.net/exhibits/show/english-10304-class-exhibit/templatesfornotes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00094.warc.gz | en | 0.981691 | 577 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.134854912757... | 1 | Templates for "Notes of Invitation": Impacts on Minorities and Education
This section on notes of invitation, gives clear instruction on how to properly write formal invitations in the contemporary style for 1882. The section has several templates for different types of invitations such as party invitations, or for dinner. There are detailed instructions on how to receive and send letters, including how the letters are to be addressed and to be mailed including how they are to be received by private messengers. There are also grammatical formalities such as the use of the third person in these invitations. The instructions for invitations include writing styles for a person as important as the president, suggesting that this guide was for use by people of high social status. Many of these instructions include the type of paper to use and to use woodcut and print if at all possible.
This example of writing in proper etiquette demonstrates a fundamental divide in the education of the upper class compared to education received by those of lower social status. This work is clearly aimed at the highly educated people of importance because of the types of letter associated with it. Templates for "Notes of Invitation" assumes that many of the people receiving these letters would have personal messengers to bring them their letters. Another indication of the status of the recipients is the expectation of membership to a college or society that can afford woodcuts for letters. This guide was very well decorated and the sides of its pages were colored gold further indicating how it was meant for a more exclusive audience. This is in extreme contrast to what the Native american education was at the time in mission or industrial schools. The exclusive nature of this book means that it was . We know that Native Americans were able to get college educations and succeed as evidenced by Zitkala Sa’s successful writing career. However, etiquette books like this may not have been taught because of their race, and an expectation that Native Americans would never climb in social status. This expectation is clearly shown in Zitkala Sa’s account of her writing competition where she was states, “Here again was a strong prejudice against my people.” Despite this being a public event where she is a representative of her university she is expected to lose and openly mocked for her race despite her qualifications. Until she wins the prejudice is still very clear as she still “saw the white flag still floating insolently in the air.” Zitkala Sa was college educated and would go on to be a famous writer, but even then she expected to be less educated that her white peers. Exclusive works like Gaskell's Compendium of Forms, Social, Educational, Legal & Commercial form which this excerpt comes created a barrier to education that was even greater than basic schooling. This artificial barrier attempts to justify expansion and forcibly educating people despite this education not teaching etiquette like this. | 566 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For example, what is the difference between the following two sentences:
I had a bad day
I had had a bad day
'Had' is the past form as well as the past participle of 'have'.
The first sentence is in the simple past tense which typically has this form:
Subject + past form of verb
I had (past tense of have) a bad day.
I reached (past tense form of 'reach') the office late.
The simple past is used normally to denote an action that is completed in the past.
The second sentence is in the past perfect tense which has this form:
Subject + had + past participle of verb
If two non-consecutive events happened in the past, this tense is used to show the first event.
By the time we arrived, the party had begun.
= The party began. Then we arrived.
By the time we arrived, they had eaten all the food!
= They ate all the food; then we arrived.
I had had a bad day already, and I arrived home to find that it had been robbed!
= I was having a bad day. During the day my home was robbed. Then I arrived home and found out about the robbery.
Refer to Kajaco's example as well. Here, the past perfect is used to show which incident/action happened first.
There's an idiomatic difference between "to have a bad day" and "to be having a bad day". The first (mostly) refers to external events and the second (mostly) to your internal reaction to them (mood, headache, etc.) - but there's no bright-line separation between them, just as there isn't in life. Perhaps fully-enlightened Buddhists or Stoics can completely separate external events from their own reactions to them - but then, a fully-enlightened Buddhist or Stoic wouldn't refer to any particular day as being "bad", either.
It might be helpful to ring all the changes on this phrase and see how its meaning shifts:
This evening you will tell your wife, "I crashed the car because I had a bad day." Later this month you will explain to the insurance adjuster, "I crashed my car because I had had a bad day."
Just for fun: http://www.reocities.com/oosterwal/puzzle/had.htm
You are asking about the difference between these. If you are asking about meanings, then the first is a simple statement of fact that stands alone. The second implies another thought coming with it, such as
I had had a bad day at work already, when I got home and discovered the basement was flooded. | <urn:uuid:83e063ba-85ce-44fa-b1bb-3e4a40ef5725> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/2658/what-does-had-had-mean-how-does-this-differ-from-had | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00041.warc.gz | en | 0.987626 | 564 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.098348796367645... | 1 | For example, what is the difference between the following two sentences:
I had a bad day
I had had a bad day
'Had' is the past form as well as the past participle of 'have'.
The first sentence is in the simple past tense which typically has this form:
Subject + past form of verb
I had (past tense of have) a bad day.
I reached (past tense form of 'reach') the office late.
The simple past is used normally to denote an action that is completed in the past.
The second sentence is in the past perfect tense which has this form:
Subject + had + past participle of verb
If two non-consecutive events happened in the past, this tense is used to show the first event.
By the time we arrived, the party had begun.
= The party began. Then we arrived.
By the time we arrived, they had eaten all the food!
= They ate all the food; then we arrived.
I had had a bad day already, and I arrived home to find that it had been robbed!
= I was having a bad day. During the day my home was robbed. Then I arrived home and found out about the robbery.
Refer to Kajaco's example as well. Here, the past perfect is used to show which incident/action happened first.
There's an idiomatic difference between "to have a bad day" and "to be having a bad day". The first (mostly) refers to external events and the second (mostly) to your internal reaction to them (mood, headache, etc.) - but there's no bright-line separation between them, just as there isn't in life. Perhaps fully-enlightened Buddhists or Stoics can completely separate external events from their own reactions to them - but then, a fully-enlightened Buddhist or Stoic wouldn't refer to any particular day as being "bad", either.
It might be helpful to ring all the changes on this phrase and see how its meaning shifts:
This evening you will tell your wife, "I crashed the car because I had a bad day." Later this month you will explain to the insurance adjuster, "I crashed my car because I had had a bad day."
Just for fun: http://www.reocities.com/oosterwal/puzzle/had.htm
You are asking about the difference between these. If you are asking about meanings, then the first is a simple statement of fact that stands alone. The second implies another thought coming with it, such as
I had had a bad day at work already, when I got home and discovered the basement was flooded. | 534 | ENGLISH | 1 |
▪ English writer
byname of Benjamin Jonson
born June 11?, 1572, London, Eng.
died Aug. 6, 1637, London
English Stuart dramatist, lyric poet, and literary critic. He is generally regarded as the second most important English dramatist, after William Shakespeare, during the reign of James I. Among his major plays are the comedies Every Man in His Humour
(1605), Epicoene; or, The Silent Woman
(1609), The Alchemist
(1610), and Bartholomew Fair
Jonson was born two months after his father died. His stepfather was a bricklayer, but by good fortune the boy was able to attend Westminster School. His formal education, however, ended early, and he at first followed his stepfather's trade, then fought with some success with the English forces in the Netherlands. On returning to England, he became an actor and playwright, experiencing the life of a strolling player. He apparently played the leading role of Hieronimo in Thomas Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy
. By 1597 he was writing plays for Philip Henslowe (Henslowe, Philip
), the leading impresario for the public theatre. With one exception (The Case Is Altered
), these early plays are known, if at all, only by their titles. Jonson apparently wrote tragedies as well as comedies in these years, but his extant writings include only two tragedies, Sejanus
(1603) and Catiline
The year 1598 marked an abrupt change in Jonson's status, when Every Man in His Humour
was successfully presented by the Lord Chamberlain's (Lord Chamberlain's Men) theatrical company (a legend has it that Shakespeare (Shakespeare, William
) himself recommended it to them), and his reputation was established. In this play Jonson tried to bring the spirit and manner of Latin comedy to the English popular stage by presenting the story of a young man with an eye for a girl, who has difficulty with a phlegmatic father, is dependent on a clever servant, and is ultimately successful—in fact, the standard plot of the Latin dramatist Plautus. But at the same time Jonson sought to embody in four of the main characters the four “humours (humour
)” of medieval and Renaissance medicine—choler, melancholy, phlegm, and blood—which were thought to determine human physical and mental makeup.
That same year Jonson killed a fellow actor in a duel, and, though he escaped capital punishment by pleading “benefit of clergy” (the ability to read from the Latin Bible), he could not escape branding. During his brief imprisonment over the affair he became a Roman Catholic.
Following the success of Every Man in His Humour,
the same theatrical company acted Jonson's Every Man Out of His Humour
(1599), which was even more ambitious. It was the longest play ever written for the Elizabethan (Elizabethan literature
) public theatre, and it strove to provide an equivalent of the Greek comedy of Aristophanes; “induction,” or “prelude,” and regular between-act comment explicated the author's views on what the drama should be.
The play, however, proved a disaster, and Jonson had to look elsewhere for a theatre to present his work. The obvious place was the “private” theatres, in which only young boys acted (see
children's company). The high price of admission they charged meant a select audience, and they were willing to try strong satire and formal experiment; for them Jonson wrote Cynthia's Revels
1600) and Poetaster
(1601). Even in these, however, there is the paradox of contempt for human behaviour hand in hand with a longing for human order.
From 1605 to 1634 he regularly contributed masques for the courts of James I and Charles I, collaborating with the architect and designer Inigo Jones (Jones, Inigo
). This marked his favour with the court and led to his post as poet laureate.
His masques at court
It appears that Jonson won royal attention by his Entertainment at Althorpe,
given before James I's queen as she journeyed down from Scotland in 1603, and in 1605 The Masque of Blackness
was presented at court. The “ masque
” was a quasi-dramatic entertainment, primarily providing a pretense for a group of strangers to dance and sing before an audience of guests and attendants in a royal court or nobleman's house. This elementary pattern was much elaborated during the reign of James I, when Jones provided increasingly magnificent costumes and scenic effects for masques at court. The few spoken words that the masque had demanded in Elizabethan days expanded into a “text” of a few hundred lines and a number of set songs. Thus the author became important as well as the designer: he was to provide not only the necessary words but also a special “allegorical” meaning underlying the whole entertainment. It was Jonson, in collaboration with Jones, who gave the Jacobean masque its characteristic shape and style. He did this primarily by introducing the suggestion of a “dramatic” action. It was thus the poet who provided the informing idea and dictated the fashion of the whole night's assembly. Jonson's early masques were clearly successful, for during the following years he was repeatedly called upon to function as poet at court. Among his masques were Hymenaei
(1606), Hue and Cry After Cupid
(1608), The Masque of Beauty
(1608), and The Masque of Queens
(1609). In his masques Jonson was fertile in inventing new motives for the arrival of the strangers. But this was not enough: he also invented the “antimasque,” which preceded the masque proper and which featured grotesques or comics who were primarily actors rather than dancers or musicians.
Important though Jonson was at the court in Whitehall, it was undoubtedly Jones's contributions that caused the most stir. That tension should arise between the two men was inevitable, and eventually friction led to a complete break: Jonson wrote the Twelfth Night
masque for the court in 1625 but then had to wait five years before the court again asked for his services.
His prime and later life
In 1606 Jonson and his wife (whom he had married in 1594) were brought before the consistory court in London to explain their lack of participation in the Anglican church. He denied that his wife was guilty but admitted that his own religious opinions held him aloof from attendance. The matter was patched up through his agreement to confer with learned men, who might persuade him if they could. Apparently it took six years for him to decide to conform. For some time before this he and his wife had lived apart, Jonson taking refuge in turn with his patrons Sir Robert Townshend and Esmé Stuart, Lord Aubigny.
During this period, nevertheless, he made a mark second only to Shakespeare's in the public theatre. His comedies Volpone; or, the Foxe
(1606) and The Alchemist
(1610) were among the most popular and esteemed plays of the time. Each exhibited man's folly in the pursuit of gold. Set respectively in Italy and London, they demonstrate Jonson's enthusiasm both for the typical Renaissance setting and for his own town on Europe's fringe. Both plays are eloquent and compact, sharp-tongued and controlled. The comedies Epicoene
(1609) and Bartholomew Fair
(1614) were also successful.
Jonson embarked on a walking tour in 1618–19, which took him to Scotland. During the visit the city of Edinburgh made him an honorary burgess and guild brother. On his return to England he received an honorary Master of Arts degree from Oxford University, a most signal honour in his time. Jonson's life was a life of talk as well as of writing. He engaged in “wit-combats” with Shakespeare and reigned supreme. It was a young man's ultimate honour to be regarded as a “son of Ben.”
In 1623 his personal library was destroyed by fire. By this time his services were seldom called on for the entertainment of Charles I's court, and his last plays failed to please. In 1628 he suffered what was apparently a stroke and, as a result, was confined to his room and chair, ultimately to his bed. That same year he was made city chronologer (thus theoretically responsible for the city's pageants), though in 1634 his salary for the post was made into a pension. Jonson died in 1637 and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
The first folio edition of his works had appeared in 1616; posthumously, in a second Jonson folio (1640), appeared Timber: or, Discoveries,
a series of observations on life and letters. Here Jonson held forth on the nature of poetry and drama and paid his final tribute to Shakespeare: in spite of acknowledging a belief that his great contemporary was, on occasion, “full of wind”—sufflaminandus erat
—he declared that “I loved the man, and do honour his memory, on this side idolatry, as much as any.”
His plays and achievement
Ben Jonson occupies by common consent the second place among English dramatists of the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I. He was a man of contraries. For “twelve years a papist,” he was also—in fact though not in title—Protestant England's first poet laureate. His major comedies express a strong distaste for the world in which he lived and a delight in exposing its follies and vices. A gifted lyric poet, he wrote two of his most successful plays entirely in prose, an unusual mode of composition in his time. Though often an angry and stubborn man, no one had more disciples than he. He was easily the most learned dramatist of his time, and he was also a master of theatrical plot, language, and characterization. It is a measure of his reputation that his dramatic works were the first to be published in folio (the term
, in effect
, means the “collected works”) and that his plays held their place on the stage until the period of the Restoration. Later they fell into neglect, though The Alchemist
was revived during the 18th century, and in the mid-20th century several came back into favour: Volpone, The Alchemist,
and Bartholomew Fair
especially have been staged with striking success.
Jonson's chief plays are still very good theatre. His insistence on putting classical theory into practice in them has reinforced rather than weakened the effect of his gift of lively dialogue, robust characterization, and intricate, controlled plotting. In each of them he maneuvers a large cast of vital personages, all consistently differentiated from one another. Jonson's plots are skillfully put together; incident develops out of incident in a consistent chain of cause and effect, taking into account the respective natures of the personages involved and proceeding confidently through a twisting, turning action that is full of surprises without relying on coincidence or chance. Sometimes Jonson's comedy derives from the dialogue, especially when it is based on his observation of contemporary tricks of speech. But there are also superbly ludicrous situations, often hardly removed from practical joke.
Jonson is renowned for his method of concentrating on a selected side, or on selected sides, of a character, showing how they dominate the personality. This is to some extent a natural outcome of his classical conception of art, but it also stems from his clear, shrewd observation of people. In Jonson's plays both eccentricity and normal behaviour are derived from a dominating characteristic, so that the result is a live, truthfully conceived personage in whom the ruling passion traces itself plainly. The later plays, for example, have characters whose behaviour is dominated by one psychological idiosyncrasy. But Jonson did not deal exclusively in “humours.” In some of his plays (notably Every Man in His Humour
), the stock types of Latin comedy contributed as much as the humours theory did. What the theory provided for him and for his contemporaries was a convenient mode of distinguishing among human beings. The distinctions so made could be based on the “humours,” on Latin comic types, or, as in Volpone,
in the assimilation of humans to different members of the animal kingdom. The characters Volpone, Mosca, Sir Epicure Mammon, Face, Subtle, Dol Common, Overdo, and Ursula are not simply “humours”; they are glorious type figures, so vitally rendered as to take on a being that transcends the type. This method was one of simplification, of typification, and yet also of vitalization.
The Restoration (Restoration literature
) dramatists' use of type names for their characters (Cockwood, Witwoud, Petulant
, Pinchwife, and so on) was a harking back to Jonson, and similarly in the 18th century, with such characters as Peachum, Lumpkin, Candour, and Languish. And though, as the 18th century proceeded, comic dramatists increasingly used names quite arbitrarily, the idea of the Jonsonian “type” or “humour” was always at the root of their imagining. Jonson thus exerted a great influence on the playwrights who immediately followed him. In the late Jacobean and Caroline years, it was he, Shakespeare, and Francis Beaumont (Beaumont, Francis
) and John Fletcher (Fletcher, John
) who provided all the models. But it was he, and he alone, who gave the essential impulse to dramatic characterization in comedy of the Restoration and also in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Clifford Leech Ed.
Authoritative texts of Jonson's major works can be found in Richard Harp (ed
.), Ben Jonson's Plays and Masques
, 2nd ed. (2001). Biographies include W. David Kay, Ben Jonson: A Literary Life
(1995); and David Riggs, Ben Jonson: A Life
(1989). Several editions of essays attest to the current state of Jonson studies: Richard Dutton (ed
.), Ben Jonson
(1999); Robert N. Watson (ed
.), Critical Essays on Ben Jonson
(1997); and James Hirsh (ed
.), New Perspectives on Ben Jonson
(1997). The stage history is dealt with in Martin Butler (ed
.), Re-presenting Ben Jonson: Text, History, Performance
(1999). Other useful texts include Julie Sanders, Kate Chedgzoy, and Susan Wiseman (eds.), Refashioning Ben Jonson: Gender, Politics, and the Jonsonian Canon
(1998); Claude J. Summers and Ted-Larry Pebworth, Ben Jonson Revised
(1999, rev. ed. of Ben Jonson
); Richard Harp and Stanley Stewart (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Ben Jonson
(2000); Harold Bloom (ed
.), Ben Jonson: Comprehensive Research and Study Guide
(2002); and James Loxley, The Complete Critical Guide to Ben Jonson
* * *
Источник: Jonson, Ben | <urn:uuid:5e171fd4-20c1-45d0-a1c6-7b44f2a5b705> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://books.academic.ru/book.nsf/59005222/The+dramatic+works+and+lyrics+of+Ben+Jonson.+Selected%2C+with+an+essay%2C+biographical+and+critical | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00096.warc.gz | en | 0.980453 | 3,276 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.25540769100... | 1 | ▪ English writer
byname of Benjamin Jonson
born June 11?, 1572, London, Eng.
died Aug. 6, 1637, London
English Stuart dramatist, lyric poet, and literary critic. He is generally regarded as the second most important English dramatist, after William Shakespeare, during the reign of James I. Among his major plays are the comedies Every Man in His Humour
(1605), Epicoene; or, The Silent Woman
(1609), The Alchemist
(1610), and Bartholomew Fair
Jonson was born two months after his father died. His stepfather was a bricklayer, but by good fortune the boy was able to attend Westminster School. His formal education, however, ended early, and he at first followed his stepfather's trade, then fought with some success with the English forces in the Netherlands. On returning to England, he became an actor and playwright, experiencing the life of a strolling player. He apparently played the leading role of Hieronimo in Thomas Kyd's The Spanish Tragedy
. By 1597 he was writing plays for Philip Henslowe (Henslowe, Philip
), the leading impresario for the public theatre. With one exception (The Case Is Altered
), these early plays are known, if at all, only by their titles. Jonson apparently wrote tragedies as well as comedies in these years, but his extant writings include only two tragedies, Sejanus
(1603) and Catiline
The year 1598 marked an abrupt change in Jonson's status, when Every Man in His Humour
was successfully presented by the Lord Chamberlain's (Lord Chamberlain's Men) theatrical company (a legend has it that Shakespeare (Shakespeare, William
) himself recommended it to them), and his reputation was established. In this play Jonson tried to bring the spirit and manner of Latin comedy to the English popular stage by presenting the story of a young man with an eye for a girl, who has difficulty with a phlegmatic father, is dependent on a clever servant, and is ultimately successful—in fact, the standard plot of the Latin dramatist Plautus. But at the same time Jonson sought to embody in four of the main characters the four “humours (humour
)” of medieval and Renaissance medicine—choler, melancholy, phlegm, and blood—which were thought to determine human physical and mental makeup.
That same year Jonson killed a fellow actor in a duel, and, though he escaped capital punishment by pleading “benefit of clergy” (the ability to read from the Latin Bible), he could not escape branding. During his brief imprisonment over the affair he became a Roman Catholic.
Following the success of Every Man in His Humour,
the same theatrical company acted Jonson's Every Man Out of His Humour
(1599), which was even more ambitious. It was the longest play ever written for the Elizabethan (Elizabethan literature
) public theatre, and it strove to provide an equivalent of the Greek comedy of Aristophanes; “induction,” or “prelude,” and regular between-act comment explicated the author's views on what the drama should be.
The play, however, proved a disaster, and Jonson had to look elsewhere for a theatre to present his work. The obvious place was the “private” theatres, in which only young boys acted (see
children's company). The high price of admission they charged meant a select audience, and they were willing to try strong satire and formal experiment; for them Jonson wrote Cynthia's Revels
1600) and Poetaster
(1601). Even in these, however, there is the paradox of contempt for human behaviour hand in hand with a longing for human order.
From 1605 to 1634 he regularly contributed masques for the courts of James I and Charles I, collaborating with the architect and designer Inigo Jones (Jones, Inigo
). This marked his favour with the court and led to his post as poet laureate.
His masques at court
It appears that Jonson won royal attention by his Entertainment at Althorpe,
given before James I's queen as she journeyed down from Scotland in 1603, and in 1605 The Masque of Blackness
was presented at court. The “ masque
” was a quasi-dramatic entertainment, primarily providing a pretense for a group of strangers to dance and sing before an audience of guests and attendants in a royal court or nobleman's house. This elementary pattern was much elaborated during the reign of James I, when Jones provided increasingly magnificent costumes and scenic effects for masques at court. The few spoken words that the masque had demanded in Elizabethan days expanded into a “text” of a few hundred lines and a number of set songs. Thus the author became important as well as the designer: he was to provide not only the necessary words but also a special “allegorical” meaning underlying the whole entertainment. It was Jonson, in collaboration with Jones, who gave the Jacobean masque its characteristic shape and style. He did this primarily by introducing the suggestion of a “dramatic” action. It was thus the poet who provided the informing idea and dictated the fashion of the whole night's assembly. Jonson's early masques were clearly successful, for during the following years he was repeatedly called upon to function as poet at court. Among his masques were Hymenaei
(1606), Hue and Cry After Cupid
(1608), The Masque of Beauty
(1608), and The Masque of Queens
(1609). In his masques Jonson was fertile in inventing new motives for the arrival of the strangers. But this was not enough: he also invented the “antimasque,” which preceded the masque proper and which featured grotesques or comics who were primarily actors rather than dancers or musicians.
Important though Jonson was at the court in Whitehall, it was undoubtedly Jones's contributions that caused the most stir. That tension should arise between the two men was inevitable, and eventually friction led to a complete break: Jonson wrote the Twelfth Night
masque for the court in 1625 but then had to wait five years before the court again asked for his services.
His prime and later life
In 1606 Jonson and his wife (whom he had married in 1594) were brought before the consistory court in London to explain their lack of participation in the Anglican church. He denied that his wife was guilty but admitted that his own religious opinions held him aloof from attendance. The matter was patched up through his agreement to confer with learned men, who might persuade him if they could. Apparently it took six years for him to decide to conform. For some time before this he and his wife had lived apart, Jonson taking refuge in turn with his patrons Sir Robert Townshend and Esmé Stuart, Lord Aubigny.
During this period, nevertheless, he made a mark second only to Shakespeare's in the public theatre. His comedies Volpone; or, the Foxe
(1606) and The Alchemist
(1610) were among the most popular and esteemed plays of the time. Each exhibited man's folly in the pursuit of gold. Set respectively in Italy and London, they demonstrate Jonson's enthusiasm both for the typical Renaissance setting and for his own town on Europe's fringe. Both plays are eloquent and compact, sharp-tongued and controlled. The comedies Epicoene
(1609) and Bartholomew Fair
(1614) were also successful.
Jonson embarked on a walking tour in 1618–19, which took him to Scotland. During the visit the city of Edinburgh made him an honorary burgess and guild brother. On his return to England he received an honorary Master of Arts degree from Oxford University, a most signal honour in his time. Jonson's life was a life of talk as well as of writing. He engaged in “wit-combats” with Shakespeare and reigned supreme. It was a young man's ultimate honour to be regarded as a “son of Ben.”
In 1623 his personal library was destroyed by fire. By this time his services were seldom called on for the entertainment of Charles I's court, and his last plays failed to please. In 1628 he suffered what was apparently a stroke and, as a result, was confined to his room and chair, ultimately to his bed. That same year he was made city chronologer (thus theoretically responsible for the city's pageants), though in 1634 his salary for the post was made into a pension. Jonson died in 1637 and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
The first folio edition of his works had appeared in 1616; posthumously, in a second Jonson folio (1640), appeared Timber: or, Discoveries,
a series of observations on life and letters. Here Jonson held forth on the nature of poetry and drama and paid his final tribute to Shakespeare: in spite of acknowledging a belief that his great contemporary was, on occasion, “full of wind”—sufflaminandus erat
—he declared that “I loved the man, and do honour his memory, on this side idolatry, as much as any.”
His plays and achievement
Ben Jonson occupies by common consent the second place among English dramatists of the reigns of Elizabeth I and James I. He was a man of contraries. For “twelve years a papist,” he was also—in fact though not in title—Protestant England's first poet laureate. His major comedies express a strong distaste for the world in which he lived and a delight in exposing its follies and vices. A gifted lyric poet, he wrote two of his most successful plays entirely in prose, an unusual mode of composition in his time. Though often an angry and stubborn man, no one had more disciples than he. He was easily the most learned dramatist of his time, and he was also a master of theatrical plot, language, and characterization. It is a measure of his reputation that his dramatic works were the first to be published in folio (the term
, in effect
, means the “collected works”) and that his plays held their place on the stage until the period of the Restoration. Later they fell into neglect, though The Alchemist
was revived during the 18th century, and in the mid-20th century several came back into favour: Volpone, The Alchemist,
and Bartholomew Fair
especially have been staged with striking success.
Jonson's chief plays are still very good theatre. His insistence on putting classical theory into practice in them has reinforced rather than weakened the effect of his gift of lively dialogue, robust characterization, and intricate, controlled plotting. In each of them he maneuvers a large cast of vital personages, all consistently differentiated from one another. Jonson's plots are skillfully put together; incident develops out of incident in a consistent chain of cause and effect, taking into account the respective natures of the personages involved and proceeding confidently through a twisting, turning action that is full of surprises without relying on coincidence or chance. Sometimes Jonson's comedy derives from the dialogue, especially when it is based on his observation of contemporary tricks of speech. But there are also superbly ludicrous situations, often hardly removed from practical joke.
Jonson is renowned for his method of concentrating on a selected side, or on selected sides, of a character, showing how they dominate the personality. This is to some extent a natural outcome of his classical conception of art, but it also stems from his clear, shrewd observation of people. In Jonson's plays both eccentricity and normal behaviour are derived from a dominating characteristic, so that the result is a live, truthfully conceived personage in whom the ruling passion traces itself plainly. The later plays, for example, have characters whose behaviour is dominated by one psychological idiosyncrasy. But Jonson did not deal exclusively in “humours.” In some of his plays (notably Every Man in His Humour
), the stock types of Latin comedy contributed as much as the humours theory did. What the theory provided for him and for his contemporaries was a convenient mode of distinguishing among human beings. The distinctions so made could be based on the “humours,” on Latin comic types, or, as in Volpone,
in the assimilation of humans to different members of the animal kingdom. The characters Volpone, Mosca, Sir Epicure Mammon, Face, Subtle, Dol Common, Overdo, and Ursula are not simply “humours”; they are glorious type figures, so vitally rendered as to take on a being that transcends the type. This method was one of simplification, of typification, and yet also of vitalization.
The Restoration (Restoration literature
) dramatists' use of type names for their characters (Cockwood, Witwoud, Petulant
, Pinchwife, and so on) was a harking back to Jonson, and similarly in the 18th century, with such characters as Peachum, Lumpkin, Candour, and Languish. And though, as the 18th century proceeded, comic dramatists increasingly used names quite arbitrarily, the idea of the Jonsonian “type” or “humour” was always at the root of their imagining. Jonson thus exerted a great influence on the playwrights who immediately followed him. In the late Jacobean and Caroline years, it was he, Shakespeare, and Francis Beaumont (Beaumont, Francis
) and John Fletcher (Fletcher, John
) who provided all the models. But it was he, and he alone, who gave the essential impulse to dramatic characterization in comedy of the Restoration and also in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Clifford Leech Ed.
Authoritative texts of Jonson's major works can be found in Richard Harp (ed
.), Ben Jonson's Plays and Masques
, 2nd ed. (2001). Biographies include W. David Kay, Ben Jonson: A Literary Life
(1995); and David Riggs, Ben Jonson: A Life
(1989). Several editions of essays attest to the current state of Jonson studies: Richard Dutton (ed
.), Ben Jonson
(1999); Robert N. Watson (ed
.), Critical Essays on Ben Jonson
(1997); and James Hirsh (ed
.), New Perspectives on Ben Jonson
(1997). The stage history is dealt with in Martin Butler (ed
.), Re-presenting Ben Jonson: Text, History, Performance
(1999). Other useful texts include Julie Sanders, Kate Chedgzoy, and Susan Wiseman (eds.), Refashioning Ben Jonson: Gender, Politics, and the Jonsonian Canon
(1998); Claude J. Summers and Ted-Larry Pebworth, Ben Jonson Revised
(1999, rev. ed. of Ben Jonson
); Richard Harp and Stanley Stewart (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Ben Jonson
(2000); Harold Bloom (ed
.), Ben Jonson: Comprehensive Research and Study Guide
(2002); and James Loxley, The Complete Critical Guide to Ben Jonson
* * *
Источник: Jonson, Ben | 3,321 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Power from the 17 meter waterfall between the lakes Bergsvannet and Eikern, had economic impact long before the age of the ironworks. Already in the 14th Century, there were established three mills along the short river-stretch “Eid”.
The water powered vertical sawmill arrived in Norway in mid-16th Century. They were mainly owned by the city bourgeoisie, who held privileges to the timber trade. There were two such sawmills at Eidsfoss in 1545, owned by a Dean in Tunsberg, three at the most. When the ironworks was established, the rights to the mills and sawmills were taken over by the company. In 1845 the ironworks established a modern circular sawmill where the river expires in lake Eikern.
The establishment of an ironworks
Several ironworks were established in Norway in the 17th and 18th century. As Denmark-Norway was fighting Sweden for Nordic supremacy, it became increasingly important to strive for independency from Swedish iron. Iron was the main strategic material of its age, as both weapons and ammunition was made from it .
The ironworks had their first golden age ahead of and during “the Great Nordic War”, that broke out in 1700 and lasted 21 years. The decades predating the Napoleonic wars were also good for business. The tight connection between iron and war is illustrated by the fact that the alchymist used the same symbol for denoting iron, maskulinity and Mars, the greek god of war. Vast water power potential, forests and iron ore deposits were conditons that made Norway suitable for the Danish-Norwegian state’ s venture.
The Blast Furnace
The blast furnace was the heart of the ironworks, because it was here that the pig iron was produced. Melting iron ore requires a temperature of 1540 degrees Celsius, and the blast furnace was equipped with water-powered bellows to ensure such high temperatures. The ore was first roasted and beaten into smaller pieces and layers of ore and charcoal were placed in the blast furnace. Lime was added if necessary. The blast furnace master used all his senses to determine whether the blend and temperature were right, and an experienced and knowledgeable master was the key to success. Pig iron gathered at the bottom of the furnace, while cinder floated up on top. Pig iron was drained out on the floor of the smelting hut, where it was casted into blocks or open or closed molds. The blast furnace was operating continously for 2-3 years at the time.
Know-how and technology came from Germany and was transferred orally. It wasn’t until the Royal Mining Academy at Kongsberg was established in 1757 (one of Norway’s first institutions of higher education), that expertize on subjects like metallurgy and mining developed. During the 19th century, the Norwegian iron industry struggled with low demand and increased foreign competition. Here at Eidsfoss, the blast furnace production was phased out in the 1880s, when the company, as most Norwegian ironworks, became an iron foundry. That meant remelteing scrap iron in cupola furnaces. The last iron stoves were made at Eidsfoss in 1961.
When the world came to Eidsfoss
Eidsfoss ironworks was established on the kings initiative. He gave the honorable assignment to lieutenant general Caspar Herman Hausmann (1653–1718) in 1697. The successful timber merchant came from the german dutchy of Holstein. The dutchy was in a personal union with Denmark-Norway at the time. Hausmann was half brother to Ulrik Fredrik Gyldenløve, Governor of Norway, Count of Larvik and proprietor of Fritzøe ironworks.
The first issue in which Hausmann attended, was to secure a deal with Count Wedel-Jarlsberg, in order to take over the right to exploit the natural resources and order nearby farmers to perform work duties, such as the transportation of iron ore and charcoal. It took one year to get the deal in order, but soon Eidsfoss grew to be an active industrial site. A stove plate from 1698 shows 9 different buildings and during the 1700s both the three workers areas Hauane, Bråtagata and Gata and Eidsfos Manor emerged. After Caspar Hermans death in 1718, his wife Karen Toller ran the ironworks until she died in 1742. Their son Fredrik Ferdinand ran it until 1753, when Hagemann, who also built the stately manor house Gausen in Holmestrand, took over. After Hagemann there were several owners, among them Batholomæus Rasch and the Deichmann-brothers, until the Cappelen-Family aquisitioned Eidsfoss ironworks in 1795.
Charcoal and Conflicts
Norwegian ironworks privileges consisted of several special rights. The ironworks were for example exempt from paying a 10 percent tax called “tiende” (“a tenth”) as well as enlisting soldiers for war duty. Within the circumference (a radius of approx 2.5 miles) ironworks owners could exploit natural resources and order farmers to produce and transport charcoal and iron ore. The farmers in Vestfold were freeholders and enjoyed a somewhat better economy than most farmers at the time. They complained that the pay didn’t reflect the fact that the transportation took a great toll on men and horses. They also complained about how they were treated when delivering charcoal at the ironworks. The farmers had a powerful ally in the Count’s manager, and the struggle between him and Hausmann went on for years. The outcome was that the farmers within the Eidsfoss circumference achieved better conditions than what was the case at most other ironworks. Over time, producing and transporting charcoal nevertheless became an important income for many of the local small-time farmers.
Peder and Marie von Cappelen
Drammen resident, timber merchant and grocer Peder von Cappelen acquired Eidsfoss ironworks in 1795 and ran it until his death in 1837. He simultaneously ran other ironworks and sawmills, in addition to his extensive trade activity. The Cappelen period was a good period for Eidsfoss ironworks. He procured a modern blast furnace and built better roads, and when he bought Kongsberg ironworks in 1824, Eidsfoss became part of a modern industrial value chain that consisted of mines, ironworks and fabrication, as well as woodlands and sawmills. This created virtous cycles for Eidsfoss, who overcame the economic depression that followed the Napoleonic wars better than most Norwegian ironworks.
Peder was married to Christine Marie, and the couple lived with their two daughters at Eidsfos Manor. After her husband died in 1837, Madame Cappelen moved to the city Christianfeld in Denmark, in order to join the Herrnhut Brethren Church, the pietist direction that she and her husband both had sworn allegiance to. The Brethrens had built Christianfeld as a model town, and from here Christine Marie ran the ironworks in companionship with her daughters and sons i law. Christine Marie Cappelen is also reckoned to be Norways first female botanist, and she collected and registered plants that were common to Eidsfoss. It resulted in the hand written flora; Wild growing Plants at Eidsfoss and the Surroundings, which is the first scientific work conducted by a woman in Norway. It created school for later floras and can be found at the botanical museum in Oslo today.
The Tunsberg-Eidsfoss Railway offered new opportunities
In the 1870s, Eidsfoss transitioned from an ironworks to an iron foundry, and in 1884 the blast furnace was cleaned out for the last time. As a foundry, Eidsfoss remelted scrap metal in a so-called Cupola furnace instead of producing pig iron from ore in a blast furnace. The company ventured in agricultural machines, casted products such as mullions, picket fences and garden furniture, all popular articles in bourgeois homes, in addition to their popular woodstove models. The railways freight wagons were also produced at Eidsfoss, and the company continued to make railway cars at Sundland in Drammen until 1968. Seven years before, all iron production at Eidsfoss had stopped. A factory that produced metal fabric for the paper industry was established in the old foundry however, and it existed until 1988. Today it is Mar-kem, a company that produces steel tubes for off-shore businesses, that holds Eidsfoss’ industrial traditions alive.
Days of demolition and the rise of a new community
As the iron industry closed down, workers moved away from Eidsfoss. In the mid-1970s, the workers houses were hence clearly marked by decay. The company wanted to tear down some of the buildings in order to better traffic conditions, and the plans for a new road meant that most of Bråtagata had to be demolished. That spurred a local initiative that gained support from Heritage authorities and renowned artists, and a foundation was established in 1978, to ensure life and light to return to the old houses. Road safety was still secured, by putting up speed bumps (a new invention in the 1970s) and the introduction of a 30 km speed limit. In the late 1980s, a great deal of work was undertaken as part of an employment program. Unemployment was high in Norway at the time. The program facilitated for the cultural path and many of the historic buildings were refurbished. In the early 1990s, Eidsfos Manor and the ironworks museum were organized as foundations and the museum established their exhibition in cooperation with Vestfold county museum. The combination of cultural events and historical dissemination has continued to characterize the community since.
Are you interested in learning more? Take a walk along the cultural path, were 18 signs take you further into Eidsfoss’ history.
The water fall, forest and the possibility for transporting goods and products on nearby lakes, has been prerequisites for industrial development at Eidsfoss since the middle ages. It didn’t really take off before an ironworks was established in 1697. 300 years of technological and social developments followed, but decline took hold in the latter half of the 20th century. Today, culture has replaced industry as the community’s main activity. | <urn:uuid:e6341f2e-15d5-44bb-8dcb-f80c586aa320> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://visiteidsfoss.no/en/about-eidsfoss/historical-eidsfoss/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00500.warc.gz | en | 0.980639 | 2,211 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.10961749404668808,
0.03384758... | 12 | Power from the 17 meter waterfall between the lakes Bergsvannet and Eikern, had economic impact long before the age of the ironworks. Already in the 14th Century, there were established three mills along the short river-stretch “Eid”.
The water powered vertical sawmill arrived in Norway in mid-16th Century. They were mainly owned by the city bourgeoisie, who held privileges to the timber trade. There were two such sawmills at Eidsfoss in 1545, owned by a Dean in Tunsberg, three at the most. When the ironworks was established, the rights to the mills and sawmills were taken over by the company. In 1845 the ironworks established a modern circular sawmill where the river expires in lake Eikern.
The establishment of an ironworks
Several ironworks were established in Norway in the 17th and 18th century. As Denmark-Norway was fighting Sweden for Nordic supremacy, it became increasingly important to strive for independency from Swedish iron. Iron was the main strategic material of its age, as both weapons and ammunition was made from it .
The ironworks had their first golden age ahead of and during “the Great Nordic War”, that broke out in 1700 and lasted 21 years. The decades predating the Napoleonic wars were also good for business. The tight connection between iron and war is illustrated by the fact that the alchymist used the same symbol for denoting iron, maskulinity and Mars, the greek god of war. Vast water power potential, forests and iron ore deposits were conditons that made Norway suitable for the Danish-Norwegian state’ s venture.
The Blast Furnace
The blast furnace was the heart of the ironworks, because it was here that the pig iron was produced. Melting iron ore requires a temperature of 1540 degrees Celsius, and the blast furnace was equipped with water-powered bellows to ensure such high temperatures. The ore was first roasted and beaten into smaller pieces and layers of ore and charcoal were placed in the blast furnace. Lime was added if necessary. The blast furnace master used all his senses to determine whether the blend and temperature were right, and an experienced and knowledgeable master was the key to success. Pig iron gathered at the bottom of the furnace, while cinder floated up on top. Pig iron was drained out on the floor of the smelting hut, where it was casted into blocks or open or closed molds. The blast furnace was operating continously for 2-3 years at the time.
Know-how and technology came from Germany and was transferred orally. It wasn’t until the Royal Mining Academy at Kongsberg was established in 1757 (one of Norway’s first institutions of higher education), that expertize on subjects like metallurgy and mining developed. During the 19th century, the Norwegian iron industry struggled with low demand and increased foreign competition. Here at Eidsfoss, the blast furnace production was phased out in the 1880s, when the company, as most Norwegian ironworks, became an iron foundry. That meant remelteing scrap iron in cupola furnaces. The last iron stoves were made at Eidsfoss in 1961.
When the world came to Eidsfoss
Eidsfoss ironworks was established on the kings initiative. He gave the honorable assignment to lieutenant general Caspar Herman Hausmann (1653–1718) in 1697. The successful timber merchant came from the german dutchy of Holstein. The dutchy was in a personal union with Denmark-Norway at the time. Hausmann was half brother to Ulrik Fredrik Gyldenløve, Governor of Norway, Count of Larvik and proprietor of Fritzøe ironworks.
The first issue in which Hausmann attended, was to secure a deal with Count Wedel-Jarlsberg, in order to take over the right to exploit the natural resources and order nearby farmers to perform work duties, such as the transportation of iron ore and charcoal. It took one year to get the deal in order, but soon Eidsfoss grew to be an active industrial site. A stove plate from 1698 shows 9 different buildings and during the 1700s both the three workers areas Hauane, Bråtagata and Gata and Eidsfos Manor emerged. After Caspar Hermans death in 1718, his wife Karen Toller ran the ironworks until she died in 1742. Their son Fredrik Ferdinand ran it until 1753, when Hagemann, who also built the stately manor house Gausen in Holmestrand, took over. After Hagemann there were several owners, among them Batholomæus Rasch and the Deichmann-brothers, until the Cappelen-Family aquisitioned Eidsfoss ironworks in 1795.
Charcoal and Conflicts
Norwegian ironworks privileges consisted of several special rights. The ironworks were for example exempt from paying a 10 percent tax called “tiende” (“a tenth”) as well as enlisting soldiers for war duty. Within the circumference (a radius of approx 2.5 miles) ironworks owners could exploit natural resources and order farmers to produce and transport charcoal and iron ore. The farmers in Vestfold were freeholders and enjoyed a somewhat better economy than most farmers at the time. They complained that the pay didn’t reflect the fact that the transportation took a great toll on men and horses. They also complained about how they were treated when delivering charcoal at the ironworks. The farmers had a powerful ally in the Count’s manager, and the struggle between him and Hausmann went on for years. The outcome was that the farmers within the Eidsfoss circumference achieved better conditions than what was the case at most other ironworks. Over time, producing and transporting charcoal nevertheless became an important income for many of the local small-time farmers.
Peder and Marie von Cappelen
Drammen resident, timber merchant and grocer Peder von Cappelen acquired Eidsfoss ironworks in 1795 and ran it until his death in 1837. He simultaneously ran other ironworks and sawmills, in addition to his extensive trade activity. The Cappelen period was a good period for Eidsfoss ironworks. He procured a modern blast furnace and built better roads, and when he bought Kongsberg ironworks in 1824, Eidsfoss became part of a modern industrial value chain that consisted of mines, ironworks and fabrication, as well as woodlands and sawmills. This created virtous cycles for Eidsfoss, who overcame the economic depression that followed the Napoleonic wars better than most Norwegian ironworks.
Peder was married to Christine Marie, and the couple lived with their two daughters at Eidsfos Manor. After her husband died in 1837, Madame Cappelen moved to the city Christianfeld in Denmark, in order to join the Herrnhut Brethren Church, the pietist direction that she and her husband both had sworn allegiance to. The Brethrens had built Christianfeld as a model town, and from here Christine Marie ran the ironworks in companionship with her daughters and sons i law. Christine Marie Cappelen is also reckoned to be Norways first female botanist, and she collected and registered plants that were common to Eidsfoss. It resulted in the hand written flora; Wild growing Plants at Eidsfoss and the Surroundings, which is the first scientific work conducted by a woman in Norway. It created school for later floras and can be found at the botanical museum in Oslo today.
The Tunsberg-Eidsfoss Railway offered new opportunities
In the 1870s, Eidsfoss transitioned from an ironworks to an iron foundry, and in 1884 the blast furnace was cleaned out for the last time. As a foundry, Eidsfoss remelted scrap metal in a so-called Cupola furnace instead of producing pig iron from ore in a blast furnace. The company ventured in agricultural machines, casted products such as mullions, picket fences and garden furniture, all popular articles in bourgeois homes, in addition to their popular woodstove models. The railways freight wagons were also produced at Eidsfoss, and the company continued to make railway cars at Sundland in Drammen until 1968. Seven years before, all iron production at Eidsfoss had stopped. A factory that produced metal fabric for the paper industry was established in the old foundry however, and it existed until 1988. Today it is Mar-kem, a company that produces steel tubes for off-shore businesses, that holds Eidsfoss’ industrial traditions alive.
Days of demolition and the rise of a new community
As the iron industry closed down, workers moved away from Eidsfoss. In the mid-1970s, the workers houses were hence clearly marked by decay. The company wanted to tear down some of the buildings in order to better traffic conditions, and the plans for a new road meant that most of Bråtagata had to be demolished. That spurred a local initiative that gained support from Heritage authorities and renowned artists, and a foundation was established in 1978, to ensure life and light to return to the old houses. Road safety was still secured, by putting up speed bumps (a new invention in the 1970s) and the introduction of a 30 km speed limit. In the late 1980s, a great deal of work was undertaken as part of an employment program. Unemployment was high in Norway at the time. The program facilitated for the cultural path and many of the historic buildings were refurbished. In the early 1990s, Eidsfos Manor and the ironworks museum were organized as foundations and the museum established their exhibition in cooperation with Vestfold county museum. The combination of cultural events and historical dissemination has continued to characterize the community since.
Are you interested in learning more? Take a walk along the cultural path, were 18 signs take you further into Eidsfoss’ history.
The water fall, forest and the possibility for transporting goods and products on nearby lakes, has been prerequisites for industrial development at Eidsfoss since the middle ages. It didn’t really take off before an ironworks was established in 1697. 300 years of technological and social developments followed, but decline took hold in the latter half of the 20th century. Today, culture has replaced industry as the community’s main activity. | 2,271 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The following is a brief timeline of events and not meant to be all encompassing. It asks the question as to why Israel, rather than Jordan, should be expected to give up land. Jordan was part of the original two-state solution and can be part of the new two-state solution.
In 1917, the Balfour Declaration was issued, which was intended to create a national home for the Jewish people in the British territory of Palestine. Palestine was not a country, but geographic territory under British control. At that time, anyone called Palestinian was a reference to someone who was Jewish. Arab was always used to refer to someone who was Muslim.
Despite the Declaration, it took five years to bring about a formal declaration from the world through the League of Nations and a separate resolution from the United States. The United States was never a part of the League of Nations and had no vote in the now defunct body. They had voted to make the Balfour Declaration a reality.
The world had grown tired of Britain dragging their feet and wanted to encourage them to keep their word. Had the pressure been greater, history of the Jewish people in Europe could have been quite different and it would have given Jews someplace to flee to and countless could have been saved from the National Socialists.
In 1947, 30 years after the Balfour Declaration and millions of Jews dead throughout Europe, was when the United Nations voted in favor of a Jewish state and an Arab state. The Jewish state became Israel and the Arab state became Jordan. Jordan was supposed to be a means to bring about peace in the region and was the original two-state solution.
Despite being created at the same time through the exact same political machinations, Israel alone has been criticized since her rebirth and tirelessly attacked through military and terroristic methods. The newly created Jordan was one of the countries who took part in the effort to crush the Jewish state early and only through miraculous means was Israel able to keep any land and survive as a country.
The Arab-Israeli War, also known as Israel’s War of Independence, took place from 1947 – 1949. During that time, Jordan took portions of the land that had originally been partitioned for a Jewish state. It was not until 1967, the Six-Day Way, that Israel was able to retake the land that had been taken.
Israel is not being asked to give up land they took during war, but they are being asked to give up land they retook. Why is Jordan not asked to give up land for peace? Why is Israel, one of the smallest countries in the world, the only one expected to give up anything to bring about peace?
In September of 1970, a conflict was fought between Jordanian forces and the PLO. This incident came to be known as Black September. It was an attempt by what people now referred to as Palestinians to overthrow King Hussein and take the country for themselves.
In 1970, three years after the Six-Day War ended, 2/3 of the population of Jordan were Palestinians, as they had become known by this time. They had created their own state within the borders of Jordan and their capital was Amman. The PLO, lead by Yasser Arafat, used militias to rule the streets with brutal efficiency.
The war that Yasser Arafat had started to take Jordan resulted in as many as 15,000 militants and civilians dead. The PLO leadership had been devastated and tens of thousands were left homeless. In 1971, the PLO had been completely expelled from Jordan.
Many Arab leaders referred to the actions taken by King Hussein as ‘Overkill’ and not one has ever demanded they return any land that had once been held by the Palestinians. Palestinian towns and refugee camps, both of which were used to store weapons, were completely leveled. They responded to numerous terrorist attacks with overwhelming military force.
How did they come to make up such a great part of the population of Jordan? It started when the Arab world attacked Israel in 1947 and took them in as refugees of their own making. Israel lost land in the war and was not able to retake it until 1967.
There was no condemnation, other than being called ‘Overkill’ by any nation in the world. The PLO was, and remains, an Iranian backed terrorist organization and Yasser Arafat was the father of modern terrorism. Jordan had every right to take action against an attempted overthrow of the government and will never be asked to give up any land in the name of peace.
Terrorists do not want peace and will only use peace talks to buy time to arm themselves. Hamas, Hezbollah, the PLO and Islamic Jihad are all Iranian backed terrorist organizations with the singular goal of killing as many Jews as they can. Thousands of Jews have been killed by terrorist attacks and the Israeli government has shown far more restraint that the Jordanian government.
A lot of excuses are made for the terrorist attacks and seek to lay the blame on Israel. They act as if Jewish people were never targeted by terrorists until after Israel became a nation. In 1929, the Hebron Massacre resulted in almost 70 Jewish deaths at the hands of terrorists, which predates Israeli’s return as a country and was under British rule at the time.
There are those who believe, much like Chamberlain, that peace should be sought at all costs. If the Muslims who call themselves Palestinians today have their own country, then they would have no need to carry out terrorist actions. Much like Hitler, the Muslims who call themselves Palestinians today, have no interest in peaceful existence.
Let those who believe in peace call upon Jordan to give up land and let the Palestinians return to the place they had called home. It was the Jordanian military that killed more than all the actions taken by the IDF combined. Israel may level the homes of convicted terrorists, but it was the Jordanian Army that leveled entire towns and drove them out of their borders.
If a country of their own is all they want, then let it be from a country with far more land to spare. Israel cannot afford to give up land and still be able to effectively defend itself, which is what any country has the right to do. From a strategic perspective, Israel barely has enough land to defend itself as it is.
Israel is just over 8000 square miles, which is less than 21,000 square kilometers. Jordan is just under 35,000 square miles, which is almost 89,000 square kilometers. That’s a vast difference and Jordan has more than enough to give up land for a Palestinian country and still be defensible.
If a country of their own will truly bring peace, then let Jordan lead the way and make the offer. For those who truly believe peace should be sought at all costs, this is common sense. However, those who only seek to weaken Israel will see this as something far different.
There are those who want Israel to give up land and claim peace as the intent, but their hatred of Israel will blind them to any reality. Strong emotions like hatred overpowers reason, but always needs an excuse. These are the ones who do not care about Israel’s ability to defend itself and will always seek to shift the blame from the terrorists to Israel. | <urn:uuid:827a1a02-fadb-4b3d-8cbf-c59de2cb1df2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blogs.timesofisrael.com/jordan-was-the-original-two-state-solution/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00090.warc.gz | en | 0.987667 | 1,475 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.2775605320930... | 2 | The following is a brief timeline of events and not meant to be all encompassing. It asks the question as to why Israel, rather than Jordan, should be expected to give up land. Jordan was part of the original two-state solution and can be part of the new two-state solution.
In 1917, the Balfour Declaration was issued, which was intended to create a national home for the Jewish people in the British territory of Palestine. Palestine was not a country, but geographic territory under British control. At that time, anyone called Palestinian was a reference to someone who was Jewish. Arab was always used to refer to someone who was Muslim.
Despite the Declaration, it took five years to bring about a formal declaration from the world through the League of Nations and a separate resolution from the United States. The United States was never a part of the League of Nations and had no vote in the now defunct body. They had voted to make the Balfour Declaration a reality.
The world had grown tired of Britain dragging their feet and wanted to encourage them to keep their word. Had the pressure been greater, history of the Jewish people in Europe could have been quite different and it would have given Jews someplace to flee to and countless could have been saved from the National Socialists.
In 1947, 30 years after the Balfour Declaration and millions of Jews dead throughout Europe, was when the United Nations voted in favor of a Jewish state and an Arab state. The Jewish state became Israel and the Arab state became Jordan. Jordan was supposed to be a means to bring about peace in the region and was the original two-state solution.
Despite being created at the same time through the exact same political machinations, Israel alone has been criticized since her rebirth and tirelessly attacked through military and terroristic methods. The newly created Jordan was one of the countries who took part in the effort to crush the Jewish state early and only through miraculous means was Israel able to keep any land and survive as a country.
The Arab-Israeli War, also known as Israel’s War of Independence, took place from 1947 – 1949. During that time, Jordan took portions of the land that had originally been partitioned for a Jewish state. It was not until 1967, the Six-Day Way, that Israel was able to retake the land that had been taken.
Israel is not being asked to give up land they took during war, but they are being asked to give up land they retook. Why is Jordan not asked to give up land for peace? Why is Israel, one of the smallest countries in the world, the only one expected to give up anything to bring about peace?
In September of 1970, a conflict was fought between Jordanian forces and the PLO. This incident came to be known as Black September. It was an attempt by what people now referred to as Palestinians to overthrow King Hussein and take the country for themselves.
In 1970, three years after the Six-Day War ended, 2/3 of the population of Jordan were Palestinians, as they had become known by this time. They had created their own state within the borders of Jordan and their capital was Amman. The PLO, lead by Yasser Arafat, used militias to rule the streets with brutal efficiency.
The war that Yasser Arafat had started to take Jordan resulted in as many as 15,000 militants and civilians dead. The PLO leadership had been devastated and tens of thousands were left homeless. In 1971, the PLO had been completely expelled from Jordan.
Many Arab leaders referred to the actions taken by King Hussein as ‘Overkill’ and not one has ever demanded they return any land that had once been held by the Palestinians. Palestinian towns and refugee camps, both of which were used to store weapons, were completely leveled. They responded to numerous terrorist attacks with overwhelming military force.
How did they come to make up such a great part of the population of Jordan? It started when the Arab world attacked Israel in 1947 and took them in as refugees of their own making. Israel lost land in the war and was not able to retake it until 1967.
There was no condemnation, other than being called ‘Overkill’ by any nation in the world. The PLO was, and remains, an Iranian backed terrorist organization and Yasser Arafat was the father of modern terrorism. Jordan had every right to take action against an attempted overthrow of the government and will never be asked to give up any land in the name of peace.
Terrorists do not want peace and will only use peace talks to buy time to arm themselves. Hamas, Hezbollah, the PLO and Islamic Jihad are all Iranian backed terrorist organizations with the singular goal of killing as many Jews as they can. Thousands of Jews have been killed by terrorist attacks and the Israeli government has shown far more restraint that the Jordanian government.
A lot of excuses are made for the terrorist attacks and seek to lay the blame on Israel. They act as if Jewish people were never targeted by terrorists until after Israel became a nation. In 1929, the Hebron Massacre resulted in almost 70 Jewish deaths at the hands of terrorists, which predates Israeli’s return as a country and was under British rule at the time.
There are those who believe, much like Chamberlain, that peace should be sought at all costs. If the Muslims who call themselves Palestinians today have their own country, then they would have no need to carry out terrorist actions. Much like Hitler, the Muslims who call themselves Palestinians today, have no interest in peaceful existence.
Let those who believe in peace call upon Jordan to give up land and let the Palestinians return to the place they had called home. It was the Jordanian military that killed more than all the actions taken by the IDF combined. Israel may level the homes of convicted terrorists, but it was the Jordanian Army that leveled entire towns and drove them out of their borders.
If a country of their own is all they want, then let it be from a country with far more land to spare. Israel cannot afford to give up land and still be able to effectively defend itself, which is what any country has the right to do. From a strategic perspective, Israel barely has enough land to defend itself as it is.
Israel is just over 8000 square miles, which is less than 21,000 square kilometers. Jordan is just under 35,000 square miles, which is almost 89,000 square kilometers. That’s a vast difference and Jordan has more than enough to give up land for a Palestinian country and still be defensible.
If a country of their own will truly bring peace, then let Jordan lead the way and make the offer. For those who truly believe peace should be sought at all costs, this is common sense. However, those who only seek to weaken Israel will see this as something far different.
There are those who want Israel to give up land and claim peace as the intent, but their hatred of Israel will blind them to any reality. Strong emotions like hatred overpowers reason, but always needs an excuse. These are the ones who do not care about Israel’s ability to defend itself and will always seek to shift the blame from the terrorists to Israel. | 1,520 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Our “Today in History” posts are always free, but if you want to support the newsletter and get the full Foreign Exchanges experience you know what you have to do:
The Battle of Lepanto is the mother lode of historical turning points. It broke the Ottoman Empire’s domination of the eastern Mediterranean and marked a turning of the tide in the long-simmering conflict between the European powers (particularly the Habsburgs) and the Ottomans. It gave European Christians the confidence that they could stand up to the feared Ottomans and actually come away with a major victory.
An…imaginative rendering of the battle by 16th century Italian artist Paolo Veronese (Wikimedia Commons)
Well, kind of. I mean, it did those things, more or less, but not suddenly and not even very apparently in the years immediately following the battle. Lepanto had far-reaching impacts, but most of them took a while to really shake out. And one of its most far-reaching impacts actually had less to do with the European-Ottoman conflict than with the way naval warfare would be conducted in the future.
In 1570 and early 1571, the Ottomans made substantial gains in the eastern Mediterranean, a steady march that had continued since the battles of Preveza in 1538 and Djerba in 1560. Only the failed Siege of Malta (in 1565) had slowed the empire’s Mediterranean expansion, and even that wasn’t a huge setback. By this point, Ottoman attentions were focused on Cyprus, which was nominally a Venetian possession but whose cities, one by one, were being brought under Ottoman control. When the Ottomans laid siege to the city of Famagusta—the last Venetian city on the island—in September 1570, Pope Pius V assembled a Holy League, just like the one that Paul III had assembled for Preveza. It hadn’t worked then, but if at first you don’t succeed, I guess?
This League looked a lot like the last one, with participation from Venice, the Habsburgs, the Papal States, Genoa, and Malta, plus new additions Tuscany, Savoy, and Urbino. It even counted as one of its leaders the Genoese admiral Gianandrea Doria, the great-nephew of Andrea Doria, who had been the Christian commander at Preveza. Overall command was held by a Habsburg prince, John of Austria, the illegitimate half-brother of King Phillip II of Spain. The fleet sailed from the Sicilian city of Messina in early October, which was well after news had arrived of the fall of Famagusta (in early August) and the decision by the Ottoman commander, Lala Mustafa Pasha, to massacre the city’s Venetian defenders.
The 16th century Mediterranean (look at Greece and you’ll find the marker for Lepanto)
In hindsight, the Ottoman fleet that met the Christians at Lepanto (modern Nafpaktos) was totally overmatched. The Christians had fewer ships and fewer men, but they had around two and a half times the number of cannons in their fleet (over 1800 compared to the Ottomans’ ~700), and the Christian soldiers on board its ships were carrying firearms, while the Ottomans were still reliant on what was traditionally their most devastating naval weapon—archers. Yes, the kind with bows and arrows. Basically, the Ottomans were ready to fight a traditional Mediterranean naval battle, while the Christians were ready to fight the kind of naval battle that would become traditional after Lepanto.
In particular, the Christian fleet included six galleasses, which were larger than the traditional galley and were packed with guns along both sides of the ship. Galleys only fired forward and were meant for ramming and boarding an enemy vessel, the way Mediterranean naval warfare had been conducted since the days of the ancient Greeks. The galleass, on the other hand, was a true ship of the line (the term refers to the tactic of lining a fleet’s ships up with their sides facing the enemy), and finally represented a real change in naval technology and, therefore, tactics. A galley captain was trained to maneuver his ship to approach an enemy from the side, where the other ship had no guns and was vulnerable to cannon fire and small arms fire/ramming. A galley captain who came at a galleass from the side, however, would be sailing right into a broadside cannon volley, and would be unlikely to live long enough to learn from his mistake.
The one problem with the galleass was that because it was big and heavy, it depended on its sails much more than the galleys, which had sails but were still primarily rowed. In bad wind conditions it was possible that your fleet’s galleasses might not even get into the fight. John got around this problem by having his galleasses pulled to the front of his battle line and anchored there, with their broadside guns facing the Ottoman fleet.
Unfortunately for the Holy League, the Christian right wing, commanded by Doria, didn’t get its galleasses into position. Doria was too busy being outmaneuvered by the commander of the Ottoman left wing, Uluç Ali, who feinted south to draw the Genoese admiral away from the rest of the Christian fleet before turning and coming straight at the Christian center. Meanwhile, the commander of the Ottoman right, Mehmed Siroco, managed to outflank the Christian left. So initially, things were not looking great from the Holy League’s perspective.
But those galleasses—at least the ones that did get into position—simply tore the Ottoman fleet apart. At first, the Ottomans seem to have had no idea what they were, because they sailed their galleys directly at them only to lose dozens of ships in the process. Once the Ottomans smartened up, the galleasses pulled anchor and began to chase the Ottoman ships. One galleass, for example, was able to blunt the advance of the Ottoman right pretty much on its own (Siroco was killed in the fighting). In the center, the Christian fleet sent in its reserve element to fend off Uluç Ali, and a Christian counterattack was able to kill the overall commander of the Ottoman fleet, Grand Admiral Sufi Ali Pasha, whose death was a huge blow to Ottoman morale.
At the end of the day, the Ottomans lost over 200 ships, compared to about 50 for the Holy League. Uluç Ali was the only one of the Ottoman commanders to salvage his fleet and get it back to Constantinople, where he was later appointed Grand Admiral and set about reforming the Ottoman fleet along the lines of what he’d seen at Lepanto—bigger ships, more cannons, troops armed with firearms rather than bows, etc.
Now, about Lepanto’s legacy. In the Western telling, the story of Lepanto eventually became a total Christian victory that completely destroyed the Ottoman Empire’s naval capabilities. This grossly oversimplifies things. In fact, the Ottomans had a brand new fleet on the water by the following year, including galleasses that were bigger than the ones sailed by the Holy League at Lepanto. This fleet was powerful enough that Ottoman naval expansion actually continued—Uluç Ali, for example, was able to capture Tunis from the Hafsids (who were a Muslim dynasty but were Habsburg vassals) in 1574, and the empire was able to conquer Crete in the middle of the next century. And lest we forget, the Holy League’s nominal goal—saving Famagusta—was rendered unattainable before the fleet even set sail. The Ottomans controlled Cyprus until the late 19th century. Shortly after the battle, the Ottoman Grand Vizier, Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, is said to have told a Venetian envoy:
In wresting Cyprus from you, we deprived you of an arm; in defeating our fleet, you have only shaved our beard. An arm when cut off cannot grow again; but a shorn beard will grow all the better for the razor.
Some of that was bluster, though, because Lepanto did really hurt the Ottomans and did really contribute to changing the balance of power in the Mediterranean in the long term. Yes, the Ottomans had very little trouble rebuilding their fleet, but they also lost thousands of trained, veteran soldiers and sailors at Lepanto, and their training and expertise was not so easy to get back. The Ottomans mostly avoided major naval engagements with Christian fleets for decades after Lepanto (partly because of the state of their fleet and party because they faced a new threat to the east in the form of a resurgent Safavid Empire), and they came off badly in the engagements that did occur. In general, Mediterranean naval warfare began to be characterized less by major massed fleet battles like Lepanto and more by smaller engagements and corsair raids.
By far the biggest thing to come out of Lepanto was the revelation that the Habsburgs had technologically and tactically moved ahead of the Ottomans when it came to naval warfare. Sure, the Ottomans were able to copy the galleasses that they’d encountered at Lepanto, but meanwhile Habsburg Spain, spurred on by the demands of the Age of Exploration and trans-Atlantic travel, was building bigger and more powerful seaworthy vessels, like the massive galleons that most people think of when you talk about sail-powered warships. Ottoman galleys (and yes, they continued to build galleys, mostly because they had no real reason to invest in building huge vessels meant for sailing across entire oceans) were simply no match for these kinds of behemoths. Lepanto’s greatest impact on world history was that it was the last major naval engagement to rely primarily on galleys and galley-type ships. From then on naval warfare would be dominated by ships of the line built by the major seafaring powers. | <urn:uuid:ae52052d-e089-4373-b914-a4f25ab6282b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fx.substack.com/p/today-in-european-history-the-battle-bf0 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00373.warc.gz | en | 0.981092 | 2,133 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.5786876678466... | 2 | Our “Today in History” posts are always free, but if you want to support the newsletter and get the full Foreign Exchanges experience you know what you have to do:
The Battle of Lepanto is the mother lode of historical turning points. It broke the Ottoman Empire’s domination of the eastern Mediterranean and marked a turning of the tide in the long-simmering conflict between the European powers (particularly the Habsburgs) and the Ottomans. It gave European Christians the confidence that they could stand up to the feared Ottomans and actually come away with a major victory.
An…imaginative rendering of the battle by 16th century Italian artist Paolo Veronese (Wikimedia Commons)
Well, kind of. I mean, it did those things, more or less, but not suddenly and not even very apparently in the years immediately following the battle. Lepanto had far-reaching impacts, but most of them took a while to really shake out. And one of its most far-reaching impacts actually had less to do with the European-Ottoman conflict than with the way naval warfare would be conducted in the future.
In 1570 and early 1571, the Ottomans made substantial gains in the eastern Mediterranean, a steady march that had continued since the battles of Preveza in 1538 and Djerba in 1560. Only the failed Siege of Malta (in 1565) had slowed the empire’s Mediterranean expansion, and even that wasn’t a huge setback. By this point, Ottoman attentions were focused on Cyprus, which was nominally a Venetian possession but whose cities, one by one, were being brought under Ottoman control. When the Ottomans laid siege to the city of Famagusta—the last Venetian city on the island—in September 1570, Pope Pius V assembled a Holy League, just like the one that Paul III had assembled for Preveza. It hadn’t worked then, but if at first you don’t succeed, I guess?
This League looked a lot like the last one, with participation from Venice, the Habsburgs, the Papal States, Genoa, and Malta, plus new additions Tuscany, Savoy, and Urbino. It even counted as one of its leaders the Genoese admiral Gianandrea Doria, the great-nephew of Andrea Doria, who had been the Christian commander at Preveza. Overall command was held by a Habsburg prince, John of Austria, the illegitimate half-brother of King Phillip II of Spain. The fleet sailed from the Sicilian city of Messina in early October, which was well after news had arrived of the fall of Famagusta (in early August) and the decision by the Ottoman commander, Lala Mustafa Pasha, to massacre the city’s Venetian defenders.
The 16th century Mediterranean (look at Greece and you’ll find the marker for Lepanto)
In hindsight, the Ottoman fleet that met the Christians at Lepanto (modern Nafpaktos) was totally overmatched. The Christians had fewer ships and fewer men, but they had around two and a half times the number of cannons in their fleet (over 1800 compared to the Ottomans’ ~700), and the Christian soldiers on board its ships were carrying firearms, while the Ottomans were still reliant on what was traditionally their most devastating naval weapon—archers. Yes, the kind with bows and arrows. Basically, the Ottomans were ready to fight a traditional Mediterranean naval battle, while the Christians were ready to fight the kind of naval battle that would become traditional after Lepanto.
In particular, the Christian fleet included six galleasses, which were larger than the traditional galley and were packed with guns along both sides of the ship. Galleys only fired forward and were meant for ramming and boarding an enemy vessel, the way Mediterranean naval warfare had been conducted since the days of the ancient Greeks. The galleass, on the other hand, was a true ship of the line (the term refers to the tactic of lining a fleet’s ships up with their sides facing the enemy), and finally represented a real change in naval technology and, therefore, tactics. A galley captain was trained to maneuver his ship to approach an enemy from the side, where the other ship had no guns and was vulnerable to cannon fire and small arms fire/ramming. A galley captain who came at a galleass from the side, however, would be sailing right into a broadside cannon volley, and would be unlikely to live long enough to learn from his mistake.
The one problem with the galleass was that because it was big and heavy, it depended on its sails much more than the galleys, which had sails but were still primarily rowed. In bad wind conditions it was possible that your fleet’s galleasses might not even get into the fight. John got around this problem by having his galleasses pulled to the front of his battle line and anchored there, with their broadside guns facing the Ottoman fleet.
Unfortunately for the Holy League, the Christian right wing, commanded by Doria, didn’t get its galleasses into position. Doria was too busy being outmaneuvered by the commander of the Ottoman left wing, Uluç Ali, who feinted south to draw the Genoese admiral away from the rest of the Christian fleet before turning and coming straight at the Christian center. Meanwhile, the commander of the Ottoman right, Mehmed Siroco, managed to outflank the Christian left. So initially, things were not looking great from the Holy League’s perspective.
But those galleasses—at least the ones that did get into position—simply tore the Ottoman fleet apart. At first, the Ottomans seem to have had no idea what they were, because they sailed their galleys directly at them only to lose dozens of ships in the process. Once the Ottomans smartened up, the galleasses pulled anchor and began to chase the Ottoman ships. One galleass, for example, was able to blunt the advance of the Ottoman right pretty much on its own (Siroco was killed in the fighting). In the center, the Christian fleet sent in its reserve element to fend off Uluç Ali, and a Christian counterattack was able to kill the overall commander of the Ottoman fleet, Grand Admiral Sufi Ali Pasha, whose death was a huge blow to Ottoman morale.
At the end of the day, the Ottomans lost over 200 ships, compared to about 50 for the Holy League. Uluç Ali was the only one of the Ottoman commanders to salvage his fleet and get it back to Constantinople, where he was later appointed Grand Admiral and set about reforming the Ottoman fleet along the lines of what he’d seen at Lepanto—bigger ships, more cannons, troops armed with firearms rather than bows, etc.
Now, about Lepanto’s legacy. In the Western telling, the story of Lepanto eventually became a total Christian victory that completely destroyed the Ottoman Empire’s naval capabilities. This grossly oversimplifies things. In fact, the Ottomans had a brand new fleet on the water by the following year, including galleasses that were bigger than the ones sailed by the Holy League at Lepanto. This fleet was powerful enough that Ottoman naval expansion actually continued—Uluç Ali, for example, was able to capture Tunis from the Hafsids (who were a Muslim dynasty but were Habsburg vassals) in 1574, and the empire was able to conquer Crete in the middle of the next century. And lest we forget, the Holy League’s nominal goal—saving Famagusta—was rendered unattainable before the fleet even set sail. The Ottomans controlled Cyprus until the late 19th century. Shortly after the battle, the Ottoman Grand Vizier, Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, is said to have told a Venetian envoy:
In wresting Cyprus from you, we deprived you of an arm; in defeating our fleet, you have only shaved our beard. An arm when cut off cannot grow again; but a shorn beard will grow all the better for the razor.
Some of that was bluster, though, because Lepanto did really hurt the Ottomans and did really contribute to changing the balance of power in the Mediterranean in the long term. Yes, the Ottomans had very little trouble rebuilding their fleet, but they also lost thousands of trained, veteran soldiers and sailors at Lepanto, and their training and expertise was not so easy to get back. The Ottomans mostly avoided major naval engagements with Christian fleets for decades after Lepanto (partly because of the state of their fleet and party because they faced a new threat to the east in the form of a resurgent Safavid Empire), and they came off badly in the engagements that did occur. In general, Mediterranean naval warfare began to be characterized less by major massed fleet battles like Lepanto and more by smaller engagements and corsair raids.
By far the biggest thing to come out of Lepanto was the revelation that the Habsburgs had technologically and tactically moved ahead of the Ottomans when it came to naval warfare. Sure, the Ottomans were able to copy the galleasses that they’d encountered at Lepanto, but meanwhile Habsburg Spain, spurred on by the demands of the Age of Exploration and trans-Atlantic travel, was building bigger and more powerful seaworthy vessels, like the massive galleons that most people think of when you talk about sail-powered warships. Ottoman galleys (and yes, they continued to build galleys, mostly because they had no real reason to invest in building huge vessels meant for sailing across entire oceans) were simply no match for these kinds of behemoths. Lepanto’s greatest impact on world history was that it was the last major naval engagement to rely primarily on galleys and galley-type ships. From then on naval warfare would be dominated by ships of the line built by the major seafaring powers. | 2,131 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Once there was a kingdom in a faraway land. It was necessary for all citizens of the land to tie a heavy iron shackle around their necks. Shackle around the neck was evidence of their citizenship. The people of this land was subjugated by scoundrels who projected themselves as the leaders of the people. They use the Shackle – The Seal of Subjugation.
Anyone without the shackle would be stoned to death. The shackle was supposed to be made up of cast iron and weighed about 50 pounds. The weight made it impossible for people to carry it all times. Hence the king had made some relaxations. It was decided that
- if a man kept the shackle away for one second (unable to bear the burden), he would have to pay 1 sparrow to the king’s treasury.
- If a man kept the shackle away for one minute, he was supposed to pay 1 goat to the king’s treasury.
- If a man kept the shackle away for one hour he was supposed to pay 100 bullocks to the king’s treasury.
The penalty was too heavy for even the richest man to pay. There was no man in that kingdom who could redeem his own self or his brother and pay to the king, the ransom required to redeem of his own soul. Except for the King’s house, everybody had to bear the burden of the Shackle.
There was ONLY ONE WAY out of this trouble. Someone from the royal seed must be ready to bind this heavy iron shackle around his own neck. He must then be killed by the people of the land. Only then could people become free. Death of the royal seed was the price of every man’s redemption.
One day, the king’s son decided that he would redeem his people. So he wore the ragged clothes and tied the heavy iron shackle around his own neck and made himself identical to one of the people. Then he went out of his palace and walked in the land as a common man. He tabernacled among his people. He bore their grief and carried their sorrows.
He used his powers to heal people who were mutilated by the shackles around their neck. He applied balms to the lame and made them walk. He would wipe the tears from the eyes of them that sat in the valley of tears and shadows of death. People loved his good works. They followed him and heard his sermons. But the leaders of the shackle land disliked him. They would often send lawyers to enquire him. He would often reply to them saying, “If the Son sets someone free, he is free indeed.”
“The son…? Are you the Son of the king then?” saying so they would question him. He would always nod, but they would not believe him.
One day they were so annoyed, that they killed the only son of the king. With his death, the shackles broke off magically from every man’s neck. Citizens became free. The good news soon spread that the Kings only begotten son has made us free and has given us life.
But the evil leaders were full of mischief and gall of bitterness. They knew that the removal of the Shackle will make these people come out of their bondage. They spun a new story around these ignorant people and told them a new deception. They remodelled themselves as the custodians of the new regime by putting on a White uniform. They said that indeed it is true that king’s son has made us free, from the burden of the old shackle, but a new shackle is also prepared the by the king in place of the old shackle. This new shackle, they said, was made up from far superior stainless steel, pure and white in colour, and unlike the old ugly iron shackle. These lazy people wanted to live off the money of the new unshackled ones. Therefore, they presented this new tax burden upon the neck of people of the land and priced it at a tenth of each man’s income(Monetary Tithe). The leader of the group took upon him the title of the Chief Shepherd(Chief Pastor) so that the people think that these leaders indeed represent the King’s Son.
I hope the story is clear to my readers. King’s son has freed us from the burden of keeping rules to attain eternal life. He has freed us from shackles of law. We inherit blessings promised to Abraham by faith. We are no longer under the shackle. But the children of the wicked men have invented another set of rules and regulations. They bring people back under the yoke of old laws in new ways. They are minting silver and gold by entangling new shackles around the neck of the naïve crowd. DO NOT BE RE-ENTANGLED.
Scripture to read and meditate: Acts of Apostles chapter 15
Reference article: https://www.fromtpm.com/blog/2018/10/17/tpm-and-the-tyranny-of-asceticism/
NB: The red texts are linked to appropriate biblical verses. Click them to take you to the scriptures. | <urn:uuid:a19298f1-c876-4aab-aee1-65ea6948d67e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.fromtpm.com/blog/2019/12/05/the-shackle-the-seal-of-subjugation/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00056.warc.gz | en | 0.987494 | 1,087 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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-0.1015927046537... | 5 | Once there was a kingdom in a faraway land. It was necessary for all citizens of the land to tie a heavy iron shackle around their necks. Shackle around the neck was evidence of their citizenship. The people of this land was subjugated by scoundrels who projected themselves as the leaders of the people. They use the Shackle – The Seal of Subjugation.
Anyone without the shackle would be stoned to death. The shackle was supposed to be made up of cast iron and weighed about 50 pounds. The weight made it impossible for people to carry it all times. Hence the king had made some relaxations. It was decided that
- if a man kept the shackle away for one second (unable to bear the burden), he would have to pay 1 sparrow to the king’s treasury.
- If a man kept the shackle away for one minute, he was supposed to pay 1 goat to the king’s treasury.
- If a man kept the shackle away for one hour he was supposed to pay 100 bullocks to the king’s treasury.
The penalty was too heavy for even the richest man to pay. There was no man in that kingdom who could redeem his own self or his brother and pay to the king, the ransom required to redeem of his own soul. Except for the King’s house, everybody had to bear the burden of the Shackle.
There was ONLY ONE WAY out of this trouble. Someone from the royal seed must be ready to bind this heavy iron shackle around his own neck. He must then be killed by the people of the land. Only then could people become free. Death of the royal seed was the price of every man’s redemption.
One day, the king’s son decided that he would redeem his people. So he wore the ragged clothes and tied the heavy iron shackle around his own neck and made himself identical to one of the people. Then he went out of his palace and walked in the land as a common man. He tabernacled among his people. He bore their grief and carried their sorrows.
He used his powers to heal people who were mutilated by the shackles around their neck. He applied balms to the lame and made them walk. He would wipe the tears from the eyes of them that sat in the valley of tears and shadows of death. People loved his good works. They followed him and heard his sermons. But the leaders of the shackle land disliked him. They would often send lawyers to enquire him. He would often reply to them saying, “If the Son sets someone free, he is free indeed.”
“The son…? Are you the Son of the king then?” saying so they would question him. He would always nod, but they would not believe him.
One day they were so annoyed, that they killed the only son of the king. With his death, the shackles broke off magically from every man’s neck. Citizens became free. The good news soon spread that the Kings only begotten son has made us free and has given us life.
But the evil leaders were full of mischief and gall of bitterness. They knew that the removal of the Shackle will make these people come out of their bondage. They spun a new story around these ignorant people and told them a new deception. They remodelled themselves as the custodians of the new regime by putting on a White uniform. They said that indeed it is true that king’s son has made us free, from the burden of the old shackle, but a new shackle is also prepared the by the king in place of the old shackle. This new shackle, they said, was made up from far superior stainless steel, pure and white in colour, and unlike the old ugly iron shackle. These lazy people wanted to live off the money of the new unshackled ones. Therefore, they presented this new tax burden upon the neck of people of the land and priced it at a tenth of each man’s income(Monetary Tithe). The leader of the group took upon him the title of the Chief Shepherd(Chief Pastor) so that the people think that these leaders indeed represent the King’s Son.
I hope the story is clear to my readers. King’s son has freed us from the burden of keeping rules to attain eternal life. He has freed us from shackles of law. We inherit blessings promised to Abraham by faith. We are no longer under the shackle. But the children of the wicked men have invented another set of rules and regulations. They bring people back under the yoke of old laws in new ways. They are minting silver and gold by entangling new shackles around the neck of the naïve crowd. DO NOT BE RE-ENTANGLED.
Scripture to read and meditate: Acts of Apostles chapter 15
Reference article: https://www.fromtpm.com/blog/2018/10/17/tpm-and-the-tyranny-of-asceticism/
NB: The red texts are linked to appropriate biblical verses. Click them to take you to the scriptures. | 1,055 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Role-play activities at home and school are significant learning times. Children are developing brain skills that allow them to pay attention, remember rules, and problem– solve. These skills are known as executive function skills, and they are essential for any learning.
In role-play activities, children develop language and social skills. These are not skills learned in a circle-time lesson. Children learn language and social skills by interacting with other people. Role-play allows children to try new words and behaviors to get feedback from their peers.
Role-play also allows children to practice particular emotion-driven behaviors such as creating, fixing, nurturing, and teaching. These are also basic building blocks of future learning and work. Again, these cannot be taught with worksheets at tables. Instead, children learn through experiment, practice, and interaction. Role-play might be the most critical part of a young child’s day!
It is also essential to look at what role play does NOT do. It does not predict what a child will be interested in at a later date. Young children try on many different roles to learn from them and to see what fits and what doesn’t fit. My daughter loved playing with trucks and wearing construction hard-hats. As a three-year-old, when we passed road crews, she insisted that was what she wanted to be when she grew up. I did not put too much stock in this as I knew she also wanted to be a mermaid. As an adult, she is an elementary music and art teacher. However, playing with building toys and fixing toys as a child may have encouraged her to be interested in tools. She is the person in her family who is most likely to make a house repair, and I am proud to see that.
Role-play also does not push a child in a particular direction. It is not an indicator of gender confusion, nor will it encourage it. My son played with his sister’s dolls and dress-up clothing. He tried on many different roles, but it did not mess with his understanding of who God created him to be. I like to think that he practiced the skills of nurturing, which put him in a good position as a school IT person. He has infinite patience working with teachers and students when computers don’t work. I know this because I am one of those teachers.
When boys play with what we typically consider to be girlish toys or when girls play within boy dominated play areas, we might be tempted to worry that they are confused about their gender. In fact, true gender dysphoria is very rare and shows itself in much stronger symptoms. When children play, they are learning and growing, testing and trying, and developing in the way God designed their brains to mature.
Especially in a world where screens around every turn tempt children, role play is more important now than ever before. Parents and teachers should encourage role-play, as well as other play that involves children interacting with each other at every opportunity. | <urn:uuid:d5fb16bd-cab2-46e8-ba5e-27217b2ce45d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://faithparent.marxhausen.net/2020/01/the-serious-work-of-role-play.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00187.warc.gz | en | 0.984806 | 616 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.387460529804229... | 16 | Role-play activities at home and school are significant learning times. Children are developing brain skills that allow them to pay attention, remember rules, and problem– solve. These skills are known as executive function skills, and they are essential for any learning.
In role-play activities, children develop language and social skills. These are not skills learned in a circle-time lesson. Children learn language and social skills by interacting with other people. Role-play allows children to try new words and behaviors to get feedback from their peers.
Role-play also allows children to practice particular emotion-driven behaviors such as creating, fixing, nurturing, and teaching. These are also basic building blocks of future learning and work. Again, these cannot be taught with worksheets at tables. Instead, children learn through experiment, practice, and interaction. Role-play might be the most critical part of a young child’s day!
It is also essential to look at what role play does NOT do. It does not predict what a child will be interested in at a later date. Young children try on many different roles to learn from them and to see what fits and what doesn’t fit. My daughter loved playing with trucks and wearing construction hard-hats. As a three-year-old, when we passed road crews, she insisted that was what she wanted to be when she grew up. I did not put too much stock in this as I knew she also wanted to be a mermaid. As an adult, she is an elementary music and art teacher. However, playing with building toys and fixing toys as a child may have encouraged her to be interested in tools. She is the person in her family who is most likely to make a house repair, and I am proud to see that.
Role-play also does not push a child in a particular direction. It is not an indicator of gender confusion, nor will it encourage it. My son played with his sister’s dolls and dress-up clothing. He tried on many different roles, but it did not mess with his understanding of who God created him to be. I like to think that he practiced the skills of nurturing, which put him in a good position as a school IT person. He has infinite patience working with teachers and students when computers don’t work. I know this because I am one of those teachers.
When boys play with what we typically consider to be girlish toys or when girls play within boy dominated play areas, we might be tempted to worry that they are confused about their gender. In fact, true gender dysphoria is very rare and shows itself in much stronger symptoms. When children play, they are learning and growing, testing and trying, and developing in the way God designed their brains to mature.
Especially in a world where screens around every turn tempt children, role play is more important now than ever before. Parents and teachers should encourage role-play, as well as other play that involves children interacting with each other at every opportunity. | 589 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Click the player to start listening:
Now, the VOA Special English program WORDS AND THEIR STORIES.
Today's program is all about eyes. When it comes to relationships, people's eyes can be a window into their hearts. This
Let us suppose that this man gets hit between the eyes. In other words, the woman has a strong affect on him. He wants to spend time with her to get to know her better. He asks her out on a date.
She is so happy that she may walk around for days with stars in her eyes. She is extremely happy because this man is the apple of her eye, a very special person. She might tell him that he is the only person she wants, or "I only have eyes for you."
On their date, the couple might eat a meal together at a restaurant. If the man is really hungry, his eyes might be bigger than his stomach. He might order more food than he can eat. When his food arrives at the table, his eyes might pop out. He might be very surprised by the amount of food provided. He might not even believe his own eyes. If fact, all eyes would be watching him if he ate all the food. This might even cause raised eyebrows. People might look at the man with disapproval.
During their dinner, the couple might discuss many things. They might discover that they see eye to eye, or agree on many issues. They share the same beliefs and opinions. For example, they might agree that every crime or injury should be punished. That is, they firmly believe in the idea of an eye for an eye. They might also agree that it is wrong to pull the wool over a person's eyes. This means to try to trick a person by making him believe something that is false. But the man and woman do not believe in the evil eye, that a person can harm you by looking at you.
The next day, at their school, the woman asks the man to keep an eye on, or watch the young students in her class while she is out of the classroom. This might be hard to do when the teacher is writing on a board at the front of the classroom. To do so, a teacher would need to have eyes in the back of his head. In other words, he would know what the children are doing even when he is not watching them.
WORDS AND THEIR STORIES, in VOA Special English, was written by Jill Moss. I'm Faith Lapidus. | <urn:uuid:d6ce835b-5828-45f8-a24b-11c0275985be> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.testbig.com/voa/words-and-their-stories-all-about-eyes-0 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00212.warc.gz | en | 0.988149 | 514 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.265245229... | 1 | Click the player to start listening:
Now, the VOA Special English program WORDS AND THEIR STORIES.
Today's program is all about eyes. When it comes to relationships, people's eyes can be a window into their hearts. This
Let us suppose that this man gets hit between the eyes. In other words, the woman has a strong affect on him. He wants to spend time with her to get to know her better. He asks her out on a date.
She is so happy that she may walk around for days with stars in her eyes. She is extremely happy because this man is the apple of her eye, a very special person. She might tell him that he is the only person she wants, or "I only have eyes for you."
On their date, the couple might eat a meal together at a restaurant. If the man is really hungry, his eyes might be bigger than his stomach. He might order more food than he can eat. When his food arrives at the table, his eyes might pop out. He might be very surprised by the amount of food provided. He might not even believe his own eyes. If fact, all eyes would be watching him if he ate all the food. This might even cause raised eyebrows. People might look at the man with disapproval.
During their dinner, the couple might discuss many things. They might discover that they see eye to eye, or agree on many issues. They share the same beliefs and opinions. For example, they might agree that every crime or injury should be punished. That is, they firmly believe in the idea of an eye for an eye. They might also agree that it is wrong to pull the wool over a person's eyes. This means to try to trick a person by making him believe something that is false. But the man and woman do not believe in the evil eye, that a person can harm you by looking at you.
The next day, at their school, the woman asks the man to keep an eye on, or watch the young students in her class while she is out of the classroom. This might be hard to do when the teacher is writing on a board at the front of the classroom. To do so, a teacher would need to have eyes in the back of his head. In other words, he would know what the children are doing even when he is not watching them.
WORDS AND THEIR STORIES, in VOA Special English, was written by Jill Moss. I'm Faith Lapidus. | 507 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Martin Luther King Jr
A statue to this modern martyr was unveiled in July 1998 and stands above the west entrance to the Abbey. The sculptor was Tim Crawley.
For an introduction to the ten statues see the entry under St Maximilian Kolbe.
In an age of discrimination and persecution
If physical death is the price I must pay to free my brothers and sisters from the permanent death of the spirit, then nothing could be more redemptive.
Martin Luther King Jr, was born on 15th January 1929. His father was the minister of the Ebenezer Baptist church in Atlanta, Georgia. It was this vibrant and confident tradition of African-American Christianity that fashioned King’s childhood, inspired his sense of identity and purpose, and sustained his great convictions. As a little boy, he saw for himself the violence of racial hatred, and the oppression of African Americans at every turn in their daily lives.
At the age of fifteen he entered Morehouse College in Atlanta. Then he travelled on to Crozier Theological College in the north of the country. Here he met students from all backgrounds, and matured in the company of his peers, cultivating his gifts for intellectual life and finding a new breadth of experience. He was ordained.
In the 1950s African-American communities were becoming increasingly vocal against racial segregation and persecution, drawing on what was already a rich tradition of protest against oppression, and now transforming it into a new, campaigning force for change. Martin Luther King’s first church was Dexter Avenue, Montgomery, in Alabama. As a leading light in the community he was soon drawn into a demonstration against segregation on the city’s bus Services. It was brilliantly successful. King soon formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference and pressed ahead in his fight for justice. The cost that he and his own family paid for his new work was all too evident; there were death threats and bombs. Police harassment and imprisonment lay ahead.
King’s prophetic vision combined an explicitly Christian language of freedom and justice with an appeal to American democracy. Peaceful protests would affirm the dignity of African-Americans and embarrass their oppressors before the eyes of the world. His approach was essentially Gandhian. Violence bred violence only. Love must reply to hate.
In a federal society the southern states of America enjoyed great freedom to legislate for themselves. But the central government in Washington also had the power - if the will existed - to overrule and overturn their decisions in the name of the nation.
The Civil Rights Movement was both regional and national. In August 1963 there occurred a massive public march on Washington, perhaps the greatest statement made by the movement. A civil rights act was passed by congress on 2nd July 1964; other acts framed to advance or protect the political rights of African American citizens followed.
In 1964 Martin Luther King Jr was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. But the violence that had always pursued him would soon claim him. Only a year later, on 4th April 1968, he was shot dead in Memphis. He was thirty-nine years old. Today he is widely celebrated as one of the great prophetic leaders of the later twentieth century, and his name still inspires those who follow his call for Justice.
15th January 1929
4th April 1968 | <urn:uuid:7bff7b6c-4c65-4d01-a694-a0be79e2e405> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/commemorations/martin-luther-king-jr | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00526.warc.gz | en | 0.983542 | 666 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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A statue to this modern martyr was unveiled in July 1998 and stands above the west entrance to the Abbey. The sculptor was Tim Crawley.
For an introduction to the ten statues see the entry under St Maximilian Kolbe.
In an age of discrimination and persecution
If physical death is the price I must pay to free my brothers and sisters from the permanent death of the spirit, then nothing could be more redemptive.
Martin Luther King Jr, was born on 15th January 1929. His father was the minister of the Ebenezer Baptist church in Atlanta, Georgia. It was this vibrant and confident tradition of African-American Christianity that fashioned King’s childhood, inspired his sense of identity and purpose, and sustained his great convictions. As a little boy, he saw for himself the violence of racial hatred, and the oppression of African Americans at every turn in their daily lives.
At the age of fifteen he entered Morehouse College in Atlanta. Then he travelled on to Crozier Theological College in the north of the country. Here he met students from all backgrounds, and matured in the company of his peers, cultivating his gifts for intellectual life and finding a new breadth of experience. He was ordained.
In the 1950s African-American communities were becoming increasingly vocal against racial segregation and persecution, drawing on what was already a rich tradition of protest against oppression, and now transforming it into a new, campaigning force for change. Martin Luther King’s first church was Dexter Avenue, Montgomery, in Alabama. As a leading light in the community he was soon drawn into a demonstration against segregation on the city’s bus Services. It was brilliantly successful. King soon formed the Southern Christian Leadership Conference and pressed ahead in his fight for justice. The cost that he and his own family paid for his new work was all too evident; there were death threats and bombs. Police harassment and imprisonment lay ahead.
King’s prophetic vision combined an explicitly Christian language of freedom and justice with an appeal to American democracy. Peaceful protests would affirm the dignity of African-Americans and embarrass their oppressors before the eyes of the world. His approach was essentially Gandhian. Violence bred violence only. Love must reply to hate.
In a federal society the southern states of America enjoyed great freedom to legislate for themselves. But the central government in Washington also had the power - if the will existed - to overrule and overturn their decisions in the name of the nation.
The Civil Rights Movement was both regional and national. In August 1963 there occurred a massive public march on Washington, perhaps the greatest statement made by the movement. A civil rights act was passed by congress on 2nd July 1964; other acts framed to advance or protect the political rights of African American citizens followed.
In 1964 Martin Luther King Jr was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. But the violence that had always pursued him would soon claim him. Only a year later, on 4th April 1968, he was shot dead in Memphis. He was thirty-nine years old. Today he is widely celebrated as one of the great prophetic leaders of the later twentieth century, and his name still inspires those who follow his call for Justice.
15th January 1929
4th April 1968 | 686 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This is the essay for the 17th week of the 9th Grade Tom Woods Homeschool. In this blog post, I will be answering two questions. The first one is, how and why did the power shift from Merovingians to the Carolingians in the kingdom of the Franks and what was the significance of the Papal-Frankish alliance?
How and why the shift in power from the Merovingians to the Carolingians occurred in the kingdom of the Franks.
After the fall of Rome in 476, the region of Gaul, which is about modern-day France was ruled by new kings. These kings were from the Merovingian dynasty. The dynasty was started by Clovis I in 481. The Merovingian dynasty did many important things, like defending Gaul from the Arabs in 732. The important part was that when the Franks were converted to Christianity, they converted to Catholicism.
The reason this is important because most of the barbarian civilizations converted to Arianism or Arian Christianity. The problem with this was that Arianism was deemed a heresy by the Catholic church. The Arian belief is that Jesus Christ isn’t equal to God and Christ was subordinate to God. While in Catholicism they are both equal. Because the Franks converted directly to Catholicism without first converting to Arianism, the Catholic church was able to build better relationships with them. The Catholic church was also ready to work alongside the Franks because of this. The problem was that the Merovingians did a lot of fighting between themselves. As well as that later down the line, many of the Merovingians were made to rule from childhood and they were inbred so many had mental defects. This reduced their reputation with the Catholic Church, so they didn’t get to work together very much.
Eventually, the Carolingians came along, when the Merovingian kings were doing worse and worse. The Carolingians held the position of Mayor of the Palace and passed it down between themselves, which was illegal but it happened anyway. Slowly the Merovingian kings started doing less and less, while the Carolingians started doing more work for them, until the Carolingians were doing most of the work that the king should be doing. This had gotten to the point in 751 where the Carolingians wanted to become the new kings of the Franks. The problem was that if they became the new king then and there, the Franks would see them as illegitimate and untrustworthy. So one of the Carolingians, called Pepin would ask Pope Zachary “whether it was acceptable for the person with all the power to not have the title of king and the person with the title of king having no power”. Zachary answered that this should not be the case and that the ruling family of the Franks should be changed. After hearing this Pepin was able to take over the title of king, with the people on his side.
The Significance of the Papal-Frankish Alliance
After the Carolingians took control of the Frankish kingdom, the chance that the Catholic church would work together with the Franks became much more likely. Not only this, but the Catholic church was willing to go one step further. The Catholic church was willing to make an alliance with the Franks and crown their kings the Protector of the Church. This was important because before this the title of Protector of the Church had only been given to two countries previously. These countries were the western Roman empire and the eastern Roman empire, which is also known as the Byzantine empire.
The first reason they were considering this was because the Carolingingians were much more competent rulers than the Merovingians were and followed the rules of Catholicism well. The Carolingians were also willing to protect the Catholic church. The second reason they wanted to change the Protector of the Church was that the Byzantine empire didn’t give them the protection they wanted. During that time the Byzantine empire held the position of Protector of the Church. The problem was that the emperors of the Byzantine empire believed in Monothelism and Iconoclasm. These were two variants of Christianity, which were also considered heresies by the Catholic church. Monothelism, which is also known as Monothelitism is the belief that God only has one will. In Catholicism, God has two wills, a divine will and human will. The belief of Iconoclasm that religious icons should be destroyed. These icons were religious paintings, which in the Catholic view should be revered for what they depicted. Because the Catholic church was against these heresies, the Byzantine emperors would often not allow the popes to officially receive the title of the pope. Some of them also harassed the popes. After the Carolingians took over power in Gaul and Pepin became the king, the Catholic church had had enough of the Byzantine emperors. Because of all the good qualities of the Franks, they give Pepin the title of Protector of the Church instead. | <urn:uuid:5a5c5cad-7a96-474f-8d22-08cca3944cd8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://ideasareimmortal.com/index.php/2019/12/05/western-civ-week-17-how-the-carolingians-became-the-king-of-the-franks-and-the-significance-of-the-papal-frankish-alliance/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00194.warc.gz | en | 0.989448 | 1,024 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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-0.011844... | 8 | This is the essay for the 17th week of the 9th Grade Tom Woods Homeschool. In this blog post, I will be answering two questions. The first one is, how and why did the power shift from Merovingians to the Carolingians in the kingdom of the Franks and what was the significance of the Papal-Frankish alliance?
How and why the shift in power from the Merovingians to the Carolingians occurred in the kingdom of the Franks.
After the fall of Rome in 476, the region of Gaul, which is about modern-day France was ruled by new kings. These kings were from the Merovingian dynasty. The dynasty was started by Clovis I in 481. The Merovingian dynasty did many important things, like defending Gaul from the Arabs in 732. The important part was that when the Franks were converted to Christianity, they converted to Catholicism.
The reason this is important because most of the barbarian civilizations converted to Arianism or Arian Christianity. The problem with this was that Arianism was deemed a heresy by the Catholic church. The Arian belief is that Jesus Christ isn’t equal to God and Christ was subordinate to God. While in Catholicism they are both equal. Because the Franks converted directly to Catholicism without first converting to Arianism, the Catholic church was able to build better relationships with them. The Catholic church was also ready to work alongside the Franks because of this. The problem was that the Merovingians did a lot of fighting between themselves. As well as that later down the line, many of the Merovingians were made to rule from childhood and they were inbred so many had mental defects. This reduced their reputation with the Catholic Church, so they didn’t get to work together very much.
Eventually, the Carolingians came along, when the Merovingian kings were doing worse and worse. The Carolingians held the position of Mayor of the Palace and passed it down between themselves, which was illegal but it happened anyway. Slowly the Merovingian kings started doing less and less, while the Carolingians started doing more work for them, until the Carolingians were doing most of the work that the king should be doing. This had gotten to the point in 751 where the Carolingians wanted to become the new kings of the Franks. The problem was that if they became the new king then and there, the Franks would see them as illegitimate and untrustworthy. So one of the Carolingians, called Pepin would ask Pope Zachary “whether it was acceptable for the person with all the power to not have the title of king and the person with the title of king having no power”. Zachary answered that this should not be the case and that the ruling family of the Franks should be changed. After hearing this Pepin was able to take over the title of king, with the people on his side.
The Significance of the Papal-Frankish Alliance
After the Carolingians took control of the Frankish kingdom, the chance that the Catholic church would work together with the Franks became much more likely. Not only this, but the Catholic church was willing to go one step further. The Catholic church was willing to make an alliance with the Franks and crown their kings the Protector of the Church. This was important because before this the title of Protector of the Church had only been given to two countries previously. These countries were the western Roman empire and the eastern Roman empire, which is also known as the Byzantine empire.
The first reason they were considering this was because the Carolingingians were much more competent rulers than the Merovingians were and followed the rules of Catholicism well. The Carolingians were also willing to protect the Catholic church. The second reason they wanted to change the Protector of the Church was that the Byzantine empire didn’t give them the protection they wanted. During that time the Byzantine empire held the position of Protector of the Church. The problem was that the emperors of the Byzantine empire believed in Monothelism and Iconoclasm. These were two variants of Christianity, which were also considered heresies by the Catholic church. Monothelism, which is also known as Monothelitism is the belief that God only has one will. In Catholicism, God has two wills, a divine will and human will. The belief of Iconoclasm that religious icons should be destroyed. These icons were religious paintings, which in the Catholic view should be revered for what they depicted. Because the Catholic church was against these heresies, the Byzantine emperors would often not allow the popes to officially receive the title of the pope. Some of them also harassed the popes. After the Carolingians took over power in Gaul and Pepin became the king, the Catholic church had had enough of the Byzantine emperors. Because of all the good qualities of the Franks, they give Pepin the title of Protector of the Church instead. | 1,047 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Marguerite Johnson, best known as Maya Angelou, is an author, actress, and poet who has inspired millions with her writing. Growing up in Arkansas, Angelou had a difficult childhood that led to her becoming mute for many years. Due to her traumatic experiences growing up, Angelou produced a memoir that became one of her most popular works. In 1969, Angelou became the first African-American to write a nonfiction best-seller, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. In 1952, Angelou wed a Greek sailor, Anastasios Angelopoulos, which is where she got her last name from: a shortened version of her husband’s last name. Her first name, Maya, came from a childhood nickname. During the 1950s, she was a successful performer as she landed a role in Porgy and Bess and the off-Broadway production of Calypso Heat Wave.
In the 1960s, she traveled to Egypt and later lived in Ghana. While in Ghana she took a position at the University of Ghana, and worked as a freelance writer. Years later Angelou returned to the United States, and was encouraged by writer James Baldwin to write about her childhood and growing up. From the well-appreciated encouragement produced I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. Over the next few years she would go on to earn a number of different awards for her outstanding writing, and became known as the first African-American woman to have her own screenplay produced, Georgia,Georgia. Angelou passed away May 28, 2014 in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, and was honored by numerous fans and celebrities for being such a strong image for people of all genders and ages. | <urn:uuid:00b3aa94-c172-44ea-888a-da79c23ac5b9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sheenmagazine.com/a-black-history-moment-with-maya-angelou/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00390.warc.gz | en | 0.986676 | 349 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.01605070... | 5 | Marguerite Johnson, best known as Maya Angelou, is an author, actress, and poet who has inspired millions with her writing. Growing up in Arkansas, Angelou had a difficult childhood that led to her becoming mute for many years. Due to her traumatic experiences growing up, Angelou produced a memoir that became one of her most popular works. In 1969, Angelou became the first African-American to write a nonfiction best-seller, I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. In 1952, Angelou wed a Greek sailor, Anastasios Angelopoulos, which is where she got her last name from: a shortened version of her husband’s last name. Her first name, Maya, came from a childhood nickname. During the 1950s, she was a successful performer as she landed a role in Porgy and Bess and the off-Broadway production of Calypso Heat Wave.
In the 1960s, she traveled to Egypt and later lived in Ghana. While in Ghana she took a position at the University of Ghana, and worked as a freelance writer. Years later Angelou returned to the United States, and was encouraged by writer James Baldwin to write about her childhood and growing up. From the well-appreciated encouragement produced I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. Over the next few years she would go on to earn a number of different awards for her outstanding writing, and became known as the first African-American woman to have her own screenplay produced, Georgia,Georgia. Angelou passed away May 28, 2014 in Winston-Salem, North Carolina, and was honored by numerous fans and celebrities for being such a strong image for people of all genders and ages. | 364 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Camp Dennison was a military recruiting, training, and medical post for the United States Army during the American Civil War. It was located near Cincinnati, Ohio, not far from the Ohio River. The camp was named for Cincinnati native William Dennison, Ohio's governor at the start of the war.
With the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, George B. McClellan, commander of Ohio's state militia, was charged by Governor Dennison with selecting a site for a recruitment and training center for southern Ohio, a possible target for the Confederate States Army due to its Ohio River location and proximity to slave states such as Kentucky and Virginia, from which invasions could be launched. McClellan was joined by Joshua H. Bates and another member of the militia in preparing the plans for the new camp. The site was actually chosen by then Captain William S. Rosecrans, who chose a level tract of land near Indian Hill, Ohio, 17 miles (27 km) from Cincinnati. The land was on both sides of the Little Miami Railroad (LMR) tracks, which ended at Cincinnati's Public Landing. There are variable area listed, but 700 acres (2.8 km2) of land appears to have been rented from the Buckingham and Nimrod Price families. They were offered $12 to $20 per acre per month, a figure named without negotiation, and considered generous. Rosecrans laid out the camp via survey around April 24, 1861, and a large contingent of recruits from Camp Chase, numbering about 1,500 men were sent by train. The first post commander was Melancthon Smith Wade, a Cincinnatian who was a former general in the Ohio Militia.
The LMR could transport volunteers from Central Ohio, and from areas along those tracks. The location had fresh water in the nearby Little Miami River but the recruits had to be trained to use latrines, for in 1862, the United States Sanitary Commission reported that men refused to use latrines, and instead used an area hillside, at the bottom of which was their water supply. It was the Little Miami Railroad which could transport troops quickly into Cincinnati in case of enemy threat. However, among the men initially sent, there were less than a dozen muskets among them, but presumably the Confederates, if they considered attacking Cincinnati, were not aware. One can view the land of Camp Dennison via Google. The Little Miami Railroad tracks are now a bicycle trail.
More than 50,000 Union soldiers were mustered in or out of service at Camp Dennison. As many as 12,000 occupied the camp at any one time. During Morgan's Raid in 1863, troops from Camp Dennison responded to the invasion by Confederate cavalry under Brig. Gen. John Hunt Morgan, as they had in 1862 when Cincinnati was briefly threatened by the cavalry of Albert G. Jenkins.
Within the first week, inclement weather made life very hard on those who were first there. They had no chance to build substantial structures, and the weather turned cold and accompanied by a lot of rain. The fields became a sea of mud. The camp hospital was established on the ground floor of the Waldschmidt barn, after horses were liveried elsewhere, the manure removed, and fresh straw laid down. Camp Dennison along with its surrounding cities of Indian Hill and Madeira have a curfew of 1 AM, Many men contracted pneumonia, and then there was a measles epidemic. For a time, the "hospital" was simply a shelter, although there was minimal bedding. At least one man died.
As the war progressed, shortly after the Battle of Shiloh a military hospital was established on the grounds of Camp Dennison, with over 200 beds situated in a series of wooden barracks. These wooden barracks were originally used to house soldiers, but were converted into hospital wards. There were considerably more men sent there over the course of the war. The nearby Waldschmidt Cemetery served as the temporary gravesite for 340 Union soldiers and 31 Confederate soldiers who were prisoners of war. The bodies were reinterred at Spring Grove Cemetery or at Camp Chase in Columbus in the late 1860s.
The end of the Civil War in 1865 eliminated the need for Camp Dennison, which was deactivated in September. A small community, Camp Dennison, sprang up around the camp and hospital. Many of the later barns and homes used lumber and materials from the abandoned army camp.
In 1973, two of the remaining buildings from the fort were listed on the National Register of Historic Places as a historic district, the "Waldschmidt-Camp Dennison District." | <urn:uuid:66010173-9754-4abe-9397-716ff344fc2e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Camp-Dennison | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00556.warc.gz | en | 0.98569 | 951 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.45336684... | 1 | Camp Dennison was a military recruiting, training, and medical post for the United States Army during the American Civil War. It was located near Cincinnati, Ohio, not far from the Ohio River. The camp was named for Cincinnati native William Dennison, Ohio's governor at the start of the war.
With the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, George B. McClellan, commander of Ohio's state militia, was charged by Governor Dennison with selecting a site for a recruitment and training center for southern Ohio, a possible target for the Confederate States Army due to its Ohio River location and proximity to slave states such as Kentucky and Virginia, from which invasions could be launched. McClellan was joined by Joshua H. Bates and another member of the militia in preparing the plans for the new camp. The site was actually chosen by then Captain William S. Rosecrans, who chose a level tract of land near Indian Hill, Ohio, 17 miles (27 km) from Cincinnati. The land was on both sides of the Little Miami Railroad (LMR) tracks, which ended at Cincinnati's Public Landing. There are variable area listed, but 700 acres (2.8 km2) of land appears to have been rented from the Buckingham and Nimrod Price families. They were offered $12 to $20 per acre per month, a figure named without negotiation, and considered generous. Rosecrans laid out the camp via survey around April 24, 1861, and a large contingent of recruits from Camp Chase, numbering about 1,500 men were sent by train. The first post commander was Melancthon Smith Wade, a Cincinnatian who was a former general in the Ohio Militia.
The LMR could transport volunteers from Central Ohio, and from areas along those tracks. The location had fresh water in the nearby Little Miami River but the recruits had to be trained to use latrines, for in 1862, the United States Sanitary Commission reported that men refused to use latrines, and instead used an area hillside, at the bottom of which was their water supply. It was the Little Miami Railroad which could transport troops quickly into Cincinnati in case of enemy threat. However, among the men initially sent, there were less than a dozen muskets among them, but presumably the Confederates, if they considered attacking Cincinnati, were not aware. One can view the land of Camp Dennison via Google. The Little Miami Railroad tracks are now a bicycle trail.
More than 50,000 Union soldiers were mustered in or out of service at Camp Dennison. As many as 12,000 occupied the camp at any one time. During Morgan's Raid in 1863, troops from Camp Dennison responded to the invasion by Confederate cavalry under Brig. Gen. John Hunt Morgan, as they had in 1862 when Cincinnati was briefly threatened by the cavalry of Albert G. Jenkins.
Within the first week, inclement weather made life very hard on those who were first there. They had no chance to build substantial structures, and the weather turned cold and accompanied by a lot of rain. The fields became a sea of mud. The camp hospital was established on the ground floor of the Waldschmidt barn, after horses were liveried elsewhere, the manure removed, and fresh straw laid down. Camp Dennison along with its surrounding cities of Indian Hill and Madeira have a curfew of 1 AM, Many men contracted pneumonia, and then there was a measles epidemic. For a time, the "hospital" was simply a shelter, although there was minimal bedding. At least one man died.
As the war progressed, shortly after the Battle of Shiloh a military hospital was established on the grounds of Camp Dennison, with over 200 beds situated in a series of wooden barracks. These wooden barracks were originally used to house soldiers, but were converted into hospital wards. There were considerably more men sent there over the course of the war. The nearby Waldschmidt Cemetery served as the temporary gravesite for 340 Union soldiers and 31 Confederate soldiers who were prisoners of war. The bodies were reinterred at Spring Grove Cemetery or at Camp Chase in Columbus in the late 1860s.
The end of the Civil War in 1865 eliminated the need for Camp Dennison, which was deactivated in September. A small community, Camp Dennison, sprang up around the camp and hospital. Many of the later barns and homes used lumber and materials from the abandoned army camp.
In 1973, two of the remaining buildings from the fort were listed on the National Register of Historic Places as a historic district, the "Waldschmidt-Camp Dennison District." | 999 | ENGLISH | 1 |
James Mercer Langston Hughes (February 1, 1902 – May 22, 1967) was an American poet, social activist, novelist, playwright, and columnist from Joplin, Missouri. He moved to New York City as a young man, where he made his career. One of the earliest innovators of the then-new literary art form called jazz poetry, Hughes is best known as a leader of the Harlem Renaissance. He famously wrote about the period that "the negro was in vogue", which was later paraphrased as "when Harlem was in vogue."
Growing up in a series of Midwestern towns, Hughes became a prolific writer at an early age. He graduated from high school in Cleveland, Ohio and soon began studies at Columbia University in New York City. Although he dropped out, he gained notice from New York publishers, first in The Crisis magazine, and then from book publishers and became known in the creative community in Harlem. He eventually graduated from Lincoln University. In addition to poetry, Hughes wrote plays, and short stories. He also published several non-fiction works. From 1942 to 1962, as the civil rights movement was gaining traction, he wrote an in-depth weekly column in a leading black newspaper, The Chicago Defender. | <urn:uuid:1cc0c624-758b-422e-87d9-b5260c777625> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gradesaver.com/langston-hughes-poems/wikipedia/introduction | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00558.warc.gz | en | 0.991168 | 252 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.1683805435895... | 1 | James Mercer Langston Hughes (February 1, 1902 – May 22, 1967) was an American poet, social activist, novelist, playwright, and columnist from Joplin, Missouri. He moved to New York City as a young man, where he made his career. One of the earliest innovators of the then-new literary art form called jazz poetry, Hughes is best known as a leader of the Harlem Renaissance. He famously wrote about the period that "the negro was in vogue", which was later paraphrased as "when Harlem was in vogue."
Growing up in a series of Midwestern towns, Hughes became a prolific writer at an early age. He graduated from high school in Cleveland, Ohio and soon began studies at Columbia University in New York City. Although he dropped out, he gained notice from New York publishers, first in The Crisis magazine, and then from book publishers and became known in the creative community in Harlem. He eventually graduated from Lincoln University. In addition to poetry, Hughes wrote plays, and short stories. He also published several non-fiction works. From 1942 to 1962, as the civil rights movement was gaining traction, he wrote an in-depth weekly column in a leading black newspaper, The Chicago Defender. | 266 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By: Leon Kwasi Kuntuo-Asare
Benjamin Banneker was born on November 9, 1731 in Baltimore county, Province of Maryland, in British America. His mom, Mary Banneky was a free Black person, and his father Robert, was a freed slave from Guinea.
Banneker would learn to read by studying the family’s bible, and he would begin to learn and become exceptional in mathematics once he began attending a Quaker school.
His Excellence in mathematics would help make him a great inventor. One day he saw a traveling salesman with a pocket watch, and since no watches existed in colonial America at the time, he used his mathematics skills to invent his own watch. He would craft the watch entirely out of wood, and reportedly it ran perfect for the next 40 years.
Not only was Banneker a great mathematician and inventor, but his greatness would extend to astronomy. In 1789, Banneker predict the occurence of a solar eclipse, and to the shock of his skeptics, the eclipse would take place on April 14th, just as hee predicted.
Banneker, would also become an anti-slavery advocate, after he read Thomas Jefferson’s doctrine that “all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, and that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness “, which was a total contradiction to Jefferson’s own actions as a slave owner. Banneker would write to Jefferson, telling him that Blacks were equal to Whites in intelligence and therefore were entitled to the same rights, protections and privileges as White men in America. To prove his point on the intelligence of his people, Banneker would include with his letter a copy of his almanac, which was a yearly publication that documented coming eclipses, holidays, and the hours of the day that the sun would rise and set, also included were anti-slavery essays, calling for the abolition of America’s original sin of slavery.
Jefferson would write back to him, with somewhat of a new understanding on the issues of race. A friendship would be formed between the two men, and remained intact even after Jefferson became president of America.
Because of his genius and his friendship him Jefferson, Banneker would be selected to be one of the men to survey the original boundaries of Washington D.C.
When the French city planner Pierre Charles L’Enfant, quit and took his plans back with him to France, Banneker would reproduce the plans by memory.
After dedicating his entire life to science and the improvement of humanity, Banneker would die in 1806 at the age of 74.
For additional information use the links below:
BY: LEON KWASI KUNTUO-ASARE
Booker Taliferro Washington, was born in Hale’s Ford, Virginia, somewhere around April 5, 1856. Like most slaves, exact records were not kept on his birth. His mother was an enslaved African-American woman named Jane, who worked on the James Burrough plantation, in southwest, Virginia , the identity of Booker’s father is unknown, but he was believed to be a white man who worked on a nearby plantation.
When Booker was 9, he and his family gained their freedom, in 1865, under the Emancipation Proclamation, when the union troops occupied their region in Virginia.
Booker T. Washington worked several jobs, including working as a coal miner in West Virginia to earn money to pay for school, eventually he would attend Hampton Institute and Wayland seminary.
In 1881 the Samuel C. Armstrong, the head of Hampton Institute , recommended Washington for the principal job, at the Tuskegee Institute, in Alabama.
Washington would get married three times, Washington was married to Fannie N. Smith from 1882-1884, when she died. Washington then married Olivia A. Davidson from 1886 to her death in1889, his last marriage would be to Margaret James Murry from 1893 to his death in 1915.
Washington would have three children from the first two marriages : Portia, Ernest and Booker T. Washington jr.
In 1895 , as lynchings of African-Americans, by racist whites were on the rise in the South, Washington gave a speech, now known as the “Atlanta Compromise” , which brought him into the national spotlight. In the speech he encouraged African-Americans to uplift themselves through education and entrepreneurship, rather than challenging Jim Crow segregation laws in the south, which at the time, would of been a death sentence for any African-American, challenging white supremacy.
Washington advocated for blacks to take the “Go Slow” approach to avoid a harsh and violent backlash from racist whites, which was very frequent in the south at the time.
At the time the government gave a very small amount of money to African-American schools, so a lot of money for African-American schools came from rich white philanthropists. Washington would build relationships with some of those rich white people to help fund educational programs to help the progression of the African-American community, through higher education .
Washington would die on November 14, 1915, at the age of 59. Despite his hardwork for the African-American people, all across the nation, he would remain the principal at Tuskegee, until the day he died.
WATCH THIS SHORT BIOGRAPHY FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION :
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION USE LINK BELOW : | <urn:uuid:f61ce29c-2f30-4873-87e5-ed8f6fcfe168> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://leonkwasichronicles.com/tag/washington/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00501.warc.gz | en | 0.981576 | 1,156 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.4082927107... | 2 | By: Leon Kwasi Kuntuo-Asare
Benjamin Banneker was born on November 9, 1731 in Baltimore county, Province of Maryland, in British America. His mom, Mary Banneky was a free Black person, and his father Robert, was a freed slave from Guinea.
Banneker would learn to read by studying the family’s bible, and he would begin to learn and become exceptional in mathematics once he began attending a Quaker school.
His Excellence in mathematics would help make him a great inventor. One day he saw a traveling salesman with a pocket watch, and since no watches existed in colonial America at the time, he used his mathematics skills to invent his own watch. He would craft the watch entirely out of wood, and reportedly it ran perfect for the next 40 years.
Not only was Banneker a great mathematician and inventor, but his greatness would extend to astronomy. In 1789, Banneker predict the occurence of a solar eclipse, and to the shock of his skeptics, the eclipse would take place on April 14th, just as hee predicted.
Banneker, would also become an anti-slavery advocate, after he read Thomas Jefferson’s doctrine that “all men are created equal; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, and that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness “, which was a total contradiction to Jefferson’s own actions as a slave owner. Banneker would write to Jefferson, telling him that Blacks were equal to Whites in intelligence and therefore were entitled to the same rights, protections and privileges as White men in America. To prove his point on the intelligence of his people, Banneker would include with his letter a copy of his almanac, which was a yearly publication that documented coming eclipses, holidays, and the hours of the day that the sun would rise and set, also included were anti-slavery essays, calling for the abolition of America’s original sin of slavery.
Jefferson would write back to him, with somewhat of a new understanding on the issues of race. A friendship would be formed between the two men, and remained intact even after Jefferson became president of America.
Because of his genius and his friendship him Jefferson, Banneker would be selected to be one of the men to survey the original boundaries of Washington D.C.
When the French city planner Pierre Charles L’Enfant, quit and took his plans back with him to France, Banneker would reproduce the plans by memory.
After dedicating his entire life to science and the improvement of humanity, Banneker would die in 1806 at the age of 74.
For additional information use the links below:
BY: LEON KWASI KUNTUO-ASARE
Booker Taliferro Washington, was born in Hale’s Ford, Virginia, somewhere around April 5, 1856. Like most slaves, exact records were not kept on his birth. His mother was an enslaved African-American woman named Jane, who worked on the James Burrough plantation, in southwest, Virginia , the identity of Booker’s father is unknown, but he was believed to be a white man who worked on a nearby plantation.
When Booker was 9, he and his family gained their freedom, in 1865, under the Emancipation Proclamation, when the union troops occupied their region in Virginia.
Booker T. Washington worked several jobs, including working as a coal miner in West Virginia to earn money to pay for school, eventually he would attend Hampton Institute and Wayland seminary.
In 1881 the Samuel C. Armstrong, the head of Hampton Institute , recommended Washington for the principal job, at the Tuskegee Institute, in Alabama.
Washington would get married three times, Washington was married to Fannie N. Smith from 1882-1884, when she died. Washington then married Olivia A. Davidson from 1886 to her death in1889, his last marriage would be to Margaret James Murry from 1893 to his death in 1915.
Washington would have three children from the first two marriages : Portia, Ernest and Booker T. Washington jr.
In 1895 , as lynchings of African-Americans, by racist whites were on the rise in the South, Washington gave a speech, now known as the “Atlanta Compromise” , which brought him into the national spotlight. In the speech he encouraged African-Americans to uplift themselves through education and entrepreneurship, rather than challenging Jim Crow segregation laws in the south, which at the time, would of been a death sentence for any African-American, challenging white supremacy.
Washington advocated for blacks to take the “Go Slow” approach to avoid a harsh and violent backlash from racist whites, which was very frequent in the south at the time.
At the time the government gave a very small amount of money to African-American schools, so a lot of money for African-American schools came from rich white philanthropists. Washington would build relationships with some of those rich white people to help fund educational programs to help the progression of the African-American community, through higher education .
Washington would die on November 14, 1915, at the age of 59. Despite his hardwork for the African-American people, all across the nation, he would remain the principal at Tuskegee, until the day he died.
WATCH THIS SHORT BIOGRAPHY FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION :
FOR ADDITIONAL INFORMATION USE LINK BELOW : | 1,152 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The blacksmith was a rather important person during the colonial times. He typically used a number of tools in order to produce various utilitarian and decorative objects needed by the settlers of the colony. Here’s a glimpse into some of the important tools used by colonial blacksmiths.
During colonial times, the blacksmith was also often called to remove teeth, since he had access to various tools, and dentists were rarely available.
The blacksmith is a trained craftsman who works with iron and steel, and fashions out various usable and decorative objects out of them. In the colonial times, he was one of the most important and most sought-after people of the colony, as each and everyone needed his services on a regular basis. It is interesting to note that every colony had at least one blacksmith, who provided the settlers with all the tools and metal equipment that they needed. He functioned from his workshop, called a smithy, that was well-equipped with all the necessary tools and implements required for making and mending metal objects. Furthermore, he was often assisted by a number of apprentices, whom he trained in the craft. After the completion of training, these apprentices became independent blacksmiths and often set up their own workshops.
Tools of a Colonial Blacksmith
In order to supply the settlers of the colony with much-needed iron objects, the colonial blacksmith needed to use a variety of tools and equipment. These were typically made from iron and other ferrous alloys. Almost all of these tools were produced within the smithy itself. Some of the basic tools used by a colonial blacksmith were as under:
The anvil was the simplest of all blacksmith tools. It was nothing but a block of hard iron that was used as a surface when raw metal was hammered, so that it could be given the desired shape. Usually, the anvil was placed on a tree stump that reached up to the blacksmith’s knuckles. Such a placement of the anvil enabled the blacksmith to work comfortably. It was basically shaped in such a manner that it could easily sustain blows of the hammer. Even today, the anvil is used by many metal workers as a surface, when they need to shape metal objects. The ‘face’ (upper surface) of the anvil is plain and smooth, and is used to shape the object. One of the ends of the anvil is shaped like a horn. This end is used in order to give a curved shape to the hot metal rod/bar.
Hammer was a basic tool used by the blacksmith, and the most important one as well. Colonial blacksmiths, more often than not, used a cross peen hammer. It generally weighed from 1.75 to 3 pounds. Sledgehammers were also used, generally for shaping heavy and huge pieces of iron. Some of these hammers were as heavy as 12 pounds. For a blacksmith, the basic purpose of a hammer was to beat and bend the hot metal into a preferred shape.
The hacksaw was literally a saw that had a powerful blade, and was used to cut metallic sheets and sods. It is used even today in many cutting and machining processes.
The punch was basically used to make small holes with even diameters in blocks or sheets of metal. The colonial blacksmiths used a wide range punches of different diameters to make holes of variable sizes. The punch is more appropriately known as the ‘punch rod’. One end of the rod is used to actually make the hole and the second end is used to strike the hammer.
Vise was a very effective clamp that was used to hold a metallic object, when the blacksmith was unable to hammer and hold it, at the same time. A vise was often attached to a heavy bench or to a wall or was anchored to a post, dug in the floor.
Tongs were essentially metal pliers, which were used to hold pieces of hot metal (which could not be held with bare hands), in order to work on them. Tongs were (and are) available in various sizes, and aided the blacksmith to remove the hot metal from the forge, and to hold it down on the anvil to be hammered and shaped.
Files were used by colonial blacksmiths to sharpen the edges of metal sheets and tools, and to add finishing touches to their products. They were long, flat tools, often with wooden handles, and were available in different sizes.
Forge was the most important equipment used by a colonial blacksmith. It was a hearth, with a chimney jutting out of it, where the metal was heated. It was usually placed beside the anvil, so that the hot metal could be directly removed from the forge and immediately placed on the anvil for shaping. Forges, in the colonial times, were fueled by coal.
Most of these tools are used even today, and have undergone several modifications over a period of time.
The Colonial Blacksmith: An Overview
In the 16th century, when the Europeans traveled to the New World and established colonies, they had various crucial tasks at hand, as they had to build everything from scratch. Their first and the foremost task was to build new houses and defense mechanisms. Alongside this, they also needed to clear lands for agricultural purposes. They had carried a number of varied metal tools from their homeland, like hammers, plows, axes, and saws. However, due to their constant and regular use, they were prone to chipping and breaking. Though sharpening the existing tools was possible for a layman, repairing the broken ones or making completely new ones, needed only a professional blacksmith.
Iron formed the very foundation of colonial daily life. The metal had a variety of uses, large and small. The homes, workshops, and barns of the colonists contained a large number of iron and steel objects, which were used for everyday tasks such as cooking, eating, feeding the cattle, and also for decorative purposes. Initially, iron and items made from it were imported from England. The people from the New World colonies bought them from the shops. During this period, the job of a local blacksmith was limited to repairing the worn out/broken tools, rather than making new ones. But, owing to the fact that England itself had limited supplies of iron, the colonists found it extremely necessary to look for newer sources of the same. Soon enough, they found iron ores at Jamestown, Virginia, which became usable after the process of smelting.
When Christopher Columbus traveled to the New World, he carried with him several tools and metal objects. A blacksmith was one of the important men, who always accompanied him during his voyages, helping him and his men, mend metal objects.
By the 1730s, large amounts of smelted iron began to be exported from the American colonies to England. As the colonies flourished, more and more iron tools and equipment were needed. The local blacksmiths had come to the forefront by this time, as it was more economical to make the iron objects locally, rather than importing them, especially when iron was locally available. The colonial blacksmith then provided all the tools and materials needed for farming, constructing houses, shipbuilding, and also for making weapons. He, thus, became an extremely inevitable aspect of a colonial community. | <urn:uuid:3bdc7d64-2c7c-4827-8149-aa61f74d46bf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historyplex.com/colonial-blacksmith-tools | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00129.warc.gz | en | 0.985904 | 1,520 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.279648303985... | 7 | The blacksmith was a rather important person during the colonial times. He typically used a number of tools in order to produce various utilitarian and decorative objects needed by the settlers of the colony. Here’s a glimpse into some of the important tools used by colonial blacksmiths.
During colonial times, the blacksmith was also often called to remove teeth, since he had access to various tools, and dentists were rarely available.
The blacksmith is a trained craftsman who works with iron and steel, and fashions out various usable and decorative objects out of them. In the colonial times, he was one of the most important and most sought-after people of the colony, as each and everyone needed his services on a regular basis. It is interesting to note that every colony had at least one blacksmith, who provided the settlers with all the tools and metal equipment that they needed. He functioned from his workshop, called a smithy, that was well-equipped with all the necessary tools and implements required for making and mending metal objects. Furthermore, he was often assisted by a number of apprentices, whom he trained in the craft. After the completion of training, these apprentices became independent blacksmiths and often set up their own workshops.
Tools of a Colonial Blacksmith
In order to supply the settlers of the colony with much-needed iron objects, the colonial blacksmith needed to use a variety of tools and equipment. These were typically made from iron and other ferrous alloys. Almost all of these tools were produced within the smithy itself. Some of the basic tools used by a colonial blacksmith were as under:
The anvil was the simplest of all blacksmith tools. It was nothing but a block of hard iron that was used as a surface when raw metal was hammered, so that it could be given the desired shape. Usually, the anvil was placed on a tree stump that reached up to the blacksmith’s knuckles. Such a placement of the anvil enabled the blacksmith to work comfortably. It was basically shaped in such a manner that it could easily sustain blows of the hammer. Even today, the anvil is used by many metal workers as a surface, when they need to shape metal objects. The ‘face’ (upper surface) of the anvil is plain and smooth, and is used to shape the object. One of the ends of the anvil is shaped like a horn. This end is used in order to give a curved shape to the hot metal rod/bar.
Hammer was a basic tool used by the blacksmith, and the most important one as well. Colonial blacksmiths, more often than not, used a cross peen hammer. It generally weighed from 1.75 to 3 pounds. Sledgehammers were also used, generally for shaping heavy and huge pieces of iron. Some of these hammers were as heavy as 12 pounds. For a blacksmith, the basic purpose of a hammer was to beat and bend the hot metal into a preferred shape.
The hacksaw was literally a saw that had a powerful blade, and was used to cut metallic sheets and sods. It is used even today in many cutting and machining processes.
The punch was basically used to make small holes with even diameters in blocks or sheets of metal. The colonial blacksmiths used a wide range punches of different diameters to make holes of variable sizes. The punch is more appropriately known as the ‘punch rod’. One end of the rod is used to actually make the hole and the second end is used to strike the hammer.
Vise was a very effective clamp that was used to hold a metallic object, when the blacksmith was unable to hammer and hold it, at the same time. A vise was often attached to a heavy bench or to a wall or was anchored to a post, dug in the floor.
Tongs were essentially metal pliers, which were used to hold pieces of hot metal (which could not be held with bare hands), in order to work on them. Tongs were (and are) available in various sizes, and aided the blacksmith to remove the hot metal from the forge, and to hold it down on the anvil to be hammered and shaped.
Files were used by colonial blacksmiths to sharpen the edges of metal sheets and tools, and to add finishing touches to their products. They were long, flat tools, often with wooden handles, and were available in different sizes.
Forge was the most important equipment used by a colonial blacksmith. It was a hearth, with a chimney jutting out of it, where the metal was heated. It was usually placed beside the anvil, so that the hot metal could be directly removed from the forge and immediately placed on the anvil for shaping. Forges, in the colonial times, were fueled by coal.
Most of these tools are used even today, and have undergone several modifications over a period of time.
The Colonial Blacksmith: An Overview
In the 16th century, when the Europeans traveled to the New World and established colonies, they had various crucial tasks at hand, as they had to build everything from scratch. Their first and the foremost task was to build new houses and defense mechanisms. Alongside this, they also needed to clear lands for agricultural purposes. They had carried a number of varied metal tools from their homeland, like hammers, plows, axes, and saws. However, due to their constant and regular use, they were prone to chipping and breaking. Though sharpening the existing tools was possible for a layman, repairing the broken ones or making completely new ones, needed only a professional blacksmith.
Iron formed the very foundation of colonial daily life. The metal had a variety of uses, large and small. The homes, workshops, and barns of the colonists contained a large number of iron and steel objects, which were used for everyday tasks such as cooking, eating, feeding the cattle, and also for decorative purposes. Initially, iron and items made from it were imported from England. The people from the New World colonies bought them from the shops. During this period, the job of a local blacksmith was limited to repairing the worn out/broken tools, rather than making new ones. But, owing to the fact that England itself had limited supplies of iron, the colonists found it extremely necessary to look for newer sources of the same. Soon enough, they found iron ores at Jamestown, Virginia, which became usable after the process of smelting.
When Christopher Columbus traveled to the New World, he carried with him several tools and metal objects. A blacksmith was one of the important men, who always accompanied him during his voyages, helping him and his men, mend metal objects.
By the 1730s, large amounts of smelted iron began to be exported from the American colonies to England. As the colonies flourished, more and more iron tools and equipment were needed. The local blacksmiths had come to the forefront by this time, as it was more economical to make the iron objects locally, rather than importing them, especially when iron was locally available. The colonial blacksmith then provided all the tools and materials needed for farming, constructing houses, shipbuilding, and also for making weapons. He, thus, became an extremely inevitable aspect of a colonial community. | 1,496 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Shells and animals were produced widely in earlier times. By 300 BC, the Greeks had mastered making colored gold jewelry and using amethysts, pearl and emeralds. Also, the first signs of cameos appeared, with the Greeks creating them from Indian Sardonyx, a striped brown pink and cream agate stone. Greek gold jewelry was often simpler than in other cultures, with simple designs and workmanship. However, as time progressed the designs grew in complexity different materials were soon utilized.
The Greeks started using gold and gems in their gold jewelry in 1,400 BC. Gold Greek jewelry was hardly worn and was mostly used for public appearances or on special occasions. It was frequently given as a gift and was predominantly worn by woman to show wealth, social status and beauty. The jewelry was often supposed to give the wearer protection from the Evil Eye or endowed the owner with supernatural powers, while others had a religious symbolism. Older pieces of gold jewelry that have been found were dedicated to the Gods. The largest production of gold Greek jewelry in these times came from Northern Greece and Macedon. However, although much of the jewelry in Greece was made of gold and silver with ivory and gems, bronze and clay copies were made also.
Jewelry makers in Ancient Greece were largely anonymous. They worked the types of gold jewelry into two different styles of pieces; cast pieces and pieces hammered out of sheet metal. Fewer pieces of cast jewelry have been recovered; it was made by casting the metal onto two stone or clay molds. Then the two halves were joined together and wax and then molten metal, was placed in the center. This technique had been practiced since the late Bronze Age. The more common form of gold Greek jewelry was the hammered sheet type. Sheets of metal would be hammered to the right thickness & then soldered together. The inside of the two sheets would be filled with wax or another liquid to preserve the metal work. Different techniques, such as using a stamp or engraving, were then used to create motifs. Jewels may then be added to hollows or glass poured into special cavities on the surface.
Gold was money in ancient Greece. The Greeks mined for gold throughout the Mediterranean and Middle East regions by 550 B.C., and both Plato and Aristotle wrote about gold and had theories about its origins. Gold was associated with water (logical, since most of it was found in streams), and it was supposed that gold was a particularly dense combination of water and sunlight.
Their science may have been primitive, but the Greeks learned much about the practicalities of gold mining. By the time of the death of Alexander of Macedon (323 B.C.), the Greeks had mined gold from the Pillars of Hercules (Gibraltar) all the way eastward to Asia Minor and Egypt, and we find traces of their placer mines today. Some of the mines were owned by the state, some were worked privately with a royalty paid to the state. Also, nomads such as the Scythians and Cimmerians worked placer mines all over the region. The surviving Greek gold coinage and Scythian jewelry both show superb artistry.
Jewelry Design Motifs of Ancient Greece
Early Mycenaean Age Greek jewelry consisted of simple beads carved into shell or animal forms. The Greeks started using gold and semi-precious stones in their jewelry around 1400 BC (late Bronze Age). Ivory carving, which was popularized by the Minoans, was also common during this period.
A popular Greek design motif was the Herakles knot, also known as the “knot of Hercules,” or “marriage-knot,” which was influenced by the ancient Egyptians, and later adopted by the Romans. This apotropaic (Greek apotropaios) knot design depicted two intertwined ropes that were used as a wedding symbol (“tying the knot”), or as a protective amulet to ward off evil.
The Greeks where the first to use the cameo and intaglio (en cabochon) gem cut (carving a portrait into a piece of stratified agate called Indian), or Oriental sardonyx. The finest banded sardonyx was required to have at least three layers consisting of a black base, an intermediate zone of milk-white chalcedony, and an exterior layer of brown, tan or red shade. The image was carved into the upper white strata of the stone, leaving the darker layer as the background.
Early Greek jewelry employed simple designs and workmanship which made them distinct from the ornate styles of other Mediterranean cultures, although as time progressed, their designs techniques, and variety of materials grew in complexity. Greek jewelry was mostly about the metalwork however, and they were not as fond of gemstones as their contemporaries. Jewelry items consisted of diadems (headbands), bracelets, brooches, earrings, hairpins, pendants, necklaces and tassels. Clothing was held together by gold clasps, buttons or pins.
The ancient Greeks were fond of pendant earrings and necklaces adorned with the images of doves, or the gods Eros and Nike. Amphora pendants were lightly embellished with gemstones or enamel, hanging from a rosette usually topped by the crown of Isis.
Greek necklaces were made of strap-chain with dangling fruit or calyxes (above, left), or round chain adorned with an animal’s head clasp or dolphin clasp. The necklaces often held a multitude of filigreed amphora bangles, all attached to a chain that was suspended by a series of smaller chains.
Gold wreaths were worn as headdresses decorated with acorns, flowers and laurel leaf foliage, adorned with figures of Eros and Nikes. The laurel leaf was sacred to Apollo, the god of intellect and light, and the laurel wreath was used as a crown of honor for heroes and scholars (above, right). Some Greek earring designs were so complex and large that they were probably suspended from the diadem.
Greek rings were accented with a bezel-set carved glyptic seal-stone or other semi-precious stones, and used with hot wax to seal important documents. | <urn:uuid:3ff09c04-85f7-48f8-9aff-a9abf526cb61> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.goyamdiamondinstitute.com/greece-jewellery/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00375.warc.gz | en | 0.982881 | 1,299 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.59484887123107... | 5 | Shells and animals were produced widely in earlier times. By 300 BC, the Greeks had mastered making colored gold jewelry and using amethysts, pearl and emeralds. Also, the first signs of cameos appeared, with the Greeks creating them from Indian Sardonyx, a striped brown pink and cream agate stone. Greek gold jewelry was often simpler than in other cultures, with simple designs and workmanship. However, as time progressed the designs grew in complexity different materials were soon utilized.
The Greeks started using gold and gems in their gold jewelry in 1,400 BC. Gold Greek jewelry was hardly worn and was mostly used for public appearances or on special occasions. It was frequently given as a gift and was predominantly worn by woman to show wealth, social status and beauty. The jewelry was often supposed to give the wearer protection from the Evil Eye or endowed the owner with supernatural powers, while others had a religious symbolism. Older pieces of gold jewelry that have been found were dedicated to the Gods. The largest production of gold Greek jewelry in these times came from Northern Greece and Macedon. However, although much of the jewelry in Greece was made of gold and silver with ivory and gems, bronze and clay copies were made also.
Jewelry makers in Ancient Greece were largely anonymous. They worked the types of gold jewelry into two different styles of pieces; cast pieces and pieces hammered out of sheet metal. Fewer pieces of cast jewelry have been recovered; it was made by casting the metal onto two stone or clay molds. Then the two halves were joined together and wax and then molten metal, was placed in the center. This technique had been practiced since the late Bronze Age. The more common form of gold Greek jewelry was the hammered sheet type. Sheets of metal would be hammered to the right thickness & then soldered together. The inside of the two sheets would be filled with wax or another liquid to preserve the metal work. Different techniques, such as using a stamp or engraving, were then used to create motifs. Jewels may then be added to hollows or glass poured into special cavities on the surface.
Gold was money in ancient Greece. The Greeks mined for gold throughout the Mediterranean and Middle East regions by 550 B.C., and both Plato and Aristotle wrote about gold and had theories about its origins. Gold was associated with water (logical, since most of it was found in streams), and it was supposed that gold was a particularly dense combination of water and sunlight.
Their science may have been primitive, but the Greeks learned much about the practicalities of gold mining. By the time of the death of Alexander of Macedon (323 B.C.), the Greeks had mined gold from the Pillars of Hercules (Gibraltar) all the way eastward to Asia Minor and Egypt, and we find traces of their placer mines today. Some of the mines were owned by the state, some were worked privately with a royalty paid to the state. Also, nomads such as the Scythians and Cimmerians worked placer mines all over the region. The surviving Greek gold coinage and Scythian jewelry both show superb artistry.
Jewelry Design Motifs of Ancient Greece
Early Mycenaean Age Greek jewelry consisted of simple beads carved into shell or animal forms. The Greeks started using gold and semi-precious stones in their jewelry around 1400 BC (late Bronze Age). Ivory carving, which was popularized by the Minoans, was also common during this period.
A popular Greek design motif was the Herakles knot, also known as the “knot of Hercules,” or “marriage-knot,” which was influenced by the ancient Egyptians, and later adopted by the Romans. This apotropaic (Greek apotropaios) knot design depicted two intertwined ropes that were used as a wedding symbol (“tying the knot”), or as a protective amulet to ward off evil.
The Greeks where the first to use the cameo and intaglio (en cabochon) gem cut (carving a portrait into a piece of stratified agate called Indian), or Oriental sardonyx. The finest banded sardonyx was required to have at least three layers consisting of a black base, an intermediate zone of milk-white chalcedony, and an exterior layer of brown, tan or red shade. The image was carved into the upper white strata of the stone, leaving the darker layer as the background.
Early Greek jewelry employed simple designs and workmanship which made them distinct from the ornate styles of other Mediterranean cultures, although as time progressed, their designs techniques, and variety of materials grew in complexity. Greek jewelry was mostly about the metalwork however, and they were not as fond of gemstones as their contemporaries. Jewelry items consisted of diadems (headbands), bracelets, brooches, earrings, hairpins, pendants, necklaces and tassels. Clothing was held together by gold clasps, buttons or pins.
The ancient Greeks were fond of pendant earrings and necklaces adorned with the images of doves, or the gods Eros and Nike. Amphora pendants were lightly embellished with gemstones or enamel, hanging from a rosette usually topped by the crown of Isis.
Greek necklaces were made of strap-chain with dangling fruit or calyxes (above, left), or round chain adorned with an animal’s head clasp or dolphin clasp. The necklaces often held a multitude of filigreed amphora bangles, all attached to a chain that was suspended by a series of smaller chains.
Gold wreaths were worn as headdresses decorated with acorns, flowers and laurel leaf foliage, adorned with figures of Eros and Nikes. The laurel leaf was sacred to Apollo, the god of intellect and light, and the laurel wreath was used as a crown of honor for heroes and scholars (above, right). Some Greek earring designs were so complex and large that they were probably suspended from the diadem.
Greek rings were accented with a bezel-set carved glyptic seal-stone or other semi-precious stones, and used with hot wax to seal important documents. | 1,270 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Appeasement was saying yes mostly to Hitler's viewpoints. There were many and varied reasons why Great britain appeased Hitler in the 1930s. For example , by providing Czechoslovakia to Germany.
Hitler sought through the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which took away most of Germany's territories and inflicted disarmament and reparations. In September (1938), Chamberlain met with Hitler in Munich to settle disagreement over Sudetenland. Hitler's require that Sudetenland be given to Germany was agreed since it was completed by Germans and would therefore end up being within the rule of countrywide self-determination. In 1938 Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia and Chamberlain was blamed for not standing to Hitler.
Secondly, A few officials viewed a powerful Philippines as a wall structure against the Soviet Union. As well Britain believed the Capital t of Sixth is v was unfair to Indonesia and Hitler was a fair man. The uk was as well far away from Sudetenland and so when Indonesia invaded that they couldn't support. Britain and France resented fascism and Hitler likewise hated thus they said Hitler would guard. This provided Hitler even more chance to demand more.
Many British assumed Hitler's guidelines so if he said having been going get into Czechoslovakia they didn't whatever it takes. Britain and France offered Germany an opportunity to invade additional countries mainly because they enjoyed Hitler views and he could defend them.
Indonesia was getting the best country, and the appeasement of england related to this matter so much. Why? Because The united kingdom didn't (not couldn't) regulation Germany and also Hitler got more power. It means the WWв…Ў was originating from here since Hitler manufactured the WWв…Ў directly. I do believe the Appeasement was a big mistake of england and I need to give 4 specific reasons. But before that, I want to give both sides of examples to look at the appeasement widely. Was your Munich agreement right or wrong? An optimistic side can say it produced UK make or pretend that the WWв…Ўbecause it could suppose the WWв…Ў was coming. It also means Britain could save deaths. Actually,... | <urn:uuid:00ff41cd-f0b2-4969-88b7-1125d6d64590> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://rainbowrite.com/to-what-magnitude-did/52279-to-what-level-did-appeasement-cause-community.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00330.warc.gz | en | 0.982287 | 451 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.2280295044... | 1 | Appeasement was saying yes mostly to Hitler's viewpoints. There were many and varied reasons why Great britain appeased Hitler in the 1930s. For example , by providing Czechoslovakia to Germany.
Hitler sought through the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, which took away most of Germany's territories and inflicted disarmament and reparations. In September (1938), Chamberlain met with Hitler in Munich to settle disagreement over Sudetenland. Hitler's require that Sudetenland be given to Germany was agreed since it was completed by Germans and would therefore end up being within the rule of countrywide self-determination. In 1938 Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia and Chamberlain was blamed for not standing to Hitler.
Secondly, A few officials viewed a powerful Philippines as a wall structure against the Soviet Union. As well Britain believed the Capital t of Sixth is v was unfair to Indonesia and Hitler was a fair man. The uk was as well far away from Sudetenland and so when Indonesia invaded that they couldn't support. Britain and France resented fascism and Hitler likewise hated thus they said Hitler would guard. This provided Hitler even more chance to demand more.
Many British assumed Hitler's guidelines so if he said having been going get into Czechoslovakia they didn't whatever it takes. Britain and France offered Germany an opportunity to invade additional countries mainly because they enjoyed Hitler views and he could defend them.
Indonesia was getting the best country, and the appeasement of england related to this matter so much. Why? Because The united kingdom didn't (not couldn't) regulation Germany and also Hitler got more power. It means the WWв…Ў was originating from here since Hitler manufactured the WWв…Ў directly. I do believe the Appeasement was a big mistake of england and I need to give 4 specific reasons. But before that, I want to give both sides of examples to look at the appeasement widely. Was your Munich agreement right or wrong? An optimistic side can say it produced UK make or pretend that the WWв…Ўbecause it could suppose the WWв…Ў was coming. It also means Britain could save deaths. Actually,... | 453 | ENGLISH | 1 |
According to preliminary CDC data, an estimated 17,000 children aged 1 through 17 years get C. difficile infections every year. The Pediatrics study found that there was no difference in the incidence of C. difficile infection among boys and girls, and that the highest numbers were seen in white children and those between the ages of 12 and 23 months.
The research published in the medical journal Pediatrics, noted the following regarding C. diff infections in children:
- 71% of of the cases of C. diff infection identified among children aged 1 through 17 years were community-associated
- 73% were prescribed antibiotics during the 12 weeks prior to their illness, usually in an outpatient setting such as a doctor’s office
- Most of the children who received antibiotics were being treated for ear, sinus, or upper respiratory infections.
A key way for us to begin to reverse the striking number of infections in children is more prudent use of antibiotics. Check out the entire blog post, “C. diff in Our Kids: A Call to Action,” on the CDC’s website.
Please also read the first hand accounts of having children with C. diff from to two mothers, Angela and Gina, who were are committed to help spread awareness and help other parents avoid having their kids suffer from this dangerous infection. | <urn:uuid:af3318e8-7116-48aa-8e36-0a2eb751b95b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://peggyfoundation.org/stunning-report-on-c-diff-in-children-from-the-centers-for-disease-control/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00291.warc.gz | en | 0.984554 | 271 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.0885712504... | 4 | According to preliminary CDC data, an estimated 17,000 children aged 1 through 17 years get C. difficile infections every year. The Pediatrics study found that there was no difference in the incidence of C. difficile infection among boys and girls, and that the highest numbers were seen in white children and those between the ages of 12 and 23 months.
The research published in the medical journal Pediatrics, noted the following regarding C. diff infections in children:
- 71% of of the cases of C. diff infection identified among children aged 1 through 17 years were community-associated
- 73% were prescribed antibiotics during the 12 weeks prior to their illness, usually in an outpatient setting such as a doctor’s office
- Most of the children who received antibiotics were being treated for ear, sinus, or upper respiratory infections.
A key way for us to begin to reverse the striking number of infections in children is more prudent use of antibiotics. Check out the entire blog post, “C. diff in Our Kids: A Call to Action,” on the CDC’s website.
Please also read the first hand accounts of having children with C. diff from to two mothers, Angela and Gina, who were are committed to help spread awareness and help other parents avoid having their kids suffer from this dangerous infection. | 274 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Metals such as steel were being used previously to make tools, bridges and buildings because of their strength. The production of steel also has a rich history especially in America. The production of steel in the United States is what streamlined the same in other countries in terms of technology.
In the 1800s, the US had already advanced from charcoal to coke in the ore smelting. The miners here had also adopted the Bessemer process. This is what made sure that there was an increase in large integrated steel mines.
The history of mining steel is very rich and there is a lot more to expect. Over the years, steel mining has exhibited remarkable technological dynamism and entrepreneurship that has significantly helped it grow to what we have today.
The most impact was felt during the revalorization and the economic support that they encountered. However, many of the western countries today don’t dominate the market because of the competition and the diffusion of technology around the world.
The Rise of the Industry
The rise in the mining industry cannot be detached from the second Industrial revolution that took place in the 19th century. This is what scaled the production from small and simple batch production to new technologies. Although the technology of Bessemer was not born in the United States, it helped greatly in the mining industry in the same country.
By this time, England was the king of all production but the technology and all the other aspects of mining diffused to the United States. In the 1890s, that is when the depression consolidated the American industry for good. There were also many mergers that contributed to the same efforts.
The world’s largest company was formed at this time and also the scale of production increased drastically. The introduction of blast furnaces to melt the iron ore was brought into book in the early 20th century.
What dictated the geographical location of mills was the availability of ores and coal. The two were regarded as the major production inputs. In the US, there were some coal fields that attracted a lot of mining and work in the mid-1800s. Coal was already very available in Alabama, Birmingham and Minnesota. This is actually what influenced the location of these mills over time.
The industry was characterized by constant strikes due to conflicts on wages, working conditions and working hours. What this means is that the government had to intervene by setting policies and shifts in the Industry.
One of the most common phenomena was the Homestead strike of 1892 in Pennsylvania. This strike sparked the most heated debates about ways that the governments can intervene to reduce such instances in future.
By this time, Andrew Carnegie was using African Americans to bridge the crush with the craft union. This is when Amalgamated Association of Iron and steel workers fought the toughest war.
The movement was later in the 20th century named ‘’Red Scale’’ because they fought for their rights from time to time. This was the start of a better wage and growing usage or characteristic labor to make it a reality.
The Advancements in the Steel Industry
The early colonists didn’t have most of their attention in mining. They actually had special interests on food and shelter. As a matter of fact, they all needed a place to settle and farm. To facilitate this whole process, they had to find adequate tools for that purpose. They also wanted to have the strongest of all houses and bridges which led to the invention of mining at their disposal.
What this means is that the demand for these tools and construction materials were still on the rise. However, it was until the 19th century when they were able to produce steel and at last be able to make such tools.
The thing that made the whole process a reality is the existence of abundant iron ores in the area and at the same time the rich coals of the Pennsylvania. There was also availability of water and better transport. This is what actually made the whole process very easy. What this means is that the Northwest was the center of all mines.
There were also many documentaries featuring the importance of steel exposition. The civil wars in the US led to a great depression that affected every aspect of the economy. Though, after the end of that civil war, the mining expanded because of the nation’s economy growing to be the largest in the whole world.
The American steel mining increased from 1.25 million tons to about 10 million tons from 1880 to the turn of the century.
What Scaled the Steel Mining Industry in the US?
There were many reasons why the steel industry was booming in the US. First and foremost, we all know that there was availability of cheap labor and good roads to transport the end products. Here are some of the reasons.
- Government intervention-The American Government was very concerned about the welfare of the miners and the expansion of mining sites. The government would also intervene whenever there are any issues to make it easy for the companies to operate.
- Technology-America was the source of the most influential technologies in the mining sector. This was easy because scientists and experts always wanted to find cost effective ways of mining.
- Good roads-The core transportation was very easy because they all invested in good roads. This contributed significantly to the cost of production which later translated into cheaper prices in the market.
- Increased demand-The demand was very high both locally and internationally. This is actually what made it work perfectly for the companies.
- Availability of cheap labor-The labor in the 19th century was cheaply available which was an added advantage also. The African Americans were the largest source of that labor. This means that the cost of production and transportation was very minimal which we all know is the price determining factor.
For more information on modern day steel products and production in the USA visit OnlineMetalsDepot today. | <urn:uuid:58f2fc6d-f857-42c8-97b2-c964dd7af643> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.techicy.com/a-brief-history-of-american-steel-in-the-19th-century.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00413.warc.gz | en | 0.983558 | 1,190 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.03405357152... | 5 | Metals such as steel were being used previously to make tools, bridges and buildings because of their strength. The production of steel also has a rich history especially in America. The production of steel in the United States is what streamlined the same in other countries in terms of technology.
In the 1800s, the US had already advanced from charcoal to coke in the ore smelting. The miners here had also adopted the Bessemer process. This is what made sure that there was an increase in large integrated steel mines.
The history of mining steel is very rich and there is a lot more to expect. Over the years, steel mining has exhibited remarkable technological dynamism and entrepreneurship that has significantly helped it grow to what we have today.
The most impact was felt during the revalorization and the economic support that they encountered. However, many of the western countries today don’t dominate the market because of the competition and the diffusion of technology around the world.
The Rise of the Industry
The rise in the mining industry cannot be detached from the second Industrial revolution that took place in the 19th century. This is what scaled the production from small and simple batch production to new technologies. Although the technology of Bessemer was not born in the United States, it helped greatly in the mining industry in the same country.
By this time, England was the king of all production but the technology and all the other aspects of mining diffused to the United States. In the 1890s, that is when the depression consolidated the American industry for good. There were also many mergers that contributed to the same efforts.
The world’s largest company was formed at this time and also the scale of production increased drastically. The introduction of blast furnaces to melt the iron ore was brought into book in the early 20th century.
What dictated the geographical location of mills was the availability of ores and coal. The two were regarded as the major production inputs. In the US, there were some coal fields that attracted a lot of mining and work in the mid-1800s. Coal was already very available in Alabama, Birmingham and Minnesota. This is actually what influenced the location of these mills over time.
The industry was characterized by constant strikes due to conflicts on wages, working conditions and working hours. What this means is that the government had to intervene by setting policies and shifts in the Industry.
One of the most common phenomena was the Homestead strike of 1892 in Pennsylvania. This strike sparked the most heated debates about ways that the governments can intervene to reduce such instances in future.
By this time, Andrew Carnegie was using African Americans to bridge the crush with the craft union. This is when Amalgamated Association of Iron and steel workers fought the toughest war.
The movement was later in the 20th century named ‘’Red Scale’’ because they fought for their rights from time to time. This was the start of a better wage and growing usage or characteristic labor to make it a reality.
The Advancements in the Steel Industry
The early colonists didn’t have most of their attention in mining. They actually had special interests on food and shelter. As a matter of fact, they all needed a place to settle and farm. To facilitate this whole process, they had to find adequate tools for that purpose. They also wanted to have the strongest of all houses and bridges which led to the invention of mining at their disposal.
What this means is that the demand for these tools and construction materials were still on the rise. However, it was until the 19th century when they were able to produce steel and at last be able to make such tools.
The thing that made the whole process a reality is the existence of abundant iron ores in the area and at the same time the rich coals of the Pennsylvania. There was also availability of water and better transport. This is what actually made the whole process very easy. What this means is that the Northwest was the center of all mines.
There were also many documentaries featuring the importance of steel exposition. The civil wars in the US led to a great depression that affected every aspect of the economy. Though, after the end of that civil war, the mining expanded because of the nation’s economy growing to be the largest in the whole world.
The American steel mining increased from 1.25 million tons to about 10 million tons from 1880 to the turn of the century.
What Scaled the Steel Mining Industry in the US?
There were many reasons why the steel industry was booming in the US. First and foremost, we all know that there was availability of cheap labor and good roads to transport the end products. Here are some of the reasons.
- Government intervention-The American Government was very concerned about the welfare of the miners and the expansion of mining sites. The government would also intervene whenever there are any issues to make it easy for the companies to operate.
- Technology-America was the source of the most influential technologies in the mining sector. This was easy because scientists and experts always wanted to find cost effective ways of mining.
- Good roads-The core transportation was very easy because they all invested in good roads. This contributed significantly to the cost of production which later translated into cheaper prices in the market.
- Increased demand-The demand was very high both locally and internationally. This is actually what made it work perfectly for the companies.
- Availability of cheap labor-The labor in the 19th century was cheaply available which was an added advantage also. The African Americans were the largest source of that labor. This means that the cost of production and transportation was very minimal which we all know is the price determining factor.
For more information on modern day steel products and production in the USA visit OnlineMetalsDepot today. | 1,180 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Power And Mystery Of The Runes
Franks casket. Source: (Wikimedia Commons)
J.R.R. Tolkien readers are familiar with runes, the mysteriously shaped letters that exert mystical power on things like secret maps or hidden doors. But Tolkien’s runes were based on the historic runes developed by Germanic peoples in the 1st or 2nd centuries A.D. Runes have exerted their alluring pull on people ever since.
Runes were first developed by northern Germanic people who had been exposed to the alphabet of southern Europe such as Greek and Latin. The first runic alphabet is called futhark which is named after its first six letters: f, u, þ, a, r, and k. There are two variations of futhark, the Elder which had twenty-four characters and the Younger which possessed sixteen. The Elder Futhark was supplanted by the Younger variation in the 700s and is more familiar to people since this system was the set used by the Scandanavian raiders commonly referred to like the Vikings. Younger Futhark was used throughout the so-called Viking Age until approximately 1100. Two other systems of runes were used, the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc until the year 1000 and Medieval Futhork until about the 13th century. There are other minor variations as well.
Runes are generally made of vertical lines with branches emanating from them. Rune shapes varied from region to region. There was no standardization. Runes were written in all directions and could be inverted depending on the position of the object they were written on. Each runic character had major and minor variants and was phonic — that is that each represented a sound. Each rune had a name that started with the same sound except for one in which the sound was last.
Some systems of runes are more difficult to read than others. For example, in Younger Futhark some of the runes had shared sounds. In most cases, there was no space between words. Of the various runic systems, Younger Futhark is the most prevalent with almost 3,000 known inscriptions as compared to Elder Futhark’s 400.
Runes were used primarily for inscription purposes. The earliest confirmed runic inscription is found on the Vimose comb from Denmark dated to 160 A.D. although there is some debate about the nature of inscriptions from the prior century. Runes tell of Norse mythology, memorializing the dead political events, war, and ownership.
The most commonplace that people would inscribe runes were on runestones, boulders that were covered with inscriptions usually to commemorate the dead. The most well-known runestone is the Kjula Runestone which commemorates in a poem the warring of a man named “Spear.”
Runes were traditionally associated with the Norse war god, Odin (or Woðanaz in his original name). This is logical since warbands who worshiped brought knowledge of Roman and Greek alphabets to the north. What is more, Odin being the chief magician of the gods, made the runes have mystical properties. Runes were the carriers of secret knowledge and power.
In the Norse Poetic Edda, there is the Hávamál which is the sayings of Odin the High One. One poem tells of how he was jealous of the power of the Fates called the Norns and how he hung himself on Yggdrasil the World Tree to gain their knowledge through the runes. It reads in part:
I know that I hung on that windy Tree
nine whole days and nights,
stabbed with a spear, offered to Odin,
myself to mine own self given,
high on that Tree of which none hath heard
from what roots it rises to heaven.
None refreshed me ever with food or drink,
I peered right down in the deep;
crying aloud I lifted the Runes
then back I fell from thence.
Runes were thus believed to contain magic powers. They might foretell the future, could be used to curse people, provide magical protection, or cast spells. One such means was the throw wood or bones with runes on them and depending on the order could be interpreted to tell the future. They were carved into objects to imbue it with power and luck.
One story tells of how Egil uses runes to cure a girl who had been cursed by “false runes.” In the story, Egil carves new runes, puts them under the girl’s pillow, and is miraculously healed.
Even though the use of runes died out by the end of the Middle Ages, the history of runes curiously extends to the 20th century. The Nazis whose ideology supposed Germanic superiority insisted that runes were the first alphabet despite all the evidence the contrary. The Nazis adopted a modified rune form as a result. The s-rune, or sun-rune was converted to the Siegrune (victory) rune and was most notoriously used by the German Schutzstaffel, the SS. As a result, runes have been somewhat linked to the Nazis and are indeed used by neo-Nazi groups today. Germany’s constitution has banned the use of Nazi symbols. But runes in general are more likely to be used in benign ways such as national symbols and in popular fantasy such as in Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings.
Like it? Share with your friends! | <urn:uuid:bffbf570-5151-4ea9-8175-faf7d5f94d91> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://curioushistorian.com/the-power-and-mystery-of-the-runes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00365.warc.gz | en | 0.982261 | 1,125 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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-0.1078361347... | 20 | The Power And Mystery Of The Runes
Franks casket. Source: (Wikimedia Commons)
J.R.R. Tolkien readers are familiar with runes, the mysteriously shaped letters that exert mystical power on things like secret maps or hidden doors. But Tolkien’s runes were based on the historic runes developed by Germanic peoples in the 1st or 2nd centuries A.D. Runes have exerted their alluring pull on people ever since.
Runes were first developed by northern Germanic people who had been exposed to the alphabet of southern Europe such as Greek and Latin. The first runic alphabet is called futhark which is named after its first six letters: f, u, þ, a, r, and k. There are two variations of futhark, the Elder which had twenty-four characters and the Younger which possessed sixteen. The Elder Futhark was supplanted by the Younger variation in the 700s and is more familiar to people since this system was the set used by the Scandanavian raiders commonly referred to like the Vikings. Younger Futhark was used throughout the so-called Viking Age until approximately 1100. Two other systems of runes were used, the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc until the year 1000 and Medieval Futhork until about the 13th century. There are other minor variations as well.
Runes are generally made of vertical lines with branches emanating from them. Rune shapes varied from region to region. There was no standardization. Runes were written in all directions and could be inverted depending on the position of the object they were written on. Each runic character had major and minor variants and was phonic — that is that each represented a sound. Each rune had a name that started with the same sound except for one in which the sound was last.
Some systems of runes are more difficult to read than others. For example, in Younger Futhark some of the runes had shared sounds. In most cases, there was no space between words. Of the various runic systems, Younger Futhark is the most prevalent with almost 3,000 known inscriptions as compared to Elder Futhark’s 400.
Runes were used primarily for inscription purposes. The earliest confirmed runic inscription is found on the Vimose comb from Denmark dated to 160 A.D. although there is some debate about the nature of inscriptions from the prior century. Runes tell of Norse mythology, memorializing the dead political events, war, and ownership.
The most commonplace that people would inscribe runes were on runestones, boulders that were covered with inscriptions usually to commemorate the dead. The most well-known runestone is the Kjula Runestone which commemorates in a poem the warring of a man named “Spear.”
Runes were traditionally associated with the Norse war god, Odin (or Woðanaz in his original name). This is logical since warbands who worshiped brought knowledge of Roman and Greek alphabets to the north. What is more, Odin being the chief magician of the gods, made the runes have mystical properties. Runes were the carriers of secret knowledge and power.
In the Norse Poetic Edda, there is the Hávamál which is the sayings of Odin the High One. One poem tells of how he was jealous of the power of the Fates called the Norns and how he hung himself on Yggdrasil the World Tree to gain their knowledge through the runes. It reads in part:
I know that I hung on that windy Tree
nine whole days and nights,
stabbed with a spear, offered to Odin,
myself to mine own self given,
high on that Tree of which none hath heard
from what roots it rises to heaven.
None refreshed me ever with food or drink,
I peered right down in the deep;
crying aloud I lifted the Runes
then back I fell from thence.
Runes were thus believed to contain magic powers. They might foretell the future, could be used to curse people, provide magical protection, or cast spells. One such means was the throw wood or bones with runes on them and depending on the order could be interpreted to tell the future. They were carved into objects to imbue it with power and luck.
One story tells of how Egil uses runes to cure a girl who had been cursed by “false runes.” In the story, Egil carves new runes, puts them under the girl’s pillow, and is miraculously healed.
Even though the use of runes died out by the end of the Middle Ages, the history of runes curiously extends to the 20th century. The Nazis whose ideology supposed Germanic superiority insisted that runes were the first alphabet despite all the evidence the contrary. The Nazis adopted a modified rune form as a result. The s-rune, or sun-rune was converted to the Siegrune (victory) rune and was most notoriously used by the German Schutzstaffel, the SS. As a result, runes have been somewhat linked to the Nazis and are indeed used by neo-Nazi groups today. Germany’s constitution has banned the use of Nazi symbols. But runes in general are more likely to be used in benign ways such as national symbols and in popular fantasy such as in Tolkien’s Lord of the Rings.
Like it? Share with your friends! | 1,116 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ali marched steadfastly on the path of action fixed by him for himself. He always looked upwards. He prescribed the economic rights of man as well as other rights without which the economic rights cannot materialize. He did not do favour to any particular creed, colour or race. All human beings are alike and all of them are entitled to live and to share the amenities of life even though they may be different in their creed, colour or race. Ali was considerate to the entire mankind. According to him there was no difference between the white-coloured and the black coloured, the Arabs and the non-Arabs, Muslims and non-Muslims in the matter of economic rights and the amenities of life.
Although Ali was the successor to the Prophet, the fortress of Islam, and the Commander of the Faithful, he did not at all wish that the non-Muslims should be compelled to embrace Islam. According to him the people were free to worship God as they liked and to hold the beliefs of their choice subject to the condition that they did not harm others. 1 He allowed freedom of faith because all human beings are the slaves of God and religion is a means of connection between Him and His creatures.
According to Ali one's being a human being was sufficient for his being honoured, befriended and dealt with kindly as well as for his rights being immune from infringement by others. In the testament written by him for Malik Ashtar, the Governor of Egypt, he said: “Do not become a ferocious animal for them so that you may devour them. 2 There are two kinds of persons amongst the subjects, out of whom some are your brethren-in-faith and others are creatures of God like you, and you should be forgiving towards them just as you wish God to be forgiving towards you. You should not feel elated when you accord punishment.
In the circumstances everyone possesses the same rights as you do, even though some or all of his beliefs may be opposed to yours. The object of religion is certainly that it should enable you to establish brotherly relations with others. Others are as much human beings as you are. This similarity of creation is a stronger connection between you and others. You should, therefore, behave kindly with all human beings. If your brother commits a mistake or sin you should overlook his lapse and forgive him, and should not at all feel ashamed in doing so. Purify the hearts of others of enmity and grudge by purifying your own hearts of these bad qualities in the first instance.
It is obligatory for every descendant of Adam, to whatever religion or creed he may belong, that he should sympathise with his fellow beings. He should like that for others which he likes for himself and should not like that for them which he does not like for himself. He should expect from others to the same extent to which he meets the expectations of others. A real believer is he who endeavours to do good deeds. The best act is perfect justice which means that you should be absolutely impartial and should not discriminate between different persons.
He who follows the ways of Muhammad in leading his life is not different from one who follows the ways of Jesus or other accomplished personalities. The object of the creation of man is this that he should acquire virtues and excellence and should acquire good attributes. He is free to achieve this end by any means he likes.
Ali says: “It is necessary for you to follow the Prophet's actions when the world was contracted from under his feet and he was kept away from its enjoyments and embellishments. And if you so desire you may see Jesus Christ who used to recline on a stone, wore coarse dress and ate tasteless and insipid food. Hunger was his bread, the moon was his lamp, east and west were his shade, and the grass constituted his fruits and perfume. He had no wife who could allure him and no children for whom he might be worried. He had no wealth which might attract his attention nor any avarice which might humiliate him. His feet were his means of transport and his hands were his servants”.
At another place Imam Ali says: “These were the people who made the earth their carpet and its dust their bed. They contented themselves with water instead of perfume and passed away from the world as Jesus did”.
The same reality which Muhammad had in view when he said: “The Prophets are brothers of one another. Their mothers are different but their religion is one and the same”. The same reality was before Ali when he said about Muhammad: “The Prophet spent his life in the same way in which the earlier Prophets spent their lives”.
In these two statements it has been clearly admitted that virtue is the thing which unites the people at one point just as humanity is basically the point of unification.
What has been stated above makes it abundantly clear that just as man possesses many other rights he has, according to the laws enunciated by Ali, this right also that he should be free in the matter of his beliefs and there should be no restriction on his holding any belief he likes. Freedom cannot be divided. It is not possible that man should be free in some respect and a captive in some other respects.
A Muslim is the brother of a Christian whether he likes it or not, because a man is the brother of a man whether he admits it or not. If in the eyes of Ali the main object of creating man as a free being had not been this that he should make efforts to acquire virtues and if, according to him, freedom had not been a sacred right, he would not have praised the followers of Jesus in the same manner in which he praised the followers of Muhammad.
In the foregoing pages we have mentioned that a Christian stole the coat-of-mail of Ali and claimed that he had purchased it. We have also mentioned how Ali behaved with the Christian as a person equal to himself, rather in the manner in which a father behaves with his son. We have also stated how Ali lodged a complaint in the court of the judge Shurayh and what its outcome was and how the Christian became one of his sincere disciples and vehemently helped him.
The history of Arabia is proud of the following sentence of Ali which adorns its pages: “If a carpet is spread for me and I sit on it, I shall decide the cases of the Jews according to their book `the Torah', of the Christians according to their book `the Evangel' and of the Muslims according to their Qur'an, in such a way that everyone of these books will cry out: “Ali has spoken the truth”.
Ali instructed Ma`qal son of Qais as under:-
“O Ma`qal! Fear God. Don't be unjust to the Muslims and don't oppress the Zimmis. Don't be proud, because God doesn't like the proud”.
It shows that according to Ali `fear of God' means this that a person should not oppress his fellow-beings and should not in any way be unjust to them. Furthermore, he places the Muslims and the non-Muslims at the same level and does not accord preference to anyone of them.
This equality of the Muslims and the non-Muslims can be observed in each and every order of Ali. It would appear that he considered the protection of the people from injustice to be more important and necessary than acquiring other Islamic virtues. He says: “If you follow the path of truth, and the tenets of Islam become clear to you, neither a Muslim nor a zimmi will be oppressed”. He severely reprimanded the Muslims when Sufyan son of Auf Asadi, a commander of Mu`awiya's army invaded the city of Anbar and committed atrocities on its residents but they (the Muslims) did not side with the truth, and did nothing to prevent oppression.
In the course of his speech he said:- “I have received information that, a member of this group used to enter the houses of Muslims and Zimmi women and removed the anklets from their feet and the bangles from their hands as well as the necklace and earrings which they were wearing and they had no means of protection except that they should say: `We are from God and we have to return to Him' and remain patient.... Now if a Muslim dies of sorrow on account of these tragedies he cannot be blamed for it. In my opinion it ought to be so”.
Ali censured and rebuked those people because they failed to defend their brothers and sisters living in the city- whether they were Muslims or Zimmis - against oppression.
When he appointed Muhammad son of Abu Bakr as Governor of Egypt he instructed him thus: “I recommend to you to be equitable to the Zimmis, to do justice to an oppressed person, to be severe upon the oppressor and to be indulgent towards the people as far as possible and to be kind to them. It is also necessary that in the matter of truth the far and the near should be equal in your eyes”.
The following sentence also appeared in the pact which he concluded with the Christians of Najran: “They will not be subjected to injustice and oppression nor will any of their rights be reduced”.
He also fixed the same blood-money for a Christian, which is the blood-money for a Muslim.
According to Ali every human being was entitled to respect. It was for this reason that although the ignorant and brainless followers of all past religions were extremely fanatical and hated other religions, Ali was loved very much for his justice by the knowledgeable Christians during his own time as well as afterward. All of them lauded and praised him. Allama Ibn Abi'l Hadid writes thus in Sharh Nahj al-Balaghah: “What should I say about that man (Ali) whom the Zimmis loved ardently although they did not acknowledge the prophethood (of Muhammad)”.
Ali had laid the very foundation of his treatment of the non-Muslims on this principle “Their property is like our property and their lives are like our lives”.
The facts narrated above show clearly that religious fanaticism was considered by Ali to be something very indecent and despicable. The freedom, which he believed in, in a wide sense, and measured with an extended measure was totally opposed to fanaticism.
When we visualize the treatment meted out by Ali to the non-Muslims, and compare it with the treatment of the clergies of the Church in Europe of the Middle Ages, especially those clergies who were responsible for the `Inquisition', and when we contrast the kindness and forgiveness shown by Ali with the severity and harshness of the European religious leaders, we come to know how exalted Ali was and how low those people were.
In short there should be no doubt about it because Ali's faith had sprung from the roots of humanity, freedom and authority and it was according to the view and belief which Ali held about life. Ali's faith was based on freedom and he considered freedom to be respectable whereas the faith of the religious leaders of Europe was based on habit and imitation of their ancestors and freedom had nothing to do with it.
Nowadays we are at war against religious fanaticism and consider it to be indecent and despicable, although religious fanaticism is not as dangerous as some other kinds of fanaticism. You will come across many persons who do not at all possess religious fanaticism but they are involved in fanaticism of colour, race, nationality, political beliefs etc. Indulgence and forgiveness is possible in the matter of religious fanaticism but it is not possible in the case of other kinds of fanaticism. Such fanaticism is based on egotism, ignorance and profiteering and those who possess this sort of fanaticism say that their view is correct and only what they have concluded is right and their view about man and life is indisputable. They do not consider the view of anyone else as valid as theirs.
Ever since man has arrived on this earth fanaticism of every kind has been inherent in him, and there has not been any time during which he has not displayed fanaticism. The great leader of the world Ali fought not only against religious fanaticism but against all kinds of fanaticism. He considered racial fanaticism to be equivalent to rebellion and mischief, and burning up the attractive face of life.
According to Ali priding oneself on one's ancestry was also a sort of fanaticism. He addresses the fanatics of his time in these words: “Look here! You have opposed God openly, have been extremely oppressive and have created disturbance on the face of the earth. Fear God in the matter of priding yourselves on account of the self- conceit of the age of ignorance, because it is the source of enmity and grudge and the centre of Satan's enchantment with which he allured the past nations. Look here! Fear following your chiefs and elders who give themselves airs because of their position and pomp, and pride themselves on account of their ancestry (i.e. those who consider others humble and despicable, oppose Divine decrees and deny God's kindness in order to seize His blessings). These are the very persons who are the deep foundation of fanaticism and the pillars of the house of mischief.
In the first instance Ali likened family and racial fanaticism to rebellion and disfiguring life. Then he made his view more general and declared every fanaticism whether racial, political or religious, to be identical with rebellion and mischief and established a general rule, whose correctness will be established more and more as time passes. He says: “I have looked on all sides and have not found even one man in the world who supports something but that he has a reason in view for it, which becomes the cause of the mistake of the ignorant, or that he has an argument which gets glued to the intellect of the foolish”.
You may go through all that has been said regarding fanaticism and the explanations given about it, but you will not find anything said by anyone which may be more than what Ali has said. Fanatics indulge in fanaticism either on account of ignorance or folly and both of them carry rebellion and mischief in their lap. Ali has drawn the picture of this fact in his two remarks reproduced above.
In short Ali considered fanaticism of every kind to be indecent and despicable. Of course if partiality is to be observed it should be observed in the matter of virtue, justice and public rights. One should side with the oppressed persons who are deprived of their earnings and rights by the oppressors. One should side with truth and conscience. One should be partial for the sake of human freedom and honour and for protecting the helpless from the fanatics. The Commander of the Faithful says: “If you wish to be fanatic and partial you should side with high morals, good manners and praiseworthy qualities, for example to protect the rights of your neighbour, to honour your covenants, to obey the righteous, to oppose the rebellious, to behave well, to avoid injustice, to remain aloof from bloodshed, to administer justice and not to create mischief on the earth”.
How much he hated fanaticism can be realized from the recommendation which he made about the Kharijites, although they were his enemies. They fought a fierce battle against him, but he says: “Do not fight with the Kharijites after me, because one who seeks truth but goes astray is not like one who seeks falsehood and acquires it”.
The Commander of the Faithful made the people realize that as there was a possibility of their views and beliefs being mistaken it was necessary that they should not insist upon the correctness of their views and beliefs nor should they thrust them on others. He told them not to refrain from making consultations and not to hesitate in accepting the truth. | <urn:uuid:6772cb60-6caa-4808-a289-1ce2179896b8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.al-islam.org/voice-human-justice-sautul-adalatil-insaniyah-george-jordac/neither-fanaticism-nor-infallibility | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00024.warc.gz | en | 0.985618 | 3,274 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.003330284263... | 5 | Ali marched steadfastly on the path of action fixed by him for himself. He always looked upwards. He prescribed the economic rights of man as well as other rights without which the economic rights cannot materialize. He did not do favour to any particular creed, colour or race. All human beings are alike and all of them are entitled to live and to share the amenities of life even though they may be different in their creed, colour or race. Ali was considerate to the entire mankind. According to him there was no difference between the white-coloured and the black coloured, the Arabs and the non-Arabs, Muslims and non-Muslims in the matter of economic rights and the amenities of life.
Although Ali was the successor to the Prophet, the fortress of Islam, and the Commander of the Faithful, he did not at all wish that the non-Muslims should be compelled to embrace Islam. According to him the people were free to worship God as they liked and to hold the beliefs of their choice subject to the condition that they did not harm others. 1 He allowed freedom of faith because all human beings are the slaves of God and religion is a means of connection between Him and His creatures.
According to Ali one's being a human being was sufficient for his being honoured, befriended and dealt with kindly as well as for his rights being immune from infringement by others. In the testament written by him for Malik Ashtar, the Governor of Egypt, he said: “Do not become a ferocious animal for them so that you may devour them. 2 There are two kinds of persons amongst the subjects, out of whom some are your brethren-in-faith and others are creatures of God like you, and you should be forgiving towards them just as you wish God to be forgiving towards you. You should not feel elated when you accord punishment.
In the circumstances everyone possesses the same rights as you do, even though some or all of his beliefs may be opposed to yours. The object of religion is certainly that it should enable you to establish brotherly relations with others. Others are as much human beings as you are. This similarity of creation is a stronger connection between you and others. You should, therefore, behave kindly with all human beings. If your brother commits a mistake or sin you should overlook his lapse and forgive him, and should not at all feel ashamed in doing so. Purify the hearts of others of enmity and grudge by purifying your own hearts of these bad qualities in the first instance.
It is obligatory for every descendant of Adam, to whatever religion or creed he may belong, that he should sympathise with his fellow beings. He should like that for others which he likes for himself and should not like that for them which he does not like for himself. He should expect from others to the same extent to which he meets the expectations of others. A real believer is he who endeavours to do good deeds. The best act is perfect justice which means that you should be absolutely impartial and should not discriminate between different persons.
He who follows the ways of Muhammad in leading his life is not different from one who follows the ways of Jesus or other accomplished personalities. The object of the creation of man is this that he should acquire virtues and excellence and should acquire good attributes. He is free to achieve this end by any means he likes.
Ali says: “It is necessary for you to follow the Prophet's actions when the world was contracted from under his feet and he was kept away from its enjoyments and embellishments. And if you so desire you may see Jesus Christ who used to recline on a stone, wore coarse dress and ate tasteless and insipid food. Hunger was his bread, the moon was his lamp, east and west were his shade, and the grass constituted his fruits and perfume. He had no wife who could allure him and no children for whom he might be worried. He had no wealth which might attract his attention nor any avarice which might humiliate him. His feet were his means of transport and his hands were his servants”.
At another place Imam Ali says: “These were the people who made the earth their carpet and its dust their bed. They contented themselves with water instead of perfume and passed away from the world as Jesus did”.
The same reality which Muhammad had in view when he said: “The Prophets are brothers of one another. Their mothers are different but their religion is one and the same”. The same reality was before Ali when he said about Muhammad: “The Prophet spent his life in the same way in which the earlier Prophets spent their lives”.
In these two statements it has been clearly admitted that virtue is the thing which unites the people at one point just as humanity is basically the point of unification.
What has been stated above makes it abundantly clear that just as man possesses many other rights he has, according to the laws enunciated by Ali, this right also that he should be free in the matter of his beliefs and there should be no restriction on his holding any belief he likes. Freedom cannot be divided. It is not possible that man should be free in some respect and a captive in some other respects.
A Muslim is the brother of a Christian whether he likes it or not, because a man is the brother of a man whether he admits it or not. If in the eyes of Ali the main object of creating man as a free being had not been this that he should make efforts to acquire virtues and if, according to him, freedom had not been a sacred right, he would not have praised the followers of Jesus in the same manner in which he praised the followers of Muhammad.
In the foregoing pages we have mentioned that a Christian stole the coat-of-mail of Ali and claimed that he had purchased it. We have also mentioned how Ali behaved with the Christian as a person equal to himself, rather in the manner in which a father behaves with his son. We have also stated how Ali lodged a complaint in the court of the judge Shurayh and what its outcome was and how the Christian became one of his sincere disciples and vehemently helped him.
The history of Arabia is proud of the following sentence of Ali which adorns its pages: “If a carpet is spread for me and I sit on it, I shall decide the cases of the Jews according to their book `the Torah', of the Christians according to their book `the Evangel' and of the Muslims according to their Qur'an, in such a way that everyone of these books will cry out: “Ali has spoken the truth”.
Ali instructed Ma`qal son of Qais as under:-
“O Ma`qal! Fear God. Don't be unjust to the Muslims and don't oppress the Zimmis. Don't be proud, because God doesn't like the proud”.
It shows that according to Ali `fear of God' means this that a person should not oppress his fellow-beings and should not in any way be unjust to them. Furthermore, he places the Muslims and the non-Muslims at the same level and does not accord preference to anyone of them.
This equality of the Muslims and the non-Muslims can be observed in each and every order of Ali. It would appear that he considered the protection of the people from injustice to be more important and necessary than acquiring other Islamic virtues. He says: “If you follow the path of truth, and the tenets of Islam become clear to you, neither a Muslim nor a zimmi will be oppressed”. He severely reprimanded the Muslims when Sufyan son of Auf Asadi, a commander of Mu`awiya's army invaded the city of Anbar and committed atrocities on its residents but they (the Muslims) did not side with the truth, and did nothing to prevent oppression.
In the course of his speech he said:- “I have received information that, a member of this group used to enter the houses of Muslims and Zimmi women and removed the anklets from their feet and the bangles from their hands as well as the necklace and earrings which they were wearing and they had no means of protection except that they should say: `We are from God and we have to return to Him' and remain patient.... Now if a Muslim dies of sorrow on account of these tragedies he cannot be blamed for it. In my opinion it ought to be so”.
Ali censured and rebuked those people because they failed to defend their brothers and sisters living in the city- whether they were Muslims or Zimmis - against oppression.
When he appointed Muhammad son of Abu Bakr as Governor of Egypt he instructed him thus: “I recommend to you to be equitable to the Zimmis, to do justice to an oppressed person, to be severe upon the oppressor and to be indulgent towards the people as far as possible and to be kind to them. It is also necessary that in the matter of truth the far and the near should be equal in your eyes”.
The following sentence also appeared in the pact which he concluded with the Christians of Najran: “They will not be subjected to injustice and oppression nor will any of their rights be reduced”.
He also fixed the same blood-money for a Christian, which is the blood-money for a Muslim.
According to Ali every human being was entitled to respect. It was for this reason that although the ignorant and brainless followers of all past religions were extremely fanatical and hated other religions, Ali was loved very much for his justice by the knowledgeable Christians during his own time as well as afterward. All of them lauded and praised him. Allama Ibn Abi'l Hadid writes thus in Sharh Nahj al-Balaghah: “What should I say about that man (Ali) whom the Zimmis loved ardently although they did not acknowledge the prophethood (of Muhammad)”.
Ali had laid the very foundation of his treatment of the non-Muslims on this principle “Their property is like our property and their lives are like our lives”.
The facts narrated above show clearly that religious fanaticism was considered by Ali to be something very indecent and despicable. The freedom, which he believed in, in a wide sense, and measured with an extended measure was totally opposed to fanaticism.
When we visualize the treatment meted out by Ali to the non-Muslims, and compare it with the treatment of the clergies of the Church in Europe of the Middle Ages, especially those clergies who were responsible for the `Inquisition', and when we contrast the kindness and forgiveness shown by Ali with the severity and harshness of the European religious leaders, we come to know how exalted Ali was and how low those people were.
In short there should be no doubt about it because Ali's faith had sprung from the roots of humanity, freedom and authority and it was according to the view and belief which Ali held about life. Ali's faith was based on freedom and he considered freedom to be respectable whereas the faith of the religious leaders of Europe was based on habit and imitation of their ancestors and freedom had nothing to do with it.
Nowadays we are at war against religious fanaticism and consider it to be indecent and despicable, although religious fanaticism is not as dangerous as some other kinds of fanaticism. You will come across many persons who do not at all possess religious fanaticism but they are involved in fanaticism of colour, race, nationality, political beliefs etc. Indulgence and forgiveness is possible in the matter of religious fanaticism but it is not possible in the case of other kinds of fanaticism. Such fanaticism is based on egotism, ignorance and profiteering and those who possess this sort of fanaticism say that their view is correct and only what they have concluded is right and their view about man and life is indisputable. They do not consider the view of anyone else as valid as theirs.
Ever since man has arrived on this earth fanaticism of every kind has been inherent in him, and there has not been any time during which he has not displayed fanaticism. The great leader of the world Ali fought not only against religious fanaticism but against all kinds of fanaticism. He considered racial fanaticism to be equivalent to rebellion and mischief, and burning up the attractive face of life.
According to Ali priding oneself on one's ancestry was also a sort of fanaticism. He addresses the fanatics of his time in these words: “Look here! You have opposed God openly, have been extremely oppressive and have created disturbance on the face of the earth. Fear God in the matter of priding yourselves on account of the self- conceit of the age of ignorance, because it is the source of enmity and grudge and the centre of Satan's enchantment with which he allured the past nations. Look here! Fear following your chiefs and elders who give themselves airs because of their position and pomp, and pride themselves on account of their ancestry (i.e. those who consider others humble and despicable, oppose Divine decrees and deny God's kindness in order to seize His blessings). These are the very persons who are the deep foundation of fanaticism and the pillars of the house of mischief.
In the first instance Ali likened family and racial fanaticism to rebellion and disfiguring life. Then he made his view more general and declared every fanaticism whether racial, political or religious, to be identical with rebellion and mischief and established a general rule, whose correctness will be established more and more as time passes. He says: “I have looked on all sides and have not found even one man in the world who supports something but that he has a reason in view for it, which becomes the cause of the mistake of the ignorant, or that he has an argument which gets glued to the intellect of the foolish”.
You may go through all that has been said regarding fanaticism and the explanations given about it, but you will not find anything said by anyone which may be more than what Ali has said. Fanatics indulge in fanaticism either on account of ignorance or folly and both of them carry rebellion and mischief in their lap. Ali has drawn the picture of this fact in his two remarks reproduced above.
In short Ali considered fanaticism of every kind to be indecent and despicable. Of course if partiality is to be observed it should be observed in the matter of virtue, justice and public rights. One should side with the oppressed persons who are deprived of their earnings and rights by the oppressors. One should side with truth and conscience. One should be partial for the sake of human freedom and honour and for protecting the helpless from the fanatics. The Commander of the Faithful says: “If you wish to be fanatic and partial you should side with high morals, good manners and praiseworthy qualities, for example to protect the rights of your neighbour, to honour your covenants, to obey the righteous, to oppose the rebellious, to behave well, to avoid injustice, to remain aloof from bloodshed, to administer justice and not to create mischief on the earth”.
How much he hated fanaticism can be realized from the recommendation which he made about the Kharijites, although they were his enemies. They fought a fierce battle against him, but he says: “Do not fight with the Kharijites after me, because one who seeks truth but goes astray is not like one who seeks falsehood and acquires it”.
The Commander of the Faithful made the people realize that as there was a possibility of their views and beliefs being mistaken it was necessary that they should not insist upon the correctness of their views and beliefs nor should they thrust them on others. He told them not to refrain from making consultations and not to hesitate in accepting the truth. | 3,223 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For Ed Mooney’s great History Challenge on Wednesday-
In the winter of 1850 a wild North Sea storm uncovered Neolithic ruins at Skaill Bay on the Orkney Islands of Scotland. Further excavations and study determined that a small village of 10 homes had been established there circa 3500 BC. All the homes were the same in size and structure. This little egalitarian community of around 50 people had come together before the Great Pyramids of Egypt were built.
The dig yielded many artifacts including pottery, tools, jewelry, and even gaming dice which are preserved in the museum in Kirkwall. The houses had a central hearth, bed boxes and cupboards all made from stone. As trees struggle to survive on the storm blown islands it is speculated that the inhabitants may have used drift wood from the beaches for their fires. No war-like weapons were discovered and the people were most likely peaceful farmers who also fished for sustenance. Sometime around 2500 BC the village was abandoned.
The Orkneys are home to the famous Ring of Brodgar and Stones of Stenness which also date back to before the pyramids.
These are part of the Henge Monuments, but who built them and why is still surrounded in some mystery.
A bit further from the famous stones is the Maeshowe Tomb. This site is very similar to those found in Ireland and are from the same period.
It is a burial mound with ceremonial significance. The placement of the doorway aligns with the winter solstice. Interestingly on the inside walls of Maeshowe are Viking runes. One possible and colourful story is that a group of vikings sought shelter in the tomb during a storm. It might have been a bit frightening to find themselves in an ancient burial chamber, and there probably was not much in the way of plunder, so in the bravado of the day- as well as one of those culturally defining moments, (loosely translated)- are scratched the words “Eric was here and looted the place.” | <urn:uuid:0ea6340c-b072-4cac-bab0-3deae5f5a917> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://cybeleshine.blog/2015/11/17/skara-brae-and-the-maeshowe-tomb/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00400.warc.gz | en | 0.980128 | 419 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.46681660413... | 12 | For Ed Mooney’s great History Challenge on Wednesday-
In the winter of 1850 a wild North Sea storm uncovered Neolithic ruins at Skaill Bay on the Orkney Islands of Scotland. Further excavations and study determined that a small village of 10 homes had been established there circa 3500 BC. All the homes were the same in size and structure. This little egalitarian community of around 50 people had come together before the Great Pyramids of Egypt were built.
The dig yielded many artifacts including pottery, tools, jewelry, and even gaming dice which are preserved in the museum in Kirkwall. The houses had a central hearth, bed boxes and cupboards all made from stone. As trees struggle to survive on the storm blown islands it is speculated that the inhabitants may have used drift wood from the beaches for their fires. No war-like weapons were discovered and the people were most likely peaceful farmers who also fished for sustenance. Sometime around 2500 BC the village was abandoned.
The Orkneys are home to the famous Ring of Brodgar and Stones of Stenness which also date back to before the pyramids.
These are part of the Henge Monuments, but who built them and why is still surrounded in some mystery.
A bit further from the famous stones is the Maeshowe Tomb. This site is very similar to those found in Ireland and are from the same period.
It is a burial mound with ceremonial significance. The placement of the doorway aligns with the winter solstice. Interestingly on the inside walls of Maeshowe are Viking runes. One possible and colourful story is that a group of vikings sought shelter in the tomb during a storm. It might have been a bit frightening to find themselves in an ancient burial chamber, and there probably was not much in the way of plunder, so in the bravado of the day- as well as one of those culturally defining moments, (loosely translated)- are scratched the words “Eric was here and looted the place.” | 421 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Grace's Guide is the leading source of historical information on industry and manufacturing in Britain. This web publication contains 137,381 pages of information and 220,926 images on early companies, their products and the people who designed and built them.
c.924 The first bridge was built across the River Trent at Nottingham, by Edward the Elder to supersede a ferry which existed in the time of the Danes. The bridge consisted of stone piers with timber beams and flooring. About 1156 in the reign of Henry II, this was replaced by a stone bridge of seventeen Gothic arches. Several arches were rebuilt by Edward I, and others had to be reconstructed in the 17th century, following damage done during the Civil War and by a great flood in 1683. Other arches and piers were rebuilt from time to time, so that the old bridge in its final form contained little of the original structure. Prior to demolition in 1871 there were 15 arches, most of which were built between 1272-1307.
1871 A new bridge (a cast iron arch-type road bridge) was erected to the designs of Mr. M. O. Tarbottom by Andrew Handyside and Co. It had three 100ft. arches, each with a rise of 11ft. at the crown; the supports were carried on foundations in the solid sandstone
Two arches, apparently dating from the 12th century, exist at the south-east end of the current Trent Bridge. These two arches were restored in 1957. | <urn:uuid:601f5d35-1cff-4c25-a79b-293de086cdec> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gracesguide.co.uk/Trent_Bridge | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00111.warc.gz | en | 0.983605 | 317 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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-0.1365834... | 1 | Grace's Guide is the leading source of historical information on industry and manufacturing in Britain. This web publication contains 137,381 pages of information and 220,926 images on early companies, their products and the people who designed and built them.
c.924 The first bridge was built across the River Trent at Nottingham, by Edward the Elder to supersede a ferry which existed in the time of the Danes. The bridge consisted of stone piers with timber beams and flooring. About 1156 in the reign of Henry II, this was replaced by a stone bridge of seventeen Gothic arches. Several arches were rebuilt by Edward I, and others had to be reconstructed in the 17th century, following damage done during the Civil War and by a great flood in 1683. Other arches and piers were rebuilt from time to time, so that the old bridge in its final form contained little of the original structure. Prior to demolition in 1871 there were 15 arches, most of which were built between 1272-1307.
1871 A new bridge (a cast iron arch-type road bridge) was erected to the designs of Mr. M. O. Tarbottom by Andrew Handyside and Co. It had three 100ft. arches, each with a rise of 11ft. at the crown; the supports were carried on foundations in the solid sandstone
Two arches, apparently dating from the 12th century, exist at the south-east end of the current Trent Bridge. These two arches were restored in 1957. | 352 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Throughout its history, the United States has had some memorable Heads of State. Some have been largely perceived as great, and others as terrible, though there is always a debate regarding the respective merits and faults of each and every one of them. By looking at a number of historical polls and surveys on public and expert perceptions of the best and worst U.S. Presidents, we have compiled a list using the weighted means of their compiled rankings. Ranking systems are usually based on surveys of academic historians and political scientists. The rankings focus on presidential achievements, leadership qualities, failures, and faults.
10. Herbert Hoover
Herbert Hoover served as the 31st President of the United States during the Great Depression, serving between 1929 to 1933. Hoover was criticized for being a poor communicator who many Americans perceived as cold and uncaring. Although the timing of his presidency were unenviable, his political policies were accused of actually worsening the Depression. Interestingly, Hoover had won in a landslide victory.
9. Zachary Taylor
Zachary Taylor served as the 12th President from March 1849 until his death in July 1850. A national hero due to victories in the Mexican-American War as a major general in the US army, Taylor easily won the election as a member of the Whig Party although he had no previous political experience and little interest in politics. Taylor died 16 months into his term and had made little political progress during that time labelling him as one of the US's most forgettable presidents.
8. Ulysses S. Grant
The 18th President of the US was Republican Ulysses S. Grant who served as the head of state from 1869 to 1877. As a general in the military, Grant had played a major role in the Union army’s victory over the Confederacy’s forces during the American Civil War. President Grant’s accomplishments during his two terms in office include overseeing the reconstruction in the southern states, dismantling the Confederacy, as well as supporting civil rights for black citizens. Perhaps the most significant cause of Grant’s downfall and reputation as a poor leader are due to the many allegations of corruption and financial misconduct which plagued his administration.
7. John Tyler
In 1841, John Tyler was the nation’s 10th Vice President before being sworn in as President following the untimely death of William Henry Harris. Although he was elected as a member of the Whig party Tyler began his political career as a Democrat. Tyler believed in the concept of manifest destiny and during the final portion of his presidency concentrated on annexing the territory of Texas. In 1842, Tyler became the first American head of state to face impeachment. Although the attempt to oust Tyler was ultimately unsuccessful, it was spearheaded by members of his own Whig party and stemmed from long standing political conflicts between President Tyler and members of the Whig establishment.
6. William Henry Harrison
The 9th President of the United States was William Henry Harrison, who served for a period of about a month from March to April 1841. Harrison has the unfortunate distinction of being the very first American President to die in office. He only actually governed for approximately 31 days, which historically is the shortest term of any President in US history. Before embarking on a career in politics in 1799, William Henry Harrison had a great deal of military experience including fighting in battles such as the Northwest Indian War and the War of 1812. Because of his very brief time in office, Harrison failed to achieve any of his political goals. Many years later, however, Benjamin Harrison, William’s grandson, was elected as the 23rd President and held office from 1889 to 1893.
5. Millard Fillmore
Millard Fillmore was the final Whig member to hold the office of US President. Fillmore served in the role as the nation’s 13th President from 1850 to 1853. A former lawyer, Fillmore began his career in politics in 1829 as a member of the state legislature. Initially the representative from New York was elected as Vice President but assumed the top job when President Zachary Taylor died in 1850. Slavery was a major issue during this period in US history and Fillmore was well known as a supporter of the Compromise of 1850. As President Fillmore endorsed a particularly controversial portion of this policy known as the Fugitive Slave Act which was aimed at settling disputes between Southern slave owners and abolitionists in the North. This act, formerly entitled, “An Act respecting Fugitives from Justice, and Persons escaping from the Service of their Masters” stated that if caught all escaped slaves were to be returned to their masters.
4. Franklin Pierce
The 14th President of the US was Franklin Pierce whose term as head of state ran from 1853 to 1857. Pierce’s administration is widely considered to have been a failure which served as a leading reason for the political decline of the Democratic Party. President Pierce also provided the perfect environment in which to foster the growing Southern secession movement. Like Fillmore, his predecessor, President Pierce upheld the controversial Fugitive Slave Act. In another unpopular action, Piece’s administration was responsible for passing the 1854 Kansas-Nebraska Act which led to the so called “Bleeding Kansas” or Border War which was waged between anti and pro-slavery factions. This particular act is also considered as being one of the key events that lead up to the widespread death and destruction caused by the ravages of the Civil War.
3. Andrew Johnson
After Abraham Lincoln’s assassination his Vice President, Andrew Johnson, was sworn in as the 17th head of state. Johnson, a native of Raleigh, North Carolina, governed the country from 1865 to 1869. Due to a violation of the Tenure of Office Act, he was impeached in 1868. After a quick acquittal by the Senate, however, Johnson was able to remain in office. Because Andrew Johnson was elected after the beginning of the Civil War issues related to the Reconstruction of the South and national unity came to the forefront of national politics not only in terms of Johnson’s administration but for the entire country as well. President Johnson was unpopular for opposing measures, such as the Fourteenth Amendment, which was aimed at affording ex slaves with US citizenship.
2. Warren G. Harding
The 29th President of the US was Warren G. Harding, who held office from 1921 to 1923. Harding is regarded by a great many historians to be one of America’s worst presidents. After his death stories of corruption and scandal became rampant. Aside from his actual political policies Harding’s personal life was marred by tawdry revelations of his extramarital affairs with numerous women including Nan Britton who even wrote a book which claimed that Harding had fathered a daughter with her. In terms of issues related to governing the country President Harding ran into trouble with his mishandling of the Teapot Dome oil reserves which also proved quite scandal-worthy for his administration. The political affair began when, under the President’s authority, oil reserves in Wyoming destined to be used by the Navy were transferred to the Department of the Interior.
1. James Buchanan
James Buchanan, Jr., a Democrat, was the 15th President of the United States, and held this prestigious post from 1857 to 1861. His mandate began just before the onset of the American Civil War. Before taking the top job Buchanan had accumulated plenty of political experience after serving in the House of Representatives and Senate. Buchanan had even held the post of Secretary of State under President Polk. Buchanan was born in Pennsylvania, but was regarded as having Southern sympathies. President Buchanan not only failed to broker peace between a divided nation, but also ended up alienating members of both warring factions. Many still blame President Buchanan and his ineffective presidency for failing to prevent the outbreak of the Civil War, with some even referring to the devastating national conflict as “Buchanan’s War”.
Who Was the Worst President in US History?
In the 2018 APSA ranking, Donald Trump held the distinction of the number one worst American president. Donald Trump has been criticized for inconsistent policies, a lack of political experience, the cutting of funding for social services, discriminatory immigrant policies and more.
About the Author
C.L. Illsley hods a BA degree in English and a BFA. in Film Studies. She has written for various publications & websites including Montreal Rampage where she currently contributes film reviews & entertainment related articles.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.
Which US President Do You Believe Belongs on This List?
President Barack Obama
President Bill Clinton
President Ronald Reagan
President Donald Trump
President Richard Nixon | <urn:uuid:120b593b-0c77-4aba-aac9-b752bd9ce8e1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/who-were-the-worst-presidents-in-the-history-of-the-united-states.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00151.warc.gz | en | 0.984625 | 1,810 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.50158149003982... | 2 | Throughout its history, the United States has had some memorable Heads of State. Some have been largely perceived as great, and others as terrible, though there is always a debate regarding the respective merits and faults of each and every one of them. By looking at a number of historical polls and surveys on public and expert perceptions of the best and worst U.S. Presidents, we have compiled a list using the weighted means of their compiled rankings. Ranking systems are usually based on surveys of academic historians and political scientists. The rankings focus on presidential achievements, leadership qualities, failures, and faults.
10. Herbert Hoover
Herbert Hoover served as the 31st President of the United States during the Great Depression, serving between 1929 to 1933. Hoover was criticized for being a poor communicator who many Americans perceived as cold and uncaring. Although the timing of his presidency were unenviable, his political policies were accused of actually worsening the Depression. Interestingly, Hoover had won in a landslide victory.
9. Zachary Taylor
Zachary Taylor served as the 12th President from March 1849 until his death in July 1850. A national hero due to victories in the Mexican-American War as a major general in the US army, Taylor easily won the election as a member of the Whig Party although he had no previous political experience and little interest in politics. Taylor died 16 months into his term and had made little political progress during that time labelling him as one of the US's most forgettable presidents.
8. Ulysses S. Grant
The 18th President of the US was Republican Ulysses S. Grant who served as the head of state from 1869 to 1877. As a general in the military, Grant had played a major role in the Union army’s victory over the Confederacy’s forces during the American Civil War. President Grant’s accomplishments during his two terms in office include overseeing the reconstruction in the southern states, dismantling the Confederacy, as well as supporting civil rights for black citizens. Perhaps the most significant cause of Grant’s downfall and reputation as a poor leader are due to the many allegations of corruption and financial misconduct which plagued his administration.
7. John Tyler
In 1841, John Tyler was the nation’s 10th Vice President before being sworn in as President following the untimely death of William Henry Harris. Although he was elected as a member of the Whig party Tyler began his political career as a Democrat. Tyler believed in the concept of manifest destiny and during the final portion of his presidency concentrated on annexing the territory of Texas. In 1842, Tyler became the first American head of state to face impeachment. Although the attempt to oust Tyler was ultimately unsuccessful, it was spearheaded by members of his own Whig party and stemmed from long standing political conflicts between President Tyler and members of the Whig establishment.
6. William Henry Harrison
The 9th President of the United States was William Henry Harrison, who served for a period of about a month from March to April 1841. Harrison has the unfortunate distinction of being the very first American President to die in office. He only actually governed for approximately 31 days, which historically is the shortest term of any President in US history. Before embarking on a career in politics in 1799, William Henry Harrison had a great deal of military experience including fighting in battles such as the Northwest Indian War and the War of 1812. Because of his very brief time in office, Harrison failed to achieve any of his political goals. Many years later, however, Benjamin Harrison, William’s grandson, was elected as the 23rd President and held office from 1889 to 1893.
5. Millard Fillmore
Millard Fillmore was the final Whig member to hold the office of US President. Fillmore served in the role as the nation’s 13th President from 1850 to 1853. A former lawyer, Fillmore began his career in politics in 1829 as a member of the state legislature. Initially the representative from New York was elected as Vice President but assumed the top job when President Zachary Taylor died in 1850. Slavery was a major issue during this period in US history and Fillmore was well known as a supporter of the Compromise of 1850. As President Fillmore endorsed a particularly controversial portion of this policy known as the Fugitive Slave Act which was aimed at settling disputes between Southern slave owners and abolitionists in the North. This act, formerly entitled, “An Act respecting Fugitives from Justice, and Persons escaping from the Service of their Masters” stated that if caught all escaped slaves were to be returned to their masters.
4. Franklin Pierce
The 14th President of the US was Franklin Pierce whose term as head of state ran from 1853 to 1857. Pierce’s administration is widely considered to have been a failure which served as a leading reason for the political decline of the Democratic Party. President Pierce also provided the perfect environment in which to foster the growing Southern secession movement. Like Fillmore, his predecessor, President Pierce upheld the controversial Fugitive Slave Act. In another unpopular action, Piece’s administration was responsible for passing the 1854 Kansas-Nebraska Act which led to the so called “Bleeding Kansas” or Border War which was waged between anti and pro-slavery factions. This particular act is also considered as being one of the key events that lead up to the widespread death and destruction caused by the ravages of the Civil War.
3. Andrew Johnson
After Abraham Lincoln’s assassination his Vice President, Andrew Johnson, was sworn in as the 17th head of state. Johnson, a native of Raleigh, North Carolina, governed the country from 1865 to 1869. Due to a violation of the Tenure of Office Act, he was impeached in 1868. After a quick acquittal by the Senate, however, Johnson was able to remain in office. Because Andrew Johnson was elected after the beginning of the Civil War issues related to the Reconstruction of the South and national unity came to the forefront of national politics not only in terms of Johnson’s administration but for the entire country as well. President Johnson was unpopular for opposing measures, such as the Fourteenth Amendment, which was aimed at affording ex slaves with US citizenship.
2. Warren G. Harding
The 29th President of the US was Warren G. Harding, who held office from 1921 to 1923. Harding is regarded by a great many historians to be one of America’s worst presidents. After his death stories of corruption and scandal became rampant. Aside from his actual political policies Harding’s personal life was marred by tawdry revelations of his extramarital affairs with numerous women including Nan Britton who even wrote a book which claimed that Harding had fathered a daughter with her. In terms of issues related to governing the country President Harding ran into trouble with his mishandling of the Teapot Dome oil reserves which also proved quite scandal-worthy for his administration. The political affair began when, under the President’s authority, oil reserves in Wyoming destined to be used by the Navy were transferred to the Department of the Interior.
1. James Buchanan
James Buchanan, Jr., a Democrat, was the 15th President of the United States, and held this prestigious post from 1857 to 1861. His mandate began just before the onset of the American Civil War. Before taking the top job Buchanan had accumulated plenty of political experience after serving in the House of Representatives and Senate. Buchanan had even held the post of Secretary of State under President Polk. Buchanan was born in Pennsylvania, but was regarded as having Southern sympathies. President Buchanan not only failed to broker peace between a divided nation, but also ended up alienating members of both warring factions. Many still blame President Buchanan and his ineffective presidency for failing to prevent the outbreak of the Civil War, with some even referring to the devastating national conflict as “Buchanan’s War”.
Who Was the Worst President in US History?
In the 2018 APSA ranking, Donald Trump held the distinction of the number one worst American president. Donald Trump has been criticized for inconsistent policies, a lack of political experience, the cutting of funding for social services, discriminatory immigrant policies and more.
About the Author
C.L. Illsley hods a BA degree in English and a BFA. in Film Studies. She has written for various publications & websites including Montreal Rampage where she currently contributes film reviews & entertainment related articles.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.
Which US President Do You Believe Belongs on This List?
President Barack Obama
President Bill Clinton
President Ronald Reagan
President Donald Trump
President Richard Nixon | 1,887 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By the early 1900s, European nationalism was very strong. Britain, Italy, France, and Germany wanted all to be mighty world powers and they were in a race for claiming colonies.
They all built big armies and countries were forming alliances.
Next Lesson: Great Depression
Continue learning. This transcript is for your convenience. Britain, Russia, and France made 1 alliance that was called the Allies. Austria-Hungary and Germany also formed an alliance that was named the Central Powers.
In the year 1914, Austria-Hungary was declaring war on Serbia and other countries started to join in. The Allies and the Central Powers then also declared war on each other and World War I had begun.
America Enters the WW I
Most American citizens wanted the U.S. to stay away from the war but when in 1917, Germany was attacking American ships, Congress was urged to declare war on Europe’s Central Powers and the United States were joining the Allies.
Numerous American young men left to partake in the war and many of America’s factories were losing lots of workers. Quite a few African Americans set out to leave the South and started to work in factories in the North and women worked in factories as well.
The Allies were trying to capture their enemies and tens of thousands of men got killed in that war’s trench warfare. The fighting went on for 4 years and in that period, many new weapons were introduced, for example, machine guns, and cannons and tanks were much used in fighting on the ground. Submarines were sinking ships, and airplanes were being used for the first time to fight in a war.
America was helping the Allies to win WW I. In 1918, on November 11, the Central Powers and the Allies signed an armistice. Both alliances sent leaders to Versailles where they signed a peace treaty that ended the war. President Wilson had wanted that the treaty included a new organization, named the “League of Nations”, an organization that would work toward peace.
Many Americans citizens, however, were feeling that they had done enough to help other countries and the feeling of isolationism was growing so eventually, The U.S. didn’t join this organization, the League of Nations.
Last Updated on | <urn:uuid:ae2192d4-bccb-44a2-8d30-195e6dff8f5d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bestgedclasses.org/world-war-i/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00027.warc.gz | en | 0.988258 | 467 | 3.984375 | 4 | [
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0.3579770326... | 1 | By the early 1900s, European nationalism was very strong. Britain, Italy, France, and Germany wanted all to be mighty world powers and they were in a race for claiming colonies.
They all built big armies and countries were forming alliances.
Next Lesson: Great Depression
Continue learning. This transcript is for your convenience. Britain, Russia, and France made 1 alliance that was called the Allies. Austria-Hungary and Germany also formed an alliance that was named the Central Powers.
In the year 1914, Austria-Hungary was declaring war on Serbia and other countries started to join in. The Allies and the Central Powers then also declared war on each other and World War I had begun.
America Enters the WW I
Most American citizens wanted the U.S. to stay away from the war but when in 1917, Germany was attacking American ships, Congress was urged to declare war on Europe’s Central Powers and the United States were joining the Allies.
Numerous American young men left to partake in the war and many of America’s factories were losing lots of workers. Quite a few African Americans set out to leave the South and started to work in factories in the North and women worked in factories as well.
The Allies were trying to capture their enemies and tens of thousands of men got killed in that war’s trench warfare. The fighting went on for 4 years and in that period, many new weapons were introduced, for example, machine guns, and cannons and tanks were much used in fighting on the ground. Submarines were sinking ships, and airplanes were being used for the first time to fight in a war.
America was helping the Allies to win WW I. In 1918, on November 11, the Central Powers and the Allies signed an armistice. Both alliances sent leaders to Versailles where they signed a peace treaty that ended the war. President Wilson had wanted that the treaty included a new organization, named the “League of Nations”, an organization that would work toward peace.
Many Americans citizens, however, were feeling that they had done enough to help other countries and the feeling of isolationism was growing so eventually, The U.S. didn’t join this organization, the League of Nations.
Last Updated on | 464 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Lord is the king of martyrs: come, let us adore him.
Year: C(I). Psalm week: 1. Liturgical Colour: Red.
St Oswald (c.604 - 642)
Saint Oswald was born at the very beginning of the 7th century. He was the youngest son of the pagan Ethelfrid, the first king of a united Northumbria. After his father’s death in battle, the young Oswald fled to Iona for safety and was baptised there and became a devoted Christian.
In 633 Oswald returned to Northumbria to regain his father’s kingdom. It was said that he set up a wooden cross as his standard and dedicated himself and his people to God’s protection before engaging himself in battle with the occupying Welsh King Cadwallon, not far from the present Hexham. He defeated and killed Cadwallon and at once invited the monks from Iona to begin the evangelisation of his kingdom which extended from the Forth to the Humber. After initial difficulties, the monk Aidan was sent to lead these Irish missionaries and Oswald found him to be both a valued adviser and a good friend. Oswald took seriously the work of bringing Christianity to his people and was even known to accompany Aidan on his missionary expeditions and to act as interpreter during the time Aidan was learning the language of the English. He was also well known both for his personal prayerfulness and his charity to those in need.
Sadly the reign of King Oswald lasted only eight years. In 642 he was killed in battle by Penda the pagan king of the Mercians. It was said that as he fell in death he was heard to pray for those who died with him. Oswald was a popular hero and his reputation as a saint was widespread even into mainland Europe.
Other saints: St Germanus of Auxerre (c.378 - 448)
Wales: 3 Aug
Plymouth: 30 Jul
After pursuing a legal career and being governor of a province, he was consecrated bishop of Auxerre in Gaul. In 429 he was selected as one of the leaders of a mission to Britain to combat the growing heresy of Pelagianism. His mission was successful, and he also led the native Britons to a victory against the invading pagan Picts and Saxons. He visited Britain a second time in the 440s, to combat Pelagianism once more, and he died at Ravenna in the late 440s, while on a mission to the emperor to obtain pardon for the citizens of Armorica, which had rebelled against the Roman government.
Other saints: Saint Æthelwold (-984)
Together with St Dunstan, Ethelwold (or Æthelwold) ranks as one of the great figures of 10th-century monastic reform. Born in Winchester sometime between 904 and 909, he spent his youth at the court of King Athelstan. He became Prior of Glastonbury and in 955 received from King Ædred the Abbey of Abingdon which he re-established. On 29 November 963 he was ordained Bishop of Winchester by St Dunstan. There he installed monks in the cathedral, and restored the two Winchester foundations of the New Minster and Nunnaminster. He also restored the monasteries at Milton (Dorset) and Chertsey, and made new foundations at Ely, Peterborough and Thorney (East Anglia), in the course of which he made himself unpopular with secular clergy who were turned out of monasteries to make way for genuine monks.
He was a renowned scholar, compiling the Regularis Concordia and translating the Rule of Benedict into Old English. He used some of the wealth he accumulated to build new churches and was a great patron of ecclesiastical art. He died on 1 August 984 at Beddington in Surrey, and was buried in the Old Minster at Winchester. After a miraculous cure attributed to him some twelve years later, his body was moved from the crypt to the choir and he was recognized as a saint, though never formally canonized.
About the author of the Second Reading in today's Office of Readings:
Second Reading: St Bede the Venerable (673 - 735)
Bede was born in the north of England, near the monastery of Wearmouth. He joined that monastery, and spent all his life there or at Jarrow, teaching and writing. He was the outstanding ecclesiastical author of his time. He wrote commentaries on Scripture; an ecclesiastical history of the English people, which is a unique and irreplaceable resource for much of early English history; and the first martyrology (collection of saints’ lives) to be compiled on historical principles. He was also the first known writer of English prose, though this has not survived. He died at Jarrow on 25 May 735, teaching and working until the last moments of his life. He is venerated as the “light of the Church” in the Dark Ages, and as a forerunner of the 8th and 9th century renaissance of the Western Church.
Liturgical colour: red
Red is the colour of fire and of blood. Liturgically, it is used to celebrate the fire of the Holy Spirit (for instance, at Pentecost) and the blood of the martyrs.
|Mid-morning reading (Terce)||1 Kings 8:60-61 ©|
May all the peoples of the earth come to know that the Lord is God indeed, and that there is no other. May your hearts be wholly with the Lord our God, following his laws and keeping his commandments as at this present day.
|Noon reading (Sext)||Jeremiah 17:9-10 ©|
The heart is more devious than any other thing, perverse too: who can pierce its secrets? I, the Lord, search to the heart, I probe the loins, to give each man what his conduct and his actions deserve.
|Afternoon reading (None)||Wisdom 7:27,8:1 ©|
Although she is alone, Wisdom can accomplish everything. She deploys her strength from one end of the earth to the other, ordering all things for good. | <urn:uuid:ad539604-c138-4e6f-b7d1-ea99c24cea8b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://universalis.com/europe.england.hexham/20190803/today.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00002.warc.gz | en | 0.988461 | 1,305 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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-0.0083061112... | 2 | The Lord is the king of martyrs: come, let us adore him.
Year: C(I). Psalm week: 1. Liturgical Colour: Red.
St Oswald (c.604 - 642)
Saint Oswald was born at the very beginning of the 7th century. He was the youngest son of the pagan Ethelfrid, the first king of a united Northumbria. After his father’s death in battle, the young Oswald fled to Iona for safety and was baptised there and became a devoted Christian.
In 633 Oswald returned to Northumbria to regain his father’s kingdom. It was said that he set up a wooden cross as his standard and dedicated himself and his people to God’s protection before engaging himself in battle with the occupying Welsh King Cadwallon, not far from the present Hexham. He defeated and killed Cadwallon and at once invited the monks from Iona to begin the evangelisation of his kingdom which extended from the Forth to the Humber. After initial difficulties, the monk Aidan was sent to lead these Irish missionaries and Oswald found him to be both a valued adviser and a good friend. Oswald took seriously the work of bringing Christianity to his people and was even known to accompany Aidan on his missionary expeditions and to act as interpreter during the time Aidan was learning the language of the English. He was also well known both for his personal prayerfulness and his charity to those in need.
Sadly the reign of King Oswald lasted only eight years. In 642 he was killed in battle by Penda the pagan king of the Mercians. It was said that as he fell in death he was heard to pray for those who died with him. Oswald was a popular hero and his reputation as a saint was widespread even into mainland Europe.
Other saints: St Germanus of Auxerre (c.378 - 448)
Wales: 3 Aug
Plymouth: 30 Jul
After pursuing a legal career and being governor of a province, he was consecrated bishop of Auxerre in Gaul. In 429 he was selected as one of the leaders of a mission to Britain to combat the growing heresy of Pelagianism. His mission was successful, and he also led the native Britons to a victory against the invading pagan Picts and Saxons. He visited Britain a second time in the 440s, to combat Pelagianism once more, and he died at Ravenna in the late 440s, while on a mission to the emperor to obtain pardon for the citizens of Armorica, which had rebelled against the Roman government.
Other saints: Saint Æthelwold (-984)
Together with St Dunstan, Ethelwold (or Æthelwold) ranks as one of the great figures of 10th-century monastic reform. Born in Winchester sometime between 904 and 909, he spent his youth at the court of King Athelstan. He became Prior of Glastonbury and in 955 received from King Ædred the Abbey of Abingdon which he re-established. On 29 November 963 he was ordained Bishop of Winchester by St Dunstan. There he installed monks in the cathedral, and restored the two Winchester foundations of the New Minster and Nunnaminster. He also restored the monasteries at Milton (Dorset) and Chertsey, and made new foundations at Ely, Peterborough and Thorney (East Anglia), in the course of which he made himself unpopular with secular clergy who were turned out of monasteries to make way for genuine monks.
He was a renowned scholar, compiling the Regularis Concordia and translating the Rule of Benedict into Old English. He used some of the wealth he accumulated to build new churches and was a great patron of ecclesiastical art. He died on 1 August 984 at Beddington in Surrey, and was buried in the Old Minster at Winchester. After a miraculous cure attributed to him some twelve years later, his body was moved from the crypt to the choir and he was recognized as a saint, though never formally canonized.
About the author of the Second Reading in today's Office of Readings:
Second Reading: St Bede the Venerable (673 - 735)
Bede was born in the north of England, near the monastery of Wearmouth. He joined that monastery, and spent all his life there or at Jarrow, teaching and writing. He was the outstanding ecclesiastical author of his time. He wrote commentaries on Scripture; an ecclesiastical history of the English people, which is a unique and irreplaceable resource for much of early English history; and the first martyrology (collection of saints’ lives) to be compiled on historical principles. He was also the first known writer of English prose, though this has not survived. He died at Jarrow on 25 May 735, teaching and working until the last moments of his life. He is venerated as the “light of the Church” in the Dark Ages, and as a forerunner of the 8th and 9th century renaissance of the Western Church.
Liturgical colour: red
Red is the colour of fire and of blood. Liturgically, it is used to celebrate the fire of the Holy Spirit (for instance, at Pentecost) and the blood of the martyrs.
|Mid-morning reading (Terce)||1 Kings 8:60-61 ©|
May all the peoples of the earth come to know that the Lord is God indeed, and that there is no other. May your hearts be wholly with the Lord our God, following his laws and keeping his commandments as at this present day.
|Noon reading (Sext)||Jeremiah 17:9-10 ©|
The heart is more devious than any other thing, perverse too: who can pierce its secrets? I, the Lord, search to the heart, I probe the loins, to give each man what his conduct and his actions deserve.
|Afternoon reading (None)||Wisdom 7:27,8:1 ©|
Although she is alone, Wisdom can accomplish everything. She deploys her strength from one end of the earth to the other, ordering all things for good. | 1,342 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The development of American Sign Language in the United States dates back to as early as the 1600s. On Martha’s Vineyard there was a relatively large Deaf population due to genetics and heredity. This was thought to trace back to the first people of the land, who traveled from Massachusetts and carried this genetic deafness with them. Because there were so many people that were deaf living there, it was extremely common for all people, deaf and hearing, to learn their own version of sign language. This early form of sign language was known as Martha’s Vineyard Sign Language (MVSL) (Lapiak, 1996-2014). Little did the creators of Martha’s Vineyard Sign Language know, MVSL would be incorporated into the first school for deaf students (Lapiak, 1996-2014).
As time progressed, American Sign Language began to further develop in the 1700s with help from the French Sign Language. Charles-Michel, abbé de l’Epée, the man responsible for development of the French Sign Language, was known for teaching less fortunate deaf French children how to sign different concepts and to use the manual alphabet to spell words (“Sign Language,” n.d.). It was not until Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet traveled to Europe that sign language started to make its appearance in the United States of America.
Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet was a very bright and well educated young man who was from Hartford, Connecticut. He acquired undergraduate and graduate level college degrees and entered the seminary to follow his religious calling. While he was living in Connecticut, a neighbor had a deaf daughter and asked that Gallaudet would go to Europe to learn about how one would go about teaching a deaf child. Gallaudet met the head of the Institut Royal des Sourds-Muets, Abbe Sicard, while in Paris. He was able to learn the beginnings of sign language from Sicard himself, along with a man by the name of Laurent Clerc (“The Legacy Begins,” 2013). The time came that Gallaudet had to come back to the United States, but he had not felt that he had learned enough sign language to bring this method of communication back to the American people. Laurent Clerc agreed to come on the journey back to the United States with him, teaching him more sign language along the way as Gallaudet taught him English. When they arrived in the United States, the two were able to put together the American School for the Deaf in Hartford, Connecticut in 1817 (“Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet,” 2013). This school educated students from surrounding areas that included Martha’s Vineyard. The students from the Vineyard were able to bring with them their land’s created version of sign language and intertwine it with their new schooling (Lapiak, 1996-2014). This was only the beginning of education and schools for deaf students.
Later in the 1800s, one of Thomas Gallaudet’s sons, Edward Miner Gallaudet, had a strong desire to begin another school for deaf students. He chose Washington, D.C. as the location for Gallaudet College, the... | <urn:uuid:3074d25d-f0c5-4828-9b3f-76f8d89a6881> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/the-developing-of-american-sign-language | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00370.warc.gz | en | 0.981723 | 661 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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-0.12263168394... | 1 | The development of American Sign Language in the United States dates back to as early as the 1600s. On Martha’s Vineyard there was a relatively large Deaf population due to genetics and heredity. This was thought to trace back to the first people of the land, who traveled from Massachusetts and carried this genetic deafness with them. Because there were so many people that were deaf living there, it was extremely common for all people, deaf and hearing, to learn their own version of sign language. This early form of sign language was known as Martha’s Vineyard Sign Language (MVSL) (Lapiak, 1996-2014). Little did the creators of Martha’s Vineyard Sign Language know, MVSL would be incorporated into the first school for deaf students (Lapiak, 1996-2014).
As time progressed, American Sign Language began to further develop in the 1700s with help from the French Sign Language. Charles-Michel, abbé de l’Epée, the man responsible for development of the French Sign Language, was known for teaching less fortunate deaf French children how to sign different concepts and to use the manual alphabet to spell words (“Sign Language,” n.d.). It was not until Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet traveled to Europe that sign language started to make its appearance in the United States of America.
Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet was a very bright and well educated young man who was from Hartford, Connecticut. He acquired undergraduate and graduate level college degrees and entered the seminary to follow his religious calling. While he was living in Connecticut, a neighbor had a deaf daughter and asked that Gallaudet would go to Europe to learn about how one would go about teaching a deaf child. Gallaudet met the head of the Institut Royal des Sourds-Muets, Abbe Sicard, while in Paris. He was able to learn the beginnings of sign language from Sicard himself, along with a man by the name of Laurent Clerc (“The Legacy Begins,” 2013). The time came that Gallaudet had to come back to the United States, but he had not felt that he had learned enough sign language to bring this method of communication back to the American people. Laurent Clerc agreed to come on the journey back to the United States with him, teaching him more sign language along the way as Gallaudet taught him English. When they arrived in the United States, the two were able to put together the American School for the Deaf in Hartford, Connecticut in 1817 (“Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet,” 2013). This school educated students from surrounding areas that included Martha’s Vineyard. The students from the Vineyard were able to bring with them their land’s created version of sign language and intertwine it with their new schooling (Lapiak, 1996-2014). This was only the beginning of education and schools for deaf students.
Later in the 1800s, one of Thomas Gallaudet’s sons, Edward Miner Gallaudet, had a strong desire to begin another school for deaf students. He chose Washington, D.C. as the location for Gallaudet College, the... | 671 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The flu is a common viral infection that can be deadly. In fact, the 2017-2018 flu season, the first to be classified as high severity across all age groups, was the deadliest since tracking began in 1976, killing 80,000 people in the United States alone. The 2019-2020 flu season has so far not been as severe, but the number of areas reporting regional or widespread flu activity has increased over the last few weeks, according to the CDC. More than 3% of doctors visits were for flu-like illness, higher than the national baseline of 2.4% for five weeks.
The flu is unpredictable and the severity of the season varies from year to year. CDC estimates that so far this season there have been at least 2.6 million flu illnesses, 23,000 hospitalizations and 1,300 deaths from flu. To identify the most serious flu complications, 24/7 Tempo talked to doctors and reviewed several studies published in various medical journals.
There is no cure but there are ways you can ease the symptoms. The majority of people with the flu take seven to 10 days to get healthy again, Dr. Dyan Hes, Medical Director of Gramercy Pediatrics in New York City, said. You can take medication to help with headaches, coughing and vomiting, but they won’t stop the flu, they will just treat the symptoms.
Mild complications such as body aches, dehydration and vomiting are common, but more serious health risks can develop as well. “The youngest and the oldest are by far the most at risk because their immune system is weak or compromised,” she added. Approximately 80% of the children who died from the flu during the last flu season had not received a flu shot. The single best way to prevent the infection, according to doctors and the CDC, is to get vaccinated each year.
The flu can make even healthy people very sick, Hes said. You don’t have to be weak or have a pre-existing condition to suffer severe complications, she added. “It kills healthy people, too.” This is just one reason why health experts worry about people catching the flu — along with these other infections even doctors are afraid of. | <urn:uuid:0eae0199-497c-4164-8776-b2c6e8e845bd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://247tempo.com/the-10-most-surprising-health-complications-from-the-flu/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00271.warc.gz | en | 0.980264 | 453 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.33332955837249... | 4 | The flu is a common viral infection that can be deadly. In fact, the 2017-2018 flu season, the first to be classified as high severity across all age groups, was the deadliest since tracking began in 1976, killing 80,000 people in the United States alone. The 2019-2020 flu season has so far not been as severe, but the number of areas reporting regional or widespread flu activity has increased over the last few weeks, according to the CDC. More than 3% of doctors visits were for flu-like illness, higher than the national baseline of 2.4% for five weeks.
The flu is unpredictable and the severity of the season varies from year to year. CDC estimates that so far this season there have been at least 2.6 million flu illnesses, 23,000 hospitalizations and 1,300 deaths from flu. To identify the most serious flu complications, 24/7 Tempo talked to doctors and reviewed several studies published in various medical journals.
There is no cure but there are ways you can ease the symptoms. The majority of people with the flu take seven to 10 days to get healthy again, Dr. Dyan Hes, Medical Director of Gramercy Pediatrics in New York City, said. You can take medication to help with headaches, coughing and vomiting, but they won’t stop the flu, they will just treat the symptoms.
Mild complications such as body aches, dehydration and vomiting are common, but more serious health risks can develop as well. “The youngest and the oldest are by far the most at risk because their immune system is weak or compromised,” she added. Approximately 80% of the children who died from the flu during the last flu season had not received a flu shot. The single best way to prevent the infection, according to doctors and the CDC, is to get vaccinated each year.
The flu can make even healthy people very sick, Hes said. You don’t have to be weak or have a pre-existing condition to suffer severe complications, she added. “It kills healthy people, too.” This is just one reason why health experts worry about people catching the flu — along with these other infections even doctors are afraid of. | 477 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Primary 2 and 3 chose WWII as their topic this term. They have been learning about the home front during the war and how food in Britain was rationed. This was because Germany was torpedoing the ships that brought food to Britain. The British government put up posters everywhere, encouraging people to ‘Dig for Victory’
So many people in Britain grew vegetables in their gardens. Lots of people also built Anderson Shelters in their gardens to protect them from enemy planes dropping bombs. Primary 2 and 3 had to imagine they were living in Britain during the second world war. They had to design a garden that they could use to ‘Dig for Victory’ and also for protection from air raids. Using a variety of materials the children created wonderful gardens. There was a prize to be won for the best war time garden. | <urn:uuid:f04e0a59-1c2f-4e47-ad0b-4f826c6fab42> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blogs.glowscotland.org.uk/sh/northroeprimaryschool/2016/05/04/dig-for-victory-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00361.warc.gz | en | 0.991558 | 166 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.2864385545... | 3 | Primary 2 and 3 chose WWII as their topic this term. They have been learning about the home front during the war and how food in Britain was rationed. This was because Germany was torpedoing the ships that brought food to Britain. The British government put up posters everywhere, encouraging people to ‘Dig for Victory’
So many people in Britain grew vegetables in their gardens. Lots of people also built Anderson Shelters in their gardens to protect them from enemy planes dropping bombs. Primary 2 and 3 had to imagine they were living in Britain during the second world war. They had to design a garden that they could use to ‘Dig for Victory’ and also for protection from air raids. Using a variety of materials the children created wonderful gardens. There was a prize to be won for the best war time garden. | 166 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Bible Proficiency Project
Week 14, 2019
I. Monday — Judges 8-9
1. How many Midianites had been killed in the first battle? How many did Gideon and his 300 men pursue?
How do you explain the mass destruction of the Midian army by Gideon?
2. In the consequences upon Succoth and Penuel what do we learn will happen to those who do not help
3. What was the reason Gideon gave why he would not rule over the men of Israel?
4. Gideon made an ephod from golden earrings given to him. How much did the ephod weigh,
and what was its purpose? Why did this become a snare to Israel?
5. Who was Abimelech and what evil did he do?
II. Tuesday — Judges 10-12
1. What phrase describes the act that triggers a new cycle that calls for a Judge?
2. What was odd about Jephthah being enlisted as a Judge?
3. What principle is on display in 11:26?
4. What does Jephthah’s vow teach us about who he was?
III. Wednesday — Judges 13-15
1. Name two ways in which Samson was different from other Judges?
2. What is a Nazarite and how is that significant in the story of Samson?
3. How does God use Samson’s riddle to push him in his role as a Judge?
4. What happened to Samson’s wife and what did that lead to?
IV. Thursday – Judges 16-18
1. Did Samson’s strength come from his long hair? (Explain)
2. According to 16:20 what made Samson weak?
3. What “contest” is in play when Samson dies? Was this suicide on Samson’s part?
4. What problems do you see with the young Levite priest in Micah’s house?
5. How is the failings of the priest compounded in tribe of Dan?
V. Friday —Judges 19-21
1. Who were the men of Gibeah and what was so perverted about the city?
2. Why did the husband divide his wife into 12 pieces and what did it lead to?
3. Why do you think so many Israelites were slain going against Benjamin?
4. How was the tribe of Benjamin threatened to extinction and what was the remedy?
5. In these final chapters a new refrain arises, there was no king in Israel; everyone did what was right in his
own eyes. What is the historical significance of this?
VI. Saturday — Ruth 1-4
1. Why is the Book of Ruth important?
2. What is significant about Boaz?
VII. Sunday — 1Samuel 1-3
1. How was Hannah’s desire heard by God?
2. What contrast is presented between the House of Eli and the ministry of Samuel? | <urn:uuid:7d0a3f64-fbb5-426e-bb7c-c7816cf56bc9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.aberdeenreformed.com/copy-of-bpp-wk-13 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00475.warc.gz | en | 0.981627 | 630 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.28268542885780334... | 4 | Bible Proficiency Project
Week 14, 2019
I. Monday — Judges 8-9
1. How many Midianites had been killed in the first battle? How many did Gideon and his 300 men pursue?
How do you explain the mass destruction of the Midian army by Gideon?
2. In the consequences upon Succoth and Penuel what do we learn will happen to those who do not help
3. What was the reason Gideon gave why he would not rule over the men of Israel?
4. Gideon made an ephod from golden earrings given to him. How much did the ephod weigh,
and what was its purpose? Why did this become a snare to Israel?
5. Who was Abimelech and what evil did he do?
II. Tuesday — Judges 10-12
1. What phrase describes the act that triggers a new cycle that calls for a Judge?
2. What was odd about Jephthah being enlisted as a Judge?
3. What principle is on display in 11:26?
4. What does Jephthah’s vow teach us about who he was?
III. Wednesday — Judges 13-15
1. Name two ways in which Samson was different from other Judges?
2. What is a Nazarite and how is that significant in the story of Samson?
3. How does God use Samson’s riddle to push him in his role as a Judge?
4. What happened to Samson’s wife and what did that lead to?
IV. Thursday – Judges 16-18
1. Did Samson’s strength come from his long hair? (Explain)
2. According to 16:20 what made Samson weak?
3. What “contest” is in play when Samson dies? Was this suicide on Samson’s part?
4. What problems do you see with the young Levite priest in Micah’s house?
5. How is the failings of the priest compounded in tribe of Dan?
V. Friday —Judges 19-21
1. Who were the men of Gibeah and what was so perverted about the city?
2. Why did the husband divide his wife into 12 pieces and what did it lead to?
3. Why do you think so many Israelites were slain going against Benjamin?
4. How was the tribe of Benjamin threatened to extinction and what was the remedy?
5. In these final chapters a new refrain arises, there was no king in Israel; everyone did what was right in his
own eyes. What is the historical significance of this?
VI. Saturday — Ruth 1-4
1. Why is the Book of Ruth important?
2. What is significant about Boaz?
VII. Sunday — 1Samuel 1-3
1. How was Hannah’s desire heard by God?
2. What contrast is presented between the House of Eli and the ministry of Samuel? | 632 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1. Even though Brabantio claims that it is through the use of spells and charms that Othello has managed to seduce his daughter, it is amply clear to anybody who is even slightly aware of the Elizabethan notions of race and skin color that it is Othello’s race that posits a problem for Brabantio. Apart from his own words, the words of Iago and Roderigo go to prove this. Iago tells Brabantio at one point that his “daughter and the Moor are now making the beast with two backs” (Shakespeare). The words and sentences that Iago uses to describe Othello refer also to the bestial and try to compare the two. They are also very sexual and this stems from common Elizabethan stereotypes regarding people of other races that marked them as sexually more active than the English. This stereotype was accompanied by negative judgments as well. Later instances where Othello himself is compelled to doubt his wife because he himself feels that a white woman cannot love a moor completely proves that it is his skin color that is a bone of contention for Brabantio.
2. European attitudes towards other races and people of different skin colors were one of superiority. Most of their knowledge regarding the people of these races came from accounts that were provided by travelers who went on voyages with the intention of colonizing other races. These travelers did not feel any respect towards the people of other races that they met on their travels and this reflected in their writings. The Elizabethan people imbibed these attitudes and it is these that Shakespeare critiques in his play, Othello. Later in the play too, Iago’s references to Othello and Othello’s own references to other people prove how other races were considered to be inferior to the European races by the Elizabethan people. The instance where Othello refers to the “base Indian” (Shakespeare) and compares himself to the Indian to explain his act of murder proves how the rhetoric of racism pierces the minds of even those who suffer due to the operation of such stereotypes.
3. The deception that Iago practices are not something that Othello is able to understand despite the fact that he was a general. Matters of the military are public matters while jealousy such as the one that is incited in Othello’s heart is a private matter. Iago’s deception awakens in Othello his own private insecurities regarding his desirability for a woman of European racial descent. Iago plays on these insecurities of Othello and thus plants doubts in his mind. Othello is blinded also by the general reputation that Iago enjoys that of an extremely honest man. Iago himself, at a certain point of time, is unsure of what he is doing. He says, “I am not what I am”, thus denying to himself his own identity. This manic drive that leads him to do what he does is incomprehensible to himself and does him no good in the end. Othello has deceived also because of this lack of purpose that Iago represents to him.
Shakespeare, William. Othello. Eds. Sanders, Norman. Chennai: New Cambridge Shakespeare, 2007. Print. | <urn:uuid:37b7905f-d362-4473-990b-a2ae680f1b13> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebookessay.com/free-essay-examples/conflict-is-a-major-issue-in-othello-essays/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00006.warc.gz | en | 0.982214 | 681 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.1476445198059... | 2 | 1. Even though Brabantio claims that it is through the use of spells and charms that Othello has managed to seduce his daughter, it is amply clear to anybody who is even slightly aware of the Elizabethan notions of race and skin color that it is Othello’s race that posits a problem for Brabantio. Apart from his own words, the words of Iago and Roderigo go to prove this. Iago tells Brabantio at one point that his “daughter and the Moor are now making the beast with two backs” (Shakespeare). The words and sentences that Iago uses to describe Othello refer also to the bestial and try to compare the two. They are also very sexual and this stems from common Elizabethan stereotypes regarding people of other races that marked them as sexually more active than the English. This stereotype was accompanied by negative judgments as well. Later instances where Othello himself is compelled to doubt his wife because he himself feels that a white woman cannot love a moor completely proves that it is his skin color that is a bone of contention for Brabantio.
2. European attitudes towards other races and people of different skin colors were one of superiority. Most of their knowledge regarding the people of these races came from accounts that were provided by travelers who went on voyages with the intention of colonizing other races. These travelers did not feel any respect towards the people of other races that they met on their travels and this reflected in their writings. The Elizabethan people imbibed these attitudes and it is these that Shakespeare critiques in his play, Othello. Later in the play too, Iago’s references to Othello and Othello’s own references to other people prove how other races were considered to be inferior to the European races by the Elizabethan people. The instance where Othello refers to the “base Indian” (Shakespeare) and compares himself to the Indian to explain his act of murder proves how the rhetoric of racism pierces the minds of even those who suffer due to the operation of such stereotypes.
3. The deception that Iago practices are not something that Othello is able to understand despite the fact that he was a general. Matters of the military are public matters while jealousy such as the one that is incited in Othello’s heart is a private matter. Iago’s deception awakens in Othello his own private insecurities regarding his desirability for a woman of European racial descent. Iago plays on these insecurities of Othello and thus plants doubts in his mind. Othello is blinded also by the general reputation that Iago enjoys that of an extremely honest man. Iago himself, at a certain point of time, is unsure of what he is doing. He says, “I am not what I am”, thus denying to himself his own identity. This manic drive that leads him to do what he does is incomprehensible to himself and does him no good in the end. Othello has deceived also because of this lack of purpose that Iago represents to him.
Shakespeare, William. Othello. Eds. Sanders, Norman. Chennai: New Cambridge Shakespeare, 2007. Print. | 661 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Most cities from the biblical period were fairly small, and people lived in closely knit, well-defined communities. Jerusalem of David’s time covered 9-10 acres with a population of 1,500-2,000 persons. Jerusalem during Jesus’ time occupied about 250 acres with a possible population of 40,000-45,000. At that time, it was one of the larger cities in the eastern part of the Roman Empire.
Typically, large cities like Jerusalem in the ancient Near East were walled. Timely payment of taxes and faithful service to the king gave the people the privilege of living safely inside city walls and using the stored food in time of famine.
Many smaller towns were also walled. The main gate was the town’s social center, as well as a place of commerce. Galilee was quite heavily populated, and the small towns and villages had large public buildings such as synagogues, theaters, and baths. The synagogue occupied the higher elevation in town, and the market functioned near the city gate.
Towns generally had a nearby source of water (a spring or stream), and were circled by small farms. Each farmer had an acre or two of land. They cultivated olives and grapes on hillsides, and grain and vegetables between the trees or vines, or in the valleys. Small flocks of animals were taken out to graze on hillsides where it was impossible to farm. The city generally was organized around small, narrow streets running at right angles to each other. Homes lined these streets and were built right up to the gutters.
See all posts in Glossary
|Mar 30 — Apr 08, 2020|
|Jun 28 — Jul 12, 2020|
|Nov 01 — Nov 15, 2020|
|Nov 14 — Nov 28, 2020| | <urn:uuid:d9bbdbae-1c0c-49f5-a8d1-0b3c93b378bb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://underthefigtree.org/glossary/city-life/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00258.warc.gz | en | 0.983405 | 372 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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-0.169400259852... | 1 | Most cities from the biblical period were fairly small, and people lived in closely knit, well-defined communities. Jerusalem of David’s time covered 9-10 acres with a population of 1,500-2,000 persons. Jerusalem during Jesus’ time occupied about 250 acres with a possible population of 40,000-45,000. At that time, it was one of the larger cities in the eastern part of the Roman Empire.
Typically, large cities like Jerusalem in the ancient Near East were walled. Timely payment of taxes and faithful service to the king gave the people the privilege of living safely inside city walls and using the stored food in time of famine.
Many smaller towns were also walled. The main gate was the town’s social center, as well as a place of commerce. Galilee was quite heavily populated, and the small towns and villages had large public buildings such as synagogues, theaters, and baths. The synagogue occupied the higher elevation in town, and the market functioned near the city gate.
Towns generally had a nearby source of water (a spring or stream), and were circled by small farms. Each farmer had an acre or two of land. They cultivated olives and grapes on hillsides, and grain and vegetables between the trees or vines, or in the valleys. Small flocks of animals were taken out to graze on hillsides where it was impossible to farm. The city generally was organized around small, narrow streets running at right angles to each other. Homes lined these streets and were built right up to the gutters.
See all posts in Glossary
|Mar 30 — Apr 08, 2020|
|Jun 28 — Jul 12, 2020|
|Nov 01 — Nov 15, 2020|
|Nov 14 — Nov 28, 2020| | 410 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1941 on the heels of the Great Depression, the world was knee deep in World War II. Every country, family, and individual was experiencing the day-to-day repercussions from a world at war. Loss was present, in one way or another. While the side effects looked different from place to place, WWII affected the lives of the young to the old around the globe.
For Americans, a majority of the men from the United States were gone and fighting abroad. Women were stepping up and working in factories, running newspapers and starting movements. Even the food supply was rationed in the States. On the other side of the world, in British countries, food was also being rationed, but in a far, far darker manner.
In Europe, sugar was highly rationed. It was on the list of heavily consumed items like bacon and butter. For that reason, those items were the first to be rationed. Given this consumption rate, sugar was given out weekly in only 8 ounces per adult. And since sugar was being rationed, ice cream was unavailable. Ration your eyes on this horror!
View this post on Instagram
It’s a classic image, children enjoying…their vegetables? Well, during #WWII rationing meant ice cream was unavailable and so the official replacement became a carrot on a stick. The sugar needed to make ice cream was one of the first luxuries to be hit by rationing, along with bacon and butter. Carrots, however, were in plentiful supply during the war and The Ministry of Agriculture promoted carrots heavily as a substitute for other scarcer vegetables. In fact, we have WWII to thank for the promotion of carrots as beneficial for eyesight. And carrots were even marketed with a mascot called “Doctor Carrot,” a carrot with a top hat and carrying a briefcase labeled “Vitamin A.” In fact, the substitution of carrots for ice cream was so ubiquitous that many children who were born just before or during the war, didn’t discover ice cream until after war rationing stopped in the 1950s. #Carrot #Vegetables #Rationing #BritishHistory #history #eatyourvegetablesAdvertisement
Enter Dig for Victory. Shortly after the beginning of World War II, the Ministry of Agriculture launched the Dig For Victory campaign. This movement contained anthems, illustrated foods quoting healthy quips, and millions of vegetables. The focus of the campaign was to emphasize healthy eating during the rationing of the war. Neighborhoods and families were encouraged to grow their own vegetables in personal gardens and allotments so that more land could be used for war materials.
Throughout this country-wide nutrition crash course/food rationing, some small changes were made to everyday meals and snacks. Kids were given healthy alternative for sweets. For instance, the casual ice cream replacement: carrots… on a stick. It was the official WWII rationing substitute for ice cream until after the war was over! The veggie skewers were enjoyed by adults and children because carrots were in full supply during the war.
To continue to increase the consumption of the vegetables that were present and to make up for those that were scarce, Doctor Carrot was introduced. Doctor Carrot was an illustrated, scholarly-looking carrot with a hat, lab coat, and a briefcase. The goal was to promote the health benefits carrots held as well as discourage waste. Recipes including carrot were at an all time high, I’m sure. Doctor Carrot was not the only cartoon food buddy promoting the at-home war efforts, however. There was also Potato Pete. He had his own cook book, and his own anthem, sung by Betty Driver. If you’re down for some war-time propaganda, have a listen.
Yes, it was a different time, indeed. Carrots, Potatoes and Rations, oh my! | <urn:uuid:d051cf1e-d946-4a65-b202-c1d3cb1ddb44> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://rare.us/rare-news/history/vegetables-stick-world-war-ii/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00376.warc.gz | en | 0.986373 | 796 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.40033066272735596... | 1 | In 1941 on the heels of the Great Depression, the world was knee deep in World War II. Every country, family, and individual was experiencing the day-to-day repercussions from a world at war. Loss was present, in one way or another. While the side effects looked different from place to place, WWII affected the lives of the young to the old around the globe.
For Americans, a majority of the men from the United States were gone and fighting abroad. Women were stepping up and working in factories, running newspapers and starting movements. Even the food supply was rationed in the States. On the other side of the world, in British countries, food was also being rationed, but in a far, far darker manner.
In Europe, sugar was highly rationed. It was on the list of heavily consumed items like bacon and butter. For that reason, those items were the first to be rationed. Given this consumption rate, sugar was given out weekly in only 8 ounces per adult. And since sugar was being rationed, ice cream was unavailable. Ration your eyes on this horror!
View this post on Instagram
It’s a classic image, children enjoying…their vegetables? Well, during #WWII rationing meant ice cream was unavailable and so the official replacement became a carrot on a stick. The sugar needed to make ice cream was one of the first luxuries to be hit by rationing, along with bacon and butter. Carrots, however, were in plentiful supply during the war and The Ministry of Agriculture promoted carrots heavily as a substitute for other scarcer vegetables. In fact, we have WWII to thank for the promotion of carrots as beneficial for eyesight. And carrots were even marketed with a mascot called “Doctor Carrot,” a carrot with a top hat and carrying a briefcase labeled “Vitamin A.” In fact, the substitution of carrots for ice cream was so ubiquitous that many children who were born just before or during the war, didn’t discover ice cream until after war rationing stopped in the 1950s. #Carrot #Vegetables #Rationing #BritishHistory #history #eatyourvegetablesAdvertisement
Enter Dig for Victory. Shortly after the beginning of World War II, the Ministry of Agriculture launched the Dig For Victory campaign. This movement contained anthems, illustrated foods quoting healthy quips, and millions of vegetables. The focus of the campaign was to emphasize healthy eating during the rationing of the war. Neighborhoods and families were encouraged to grow their own vegetables in personal gardens and allotments so that more land could be used for war materials.
Throughout this country-wide nutrition crash course/food rationing, some small changes were made to everyday meals and snacks. Kids were given healthy alternative for sweets. For instance, the casual ice cream replacement: carrots… on a stick. It was the official WWII rationing substitute for ice cream until after the war was over! The veggie skewers were enjoyed by adults and children because carrots were in full supply during the war.
To continue to increase the consumption of the vegetables that were present and to make up for those that were scarce, Doctor Carrot was introduced. Doctor Carrot was an illustrated, scholarly-looking carrot with a hat, lab coat, and a briefcase. The goal was to promote the health benefits carrots held as well as discourage waste. Recipes including carrot were at an all time high, I’m sure. Doctor Carrot was not the only cartoon food buddy promoting the at-home war efforts, however. There was also Potato Pete. He had his own cook book, and his own anthem, sung by Betty Driver. If you’re down for some war-time propaganda, have a listen.
Yes, it was a different time, indeed. Carrots, Potatoes and Rations, oh my! | 777 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Olympic Gold Medal Makeup
At the Ancient Olympic Games only one winner per event was crowned with kotinos, an olive wreath made of wild olive leaves from a sacred tree near the temple of Zeus at Olympia. Aristophanes in Plutus makes a remark why victorious athletes are crowned with wreath made of wild olive instead of gold. Herodotus describes a story that explains why there were only a few Greek men at the Battle of Thermopylae since “all other men were participating in the Olympic Games” and that the prize for the winner was “an olive-wreath”. When Tigranes, an Armenian general learned this, he uttered to his leader: “Good heavens! what kind of men are these against whom you have brought us to fight? Men who do not compete for possessions, but for honour”. Hence medals were not awarded at the ancient Olympic Games. | <urn:uuid:76ebe4a8-e6c5-477c-9d3d-ce8024c40ec4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sinergocios.info/olympic-gold-medal-makeup/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00465.warc.gz | en | 0.982693 | 190 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.34860372543... | 1 | Olympic Gold Medal Makeup
At the Ancient Olympic Games only one winner per event was crowned with kotinos, an olive wreath made of wild olive leaves from a sacred tree near the temple of Zeus at Olympia. Aristophanes in Plutus makes a remark why victorious athletes are crowned with wreath made of wild olive instead of gold. Herodotus describes a story that explains why there were only a few Greek men at the Battle of Thermopylae since “all other men were participating in the Olympic Games” and that the prize for the winner was “an olive-wreath”. When Tigranes, an Armenian general learned this, he uttered to his leader: “Good heavens! what kind of men are these against whom you have brought us to fight? Men who do not compete for possessions, but for honour”. Hence medals were not awarded at the ancient Olympic Games. | 181 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Warriors in ancient societies were considered to
be protectors of the communities they lived in.
During the ancient times, there were many groups that fought for
Every group had warriors who went into battle against their enemies to gain
This led to the widespread emergence of warriors who were viewed as being the
protectors of the communities they lived within. Parker therefore argues that the emergence of
warriors within the ancient societies was propelled by the need to protect the
communities in the long run against their immediate enemies.
In the history of ancient Greece, it is evident
that there were many wars that were fought.
The Greeks wanted to maintain a reputation for being a strong nation.
Therefore, they trained a lot of soldiers who would be use in war to protect
The hoplites are defined as soldiers who went to war on foot armed with shields
and spears. The mostly depended on
formations when going to war. The
formations ensured that the soldiers did not act individually as it would
compromise the strength of the group.
The hoplites ensured they cooperated with each other to form strong
forces to combat their enemies at all times.
Discipline within the hoplite warfare was
fundamental. This is due to the fact
that the soldiers were required to go to war in formations. Formations were an important part of winning
the war against their enemies.4
Compromising the formation would lead to the hoplites being defeated by their
enemies in war. Due to the high level of
discipline that was exhibited by the hoplites during war, only a number of them
were lost during warfare. The lost
numbers of hoplites in every war was between twenty percent owing itself to the
high level of cooperation and discipline in creating and maintaining warfare
1 (Parker 2008)
2 (Holladay 1982)
3 (Hanson 1991)
4 (Parker 2008)
5 (Parker 2008) | <urn:uuid:f044022b-ba49-4cb5-b48d-5cd051b98f8d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://michiganboergoat.org/warriors-winning-the-war-against-their-enemies-4-compromising-the/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00291.warc.gz | en | 0.981969 | 410 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.44778686761856... | 3 | Warriors in ancient societies were considered to
be protectors of the communities they lived in.
During the ancient times, there were many groups that fought for
Every group had warriors who went into battle against their enemies to gain
This led to the widespread emergence of warriors who were viewed as being the
protectors of the communities they lived within. Parker therefore argues that the emergence of
warriors within the ancient societies was propelled by the need to protect the
communities in the long run against their immediate enemies.
In the history of ancient Greece, it is evident
that there were many wars that were fought.
The Greeks wanted to maintain a reputation for being a strong nation.
Therefore, they trained a lot of soldiers who would be use in war to protect
The hoplites are defined as soldiers who went to war on foot armed with shields
and spears. The mostly depended on
formations when going to war. The
formations ensured that the soldiers did not act individually as it would
compromise the strength of the group.
The hoplites ensured they cooperated with each other to form strong
forces to combat their enemies at all times.
Discipline within the hoplite warfare was
fundamental. This is due to the fact
that the soldiers were required to go to war in formations. Formations were an important part of winning
the war against their enemies.4
Compromising the formation would lead to the hoplites being defeated by their
enemies in war. Due to the high level of
discipline that was exhibited by the hoplites during war, only a number of them
were lost during warfare. The lost
numbers of hoplites in every war was between twenty percent owing itself to the
high level of cooperation and discipline in creating and maintaining warfare
1 (Parker 2008)
2 (Holladay 1982)
3 (Hanson 1991)
4 (Parker 2008)
5 (Parker 2008) | 420 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This paper examines the life of Kang Hang (1567–1618), a wartime prisoner who was taken to Japan during the second invasion of the Hideyoshi army in Korea. Contrary to popular belief, Kang was a Confucian hero who taught the Japanese neo-Confucianism and escaped to his homeland to prove his patriotism, I find that Kang had been surrounded by transnational diasporic groups of Koreans, Chinese, Westerners, and cosmopolitan Japanese. While neglecting Korean diasporic networks in Japan, especially a large number of Korean women who had been brought to Japan either as slaves or wives of noble Japanese men, Kang socialized with Japanese intellectuals, including Fujiwara Seika and Akamatsu Hiromitsu in order to gain financial and political support for his return to his imaginary homeland, where he thought he would be welcomed by his friends and king. Yet, after his return to Korea, he faced severe discrimination from his fellow Korean intellectuals who were suspicious of his life spent in the enemy country. Academics and court politicians refused to accept him into the main Seoul circles, and his life was therefore confined to solitary scholarly work such as writing books about Japan and teaching disciples
Visitors have accessed this post 161 times. | <urn:uuid:7591fec4-e78a-4311-8735-d139e508245f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://culturenempathy.org/internal-diaspora-kang-hang%E2%80%99s-japan-experience-and-intellectual-isolation-in-joseon/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00244.warc.gz | en | 0.987596 | 254 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.... | 1 | This paper examines the life of Kang Hang (1567–1618), a wartime prisoner who was taken to Japan during the second invasion of the Hideyoshi army in Korea. Contrary to popular belief, Kang was a Confucian hero who taught the Japanese neo-Confucianism and escaped to his homeland to prove his patriotism, I find that Kang had been surrounded by transnational diasporic groups of Koreans, Chinese, Westerners, and cosmopolitan Japanese. While neglecting Korean diasporic networks in Japan, especially a large number of Korean women who had been brought to Japan either as slaves or wives of noble Japanese men, Kang socialized with Japanese intellectuals, including Fujiwara Seika and Akamatsu Hiromitsu in order to gain financial and political support for his return to his imaginary homeland, where he thought he would be welcomed by his friends and king. Yet, after his return to Korea, he faced severe discrimination from his fellow Korean intellectuals who were suspicious of his life spent in the enemy country. Academics and court politicians refused to accept him into the main Seoul circles, and his life was therefore confined to solitary scholarly work such as writing books about Japan and teaching disciples
Visitors have accessed this post 161 times. | 259 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Despite great obstacles, Jews throughout occupied Europe attempted armed resistance against the Germans and their Axis partners. They faced overwhelming odds and desperate scenarios, including lack of weapons and training, operating in hostile zones, parting from family members, and facing an ever-present Nazi terror. Yet thousands resisted by joining or forming partisan units. Among them was Leon Bakst.
Leon Bakst was one of four siblings born to a wholesale merchant in Ivie, a small Polish town 73 miles west of Minsk. Leon was 15 when the Germans occupied Ivie in the summer of 1941 and forced the town’s Jews into a ghetto. When they asked Leon’s father what he did for a living, he lied and told the Germans that he was a brush maker—he figured the occupiers would have more use for a tradesman. His assumptions were correct: he was spared from the initial massacre of Jewish men.
Months later, Leon and his older brother, along with 200 other young people, were deported to a labor camp in Lida. The tragic separation from his family actually saved his life, but he never got the chance to see his parents again—the Germans destroyed their ghetto shortly after he left, as he learned later.
The labor camp was located in a railroad yard—the prisoners even slept in the boxcars. Their food rations were meager, and their futures uncertain. Having heard about partisan groups living in the nearby forests, twenty of the youngsters decided to risk escape and join them. The prisoners had one tremendous advantage: the Germans were using the railroad depot to unload weapons and ammo taken from the retreating Russians. By slowly stealing rifles and stashing them in the ground, the prisoners were able to arm themselves before fleeing.
The two brothers were familiar with their surroundings, which made it easier for their group to travel at night. The rifles they stole from the Germans also ensured that the group got fed along the way. When they finally reached the Naliboki forest, the group encountered the Bielski Brigade, which at the time had about 200 partisans. Arriving with rifles, the newcomers were quickly accepted.
Leon's duties ranged from guard duty to food-gathering missions to railroad sabotage. Leon had many close calls. Once, the Germans encircled the forest and started shelling it to try and flush the partisans out. With bullets flying past and German planes dropping bombs, his group made their escape through a swamp. Leon remembers:
“I could hear—‘tsch, tsch’—the bullets…falling in the water right beside me and, you know, I was not afraid at all. I was just like I’ve been—normal, you know, and I kept on.”
After the war’s end, Leon managed to leave Poland with his brother and Libby—a partisan from another otriad (partisan detachment) and Leon’s future wife. They eventually made it to a displaced persons’ camp in Munich, where Leon met Allen Small, a boyhood friend from Ivie who fought with a Soviet partisan otriad. It would be 65 years before they saw one another again.
During the four years they spent in the displaced persons’ camp, Leon and Libby got married and their first child was born. They immigrated to the United States in 1949. Leon currently lives in Dallas, Texas. He has two daughters.
Critical Thinking Questions
- What obstacles and limitations did Jews face when considering resistance?
- What pressures and motivations may have influenced Leon Bakst's decisions and actions? Are these factors unique to this history or universal?
- How can societies, communities, and individuals reinforce and strengthen the willingness to stand up for others? | <urn:uuid:206341ae-bcc0-486d-944a-6676f9f21630> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/leon-bakst | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00116.warc.gz | en | 0.98191 | 764 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.270636916160... | 7 | Despite great obstacles, Jews throughout occupied Europe attempted armed resistance against the Germans and their Axis partners. They faced overwhelming odds and desperate scenarios, including lack of weapons and training, operating in hostile zones, parting from family members, and facing an ever-present Nazi terror. Yet thousands resisted by joining or forming partisan units. Among them was Leon Bakst.
Leon Bakst was one of four siblings born to a wholesale merchant in Ivie, a small Polish town 73 miles west of Minsk. Leon was 15 when the Germans occupied Ivie in the summer of 1941 and forced the town’s Jews into a ghetto. When they asked Leon’s father what he did for a living, he lied and told the Germans that he was a brush maker—he figured the occupiers would have more use for a tradesman. His assumptions were correct: he was spared from the initial massacre of Jewish men.
Months later, Leon and his older brother, along with 200 other young people, were deported to a labor camp in Lida. The tragic separation from his family actually saved his life, but he never got the chance to see his parents again—the Germans destroyed their ghetto shortly after he left, as he learned later.
The labor camp was located in a railroad yard—the prisoners even slept in the boxcars. Their food rations were meager, and their futures uncertain. Having heard about partisan groups living in the nearby forests, twenty of the youngsters decided to risk escape and join them. The prisoners had one tremendous advantage: the Germans were using the railroad depot to unload weapons and ammo taken from the retreating Russians. By slowly stealing rifles and stashing them in the ground, the prisoners were able to arm themselves before fleeing.
The two brothers were familiar with their surroundings, which made it easier for their group to travel at night. The rifles they stole from the Germans also ensured that the group got fed along the way. When they finally reached the Naliboki forest, the group encountered the Bielski Brigade, which at the time had about 200 partisans. Arriving with rifles, the newcomers were quickly accepted.
Leon's duties ranged from guard duty to food-gathering missions to railroad sabotage. Leon had many close calls. Once, the Germans encircled the forest and started shelling it to try and flush the partisans out. With bullets flying past and German planes dropping bombs, his group made their escape through a swamp. Leon remembers:
“I could hear—‘tsch, tsch’—the bullets…falling in the water right beside me and, you know, I was not afraid at all. I was just like I’ve been—normal, you know, and I kept on.”
After the war’s end, Leon managed to leave Poland with his brother and Libby—a partisan from another otriad (partisan detachment) and Leon’s future wife. They eventually made it to a displaced persons’ camp in Munich, where Leon met Allen Small, a boyhood friend from Ivie who fought with a Soviet partisan otriad. It would be 65 years before they saw one another again.
During the four years they spent in the displaced persons’ camp, Leon and Libby got married and their first child was born. They immigrated to the United States in 1949. Leon currently lives in Dallas, Texas. He has two daughters.
Critical Thinking Questions
- What obstacles and limitations did Jews face when considering resistance?
- What pressures and motivations may have influenced Leon Bakst's decisions and actions? Are these factors unique to this history or universal?
- How can societies, communities, and individuals reinforce and strengthen the willingness to stand up for others? | 756 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In times when feminism is changing the role of women in society, it is worth looking back and knowing a little more about the trajectories of those who paved the way with deeds that marked the history of humanity.
But beyond their achievements, the lives of these women are filled with curiosities that many people do not know.
1 – Cleopatra: to be in power, married two of her brothers
Lived from 69 BC (Alexandria, Egypt) to August 12, 30 BC (Alexandria, Egypt)
One of the first women to gain historical projection, to the point of being present to this day in the minds of much of the world’s population, was the most famous queen of Egypt.
However, her love life was quite peculiar. To take over the country at age 18, she married her brother Ptolemy XIII, who was then 15 years old. Marriage between brothers was customary at the time. Considered a strong leader of good diplomacy, she was persecuted for her approach to Rome and was forced to flee.
That was when Cleopatra fell in love with Julius Caesar, the Roman politician. With her support, she defeated her brother and returned to Egypt. To return to power, she had to remarry another younger brother, Ptolemy XIV, who had been proclaimed Pharaoh. Her troubled love life accompanied her entire trajectory in power.
After the death of her second husband and lover Julius Caesar, the queen fell in love with Mark Antony, ruler of eastern Rome. However, the relationship was seen as a threat to Rome. After a period of war and persecution, Mark Antony killed himself with his own sword. As for Cleopatra, the cause of her death is still a mystery. Legend says that, after being captured by the Roman soldiers, she would have committed suicide by being bitten by a snake. But more recent studies indicate that she probably died after ingesting poison.
2 – Joan of Arc: the warrior who did not fight in battles
Lived from January 6, 1412 (Domrémy, France) to May 30, 1431 (Rouen, France)
The saint of the Catholic Church is one of the most documented women in world history for her role as a warrior in the name of France. Much of this is due to the fact that the heroine was commander of the French army during the Hundred Years War against England.
However, despite being remembered as a strong and fearless combatant, Joan never fought in battle and never killed anyone. The young woman’s real role was much more strategic. She led the troops, proposed compromise with enemies, and inspired her soldiers with a flag of France throughout every battle.
When she was arrested by the English, Joan was convicted of countless crimes, not just witchcraft. These include crimes of heresy, wearing men’s clothing, and claiming to hear voices and to communicate directly with God.
3 – Elizabeth I: conquered the throne after being arrested for conspiracy
Lived from September 7, 1533 (London, England) to March 24, 1603 (London, England)
The so-called Virgin Queen led England and Ireland from 1558 until her death. Respected and celebrated for her military achievements, her trajectory in power was not at all simple. Elizabeth was the third person in the royal succession. When her sister Mary became queen, Elizabeth was sent to prison for a phase of her life on suspicion of plotting against the queen.
After the death of her brothers, Edward and Mary, she was finally able to take over the English throne. Elizabeth was the only English queen who never married. She turned down a marriage offer from powerful monarchs and kept a secret love for a childhood friend, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester.
When the English parliament tried to force her to agree to marry some monarch from another country, the queen was firm in her refusal. Elizabeth said she was married to her country and had no intention of marrying any man.
Despite having scars and baldness, the consequences of contracting smallpox in an outbreak in the 1560s, she always appeared in public very well dressed and with a lot of makeup. Her public image and vast wardrobe have made her an icon of high fashion to this day.
4 – Jane Austen
Lived December 16, 1775 (Steventon, United Kingdom) to July 18, 1817 (Winchester, United Kingdom)
The greatest female name in English literature had already shown her aptitude and talent for writing from a young age, when she entertained her family with her tales and stories. Daughter of a reverend, Jane was raised to be a good wife, but never married.
She devoted her life to writing and her works gained prominence for the complex family plots and high content of irony and romance. Austen depended financially on her family until she was 36, when her book Reason and Sensitivity was published under a pseudonym and she began to make money.
Today, her books have become international bestsellers and her works have been widely explored by Hollywood and the dramaturgy industry around the world. Despite Jane’s historical importance, there is not even a photograph that depicts Jane’s image. What exists is a drawing, whose sketch was made by her sister Cassandra, which contains the image of the writer. Today, the painting is on display at the National Art Gallery in London.
5 – Marie Curie: The First Person in the World to Win Two Nobel Prizes
Lived from November 7, 1867 (Warsaw, Poland) to July 4, 1934 (Sancellemoz, France)
One of the most important scientists that the world has ever seen, was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize and the first person in the world to win the prize twice, first in Physics and then in the Chemistry category. But her achievements go far beyond that.
Marie Curie had to work twice as hard to get a college education, as most institutions did not accept women. She was the first woman to win the PhD title at the traditional Sorbonne and also the first to teach at the renowned University of Paris.
Next to her husband, French physicist Pierre Curie, she discovered the polonium chemical elements and the radio. Following the death of her husband, Marie developed a portable x-ray machine to serve soldiers fighting in World War I.
It was radiation exposure that caused her death from aplastic anemia. Her notebooks, used for important research notes, still contain remnants of radioactive material and are stored in a lead boxes and so should remain for another 1500 years.
6 – Gertrude Ederle: the woman who broke the record of five male swimmers
Lived October 23, 1905 (New York, USA) to November 30, 2003 (New Jersey, USA)
She was a swimming champion in her teens and competed in the 1924 Olympics. But her greatest achievement came in 1926, at age 19, when Gertrude became the first woman to cross the English Channel, the Atlantic Ocean area that separates England from France. The conquest had previously been made by only five men.
The young girl completed the course in 14 hours and 31 minutes, breaking the previous record of 16 hours and 33 minutes, won by Argentine Enrique Tirabocchi in 1923. At the end of the course, Gertrude was greeted by a huge crowd and was called by the media the Queen of the Waves.
Ten years after her big achievement, she suffered a fall that resulted in a serious back injury so she could not compete again. With a hearing compromised by childhood measles, Ederle devoted her time teaching swimming at a school for deaf children in Lexington, United States.
7 – Mother Teresa of Calcutta: A Life in Misery to Help the Needy
Lived August 26, 1910 (Skopje, Northern Macedonia) to September 5, 1997 (Kolkata, India)
Her baptismal name is Anjezë Gonxhe Bojaxhiu, but the spiritual call that came as a teenager made her adopt the name Teresa in honor of the holy Teresa of Lisieux and Teresa of Avila. Her example of life meant that in 2016 she was canonized and declared holy by the Catholic Church.
At 18, Teresa traveled to India as a missionary, where she worked tirelessly for the poor. After that, he never met her mother and brothers again. There, Sister Teresa settled in Calcutta and began teaching geography and history.
To be by the side of those most in need, she herself starved and lived in misery. In 1950, Teresa founded the Missionaries of Charity group, which today has over 5,000 people around the world.
Her vast work in teaching, sanitation, hygiene, caring for the sick, opening hospitals and homes for orphaned children earned her the 1979 Nobel Peace Prize. One thousand dollars was converted to aid for the poor in India.
8 – Rosa Parks: Your Act culminated in the Civil Rights Movement
Lived February 4, 1913 (Alabama, USA) to October 24, 2005 (Michigan, USA)
This civil rights activist has left her name in history for a significant gesture in the struggle for racial equality. In 1955, she was arrested for refusing to give up her seat on a bus to a white passenger in the city of Montgomery, Alabama.
Their initiative gained notoriety and culminated in the Civil Rights Movement to end racial segregation. But Parks’s life has other notable achievements to remember. Although she dropped out of school to care for her sick grandmother, at age 19 she resumed her studies and managed to graduate when only 7% of blacks were able to do so.
As a political activist, she was arrested again alongside 114 other people while participating in a boycott movement to segregate buses. After losing her job and being threatened with death, Rosa and her husband moved to Detroit, where they worked on causes for racial equality for the rest of their lives.
In 1987, they founded the Rosa and Raymond Parks Self-Development Institute, a youth-oriented civil rights organization. When Rosa died, her funeral received over 30,000 people, with honors reserved only for statesmen and military personnel.
9 – Anne Frank spent two years in a hiding place with her family.
Lived June 12, 1929 (Frankfurt, Germany) to February 1945 (Bergen-Belsen, Germany)
Anne Frank’s Diary was written by the 13-year-old as she and her family fled Nazism. The most famous diary published in the history of literature has sold over 30 million copies and won versions in 67 different languages.
Annelies Marie Frank on her 13th birthday had a notebook for a gift, just before the family had to hide to escape the Nazi persecution. In July 1942, after her older sister was summoned to work in a German labor camp, they all hid in a refuge behind her father’s office.
In the 2 years and 35 days spent there, the young woman – who wanted to become a writer – reported details of the family’s routine in hiding, her main fears and greatest yearnings. In August 1944, after an anonymous denunciation, Anne’s family and others in the same hiding place were arrested.
The young woman died of typhus after being sent to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp. It was Anne’s father, Otto, the only survivor of the family, who collected all the material written by his daughter and authorized its publication in 1947.
10 – Princess Diana: A Life of Sadness and Loneliness within the English Monarchy
Lived from July 1, 1961 (Sandringham, United Kingdom) to August 31, 1997 (Paris, France)
Fourth of 5 children, little Diana saw her parents divorce when she was just 7 years old and was educated at home until she was 9 years old. During her youth, she worked as a nanny and teacher before meeting Prince Charles, who would later become her husband, a fact that gave her the title of Princess of Wales.
However, the royal couple did not live a successful union. Before marrying in 1981, Charles and Diana had only met 12 times. Throughout her life, Lady Di, as she was called, recorded on cassette tapes in which she spoke of her unhappiness, her husband’s unfaithfulness, her eating disorders, and suicide attempts.
Throughout her public life, Diana devoted herself to philanthropy. She embraced the cause of people with HIV and worked to end the prejudice that HIV-positive people suffered. She also participated in the International Campaign for the Elimination of Landmines, a project that won the Nobel Peace Prize.
11 – Malala Yousafzai: The young woman the Taliban could not silence
Born July 12, 1997 (Mingora, Pakistan) and is now 21
She was just a girl who wanted to defend the right of young Pakistani girls to go to school. However, the blog on which she expounded on her ideas and public statements gained widespread repercussions, prompting Taliban members to attempt to murder her in a school bus. Malala was 15 years old, shot 3 times and survived.
The attack did not stop Malala. On the contrary. Just two years after that, she received the Nobel Peace Prize for her role as a human rights activist, as well as 40 other awards and honors. At 18, she founded a school for young refugees from Syria.
Considered by Times magazine to be one of the 100 most influential people in the world, the young Pakistani woman won the UN title of Messenger of Peace. Malala currently lives in the United Kingdom, where she studies philosophy, politics and economics at Oxford University and intends to pursue a political career in Pakistan. | <urn:uuid:bb64139f-8189-4c47-a3a7-644fd050ee5b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://reddragonsmedia.com/discover-11-extraordinary-women-who-changed-the-world/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00299.warc.gz | en | 0.980163 | 2,833 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.03149668872356415... | 4 | In times when feminism is changing the role of women in society, it is worth looking back and knowing a little more about the trajectories of those who paved the way with deeds that marked the history of humanity.
But beyond their achievements, the lives of these women are filled with curiosities that many people do not know.
1 – Cleopatra: to be in power, married two of her brothers
Lived from 69 BC (Alexandria, Egypt) to August 12, 30 BC (Alexandria, Egypt)
One of the first women to gain historical projection, to the point of being present to this day in the minds of much of the world’s population, was the most famous queen of Egypt.
However, her love life was quite peculiar. To take over the country at age 18, she married her brother Ptolemy XIII, who was then 15 years old. Marriage between brothers was customary at the time. Considered a strong leader of good diplomacy, she was persecuted for her approach to Rome and was forced to flee.
That was when Cleopatra fell in love with Julius Caesar, the Roman politician. With her support, she defeated her brother and returned to Egypt. To return to power, she had to remarry another younger brother, Ptolemy XIV, who had been proclaimed Pharaoh. Her troubled love life accompanied her entire trajectory in power.
After the death of her second husband and lover Julius Caesar, the queen fell in love with Mark Antony, ruler of eastern Rome. However, the relationship was seen as a threat to Rome. After a period of war and persecution, Mark Antony killed himself with his own sword. As for Cleopatra, the cause of her death is still a mystery. Legend says that, after being captured by the Roman soldiers, she would have committed suicide by being bitten by a snake. But more recent studies indicate that she probably died after ingesting poison.
2 – Joan of Arc: the warrior who did not fight in battles
Lived from January 6, 1412 (Domrémy, France) to May 30, 1431 (Rouen, France)
The saint of the Catholic Church is one of the most documented women in world history for her role as a warrior in the name of France. Much of this is due to the fact that the heroine was commander of the French army during the Hundred Years War against England.
However, despite being remembered as a strong and fearless combatant, Joan never fought in battle and never killed anyone. The young woman’s real role was much more strategic. She led the troops, proposed compromise with enemies, and inspired her soldiers with a flag of France throughout every battle.
When she was arrested by the English, Joan was convicted of countless crimes, not just witchcraft. These include crimes of heresy, wearing men’s clothing, and claiming to hear voices and to communicate directly with God.
3 – Elizabeth I: conquered the throne after being arrested for conspiracy
Lived from September 7, 1533 (London, England) to March 24, 1603 (London, England)
The so-called Virgin Queen led England and Ireland from 1558 until her death. Respected and celebrated for her military achievements, her trajectory in power was not at all simple. Elizabeth was the third person in the royal succession. When her sister Mary became queen, Elizabeth was sent to prison for a phase of her life on suspicion of plotting against the queen.
After the death of her brothers, Edward and Mary, she was finally able to take over the English throne. Elizabeth was the only English queen who never married. She turned down a marriage offer from powerful monarchs and kept a secret love for a childhood friend, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester.
When the English parliament tried to force her to agree to marry some monarch from another country, the queen was firm in her refusal. Elizabeth said she was married to her country and had no intention of marrying any man.
Despite having scars and baldness, the consequences of contracting smallpox in an outbreak in the 1560s, she always appeared in public very well dressed and with a lot of makeup. Her public image and vast wardrobe have made her an icon of high fashion to this day.
4 – Jane Austen
Lived December 16, 1775 (Steventon, United Kingdom) to July 18, 1817 (Winchester, United Kingdom)
The greatest female name in English literature had already shown her aptitude and talent for writing from a young age, when she entertained her family with her tales and stories. Daughter of a reverend, Jane was raised to be a good wife, but never married.
She devoted her life to writing and her works gained prominence for the complex family plots and high content of irony and romance. Austen depended financially on her family until she was 36, when her book Reason and Sensitivity was published under a pseudonym and she began to make money.
Today, her books have become international bestsellers and her works have been widely explored by Hollywood and the dramaturgy industry around the world. Despite Jane’s historical importance, there is not even a photograph that depicts Jane’s image. What exists is a drawing, whose sketch was made by her sister Cassandra, which contains the image of the writer. Today, the painting is on display at the National Art Gallery in London.
5 – Marie Curie: The First Person in the World to Win Two Nobel Prizes
Lived from November 7, 1867 (Warsaw, Poland) to July 4, 1934 (Sancellemoz, France)
One of the most important scientists that the world has ever seen, was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize and the first person in the world to win the prize twice, first in Physics and then in the Chemistry category. But her achievements go far beyond that.
Marie Curie had to work twice as hard to get a college education, as most institutions did not accept women. She was the first woman to win the PhD title at the traditional Sorbonne and also the first to teach at the renowned University of Paris.
Next to her husband, French physicist Pierre Curie, she discovered the polonium chemical elements and the radio. Following the death of her husband, Marie developed a portable x-ray machine to serve soldiers fighting in World War I.
It was radiation exposure that caused her death from aplastic anemia. Her notebooks, used for important research notes, still contain remnants of radioactive material and are stored in a lead boxes and so should remain for another 1500 years.
6 – Gertrude Ederle: the woman who broke the record of five male swimmers
Lived October 23, 1905 (New York, USA) to November 30, 2003 (New Jersey, USA)
She was a swimming champion in her teens and competed in the 1924 Olympics. But her greatest achievement came in 1926, at age 19, when Gertrude became the first woman to cross the English Channel, the Atlantic Ocean area that separates England from France. The conquest had previously been made by only five men.
The young girl completed the course in 14 hours and 31 minutes, breaking the previous record of 16 hours and 33 minutes, won by Argentine Enrique Tirabocchi in 1923. At the end of the course, Gertrude was greeted by a huge crowd and was called by the media the Queen of the Waves.
Ten years after her big achievement, she suffered a fall that resulted in a serious back injury so she could not compete again. With a hearing compromised by childhood measles, Ederle devoted her time teaching swimming at a school for deaf children in Lexington, United States.
7 – Mother Teresa of Calcutta: A Life in Misery to Help the Needy
Lived August 26, 1910 (Skopje, Northern Macedonia) to September 5, 1997 (Kolkata, India)
Her baptismal name is Anjezë Gonxhe Bojaxhiu, but the spiritual call that came as a teenager made her adopt the name Teresa in honor of the holy Teresa of Lisieux and Teresa of Avila. Her example of life meant that in 2016 she was canonized and declared holy by the Catholic Church.
At 18, Teresa traveled to India as a missionary, where she worked tirelessly for the poor. After that, he never met her mother and brothers again. There, Sister Teresa settled in Calcutta and began teaching geography and history.
To be by the side of those most in need, she herself starved and lived in misery. In 1950, Teresa founded the Missionaries of Charity group, which today has over 5,000 people around the world.
Her vast work in teaching, sanitation, hygiene, caring for the sick, opening hospitals and homes for orphaned children earned her the 1979 Nobel Peace Prize. One thousand dollars was converted to aid for the poor in India.
8 – Rosa Parks: Your Act culminated in the Civil Rights Movement
Lived February 4, 1913 (Alabama, USA) to October 24, 2005 (Michigan, USA)
This civil rights activist has left her name in history for a significant gesture in the struggle for racial equality. In 1955, she was arrested for refusing to give up her seat on a bus to a white passenger in the city of Montgomery, Alabama.
Their initiative gained notoriety and culminated in the Civil Rights Movement to end racial segregation. But Parks’s life has other notable achievements to remember. Although she dropped out of school to care for her sick grandmother, at age 19 she resumed her studies and managed to graduate when only 7% of blacks were able to do so.
As a political activist, she was arrested again alongside 114 other people while participating in a boycott movement to segregate buses. After losing her job and being threatened with death, Rosa and her husband moved to Detroit, where they worked on causes for racial equality for the rest of their lives.
In 1987, they founded the Rosa and Raymond Parks Self-Development Institute, a youth-oriented civil rights organization. When Rosa died, her funeral received over 30,000 people, with honors reserved only for statesmen and military personnel.
9 – Anne Frank spent two years in a hiding place with her family.
Lived June 12, 1929 (Frankfurt, Germany) to February 1945 (Bergen-Belsen, Germany)
Anne Frank’s Diary was written by the 13-year-old as she and her family fled Nazism. The most famous diary published in the history of literature has sold over 30 million copies and won versions in 67 different languages.
Annelies Marie Frank on her 13th birthday had a notebook for a gift, just before the family had to hide to escape the Nazi persecution. In July 1942, after her older sister was summoned to work in a German labor camp, they all hid in a refuge behind her father’s office.
In the 2 years and 35 days spent there, the young woman – who wanted to become a writer – reported details of the family’s routine in hiding, her main fears and greatest yearnings. In August 1944, after an anonymous denunciation, Anne’s family and others in the same hiding place were arrested.
The young woman died of typhus after being sent to the Bergen-Belsen concentration camp. It was Anne’s father, Otto, the only survivor of the family, who collected all the material written by his daughter and authorized its publication in 1947.
10 – Princess Diana: A Life of Sadness and Loneliness within the English Monarchy
Lived from July 1, 1961 (Sandringham, United Kingdom) to August 31, 1997 (Paris, France)
Fourth of 5 children, little Diana saw her parents divorce when she was just 7 years old and was educated at home until she was 9 years old. During her youth, she worked as a nanny and teacher before meeting Prince Charles, who would later become her husband, a fact that gave her the title of Princess of Wales.
However, the royal couple did not live a successful union. Before marrying in 1981, Charles and Diana had only met 12 times. Throughout her life, Lady Di, as she was called, recorded on cassette tapes in which she spoke of her unhappiness, her husband’s unfaithfulness, her eating disorders, and suicide attempts.
Throughout her public life, Diana devoted herself to philanthropy. She embraced the cause of people with HIV and worked to end the prejudice that HIV-positive people suffered. She also participated in the International Campaign for the Elimination of Landmines, a project that won the Nobel Peace Prize.
11 – Malala Yousafzai: The young woman the Taliban could not silence
Born July 12, 1997 (Mingora, Pakistan) and is now 21
She was just a girl who wanted to defend the right of young Pakistani girls to go to school. However, the blog on which she expounded on her ideas and public statements gained widespread repercussions, prompting Taliban members to attempt to murder her in a school bus. Malala was 15 years old, shot 3 times and survived.
The attack did not stop Malala. On the contrary. Just two years after that, she received the Nobel Peace Prize for her role as a human rights activist, as well as 40 other awards and honors. At 18, she founded a school for young refugees from Syria.
Considered by Times magazine to be one of the 100 most influential people in the world, the young Pakistani woman won the UN title of Messenger of Peace. Malala currently lives in the United Kingdom, where she studies philosophy, politics and economics at Oxford University and intends to pursue a political career in Pakistan. | 2,971 | ENGLISH | 1 |
First of all, what is the stem cell?
We know that a cell is formed first in the combination of sperm and egg and it is gradually divided into many other cells and later on, these cells gradually convert to skin and other organs. The primary ambition cells are called stem cells. The transition to this organ is quite complicated and scientists have been trying to understand this process for 40 years. Since these stem cells are converted to the organ, we can make the organs from them if we can program them properly. Based on this idea, many scientists have been able to perform some successful experiments.
Scientists are very optimistic about stem cells. And there’s a lot of work to be done and how to use stem cells to prevent disease. Especially those diseases that people have not overcome. Scientists dream of conquering them using stem cells to cover them. Many preliminary studies have yielded very promising results.
In 1962, John Gordon of the United Kingdom discovered how stem cells can be formed from the body cells. After that, scientists do a lot of work on its application. But there’s not much to be done about how to easily create stem cells. But she was very surprised to find out that she was a man of the people. The researchers at The University of Kyoto in Japan showed a tremendous surprise to the scientists. He shows that it is not very difficult to create stem cells. By changing only 4 genes in the common cell, it is easy to create stem cells.
We know that the most important ones who played the role or who did the initial work were rewarded when they were awarded the Nobel Prize. We were hearing about the deadly hope of stem cells and scientists were hoping that no one would be given a Nobel on stem cells soon.
We are very pleased to announce the Nobel Prize. This will increase the interest of all and will help scientists to advance medical science by doing research on the issue by funding the work. | <urn:uuid:3813a6a2-148f-42f4-a90b-bd7a428ce442> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://despacito71.com/stem-cell-and-nobel-prize/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00397.warc.gz | en | 0.980919 | 390 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.068336822092533... | 4 | First of all, what is the stem cell?
We know that a cell is formed first in the combination of sperm and egg and it is gradually divided into many other cells and later on, these cells gradually convert to skin and other organs. The primary ambition cells are called stem cells. The transition to this organ is quite complicated and scientists have been trying to understand this process for 40 years. Since these stem cells are converted to the organ, we can make the organs from them if we can program them properly. Based on this idea, many scientists have been able to perform some successful experiments.
Scientists are very optimistic about stem cells. And there’s a lot of work to be done and how to use stem cells to prevent disease. Especially those diseases that people have not overcome. Scientists dream of conquering them using stem cells to cover them. Many preliminary studies have yielded very promising results.
In 1962, John Gordon of the United Kingdom discovered how stem cells can be formed from the body cells. After that, scientists do a lot of work on its application. But there’s not much to be done about how to easily create stem cells. But she was very surprised to find out that she was a man of the people. The researchers at The University of Kyoto in Japan showed a tremendous surprise to the scientists. He shows that it is not very difficult to create stem cells. By changing only 4 genes in the common cell, it is easy to create stem cells.
We know that the most important ones who played the role or who did the initial work were rewarded when they were awarded the Nobel Prize. We were hearing about the deadly hope of stem cells and scientists were hoping that no one would be given a Nobel on stem cells soon.
We are very pleased to announce the Nobel Prize. This will increase the interest of all and will help scientists to advance medical science by doing research on the issue by funding the work. | 389 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Economic Reasons, self-determination, and grievances all took part in the cause of the American Revolution. The Americans were angry because the British forced Americans to pay taxes on goods. The Americans were tired of unfair treatment and laws so they decided to revolt to start their own country.
Causes : The Reasons Why The Americans Revolted
The American Revolution began due to colonists having no voice in Parliament, economic reasons involving trade,and unfair laws and treatment. Having no voice in Parliament was a cause that led to the American Revolution because the Americans had a lot of self-determination. This was important because the Americans wanted to have their own colonial governments and legislatures. Another one of the American Revolution’s main causes was economic reason economic reasons involving trade. This helped lead to a revolution because colonists were required to buy and sell goods only with Britain. The last reason of the American Revolution was unfair laws and treatment because the Americans wanted to be treated fairly. This was important because the way the British were treating the Americans was harsh and uncalled for. In conclusion the American Revolution began due to colonists having no voice in Parliament, economic reasons involving trade, and unfair laws and treatment.
Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Sara Soto American Revolution" essay for you
The American Revolution changed the U.S by declaring to separate from Great Britain, having their own country,and having their own government. One of the American Revolution’s main outcomes was separating from Great Britain. This meant that the U.S was going to be its own country. Due to the American Revolution the U.S became its own country. This was important because the U.S could have its own regulations now. The last outcome of the American Revolution was the U.S having their own government and laws. This was vital to the American Revolution because lots of Americans were very happy with having their own set of rules and being free from the British. The American Revolution led to fairness for the Americans and changed the U.S by being free and not controlled.
A Popular Opinion
I think the American Revolution was successful because the Americans now had freedom and rights unlike when they were with Britain. One reason that the American Revolution was successful is because the Americans had their own government.This shows that the revolution was successful because the Americans had to follow the British government and with their own government it shows that the Americans were independent. Another reason on why the American Revolution was successful is because the Americans also had now there own laws and rights. This was important because Americans did not have to oblige with the harsh rules of the British. The last reason on why the American Revolution was successful is because the Americans now had there own country. This was vital to the Americans because the Americans would consider themselves self-independent and self-determined.In conclusion the American Revolution was successful by believing in the values of the Americans which were self determination, self worth for making a government, and independent because they having their own laws.
Having doubts about how to write your paper correctly?
Our editors will help you fix any mistakes and get an A+! | <urn:uuid:0e235200-02e0-4f65-a07f-b08b2def5f39> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studydriver.com/sara-soto-american-revolution/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00138.warc.gz | en | 0.988081 | 636 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.2725560069... | 1 | Economic Reasons, self-determination, and grievances all took part in the cause of the American Revolution. The Americans were angry because the British forced Americans to pay taxes on goods. The Americans were tired of unfair treatment and laws so they decided to revolt to start their own country.
Causes : The Reasons Why The Americans Revolted
The American Revolution began due to colonists having no voice in Parliament, economic reasons involving trade,and unfair laws and treatment. Having no voice in Parliament was a cause that led to the American Revolution because the Americans had a lot of self-determination. This was important because the Americans wanted to have their own colonial governments and legislatures. Another one of the American Revolution’s main causes was economic reason economic reasons involving trade. This helped lead to a revolution because colonists were required to buy and sell goods only with Britain. The last reason of the American Revolution was unfair laws and treatment because the Americans wanted to be treated fairly. This was important because the way the British were treating the Americans was harsh and uncalled for. In conclusion the American Revolution began due to colonists having no voice in Parliament, economic reasons involving trade, and unfair laws and treatment.
Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Sara Soto American Revolution" essay for you
The American Revolution changed the U.S by declaring to separate from Great Britain, having their own country,and having their own government. One of the American Revolution’s main outcomes was separating from Great Britain. This meant that the U.S was going to be its own country. Due to the American Revolution the U.S became its own country. This was important because the U.S could have its own regulations now. The last outcome of the American Revolution was the U.S having their own government and laws. This was vital to the American Revolution because lots of Americans were very happy with having their own set of rules and being free from the British. The American Revolution led to fairness for the Americans and changed the U.S by being free and not controlled.
A Popular Opinion
I think the American Revolution was successful because the Americans now had freedom and rights unlike when they were with Britain. One reason that the American Revolution was successful is because the Americans had their own government.This shows that the revolution was successful because the Americans had to follow the British government and with their own government it shows that the Americans were independent. Another reason on why the American Revolution was successful is because the Americans also had now there own laws and rights. This was important because Americans did not have to oblige with the harsh rules of the British. The last reason on why the American Revolution was successful is because the Americans now had there own country. This was vital to the Americans because the Americans would consider themselves self-independent and self-determined.In conclusion the American Revolution was successful by believing in the values of the Americans which were self determination, self worth for making a government, and independent because they having their own laws.
Having doubts about how to write your paper correctly?
Our editors will help you fix any mistakes and get an A+! | 618 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It is pretty obvious to see that not everyone is the same as you. You are a unique individual, but there are certain characteristics, traits, beliefs, etc. that are common and tie you to another person or a group(s) of people. This isn’t a bad thing, but something that you can use to connect with others and find common ground. However, there is a line that can be crossed if you take these uniting commonalities to use that union against other people who are dissimilar to you. This is also known as a hate crime. Essentially, when you target groups that are different from you and you “hate on them” by being disrespectful to them or physically doing something to them that is harmful.
Usually a hate crime is because of race, ethnicity, religion, gender, sexual orientation, color, disability, or National Origin. On the National Crime Prevention Council’s website, it says that the a hate crime can be referred to as “not only…an attack on one’s physical self, but it is also an attack on one’s very identity.” Bias, prejudice, and bigotry are the causing factors for hate crime. And, what the most astonishing thing to find out is that half of all hate crimes are committed by youth between the ages of 15 and 24!! Most of the time, these crimes are committed because these youth have been misinformed or are ignorant of the group they are targeting for their hate.
The good news is that this doesn’t have to be this way: it is learned behavior. You, as a youth and adult, can change this and make your community accepting and decrease its number of hate crimes committed. More likely than not, if you look at things beyond the physical appearances, you will find that those who may look, think, or act differently than you can share some common interests with you. So, rather than staying away or making derogatory comments towards someone who is unlike than you, try to get to know them and their story. It may surprise you that you find a new friend or that your previous perception was wrong. Remember that you are as different to them as they are to you and a hate crime can easily be put onto you, so if you don’t want it done to you, don’t do it to others.
Another thing you can do is ask others to stop saying hateful things or demeaning comments about a certain group. Telling them that it is offensive to hear that is a way to stand up to hate crimes. Also, if someone continually does it, take your complaint to someone with authority who can deal with the situation in another manner. This may not change anything overnight, but you are making the world more peaceful and a better place to live by speaking up! | <urn:uuid:6dc57d9e-5a04-4d96-89ef-4b8b3f3df1d2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://clearminds.wordpress.com/2011/10/08/bringing-cultural-awareness-to-your-community/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00063.warc.gz | en | 0.981336 | 577 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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-0.198011070489... | 2 | It is pretty obvious to see that not everyone is the same as you. You are a unique individual, but there are certain characteristics, traits, beliefs, etc. that are common and tie you to another person or a group(s) of people. This isn’t a bad thing, but something that you can use to connect with others and find common ground. However, there is a line that can be crossed if you take these uniting commonalities to use that union against other people who are dissimilar to you. This is also known as a hate crime. Essentially, when you target groups that are different from you and you “hate on them” by being disrespectful to them or physically doing something to them that is harmful.
Usually a hate crime is because of race, ethnicity, religion, gender, sexual orientation, color, disability, or National Origin. On the National Crime Prevention Council’s website, it says that the a hate crime can be referred to as “not only…an attack on one’s physical self, but it is also an attack on one’s very identity.” Bias, prejudice, and bigotry are the causing factors for hate crime. And, what the most astonishing thing to find out is that half of all hate crimes are committed by youth between the ages of 15 and 24!! Most of the time, these crimes are committed because these youth have been misinformed or are ignorant of the group they are targeting for their hate.
The good news is that this doesn’t have to be this way: it is learned behavior. You, as a youth and adult, can change this and make your community accepting and decrease its number of hate crimes committed. More likely than not, if you look at things beyond the physical appearances, you will find that those who may look, think, or act differently than you can share some common interests with you. So, rather than staying away or making derogatory comments towards someone who is unlike than you, try to get to know them and their story. It may surprise you that you find a new friend or that your previous perception was wrong. Remember that you are as different to them as they are to you and a hate crime can easily be put onto you, so if you don’t want it done to you, don’t do it to others.
Another thing you can do is ask others to stop saying hateful things or demeaning comments about a certain group. Telling them that it is offensive to hear that is a way to stand up to hate crimes. Also, if someone continually does it, take your complaint to someone with authority who can deal with the situation in another manner. This may not change anything overnight, but you are making the world more peaceful and a better place to live by speaking up! | 560 | ENGLISH | 1 |
When the ship Sydney Cove was wrecked north of the Tasmanian mainland in 1797, more than 31,500 litres of alcohol went to the bottom with her. The wreck was rediscovered in 1977 and in the 1990s some of the beer bottles were found intact. Scientists and brewers collaborated to make the world’s oldest beer with living yeasts salvaged from those bottles. It went on sale in 2017 as James Squire The Wreck Survivors Ale.
The first coin to become official currency in New South Wales was the cartwheel penny, minted in London in 1797 and shipped to the colonies to alleviate the shortage of coinage. In the early days, coins from many countries were in circulation and their value was often in dispute. In 1880, when the pennies arrived Governor King issued a proclamation defining the value of the various currencies. The pennies were circulated in Australia at 2d (twopence) to discourage visiting merchants from accepting them and removing them from the colony.
The first ten liquor licenses were issued in 1796 by Governor Captain John Hunter. The measure was intended to control the liquor trade. Among Australia’s first pubs to be granted a license was the Mason’s Arms (also called the Freemason’s Arms) in Parramatta. This establishment (albeit in a different building) continues to trade as the Woolpack Hotel. More
Settlement of the Hawkesbury area was initiated by Lieutenant Governor Major Francis Grose to help make the colony self-supporting. The rich land along the Hawkesbury River became known as the “granary of the colony”. The farms at Pitt Town Bottoms in the Hawkesbury area are Australia’s oldest still under cultivation. More
Successive governors of New South Wales failed to control the excesses of the officers of the New South Wales Corps, which became known as the Rum Corps. They had a monopoly over the trade in rum and much of the new colony’s food. Rum (a name given to any strong spirit) was used as currency and was both imported and manufactured locally. Governor Lachlan Macquarie eventually introduced a licensing system and established a stable coin currency which curbed the trade.
While Governor Phillip had insisted on equal rations for all in the new colony, his successor, Major Francis Grose, was less equitable. After a poor harvest in 1793, he cut the rations of convicts but not those of the New South Wales Corps. His land grants to officers of the Corps were intended to improve agricultural production, with the use of convicts as farm labour. Effectively, the Corps began to control the food supply, selling goods to the government store. More
John Macarthur was a lieutenant in the New South Wales Corps who arrived with the Second Fleet in 1890. In 1793, he was granted land at Rosehill, later renamed Parramatta. He named the property Elizabeth Farm after his wife. Macarthur was instrumental in the development of Australia’s wool industry.He wrote of the original cottage: “The house is surrounded by a vineyard and garden of 3 acres, the former full of vines and fruits trees, and the latter abounding with most excellent vegetables”. More
At first named Eastern Farms, this area of what is now Ryde became known as Kissing Point by 1794. It was originally inhabited by the Wallumedegal people. The first land grants, each of 30 acres, were made to ten emancipated convicts in 1792. The area became an important source of produce for the colony, supplying Sydney with fruit, vegetables, poultry, maize and pigs. More
The French navigator, Antoine Bruni d’Entrecasteaux, visited and named Recherche Bay on the extreme south-east corner of Tasmania in 1792 and returned in 1793. On one of these visits, a botanist from his party planted the first Tasmanian garden – a vegetable garden edged with stones. The remains of the garden were uncovered by archaeologists in 2003. More
Construction of the first government water mill began in 1792 at Parramatta. Thomas Allen, previously employed at King’s Mill, Rotherhithe on the Thames was engaged at a salary of £52 per annum, to work as master-miller for the colony. The construction was beset by problems. The water mill was completed in 1804 but lack of water, and then floods, hampered operations. More
In 1790, the colonists at Port Jackson faced their harshest conditions. Early attempts at agriculture had produced little. While hunting and fishing did supplement meagre supplies, starvation was a real possibility. Rations were reduced by two thirds, the weekly allowance per person being 2 lb (1 kilogram) of pork, 2.5 lb (1.2 kilograms) of flour and 2 lb (1 kilogram) of rice. More | <urn:uuid:c3bb7243-858a-4631-9b2c-fac9be40460b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://australianfoodtimeline.com.au/tag/1790s/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00491.warc.gz | en | 0.982085 | 1,012 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.56509804725... | 3 | When the ship Sydney Cove was wrecked north of the Tasmanian mainland in 1797, more than 31,500 litres of alcohol went to the bottom with her. The wreck was rediscovered in 1977 and in the 1990s some of the beer bottles were found intact. Scientists and brewers collaborated to make the world’s oldest beer with living yeasts salvaged from those bottles. It went on sale in 2017 as James Squire The Wreck Survivors Ale.
The first coin to become official currency in New South Wales was the cartwheel penny, minted in London in 1797 and shipped to the colonies to alleviate the shortage of coinage. In the early days, coins from many countries were in circulation and their value was often in dispute. In 1880, when the pennies arrived Governor King issued a proclamation defining the value of the various currencies. The pennies were circulated in Australia at 2d (twopence) to discourage visiting merchants from accepting them and removing them from the colony.
The first ten liquor licenses were issued in 1796 by Governor Captain John Hunter. The measure was intended to control the liquor trade. Among Australia’s first pubs to be granted a license was the Mason’s Arms (also called the Freemason’s Arms) in Parramatta. This establishment (albeit in a different building) continues to trade as the Woolpack Hotel. More
Settlement of the Hawkesbury area was initiated by Lieutenant Governor Major Francis Grose to help make the colony self-supporting. The rich land along the Hawkesbury River became known as the “granary of the colony”. The farms at Pitt Town Bottoms in the Hawkesbury area are Australia’s oldest still under cultivation. More
Successive governors of New South Wales failed to control the excesses of the officers of the New South Wales Corps, which became known as the Rum Corps. They had a monopoly over the trade in rum and much of the new colony’s food. Rum (a name given to any strong spirit) was used as currency and was both imported and manufactured locally. Governor Lachlan Macquarie eventually introduced a licensing system and established a stable coin currency which curbed the trade.
While Governor Phillip had insisted on equal rations for all in the new colony, his successor, Major Francis Grose, was less equitable. After a poor harvest in 1793, he cut the rations of convicts but not those of the New South Wales Corps. His land grants to officers of the Corps were intended to improve agricultural production, with the use of convicts as farm labour. Effectively, the Corps began to control the food supply, selling goods to the government store. More
John Macarthur was a lieutenant in the New South Wales Corps who arrived with the Second Fleet in 1890. In 1793, he was granted land at Rosehill, later renamed Parramatta. He named the property Elizabeth Farm after his wife. Macarthur was instrumental in the development of Australia’s wool industry.He wrote of the original cottage: “The house is surrounded by a vineyard and garden of 3 acres, the former full of vines and fruits trees, and the latter abounding with most excellent vegetables”. More
At first named Eastern Farms, this area of what is now Ryde became known as Kissing Point by 1794. It was originally inhabited by the Wallumedegal people. The first land grants, each of 30 acres, were made to ten emancipated convicts in 1792. The area became an important source of produce for the colony, supplying Sydney with fruit, vegetables, poultry, maize and pigs. More
The French navigator, Antoine Bruni d’Entrecasteaux, visited and named Recherche Bay on the extreme south-east corner of Tasmania in 1792 and returned in 1793. On one of these visits, a botanist from his party planted the first Tasmanian garden – a vegetable garden edged with stones. The remains of the garden were uncovered by archaeologists in 2003. More
Construction of the first government water mill began in 1792 at Parramatta. Thomas Allen, previously employed at King’s Mill, Rotherhithe on the Thames was engaged at a salary of £52 per annum, to work as master-miller for the colony. The construction was beset by problems. The water mill was completed in 1804 but lack of water, and then floods, hampered operations. More
In 1790, the colonists at Port Jackson faced their harshest conditions. Early attempts at agriculture had produced little. While hunting and fishing did supplement meagre supplies, starvation was a real possibility. Rations were reduced by two thirds, the weekly allowance per person being 2 lb (1 kilogram) of pork, 2.5 lb (1.2 kilograms) of flour and 2 lb (1 kilogram) of rice. More | 1,057 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pre-Assessment: Nicole my co-teacher and I used group discussions with students at the beginning of each lesson to assess if students had prior knowledge on the tools and techniques of the materials, key concepts and vocabulary related to the lesson, and the background of the professional artists we were referencing. We felt that a discussion would be a more appropriate pre-assessment tool for second and third grade students rather than a written test or reflection because our students had an easier time articulating their thoughts verbally rather than with writing (they were still learning sentence structure and spelling). Dialogue not only encouraged students to "think aloud" about art, but it also helped them practice critical discussion skills with their peers when examining work. During work time, in-progress check-ins between us and the students also helped us gage where students were with their prior knowledge on the lesson. Our assessment of prior knowledge was not only based on how well they could articulate the art-making process with us, but how often they took the initiative to explain it to their other classmates that struggled a bit more.
Sketchbook ideation was another example of pre-assessing students' prior knowledge, particularly when it came to technical drawing skills and planning for ideas. The criteria for evaluating the students' ideation work is in our rubric, which is discussed in the post-assessment section.
Post-Assessment: We created a rubric for each of our lessons that measured each student in three categories:
creative thinking, decision making and problem-solving (ideation)
demonstrating skill development and understanding (tools and techniques; expressive features and inherent characteristics)
reflection (critical reflection)
The criteria for meeting each category differs between each lesson. Points were given based on a rating scale: basic (1 point), developing (2 points), and proficient (3 points). We did not feel that any of our students were at the advanced stage of the art-making process yet, so we decided to not include that in our rubric.
It is important to note that while we did include an assessment for ideation in the pipe cleaner lesson plan, we did not evaluate students on this part of the assignment. This is because we only had one day to complete the assignment, so we wanted to make sure they had enough time to work on their final project as possible. If we had more days, we would've given students more time during class to plan out the designs for their animals in their sketchbooks.
Sketchbooks: The sketchbooks were the resource students used for the ideation stage of their lesson. This aspect of the assessment mainly helped us determine what students already knew when it came to visually planning out their ideas for each lesson and what kind of technical drawing skills they needed assistance on. For example:
For the stamp lesson, we assessed if students knew how to make a thumbnail sketch, could scale down larger and more complex drawings into a smaller size, could simplify details in their thumbnail sketches to make carving easier in the final block, and understood that the block would print a reversed image of their drawing and should plan accordingly for it.
For the quilted partner portrait lesson, we assessed if students understood how to draw each facial features with relatively correct proportions. We let them draw a face first before we showed them how to do it, mainly because they were more infatuated with jumping in and creating art rather than sitting through a demonstration.
For the pipe cleaner lesson plan, we assessed if students understood how to create a gesture drawing of a cat so they knew how to build a gestural skeletal form with pipe cleaners. Because students did not have time to create gesture drawings of their pipe cleaner animals, we did not factor these scores into the final graph. This is because we felt that the students creating a gesture drawing from the same cat photo did not accurately demonstrate student growth between the pre- and post-assessments.
Blog: Our blogs demonstrated student growth on a weekly basis by capturing photos and quotes of the students during the art-making process. The blog was not only imperative for determining if the students met the objectives of our assignment. It also captured the students' a-ha moments and their ability to engage and persist through challenges. The blog gave us a visual representation of what went well during the lesson, and what kinds of things we could potentially tweak in the future.
Individual and Group Discussions: These were the most important resources we had for determining what students already knew about the technical and conceptual aspects of each lesson, and what specifically they needed a lot of assistance with. One-on-one discussions with students during class time gave us some perspective on which students needed a lot more individualized attention and which students had an easier time thinking independently. This was also the time when we saw students taking initiative to help other classmates that were stuck. For example, during our quilted partner portrait lesson, we had a couple of students volunteer to teach their table mates how to draw a nose and a mouth, even though Nicole and I offered our insights.
Group Discussions at the beginning of the lesson helped us determine if students were familiar with the materials they were going to be working with, the concepts they would be integrating into their work, key vocabulary terms relevant to the assignment, and the professional artists we showed that were relevant to our lesson. Though all of our pre-assessment questions are detailed in the pre-assessment and instruction sections of our lesson plans, here are some examples of pre-assessment questions we asked the students:
Lesson 2: How does working with more than one material add to the expression of a portrait? What are the parts of a face that make up a portrait? How do warm and cool color schemes express emotion related to a person's identity? What are the similarities and differences of artwork that has a single image versus multiple images?
Lesson 3: What is the difference between two-dimensional art and three-dimensional art? What materials can we use to make a three-dimensional shape? What can we do to the material to make it stand on its own? How can drawing help us plan to make a sculpture? How can we build sculptures using pipe cleaner wire?
Rubric:As stated in the previous section, the rubric helped us determine how successfully students applied discussions and demonstrations on tools/techniques and expressive features/inherent characteristics of art materials into their final products. Students that scored higher points demonstrated a strong understanding of materials, how clearly they articulated their concept from their sketchbooks onto their final projects, and took risks when it came to materials exploration.
Gallery Walk and Reflective Activity: On the last day of our unit, we took students through the exhibition of all their work. They had to fill out a worksheet called "The Art Sandwich" that taught them how to identify strengths and improvements in each person's work based on how they used line, shape, and color. After the gallery walk, we arranged students in a circle and had them explain what they liked about each persons' work, and also which lesson they enjoyed the most and what they learned. Though students seemed to like all three lessons for various reasons, the stamp lesson seemed to be the most popular because the students had never tried printmaking before. The quilt lesson came in second because students got a chance to work with watercolors and warm/cool color schemes. Students probably would've enjoyed the pipe cleaner lesson more if they had more days to work on their lesson, though some students appreciated creating a 3-D animal. Below are the examples of reflection questions we had prepared and the art sandwich worksheet students filled out during the gallery walk.
Pre-and Post-Assessment Results
These graphs chart the growth of all our students between the pre-assessment and the post-assessment of all three of their lessons. Each of their final scores for each lesson were added up for a final total score, which was applied into these graphs. To provide quantitative data for student growth in the pre-assessment, we tallied their creative thinking, decision making and problem-solving (ideation) scores of each student using the rubric. This is because we did not have number-based data to assess student knowledge from the group discussions we had about each lesson. The post-assessment charted the total scores of
Graph A shows each student progress from the beginning to the end of the unit
Graph B compared pre- and post-assessment scores between students in the first half of the alphabet compared to students in the second half of the alphabet. This was based on first names only, as last names were not disclosed to us.
Discussion of Pre-and Post-Assessment Results
In Graph A, student growth between pre- and post-assessments can be determined by how long each bar is in comparison to the other students. For examples, students 6, 9, 11, 16, and 17 had the highest post-assessment scores. However, student 6 and student 17 had lower pre-assessment scores compared to students 9, 11, and 16. This indicated that the knowledge they gained from the assignment increased their post-assessment scores significantly from their pre-assessment scores, indicating that there was a small curve of growth. If there was no growth, then student 6 (who had the highest post-assessment score) would've also had the highest pre-assessment score. But students 9, 10, 11, 16, and 18 had the highest pre-assessment scores. When it came to the pre-assessment scores, there are also not as many distinct jumps between students compared to their post-assessment scores. While most of our students started out with roughly the same prior knowledge on the content of our lessons (specifically when it came to technical drawing skills and conceptual planning), the post-assessment results determined that some students had a larger spike of knowledge than others. However, the difference is extreme in only a few cases.
Graph B indicates that students in the first half of the alphabet had lower scores on both the pre-and post-assessment compared to the second half. However, there is not a significant difference between the data. This means that students' prior knowledge of information from the ideation and the execution of the final product remains relatively consistent when clustered together. There are no distinct variables besides letter placement in the alphabet. We were not able to assess boys versus girls because there were slightly more girls than boys, which would've skewed the data in favor of girls performing better than boys. We also were not able to assess grade level, since we were not told which students were second graders and which were third graders.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Assessment
Strengths: Our priority with assessing student growth in the rubric was determining if students acquired basic drawing and design skills, as well as how comfortable they were working with unfamiliar materials. This was because our second and third grade students cared a lot more about playing and experimenting with the materials rather than heavily planning their concepts out. Our assessment of their conceptual interpretation of the assignment was based more on creative risk-taking and our ability to clearly read their intent based on their ideation sketches. Technical skills were not a large factor for communicating concept well. We also took great care that the rubric not only met all of our objectives, but rewarded students points based on the five art learnings. We felt that this made rewarding points more about process and product than just strictly product.
Weaknesses: We did not feel that a quantitative graph really captured the essence of student growth throughout the unit compared to the qualitative data we gained from our formative assessments. This is because pre-assessment in our elementary art class was heavily based on verbally processing things out loud and critically thinking about art with a group rather than a worksheet that had them fill out questions. Also, based on the little amount of time that Nicole and I spent at Polaris, we felt that expeditionary and experiential learning is a lot more qualitative than it is quantitative. Though the graph does show student growth between pre- and post-assessment scores, it does not detail the differentiated growth each student went through or the profound insights they made during the art-making process. These are the things that might have a stronger impact for the success of teaching a unit at a school like Polaris, compared to a public school. | <urn:uuid:276798c6-d9b8-4e6a-aa58-ded42834364e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://eportfolioessmith.weebly.com/assessmentinstruction-and-learning.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00556.warc.gz | en | 0.980633 | 2,531 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.39000016450... | 2 | Pre-Assessment: Nicole my co-teacher and I used group discussions with students at the beginning of each lesson to assess if students had prior knowledge on the tools and techniques of the materials, key concepts and vocabulary related to the lesson, and the background of the professional artists we were referencing. We felt that a discussion would be a more appropriate pre-assessment tool for second and third grade students rather than a written test or reflection because our students had an easier time articulating their thoughts verbally rather than with writing (they were still learning sentence structure and spelling). Dialogue not only encouraged students to "think aloud" about art, but it also helped them practice critical discussion skills with their peers when examining work. During work time, in-progress check-ins between us and the students also helped us gage where students were with their prior knowledge on the lesson. Our assessment of prior knowledge was not only based on how well they could articulate the art-making process with us, but how often they took the initiative to explain it to their other classmates that struggled a bit more.
Sketchbook ideation was another example of pre-assessing students' prior knowledge, particularly when it came to technical drawing skills and planning for ideas. The criteria for evaluating the students' ideation work is in our rubric, which is discussed in the post-assessment section.
Post-Assessment: We created a rubric for each of our lessons that measured each student in three categories:
creative thinking, decision making and problem-solving (ideation)
demonstrating skill development and understanding (tools and techniques; expressive features and inherent characteristics)
reflection (critical reflection)
The criteria for meeting each category differs between each lesson. Points were given based on a rating scale: basic (1 point), developing (2 points), and proficient (3 points). We did not feel that any of our students were at the advanced stage of the art-making process yet, so we decided to not include that in our rubric.
It is important to note that while we did include an assessment for ideation in the pipe cleaner lesson plan, we did not evaluate students on this part of the assignment. This is because we only had one day to complete the assignment, so we wanted to make sure they had enough time to work on their final project as possible. If we had more days, we would've given students more time during class to plan out the designs for their animals in their sketchbooks.
Sketchbooks: The sketchbooks were the resource students used for the ideation stage of their lesson. This aspect of the assessment mainly helped us determine what students already knew when it came to visually planning out their ideas for each lesson and what kind of technical drawing skills they needed assistance on. For example:
For the stamp lesson, we assessed if students knew how to make a thumbnail sketch, could scale down larger and more complex drawings into a smaller size, could simplify details in their thumbnail sketches to make carving easier in the final block, and understood that the block would print a reversed image of their drawing and should plan accordingly for it.
For the quilted partner portrait lesson, we assessed if students understood how to draw each facial features with relatively correct proportions. We let them draw a face first before we showed them how to do it, mainly because they were more infatuated with jumping in and creating art rather than sitting through a demonstration.
For the pipe cleaner lesson plan, we assessed if students understood how to create a gesture drawing of a cat so they knew how to build a gestural skeletal form with pipe cleaners. Because students did not have time to create gesture drawings of their pipe cleaner animals, we did not factor these scores into the final graph. This is because we felt that the students creating a gesture drawing from the same cat photo did not accurately demonstrate student growth between the pre- and post-assessments.
Blog: Our blogs demonstrated student growth on a weekly basis by capturing photos and quotes of the students during the art-making process. The blog was not only imperative for determining if the students met the objectives of our assignment. It also captured the students' a-ha moments and their ability to engage and persist through challenges. The blog gave us a visual representation of what went well during the lesson, and what kinds of things we could potentially tweak in the future.
Individual and Group Discussions: These were the most important resources we had for determining what students already knew about the technical and conceptual aspects of each lesson, and what specifically they needed a lot of assistance with. One-on-one discussions with students during class time gave us some perspective on which students needed a lot more individualized attention and which students had an easier time thinking independently. This was also the time when we saw students taking initiative to help other classmates that were stuck. For example, during our quilted partner portrait lesson, we had a couple of students volunteer to teach their table mates how to draw a nose and a mouth, even though Nicole and I offered our insights.
Group Discussions at the beginning of the lesson helped us determine if students were familiar with the materials they were going to be working with, the concepts they would be integrating into their work, key vocabulary terms relevant to the assignment, and the professional artists we showed that were relevant to our lesson. Though all of our pre-assessment questions are detailed in the pre-assessment and instruction sections of our lesson plans, here are some examples of pre-assessment questions we asked the students:
Lesson 2: How does working with more than one material add to the expression of a portrait? What are the parts of a face that make up a portrait? How do warm and cool color schemes express emotion related to a person's identity? What are the similarities and differences of artwork that has a single image versus multiple images?
Lesson 3: What is the difference between two-dimensional art and three-dimensional art? What materials can we use to make a three-dimensional shape? What can we do to the material to make it stand on its own? How can drawing help us plan to make a sculpture? How can we build sculptures using pipe cleaner wire?
Rubric:As stated in the previous section, the rubric helped us determine how successfully students applied discussions and demonstrations on tools/techniques and expressive features/inherent characteristics of art materials into their final products. Students that scored higher points demonstrated a strong understanding of materials, how clearly they articulated their concept from their sketchbooks onto their final projects, and took risks when it came to materials exploration.
Gallery Walk and Reflective Activity: On the last day of our unit, we took students through the exhibition of all their work. They had to fill out a worksheet called "The Art Sandwich" that taught them how to identify strengths and improvements in each person's work based on how they used line, shape, and color. After the gallery walk, we arranged students in a circle and had them explain what they liked about each persons' work, and also which lesson they enjoyed the most and what they learned. Though students seemed to like all three lessons for various reasons, the stamp lesson seemed to be the most popular because the students had never tried printmaking before. The quilt lesson came in second because students got a chance to work with watercolors and warm/cool color schemes. Students probably would've enjoyed the pipe cleaner lesson more if they had more days to work on their lesson, though some students appreciated creating a 3-D animal. Below are the examples of reflection questions we had prepared and the art sandwich worksheet students filled out during the gallery walk.
Pre-and Post-Assessment Results
These graphs chart the growth of all our students between the pre-assessment and the post-assessment of all three of their lessons. Each of their final scores for each lesson were added up for a final total score, which was applied into these graphs. To provide quantitative data for student growth in the pre-assessment, we tallied their creative thinking, decision making and problem-solving (ideation) scores of each student using the rubric. This is because we did not have number-based data to assess student knowledge from the group discussions we had about each lesson. The post-assessment charted the total scores of
Graph A shows each student progress from the beginning to the end of the unit
Graph B compared pre- and post-assessment scores between students in the first half of the alphabet compared to students in the second half of the alphabet. This was based on first names only, as last names were not disclosed to us.
Discussion of Pre-and Post-Assessment Results
In Graph A, student growth between pre- and post-assessments can be determined by how long each bar is in comparison to the other students. For examples, students 6, 9, 11, 16, and 17 had the highest post-assessment scores. However, student 6 and student 17 had lower pre-assessment scores compared to students 9, 11, and 16. This indicated that the knowledge they gained from the assignment increased their post-assessment scores significantly from their pre-assessment scores, indicating that there was a small curve of growth. If there was no growth, then student 6 (who had the highest post-assessment score) would've also had the highest pre-assessment score. But students 9, 10, 11, 16, and 18 had the highest pre-assessment scores. When it came to the pre-assessment scores, there are also not as many distinct jumps between students compared to their post-assessment scores. While most of our students started out with roughly the same prior knowledge on the content of our lessons (specifically when it came to technical drawing skills and conceptual planning), the post-assessment results determined that some students had a larger spike of knowledge than others. However, the difference is extreme in only a few cases.
Graph B indicates that students in the first half of the alphabet had lower scores on both the pre-and post-assessment compared to the second half. However, there is not a significant difference between the data. This means that students' prior knowledge of information from the ideation and the execution of the final product remains relatively consistent when clustered together. There are no distinct variables besides letter placement in the alphabet. We were not able to assess boys versus girls because there were slightly more girls than boys, which would've skewed the data in favor of girls performing better than boys. We also were not able to assess grade level, since we were not told which students were second graders and which were third graders.
Strengths and Weaknesses of Assessment
Strengths: Our priority with assessing student growth in the rubric was determining if students acquired basic drawing and design skills, as well as how comfortable they were working with unfamiliar materials. This was because our second and third grade students cared a lot more about playing and experimenting with the materials rather than heavily planning their concepts out. Our assessment of their conceptual interpretation of the assignment was based more on creative risk-taking and our ability to clearly read their intent based on their ideation sketches. Technical skills were not a large factor for communicating concept well. We also took great care that the rubric not only met all of our objectives, but rewarded students points based on the five art learnings. We felt that this made rewarding points more about process and product than just strictly product.
Weaknesses: We did not feel that a quantitative graph really captured the essence of student growth throughout the unit compared to the qualitative data we gained from our formative assessments. This is because pre-assessment in our elementary art class was heavily based on verbally processing things out loud and critically thinking about art with a group rather than a worksheet that had them fill out questions. Also, based on the little amount of time that Nicole and I spent at Polaris, we felt that expeditionary and experiential learning is a lot more qualitative than it is quantitative. Though the graph does show student growth between pre- and post-assessment scores, it does not detail the differentiated growth each student went through or the profound insights they made during the art-making process. These are the things that might have a stronger impact for the success of teaching a unit at a school like Polaris, compared to a public school. | 2,472 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Rubella, also known as German measles or three-day measles, is an infection caused by the rubella virus. This disease is often mild with half of people not realizing that they are infected. A rash may start around two weeks after exposure and last for three days. It usually starts on the face and spreads to the rest of the body. The rash is sometimes itchy and is not as bright as that of measles. Swollen lymph nodes are common and may last a few weeks. A fever, sore throat, and fatigue may also occur. In adults joint pain is common. Complications may include bleeding problems, testicular swelling, and inflammation of nerves. Infection during early pregnancy may result in a child born with congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) or miscarriage. Symptoms of CRS include problems with the eyes such as cataracts, ears such as deafness, heart, and brain. Problems are rare after the 20th week of pregnancy. | <urn:uuid:43fce042-fc7c-461d-888f-256e1afab714> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://yomoya.info/3732/04902-german-measles-face.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00470.warc.gz | en | 0.981943 | 195 | 3.84375 | 4 | [
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0.005493057426065... | 1 | Rubella, also known as German measles or three-day measles, is an infection caused by the rubella virus. This disease is often mild with half of people not realizing that they are infected. A rash may start around two weeks after exposure and last for three days. It usually starts on the face and spreads to the rest of the body. The rash is sometimes itchy and is not as bright as that of measles. Swollen lymph nodes are common and may last a few weeks. A fever, sore throat, and fatigue may also occur. In adults joint pain is common. Complications may include bleeding problems, testicular swelling, and inflammation of nerves. Infection during early pregnancy may result in a child born with congenital rubella syndrome (CRS) or miscarriage. Symptoms of CRS include problems with the eyes such as cataracts, ears such as deafness, heart, and brain. Problems are rare after the 20th week of pregnancy. | 196 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Plymouth Colony was a British colony in Massachusetts in the 17th century and was the first permanent colony in Massachusetts and the first colony in New England.
The following are some facts about Plymouth Colony:
Who Founded Plymouth Colony?
Plymouth colony was founded by the Plymouth Company during the Great Puritan Migration.
The Plymouth Company was a joint stock company founded in 1606 by King James I with the goal of establishing settlements along the east coast of North America.
Who Settled Plymouth Colony?
The Plymouth Company, which consisted of 70 investors, had an agreement with the settlers of the Plymouth Colony, the pilgrims, promising to finance their trip to North America and in return the settlers would repay the company from profits made by harvesting supplies, such as timber, fur and fish, which were then sent back to England to be sold.
Most of the pilgrims were from farming communities in Yorkshire, England but moved to Leiden, Holland in 1607 seeking religious freedom.
They found the religious freedom they were looking for there but they also found it hard for them to retain their English identity in a Dutch country and it was also hard for them to make a living there.
The pilgrims worked primarily in the cloth trade in Holland but the hours were long and grueling and were having a negative impact on the pilgrims’ health. They were desperate to emigrate to North America and sought out the investors to help fund their trip in 1619.
Since the pilgrims didn’t have enough people to join and help them build the colony, the investors recruited outsiders to join. These outsiders were not separatists and held different religious beliefs.
The Mayflower Voyage:
The pilgrims traveled to North America on a rented cargo ship called the Mayflower. The ship left Plymouth, England in September of 1620 and finally landed off the coast of Massachusetts in November.
The colonists were originally headed for Virginia, where they had a land patent to settle the area, but had drifted off course during the sea voyage and made landfall just as they ran out of supplies.
Although they didn’t have official permission to settle in what is now modern day Massachusetts, they decided to stay and settle the area anyway because they had run out of supplies and winter was setting in.
The pilgrims first landed at what is now modern day Provincetown. After some skirmishes with the local Native-American tribe there, the pilgrims decided to sail to nearby Plymouth.
When the pilgrims arrived they landed at an abandoned Native-American village, called Patuxet, whose inhabitants had died in the infamous disease epidemic of 1616-1618.
There they found abundant cornfields planted by the Patuxet years ago and many areas, which had already been cleared by the Patuxet, where they could build their homes.
How Many Pilgrims Died the First Winter?
When the pilgrims landed in Plymouth, many of them were already weak from disease and a lack of food. The voyage had been long and they were short on supplies.
Over the course of the winter, the colony lost almost half of its people due to disease and starvation. In his diary, which was later published under the title Of Plymouth Plantation, Bradford refers to this period as the “Starving Time”:
“But that what was most sad and lamentable was, that in two or three months’ time half of their company died, especially in January and February, being the depth of the winter, and wanting houses and other comforts; being infected with the scurvy and other diseases which this long voyage and their inaccommodate condition had brought upon them. So there died some times two or three of a day in the foresaid time, that of 100 and odd persons, scarce fifty remained.”
About 50 of the 102 Mayflower passengers died over the course of the sea voyage and the first winter of 1620/21:
John Allerton, Mayflower crewmen, died sometime during the winter
Mary (Norris) Allerton, separatist and wife of Isaac Allerton, died February 25, 1621
Dorothy (May) Bradford, separatist and wife of William Bradford, drowned after she fell overboard at Provincetown Harbor on December 7, 1620
William Butten, servant, died November 6, 1620 on board the Mayflower
Richard Bitterridge, non-separatist, died December 21, 1620
Robert Carter, servant, died sometime during the winter
Richard Clarke, non-separatist, died sometime during the winter
James Chilton, separatist, died December 8, 1620
Mrs. James Chilton (first name unknown), separatist and wife of James Chilton, died sometime during the winter
John Crackstone, separatist, died sometime during the winter
Sarah Eaton, non-separatist and wife of Francis Eaton, died sometime during the winter
Thomas English, Mayflower crewmen, died sometime before the Mayflower returned to England in April 1621
Moses Fletcher, separatist, died sometime during the winter
Edward Fuller, separatist, died sometime during the winter
Mrs. Edward Fuller, separatist and wife of Edward Fuller, died sometime during the winter
John Goodman, separatist, died sometime during the winter
John Hooke, servant, died sometime during the winter
William Holbeck, servant, died sometime during the winter
John Langmore, servant, died sometime during the winter
Edmund Margesson, non-separatist, died sometime during the winter
Christopher Martin, non-separatist, died January 8, 1621
Mary (Prower) Martin, non-separatist and wife of Christopher Martin, died sometime during the winter
Ellen More, servant, died of illness in November of 1620
Jasper More, servant, died of illness on December 6, 1620
Mary More, servant, died sometime during the winter
William Mullins, non-separatist, died February 21, 1621
Alice Mullins, non-separatist and wife of William Mullins, died sometime during the winter
Joseph Mullins, son of William and Alice Mullins, died sometime during the winter
Solomon Prower, non-separatist, died December 24, 1620
Degory Priest, separatist, died January 1, 1621
John Rigsdale, non-separatist, died sometime during the winter
Alice Rigsdale, non-separatist and wife of John Ringsdale, died sometime during the winter
Thomas Rogers, separatist, died sometime during the winter
Elias Story, a person in the care of Edward Winslow, died sometime during the winter
Edward Tilley, separatist, died sometime during the winter
Ann (Cooper) Tilley, separatist and wife of Edward Tilley, died sometime during the winter
John Tilley, separatist, died sometime during the winter
Joan (Hurst) (Rogers) Tilley, separatist and wife of John Tilley, died sometime during the winter
Thomas Tinker, separatist, died sometime during the winter
Mrs. Thomas Tinker, separatists and wife of Thomas Tinker, died sometime during the winter
Son of Thomas Tinker (name unknown), died sometime during the winter
Edward Thompson, servant, died December 4, 1620
John Turner, separatist, died sometime during the winter
Both sons of John Turner (names unknown), died during the winter
William White, separatist, died February 21, 1621
Thomas Williams, separatist, died sometime during the winter
Roger Wilder, died sometime during the winter
Elizabeth (Barker) Winslow, separatist and wife of Edward Winslow, died March 24, 1621
Rose Standish, separatist and wife of Miles Standish, died January 29, 1621
Two more people, Governor John Carver and his wife Katherine, died in the spring and summer of that year.
Historians believe that most of the colonists were suffering from diseases and illnesses such as scurvy, which is caused by a lack of vitamin c found in many fruits and vegetables, and pneumonia, which was probably caused by the damp, cold weather. In addition, the lack of food made them weak and more susceptible to disease.
Bradford describes how seven of the colonists cared for the sick at great risk to their own health by fetching them wood, dressing and feeding them, washing their clothes and etc. Bradford identified two of these kindhearted people as Reverend William Brewster and Miles Standish.
Yet he also described many people, whom Bradford implied were either crewmen or non-separatists, who turned on each other as the sickness spread and began cursing each other for their bad fortune and refusing to help the ill, stating “if they died, let them die.”
Another settler Phineas Pratt, who arrived in Plymouth in 1623, later told a disturbing story about what had been done with the sick men in the colony that winter.
Pratt testified in a court deposition in 1662 that the pilgrims told him they had dragged their sick men into the woods and propped them up against trees to serve as a decoy defense system against the Native-Americans:
“We asked them where the rest of our friends were that came in the first ship [the Mayflower.] They said that God had taken them away by death, and that before the second ship came, they were so distressed with sickness that they, fearing the savages should know it, had set up their sick men with their muskets upon their rests and their backs leaning against trees.”
Bradford doesn’t confirm this story in his diary, stating instead that the sick were cared for in their cabins but does acknowledge that the sick were later sent ashore by the crew and made to drink water so that the crew members could save the beer for themselves:
“As this calamity fell among the passengers that were to be left here to plant, and were hasted ashore and made to drink water that the seamen might have more beer, and one in his sickness [who was the author, Bradford, himself] desiring but a small can of beer, it was answered that if he were their own father he should have none. The disease began to fall amongst them also, so as almost half of their company died before they went away, and many of their officers and lustier men, as the boatswain, gunner, three quartermasters, the cook and others. At which the Master was something strucken and and sent to the sick ashore and told the Governor he should send for beer for them that had need of it, though he drunk water homeward bound.”
It is not know where the colonists who had died during the first year are buried but it is believed they were buried in unmarked graves in Cole’s Hill Burial Ground in Plymouth.
Historians think the reason they were buried in unmarked graves was to avoid letting the local Native-Americans know how many of them had died and to avoid having their graves disturbed.
On April 5, 1621, the Mayflower and her crew departed Plymouth and returned to England. The ship was supposed to bring back goods that the colonists had harvested but returned empty due to the colonist’s poor health that winter.
Squanto and the Wampanoag:
While the pilgrims were sick that winter, Bradford states that a number of Indians often appeared nearby but ran away whenever the pilgrims tried to approach them and even once stole the pilgrims’ tools from their work site while they were away eating lunch.
Around March 16, Bradford says that an Indian approached them and spoke to them in broken English, which amazed the pilgrims. The Indian identified himself as Samoset and told them much about the native people of the area and said there was another Indian named Squanto who had been to England and could speak better English them himself.
After a while, Samoset returned for another visit and brought five more Indians with him and also brought back the tools that had been stolen from the pilgrim’s work site.
Samoset arranged for the pilgrims to meet their leader, Massasoit, who arrived about four or five days later with Squanto and many others accompanying him.
Squanto was the sole survivor of the Patuxet tribe and had only survived the disease epidemic that wiped out his tribe because he had been captured by an English sea captain a few years earlier in 1614 and had been taken to Europe as a slave.
He returned a few years later in 1619 with an English explorer to find his village wiped out. Squanto then came across Massasoit and the Pokanoket tribe, which, like the Patuxet, were one of many tribes that made up the Wampanoag Nation, and they made Squanto their slave.
Massasoit explained to the pilgrims that his tribe had been fighting with a powerful tribe nearby, the Narragansett, and needed their help.
Massasoit proposed a peace treaty and an alliance with the pilgrims. Bradford stated that the terms of the treaty, which is now known as the Pilgrim-Wampanoag Peace Treaty, were:
1. That neither he nor any of his, should injure or do hurt to any of their people.
2. That if any of his did any hurt to any of theirs, he should send the offender that they might punish him.
3. That if any thing were taken away from any of theirs, he should cause it to be restored; and they should do the like to his.
4. That if any did unjustly war against him, they would aid him; and if any did war against them, he should aid them.
5. That he should send to his neighbors confederates to certify them of this, that they might not wrong them, but might be likewise comprised in the conditions of peace.
6. That when their men came to them, they should leave their bows and arrows behind them.
In exchange for the pilgrim’s military help, Massassoit offered to help the pilgrims and teach them how to grow food and catch enough fish to feed the colony. The pilgrims agreed to the peace treaty and Massassoit ordered Squanto to teach the colonists everything they needed to know to survive.
The treaty was signed on April 1, 1621 and was honored for over 50 years.
The First Thanksgiving:
Squanto taught the colonists three important skills: how to grow corn, how to catch fish and where to gather nuts and berries. The colonists listened to Squanto’s instructions intently and applied everything they learned.
As a result, over the course of the spring and summer, the pilgrims were able to grow enough food to help them survive the coming winter.
To celebrate their successful harvest and to thank the Wampanoag for their help, the pilgrims held a harvest celebration sometime in the fall of 1621 and invited 90 Wampanoag, including Squanto and Massasoit, to the celebration. This event later came to be known as the first Thanksgiving.
The feast took place over the span of three days, during which the pilgrims and the Wampanoag ate food, such as venison and fowl, and played games.
The exact date of the celebration is not known and aside from venison and fowl, it is not known exactly what type of food was served at the celebration. Most historians assume that the colonists and Wampanoag ate whatever food was available at that time of year which would have been fish, lobster, mussels, fruit and wild game.
Harvest celebrations like these were common at the time among Europeans as well as among the Native-Americans. In fact, they occurred in most agricultural-based communities at that time.
The Wampanoags had traditionally held annual celebrations for the first harvest of the season, strawberries, with a “strawberry thanksgiving” celebration and the Algonquians had often held annual ceremonies linked to the crop cycle.
It is also not known if the celebration in 1621 became an annual event for the pilgrims and the Wampanoags but it eventually became a New England tradition, and was renamed Thanksgiving before Abraham Lincoln officially made it a national holiday in the 19th century.
The Economy of Plymouth Colony
The economy of Plymouth Colony was based on fish, timber, fur and agriculture. The colonists harvested trees for lumber, hunted beaver and otter for their pelts and fished for cod as well as hunted whales for their oil. They sent back all of the goods they harvested on ships and the Plymouth Company would sell the goods in England for a profit.
The colonists struggled for many years to make any money and were deeply in debt to their investors, the Plymouth Company, who had paid for the voyage and the start up money for the colony.
The colonists eventually bought out the investors when they became unhappy with the lack of return they saw from their investment.
The colony never became as economically successful as the nearby Massachusetts Bay Colony and was later merged with the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1691.
The Government of Plymouth Colony
The government of Plymouth Colony originally ran as a charter government, even though they didn’t officially have a charter from the British government. A charter was official permission from the crown to establish a colony. It granted the colony the legal right to exist there and allowed it to establish a local government as long at the colony’s laws didn’t contradict the laws of England.
The only permission that Plymouth colony had to establish itself in North America was a land patent issued by the New England Council in 1621. This land patent did not give the colony the legal right to pass and establish laws in the colony.
Plymouth colony tried for many decades to obtain a charter from the British government but never succeeded. It eventually lost the right to self-govern entirely when it was merged with the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1691 and became a royal colony known as the Province of Massachusetts Bay.
Religion in Plymouth Colony
Both the pilgrims who settled Plymouth Colony and the colonists who settled Massachusetts Bay Colony were puritans.
The difference was that the pilgrims were a sect within the puritan movement that had essentially given up on the idea that the Church of England could be reformed and wanted to completely separate from it.
The non-separatist puritans believed the Church of England could still be reformed and wanted to remain within the church to help improve it.
Essentially, the pilgrims were religious extremists and dissenters. There was no separation between the Church and the State in England at the time so the notion of wanting to separate from the church was considered treason and this made the pilgrims’ existence in England very dangerous.
This prompted them to leave England in 1607 and move to Holland. The colonists had a hard time making a living in Holland so they emigrated to North America in 1620 in the hope of both making money there and finding the isolation and privacy they desired to worship freely.
Government and religion in Plymouth Colony were intertwined and this only became more so as the colonists began passing more religious-based laws over the years.
Did the Plymouth Colonists Really Call Themselves Pilgrims?
The name “pilgrims” was applied to the colonists starting in the late 1700s after excerpts of William Bradford’s diary, Of Plymouth Plantation, was printed in Nathaniel Morton’s book New England’s Memorial in 1669.
In one of the excerpts, Bradford compares the colonists to pilgrims when describing their emotional last church service before they left Holland for the New World, stating that their pastor Reverend John Robinson:
“spent a good part of the day very profitably and suitable to their present occasion; the rest of the time was spent pouring out prayers to the Lord with great fervency, mixed with abundance of tears. And the time being come that they must depart, they were accompanied with most of their brethren out of the city, unto a town sundry miles off called Delftshaven, where the ship lay ready to receive them. So they left that goodly and pleasant city which had been their resting place near twelve years; but they knew they were pilgrims, and looked not much on those things, but lift up their eyes to the heavens, their dearest country, and quieted their spirits.”
If you want to visit the many sites in Plymouth that the pilgrims frequented, check out the following article Plymouth historic sites.
To see a timeline of Plymouth Colony, check out the following article Plymouth Colony Timeline.
Bradford, William. History of Plymouth Plantation. Edited by Charles Deane, Privately Printed, 1856.
Norton, Mary Beth and Carol Sheriff, David W. Blight, Howard Chudacoff, Fredrik Logevall. A People and a Nation: A History of the United States, Brief Edition. Cenage Learning, 2015 .
Erickson, Paul. Daily Life in the Pilgrim Colony 1636. Clarion Books, 2001.
Morse, Jedidiah. The American Universal Geography. Thomas & Andrews, 1812.
Krusell, Cynthia Hagar. Plymouth Colony to Plymouth County. Pondside Publishing, 2010.
Wilkins, Mira. The History of Foreign Investment in the United States to 1914. Harvard University Press, 1989.
King, H. Roger. Cape Cod and Plymouth Colony in the Seventeenth Century. University Press of America, 2014.
Stratton, Eugene Aubrey. Plymouth Colony, Its History & People, 1620-1691. Ancestry Publishing, 1986.
McKenzie, Robert Tracy. “Five Myths About the Pilgrims.” Washington Post, 23 Nov. 2013,
“Faith of the Pilgrims.” Plimoth Plantation, www.plimoth.org/what-see-do/17th-century-english-village/faith-pilgrims
Johnson, Madeline. “The Pilgrims Should Have Been Thankful for a Spirochete.” Slate, 20 Nov. 2012,
“Plymouth Colony.” History.com, A&E Television Networks LLC, www.history.com/topics/plymouth
“Religious Controversies in Plymouth Colony.” Pilgrim Hall Museum, www.pilgrimhallmuseum.org/pdf/Religious_Controversies_Plymouth_Colony.pdf
“The Plymouth Colony Archive Project.” Historical Archaeology and Public Engagement, University of Illinois, www.histarch.illinois.edu/plymouth/ccflaw.html
“Mayflower and Mayflower Compact.” Plimoth Plantation, www.plimoth.org/learn/just-kids/homework-help/mayflower-and-mayflower-compact
“Why the Pilgrims Abandoned Communism.” Free Republic, 22 Nov. 2004, www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/1285981/posts
Bower, Jerry. “Occupy Plymouth Colony: How a Failed Commune Led to Thanksgiving.” Forbes, 23 Nov. 2011, www.forbes.com/sites/jerrybowyer/2011/11/23/occupy-plymouth-colony-how-a-failed-commune-led-to-thanksgiving/#192076afbcd1
McIntyre, Ruth A. “What You Didn’t Know About the Pilgrims: They Had Massive Debt.” PBS.org, Public Broadcast Service, 26 Nov. 2015, www.pbs.org/newshour/making-sense/what-you-didnt-know-about-the-pilgrims-they-had-massive-debt/
“Were Pilgrims America’s Original Economic Migrants?.” PBS.org, Public Broadcast Service, 26 Nov. 2015, www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/were-pilgrims-americas-original-economic-migrants/
“The Pilgrims and the Fur Trade.” Pilgrim Hall Museum, www.pilgrimhallmuseum.org/pdf/The_Pilgrims_Fur_Trade.pdf | <urn:uuid:1661f764-3308-428d-a6a2-b2eeda1cb616> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historyofmassachusetts.org/plymouth-colony-history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00033.warc.gz | en | 0.980385 | 5,060 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.1407431811094... | 15 | Plymouth Colony was a British colony in Massachusetts in the 17th century and was the first permanent colony in Massachusetts and the first colony in New England.
The following are some facts about Plymouth Colony:
Who Founded Plymouth Colony?
Plymouth colony was founded by the Plymouth Company during the Great Puritan Migration.
The Plymouth Company was a joint stock company founded in 1606 by King James I with the goal of establishing settlements along the east coast of North America.
Who Settled Plymouth Colony?
The Plymouth Company, which consisted of 70 investors, had an agreement with the settlers of the Plymouth Colony, the pilgrims, promising to finance their trip to North America and in return the settlers would repay the company from profits made by harvesting supplies, such as timber, fur and fish, which were then sent back to England to be sold.
Most of the pilgrims were from farming communities in Yorkshire, England but moved to Leiden, Holland in 1607 seeking religious freedom.
They found the religious freedom they were looking for there but they also found it hard for them to retain their English identity in a Dutch country and it was also hard for them to make a living there.
The pilgrims worked primarily in the cloth trade in Holland but the hours were long and grueling and were having a negative impact on the pilgrims’ health. They were desperate to emigrate to North America and sought out the investors to help fund their trip in 1619.
Since the pilgrims didn’t have enough people to join and help them build the colony, the investors recruited outsiders to join. These outsiders were not separatists and held different religious beliefs.
The Mayflower Voyage:
The pilgrims traveled to North America on a rented cargo ship called the Mayflower. The ship left Plymouth, England in September of 1620 and finally landed off the coast of Massachusetts in November.
The colonists were originally headed for Virginia, where they had a land patent to settle the area, but had drifted off course during the sea voyage and made landfall just as they ran out of supplies.
Although they didn’t have official permission to settle in what is now modern day Massachusetts, they decided to stay and settle the area anyway because they had run out of supplies and winter was setting in.
The pilgrims first landed at what is now modern day Provincetown. After some skirmishes with the local Native-American tribe there, the pilgrims decided to sail to nearby Plymouth.
When the pilgrims arrived they landed at an abandoned Native-American village, called Patuxet, whose inhabitants had died in the infamous disease epidemic of 1616-1618.
There they found abundant cornfields planted by the Patuxet years ago and many areas, which had already been cleared by the Patuxet, where they could build their homes.
How Many Pilgrims Died the First Winter?
When the pilgrims landed in Plymouth, many of them were already weak from disease and a lack of food. The voyage had been long and they were short on supplies.
Over the course of the winter, the colony lost almost half of its people due to disease and starvation. In his diary, which was later published under the title Of Plymouth Plantation, Bradford refers to this period as the “Starving Time”:
“But that what was most sad and lamentable was, that in two or three months’ time half of their company died, especially in January and February, being the depth of the winter, and wanting houses and other comforts; being infected with the scurvy and other diseases which this long voyage and their inaccommodate condition had brought upon them. So there died some times two or three of a day in the foresaid time, that of 100 and odd persons, scarce fifty remained.”
About 50 of the 102 Mayflower passengers died over the course of the sea voyage and the first winter of 1620/21:
John Allerton, Mayflower crewmen, died sometime during the winter
Mary (Norris) Allerton, separatist and wife of Isaac Allerton, died February 25, 1621
Dorothy (May) Bradford, separatist and wife of William Bradford, drowned after she fell overboard at Provincetown Harbor on December 7, 1620
William Butten, servant, died November 6, 1620 on board the Mayflower
Richard Bitterridge, non-separatist, died December 21, 1620
Robert Carter, servant, died sometime during the winter
Richard Clarke, non-separatist, died sometime during the winter
James Chilton, separatist, died December 8, 1620
Mrs. James Chilton (first name unknown), separatist and wife of James Chilton, died sometime during the winter
John Crackstone, separatist, died sometime during the winter
Sarah Eaton, non-separatist and wife of Francis Eaton, died sometime during the winter
Thomas English, Mayflower crewmen, died sometime before the Mayflower returned to England in April 1621
Moses Fletcher, separatist, died sometime during the winter
Edward Fuller, separatist, died sometime during the winter
Mrs. Edward Fuller, separatist and wife of Edward Fuller, died sometime during the winter
John Goodman, separatist, died sometime during the winter
John Hooke, servant, died sometime during the winter
William Holbeck, servant, died sometime during the winter
John Langmore, servant, died sometime during the winter
Edmund Margesson, non-separatist, died sometime during the winter
Christopher Martin, non-separatist, died January 8, 1621
Mary (Prower) Martin, non-separatist and wife of Christopher Martin, died sometime during the winter
Ellen More, servant, died of illness in November of 1620
Jasper More, servant, died of illness on December 6, 1620
Mary More, servant, died sometime during the winter
William Mullins, non-separatist, died February 21, 1621
Alice Mullins, non-separatist and wife of William Mullins, died sometime during the winter
Joseph Mullins, son of William and Alice Mullins, died sometime during the winter
Solomon Prower, non-separatist, died December 24, 1620
Degory Priest, separatist, died January 1, 1621
John Rigsdale, non-separatist, died sometime during the winter
Alice Rigsdale, non-separatist and wife of John Ringsdale, died sometime during the winter
Thomas Rogers, separatist, died sometime during the winter
Elias Story, a person in the care of Edward Winslow, died sometime during the winter
Edward Tilley, separatist, died sometime during the winter
Ann (Cooper) Tilley, separatist and wife of Edward Tilley, died sometime during the winter
John Tilley, separatist, died sometime during the winter
Joan (Hurst) (Rogers) Tilley, separatist and wife of John Tilley, died sometime during the winter
Thomas Tinker, separatist, died sometime during the winter
Mrs. Thomas Tinker, separatists and wife of Thomas Tinker, died sometime during the winter
Son of Thomas Tinker (name unknown), died sometime during the winter
Edward Thompson, servant, died December 4, 1620
John Turner, separatist, died sometime during the winter
Both sons of John Turner (names unknown), died during the winter
William White, separatist, died February 21, 1621
Thomas Williams, separatist, died sometime during the winter
Roger Wilder, died sometime during the winter
Elizabeth (Barker) Winslow, separatist and wife of Edward Winslow, died March 24, 1621
Rose Standish, separatist and wife of Miles Standish, died January 29, 1621
Two more people, Governor John Carver and his wife Katherine, died in the spring and summer of that year.
Historians believe that most of the colonists were suffering from diseases and illnesses such as scurvy, which is caused by a lack of vitamin c found in many fruits and vegetables, and pneumonia, which was probably caused by the damp, cold weather. In addition, the lack of food made them weak and more susceptible to disease.
Bradford describes how seven of the colonists cared for the sick at great risk to their own health by fetching them wood, dressing and feeding them, washing their clothes and etc. Bradford identified two of these kindhearted people as Reverend William Brewster and Miles Standish.
Yet he also described many people, whom Bradford implied were either crewmen or non-separatists, who turned on each other as the sickness spread and began cursing each other for their bad fortune and refusing to help the ill, stating “if they died, let them die.”
Another settler Phineas Pratt, who arrived in Plymouth in 1623, later told a disturbing story about what had been done with the sick men in the colony that winter.
Pratt testified in a court deposition in 1662 that the pilgrims told him they had dragged their sick men into the woods and propped them up against trees to serve as a decoy defense system against the Native-Americans:
“We asked them where the rest of our friends were that came in the first ship [the Mayflower.] They said that God had taken them away by death, and that before the second ship came, they were so distressed with sickness that they, fearing the savages should know it, had set up their sick men with their muskets upon their rests and their backs leaning against trees.”
Bradford doesn’t confirm this story in his diary, stating instead that the sick were cared for in their cabins but does acknowledge that the sick were later sent ashore by the crew and made to drink water so that the crew members could save the beer for themselves:
“As this calamity fell among the passengers that were to be left here to plant, and were hasted ashore and made to drink water that the seamen might have more beer, and one in his sickness [who was the author, Bradford, himself] desiring but a small can of beer, it was answered that if he were their own father he should have none. The disease began to fall amongst them also, so as almost half of their company died before they went away, and many of their officers and lustier men, as the boatswain, gunner, three quartermasters, the cook and others. At which the Master was something strucken and and sent to the sick ashore and told the Governor he should send for beer for them that had need of it, though he drunk water homeward bound.”
It is not know where the colonists who had died during the first year are buried but it is believed they were buried in unmarked graves in Cole’s Hill Burial Ground in Plymouth.
Historians think the reason they were buried in unmarked graves was to avoid letting the local Native-Americans know how many of them had died and to avoid having their graves disturbed.
On April 5, 1621, the Mayflower and her crew departed Plymouth and returned to England. The ship was supposed to bring back goods that the colonists had harvested but returned empty due to the colonist’s poor health that winter.
Squanto and the Wampanoag:
While the pilgrims were sick that winter, Bradford states that a number of Indians often appeared nearby but ran away whenever the pilgrims tried to approach them and even once stole the pilgrims’ tools from their work site while they were away eating lunch.
Around March 16, Bradford says that an Indian approached them and spoke to them in broken English, which amazed the pilgrims. The Indian identified himself as Samoset and told them much about the native people of the area and said there was another Indian named Squanto who had been to England and could speak better English them himself.
After a while, Samoset returned for another visit and brought five more Indians with him and also brought back the tools that had been stolen from the pilgrim’s work site.
Samoset arranged for the pilgrims to meet their leader, Massasoit, who arrived about four or five days later with Squanto and many others accompanying him.
Squanto was the sole survivor of the Patuxet tribe and had only survived the disease epidemic that wiped out his tribe because he had been captured by an English sea captain a few years earlier in 1614 and had been taken to Europe as a slave.
He returned a few years later in 1619 with an English explorer to find his village wiped out. Squanto then came across Massasoit and the Pokanoket tribe, which, like the Patuxet, were one of many tribes that made up the Wampanoag Nation, and they made Squanto their slave.
Massasoit explained to the pilgrims that his tribe had been fighting with a powerful tribe nearby, the Narragansett, and needed their help.
Massasoit proposed a peace treaty and an alliance with the pilgrims. Bradford stated that the terms of the treaty, which is now known as the Pilgrim-Wampanoag Peace Treaty, were:
1. That neither he nor any of his, should injure or do hurt to any of their people.
2. That if any of his did any hurt to any of theirs, he should send the offender that they might punish him.
3. That if any thing were taken away from any of theirs, he should cause it to be restored; and they should do the like to his.
4. That if any did unjustly war against him, they would aid him; and if any did war against them, he should aid them.
5. That he should send to his neighbors confederates to certify them of this, that they might not wrong them, but might be likewise comprised in the conditions of peace.
6. That when their men came to them, they should leave their bows and arrows behind them.
In exchange for the pilgrim’s military help, Massassoit offered to help the pilgrims and teach them how to grow food and catch enough fish to feed the colony. The pilgrims agreed to the peace treaty and Massassoit ordered Squanto to teach the colonists everything they needed to know to survive.
The treaty was signed on April 1, 1621 and was honored for over 50 years.
The First Thanksgiving:
Squanto taught the colonists three important skills: how to grow corn, how to catch fish and where to gather nuts and berries. The colonists listened to Squanto’s instructions intently and applied everything they learned.
As a result, over the course of the spring and summer, the pilgrims were able to grow enough food to help them survive the coming winter.
To celebrate their successful harvest and to thank the Wampanoag for their help, the pilgrims held a harvest celebration sometime in the fall of 1621 and invited 90 Wampanoag, including Squanto and Massasoit, to the celebration. This event later came to be known as the first Thanksgiving.
The feast took place over the span of three days, during which the pilgrims and the Wampanoag ate food, such as venison and fowl, and played games.
The exact date of the celebration is not known and aside from venison and fowl, it is not known exactly what type of food was served at the celebration. Most historians assume that the colonists and Wampanoag ate whatever food was available at that time of year which would have been fish, lobster, mussels, fruit and wild game.
Harvest celebrations like these were common at the time among Europeans as well as among the Native-Americans. In fact, they occurred in most agricultural-based communities at that time.
The Wampanoags had traditionally held annual celebrations for the first harvest of the season, strawberries, with a “strawberry thanksgiving” celebration and the Algonquians had often held annual ceremonies linked to the crop cycle.
It is also not known if the celebration in 1621 became an annual event for the pilgrims and the Wampanoags but it eventually became a New England tradition, and was renamed Thanksgiving before Abraham Lincoln officially made it a national holiday in the 19th century.
The Economy of Plymouth Colony
The economy of Plymouth Colony was based on fish, timber, fur and agriculture. The colonists harvested trees for lumber, hunted beaver and otter for their pelts and fished for cod as well as hunted whales for their oil. They sent back all of the goods they harvested on ships and the Plymouth Company would sell the goods in England for a profit.
The colonists struggled for many years to make any money and were deeply in debt to their investors, the Plymouth Company, who had paid for the voyage and the start up money for the colony.
The colonists eventually bought out the investors when they became unhappy with the lack of return they saw from their investment.
The colony never became as economically successful as the nearby Massachusetts Bay Colony and was later merged with the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1691.
The Government of Plymouth Colony
The government of Plymouth Colony originally ran as a charter government, even though they didn’t officially have a charter from the British government. A charter was official permission from the crown to establish a colony. It granted the colony the legal right to exist there and allowed it to establish a local government as long at the colony’s laws didn’t contradict the laws of England.
The only permission that Plymouth colony had to establish itself in North America was a land patent issued by the New England Council in 1621. This land patent did not give the colony the legal right to pass and establish laws in the colony.
Plymouth colony tried for many decades to obtain a charter from the British government but never succeeded. It eventually lost the right to self-govern entirely when it was merged with the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1691 and became a royal colony known as the Province of Massachusetts Bay.
Religion in Plymouth Colony
Both the pilgrims who settled Plymouth Colony and the colonists who settled Massachusetts Bay Colony were puritans.
The difference was that the pilgrims were a sect within the puritan movement that had essentially given up on the idea that the Church of England could be reformed and wanted to completely separate from it.
The non-separatist puritans believed the Church of England could still be reformed and wanted to remain within the church to help improve it.
Essentially, the pilgrims were religious extremists and dissenters. There was no separation between the Church and the State in England at the time so the notion of wanting to separate from the church was considered treason and this made the pilgrims’ existence in England very dangerous.
This prompted them to leave England in 1607 and move to Holland. The colonists had a hard time making a living in Holland so they emigrated to North America in 1620 in the hope of both making money there and finding the isolation and privacy they desired to worship freely.
Government and religion in Plymouth Colony were intertwined and this only became more so as the colonists began passing more religious-based laws over the years.
Did the Plymouth Colonists Really Call Themselves Pilgrims?
The name “pilgrims” was applied to the colonists starting in the late 1700s after excerpts of William Bradford’s diary, Of Plymouth Plantation, was printed in Nathaniel Morton’s book New England’s Memorial in 1669.
In one of the excerpts, Bradford compares the colonists to pilgrims when describing their emotional last church service before they left Holland for the New World, stating that their pastor Reverend John Robinson:
“spent a good part of the day very profitably and suitable to their present occasion; the rest of the time was spent pouring out prayers to the Lord with great fervency, mixed with abundance of tears. And the time being come that they must depart, they were accompanied with most of their brethren out of the city, unto a town sundry miles off called Delftshaven, where the ship lay ready to receive them. So they left that goodly and pleasant city which had been their resting place near twelve years; but they knew they were pilgrims, and looked not much on those things, but lift up their eyes to the heavens, their dearest country, and quieted their spirits.”
If you want to visit the many sites in Plymouth that the pilgrims frequented, check out the following article Plymouth historic sites.
To see a timeline of Plymouth Colony, check out the following article Plymouth Colony Timeline.
Bradford, William. History of Plymouth Plantation. Edited by Charles Deane, Privately Printed, 1856.
Norton, Mary Beth and Carol Sheriff, David W. Blight, Howard Chudacoff, Fredrik Logevall. A People and a Nation: A History of the United States, Brief Edition. Cenage Learning, 2015 .
Erickson, Paul. Daily Life in the Pilgrim Colony 1636. Clarion Books, 2001.
Morse, Jedidiah. The American Universal Geography. Thomas & Andrews, 1812.
Krusell, Cynthia Hagar. Plymouth Colony to Plymouth County. Pondside Publishing, 2010.
Wilkins, Mira. The History of Foreign Investment in the United States to 1914. Harvard University Press, 1989.
King, H. Roger. Cape Cod and Plymouth Colony in the Seventeenth Century. University Press of America, 2014.
Stratton, Eugene Aubrey. Plymouth Colony, Its History & People, 1620-1691. Ancestry Publishing, 1986.
McKenzie, Robert Tracy. “Five Myths About the Pilgrims.” Washington Post, 23 Nov. 2013,
“Faith of the Pilgrims.” Plimoth Plantation, www.plimoth.org/what-see-do/17th-century-english-village/faith-pilgrims
Johnson, Madeline. “The Pilgrims Should Have Been Thankful for a Spirochete.” Slate, 20 Nov. 2012,
“Plymouth Colony.” History.com, A&E Television Networks LLC, www.history.com/topics/plymouth
“Religious Controversies in Plymouth Colony.” Pilgrim Hall Museum, www.pilgrimhallmuseum.org/pdf/Religious_Controversies_Plymouth_Colony.pdf
“The Plymouth Colony Archive Project.” Historical Archaeology and Public Engagement, University of Illinois, www.histarch.illinois.edu/plymouth/ccflaw.html
“Mayflower and Mayflower Compact.” Plimoth Plantation, www.plimoth.org/learn/just-kids/homework-help/mayflower-and-mayflower-compact
“Why the Pilgrims Abandoned Communism.” Free Republic, 22 Nov. 2004, www.freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/1285981/posts
Bower, Jerry. “Occupy Plymouth Colony: How a Failed Commune Led to Thanksgiving.” Forbes, 23 Nov. 2011, www.forbes.com/sites/jerrybowyer/2011/11/23/occupy-plymouth-colony-how-a-failed-commune-led-to-thanksgiving/#192076afbcd1
McIntyre, Ruth A. “What You Didn’t Know About the Pilgrims: They Had Massive Debt.” PBS.org, Public Broadcast Service, 26 Nov. 2015, www.pbs.org/newshour/making-sense/what-you-didnt-know-about-the-pilgrims-they-had-massive-debt/
“Were Pilgrims America’s Original Economic Migrants?.” PBS.org, Public Broadcast Service, 26 Nov. 2015, www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/were-pilgrims-americas-original-economic-migrants/
“The Pilgrims and the Fur Trade.” Pilgrim Hall Museum, www.pilgrimhallmuseum.org/pdf/The_Pilgrims_Fur_Trade.pdf | 5,148 | ENGLISH | 1 |
John Quincy Adams then began serving like his father before him as U. At the top of the list stands his role in formulating the Monroe Doctrine, which warned European nations not to meddle in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere. For instance, Adams favored a bold economic role for the national government that was far ahead of public opinion.
On this and subsequent visits to Europe, the young Adams studied at academies and universities. Finally, injust as John Quincy's law career was beginning to make headway, President George Washington, appreciative of the young Adams's support for his administration and aware of his fluency in French and Dutch, appointed him minister to the Netherlands.
Although Thomas Jefferson and James Madison had advised President Monroe to issue the proclamation in a joint statement with Britain, Adams—understanding the diplomatic symbolism involved—persuaded Monroe to make a unilateral and independent statement as a mark of U.
Senate in After John Adams lost the presidency to Thomas Jefferson inhe recalled John Quincy from Europe; the younger Adams returned to Boston in and reopened his law practice.
Adams carried the New England states, most of New York and a few districts elsewhere, but finished behind Jackson who won Pennsylvaniathe Carolinas and most of the West in both the electoral and popular votes.
Clay threw his support to Adams, who was elected on the first ballot. His early years were spent living alternately in Braintree and Boston, and his doting father and affectionate mother taught him mathematics, languages, and the classics.
His book, Poems of Religion and Society, and was published just after his death in Petersburg, asked that John Quincy, then fourteen years old, accompany him as translator and personal secretary.
Taylor, et al. | <urn:uuid:ab3547b2-47d1-4e50-8588-8114343813ae> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://pyhosahevabeb.dellrichards.com/john-quincy-adams126988865xg.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00533.warc.gz | en | 0.980111 | 355 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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... | 2 | John Quincy Adams then began serving like his father before him as U. At the top of the list stands his role in formulating the Monroe Doctrine, which warned European nations not to meddle in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere. For instance, Adams favored a bold economic role for the national government that was far ahead of public opinion.
On this and subsequent visits to Europe, the young Adams studied at academies and universities. Finally, injust as John Quincy's law career was beginning to make headway, President George Washington, appreciative of the young Adams's support for his administration and aware of his fluency in French and Dutch, appointed him minister to the Netherlands.
Although Thomas Jefferson and James Madison had advised President Monroe to issue the proclamation in a joint statement with Britain, Adams—understanding the diplomatic symbolism involved—persuaded Monroe to make a unilateral and independent statement as a mark of U.
Senate in After John Adams lost the presidency to Thomas Jefferson inhe recalled John Quincy from Europe; the younger Adams returned to Boston in and reopened his law practice.
Adams carried the New England states, most of New York and a few districts elsewhere, but finished behind Jackson who won Pennsylvaniathe Carolinas and most of the West in both the electoral and popular votes.
Clay threw his support to Adams, who was elected on the first ballot. His early years were spent living alternately in Braintree and Boston, and his doting father and affectionate mother taught him mathematics, languages, and the classics.
His book, Poems of Religion and Society, and was published just after his death in Petersburg, asked that John Quincy, then fourteen years old, accompany him as translator and personal secretary.
Taylor, et al. | 349 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Freed slaves last names
A window into the complexities of slaves surnames can be found by reading the article A Perspective on Indexing Slaves Names (pdf), by David E. Patterson, in the American Archivist.Jun 22, 2012 Slaves didn't have last names. It wasn't until they were freed that they even needed surnames and then they quite often took the last name of their former owner, simply because it was a familiar name. freed slaves last names
After Emancipation, many former slaves adopted new names and surnames. They did so either to take on a surname for the first time, or to replace a name or surname given to them by a former master. Here, three different former slaves discuss their names and the changes they underwent after Emancipation. This is Handout 1. 6 (p.
Slaves age 100 and up were supposed to be named in the 1860 census, but only some of these slaves in fact had their names recorded on the census. There are reportedly 1, 570 slaves in that age group, and this link leads to a table listing 1, 550 such slaves found using the on line index at Ancestry as of January 12 Return to Slave Manifests main page Click on each Slave name to view information on that voyage. You can also look up Charleston Manifests by Slave Owner Click on each Slave name to view information on that voyage. This page was last reviewed on September 19, 2017.freed slaves last names Apr 04, 2012 Ain't Gonna Take Massa's Name This revised research article, originally entitled Playing the Name Game: AfricanAmerican Genealogical Research In Motion, was written on. a vast majority retained the surnames of their last enslavers. Many freed African Americans not only chose different surnames after slavery, but many
Diocletian ( ), Emperor of Rome, was by some sources born as the slave of Senator Anullinus. By other sources, it was Diocletian's father (whose own name is unknown) who was a slave, and was freed prior to the birth of his son, the future emperor. freed slaves last names Emancipated slaves in New Orleans 1880s (via Library of Congress) However, after slaves were emancipated, many former slaves were able to choose their own last names. Some emancipated slaves stayed near their former plantation, and it behooved them to keep their former slave familys name. The early names given to slaves were often taken from the Bible, from the work the slaves did, or from their owners' last names. The slaves brought to the U. S. from Africa had to endure a number of brutal crimes against them, not the least of which was being stripped of the names they were given in I know that last names were picked up in various ways in the late 1800s, but Ive actually never met a white person who shares this last name. Lost Slave Ancestors Found because they Apr 15, 2011 There were countless ways in which a slave got a name and the name they went by was one of their choosing and for many differnet reasons. By the 1870 census black people had last names and it was rarely the name of their former owner.Rating: 4.66 / Views: 629 | <urn:uuid:8be5b193-ee53-407a-9065-4712528948de> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://gorele.tk/375532.shtm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00394.warc.gz | en | 0.988735 | 670 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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-0.0790192186832... | 1 | Freed slaves last names
A window into the complexities of slaves surnames can be found by reading the article A Perspective on Indexing Slaves Names (pdf), by David E. Patterson, in the American Archivist.Jun 22, 2012 Slaves didn't have last names. It wasn't until they were freed that they even needed surnames and then they quite often took the last name of their former owner, simply because it was a familiar name. freed slaves last names
After Emancipation, many former slaves adopted new names and surnames. They did so either to take on a surname for the first time, or to replace a name or surname given to them by a former master. Here, three different former slaves discuss their names and the changes they underwent after Emancipation. This is Handout 1. 6 (p.
Slaves age 100 and up were supposed to be named in the 1860 census, but only some of these slaves in fact had their names recorded on the census. There are reportedly 1, 570 slaves in that age group, and this link leads to a table listing 1, 550 such slaves found using the on line index at Ancestry as of January 12 Return to Slave Manifests main page Click on each Slave name to view information on that voyage. You can also look up Charleston Manifests by Slave Owner Click on each Slave name to view information on that voyage. This page was last reviewed on September 19, 2017.freed slaves last names Apr 04, 2012 Ain't Gonna Take Massa's Name This revised research article, originally entitled Playing the Name Game: AfricanAmerican Genealogical Research In Motion, was written on. a vast majority retained the surnames of their last enslavers. Many freed African Americans not only chose different surnames after slavery, but many
Diocletian ( ), Emperor of Rome, was by some sources born as the slave of Senator Anullinus. By other sources, it was Diocletian's father (whose own name is unknown) who was a slave, and was freed prior to the birth of his son, the future emperor. freed slaves last names Emancipated slaves in New Orleans 1880s (via Library of Congress) However, after slaves were emancipated, many former slaves were able to choose their own last names. Some emancipated slaves stayed near their former plantation, and it behooved them to keep their former slave familys name. The early names given to slaves were often taken from the Bible, from the work the slaves did, or from their owners' last names. The slaves brought to the U. S. from Africa had to endure a number of brutal crimes against them, not the least of which was being stripped of the names they were given in I know that last names were picked up in various ways in the late 1800s, but Ive actually never met a white person who shares this last name. Lost Slave Ancestors Found because they Apr 15, 2011 There were countless ways in which a slave got a name and the name they went by was one of their choosing and for many differnet reasons. By the 1870 census black people had last names and it was rarely the name of their former owner.Rating: 4.66 / Views: 629 | 723 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ronald Takakati, born in 1939, perched himself as one of the best historians and scholar of Ethnic Studies dispelling all the myths surrounding the Asian American minorities. By pondering into the slave trade and ethnic diversity that predominated the American culture in 16th and 17th century, he went onto raise the question of the society’s future and answered the questions; how and why scenario in America has become ethnically and racially diverse?
The history of slavery goes as far back in the civilizations of Sumer and was found in Ancient Egypt, the Akkadian Empire, Assyria, Greece, Rome, parts of the Roman Empire and the Islamic Caliphat. But in Virginia slavery entered in the 16th century, yet there are several arguments regarding the exact preoccupation of slavery in Virginia. In his Different Mirror, Ronald Takakati made the readers delve into the history of slavery in America by bringing out the fact that although the slave codes were not enacted in Virginia until the 1660`s, a form of `de facto` slavery already existed there?
The first forced migration of African laborers to America occurred in 1616 when Africans entered into the land of Jamestown by the Dutch slave trader who exchanged his cargo of Africans for food. Slowly and slowly slavery spread to all the parts of America due to the increase in plantations, but the slavery code was enacted in Virgina in 1660 and much after the Bacon’s rebellion in 1676, which resulted in the white’s solidarity and fanned racism against the Indians which led slavery to become an obsessed order of the day among the planters Takaki discusses that the racial inferiority and slave codes were empirically prevalent before the North America was colonized.
The accounts from the English travel documents in the 16th century reveal the amount of racial discrimination and prejudice that marked the African slavery. The English travelers termed Africans as apes, and disparaged their social practice of unbridled sexuality and unchristian behavior. Even Jordan argued that African residents of Virginia were always considered as distinct and inferior group. Still even more than half a century after the colonies were established, slavery did not attain that dominant position, as both white and black laborers in the plantations were indentured servants. These Indentured servants were young white men basically English Irish who were supposed to work for a planter master for fixed term. They get room to but no pay and were not allowed to leave work for another planter. And were forced to serve the full term, after which they could acquire some land for themselves. These Indentured laborers were brought to Virgina as farm laborers, and their importance of slavery can been seen by the fact that in 1618, the colony gave incentives when they offer a headright, a grant of 50 acres per servant, and an incentive to planters to import more servants from England. The reason behind the indentured laborers goes to Tobacco farmers who hold the view that tobacco farming did not remain a profitable venture for planters, as they could not afford to attend 1670 case. The second reason is due to the non-prevention of alliance between the poor and white slaves and superior position of whites in the social hierarchy.
The indented servants were brought to Virgina as Farm laborers and it was the rule that practically every servant before leaving the British Isles cannot return the contract, but around 75 per cent of the population came under indenture.
Many of the Virginia slaves were imported from the Caribbean islands. As acting governor of Virgina said in 1680, that Negroes were brought to Virginia were imported generally from Barbados as very rare Negro ship use to come to Virginia directly from Africa. When the civil war was over many of the Southern plantation owners tried to change African American laborers with Chinese
According to some historians, the plant owners of the tobacco farming did not add for any additional cost of slaves until 1670’s. The laws of Virgina legislature, which was designed to contact slaves and poor whites, laid more emphasis on the superior position of whites in the social hierarchy. In this whole the exploited lot were Africans because they were already discriminated along cultural differences. This incident allowed the landowners to keep Africans slaves and render them powerless. Africans began to regarded as threat to their arms and assembly because of the different culture and appearance, subsequently Slavery enabled planters to develop a disfranchisement” This led the landowners to enslave Africans and render them powerless. The gentry took an advantage of already existing cultural disparities to prevent a class conflict.
In the colonies the indigenous population were invited to labor. But the Indians refused to be become servants to the English. They resisted being forced to work, and they escaped into the surrounding area, which, after all, they knew far better. The conquerors could not quit neither work in plantation. Although they could not give surprise, there were prisoners, convicted of petty crimes in Britain, or convicted of being troublemakers in Britain’s first colony, Ireland. Many were kidnapped on the streets of Liverpool or Manchester and put on ships to the New World. Some voluntarily became servants, hoping to start farms after they fulfilled their obligations to their masters. There is another problem with Indented servants because planters did not like, the servants’ insolence.
Although Takakti argued that in the 17th century there were very few laws, which defined slavery the people could earn or save enough money to purchase own freedom. On the one hand indentured servants worked under temporary conditions, the life expectancy of slaves were very low.
It is a matter of debate among the historians that whether the racism that is ensued among the blacks came before the date when legal system was adopted in support of the life time slavery in Virgina or it is the trend of slavery that led to the start of the racists attitudes against the blacks. But it is historically true that in earlier colonial days, Blacks were not considered as direct slaves. Many of them owned property, led a married life and raise families and were not bonded in the salvage of slavery laws. In the year 1660 only, government formed a law, which designate services according to color. Every year between the years 1667 to 1672, the General Assembly used to define the status on any Virginian based on color. These laws continued all through the 1680, 1682 and 1686, but as and as in the final decade of the seventeenth century and it seemed to be emergent as the most important characteristic in the eighteenth century.
The slave trade was rampant all over the British colonies for 200 years, until the year 1808, when under Article 1, Section 9 of the US Constitution it was totally abolished. There were around 300 “Africans” living in Virginia, which came to around 1% of an estimated 30,000 population. These were not slaves and many of them got their freedom but each were granted 50 acres of land when freed from their indentures. Soon the slaves began to be more preferred, and could be punished in any way and with any weapon. These slaves never have right to food and shelter and were forced to work until their death.
The Sugar planters kept on bringing more and more slaves even though they were too costly and they were forced to work until death, while indentured servants could quit when they chose to. By the year 1661, Barbados framed the first slave code in all his Caribbean colonies which gave slaves more respectable treatment and made it mandatory for the slave owners to provide clothing for their slaves, but this new slave code removed all of the slaves’ legal rights protected under English Common Law and slave owners attain an absolute control over the slaves. Masters got all rights to abuse, assault and even kill their slaves.
Immediately after the Bacon’s Rebellion, the realization dawned on the plantation class that there would be danger if we depend on a white laboring class who owned the right and freedom to assemble and keep arms, therefore the owners of plantations made the decision to keep enslaved African labor rather than white indentured servants. These African slaves did not have any right to assemble or keep any arms. By 1740, the black population in Virginia rose from 5 to 40 percent. This was the time when slavery became an institution.
These Black African laborers were thought to be more valuable in the fields than white indentured servants. This is because Africans were able to adopt themselves to the hot arid climate and could work in a more efficient way than indentured servants and another reason was that these slaves could be made laborers for whole life but indentured servants could be made to work as laborers only for few years in order to gain their freedom and thirdly because the future generations of slaves were also automatically bounded to the same owner. This was the reason that the slaves were considered as most expensive than other type of laborer. This socio and cultural fabric that marked the slavery led to the emergence of different ethnic groups who have made their contribution felt in building the new American Economy which even Walt Whitman said, “a vast, surging, hopeful army of workers.”
Initially the reason for the origin of slave trade was more of economic but not racial; it was more because of the cheaper rates of the labor rather than color of the laborer. But later after 1660 it took the turn of racism, which Ronald Takaki explored with great depth. He says that race had always been inscribed in the social fabric which had been historically segregated the racial minorities from European immigrant groups and went to reflect in the book the multicultural, multiracial, and multiethnic character of American culture. | <urn:uuid:75a418ed-8c14-40da-a77c-d55aaa5efc84> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://webgamesday.com/ronald-takakati/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00537.warc.gz | en | 0.981188 | 1,961 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.2787286043167... | 5 | Ronald Takakati, born in 1939, perched himself as one of the best historians and scholar of Ethnic Studies dispelling all the myths surrounding the Asian American minorities. By pondering into the slave trade and ethnic diversity that predominated the American culture in 16th and 17th century, he went onto raise the question of the society’s future and answered the questions; how and why scenario in America has become ethnically and racially diverse?
The history of slavery goes as far back in the civilizations of Sumer and was found in Ancient Egypt, the Akkadian Empire, Assyria, Greece, Rome, parts of the Roman Empire and the Islamic Caliphat. But in Virginia slavery entered in the 16th century, yet there are several arguments regarding the exact preoccupation of slavery in Virginia. In his Different Mirror, Ronald Takakati made the readers delve into the history of slavery in America by bringing out the fact that although the slave codes were not enacted in Virginia until the 1660`s, a form of `de facto` slavery already existed there?
The first forced migration of African laborers to America occurred in 1616 when Africans entered into the land of Jamestown by the Dutch slave trader who exchanged his cargo of Africans for food. Slowly and slowly slavery spread to all the parts of America due to the increase in plantations, but the slavery code was enacted in Virgina in 1660 and much after the Bacon’s rebellion in 1676, which resulted in the white’s solidarity and fanned racism against the Indians which led slavery to become an obsessed order of the day among the planters Takaki discusses that the racial inferiority and slave codes were empirically prevalent before the North America was colonized.
The accounts from the English travel documents in the 16th century reveal the amount of racial discrimination and prejudice that marked the African slavery. The English travelers termed Africans as apes, and disparaged their social practice of unbridled sexuality and unchristian behavior. Even Jordan argued that African residents of Virginia were always considered as distinct and inferior group. Still even more than half a century after the colonies were established, slavery did not attain that dominant position, as both white and black laborers in the plantations were indentured servants. These Indentured servants were young white men basically English Irish who were supposed to work for a planter master for fixed term. They get room to but no pay and were not allowed to leave work for another planter. And were forced to serve the full term, after which they could acquire some land for themselves. These Indentured laborers were brought to Virgina as farm laborers, and their importance of slavery can been seen by the fact that in 1618, the colony gave incentives when they offer a headright, a grant of 50 acres per servant, and an incentive to planters to import more servants from England. The reason behind the indentured laborers goes to Tobacco farmers who hold the view that tobacco farming did not remain a profitable venture for planters, as they could not afford to attend 1670 case. The second reason is due to the non-prevention of alliance between the poor and white slaves and superior position of whites in the social hierarchy.
The indented servants were brought to Virgina as Farm laborers and it was the rule that practically every servant before leaving the British Isles cannot return the contract, but around 75 per cent of the population came under indenture.
Many of the Virginia slaves were imported from the Caribbean islands. As acting governor of Virgina said in 1680, that Negroes were brought to Virginia were imported generally from Barbados as very rare Negro ship use to come to Virginia directly from Africa. When the civil war was over many of the Southern plantation owners tried to change African American laborers with Chinese
According to some historians, the plant owners of the tobacco farming did not add for any additional cost of slaves until 1670’s. The laws of Virgina legislature, which was designed to contact slaves and poor whites, laid more emphasis on the superior position of whites in the social hierarchy. In this whole the exploited lot were Africans because they were already discriminated along cultural differences. This incident allowed the landowners to keep Africans slaves and render them powerless. Africans began to regarded as threat to their arms and assembly because of the different culture and appearance, subsequently Slavery enabled planters to develop a disfranchisement” This led the landowners to enslave Africans and render them powerless. The gentry took an advantage of already existing cultural disparities to prevent a class conflict.
In the colonies the indigenous population were invited to labor. But the Indians refused to be become servants to the English. They resisted being forced to work, and they escaped into the surrounding area, which, after all, they knew far better. The conquerors could not quit neither work in plantation. Although they could not give surprise, there were prisoners, convicted of petty crimes in Britain, or convicted of being troublemakers in Britain’s first colony, Ireland. Many were kidnapped on the streets of Liverpool or Manchester and put on ships to the New World. Some voluntarily became servants, hoping to start farms after they fulfilled their obligations to their masters. There is another problem with Indented servants because planters did not like, the servants’ insolence.
Although Takakti argued that in the 17th century there were very few laws, which defined slavery the people could earn or save enough money to purchase own freedom. On the one hand indentured servants worked under temporary conditions, the life expectancy of slaves were very low.
It is a matter of debate among the historians that whether the racism that is ensued among the blacks came before the date when legal system was adopted in support of the life time slavery in Virgina or it is the trend of slavery that led to the start of the racists attitudes against the blacks. But it is historically true that in earlier colonial days, Blacks were not considered as direct slaves. Many of them owned property, led a married life and raise families and were not bonded in the salvage of slavery laws. In the year 1660 only, government formed a law, which designate services according to color. Every year between the years 1667 to 1672, the General Assembly used to define the status on any Virginian based on color. These laws continued all through the 1680, 1682 and 1686, but as and as in the final decade of the seventeenth century and it seemed to be emergent as the most important characteristic in the eighteenth century.
The slave trade was rampant all over the British colonies for 200 years, until the year 1808, when under Article 1, Section 9 of the US Constitution it was totally abolished. There were around 300 “Africans” living in Virginia, which came to around 1% of an estimated 30,000 population. These were not slaves and many of them got their freedom but each were granted 50 acres of land when freed from their indentures. Soon the slaves began to be more preferred, and could be punished in any way and with any weapon. These slaves never have right to food and shelter and were forced to work until their death.
The Sugar planters kept on bringing more and more slaves even though they were too costly and they were forced to work until death, while indentured servants could quit when they chose to. By the year 1661, Barbados framed the first slave code in all his Caribbean colonies which gave slaves more respectable treatment and made it mandatory for the slave owners to provide clothing for their slaves, but this new slave code removed all of the slaves’ legal rights protected under English Common Law and slave owners attain an absolute control over the slaves. Masters got all rights to abuse, assault and even kill their slaves.
Immediately after the Bacon’s Rebellion, the realization dawned on the plantation class that there would be danger if we depend on a white laboring class who owned the right and freedom to assemble and keep arms, therefore the owners of plantations made the decision to keep enslaved African labor rather than white indentured servants. These African slaves did not have any right to assemble or keep any arms. By 1740, the black population in Virginia rose from 5 to 40 percent. This was the time when slavery became an institution.
These Black African laborers were thought to be more valuable in the fields than white indentured servants. This is because Africans were able to adopt themselves to the hot arid climate and could work in a more efficient way than indentured servants and another reason was that these slaves could be made laborers for whole life but indentured servants could be made to work as laborers only for few years in order to gain their freedom and thirdly because the future generations of slaves were also automatically bounded to the same owner. This was the reason that the slaves were considered as most expensive than other type of laborer. This socio and cultural fabric that marked the slavery led to the emergence of different ethnic groups who have made their contribution felt in building the new American Economy which even Walt Whitman said, “a vast, surging, hopeful army of workers.”
Initially the reason for the origin of slave trade was more of economic but not racial; it was more because of the cheaper rates of the labor rather than color of the laborer. But later after 1660 it took the turn of racism, which Ronald Takaki explored with great depth. He says that race had always been inscribed in the social fabric which had been historically segregated the racial minorities from European immigrant groups and went to reflect in the book the multicultural, multiracial, and multiethnic character of American culture. | 2,035 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Printed in Grey
Download PDF (748 kb) Rules HERE v1.0 (Updated 8/15/15)
HMS Argus was a British aircraft carrier that served in the Royal Navy from 1918 to 1944. She was converted from an ocean liner that was under construction when the First World War began and became the first example of the standard pattern of aircraft carrier, with a full-length flight deck that allowed wheeled aircraft to take off and land. After commissioning, the ship was involved for several years in the development of the optimum design for other aircraft carriers. Argus also evaluated various types of arresting gear, general procedures needed to operate a number of aircraft in concert and fleet tactics. The ship was too top-heavy as originally built and had to be modified to improve her stability in the mid-1920s. She spent one brief deployment on the China Station in the late 1920s before being placed in reserve for budgetary reasons.
Argus was recommissioned and partially modernised shortly before the Second World War and served as a training ship for deck-landing practice until June 1940. The following month she made the first of her many ferry trips to the Western Mediterranean to fly off fighters to Malta; she was largely occupied in this task for the next two years. The ship also delivered aircraft to Murmansk in Russia, Takoradi on the Gold Coast, and Reykjavík in Iceland. By 1942, the Royal Navy was very short of aircraft carriers and Argus was pressed into front-line service despite her lack of speed and armament. In June, she participated in Operation Harpoon, providing air cover for the Malta-bound convoy. In November, the ship provided air cover during Operation Torch, the invasion of French North Africa and was slightly damaged by a bomb. After returning to the UK for repairs, Argus was used again for deck-landing practice until late September 1944. In December, she became an accommodation ship and was listed for disposal in mid-1946. Argus was sold in late 1946 and scrapped the following year.
(more on Wiki HERE) | <urn:uuid:3fd5ea32-a475-4f42-9a75-05f2fc14507b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historicalboardgaming.com/HMS-Argus-3D-Printed-x1_p_2010.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00196.warc.gz | en | 0.985648 | 429 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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Download PDF (748 kb) Rules HERE v1.0 (Updated 8/15/15)
HMS Argus was a British aircraft carrier that served in the Royal Navy from 1918 to 1944. She was converted from an ocean liner that was under construction when the First World War began and became the first example of the standard pattern of aircraft carrier, with a full-length flight deck that allowed wheeled aircraft to take off and land. After commissioning, the ship was involved for several years in the development of the optimum design for other aircraft carriers. Argus also evaluated various types of arresting gear, general procedures needed to operate a number of aircraft in concert and fleet tactics. The ship was too top-heavy as originally built and had to be modified to improve her stability in the mid-1920s. She spent one brief deployment on the China Station in the late 1920s before being placed in reserve for budgetary reasons.
Argus was recommissioned and partially modernised shortly before the Second World War and served as a training ship for deck-landing practice until June 1940. The following month she made the first of her many ferry trips to the Western Mediterranean to fly off fighters to Malta; she was largely occupied in this task for the next two years. The ship also delivered aircraft to Murmansk in Russia, Takoradi on the Gold Coast, and Reykjavík in Iceland. By 1942, the Royal Navy was very short of aircraft carriers and Argus was pressed into front-line service despite her lack of speed and armament. In June, she participated in Operation Harpoon, providing air cover for the Malta-bound convoy. In November, the ship provided air cover during Operation Torch, the invasion of French North Africa and was slightly damaged by a bomb. After returning to the UK for repairs, Argus was used again for deck-landing practice until late September 1944. In December, she became an accommodation ship and was listed for disposal in mid-1946. Argus was sold in late 1946 and scrapped the following year.
(more on Wiki HERE) | 459 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Just below Mid-Michigan’s industrial veneer lies a coal mining past deeper than anywhere in the state.
Before the beginning of the 20th century, the largest coal deposits in the state were right underneath the Saginaw Valley – with underground mines throughout Saginaw, Bay, Genesee and Tuscola Counties.
“As the lumbering era started to die down and begin to wane, people were looking for what’s the next big industry going to be here in this area? And coal mining was the answer,” said Job Webb, president and CEO of the Castle Museum in Saginaw.
Thanks to the Castle Museum’s new “Mining for Prosperity” exhibit, the Saginaw Valley is getting a reminder of the industry that employed more than 1,700 miners at its peak in 1907.
“For about 30 years or so, it was probably the main industry here in the entire county,” Webb said.
The county was home to more than 40 coal mines stretching from St. Charles to Buena Vista Township. A good example is the one that still lies beneath Saginaw High School. At one time they produced more than a million tons of coal in a single year.
On your way out of the exhibit you will experience what a coal mine looked like in Saginaw County during the early 1900s.
“The coal deposits were fairly deep in the ground and when you began to extract coal, there was a water issue so it was very difficult and time consuming and somewhat expensive. And you also had to be near a railroad,” Webb said.
Even though the industry burned out by the 1930s, it’s safe to say coal pushed Saginaw County’s future full steam ahead.
“We’re doing a lot of really exciting work here to help preserve the history and the culture of Saginaw County,” Webb said.
The Castle Museum is open Tuesdays through Saturdays from 10 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. Entry is $1 for adults and 50 cents for children. | <urn:uuid:e3b747d3-1835-4fdf-be4a-81483da0d32f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wnem.com/news/new-exhibit-showcases-saginaw-s-coal-mining-past/article_af4b197e-87d2-11e9-981d-7718ee738af9.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00238.warc.gz | en | 0.980874 | 445 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.4729315638... | 1 | Just below Mid-Michigan’s industrial veneer lies a coal mining past deeper than anywhere in the state.
Before the beginning of the 20th century, the largest coal deposits in the state were right underneath the Saginaw Valley – with underground mines throughout Saginaw, Bay, Genesee and Tuscola Counties.
“As the lumbering era started to die down and begin to wane, people were looking for what’s the next big industry going to be here in this area? And coal mining was the answer,” said Job Webb, president and CEO of the Castle Museum in Saginaw.
Thanks to the Castle Museum’s new “Mining for Prosperity” exhibit, the Saginaw Valley is getting a reminder of the industry that employed more than 1,700 miners at its peak in 1907.
“For about 30 years or so, it was probably the main industry here in the entire county,” Webb said.
The county was home to more than 40 coal mines stretching from St. Charles to Buena Vista Township. A good example is the one that still lies beneath Saginaw High School. At one time they produced more than a million tons of coal in a single year.
On your way out of the exhibit you will experience what a coal mine looked like in Saginaw County during the early 1900s.
“The coal deposits were fairly deep in the ground and when you began to extract coal, there was a water issue so it was very difficult and time consuming and somewhat expensive. And you also had to be near a railroad,” Webb said.
Even though the industry burned out by the 1930s, it’s safe to say coal pushed Saginaw County’s future full steam ahead.
“We’re doing a lot of really exciting work here to help preserve the history and the culture of Saginaw County,” Webb said.
The Castle Museum is open Tuesdays through Saturdays from 10 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. Entry is $1 for adults and 50 cents for children. | 427 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ladakh, by the recent amendment of the Constitution, has been made into a Union Territory. The manoeuvre used by the government to separate Ladakh from the erstwhile state of Jammu & Kashmir to resolve the Kashmir crisis would not have been possible but for the valiant efforts of Indian soldiers in first defending the area from tribal raiders in 1947-49, and later securing it for seven decades in the most inhospitable situation.
The accession of Jammu & Kashmir to India and swift entry of the Indian army in the autumn of 1947 did not discourage Pakistan enough to give up its plan. Governor General Mohammed Ali Jinnah took matters in his control and supervised the invasion of Kashmir by the Frontier tribesmen. In the initial months, due to the severity of winter, Ladakh did not get sufficient focus and was left under the charge of soldiers belonging to the J&K State Forces of the erstwhile princely state.
These winter months, however, gave time to the Indian Army to put its war machinery in place. Jammu and Kashmir was now reorganised into two military divisions — Srinagar and Jammu. The Srinagar division was put under the command of Major General (later General) KS Thimayya and the Jammu division under Major General Atma Singh. Ladakh came under the Srinagar division.
Leh initially had only 33 State Forces soldiers; thus when news came that the tribal Lashkars had attacked Skardu, it set panic in the town. The first Indian detachment to reach Leh consisted of just 16 soldiers, including two officers. They were joined by additional 58 soldiers from the State Forces. The team was led by Major Prithi Chand of 2 Dogras. He crossed the pass in peak winter and reached Leh on March 8. He sent out platoons but in the meanwhile Kargil fell to the raiders and when the snow melted, the raiders started assembling and planning the capture of Leh.
The people of Leh felt threatened and on May 17 and the following days, Major Coutts and Lt Col Sampuran Bachan Singh and the dispirited remnants of the troops from Kargil reached Leh. Since sending reinforcements to Leh on foot was proving to be a great impediment, the work on Leh airstrip started. However, panic set following intelligence about advancing tribal Lashkars.
This made the military leadership decide that a senior Indian Air Force officer, Air Commodore Mehar Singh, would fly a plane to Leh and Gen Thimayya decided to accompany him, the date being May 24, 1948.
It was a leap in the dark and the achievement of landing at over 11,500 feet on a makeshift airstrip gave a great fillip to the people of the town. The earliest planned fly-in for troops was scheduled for May 30 — one company of 2/4 Gorkha Rifles.
Meanwhile, on May 28, a column of 2/8 Gorkha Rifles left Ferozepur for Manali to march to Leh over the mountains. The column was commanded by Major Hari Chand and had a total of 151 soldiers. Since the marching column would reach Leh only in the first week of July, all hopes were pinned on the air effort. The Dakotas took off on May 30 but were turned back due to bad weather. They finally landed on June 1 and the troops were immediately rushed into battle where they somewhat stabilised the situation.
Lt Col HS Parab, the commanding officer of 2/8 GR, was flown in on August 23. By August 30, a total of 123 troops and supplies had been airlifted and the remainder of the force came by foot over the Rohtang Pass. Before being flown in, on August 19, Col Parab was appointed the Military Governor of Ladakh and he, on reaching Leh, took over all civil, executive and judicial control of the district. The defences of Leh thus grew strong.
Though Ladakh had a small civilian population, the influx of refugees from the rural areas captured by the raiders brought horrific tales and demoralised the population. One of the challenges before Col Parab was to reinstall that confidence in the people. Moreover, the orders for him from Gen Thimayya were, “You will defend Leh at all cost.” He did so with much élan, not only building defences but also setting up the first civilian government in place complete with a ‘Cabinet’. The morale of the population slowly went up and they were now completely supportive of the war efforts.
Before the onset of winter, Indian Army’s 77 Para Brigade’s thrust on Zoji La was successful as the crucial pass was opened to link Kargil and Ladakh with the rest of the state. With this success, Leh was now better secured. On November 20, the military leadership at Srinagar division sent out instructions to the military administrator of Leh for link-up with 77 Para Brigade at Kargil, which had by now been recaptured from the tribal raiders. Col Parab got into action, captured Khalaste and linked up with Kargil.
In May 1948, Leh was within the grasp of the raiders, but they failed to capitalise. Major Hari Chand was awarded Maha Vir Chakra for his exploits. Leh proved to be a war of logistics. The Manali route was a life-saver, and General Thimayya’s idea of making Manali a logistics base with porters and ponies was indeed novel. The capture of Zoji La was a key turning moment, so was the support provided by air.
Col Parab, after the announcement of ceasefire in January 1949, dissolved his ‘Cabinet’ though he remained Military Governor for some more time. The district was now completely secured and saved for posterity.
(The writer is a senior journalist with a keen interest in military history) | <urn:uuid:f4e7c69a-bff6-4dc8-8341-84ed821f2b4e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://in.news.yahoo.com/not-brave-indian-soldiers-ladakh-052506985.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00196.warc.gz | en | 0.980667 | 1,223 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.279797703... | 2 | Ladakh, by the recent amendment of the Constitution, has been made into a Union Territory. The manoeuvre used by the government to separate Ladakh from the erstwhile state of Jammu & Kashmir to resolve the Kashmir crisis would not have been possible but for the valiant efforts of Indian soldiers in first defending the area from tribal raiders in 1947-49, and later securing it for seven decades in the most inhospitable situation.
The accession of Jammu & Kashmir to India and swift entry of the Indian army in the autumn of 1947 did not discourage Pakistan enough to give up its plan. Governor General Mohammed Ali Jinnah took matters in his control and supervised the invasion of Kashmir by the Frontier tribesmen. In the initial months, due to the severity of winter, Ladakh did not get sufficient focus and was left under the charge of soldiers belonging to the J&K State Forces of the erstwhile princely state.
These winter months, however, gave time to the Indian Army to put its war machinery in place. Jammu and Kashmir was now reorganised into two military divisions — Srinagar and Jammu. The Srinagar division was put under the command of Major General (later General) KS Thimayya and the Jammu division under Major General Atma Singh. Ladakh came under the Srinagar division.
Leh initially had only 33 State Forces soldiers; thus when news came that the tribal Lashkars had attacked Skardu, it set panic in the town. The first Indian detachment to reach Leh consisted of just 16 soldiers, including two officers. They were joined by additional 58 soldiers from the State Forces. The team was led by Major Prithi Chand of 2 Dogras. He crossed the pass in peak winter and reached Leh on March 8. He sent out platoons but in the meanwhile Kargil fell to the raiders and when the snow melted, the raiders started assembling and planning the capture of Leh.
The people of Leh felt threatened and on May 17 and the following days, Major Coutts and Lt Col Sampuran Bachan Singh and the dispirited remnants of the troops from Kargil reached Leh. Since sending reinforcements to Leh on foot was proving to be a great impediment, the work on Leh airstrip started. However, panic set following intelligence about advancing tribal Lashkars.
This made the military leadership decide that a senior Indian Air Force officer, Air Commodore Mehar Singh, would fly a plane to Leh and Gen Thimayya decided to accompany him, the date being May 24, 1948.
It was a leap in the dark and the achievement of landing at over 11,500 feet on a makeshift airstrip gave a great fillip to the people of the town. The earliest planned fly-in for troops was scheduled for May 30 — one company of 2/4 Gorkha Rifles.
Meanwhile, on May 28, a column of 2/8 Gorkha Rifles left Ferozepur for Manali to march to Leh over the mountains. The column was commanded by Major Hari Chand and had a total of 151 soldiers. Since the marching column would reach Leh only in the first week of July, all hopes were pinned on the air effort. The Dakotas took off on May 30 but were turned back due to bad weather. They finally landed on June 1 and the troops were immediately rushed into battle where they somewhat stabilised the situation.
Lt Col HS Parab, the commanding officer of 2/8 GR, was flown in on August 23. By August 30, a total of 123 troops and supplies had been airlifted and the remainder of the force came by foot over the Rohtang Pass. Before being flown in, on August 19, Col Parab was appointed the Military Governor of Ladakh and he, on reaching Leh, took over all civil, executive and judicial control of the district. The defences of Leh thus grew strong.
Though Ladakh had a small civilian population, the influx of refugees from the rural areas captured by the raiders brought horrific tales and demoralised the population. One of the challenges before Col Parab was to reinstall that confidence in the people. Moreover, the orders for him from Gen Thimayya were, “You will defend Leh at all cost.” He did so with much élan, not only building defences but also setting up the first civilian government in place complete with a ‘Cabinet’. The morale of the population slowly went up and they were now completely supportive of the war efforts.
Before the onset of winter, Indian Army’s 77 Para Brigade’s thrust on Zoji La was successful as the crucial pass was opened to link Kargil and Ladakh with the rest of the state. With this success, Leh was now better secured. On November 20, the military leadership at Srinagar division sent out instructions to the military administrator of Leh for link-up with 77 Para Brigade at Kargil, which had by now been recaptured from the tribal raiders. Col Parab got into action, captured Khalaste and linked up with Kargil.
In May 1948, Leh was within the grasp of the raiders, but they failed to capitalise. Major Hari Chand was awarded Maha Vir Chakra for his exploits. Leh proved to be a war of logistics. The Manali route was a life-saver, and General Thimayya’s idea of making Manali a logistics base with porters and ponies was indeed novel. The capture of Zoji La was a key turning moment, so was the support provided by air.
Col Parab, after the announcement of ceasefire in January 1949, dissolved his ‘Cabinet’ though he remained Military Governor for some more time. The district was now completely secured and saved for posterity.
(The writer is a senior journalist with a keen interest in military history) | 1,257 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Born into slavery on a plantation in Talbot County, Maryland in 1818, Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey was separated from his mother at an early age, and raised by his grandmother. Around the age of eight, he was taken to Baltimore to serve as a houseboy to Hugh and Sophia Auld, who were relatives of his master. It was there that he first began learning letters of the alphabet from Sophia. Hugh became angered when he discovered this, and forbade Sophia from giving further lessons in response. Young Frederick then took it upon himself to learn how to read and write from white children around the neighborhood. At the age of 20, and after several unsuccessful prior attempts, Frederick finally managed to make his way up to New York with the bride he had recently taken. He traveled under a new name, Frederick Douglass, which he would keep for the rest of his life.
In his autobiography, Frederick Douglass credits The Columbian Orator, which he discovered around 12 years old, for helping him more clearly form and then expand his views on human rights. After moving to New York, Douglass joined a church and attended abolitionist meetings. These gatherings were where Douglass first met William Lloyd Garrison, a white abolitionist leader and writer of The Liberator. Garrison would be a mentor to Douglass for some time thereafter, until their views proved to be too divergent for reconciliation. In 1841, Douglass gave a speech at the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society in Nantucket, and was asked to become a regular speaker for the society. He stayed with the society for three years, thereby launching his career as a respected orator and abolitionist.
Douglass made a number of notable contributions to American history, some of the most important of which were recorded in his writings as autobiographies and newspapers. Beyond antislavery and human rights in general, Douglass was also a supporter of women’s rights and suffrage. During the American Civil War, Douglass would use his influence to advise President Abraham Lincoln on the treatment of black soldiers, and the importance of black suffrage for newly freed slaves and already 'Freemen' alike. Although he was too old to take part in the war as a soldier, he continued writing and speaking out against slavery while working to recruit black troops for the Union Army. In 1872, despite his lack of knowledge or consent, he would also become the first black person to appear on a U.S. Presidential Ballot, doing so in a bid for the U.S. Vice Presidency.
As a self-educated black man escaped from slavery, Douglass was faced with many hardships. Before his escape, he was made to work for Edward Covey, a farmer with a reputation for being a “slave-breaker”. The man constantly abused the then 16-year-old Frederick, and only stopped after losing a physical confrontation against him. When on lecture tours, it was not unheard of for Douglass to be chased and beaten by angry mobs. After he published his first autobiography in 1845, titled Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Douglass had to flee to Europe to avoid recapture, despite the book's success. Even after his book was published, many still doubted that such an eloquent writer could have been born a slave.
Death and Legacy
On February 20, 1895, at the age of 77, Douglass suffered from either a heart attack or stroke, after returning home from speaking at a meeting for the National Council of Women in Washington D.C.. Thousands attended his funeral to pay their respects, and he was inducted into the New York Writers Hall of Fame in 2010. There have been, and continue to be, numerous portraits and statues erected in his honor, and schools and parks named after him. Even after so many years since his death, Douglass continues to be remembered and honored as a forward-thinking leader in humanitarian, women's rights, and antislavery movements. He is often considered the most important African American leader of his time.
Who Was Frederick Douglass?
Frederick Douglass was a 19th-Century American who was an intellectual, abolitionist, and women's suffrage activist.
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Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | <urn:uuid:7508ed29-75de-4505-9560-5e19a831ecad> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/frederick-douglass-important-figures-in-us-history.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00086.warc.gz | en | 0.985698 | 895 | 4.1875 | 4 | [
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0.1239674314... | 2 | Born into slavery on a plantation in Talbot County, Maryland in 1818, Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey was separated from his mother at an early age, and raised by his grandmother. Around the age of eight, he was taken to Baltimore to serve as a houseboy to Hugh and Sophia Auld, who were relatives of his master. It was there that he first began learning letters of the alphabet from Sophia. Hugh became angered when he discovered this, and forbade Sophia from giving further lessons in response. Young Frederick then took it upon himself to learn how to read and write from white children around the neighborhood. At the age of 20, and after several unsuccessful prior attempts, Frederick finally managed to make his way up to New York with the bride he had recently taken. He traveled under a new name, Frederick Douglass, which he would keep for the rest of his life.
In his autobiography, Frederick Douglass credits The Columbian Orator, which he discovered around 12 years old, for helping him more clearly form and then expand his views on human rights. After moving to New York, Douglass joined a church and attended abolitionist meetings. These gatherings were where Douglass first met William Lloyd Garrison, a white abolitionist leader and writer of The Liberator. Garrison would be a mentor to Douglass for some time thereafter, until their views proved to be too divergent for reconciliation. In 1841, Douglass gave a speech at the Massachusetts Anti-Slavery Society in Nantucket, and was asked to become a regular speaker for the society. He stayed with the society for three years, thereby launching his career as a respected orator and abolitionist.
Douglass made a number of notable contributions to American history, some of the most important of which were recorded in his writings as autobiographies and newspapers. Beyond antislavery and human rights in general, Douglass was also a supporter of women’s rights and suffrage. During the American Civil War, Douglass would use his influence to advise President Abraham Lincoln on the treatment of black soldiers, and the importance of black suffrage for newly freed slaves and already 'Freemen' alike. Although he was too old to take part in the war as a soldier, he continued writing and speaking out against slavery while working to recruit black troops for the Union Army. In 1872, despite his lack of knowledge or consent, he would also become the first black person to appear on a U.S. Presidential Ballot, doing so in a bid for the U.S. Vice Presidency.
As a self-educated black man escaped from slavery, Douglass was faced with many hardships. Before his escape, he was made to work for Edward Covey, a farmer with a reputation for being a “slave-breaker”. The man constantly abused the then 16-year-old Frederick, and only stopped after losing a physical confrontation against him. When on lecture tours, it was not unheard of for Douglass to be chased and beaten by angry mobs. After he published his first autobiography in 1845, titled Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Douglass had to flee to Europe to avoid recapture, despite the book's success. Even after his book was published, many still doubted that such an eloquent writer could have been born a slave.
Death and Legacy
On February 20, 1895, at the age of 77, Douglass suffered from either a heart attack or stroke, after returning home from speaking at a meeting for the National Council of Women in Washington D.C.. Thousands attended his funeral to pay their respects, and he was inducted into the New York Writers Hall of Fame in 2010. There have been, and continue to be, numerous portraits and statues erected in his honor, and schools and parks named after him. Even after so many years since his death, Douglass continues to be remembered and honored as a forward-thinking leader in humanitarian, women's rights, and antislavery movements. He is often considered the most important African American leader of his time.
Who Was Frederick Douglass?
Frederick Douglass was a 19th-Century American who was an intellectual, abolitionist, and women's suffrage activist.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 906 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History of Physics
Publisher: Findaway Voices
Date: May 2019
Duration: 0 hours 33 minutes
The discipline of science that shades the most light on the structure of the world and also the most advanced one is undoubtedly none other than Physics. Hence, it is much needed to have some basic ideas of not only what the up-to-date development of physics is but also how we came to think in that way and how the whole of modern physics is attached with its history.
In fact, the history of this science begins with Galileo, but in order to understand his work it will be well to see what was thought before his time. The ancient scholars whose ideas were mainly taken from that of Aristotle used to believe that different laws for terrestrial bodies and that of celestial bodies persisted side by side at the same time. They even believed the same holds true for living and dead matter as well. The four basic elements according to them were that of air, water, fire and earth - Among them the heaviest ones were the water and earth while air and fire were believed to be lighter. | <urn:uuid:ffb96621-b61e-4d36-9b8e-29c4bcdf7a08> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.audiobooks.com/audiobook/history-of-physics/388402 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00135.warc.gz | en | 0.985586 | 219 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.29795342... | 1 | History of Physics
Publisher: Findaway Voices
Date: May 2019
Duration: 0 hours 33 minutes
The discipline of science that shades the most light on the structure of the world and also the most advanced one is undoubtedly none other than Physics. Hence, it is much needed to have some basic ideas of not only what the up-to-date development of physics is but also how we came to think in that way and how the whole of modern physics is attached with its history.
In fact, the history of this science begins with Galileo, but in order to understand his work it will be well to see what was thought before his time. The ancient scholars whose ideas were mainly taken from that of Aristotle used to believe that different laws for terrestrial bodies and that of celestial bodies persisted side by side at the same time. They even believed the same holds true for living and dead matter as well. The four basic elements according to them were that of air, water, fire and earth - Among them the heaviest ones were the water and earth while air and fire were believed to be lighter. | 225 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Class 3 have had a busy week of poetry writing and French calendar making. Joyeux Noel!
We looked at the toilet twinning project and how important it was to have good sanitation in place in order to stop people from becoming ill. The children realised that this has a huge impact on children’s lives and how being healthy meant they were able to attend school and access an education.
Children thought that it wasn’t fair that parents had to choose between paying medical bills or or school fees. They were intrigued by some of the simple toilet huts that were being constructed in villages and how they were able to use materials available to them.
Class Two have been finding out about different puppets that are used around the world. They have looked carefully at what puppets are made of and how the materials are joined. They have learnt how to use the overstitch and the running stitch to join fabric. Watch this space to see what they will be designing and making!
Our lighthouses are progressing as we used nets to assemble our prototypes. We used our prototypes to think about any alterations or improvements we could make before we construct our final products. We thought about how to make a stable, rigid platform for our lamps to sit on inside the lighthouses. We also drew electric circuits and look forward to testing them out once our models are complete. | <urn:uuid:1cb83a5d-d28c-48f0-8c7c-c7f2ae6e1d61> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.woodbury-salterton.devon.sch.uk/category/our-learning/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00027.warc.gz | en | 0.987929 | 278 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.1527901887893... | 1 | Class 3 have had a busy week of poetry writing and French calendar making. Joyeux Noel!
We looked at the toilet twinning project and how important it was to have good sanitation in place in order to stop people from becoming ill. The children realised that this has a huge impact on children’s lives and how being healthy meant they were able to attend school and access an education.
Children thought that it wasn’t fair that parents had to choose between paying medical bills or or school fees. They were intrigued by some of the simple toilet huts that were being constructed in villages and how they were able to use materials available to them.
Class Two have been finding out about different puppets that are used around the world. They have looked carefully at what puppets are made of and how the materials are joined. They have learnt how to use the overstitch and the running stitch to join fabric. Watch this space to see what they will be designing and making!
Our lighthouses are progressing as we used nets to assemble our prototypes. We used our prototypes to think about any alterations or improvements we could make before we construct our final products. We thought about how to make a stable, rigid platform for our lamps to sit on inside the lighthouses. We also drew electric circuits and look forward to testing them out once our models are complete. | 270 | ENGLISH | 1 |
George Mason Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
George Mason was an American as well as a statesman. He was known to be the son of one of the wealthiest as well as a plantation owner. He is known to have inherited the main portion of his father’s wealth. He was as at then a neighbor to George Washington. His political career started as a justice of the Fairfax Court. He lost his county election into the House of Burgesses and chose to settle in the West and act as a supply agent of the George Washington commanded troops. Later on, he got elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses and later became a trustee of the city of Alexandria.
George Mason is known for drafting the Fairfax Resolves which challenged the authority of the Parliament’s over the colonies. He is also known for Virginia Declaration of Rights as well as Virginia constitution. He is known to have owned a lot of slaves and against slavery. However, he is not ready to end slavery completely. He declined to sign a proposed constitution because it ignored the import and spread of slavery to the other states.
CHILDHOOD & EARLY LIFE
George Mason was into a family of three as on 11th day of December 1725 before he moved with his mother to his uncle’s place upon his dad's death. He owned his dad’s library and cultivated a culture of reading. George Mason attended a private academy in Mary Land. By 21, he had inherited over 20, 000 acres in several counties. He was known to be the neighbor of George Washington.
George Mason became a justice of the Fairfax County court. He later contested for the county election into House of Burgesses which he won gallantly. In a year later, he became a partner in an Ohio Company which speculated in land. This Company lobbied for settlement to the west of the Appalachians and later got their right revoked by Britain. He then wrote Extracts from Virginia Charters, with some remarks upon them. This article proves to have an evident impact on the 1783 peace treaty with Great Britain. There, the Anglo-American boundary was at Great Lakes instead of Ohio River. A frontier broke out and served as a supply agent for troops commanded by Washington.
George Mason became a colonel. Before then, he had got himself elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses where he represented Fairfax County. Later, George Mason became a trustee of the Alexandria, Virginia. For six years, he was not elected into the office probably because of ill-health, but he served as a member of Virginia House of Delegates until 1980.
George Mason attended the Mount Vernon Conference of 1785 called by the State of Virginia and Maryland for the use of water from the Potomac River. This conference led him to the Federal constitutional convention of Philadelphia. There, he was part of Virginia delegation including Washington Division to Philadelphia to revise the Articles of the Federation. George Mason is known to have claimed that slavery is wrong. He even tried to prevent slavery from spreading to other states and do not want to end it. He, however, is one of the largest slaveholders in the country. The Declaration of rights made him refuse to sign the proposed Constitution.
He was not named as the founding fathers of the US constitution and lost his friendship with Washington as a result of that. George Mason saw through the ratification of US constitution in the Richmond Convention of 1788. However, he was always known to have advocated religious freedom and got passage of a law against Virginia’s here and required church attendance in 1776. He rejected the invitation of becoming one of Virginia’s senators, but he rejected. Instead, he returned to his home where he retired and lived the rest of his life till death took him away.
- George Mason challenged the parliament’s authority over the colonies with the Fairfax Resolves he drafted in 1774.
- He was known to have called for a boycott of British Goods and went ahead in proposing a coordinate resistance of the Americans to the British policies.
- He got delegated at the Virginia Convention in Williamsburg in 1776 and helped draft the Declaration of Rights as well as the Virginia Constitution which was both adopted.
PERSONAL LIFE & LEGACY
George Mason married in 1750 to Anne Eilbeck who was the daughter of a very wealthy planter. The couple had four daughters and five children. However, upon her wife’s death as a result of the complication that resulted from the death of her birth of twins who died in infancy. He remained a widower until he married Sarah Brent in 1780. She bore him no children.
Margaret Chase Smith
James A. Garfield | <urn:uuid:3f439735-24e4-4ebe-81bb-17bbad3875bb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/george-mason/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00157.warc.gz | en | 0.988111 | 967 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.40564793348312... | 1 | George Mason Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Also Known For :
Birth Place :
George Mason was an American as well as a statesman. He was known to be the son of one of the wealthiest as well as a plantation owner. He is known to have inherited the main portion of his father’s wealth. He was as at then a neighbor to George Washington. His political career started as a justice of the Fairfax Court. He lost his county election into the House of Burgesses and chose to settle in the West and act as a supply agent of the George Washington commanded troops. Later on, he got elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses and later became a trustee of the city of Alexandria.
George Mason is known for drafting the Fairfax Resolves which challenged the authority of the Parliament’s over the colonies. He is also known for Virginia Declaration of Rights as well as Virginia constitution. He is known to have owned a lot of slaves and against slavery. However, he is not ready to end slavery completely. He declined to sign a proposed constitution because it ignored the import and spread of slavery to the other states.
CHILDHOOD & EARLY LIFE
George Mason was into a family of three as on 11th day of December 1725 before he moved with his mother to his uncle’s place upon his dad's death. He owned his dad’s library and cultivated a culture of reading. George Mason attended a private academy in Mary Land. By 21, he had inherited over 20, 000 acres in several counties. He was known to be the neighbor of George Washington.
George Mason became a justice of the Fairfax County court. He later contested for the county election into House of Burgesses which he won gallantly. In a year later, he became a partner in an Ohio Company which speculated in land. This Company lobbied for settlement to the west of the Appalachians and later got their right revoked by Britain. He then wrote Extracts from Virginia Charters, with some remarks upon them. This article proves to have an evident impact on the 1783 peace treaty with Great Britain. There, the Anglo-American boundary was at Great Lakes instead of Ohio River. A frontier broke out and served as a supply agent for troops commanded by Washington.
George Mason became a colonel. Before then, he had got himself elected to the Virginia House of Burgesses where he represented Fairfax County. Later, George Mason became a trustee of the Alexandria, Virginia. For six years, he was not elected into the office probably because of ill-health, but he served as a member of Virginia House of Delegates until 1980.
George Mason attended the Mount Vernon Conference of 1785 called by the State of Virginia and Maryland for the use of water from the Potomac River. This conference led him to the Federal constitutional convention of Philadelphia. There, he was part of Virginia delegation including Washington Division to Philadelphia to revise the Articles of the Federation. George Mason is known to have claimed that slavery is wrong. He even tried to prevent slavery from spreading to other states and do not want to end it. He, however, is one of the largest slaveholders in the country. The Declaration of rights made him refuse to sign the proposed Constitution.
He was not named as the founding fathers of the US constitution and lost his friendship with Washington as a result of that. George Mason saw through the ratification of US constitution in the Richmond Convention of 1788. However, he was always known to have advocated religious freedom and got passage of a law against Virginia’s here and required church attendance in 1776. He rejected the invitation of becoming one of Virginia’s senators, but he rejected. Instead, he returned to his home where he retired and lived the rest of his life till death took him away.
- George Mason challenged the parliament’s authority over the colonies with the Fairfax Resolves he drafted in 1774.
- He was known to have called for a boycott of British Goods and went ahead in proposing a coordinate resistance of the Americans to the British policies.
- He got delegated at the Virginia Convention in Williamsburg in 1776 and helped draft the Declaration of Rights as well as the Virginia Constitution which was both adopted.
PERSONAL LIFE & LEGACY
George Mason married in 1750 to Anne Eilbeck who was the daughter of a very wealthy planter. The couple had four daughters and five children. However, upon her wife’s death as a result of the complication that resulted from the death of her birth of twins who died in infancy. He remained a widower until he married Sarah Brent in 1780. She bore him no children.
Margaret Chase Smith
James A. Garfield | 977 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1844 depiction of the oak
|Location||Cowthorpe, North Yorkshire|
The Cowthorpe Oak was an oak tree in Cowthorpe, North Yorkshire, England. Renowned for its age and size it was sketched by the artist J. M. W. Turner. At its greatest extent its canopy was said to cover 0.5 acres (0.20 ha) of land. The tree declined in the late 18th century and lost several of its leading branches. By 1822 many of its branches were almost completely rotten and it had been supported with wooden props. The tree fell in 1950, apparently after having been struck by lightning.
The oak has traditionally been said to date from before the 1066 Norman Conquest or to early Roman times. 0.5 acres (0.20 ha) of land. In the early 19th century the tree was owned by Charles Stourton, 17th Baron Stourton and then The Honorable Mr Petre. The tree was sketched by J. M. W. Turner.It became famous for its age and size and, according to Julian Hight, William Shakespeare described it in As You Like It (c. 1600) as "An oak whose boughs were mossed with age, and high top bald with dry antiquity". It was later described as 1,600 years old by Dr Alexander Hunter in John Evelyn's Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber in circa 1860, he stated "compared with this, all other trees are children of the forest". Cowthorpe's St Michael's Church was constructed nearby and a public house was named Ye Old Oak Inn after the tree. At its greatest extent its canopy was said to cover
The tree's leading branch fell in 1718 and was found to be 2 feet (0.61 m) thick and to weigh 5 long tons (5.1 t). It is said to have decayed greatly between 1773 and 1804; in 1794 another leading branch fell, causing alarm to nearby residents. In 1806 its circumference measured at a height of 6 feet (1.8 m) from the ground was 47 feet (14 m) and in 1822 it was measured at 60 feet (18 m) at ground level. By this time many of the branches are said to be completely rotten and held up only by the bark; the leading branch extended some 48 feet (15 m) from the trunk and had been supported by wooden props. The hollow trunk was said to be large enough to hold 70 people, if children were carried on the adults' shoulders.
The Cowthorpe oak was photographed in 1904 and appeared to be in good health, though it was heavily propped.The tree died in 1950, apparently having been struck by lightning. At this time it was said to be England's oldest tree. The remains of the tree were removed by Ian Watson as it had become unsafe.
The tree's lineage survives as several of its acorns were sent to New Zealand to be planted there. 5 metres (16 ft) measured at a height of 0.5 metres (1.6 ft) from ground level. The Runciman Oak also has many descendants, planted in an avenue nearby.One of these, planted at Drury in the 1870s, is now known as the Runciman Oak and has a circumference of almost
Quercus virginiana, also known as the Southern live oak, is an evergreen oak tree endemic to the Southeastern United States. Though many other species are loosely called live oak, the Southern live oak is particularly iconic of the Old South. Many very large and old specimens of live oak can be found today in the Deep South region of the United States.
The Wye Oak was the largest white oak tree in the United States and the State Tree of Maryland from 1941 until its demise in 2002. Wye Oak State Park preserves the site where the revered tree stood for more than 400 years in the town of Wye Mills, Talbot County, Maryland.
The Treaty Oak is an octopus-like Southern live oak in Jacksonville, Florida. The tree is estimated to be 250 years old and may be the single oldest living thing in Jacksonville, predating the founding of the city by Isaiah Hart during the 1820s. It is located in Treaty Oak Park in the Southbank area of Downtown Jacksonville.
The Mingo Oak was a white oak in the U.S. state of West Virginia. First recognized for its age and size in 1931, the Mingo Oak was the oldest and largest living white oak tree in the world until its death in 1938.
Hooker Oak was an extremely large valley oak tree in Chico, California. Amateur botanist and local socialite Annie Bidwell, whose husband had founded Chico, named the tree in 1887 after English botanist and Director of the Royal Botanical Gardens Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker. It was featured in the 1938 film The Adventures of Robin Hood starring Errol Flynn. The tree fell in 1977 and portions of the wood was later milled for use by local artisans.
The Great Banyan is a banyan tree located in Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah, near Kolkata, India. The great banyan tree draws more visitors to the garden than its collection of exotic plants from five continents. Its main trunk became diseased after it was struck by two cyclones, so in 1925 the main trunk of the tree was amputated to keep the remainder healthy; this has left it as a clonal colony, rather than a single tree. A 330-metre-long (1,080 ft) road was built around its circumference, but the tree continues to spread beyond it.
Cowthorpe is a village in the Harrogate district of North Yorkshire, England. It is situated 3 miles (4.8 km) north of Wetherby, 10 miles (16 km) east of Harrogate, 7 miles (11 km) from Knaresborough and 13.5 miles (21.7 km) from York.
Friendship Oak is a 500-year-old southern live oak located on the Gulf Park campus of the University of Southern Mississippi in Long Beach, Mississippi. The campus was formerly Gulf Park College for Women from 1921 until 1971.
A part of tree measurement is measurement of the crown of a tree, which consists of the mass of foliage and branches growing outward from the trunk of the tree. The average crown spread is the average horizontal width of the crown, taken from dripline to dripline as one moves around the crown. The dripline being the outer boundary to the area located directly under the outer circumference of the tree branches. When the tree canopy gets wet, any excess water is shed to the ground along this dripline. Some listings will also list the maximum crown spread which represents the greatest width from dripline to dripline across the crown. Other crown measurements that are commonly taken include limb length, crown volume, and foliage density. Canopy mapping surveys the position and size of all of the limbs down to a certain size in the crown of the tree and is commonly used when measuring the overall wood volume of a tree.
Tree volume is one of many parameters that are measured to document the size of individual trees. Tree volume measurements serve a variety of purposes, some economic, some scientific, and some for sporting competitions. Measurements may include just the volume of the trunk, or the volume of the trunk and the branches depending on the detail needed and the sophistication of the measurement methodology.
Trees have a wide variety of sizes and shapes and growth habits. Specimens may grow as individual trunks, multitrunk masses, coppices, clonal colonies, or even more exotic tree complexes. Most champion tree programs focus finding and measuring the largest single-trunk example of each species. There are three basic parameters commonly measured to characterize the size of a single trunk tree: height, girth, and crown spread. Additional details on the methodology of Tree height measurement, Tree girth measurement, Tree crown measurement, and Tree volume measurement are presented in the links herein. A detailed guideline to these basic measurements is provided in The Tree Measuring Guidelines of the Eastern Native Tree Society by Will Blozan.
The Webster Sycamore was an American sycamore in the U.S. state of West Virginia. Long recognized for its size, the Webster Sycamore was the largest living American sycamore tree in West Virginia until its felling in 2010. The tree stood approximately 4.5 miles (7.2 km) east of Webster Springs in Webster County, in a moist flood plain along the banks of the Back Fork Elk River, a tributary stream of the Elk River.
The Wallace Oak was an oak tree that stood in Elderslie, Renfrewshire. It is reputed to have seeded around 1100 and by the late 13th-century grew on the estate of Scottish independence leader William Wallace's father. Wallace is reputed to have hidden himself within the tree to escape from English soldiers. The tree was damaged by the removal of wood to make souvenirs in the 19th-century and it fell during a storm in 1856.
The Allerton Oak is a sessile oak tree in Calderstones Park, Liverpool. It is thought to be around 1,000 years old and is described as the oldest oak in North West England. It is reputed to have been the setting for a medieval hundred court and said to have been damaged in an 1864 gunpowder explosion. The tree won the 2019 English Tree of the Year competition and has been entered into the 2020 European Tree of the Year competition.
The Wallace Oak was a tree in Torwood, Scotland. it is thought to have been part of the Torwood ancient woodland and has been linked to pre-Christian druidic worship. The tree became associated with the Scottish independence leader William Wallace. Its hollow trunk is reputed to have served him as a headquarters, hiding place and sleeping quarters. By the 17th-century the tree was being used to make souvenirs due to its association with Wallace. By 1830 it was described as badly affected by the removal of timber, being reduced to a single stump. Timber being scarce above ground its roots were also dug up for souvenirs and the tree was dead by 1835.
The Caton Oak was an ancient oak tree that stood in Caton, Lancashire, reputedly dating from the time of the druids. The oak tree stood atop a set of steps known as the "Fish Stones" that were used by medieval monks to display salmon for sale. The tree declined during the 20th century and was reinforced with a metal support; an acorn from the tree was planted in 2007 to grow a replacement. The original Caton Oak fell on 20 June 2016.
The Parliament Oak is a veteran tree in Sherwood Forest. It is reputed to have been the site for impromptu-parliaments held by kings John and Edward I. In the 19th century the tree was propped-up by William Bentinck, 4th Duke of Portland. In recent years the Parliament Oak was threatened by fly-tipping and competing vegetation but was subject to conservation work in 2008. The tree was shortlisted for the 2017 Woodland Trust Tree of the Year award.
Robin Hood's Larder was a veteran tree in Sherwood Forest that measured 24 feet (7.3 m) in circumference. The tree had long been hollow and is reputed to have been used by the legendary outlaw Robin Hood and others as a larder for poached meat. It was badly burnt by fire in the late 19th century and again in 1913. The tree fell in a gale in 1961 and no trace of it remains.
The Shelton Oak also known as Owen Glendwr's Observatory or the Glendower Oak was a veteran oak tree near Shrewsbury, England. It may be the "grette Oak at Shelton" mentioned in a document from the time of Henry III (1216-1272). The oak is said to have been climbed Owain Glyndŵr, the Welsh independence fighter, to view the 1403 Battle of Shrewsbury, from which its alternative name derives. In later years the tree became renowned for its hollow trunk which was variously described as able to accommodate twenty people, six people sitting for dinner or an 8-person quadrille dance. The tree had fallen by 1940 and its remains were removed in the 1950s to facilitate improvements to an adjacent road junction. | <urn:uuid:a8e1d38f-78a5-405a-8d05-430326bc469d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wikimili.com/en/Cowthorpe_Oak | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00382.warc.gz | en | 0.981306 | 2,609 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.2655833959579468,
0.19113996624946594,
0.018076689913868904,
-0.4328320026397705,
0.10380329936742783,
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0.21180766820907... | 1 | 1844 depiction of the oak
|Location||Cowthorpe, North Yorkshire|
The Cowthorpe Oak was an oak tree in Cowthorpe, North Yorkshire, England. Renowned for its age and size it was sketched by the artist J. M. W. Turner. At its greatest extent its canopy was said to cover 0.5 acres (0.20 ha) of land. The tree declined in the late 18th century and lost several of its leading branches. By 1822 many of its branches were almost completely rotten and it had been supported with wooden props. The tree fell in 1950, apparently after having been struck by lightning.
The oak has traditionally been said to date from before the 1066 Norman Conquest or to early Roman times. 0.5 acres (0.20 ha) of land. In the early 19th century the tree was owned by Charles Stourton, 17th Baron Stourton and then The Honorable Mr Petre. The tree was sketched by J. M. W. Turner.It became famous for its age and size and, according to Julian Hight, William Shakespeare described it in As You Like It (c. 1600) as "An oak whose boughs were mossed with age, and high top bald with dry antiquity". It was later described as 1,600 years old by Dr Alexander Hunter in John Evelyn's Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest-Trees and the Propagation of Timber in circa 1860, he stated "compared with this, all other trees are children of the forest". Cowthorpe's St Michael's Church was constructed nearby and a public house was named Ye Old Oak Inn after the tree. At its greatest extent its canopy was said to cover
The tree's leading branch fell in 1718 and was found to be 2 feet (0.61 m) thick and to weigh 5 long tons (5.1 t). It is said to have decayed greatly between 1773 and 1804; in 1794 another leading branch fell, causing alarm to nearby residents. In 1806 its circumference measured at a height of 6 feet (1.8 m) from the ground was 47 feet (14 m) and in 1822 it was measured at 60 feet (18 m) at ground level. By this time many of the branches are said to be completely rotten and held up only by the bark; the leading branch extended some 48 feet (15 m) from the trunk and had been supported by wooden props. The hollow trunk was said to be large enough to hold 70 people, if children were carried on the adults' shoulders.
The Cowthorpe oak was photographed in 1904 and appeared to be in good health, though it was heavily propped.The tree died in 1950, apparently having been struck by lightning. At this time it was said to be England's oldest tree. The remains of the tree were removed by Ian Watson as it had become unsafe.
The tree's lineage survives as several of its acorns were sent to New Zealand to be planted there. 5 metres (16 ft) measured at a height of 0.5 metres (1.6 ft) from ground level. The Runciman Oak also has many descendants, planted in an avenue nearby.One of these, planted at Drury in the 1870s, is now known as the Runciman Oak and has a circumference of almost
Quercus virginiana, also known as the Southern live oak, is an evergreen oak tree endemic to the Southeastern United States. Though many other species are loosely called live oak, the Southern live oak is particularly iconic of the Old South. Many very large and old specimens of live oak can be found today in the Deep South region of the United States.
The Wye Oak was the largest white oak tree in the United States and the State Tree of Maryland from 1941 until its demise in 2002. Wye Oak State Park preserves the site where the revered tree stood for more than 400 years in the town of Wye Mills, Talbot County, Maryland.
The Treaty Oak is an octopus-like Southern live oak in Jacksonville, Florida. The tree is estimated to be 250 years old and may be the single oldest living thing in Jacksonville, predating the founding of the city by Isaiah Hart during the 1820s. It is located in Treaty Oak Park in the Southbank area of Downtown Jacksonville.
The Mingo Oak was a white oak in the U.S. state of West Virginia. First recognized for its age and size in 1931, the Mingo Oak was the oldest and largest living white oak tree in the world until its death in 1938.
Hooker Oak was an extremely large valley oak tree in Chico, California. Amateur botanist and local socialite Annie Bidwell, whose husband had founded Chico, named the tree in 1887 after English botanist and Director of the Royal Botanical Gardens Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker. It was featured in the 1938 film The Adventures of Robin Hood starring Errol Flynn. The tree fell in 1977 and portions of the wood was later milled for use by local artisans.
The Great Banyan is a banyan tree located in Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden, Howrah, near Kolkata, India. The great banyan tree draws more visitors to the garden than its collection of exotic plants from five continents. Its main trunk became diseased after it was struck by two cyclones, so in 1925 the main trunk of the tree was amputated to keep the remainder healthy; this has left it as a clonal colony, rather than a single tree. A 330-metre-long (1,080 ft) road was built around its circumference, but the tree continues to spread beyond it.
Cowthorpe is a village in the Harrogate district of North Yorkshire, England. It is situated 3 miles (4.8 km) north of Wetherby, 10 miles (16 km) east of Harrogate, 7 miles (11 km) from Knaresborough and 13.5 miles (21.7 km) from York.
Friendship Oak is a 500-year-old southern live oak located on the Gulf Park campus of the University of Southern Mississippi in Long Beach, Mississippi. The campus was formerly Gulf Park College for Women from 1921 until 1971.
A part of tree measurement is measurement of the crown of a tree, which consists of the mass of foliage and branches growing outward from the trunk of the tree. The average crown spread is the average horizontal width of the crown, taken from dripline to dripline as one moves around the crown. The dripline being the outer boundary to the area located directly under the outer circumference of the tree branches. When the tree canopy gets wet, any excess water is shed to the ground along this dripline. Some listings will also list the maximum crown spread which represents the greatest width from dripline to dripline across the crown. Other crown measurements that are commonly taken include limb length, crown volume, and foliage density. Canopy mapping surveys the position and size of all of the limbs down to a certain size in the crown of the tree and is commonly used when measuring the overall wood volume of a tree.
Tree volume is one of many parameters that are measured to document the size of individual trees. Tree volume measurements serve a variety of purposes, some economic, some scientific, and some for sporting competitions. Measurements may include just the volume of the trunk, or the volume of the trunk and the branches depending on the detail needed and the sophistication of the measurement methodology.
Trees have a wide variety of sizes and shapes and growth habits. Specimens may grow as individual trunks, multitrunk masses, coppices, clonal colonies, or even more exotic tree complexes. Most champion tree programs focus finding and measuring the largest single-trunk example of each species. There are three basic parameters commonly measured to characterize the size of a single trunk tree: height, girth, and crown spread. Additional details on the methodology of Tree height measurement, Tree girth measurement, Tree crown measurement, and Tree volume measurement are presented in the links herein. A detailed guideline to these basic measurements is provided in The Tree Measuring Guidelines of the Eastern Native Tree Society by Will Blozan.
The Webster Sycamore was an American sycamore in the U.S. state of West Virginia. Long recognized for its size, the Webster Sycamore was the largest living American sycamore tree in West Virginia until its felling in 2010. The tree stood approximately 4.5 miles (7.2 km) east of Webster Springs in Webster County, in a moist flood plain along the banks of the Back Fork Elk River, a tributary stream of the Elk River.
The Wallace Oak was an oak tree that stood in Elderslie, Renfrewshire. It is reputed to have seeded around 1100 and by the late 13th-century grew on the estate of Scottish independence leader William Wallace's father. Wallace is reputed to have hidden himself within the tree to escape from English soldiers. The tree was damaged by the removal of wood to make souvenirs in the 19th-century and it fell during a storm in 1856.
The Allerton Oak is a sessile oak tree in Calderstones Park, Liverpool. It is thought to be around 1,000 years old and is described as the oldest oak in North West England. It is reputed to have been the setting for a medieval hundred court and said to have been damaged in an 1864 gunpowder explosion. The tree won the 2019 English Tree of the Year competition and has been entered into the 2020 European Tree of the Year competition.
The Wallace Oak was a tree in Torwood, Scotland. it is thought to have been part of the Torwood ancient woodland and has been linked to pre-Christian druidic worship. The tree became associated with the Scottish independence leader William Wallace. Its hollow trunk is reputed to have served him as a headquarters, hiding place and sleeping quarters. By the 17th-century the tree was being used to make souvenirs due to its association with Wallace. By 1830 it was described as badly affected by the removal of timber, being reduced to a single stump. Timber being scarce above ground its roots were also dug up for souvenirs and the tree was dead by 1835.
The Caton Oak was an ancient oak tree that stood in Caton, Lancashire, reputedly dating from the time of the druids. The oak tree stood atop a set of steps known as the "Fish Stones" that were used by medieval monks to display salmon for sale. The tree declined during the 20th century and was reinforced with a metal support; an acorn from the tree was planted in 2007 to grow a replacement. The original Caton Oak fell on 20 June 2016.
The Parliament Oak is a veteran tree in Sherwood Forest. It is reputed to have been the site for impromptu-parliaments held by kings John and Edward I. In the 19th century the tree was propped-up by William Bentinck, 4th Duke of Portland. In recent years the Parliament Oak was threatened by fly-tipping and competing vegetation but was subject to conservation work in 2008. The tree was shortlisted for the 2017 Woodland Trust Tree of the Year award.
Robin Hood's Larder was a veteran tree in Sherwood Forest that measured 24 feet (7.3 m) in circumference. The tree had long been hollow and is reputed to have been used by the legendary outlaw Robin Hood and others as a larder for poached meat. It was badly burnt by fire in the late 19th century and again in 1913. The tree fell in a gale in 1961 and no trace of it remains.
The Shelton Oak also known as Owen Glendwr's Observatory or the Glendower Oak was a veteran oak tree near Shrewsbury, England. It may be the "grette Oak at Shelton" mentioned in a document from the time of Henry III (1216-1272). The oak is said to have been climbed Owain Glyndŵr, the Welsh independence fighter, to view the 1403 Battle of Shrewsbury, from which its alternative name derives. In later years the tree became renowned for its hollow trunk which was variously described as able to accommodate twenty people, six people sitting for dinner or an 8-person quadrille dance. The tree had fallen by 1940 and its remains were removed in the 1950s to facilitate improvements to an adjacent road junction. | 2,788 | ENGLISH | 1 |
were in undisturbed possession of western Europe for a period at least ten times as long as the interval between ourselves and the beginning of the Christian Era, and through all that immense time they were free to develop and vary their life to its utmost possibilities. Their art constitutes their one claim to be accounted more than common savages.
They were in close contact with animals, but they never seemed to have got to terms with any animal unless it was the horse. They had no dogs. They had no properly domesticated animals at all. They watched and drew and killed and ate. They do not seem to have cooked their food. Perhaps they scorched and grilled it, but they could not have done much more, because they had no cooking implements. Although they had clay available, and although there are several Palæolithic clay figures on record, they had no pottery. Although they had a great variety of flint and bone implements, they never rose to the possibilities of using timber for permanent shelters or such-like structures. They never made hafted axes or the like that would enable them to deal with timber. There is a suggestion in some of the drawings of a fence of stakes in which a mammoth seems to be entangled. But here we may be dealing with superimposed scratchings. They had no buildings. It is not even certain that they had tents or huts. They may have had simple skin tents. Some of the drawings seem to suggest as much. It is doubtful if they knew of the bow. They left no good arrowheads behind them. Certain of their implements are said to be "arrow-straighteners" by distinguished authorities, but that is about as much evidence as we have of arrows. They may have used sharpened sticks as arrows. They had no cultivation of grain or vegetables of any sort. Their women were probably squaws, smaller than the men; the earlier statuettes represent them as grossly fat, almost as the Bushmen women are often fat to-day. (But this may not be true of the Cro-Magnards.)
They clothed themselves, it would seem, in skins, if they clothed themselves at all. These skins they prepared with skill and elaboration, and towards the end of the age they used bone needles, no doubt to sew these pelts. One may guess pretty safely that they painted these skins, and it has even been sup- | <urn:uuid:5764ce18-2207-4344-866a-ef23da0fdb77> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu/123 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00356.warc.gz | en | 0.993211 | 486 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.27729207277... | 1 | were in undisturbed possession of western Europe for a period at least ten times as long as the interval between ourselves and the beginning of the Christian Era, and through all that immense time they were free to develop and vary their life to its utmost possibilities. Their art constitutes their one claim to be accounted more than common savages.
They were in close contact with animals, but they never seemed to have got to terms with any animal unless it was the horse. They had no dogs. They had no properly domesticated animals at all. They watched and drew and killed and ate. They do not seem to have cooked their food. Perhaps they scorched and grilled it, but they could not have done much more, because they had no cooking implements. Although they had clay available, and although there are several Palæolithic clay figures on record, they had no pottery. Although they had a great variety of flint and bone implements, they never rose to the possibilities of using timber for permanent shelters or such-like structures. They never made hafted axes or the like that would enable them to deal with timber. There is a suggestion in some of the drawings of a fence of stakes in which a mammoth seems to be entangled. But here we may be dealing with superimposed scratchings. They had no buildings. It is not even certain that they had tents or huts. They may have had simple skin tents. Some of the drawings seem to suggest as much. It is doubtful if they knew of the bow. They left no good arrowheads behind them. Certain of their implements are said to be "arrow-straighteners" by distinguished authorities, but that is about as much evidence as we have of arrows. They may have used sharpened sticks as arrows. They had no cultivation of grain or vegetables of any sort. Their women were probably squaws, smaller than the men; the earlier statuettes represent them as grossly fat, almost as the Bushmen women are often fat to-day. (But this may not be true of the Cro-Magnards.)
They clothed themselves, it would seem, in skins, if they clothed themselves at all. These skins they prepared with skill and elaboration, and towards the end of the age they used bone needles, no doubt to sew these pelts. One may guess pretty safely that they painted these skins, and it has even been sup- | 487 | ENGLISH | 1 |
They are tricky partly because they come from what is essentially a different language. But then so do Spanish and French names, and we don't struggle so much with them. I think the main reason Old English names are difficult is because they use letters which we don't use any more, such as the Æ diphthong, which is very common.
|Æthelwulf of Wessex|
And, the 'Anglo-Saxons' didn't have surnames. If you were to talk about Henry VIII's various advisers and members of the court, and take away their surnames, you'd find an awful lot of people with the exact same name. Wolsey, Cranmer, Cromwell, More, Tallis, Wyatt, Boleyn: all had the name Thomas.
Apparently, when Henry the Young King (eldest son of Henry II) held his Christmas court in Normandy in 1171, it was said that the guests included no fewer than 110 knights all called William.*
I know that the Æthels and Ælfs can be utterly confusing but sometimes it helps to look at the second part of the name, where, unlike the Thomas' and Williams, they alter slightly. Mostly, the Old English names are compounds, and Æthel means noble. So Æthelwine has two elements, noble being the first, and wine (friend), being the second, while Æthelred, or more properly Æthelræd, means noble counsel (ræd = counsel). I wrote a post a while ago about these various names, but this time I want to talk about what historians have gleaned, or surmised, from looking at these names; in particular, alliteration.
There was certainly a tendency for various royal houses to have alliterative names. Names beginning with Cyne or Cen can often be associated with the kingdom of the West Saxons, which is why King Penda of Mercia's wife Cynewise is often presumed to have hailed from there. It doesn't always work, for there were plenty of Mercians with those names too, but often they are assumed to have descended from a branch of the family descended from a West Saxon.
Alliteration can help with identification in some cases. Because all these people came from the royal family of Kent - Eormenred, Eorconeberht, Eormenhild, Eorcongota, it's likely that a bishop named Eorcenwald did too.
If the name is Sigeheard, Sigered, Sigeric, Sæberht Sexred, or Saeward, then they're probably a member of the East Saxon royal house. But there were plenty of 'Siges' who were Kentish nobility too, so it doesn't always work.
|St Seaxburh - image attribution link|
In seventh-century Mercia, King Penda, menitoned above, had rather a lot of offspring. One of his sons had an odd name, which has the element walh, which can mean Welshman, foreigner, or even slave. It's unlikely that this man was a slave, but he might have been Welsh. Anyway, historians have sometimes argued that he couldn't have been Penda's son because his name, unlike another of Penda's sons, Peada, didn't alliterate. Personally, I don't think Merewalh, for that was his name, was Penda's son, but not because of the alliteration argument, which falls down when you look at all of Penda's other children:
sons Wulfhere and Æthelred, and daughters, Cyneburh, Cyneswith and possibly Cynethryth. There may have been two other daughters, Saints Edith and Eadburh and another possible daughter, Wilburg.
So not much alliteration there really, certainly not with Penda's name, and only one Æthel too! **
However, Merewalh's family certainly all belonged together. By two wives, he had:
daughters Mildburg, Mildrith and Mildgyth,
and sons, Merchelm, Mildfrith and Merefin.
Alliteration can, then, indeed indicate close family ties. But it shouldn't be relied upon. One historian looked at the circumstances of one of Penda's daughter-in-law, a lady by the name of Osthryth, who married Penda's son Æthelred. She was the daughter of Penda's enemy, Oswiu of Northumbria and the reason for, and the timing of, the marriage are somewhat hazy. The main thing about Osthryth is that she was killed (by Mercian nobles), and no reason was given in the chronicles.
A tribe of the midlands, the Hwicce, originally had their own kings, who gradually got demoted to subkings of Mercia. Some of them had alliterative names, such as Oshere, Oswald and Osred. One historian suggested that these people were somehow related to the Northumbrian kings, Oswald and Oswiu. Oshere of the Hwicce was also a possible murder victim and the argument was that the Hwicce royals were all members of a branch of the Northumbrian royal house, trying to overthrow the Mercians, and that Osthryth was part of that plot, and was murdered because of it. It's not a theory that is given much credence by other historians.
In other cases, non-alliteration can be powerfully suggestive. Alfred the Great did have plenty of legitimate children and those who survived beyond infancy were:
Æthelflæd, the first-born daughter, Edward, who ruled Wessex after his father, then two more daughters, Æthelgifu and Ælfthryth, and another son, Æthelweard. Interestingly, the only one there who is neither an Æthel or an Ælf is Edward. It has been suggested*** that he was named after his Mercian maternal grandmother, Eadburh. (Edward would have been spelled Eadward, so the first element of both names would be identical.)
|Margaret arrives in Scotland|
Edward, Edmund, Ethelred, Edgar and indeed Matilda is said by some to have been christened Edith.Surely no one in the Scottish court by this stage could have thought for a moment that Margaret and Malcolm's children had any chance of sitting on the English throne, nor is it at first glance likely that Margaret thought of herself as English. And yet, she did much to help displaced Englishmen, and her biographer, who also happened to have been her chaplain, said that her first language was English. Was the naming of her children a nod to her English heritage, a reminder of her illustrious ancestry or was it perhaps even a signal of defiance?
Although Edgar, Edward and Edith are easier names there were still a lot of Æthels and Ælfs in the later period, but in time the Danes came along and helped a bit, bringing some Harolds and Sweins into the mix.
But no, it's not easy making head and tail of Old English names. Sometimes they can provide a clue to family identity and sometimes they can't. Alliteration is fascinating, but it can't be relied upon. Surnames though, well, they'd have definitely helped.
*Thanks to Charlene Newcomb for this nugget.
**However, it must be said that Penda's wife was called Cynewise, so maybe the daughters, the ones we're sure about, were all given names that alliterated with hers. For more on who Penda's children were, and whether they were full or half-siblings, see http://mybook.to/MerciaRiseandFall
*** By historian Pauline Stafford | <urn:uuid:eaef678c-11d8-42e0-ae52-977578a3749b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://anniewhitehead2.blogspot.com/2019/10/alliteration-as-aid-whats-in-name.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00150.warc.gz | en | 0.982142 | 1,668 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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-0.08311... | 4 | They are tricky partly because they come from what is essentially a different language. But then so do Spanish and French names, and we don't struggle so much with them. I think the main reason Old English names are difficult is because they use letters which we don't use any more, such as the Æ diphthong, which is very common.
|Æthelwulf of Wessex|
And, the 'Anglo-Saxons' didn't have surnames. If you were to talk about Henry VIII's various advisers and members of the court, and take away their surnames, you'd find an awful lot of people with the exact same name. Wolsey, Cranmer, Cromwell, More, Tallis, Wyatt, Boleyn: all had the name Thomas.
Apparently, when Henry the Young King (eldest son of Henry II) held his Christmas court in Normandy in 1171, it was said that the guests included no fewer than 110 knights all called William.*
I know that the Æthels and Ælfs can be utterly confusing but sometimes it helps to look at the second part of the name, where, unlike the Thomas' and Williams, they alter slightly. Mostly, the Old English names are compounds, and Æthel means noble. So Æthelwine has two elements, noble being the first, and wine (friend), being the second, while Æthelred, or more properly Æthelræd, means noble counsel (ræd = counsel). I wrote a post a while ago about these various names, but this time I want to talk about what historians have gleaned, or surmised, from looking at these names; in particular, alliteration.
There was certainly a tendency for various royal houses to have alliterative names. Names beginning with Cyne or Cen can often be associated with the kingdom of the West Saxons, which is why King Penda of Mercia's wife Cynewise is often presumed to have hailed from there. It doesn't always work, for there were plenty of Mercians with those names too, but often they are assumed to have descended from a branch of the family descended from a West Saxon.
Alliteration can help with identification in some cases. Because all these people came from the royal family of Kent - Eormenred, Eorconeberht, Eormenhild, Eorcongota, it's likely that a bishop named Eorcenwald did too.
If the name is Sigeheard, Sigered, Sigeric, Sæberht Sexred, or Saeward, then they're probably a member of the East Saxon royal house. But there were plenty of 'Siges' who were Kentish nobility too, so it doesn't always work.
|St Seaxburh - image attribution link|
In seventh-century Mercia, King Penda, menitoned above, had rather a lot of offspring. One of his sons had an odd name, which has the element walh, which can mean Welshman, foreigner, or even slave. It's unlikely that this man was a slave, but he might have been Welsh. Anyway, historians have sometimes argued that he couldn't have been Penda's son because his name, unlike another of Penda's sons, Peada, didn't alliterate. Personally, I don't think Merewalh, for that was his name, was Penda's son, but not because of the alliteration argument, which falls down when you look at all of Penda's other children:
sons Wulfhere and Æthelred, and daughters, Cyneburh, Cyneswith and possibly Cynethryth. There may have been two other daughters, Saints Edith and Eadburh and another possible daughter, Wilburg.
So not much alliteration there really, certainly not with Penda's name, and only one Æthel too! **
However, Merewalh's family certainly all belonged together. By two wives, he had:
daughters Mildburg, Mildrith and Mildgyth,
and sons, Merchelm, Mildfrith and Merefin.
Alliteration can, then, indeed indicate close family ties. But it shouldn't be relied upon. One historian looked at the circumstances of one of Penda's daughter-in-law, a lady by the name of Osthryth, who married Penda's son Æthelred. She was the daughter of Penda's enemy, Oswiu of Northumbria and the reason for, and the timing of, the marriage are somewhat hazy. The main thing about Osthryth is that she was killed (by Mercian nobles), and no reason was given in the chronicles.
A tribe of the midlands, the Hwicce, originally had their own kings, who gradually got demoted to subkings of Mercia. Some of them had alliterative names, such as Oshere, Oswald and Osred. One historian suggested that these people were somehow related to the Northumbrian kings, Oswald and Oswiu. Oshere of the Hwicce was also a possible murder victim and the argument was that the Hwicce royals were all members of a branch of the Northumbrian royal house, trying to overthrow the Mercians, and that Osthryth was part of that plot, and was murdered because of it. It's not a theory that is given much credence by other historians.
In other cases, non-alliteration can be powerfully suggestive. Alfred the Great did have plenty of legitimate children and those who survived beyond infancy were:
Æthelflæd, the first-born daughter, Edward, who ruled Wessex after his father, then two more daughters, Æthelgifu and Ælfthryth, and another son, Æthelweard. Interestingly, the only one there who is neither an Æthel or an Ælf is Edward. It has been suggested*** that he was named after his Mercian maternal grandmother, Eadburh. (Edward would have been spelled Eadward, so the first element of both names would be identical.)
|Margaret arrives in Scotland|
Edward, Edmund, Ethelred, Edgar and indeed Matilda is said by some to have been christened Edith.Surely no one in the Scottish court by this stage could have thought for a moment that Margaret and Malcolm's children had any chance of sitting on the English throne, nor is it at first glance likely that Margaret thought of herself as English. And yet, she did much to help displaced Englishmen, and her biographer, who also happened to have been her chaplain, said that her first language was English. Was the naming of her children a nod to her English heritage, a reminder of her illustrious ancestry or was it perhaps even a signal of defiance?
Although Edgar, Edward and Edith are easier names there were still a lot of Æthels and Ælfs in the later period, but in time the Danes came along and helped a bit, bringing some Harolds and Sweins into the mix.
But no, it's not easy making head and tail of Old English names. Sometimes they can provide a clue to family identity and sometimes they can't. Alliteration is fascinating, but it can't be relied upon. Surnames though, well, they'd have definitely helped.
*Thanks to Charlene Newcomb for this nugget.
**However, it must be said that Penda's wife was called Cynewise, so maybe the daughters, the ones we're sure about, were all given names that alliterated with hers. For more on who Penda's children were, and whether they were full or half-siblings, see http://mybook.to/MerciaRiseandFall
*** By historian Pauline Stafford | 1,649 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“Crossing the Rubicon” is now an expression for passing the point of no return: this is the original incident from which it derives. In 49 BCE, Gaius Julius, at that time just a general and not yet Caesar, led his army across the Rubicon river, which marked the border of Rome: to cross it marked him as a treasonous leader of a revolt against the Roman state. Famously, he is said to have quoted the Greek playwright Menander, saying “alea iacta est” – “the die is cast.”
Julius would be successful in his quest for the leadership of Rome and its empire (much of which, particularly Gaul, added by his own military genius): which is why history knows him best as Julius Caesar.
The ancient feast of the god Lupercus, Lupercalia was an annual three day festival that ran from February 13 – 15 each year. It was intended to avert evil spirits and purify the city, releasing health and fertility. It is the ancient predecessor of the Christian festival of St Valentine, which is now better known as the more secular Valentine’s Day.
According to Shakespeare, when Julius Caesar attended this particular one, he was offered the crown of a monarch three times and refused it on each of those times. Nonetheless, the reason why he was stabbed to death a month later was apparently his limitless ambition.
The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest was a stunning defeat of the Roman legions by Germanic tribesmen. 2000 years ago today, the three day battle began, when elements of six different Germanic tribes under the overalll command of Arminius of the Cherusci ambushed three Roman legions under the command of Publius Quinctilius Varus.
The batttle was the first engagement of a war that would last for the next seven years, and end with a Roman defeat. The Romans would end up withdrawing to the opposite bank of the Rhine, which became the border of the Roman Empire for the next four hundred years.
Armininius (or Hermann, as he is known in Germany) has become a folk hero to the German people, a symbol of resistance against invaders, especially Napolean.
The sixth and final ruler of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Nero was the grand-nephew of his predecessor, the Emperor Claudius and the nephew of Caligula, Claudius’ predecessor. He would become legendary for his cruelty, although most of the accounts attesting to it are from contemporaries who disliked him, and may have been exaggerated. Nero was only 17 when he ascended to the throne – it was only because both these Emperors died without issue that he even got that close to power. If either of the two had had a son, Nero would today be a footnote.
Instead, he would reign for 13 years, being the Emperor during the great fire of Rome in 64 CE (history records that Nero was instrumental in the rebuilding of Rome afterwards – the business about the fiddling seems to have been a rumour spread by his political enemies), and the famed revolts of Britannia (led by Boudicca) and Judea (which ended in the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem, and the beginnings of the Jewish Diaspora). Upon his death in 68 CE, (also without issue,) Nero threw the Empire into the chaos and civil war of what became known as the Year of the Four Emperors.
Looking at the history of the last three Julio-Claudian Emperors, one can only conclude that for a people so infamous for their orgies, the Romans must have known a thing or two about birth control.
Eparchius Avitus was a member of the Gallo-Roman aristocracy of the empire in his day. He was a strong proponent of keeping Gaul in the empire, even holding his coronation in Toulouse. However, these views were unpopular with the Roman establishment, or rather, what remained of it after the city was sacked by the Vandals earlier that year.
However, he allowed the Vandals to take Hispania, and along with his appointment of other Gallo-Romans to important roles in his administration, this made him immensely unpopular, and he was deposed as Emperor after little more than a year on the throne.
Olybrius is one of the least distinguished Emperors in Roman history. He reigned over the Western Roman Empire for only seven months, and for that whole time, he was little more than the puppet of the men who had put him on the throne, the general Ricimer and his nephew Gundobad.
Olybrius was of the Roman senatorial class, and by his marriage (to Placida, daughter of Emperor Valentinian III) a member of the Imperial House of Theodosius – the last of that House, in fact. He spent most of his reign distracted by religious matters while Ricimer and (after Ricimer’s death) Gundobad ruled in his name. He died of dropsy, and only three more Emperors followed him before the western empire died too.
The Roman Empire had been in decline for centuries by the time Odoacer deposed the child emperor Romulus Augustus in 476 and declared himself ruler of Italy – the first time any non-Roman had done so.
His Italy remained more or less a client state of the Eastern Empire (the portion of the old Roman Empire that would become better known as Byzantium, and last for just under another millennium), and that in itself helps to illustrate the decay of Rome. From the point several centuries earlier at which Roman expansion ceased, to the splitting of the Empire into East and West in 395 after the death of Emperor Theodosius, the signs had been present for some time, and only growing stronger.
Even Odoacer’s sack of Rome was the third in less than seventy years, and when a nation can no longer defend its capital, you know things aren’t going well. Even so, the use of this date as the official Fall of Rome is fairly arbitrary – there are no shortage of other dates that have a just claim to the title. | <urn:uuid:b0663b23-1b3e-4efb-96cc-d9d23c14cd6d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thecentrecannothold.net/tag/roman-empire/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00013.warc.gz | en | 0.986497 | 1,284 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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-0.02481844648... | 1 | “Crossing the Rubicon” is now an expression for passing the point of no return: this is the original incident from which it derives. In 49 BCE, Gaius Julius, at that time just a general and not yet Caesar, led his army across the Rubicon river, which marked the border of Rome: to cross it marked him as a treasonous leader of a revolt against the Roman state. Famously, he is said to have quoted the Greek playwright Menander, saying “alea iacta est” – “the die is cast.”
Julius would be successful in his quest for the leadership of Rome and its empire (much of which, particularly Gaul, added by his own military genius): which is why history knows him best as Julius Caesar.
The ancient feast of the god Lupercus, Lupercalia was an annual three day festival that ran from February 13 – 15 each year. It was intended to avert evil spirits and purify the city, releasing health and fertility. It is the ancient predecessor of the Christian festival of St Valentine, which is now better known as the more secular Valentine’s Day.
According to Shakespeare, when Julius Caesar attended this particular one, he was offered the crown of a monarch three times and refused it on each of those times. Nonetheless, the reason why he was stabbed to death a month later was apparently his limitless ambition.
The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest was a stunning defeat of the Roman legions by Germanic tribesmen. 2000 years ago today, the three day battle began, when elements of six different Germanic tribes under the overalll command of Arminius of the Cherusci ambushed three Roman legions under the command of Publius Quinctilius Varus.
The batttle was the first engagement of a war that would last for the next seven years, and end with a Roman defeat. The Romans would end up withdrawing to the opposite bank of the Rhine, which became the border of the Roman Empire for the next four hundred years.
Armininius (or Hermann, as he is known in Germany) has become a folk hero to the German people, a symbol of resistance against invaders, especially Napolean.
The sixth and final ruler of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, Nero was the grand-nephew of his predecessor, the Emperor Claudius and the nephew of Caligula, Claudius’ predecessor. He would become legendary for his cruelty, although most of the accounts attesting to it are from contemporaries who disliked him, and may have been exaggerated. Nero was only 17 when he ascended to the throne – it was only because both these Emperors died without issue that he even got that close to power. If either of the two had had a son, Nero would today be a footnote.
Instead, he would reign for 13 years, being the Emperor during the great fire of Rome in 64 CE (history records that Nero was instrumental in the rebuilding of Rome afterwards – the business about the fiddling seems to have been a rumour spread by his political enemies), and the famed revolts of Britannia (led by Boudicca) and Judea (which ended in the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem, and the beginnings of the Jewish Diaspora). Upon his death in 68 CE, (also without issue,) Nero threw the Empire into the chaos and civil war of what became known as the Year of the Four Emperors.
Looking at the history of the last three Julio-Claudian Emperors, one can only conclude that for a people so infamous for their orgies, the Romans must have known a thing or two about birth control.
Eparchius Avitus was a member of the Gallo-Roman aristocracy of the empire in his day. He was a strong proponent of keeping Gaul in the empire, even holding his coronation in Toulouse. However, these views were unpopular with the Roman establishment, or rather, what remained of it after the city was sacked by the Vandals earlier that year.
However, he allowed the Vandals to take Hispania, and along with his appointment of other Gallo-Romans to important roles in his administration, this made him immensely unpopular, and he was deposed as Emperor after little more than a year on the throne.
Olybrius is one of the least distinguished Emperors in Roman history. He reigned over the Western Roman Empire for only seven months, and for that whole time, he was little more than the puppet of the men who had put him on the throne, the general Ricimer and his nephew Gundobad.
Olybrius was of the Roman senatorial class, and by his marriage (to Placida, daughter of Emperor Valentinian III) a member of the Imperial House of Theodosius – the last of that House, in fact. He spent most of his reign distracted by religious matters while Ricimer and (after Ricimer’s death) Gundobad ruled in his name. He died of dropsy, and only three more Emperors followed him before the western empire died too.
The Roman Empire had been in decline for centuries by the time Odoacer deposed the child emperor Romulus Augustus in 476 and declared himself ruler of Italy – the first time any non-Roman had done so.
His Italy remained more or less a client state of the Eastern Empire (the portion of the old Roman Empire that would become better known as Byzantium, and last for just under another millennium), and that in itself helps to illustrate the decay of Rome. From the point several centuries earlier at which Roman expansion ceased, to the splitting of the Empire into East and West in 395 after the death of Emperor Theodosius, the signs had been present for some time, and only growing stronger.
Even Odoacer’s sack of Rome was the third in less than seventy years, and when a nation can no longer defend its capital, you know things aren’t going well. Even so, the use of this date as the official Fall of Rome is fairly arbitrary – there are no shortage of other dates that have a just claim to the title. | 1,282 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Social Organization. During the eighteenth century, there were basically three social classes: the ari'i, or chiefs; the Commoners, variously known as manahuni or ra'atira; and the laboring and servant class known as teuteu. Only the last group could not own land. By the beginning of the nineteenth Century, perhaps because of European influence, a fourth class called titi, consisting of slaves derived from warfare, had been added.
Political Organization. In the early years of European contact Tahitian tribes were grouped into two major territorial units. One constituted the larger northwestern portion of the island and was known as Tahiti Nui, while the other consisted of the southeastern Taiarapu Peninsula and was known as Tahiti Iti. Each maintained a paramount chief of socioReligious power. Below this highest position were chiefs who ruled over what may be likened to districts. These were Divided into smaller units and managed by inferior ranked chiefs. A paramount chief's power was not unlimited, since important matters affecting most or all of his region were decided by a council of high-ranking chiefs. Paramountcy was not totally preordained, as wars and kinship alliances served to maintain such a status. It was with European aid and combinations of these factors that the Pomare paramountcy was maintained well into the nineteenth century.
Social Control. Fear of divine retribution was a major Control, while human sacrifice and a variety of corporal punishments for secular antisocial behavior were also used as sanctions. Justice in the latter cases was determined by a district chief, and the right to appeal to one's paramount chief was available.
Conflict. Confusion regarding tribal territories and overindulgence of chiefly demands for products and services were sources of irritation. At the time of European contact, warfare for chiefly aggrandizement, rather than territorial acquisition, was dominant. By the close of the eighteenth century the European tradition of warfare for territorial gain had been added to the traditional theme of warfare. Minor interpersonal conflicts were resolved by each antagonist being allowed to exhibit publicly his strong resentment of whatever indiscretion had caused the conflict, after which both parties soon reconciled. However, more important conflicts were settled by a district chief, the antagonists having the right to appeal his decision to the paramount chief if not satisfied. | <urn:uuid:5837f1c5-adf0-44b3-88c7-257ffa367f29> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.everyculture.com/Oceania/Tahiti-Sociopolitical-Organization.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00200.warc.gz | en | 0.986097 | 469 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.468523293733... | 2 | Social Organization. During the eighteenth century, there were basically three social classes: the ari'i, or chiefs; the Commoners, variously known as manahuni or ra'atira; and the laboring and servant class known as teuteu. Only the last group could not own land. By the beginning of the nineteenth Century, perhaps because of European influence, a fourth class called titi, consisting of slaves derived from warfare, had been added.
Political Organization. In the early years of European contact Tahitian tribes were grouped into two major territorial units. One constituted the larger northwestern portion of the island and was known as Tahiti Nui, while the other consisted of the southeastern Taiarapu Peninsula and was known as Tahiti Iti. Each maintained a paramount chief of socioReligious power. Below this highest position were chiefs who ruled over what may be likened to districts. These were Divided into smaller units and managed by inferior ranked chiefs. A paramount chief's power was not unlimited, since important matters affecting most or all of his region were decided by a council of high-ranking chiefs. Paramountcy was not totally preordained, as wars and kinship alliances served to maintain such a status. It was with European aid and combinations of these factors that the Pomare paramountcy was maintained well into the nineteenth century.
Social Control. Fear of divine retribution was a major Control, while human sacrifice and a variety of corporal punishments for secular antisocial behavior were also used as sanctions. Justice in the latter cases was determined by a district chief, and the right to appeal to one's paramount chief was available.
Conflict. Confusion regarding tribal territories and overindulgence of chiefly demands for products and services were sources of irritation. At the time of European contact, warfare for chiefly aggrandizement, rather than territorial acquisition, was dominant. By the close of the eighteenth century the European tradition of warfare for territorial gain had been added to the traditional theme of warfare. Minor interpersonal conflicts were resolved by each antagonist being allowed to exhibit publicly his strong resentment of whatever indiscretion had caused the conflict, after which both parties soon reconciled. However, more important conflicts were settled by a district chief, the antagonists having the right to appeal his decision to the paramount chief if not satisfied. | 468 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Emma Willard school is recognized as the country's first secondary school for females. This school in Troy New York was the product of Emma Willard's pioneering efforts to expand educational opportunities for women. Emma Willard was a leader in women's education; embarking on the production of the Emma Willard school (known then as Troy Female Seminary) in in 1819, she expressed her concern for expanding women's education by writing a paper titled A Plan for Improving Female Education and sent the letter to Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and James Monroe. She caught the attention of Governor DeWitt Clinton of Troy, New York. The town raised taxes to endow the school with 4,000 and the Troy Female Seminary opened in September 1821.
Born Emma Hart Willard in 1787, she was the daughter of a prosperous farmer who was also a liberal thinker. He saw at a young age Emma's natural abilities and encouraged her studies. Her father included her in his conversations about topics that were typically only for men such as philosophy and politics. The school system did very little for Willard, for that era offered only a limited amount of education to girls. At twelve, she began teaching herself geometry and at age fifteen, she entered the Berlin Academy and within a few years, began teaching there. After a short period of time, Willard was offered a position of principal at the women's academy in Middlebury, Vermont.
In 1809, she married the town physician Dr. John Willard. She opened her own school, The Middlebury Female Seminary in 1814 to provide advanced studies for young women who were denied by colleges. Her paper, Proposing a Plan for Improving Female Education (1819) was a much admired and influential proposal to get public support for advanced education for young women. This paper was how she caught the attention of the governor of New York at the time, Governor DeWitt Clinton. He raised taxes so the school count be built. In 1921, she moved to Troy, New York where she opened the Troy Female Seminary. The school was renamed after Emma Willard in 1895.
In the first year of the school's opening, ninety girls enrolled. The school was expensive, costing around $200 annually for room, board and tuition. Because of the high cost of attending the school, only affluent families could afford to send their daughters. The amount of women who enrolled showed how profoundly young women wanted a real education.Wealthy families from all over the nation sent their daughters to the Troy Female Seminary. The curriculum at Troy Seminary was even more advanced than some boys’ academies, including subjects like astronomy, botany, physiology, and geology. Middle class women could not afford this education until 1837 when Mary Lyon opened Mount Holvoke Female Seminary.
Emma Willard's husband died in 1825, four years after the school began. In 1839, Willard took a trip to Europe where she was surprised to find inferior schools for women. She published a book in 1833, Journal and Letters from France and Great Britain, and used the proceeds to fund a school in Greece. In 1838, Willard left the Troy Female Seminary to her son and daughter-in-law, but still remained active in women's education. She married again in 1839, but the relationship was an unhealthy one. She was granted a divorce in 1843. Willard died in 1870 and the Troy Female Seminary was renamed in her honor on its 25th anniversary. | <urn:uuid:538e5626-4b32-4d96-8338-53a9eee2dd9e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/8881 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00121.warc.gz | en | 0.983484 | 721 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.416288912296... | 2 | The Emma Willard school is recognized as the country's first secondary school for females. This school in Troy New York was the product of Emma Willard's pioneering efforts to expand educational opportunities for women. Emma Willard was a leader in women's education; embarking on the production of the Emma Willard school (known then as Troy Female Seminary) in in 1819, she expressed her concern for expanding women's education by writing a paper titled A Plan for Improving Female Education and sent the letter to Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and James Monroe. She caught the attention of Governor DeWitt Clinton of Troy, New York. The town raised taxes to endow the school with 4,000 and the Troy Female Seminary opened in September 1821.
Born Emma Hart Willard in 1787, she was the daughter of a prosperous farmer who was also a liberal thinker. He saw at a young age Emma's natural abilities and encouraged her studies. Her father included her in his conversations about topics that were typically only for men such as philosophy and politics. The school system did very little for Willard, for that era offered only a limited amount of education to girls. At twelve, she began teaching herself geometry and at age fifteen, she entered the Berlin Academy and within a few years, began teaching there. After a short period of time, Willard was offered a position of principal at the women's academy in Middlebury, Vermont.
In 1809, she married the town physician Dr. John Willard. She opened her own school, The Middlebury Female Seminary in 1814 to provide advanced studies for young women who were denied by colleges. Her paper, Proposing a Plan for Improving Female Education (1819) was a much admired and influential proposal to get public support for advanced education for young women. This paper was how she caught the attention of the governor of New York at the time, Governor DeWitt Clinton. He raised taxes so the school count be built. In 1921, she moved to Troy, New York where she opened the Troy Female Seminary. The school was renamed after Emma Willard in 1895.
In the first year of the school's opening, ninety girls enrolled. The school was expensive, costing around $200 annually for room, board and tuition. Because of the high cost of attending the school, only affluent families could afford to send their daughters. The amount of women who enrolled showed how profoundly young women wanted a real education.Wealthy families from all over the nation sent their daughters to the Troy Female Seminary. The curriculum at Troy Seminary was even more advanced than some boys’ academies, including subjects like astronomy, botany, physiology, and geology. Middle class women could not afford this education until 1837 when Mary Lyon opened Mount Holvoke Female Seminary.
Emma Willard's husband died in 1825, four years after the school began. In 1839, Willard took a trip to Europe where she was surprised to find inferior schools for women. She published a book in 1833, Journal and Letters from France and Great Britain, and used the proceeds to fund a school in Greece. In 1838, Willard left the Troy Female Seminary to her son and daughter-in-law, but still remained active in women's education. She married again in 1839, but the relationship was an unhealthy one. She was granted a divorce in 1843. Willard died in 1870 and the Troy Female Seminary was renamed in her honor on its 25th anniversary. | 768 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Previously posted at: https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/king-philips-war-ends
In colonial New England, King Philip’s War effectively comes to an end when Philip, chief of the Wampanoag Indians, is assassinated by a Native American in the service of the English.
In the early 1670s, 50 years of peace between the Plymouth colony and the local Wampanoag Indians began to deteriorate when the rapidly expanding settlements forced land sales on the tribe. Reacting to increasing Native American hostility, the English met with King Philip, chief of the Wampanoag, and demanded that his forces surrender their arms. The Wampanoag did so, but in 1675 a Christian Native American who had been acting as an informer to the English was murdered, and three Wampanoag were tried and executed for the crime.
On June 24, King Philip responded by ordering a raid on the border settlement of Swansee, Massachusetts. His warriors massacred the English colonists there, and the attack set off a series of Wampanoag raids in which several settlements were destroyed and scores of colonists massacred. The colonists retaliated by destroying a number of Indian villages. The destruction of a Narragansett village by the English brought the Narragansett into the conflict on the side of King Philip, and within a few months several other tribes and all the New England colonies were involved.
In early 1676, the Narragansett were defeated and their chief killed, while the Wampanoag and their other allies were gradually subdued. King Philip’s wife and son were captured, and his secret headquarters in Mount Hope, Rhode Island, were discovered. On August 12, 1676, Philip was assassinated at Mount Hope by a Native American in the service of the English. The English drew and quartered Philip’s body and publicly displayed his head on a stake in Plymouth.
King Philip’s War, which was extremely costly to the colonists of southern New England, ended the Native American presence in the region and inaugurated a period of unimpeded colonial expansion. | <urn:uuid:b58d8aee-5a35-4d15-a3f6-f23268e8ab4c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.tribalsleuth.com/2019/08/12/king-philips-war-ends/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00283.warc.gz | en | 0.980338 | 443 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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0.49464640021324... | 2 | Previously posted at: https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/king-philips-war-ends
In colonial New England, King Philip’s War effectively comes to an end when Philip, chief of the Wampanoag Indians, is assassinated by a Native American in the service of the English.
In the early 1670s, 50 years of peace between the Plymouth colony and the local Wampanoag Indians began to deteriorate when the rapidly expanding settlements forced land sales on the tribe. Reacting to increasing Native American hostility, the English met with King Philip, chief of the Wampanoag, and demanded that his forces surrender their arms. The Wampanoag did so, but in 1675 a Christian Native American who had been acting as an informer to the English was murdered, and three Wampanoag were tried and executed for the crime.
On June 24, King Philip responded by ordering a raid on the border settlement of Swansee, Massachusetts. His warriors massacred the English colonists there, and the attack set off a series of Wampanoag raids in which several settlements were destroyed and scores of colonists massacred. The colonists retaliated by destroying a number of Indian villages. The destruction of a Narragansett village by the English brought the Narragansett into the conflict on the side of King Philip, and within a few months several other tribes and all the New England colonies were involved.
In early 1676, the Narragansett were defeated and their chief killed, while the Wampanoag and their other allies were gradually subdued. King Philip’s wife and son were captured, and his secret headquarters in Mount Hope, Rhode Island, were discovered. On August 12, 1676, Philip was assassinated at Mount Hope by a Native American in the service of the English. The English drew and quartered Philip’s body and publicly displayed his head on a stake in Plymouth.
King Philip’s War, which was extremely costly to the colonists of southern New England, ended the Native American presence in the region and inaugurated a period of unimpeded colonial expansion. | 456 | ENGLISH | 1 |
These days, it seems the first day of April is one which is usually approached with a sense of caution by most people.
One of the reasons for this is because there is always the risk that you may believe a story you come across – only to discover later that it was a hoax and part of a practical joke.
While most of us are used to the day itself by now, it is the origins of April Fools’ Day which continues to be disputed – with several prominent theories about how the day emerged.
Here, we take a look at some of the origin stories for April Fools’ Day:
The Nun’s Priest Tale
The earliest claimed origin of April Fools’ Day points towards a series of verses and prose called The Canterbury Tales.
Written in 1392 by Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales is centred around 30 pilgrims and their pilgrimage from Southwark to Canterbury to visit the shrine of St. Thomas Beckett.
One tale, The Nun’s Priest Tale, sees a rooster try to outwit a fox in order to live – but the link to the legend centres on an extract from the text.
In the tale, the line ‘syn March bigan thritty dayes and two’ is written and is the source of the dispute.
Some historians reckon that Chaucer make a mistake and accidentally dated the piece as March 32nd and intended to write 32 days after March.
On the other hand, others believe that the date was intentional and meant as a joke, and that instead of reading as March 32nd, the date should read as April 1st, hence the birth of the term ‘April Fools”.
The Fool’s Errand
Another suggestion as to where April Fools’ Day first appeared points at several traditions which exist to mark the start of Spring, and with it, the New Year.
Such examples include the Hilaria festival which was held by the ancient Romans around March 25 to mark the occasion and Holi, celebrated by the Hindu community on March 20.
In October 1582, Pope Gregory XIII ordered the use of a new calendar – now known as the Gregorian calendar – which saw the start of the new year moved to January 1st.
It is believed that many people refused to recognise the changes and continued to celebrate the new year in accordance with the start of Spring.
Because of this, people started to poke fun with ‘fool’s errands’, where they would send someone to look for something that doesn’t exist or alternatively tried to convince them something was true when they were indeed false.
However, this origin story is also disputed because, in 1561, Flemish poet Eduard de Dene wrote a poem about a nobleman who sent their servant on a goose chase in a similar vain.
The Washing of the Lions
Over time, the ‘fool’s errand’ had swept across Europe and variations of the hoax were starting to form.
One example occurred in the 1850’s, with invitations being sent out for an annual ceremony at The Tower of London, known as The Washing of the Lions.
Signed by ‘senior warden’ Herbert de Gassen, recipients of the invite were under the impression that the event would be in a historic and royal setting.
Unfortunately, those who made the trip down to the Tower of London were to discover that they had been duped into the charade after failing to notice the date – April 1st
Although there is no record of how many people were actually fooled by the invite, a replica was displayed at the White Tower as part of a exhibition that opened in 2011. | <urn:uuid:c1c8cd41-d5de-4f0e-ac27-f6273eb7420d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://storyhubderby.co.uk/2019/04/01/what-are-the-origins-of-april-fools-day-and-where-does-it-come-from/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00372.warc.gz | en | 0.982969 | 774 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.5522428... | 3 | These days, it seems the first day of April is one which is usually approached with a sense of caution by most people.
One of the reasons for this is because there is always the risk that you may believe a story you come across – only to discover later that it was a hoax and part of a practical joke.
While most of us are used to the day itself by now, it is the origins of April Fools’ Day which continues to be disputed – with several prominent theories about how the day emerged.
Here, we take a look at some of the origin stories for April Fools’ Day:
The Nun’s Priest Tale
The earliest claimed origin of April Fools’ Day points towards a series of verses and prose called The Canterbury Tales.
Written in 1392 by Geoffrey Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales is centred around 30 pilgrims and their pilgrimage from Southwark to Canterbury to visit the shrine of St. Thomas Beckett.
One tale, The Nun’s Priest Tale, sees a rooster try to outwit a fox in order to live – but the link to the legend centres on an extract from the text.
In the tale, the line ‘syn March bigan thritty dayes and two’ is written and is the source of the dispute.
Some historians reckon that Chaucer make a mistake and accidentally dated the piece as March 32nd and intended to write 32 days after March.
On the other hand, others believe that the date was intentional and meant as a joke, and that instead of reading as March 32nd, the date should read as April 1st, hence the birth of the term ‘April Fools”.
The Fool’s Errand
Another suggestion as to where April Fools’ Day first appeared points at several traditions which exist to mark the start of Spring, and with it, the New Year.
Such examples include the Hilaria festival which was held by the ancient Romans around March 25 to mark the occasion and Holi, celebrated by the Hindu community on March 20.
In October 1582, Pope Gregory XIII ordered the use of a new calendar – now known as the Gregorian calendar – which saw the start of the new year moved to January 1st.
It is believed that many people refused to recognise the changes and continued to celebrate the new year in accordance with the start of Spring.
Because of this, people started to poke fun with ‘fool’s errands’, where they would send someone to look for something that doesn’t exist or alternatively tried to convince them something was true when they were indeed false.
However, this origin story is also disputed because, in 1561, Flemish poet Eduard de Dene wrote a poem about a nobleman who sent their servant on a goose chase in a similar vain.
The Washing of the Lions
Over time, the ‘fool’s errand’ had swept across Europe and variations of the hoax were starting to form.
One example occurred in the 1850’s, with invitations being sent out for an annual ceremony at The Tower of London, known as The Washing of the Lions.
Signed by ‘senior warden’ Herbert de Gassen, recipients of the invite were under the impression that the event would be in a historic and royal setting.
Unfortunately, those who made the trip down to the Tower of London were to discover that they had been duped into the charade after failing to notice the date – April 1st
Although there is no record of how many people were actually fooled by the invite, a replica was displayed at the White Tower as part of a exhibition that opened in 2011. | 758 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The son of two devout Quakers, he grew up on the family farm and had little formal schooling. He then attended Haverhill Academy from tosupporting himself as a shoemaker and schoolteacher. By the time he was twenty, he had published enough verse to bring him to the attention of editors and readers in the antislavery cause.
As a boy, it was discovered that Whittier was color-blind when he was unable to see a difference between ripe and unripe strawberries.
Whittier himself was not cut out for hard farm labor and suffered from bad health and physical frailty his whole life. Whittier was heavily influenced by the doctrines of his religion, particularly its stress on humanitarianism, compassion, and social responsibility.
Whittier was first introduced to poetry by a teacher. To raise money to attend the school, Whittier became a shoemaker for a time, and a deal was made to pay part of his tuition with food from the family farm.
Garrison gave Whittier the job of editor of the National Philanthropist, a Boston-based temperance weekly. Shortly after a change in management, Garrison reassigned him as editor of the weekly American Manufacturer in Boston. The poem was mistakenly attributed to Ethan Allen for nearly sixty years.
Whittier acknowledged his authorship in The year was a turning point for Whittier; he resurrected his correspondence with Garrison, and the passionate abolitionist began to encourage the young Quaker to join his cause. InWhittier published the antislavery pamphlet Justice and Expediency, and from there dedicated the next twenty years of his life to the abolitionist cause.
The controversial pamphlet destroyed all of his political hopes — as his demand for immediate emancipation alienated both northern businessmen and southern slaveholders — but it also sealed his commitment to a cause that he deemed morally correct and socially necessary.
He was a founding member of the American Anti-Slavery Society and signed the Anti-Slavery Declaration ofwhich he often considered the most significant action of his life. From tohe traveled widely in the North, attending conventions, securing votes, speaking to the public, and lobbying politicians.
As he did so, Whittier received his fair share of violent responses, being several times mobbed, stoned, and run out of town.
From tohe was editor of The Pennsylvania Freeman in Philadelphia one of the leading antislavery papers in the North, formerly known as the National Enquirer.
In Maythe publication moved its offices to the newly opened Pennsylvania Hall on North Sixth Street, which was shortly after burned by a pro-slavery mob.
Irish, English. Lou Hoover's paternal great-grandfather William Henry was an immigrant from Ireland. Among other branches of her ancestors were those born in several of the original thirteen New England and Mid-Atlantic colonies; original immigrants and their points of known origin include: John Woolman (Aynhoe, England), Simeon Ellis (Woodale, England) and Joseph Collins (Newport, England. John Greenleaf Whittier was an American poet and abolitionist who, in the latter part of his life, was a household name in both England and the United States. Born in Massachusetts in , John. American poet and writer John Greenleaf Whittier was born on December 17, , near Haverhill, Massachusetts. He grew up on a farm with an extended family, consisting of three siblings--two sisters and a brother--and his mother's sister and his father's brother.
By the end of the s, the unity of the abolitionist movement had begun to fracture. Whittier stuck to his belief that moral action apart from political effort was futile. He knew that success required legislative change, not merely moral suasion.
This opinion alone engendered a bitter split from Garrison, and Whittier went on to become a founding member of the Liberty Party in It is vigorous reality, exerting After his release, Fountain went on a speaking tour and thanked Whittier for writing his story.The publication of his long poem Snow-Bound brought John Greenleaf Whittier popular acclaim and financial security.
But literary success was of secondary importance to him: his priorities were dictated by his Quaker faith and his courageous battle against slavery. THE JOURNAL OF JOHN WOOLMAN With an Appreciation and Notes by John G.
Books for the heart Edited by Alexander Smellie, M.A. PUBLISHED BY ANDREW MELROSE 16 PILGRIM STREET, LONDON, E.C.
|Robert Burns | Biography & Facts | kaja-net.com||He also had served as the Vice-President of the state under Eisenhower from to|
|Waddell, Sam||His first Appearance in the Ministry. And his Considerations, while young, on the Keeping of Slaves.|
|John Greenleaf Whittier - Wikipedia||He became an avid reader of British poetryhowever, and was especially influenced by the Scot Robert Burnswhose lyrical treatment of everyday rural life reinforced his own inclination to be a writer.|
|Wace, Walter E.||Performing stand up for the U.|
|Development as a poet||The farm was fairly large but not particularly profitable, and the family made just enough money to get by.|
MDCCCXCVIII. Number President: 37th President: Terms Served: 1 Term Served: Dates Served: Party: Republican: State Represented: New York: Married to / First Lady. John F.
Rothmann is a radio talk show host on KGO AM in San Francisco. John first joined the KGO family in A frequent lecture on American politics and the presidency, John has spoken on over university campuses throughout the United States, Canada and Israel. Hulanicki was the subject of a documentary, Beyond Biba, based on her autobiography From A to Biba.
John Greenleaf Whittier was born to John and Abigail (Hussey) at their rural homestead near Haverhill, Massachusetts, on December 17, He grew up on the farm in a household with his parents, a brother and two sisters, a maternal aunt and paternal uncle, and a constant flow of visitors and hired hands for the farm. | <urn:uuid:ec0c33d0-15bf-4cc3-a3ab-9362bf29eb53> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://vyvexaqyxen.kaja-net.com/a-biography-of-john-whittier-17507cn.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00326.warc.gz | en | 0.983512 | 1,309 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.23779083788394... | 1 | The son of two devout Quakers, he grew up on the family farm and had little formal schooling. He then attended Haverhill Academy from tosupporting himself as a shoemaker and schoolteacher. By the time he was twenty, he had published enough verse to bring him to the attention of editors and readers in the antislavery cause.
As a boy, it was discovered that Whittier was color-blind when he was unable to see a difference between ripe and unripe strawberries.
Whittier himself was not cut out for hard farm labor and suffered from bad health and physical frailty his whole life. Whittier was heavily influenced by the doctrines of his religion, particularly its stress on humanitarianism, compassion, and social responsibility.
Whittier was first introduced to poetry by a teacher. To raise money to attend the school, Whittier became a shoemaker for a time, and a deal was made to pay part of his tuition with food from the family farm.
Garrison gave Whittier the job of editor of the National Philanthropist, a Boston-based temperance weekly. Shortly after a change in management, Garrison reassigned him as editor of the weekly American Manufacturer in Boston. The poem was mistakenly attributed to Ethan Allen for nearly sixty years.
Whittier acknowledged his authorship in The year was a turning point for Whittier; he resurrected his correspondence with Garrison, and the passionate abolitionist began to encourage the young Quaker to join his cause. InWhittier published the antislavery pamphlet Justice and Expediency, and from there dedicated the next twenty years of his life to the abolitionist cause.
The controversial pamphlet destroyed all of his political hopes — as his demand for immediate emancipation alienated both northern businessmen and southern slaveholders — but it also sealed his commitment to a cause that he deemed morally correct and socially necessary.
He was a founding member of the American Anti-Slavery Society and signed the Anti-Slavery Declaration ofwhich he often considered the most significant action of his life. From tohe traveled widely in the North, attending conventions, securing votes, speaking to the public, and lobbying politicians.
As he did so, Whittier received his fair share of violent responses, being several times mobbed, stoned, and run out of town.
From tohe was editor of The Pennsylvania Freeman in Philadelphia one of the leading antislavery papers in the North, formerly known as the National Enquirer.
In Maythe publication moved its offices to the newly opened Pennsylvania Hall on North Sixth Street, which was shortly after burned by a pro-slavery mob.
Irish, English. Lou Hoover's paternal great-grandfather William Henry was an immigrant from Ireland. Among other branches of her ancestors were those born in several of the original thirteen New England and Mid-Atlantic colonies; original immigrants and their points of known origin include: John Woolman (Aynhoe, England), Simeon Ellis (Woodale, England) and Joseph Collins (Newport, England. John Greenleaf Whittier was an American poet and abolitionist who, in the latter part of his life, was a household name in both England and the United States. Born in Massachusetts in , John. American poet and writer John Greenleaf Whittier was born on December 17, , near Haverhill, Massachusetts. He grew up on a farm with an extended family, consisting of three siblings--two sisters and a brother--and his mother's sister and his father's brother.
By the end of the s, the unity of the abolitionist movement had begun to fracture. Whittier stuck to his belief that moral action apart from political effort was futile. He knew that success required legislative change, not merely moral suasion.
This opinion alone engendered a bitter split from Garrison, and Whittier went on to become a founding member of the Liberty Party in It is vigorous reality, exerting After his release, Fountain went on a speaking tour and thanked Whittier for writing his story.The publication of his long poem Snow-Bound brought John Greenleaf Whittier popular acclaim and financial security.
But literary success was of secondary importance to him: his priorities were dictated by his Quaker faith and his courageous battle against slavery. THE JOURNAL OF JOHN WOOLMAN With an Appreciation and Notes by John G.
Books for the heart Edited by Alexander Smellie, M.A. PUBLISHED BY ANDREW MELROSE 16 PILGRIM STREET, LONDON, E.C.
|Robert Burns | Biography & Facts | kaja-net.com||He also had served as the Vice-President of the state under Eisenhower from to|
|Waddell, Sam||His first Appearance in the Ministry. And his Considerations, while young, on the Keeping of Slaves.|
|John Greenleaf Whittier - Wikipedia||He became an avid reader of British poetryhowever, and was especially influenced by the Scot Robert Burnswhose lyrical treatment of everyday rural life reinforced his own inclination to be a writer.|
|Wace, Walter E.||Performing stand up for the U.|
|Development as a poet||The farm was fairly large but not particularly profitable, and the family made just enough money to get by.|
MDCCCXCVIII. Number President: 37th President: Terms Served: 1 Term Served: Dates Served: Party: Republican: State Represented: New York: Married to / First Lady. John F.
Rothmann is a radio talk show host on KGO AM in San Francisco. John first joined the KGO family in A frequent lecture on American politics and the presidency, John has spoken on over university campuses throughout the United States, Canada and Israel. Hulanicki was the subject of a documentary, Beyond Biba, based on her autobiography From A to Biba.
John Greenleaf Whittier was born to John and Abigail (Hussey) at their rural homestead near Haverhill, Massachusetts, on December 17, He grew up on the farm in a household with his parents, a brother and two sisters, a maternal aunt and paternal uncle, and a constant flow of visitors and hired hands for the farm. | 1,277 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Born in 1743, Antoine Lavoisier is credited as being the first person to make use of the balance. He was known for his skills in experimentation and loved to separate the oxygen molecule from HgO. This led him to come up with the Law of Conservation, which states that matter is unable to be made or destroyed. It can only be rearranged and will never disappear.
This created the initial conversations on what an atom happened to be with exact definitions.
What Is the Atomic Theory?
The Atomic theory is the idea that all matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles. These are referred to as atoms. In the modern version of the theory, each elemental atom is relatively identical, but differ and unite in different patterns that form compounds in a fixed proportion. Although some of the findings of this theory are modern, it is an idea that is nearly 2,500 years old.
The first person to propose the idea of an atom is believed to be Democritus, who was thought to be born in 460 BC. He discussed the idea that an “ultimate particle” existed and used the term “atomos” to describe it. Aristotle, who was 14 years old when Democritus died, was a proponent of this proposal. He felt that there were four elements and that you would have the same matter whenever you cut something in half. This theory would hold prominence for the next 2,000 years.
The modern Atomic theory first starting developing when the Phlogiston theory was offered by Johann Becher and Georg Stahl. When something was burned, they posited, then it lost “phlogiston” to the air. This idea continued through the discovery of oxygen, which was initially called “dephlogisticated” air by Joseph Priestly, but would be changed by Antoine Lavoisier.
How a Visit from Joseph Priestly Changed Everything
In 1774, Joseph Priestly and Antoine Lavoisier had a meeting of the minds. This inspired the creative spirit within Lavoisier and caused him to begin studying the burning process very carefully. It is these observations which would bring about the Combustion Theory.
The Combustion theory was the first that would eliminate phologiston. Lavoisier proposed that combustion was a reaction of a metal or organic substance with common air and that most acids contained this air. He would call this breathable air “oxygen,” which is admittedly a lot easier to say than depholgisticated air.
Lavoisier’s work would also bring chemistry back to a stricter method of conduct. He proposed that it was necessary to distinguish fact from fiction when conducting experiments or offering a hypothesis. He used the Combustion theory as the starting point for this idea, which would eventually lead to the development of the atomic theory.
In time, this would also lead Lavoisier to finally propose the Law of Conservation, which would eventually become the foundation of modern chemistry. Many call Lavoisier the “Father of Modern Chemistry.”
How Lavoisier Completed His Work
Lavoisier was a nobleman who is recognized for changing science from being qualitative to being quantitative. He was a member of several aristocratic councils and married into a family that was involved in tax collection. His political, personal, and economic activities helped to find his scientific research. Yet as the French Revolution began to gain momentum, he found all of his activities to be at risk.
By 1793, all learned societies, which included the Academy of Sciences, were suppressed. In November of that year, the arrest of all former tax gatherers was ordered, which included Lavoisier. He was branded a traitor, accused of selling unauthorized tobacco, and condemned during the 1794 Reign of Terror because of his efforts to stop the freedom and economic stripping of all foreign-born scientists in France.
Lavoisier was executed by the guillotine late in 1794. Just 18 months later, the French government would exonerate him.
After exoneration, the French government returned his personal possessions to his widow Marie. It was commonly believed that Madame Lavoisier was just as much a scientist as her husband and it is believed that she helped to continue promoting his work, which eventually led to Joseph Proust being able to propose the Law of Constant Composition in 1799.
Antoine Lavoisier might have had his work stopped by the French Revolution, but that would not stop his legacy. His contributions to the Atomic theory are considered to be an integral component of modern science and all of the benefits and potential dangers that goes along with it. | <urn:uuid:36dfdff6-ba07-41bd-bc01-680c4834d405> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://healthresearchfunding.org/antoine-lavoisier-and-the-atomic-theory/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00129.warc.gz | en | 0.985149 | 962 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.27816617488... | 6 | Born in 1743, Antoine Lavoisier is credited as being the first person to make use of the balance. He was known for his skills in experimentation and loved to separate the oxygen molecule from HgO. This led him to come up with the Law of Conservation, which states that matter is unable to be made or destroyed. It can only be rearranged and will never disappear.
This created the initial conversations on what an atom happened to be with exact definitions.
What Is the Atomic Theory?
The Atomic theory is the idea that all matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles. These are referred to as atoms. In the modern version of the theory, each elemental atom is relatively identical, but differ and unite in different patterns that form compounds in a fixed proportion. Although some of the findings of this theory are modern, it is an idea that is nearly 2,500 years old.
The first person to propose the idea of an atom is believed to be Democritus, who was thought to be born in 460 BC. He discussed the idea that an “ultimate particle” existed and used the term “atomos” to describe it. Aristotle, who was 14 years old when Democritus died, was a proponent of this proposal. He felt that there were four elements and that you would have the same matter whenever you cut something in half. This theory would hold prominence for the next 2,000 years.
The modern Atomic theory first starting developing when the Phlogiston theory was offered by Johann Becher and Georg Stahl. When something was burned, they posited, then it lost “phlogiston” to the air. This idea continued through the discovery of oxygen, which was initially called “dephlogisticated” air by Joseph Priestly, but would be changed by Antoine Lavoisier.
How a Visit from Joseph Priestly Changed Everything
In 1774, Joseph Priestly and Antoine Lavoisier had a meeting of the minds. This inspired the creative spirit within Lavoisier and caused him to begin studying the burning process very carefully. It is these observations which would bring about the Combustion Theory.
The Combustion theory was the first that would eliminate phologiston. Lavoisier proposed that combustion was a reaction of a metal or organic substance with common air and that most acids contained this air. He would call this breathable air “oxygen,” which is admittedly a lot easier to say than depholgisticated air.
Lavoisier’s work would also bring chemistry back to a stricter method of conduct. He proposed that it was necessary to distinguish fact from fiction when conducting experiments or offering a hypothesis. He used the Combustion theory as the starting point for this idea, which would eventually lead to the development of the atomic theory.
In time, this would also lead Lavoisier to finally propose the Law of Conservation, which would eventually become the foundation of modern chemistry. Many call Lavoisier the “Father of Modern Chemistry.”
How Lavoisier Completed His Work
Lavoisier was a nobleman who is recognized for changing science from being qualitative to being quantitative. He was a member of several aristocratic councils and married into a family that was involved in tax collection. His political, personal, and economic activities helped to find his scientific research. Yet as the French Revolution began to gain momentum, he found all of his activities to be at risk.
By 1793, all learned societies, which included the Academy of Sciences, were suppressed. In November of that year, the arrest of all former tax gatherers was ordered, which included Lavoisier. He was branded a traitor, accused of selling unauthorized tobacco, and condemned during the 1794 Reign of Terror because of his efforts to stop the freedom and economic stripping of all foreign-born scientists in France.
Lavoisier was executed by the guillotine late in 1794. Just 18 months later, the French government would exonerate him.
After exoneration, the French government returned his personal possessions to his widow Marie. It was commonly believed that Madame Lavoisier was just as much a scientist as her husband and it is believed that she helped to continue promoting his work, which eventually led to Joseph Proust being able to propose the Law of Constant Composition in 1799.
Antoine Lavoisier might have had his work stopped by the French Revolution, but that would not stop his legacy. His contributions to the Atomic theory are considered to be an integral component of modern science and all of the benefits and potential dangers that goes along with it. | 967 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the late 1980s, archaeologists began noticing something when they uncovered the buried remains of men from the Viking Age. They have been described as “strange marks on the teeth, as if someone had carved or cut horizontal grooves in them with a knife.” Were the Vikings really filing their own teeth?
Since then over 130 examples have been found in the Norse world of filed teeth, nearly all of them in Sweden. They were usually on the upper front teeth, and these grooves could be thin or deep, mostly horizontal but in a few cases vertical. Many were just straight lines, but we could also see crescent-shaped marks as well.
The first major study of the phenomenon was made by Caroline Arcini in 2005. At that time we only knew about a couple dozen cases. She wrote that “the marks are skilfully made, and it is most likely that the individuals did not make the marks themselves, but that someone else must have filed them.”
Most Vikings did not have such dental work done, which is perhaps not unsurprising considering that the filing of teeth would have been an extremely painful procedure. Arcini adds that to show off the teeth the Viking male would have had to smile broadly. Furthermore she speculates that they may have even coloured their teeth as well, explaining “Maybe they mixed some color with fat or wax before putting it on the teeth, e.g., fat and charcoal to get a black line. This coloring, however, would have disappeared when they ate and drank, so they would have had to reapply the color.”
Since that first study Arcini has been able to discover many more cases of filed teeth among the Norsemen, and has written about it in her book The Viking Age: A Time of Many Faces. She notes that the one can find other examples of cultures that made deliberate tooth modifications in different times and places – from Central America to the Philippines. However, nothing else like this appears in medieval Europe.
Were these men warriors, elites, or slaves? Arcini was able to examine more details about the remains, and the answers seem to be no. Very few were buried with weapons or had battle-related injuries. Meanwhile, the stature of these men corresponds to the general population, including people who were short or extremely tall. It does not seem that filed teeth was something exclusive for rulers or leaders, nor was a mark given to slaves.
Could the filing of teeth be the mark of initiation among the Vikings – “a boy’s entry into adult life” as Arcini explains? She continues:
The results show that filed teeth are found in adult individuals of all age groups and proportionally in relation to the age distribution of the group as a whole. The filing can of course have been done on young adults, as it lasts for life. Yet the phenomenon has been observed among any men under the age of 20. In other words, there is nothing to suggest that it is a rite of passage. Scanning electron microscopy of some of them shows that they had eaten after the filing was done. There are also some with calculus in the filed groove, indicating that the filed furrows were produced well before death.
The only clue we have so far is that about 80% of the cases found so far come from Gotland, the Swedish island in the Baltic Sea. This offers some suggestions that Arcini notes:
One hypothesis is that the custom had its origin on the island, and that the men with filed teeth whom we find in other places than Gotland were Gotlanders who had moved from the island. If the custom if Gothlandic, according to another hypothesis, those who were not originally from Gotland could have been there to get their teeth filed; after visiting Gotland they either went home and died there or travelled on and died somewhere else, and were thus not buried on Gotland. A third possibility is that the modification of the teeth was performed in other places and that Gotland, for some reason, was a gathering point for something that the filed marks represent.
Of the more than 130 cases we now know of, all but three are from Sweden, with two of the remaining people in Denmark, and another from England as part of the mass grave of Scandinavian men killed at Dorset. Arcini finds only one more case that might be related – a man from Egypt that was buried in the early eighth-century. His filed teeth looks very similar to the Norse examples. Arcini asks, “should the case in Egypt be viewed solely as coincidence, a custom arising independently in two places, or is it possible that there was some contact, some way the idea could spread?”
Arcini hopes that more discoveries and research will provide the answers. Now that this phenomenon of filed teeth among the Vikings is becoming known, more archaeologists will be looking for examples and hopefully offer more insights into this intriguing practice.
The Viking Age: A Tim of Many Faces, by Caroline Ahlstom Arcini, is published by Oxbox Books in 2018. Click here to buy it from Amazon.com. Arcini’s earlier article, ‘The Vikings bare their filed teeth’ was published in the American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Volume 128, Issue 4 (2005). | <urn:uuid:8cf6869e-77bd-4752-9efb-29b585571573> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.medievalists.net/2020/01/vikings-their-filed-teeth/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00357.warc.gz | en | 0.986029 | 1,084 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.236407160758... | 4 | In the late 1980s, archaeologists began noticing something when they uncovered the buried remains of men from the Viking Age. They have been described as “strange marks on the teeth, as if someone had carved or cut horizontal grooves in them with a knife.” Were the Vikings really filing their own teeth?
Since then over 130 examples have been found in the Norse world of filed teeth, nearly all of them in Sweden. They were usually on the upper front teeth, and these grooves could be thin or deep, mostly horizontal but in a few cases vertical. Many were just straight lines, but we could also see crescent-shaped marks as well.
The first major study of the phenomenon was made by Caroline Arcini in 2005. At that time we only knew about a couple dozen cases. She wrote that “the marks are skilfully made, and it is most likely that the individuals did not make the marks themselves, but that someone else must have filed them.”
Most Vikings did not have such dental work done, which is perhaps not unsurprising considering that the filing of teeth would have been an extremely painful procedure. Arcini adds that to show off the teeth the Viking male would have had to smile broadly. Furthermore she speculates that they may have even coloured their teeth as well, explaining “Maybe they mixed some color with fat or wax before putting it on the teeth, e.g., fat and charcoal to get a black line. This coloring, however, would have disappeared when they ate and drank, so they would have had to reapply the color.”
Since that first study Arcini has been able to discover many more cases of filed teeth among the Norsemen, and has written about it in her book The Viking Age: A Time of Many Faces. She notes that the one can find other examples of cultures that made deliberate tooth modifications in different times and places – from Central America to the Philippines. However, nothing else like this appears in medieval Europe.
Were these men warriors, elites, or slaves? Arcini was able to examine more details about the remains, and the answers seem to be no. Very few were buried with weapons or had battle-related injuries. Meanwhile, the stature of these men corresponds to the general population, including people who were short or extremely tall. It does not seem that filed teeth was something exclusive for rulers or leaders, nor was a mark given to slaves.
Could the filing of teeth be the mark of initiation among the Vikings – “a boy’s entry into adult life” as Arcini explains? She continues:
The results show that filed teeth are found in adult individuals of all age groups and proportionally in relation to the age distribution of the group as a whole. The filing can of course have been done on young adults, as it lasts for life. Yet the phenomenon has been observed among any men under the age of 20. In other words, there is nothing to suggest that it is a rite of passage. Scanning electron microscopy of some of them shows that they had eaten after the filing was done. There are also some with calculus in the filed groove, indicating that the filed furrows were produced well before death.
The only clue we have so far is that about 80% of the cases found so far come from Gotland, the Swedish island in the Baltic Sea. This offers some suggestions that Arcini notes:
One hypothesis is that the custom had its origin on the island, and that the men with filed teeth whom we find in other places than Gotland were Gotlanders who had moved from the island. If the custom if Gothlandic, according to another hypothesis, those who were not originally from Gotland could have been there to get their teeth filed; after visiting Gotland they either went home and died there or travelled on and died somewhere else, and were thus not buried on Gotland. A third possibility is that the modification of the teeth was performed in other places and that Gotland, for some reason, was a gathering point for something that the filed marks represent.
Of the more than 130 cases we now know of, all but three are from Sweden, with two of the remaining people in Denmark, and another from England as part of the mass grave of Scandinavian men killed at Dorset. Arcini finds only one more case that might be related – a man from Egypt that was buried in the early eighth-century. His filed teeth looks very similar to the Norse examples. Arcini asks, “should the case in Egypt be viewed solely as coincidence, a custom arising independently in two places, or is it possible that there was some contact, some way the idea could spread?”
Arcini hopes that more discoveries and research will provide the answers. Now that this phenomenon of filed teeth among the Vikings is becoming known, more archaeologists will be looking for examples and hopefully offer more insights into this intriguing practice.
The Viking Age: A Tim of Many Faces, by Caroline Ahlstom Arcini, is published by Oxbox Books in 2018. Click here to buy it from Amazon.com. Arcini’s earlier article, ‘The Vikings bare their filed teeth’ was published in the American Journal of Physical Anthropology, Volume 128, Issue 4 (2005). | 1,078 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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