Split (1)

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text string	id string	dump string	url string	file_path string	language string	language_score float64	token_count int64	score float64	int_score int64	embedding list	count int64	Content string	Tokens int64	Top_Lang string	Top_Conf float64
The Falklands first appear on maps from the mid 1520s, but there survives no written record of their discovery. Many people have therefore felt entitled to say on behalf of some chosen candidate, ‘ he discovered the Falklands' though in fact all claims so far made on behalf of people whose names are known can be shown to be untrue. The claim for the earliest discovery in chronological terms has been made on behalf of Fuegian or Patagonian tribesmen centuries or even millennia ago. Evidence for that claim was provided by the warrah, the Falklands fox, extinct by the 1880s which was remarked upon by many visitors in the same breath as they levelled their muskets at it. Fuegians or Patagonians may have been blown across to the Falklands in their canoes carrying tame hunting dogs (warrahs) with them. There is naturally no record of such an event but it should at least be borne in mind - the real first discoverers of the Falklands may have been very humble indeed, and they may have arrived at any time from about 10,000 years ago, since it is not known when the warrah arrived in the islands (by contrast, the fur seal has been shown to have been present on Beauchene Island about 11,000 years ago). Geologists have established that there was never a land bridge by which the warrah might have reached the islands, so the canoe-passenger theory seems the most likely route by which it arrived. The theory that it rode on ice-floes or rafted without human participation is weaker - if foxes arrived on ice-floes other vertebrates such as pumas or mice could have done the same. But the Falklands never had any other indigenous vertebrates, which argues in favour of the canoe theory: pumas and mice would not have been such likely occupants of a canoe. However, even if the warrahs did arrive by canoe, we shall never know whether the canoes' owners survived the journey - perhaps the human occupants died before the warrahs disembarked, and hence never saw the Falklands. So this theory is doomed to remain unprovable, while at the same time also remaining un-disprovable. The same is not true of the next claim, first advanced by the retired Royal Navy submarine captain Gavin Menzies in 2002: he claimed the Falklands were first discovered in 1421 by one of the treasure fleets sent out by the Chinese Ming emperor Zhu Di. These fleets, with some ships larger than Nelson's Victory, really did sail around the Indian Ocean between 1405 and 1431, but the idea that they visited the Falklands is based on mistaken interpretations of early maps. Menzies claims that the Piri Reis map of 1513, now in Istanbul, shows Patagonia, the Magellan Strait and also a compass rose placed on the Falklands by the Chinese for navigational purposes. In February 2006 he presented another map which he claims is a copy made in 1763 of a Chinese map of 1418 showing the whole world. Both of these claims are untenable - the Piri Reis map only goes down to Río de Janeiro (what Menzies takes for Patagonia is in fact Brazil), while the other map is a Chinese copy of an 18th-century European map. Menzies's claim is thus not only disprovable but indubitably disproved. The next claim in historical sequence is that made on behalf of Amerigo Vespucci, the man after whom America is named, who explored the coasts of America in two voyages between 1499 and 1502. Unfortunately for him, his accounts were pirated and published in forged garbled versions, one of which, known as the Soderini letter, contains a brief mention of sailing north-east in a south-westerly storm from somewhere in Patagonia and sighting twenty leagues of a bare coast. This has been taken to be the Falklands by many writers going back to BOUGAINVILLE in 1771, but it is a myth - the direction of sailing makes it impossible that any islands were the Falklands, and the entire text is a forgery anyway. The best evidence for the real first discoverers of the Falklands is found in two maps with a Portuguese connection: the Pedro Reinel map of around 1519 now in Istanbul, and André Thevet's engraved map of 1586 in Paris, based on a Portuguese original. Thevet's accompanying text says he obtained the original of his map from an old Portuguese captain in Lisbon, who had been with the first visitors to the Islands, some Portuguese accompanying Magellan in his voyage. There is abundant evidence that Magellan's expedition did not visit the Islands, so perhaps the old captain was upgrading his map to get a better price. Judging by the joint evidence of these two maps, the Falklands were first sighted by an otherwise unknown Portuguese expedition in around 1518-19, which explored the north coast and sailed down Falkland Sound but did not see any outlying islands. Several Spanish and Portuguese maps from the mid to late 1520s show the islands as little blobs or dots. However, the Pedro Reinel and Thevet maps disappeared into archives and only emerged in the late 20th century, so in their absence various other first discoverers were put forward. The earliest were the crew of the unknown Spanish ship christened Incognita by Julius GOEBEL, who spent several months in 1540 among some islands that can only have been the Falklands. But since they recorded that they had maps that showed the islands, they were obviously not the first discoverers. The next people to see the Falklands, over half a century later, were the explorer John DAVIS and his crew in the Desire. On 14 August 1592 they were blown out from Port Desire (Puerto Deseado) in a storm, into ‘some islands never before discovered by any knowen relation', which must have been the Falklands. Davis was long regarded in Britain as the first discoverer of the Islands, but that is clearly disproved by the Pedro Reinel and Thevet maps. Davis and his men were at any rate the first Englishmen to see the Islands, and their account, published in London in 1600 by Richard Hakluyt, was the first printed reference to the Islands. Davis was followed by Sir John HAWKINS who sailed along the Falklands' north coast in the Daintie on 2 February 1594 and named the Islands ‘Hawkins' Maidenland'. He sighted what is now called the Eddystone Rock at the northern entrance to Falkland Sound and christened it the ‘Condite Head', since it looked like a conduit head, a well bringing piped water into the City of London. On 24 January 1600 the Dutchman Sebald de WEERT sighted the Islands, and his mention of them was spread widely by maps, though mapmakers had trouble with his name, calling the Islands the ‘Iles Sebaldes', the ‘Sebaldines', the ‘Sibble de Wards', ‘Los Selvajes' and the like. Until recently he was often wrongly credited with the first discovery of the Falklands. The Islands were sighted on 27 January 1690 by the captain of the Welfare, John STRONG, who called them ‘Hawkinsland'. That day some of his men landed on one of the islands off the north coast of the Falklands, and again on 29 January somewhere near where Port Howard is today. This was formerly described by some writers as the first landing on the Islands, but Strong's men had clearly been preceded by over 170 years by the Portuguese expedition, and by some 150 years by the crew of the Incognita. Finally, in the early eighteenth century the islands were seen by many French navigators from St Malo in Brittany, who knew nothing of earlier accounts and thought they were the first discoverers. On 19 January 1701 one of them, Jacques Gouin de BEAUCHENE, sighted the island that bears his name, and others described the Sea Lion Islands, which may perhaps not have been seen before, so the French were not the ‘first discoverers' but may have been ‘later discoverers' of previously unknown islands. Their accounts caused the islands to appear on French maps from about 1705 onwards, and led the mapmaker Guillaume Delisle to christen them Les Iles Malouines, (the St Malo Islands) on his maps of 1720 and 1722. The name is still used in French (alongside ‘Les Iles Falkland')' and has been used in Spanish from the later 18th century, first as ‘Islas Maluinas' and from about 1805 as ‘Islas Malvinas'. To sum up: unless more documents emerge, the first discoverers of the Falklands must be presumed to have been Portuguese, in about 1518-19. All these claims are analysed in detail in The Falklands Saga by Graham Pascoe and Peter Pepper (forthcoming). January 2020 One illustration added	<urn:uuid:886590db-09a5-46e5-bd50-311b9ffe551b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://falklandsbiographies.org/biographies/discoverers_the	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00235.warc.gz	en	0.980688	1,904	3.828125	4	[ -0.41577184200286865, 0.16184283792972565, 0.24962271749973297, -0.11649072170257568, 0.2354024350643158, -0.14377421140670776, -0.047163426876068115, 0.06625549495220184, 0.09793102741241455, 0.10789063572883606, 0.2797771692276001, -0.7058330178260803, -0.0746794193983078, 0.609993457794...	15	The Falklands first appear on maps from the mid 1520s, but there survives no written record of their discovery. Many people have therefore felt entitled to say on behalf of some chosen candidate, ‘ he discovered the Falklands' though in fact all claims so far made on behalf of people whose names are known can be shown to be untrue. The claim for the earliest discovery in chronological terms has been made on behalf of Fuegian or Patagonian tribesmen centuries or even millennia ago. Evidence for that claim was provided by the warrah, the Falklands fox, extinct by the 1880s which was remarked upon by many visitors in the same breath as they levelled their muskets at it. Fuegians or Patagonians may have been blown across to the Falklands in their canoes carrying tame hunting dogs (warrahs) with them. There is naturally no record of such an event but it should at least be borne in mind - the real first discoverers of the Falklands may have been very humble indeed, and they may have arrived at any time from about 10,000 years ago, since it is not known when the warrah arrived in the islands (by contrast, the fur seal has been shown to have been present on Beauchene Island about 11,000 years ago). Geologists have established that there was never a land bridge by which the warrah might have reached the islands, so the canoe-passenger theory seems the most likely route by which it arrived. The theory that it rode on ice-floes or rafted without human participation is weaker - if foxes arrived on ice-floes other vertebrates such as pumas or mice could have done the same. But the Falklands never had any other indigenous vertebrates, which argues in favour of the canoe theory: pumas and mice would not have been such likely occupants of a canoe. However, even if the warrahs did arrive by canoe, we shall never know whether the canoes' owners survived the journey - perhaps the human occupants died before the warrahs disembarked, and hence never saw the Falklands. So this theory is doomed to remain unprovable, while at the same time also remaining un-disprovable. The same is not true of the next claim, first advanced by the retired Royal Navy submarine captain Gavin Menzies in 2002: he claimed the Falklands were first discovered in 1421 by one of the treasure fleets sent out by the Chinese Ming emperor Zhu Di. These fleets, with some ships larger than Nelson's Victory, really did sail around the Indian Ocean between 1405 and 1431, but the idea that they visited the Falklands is based on mistaken interpretations of early maps. Menzies claims that the Piri Reis map of 1513, now in Istanbul, shows Patagonia, the Magellan Strait and also a compass rose placed on the Falklands by the Chinese for navigational purposes. In February 2006 he presented another map which he claims is a copy made in 1763 of a Chinese map of 1418 showing the whole world. Both of these claims are untenable - the Piri Reis map only goes down to Río de Janeiro (what Menzies takes for Patagonia is in fact Brazil), while the other map is a Chinese copy of an 18th-century European map. Menzies's claim is thus not only disprovable but indubitably disproved. The next claim in historical sequence is that made on behalf of Amerigo Vespucci, the man after whom America is named, who explored the coasts of America in two voyages between 1499 and 1502. Unfortunately for him, his accounts were pirated and published in forged garbled versions, one of which, known as the Soderini letter, contains a brief mention of sailing north-east in a south-westerly storm from somewhere in Patagonia and sighting twenty leagues of a bare coast. This has been taken to be the Falklands by many writers going back to BOUGAINVILLE in 1771, but it is a myth - the direction of sailing makes it impossible that any islands were the Falklands, and the entire text is a forgery anyway. The best evidence for the real first discoverers of the Falklands is found in two maps with a Portuguese connection: the Pedro Reinel map of around 1519 now in Istanbul, and André Thevet's engraved map of 1586 in Paris, based on a Portuguese original. Thevet's accompanying text says he obtained the original of his map from an old Portuguese captain in Lisbon, who had been with the first visitors to the Islands, some Portuguese accompanying Magellan in his voyage. There is abundant evidence that Magellan's expedition did not visit the Islands, so perhaps the old captain was upgrading his map to get a better price. Judging by the joint evidence of these two maps, the Falklands were first sighted by an otherwise unknown Portuguese expedition in around 1518-19, which explored the north coast and sailed down Falkland Sound but did not see any outlying islands. Several Spanish and Portuguese maps from the mid to late 1520s show the islands as little blobs or dots. However, the Pedro Reinel and Thevet maps disappeared into archives and only emerged in the late 20th century, so in their absence various other first discoverers were put forward. The earliest were the crew of the unknown Spanish ship christened Incognita by Julius GOEBEL, who spent several months in 1540 among some islands that can only have been the Falklands. But since they recorded that they had maps that showed the islands, they were obviously not the first discoverers. The next people to see the Falklands, over half a century later, were the explorer John DAVIS and his crew in the Desire. On 14 August 1592 they were blown out from Port Desire (Puerto Deseado) in a storm, into ‘some islands never before discovered by any knowen relation', which must have been the Falklands. Davis was long regarded in Britain as the first discoverer of the Islands, but that is clearly disproved by the Pedro Reinel and Thevet maps. Davis and his men were at any rate the first Englishmen to see the Islands, and their account, published in London in 1600 by Richard Hakluyt, was the first printed reference to the Islands. Davis was followed by Sir John HAWKINS who sailed along the Falklands' north coast in the Daintie on 2 February 1594 and named the Islands ‘Hawkins' Maidenland'. He sighted what is now called the Eddystone Rock at the northern entrance to Falkland Sound and christened it the ‘Condite Head', since it looked like a conduit head, a well bringing piped water into the City of London. On 24 January 1600 the Dutchman Sebald de WEERT sighted the Islands, and his mention of them was spread widely by maps, though mapmakers had trouble with his name, calling the Islands the ‘Iles Sebaldes', the ‘Sebaldines', the ‘Sibble de Wards', ‘Los Selvajes' and the like. Until recently he was often wrongly credited with the first discovery of the Falklands. The Islands were sighted on 27 January 1690 by the captain of the Welfare, John STRONG, who called them ‘Hawkinsland'. That day some of his men landed on one of the islands off the north coast of the Falklands, and again on 29 January somewhere near where Port Howard is today. This was formerly described by some writers as the first landing on the Islands, but Strong's men had clearly been preceded by over 170 years by the Portuguese expedition, and by some 150 years by the crew of the Incognita. Finally, in the early eighteenth century the islands were seen by many French navigators from St Malo in Brittany, who knew nothing of earlier accounts and thought they were the first discoverers. On 19 January 1701 one of them, Jacques Gouin de BEAUCHENE, sighted the island that bears his name, and others described the Sea Lion Islands, which may perhaps not have been seen before, so the French were not the ‘first discoverers' but may have been ‘later discoverers' of previously unknown islands. Their accounts caused the islands to appear on French maps from about 1705 onwards, and led the mapmaker Guillaume Delisle to christen them Les Iles Malouines, (the St Malo Islands) on his maps of 1720 and 1722. The name is still used in French (alongside ‘Les Iles Falkland')' and has been used in Spanish from the later 18th century, first as ‘Islas Maluinas' and from about 1805 as ‘Islas Malvinas'. To sum up: unless more documents emerge, the first discoverers of the Falklands must be presumed to have been Portuguese, in about 1518-19. All these claims are analysed in detail in The Falklands Saga by Graham Pascoe and Peter Pepper (forthcoming). January 2020 One illustration added	1,992	ENGLISH	1
If you have ever had the feeling of being watched, you are not alone. Individuals with neurological problems experience these feelings all the time, which can be easily explained by scientists. What is not easily explained is why normal people, with no record of any sort of brain disorder, could also experience this same phenomenon. Published in the journal Current Biology, a new study demonstrates how scientists used robots to simulate these feelings of “ghost in the room”. In this study, researchers were able to detect where these feelings come from, even in perfectly healthy individuals. Exactly 12 patients were studied by a team led by Olaf Blanke of Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne. These patients were stricken with epilepsy, tumors, strokes and migraines, which caused them to sense “presences”, that weren’t really there. Scientists understand that the damage caused by these disorders is what ultimately led to the sensory hallucinations, and have pinpointed the exact areas of the brain that were affected – the temporoparietal, insular, and frontoparietal cortex. This was found through the use of brain imaging. Since these different areas of the brain have various duties, it is understandable that signals are off. The brain, in actuality, is failing to send the correct signals to the limbs and vice versa. Our limbs provide the simple information about where we are in space, as well as in time. The effects on the healthy brain It is easy to understand why sensory hallucinations, such as feeling as if you are not alone, are experienced by those who have neurological problems. It is not, however, easy to understand why healthy individuals can sense the same thing. The answer revolves around confusion. Healthy people can get confused by the signals they are receiving. For instance, when the signal is coming from their own body, they can attribute the signal to a ghostly presence. As Blanke states, “You are convinced there is something there, but you cannot see or hear anything.” The robot ghost So, the experiments were aimed to understand why these signals were getting mixed up. This is where the “Master Slave” robot was implemented – in order to create physically impossible sensory conflictions. The hallucination seems quite simple, really. The test subjects actually thought they were reaching out and touching their own back. In reality, the recruits were manipulating a program in front of them, which, in turn, moved a pair of robot hands behind them. Basically, the exact same movements were being mimicked behind the subject. At some point, there were delays, which made the sensory hallucinations much worse. When the robot sensation was not poking the back of the test subjects, they were hovering quite close, making the patient feel as though someone was behind them. To resolve the spatiotemporal conflict in their brain, the researchers convinced the test subjects that the feeling was coming from the “other” in the room. When the subjects were told that many people were in the room, they believed this too. The robotic test proved to be very successful with creating sensory hallucinations in healthy test subjects, even to the point of frightening them to stop the tests immediately. Creepy, huh, this doesn’t completely explain the phenomenon, but maybe these tests can even help us understand mental disorders and solve issues deep within the human mind that have stumped us for decades. Copyright © 2012-2020 Learning Mind. All rights reserved. For permission to reprint, contact us.	<urn:uuid:6a1cd940-c605-44b2-bb3e-0703dccbbca4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.learning-mind.com/scientists-trick-volunteers-into-believing-there-is-a-ghost-in-the-room/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00341.warc.gz	en	0.981574	726	3.265625	3	[ -0.09180247783660889, -0.029541872441768646, 0.16229555010795593, -0.033950451761484146, -0.1785808801651001, 0.21542160212993622, 0.9451348781585693, 0.04997456818819046, -0.10217513144016266, -0.19285143911838531, 0.4227665662765503, -0.15767884254455566, -0.15588408708572388, 0.35591900...	1	If you have ever had the feeling of being watched, you are not alone. Individuals with neurological problems experience these feelings all the time, which can be easily explained by scientists. What is not easily explained is why normal people, with no record of any sort of brain disorder, could also experience this same phenomenon. Published in the journal Current Biology, a new study demonstrates how scientists used robots to simulate these feelings of “ghost in the room”. In this study, researchers were able to detect where these feelings come from, even in perfectly healthy individuals. Exactly 12 patients were studied by a team led by Olaf Blanke of Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne. These patients were stricken with epilepsy, tumors, strokes and migraines, which caused them to sense “presences”, that weren’t really there. Scientists understand that the damage caused by these disorders is what ultimately led to the sensory hallucinations, and have pinpointed the exact areas of the brain that were affected – the temporoparietal, insular, and frontoparietal cortex. This was found through the use of brain imaging. Since these different areas of the brain have various duties, it is understandable that signals are off. The brain, in actuality, is failing to send the correct signals to the limbs and vice versa. Our limbs provide the simple information about where we are in space, as well as in time. The effects on the healthy brain It is easy to understand why sensory hallucinations, such as feeling as if you are not alone, are experienced by those who have neurological problems. It is not, however, easy to understand why healthy individuals can sense the same thing. The answer revolves around confusion. Healthy people can get confused by the signals they are receiving. For instance, when the signal is coming from their own body, they can attribute the signal to a ghostly presence. As Blanke states, “You are convinced there is something there, but you cannot see or hear anything.” The robot ghost So, the experiments were aimed to understand why these signals were getting mixed up. This is where the “Master Slave” robot was implemented – in order to create physically impossible sensory conflictions. The hallucination seems quite simple, really. The test subjects actually thought they were reaching out and touching their own back. In reality, the recruits were manipulating a program in front of them, which, in turn, moved a pair of robot hands behind them. Basically, the exact same movements were being mimicked behind the subject. At some point, there were delays, which made the sensory hallucinations much worse. When the robot sensation was not poking the back of the test subjects, they were hovering quite close, making the patient feel as though someone was behind them. To resolve the spatiotemporal conflict in their brain, the researchers convinced the test subjects that the feeling was coming from the “other” in the room. When the subjects were told that many people were in the room, they believed this too. The robotic test proved to be very successful with creating sensory hallucinations in healthy test subjects, even to the point of frightening them to stop the tests immediately. Creepy, huh, this doesn’t completely explain the phenomenon, but maybe these tests can even help us understand mental disorders and solve issues deep within the human mind that have stumped us for decades. Copyright © 2012-2020 Learning Mind. All rights reserved. For permission to reprint, contact us.	709	ENGLISH	1
Epiphany, or the Feast of Epiphany, most commonly known as Three Kings’ Day, happens twelve days after Christmas, on January 6th. It is a Catholic observance and a day for commemorating the visit that the Three Wise Men paid to Baby Jesus. It is not a public holiday in America, and businesses follow normal hours. The day of Epiphany is a Feast Day, and it marks the beginning of the Epiphanytide, a catholic season that lasts from this day until Ash Wednesday. It is also the end of the 12 Days of Christmas, a period that begins on Christmas Day and ends on the Epiphany. The days symbolize Jesus Christ’s birth and the manifestation of his divinity, respectively. What is Epiphany? The word Epiphany comes from the Greek and means manifestation. In religious terms, a manifestation is the appearance of an invisible being in their visible form. In fact, on the day of Epiphany, people celebrate not only the visit of the Three Kings but also the time when Jesus was baptised and began spreading and teaching the Word about his father, God. These were the two times when Catholics believe that Christ’s importance and divinity were manifested, first because the Wise Men could sense he would be someone significant and second because it was after his baptism that Jesus started manifesting his message and his powers. The origins of Epiphany Originating in the 2nd century, Epiphany is one of the oldest known Christian celebrations. Its history is written on the Bible on the book of Matthew, where he writes about the Wise Men that followed a star in the East for twelve days in the desert to Bethlehem, to visit the baby Jesus in his manger, who they believed to be the King of Jews. With them, they brought gifts of Gold, symbolizing his status as King of Jews, Frankincense for his divine nature and the fact he would be worshipped as the Son of God and finally they gave him myrrh, to symbolize Jesus’s suffering and death. In short, these gifts delineated baby Jesus’s destiny. Curiously, the Bible never specifies how many men visited Jesus in his manger, and it is speculated that the number could be anywhere between 2 and 20 men. It is known that they were actually Zoroastrian Priests and not Kings. The number of visitors was officially set at three on around 500 AD, on account of the number of gifts that were given. The day of Epiphany was usually when Eastern Churches would celebrate Jesus’s birthday, however, this was changed in the 4th century AD to December 25th, and Epiphany was set to January 6th, as they still are today. As a holiday that is celebrated around the World, there are quite a few different Epiphany traditions. In America, most people stick to celebrating Epiphany by attending church service, where the sermon is focused on Jesus’s baptism and the revelation of his holiness. In some countries, such as Spain and Italy, January 6th is the day when children receive their Christmas gifts, as it was the day when Jesus received his gifts. Many countries also have their version of the traditional King Cake, in America, this delicacy is more famous in the city of New Orleans, where people eat the cake until Fat Tuesday. In Mexico, where the day is known as Dia de Los Reyes, the cake is called Rosca de Reyes, and it has a plastic baby Jesus inside. Whoever gets the baby, gets to be Jesus’s godparent for the day. Finally, January 6th is commonly the day when people take down their Christmas trees, as it marks the official end of the Holidays season.	<urn:uuid:1790823c-2548-4564-8087-dc8f36de71ae>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.calendarr.com/united-states/epiphany/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00071.warc.gz	en	0.984267	771	3.609375	4	[ 0.37003540992736816, 0.32422876358032227, 0.1453768014907837, -0.16401559114456177, -0.3237791955471039, -0.21542295813560486, 0.36173075437545776, 0.18957604467868805, 0.3052770495414734, 0.365120530128479, 0.02752593159675598, -0.039653483778238297, -0.3382599651813507, -0.20549252629280...	12	Epiphany, or the Feast of Epiphany, most commonly known as Three Kings’ Day, happens twelve days after Christmas, on January 6th. It is a Catholic observance and a day for commemorating the visit that the Three Wise Men paid to Baby Jesus. It is not a public holiday in America, and businesses follow normal hours. The day of Epiphany is a Feast Day, and it marks the beginning of the Epiphanytide, a catholic season that lasts from this day until Ash Wednesday. It is also the end of the 12 Days of Christmas, a period that begins on Christmas Day and ends on the Epiphany. The days symbolize Jesus Christ’s birth and the manifestation of his divinity, respectively. What is Epiphany? The word Epiphany comes from the Greek and means manifestation. In religious terms, a manifestation is the appearance of an invisible being in their visible form. In fact, on the day of Epiphany, people celebrate not only the visit of the Three Kings but also the time when Jesus was baptised and began spreading and teaching the Word about his father, God. These were the two times when Catholics believe that Christ’s importance and divinity were manifested, first because the Wise Men could sense he would be someone significant and second because it was after his baptism that Jesus started manifesting his message and his powers. The origins of Epiphany Originating in the 2nd century, Epiphany is one of the oldest known Christian celebrations. Its history is written on the Bible on the book of Matthew, where he writes about the Wise Men that followed a star in the East for twelve days in the desert to Bethlehem, to visit the baby Jesus in his manger, who they believed to be the King of Jews. With them, they brought gifts of Gold, symbolizing his status as King of Jews, Frankincense for his divine nature and the fact he would be worshipped as the Son of God and finally they gave him myrrh, to symbolize Jesus’s suffering and death. In short, these gifts delineated baby Jesus’s destiny. Curiously, the Bible never specifies how many men visited Jesus in his manger, and it is speculated that the number could be anywhere between 2 and 20 men. It is known that they were actually Zoroastrian Priests and not Kings. The number of visitors was officially set at three on around 500 AD, on account of the number of gifts that were given. The day of Epiphany was usually when Eastern Churches would celebrate Jesus’s birthday, however, this was changed in the 4th century AD to December 25th, and Epiphany was set to January 6th, as they still are today. As a holiday that is celebrated around the World, there are quite a few different Epiphany traditions. In America, most people stick to celebrating Epiphany by attending church service, where the sermon is focused on Jesus’s baptism and the revelation of his holiness. In some countries, such as Spain and Italy, January 6th is the day when children receive their Christmas gifts, as it was the day when Jesus received his gifts. Many countries also have their version of the traditional King Cake, in America, this delicacy is more famous in the city of New Orleans, where people eat the cake until Fat Tuesday. In Mexico, where the day is known as Dia de Los Reyes, the cake is called Rosca de Reyes, and it has a plastic baby Jesus inside. Whoever gets the baby, gets to be Jesus’s godparent for the day. Finally, January 6th is commonly the day when people take down their Christmas trees, as it marks the official end of the Holidays season.	774	ENGLISH	1
For this week’s #FindsFriday, we’re looking at pig remains from the rural medieval site of Kirklevington in Stockton-on-Tees. As part of our excavations, we found the remains of two nearly complete pigs buried next to each other in a pit. Both animals still had their lower ‘milk’ (deciduous) premolars, with the first permanent molars just reaching their full height, indicating they were probably just over six months old when they died. It’s quite common to find the remains of young pigs on medieval sites in England. They were usually kept for around a year before being slaughtered and transported to towns for consumption. In the archaeological record, this kind of activity is usually represented by the presence of a greater number of ‘meat bearing’ bones relative to those with lower yields such as metapodials and phalanges (feet and toes). However, the Kirklevington pig remains are unusual because they represent the deposition of whole animals rather than joints or cuts of meat. Their presence on a rural site suggests they were raised in the vicinity. The remains also lack any of the evidence typically associated with butchery, such as knife marks and chops indicative of dismemberment and decapitation. It’s unlikely that these animals were eaten by the local populace; instead, they seem to have been buried together soon after they died. The lack of skeletal trauma might indicate that their demise came about through natural rather than human means, which could explain why they were apparently deemed unfit for consumption.	<urn:uuid:384899f4-1b94-44c2-b551-ab4e4ea713f2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.northernarchaeologicalassociates.co.uk/looking-pig-remains	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00357.warc.gz	en	0.980198	326	3.9375	4	[ -0.3137871026992798, 0.17779815196990967, 0.26350945234298706, 0.15935902297496796, 0.22630879282951355, -0.20305655896663666, -0.37072595953941345, 0.11940722912549973, -0.03450283035635948, 0.07244734466075897, 0.16286601126194, -0.7744162082672119, 0.3820277452468872, 0.4253780543804168...	20	For this week’s #FindsFriday, we’re looking at pig remains from the rural medieval site of Kirklevington in Stockton-on-Tees. As part of our excavations, we found the remains of two nearly complete pigs buried next to each other in a pit. Both animals still had their lower ‘milk’ (deciduous) premolars, with the first permanent molars just reaching their full height, indicating they were probably just over six months old when they died. It’s quite common to find the remains of young pigs on medieval sites in England. They were usually kept for around a year before being slaughtered and transported to towns for consumption. In the archaeological record, this kind of activity is usually represented by the presence of a greater number of ‘meat bearing’ bones relative to those with lower yields such as metapodials and phalanges (feet and toes). However, the Kirklevington pig remains are unusual because they represent the deposition of whole animals rather than joints or cuts of meat. Their presence on a rural site suggests they were raised in the vicinity. The remains also lack any of the evidence typically associated with butchery, such as knife marks and chops indicative of dismemberment and decapitation. It’s unlikely that these animals were eaten by the local populace; instead, they seem to have been buried together soon after they died. The lack of skeletal trauma might indicate that their demise came about through natural rather than human means, which could explain why they were apparently deemed unfit for consumption.	311	ENGLISH	1
Rock art theories: a brief overview of the salient theories concerning Palaeolithic rock art in Europe and around the world. In the early 1900's, the theories concerning rock art were known as 'utilitarian', triggered by the work of Walter Baldwin Spencer and Francis J Gillen on the Arunta of Central Australia. This was endorsed by the likes of Salomon Reinach, Henri Breuil - Abbé Breuil - and Count Bégouën. The theory stated that the Palaeolithic paintings had a magic-religious cause; by painting the animals it would multiply their numbers. 'Hunting magic' was associated with 'sympathetic magic' whereby an act would influence reality. This utilitarian approach was unashamedly functional, linking the art to the supply of food. The theory gradually became more elaborate; by painting or carving the animal the artist would gain the strength of that animal, or even be protected by it. Or perhaps it was a form of trophy. It might also have been a method of mental preparation for the hunt. But with these 'hunting' explanations came the need - and desire - to prove them. Did they stack up? Analysis showed that the Palaeolithic diets, based on faunal bones found near the rock art sites, did not really reflect the animals depicted. For example at Lascaux, 90% of the bones were from reindeer, but there is only one painting of the reindeer. Researchers accepted that some elements of the hunting magic theory were legitimate, but it certainly didn't explain everything; it was too simple given the complexity and variety of the compositions and further explanations were sought. Comment	<urn:uuid:945b40bd-6be6-4555-b479-1fd9f01e564b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://bradshawfoundation.com/news/rock_art.php?id=Hunting-magic-in-rock-art	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00269.warc.gz	en	0.982031	344	3.515625	4	[ -0.25332534313201904, 0.31194719672203064, 0.18410621583461761, -0.10292866826057434, -0.3670993447303772, 0.3940105736255646, -0.012953422032296658, 0.3074280321598053, -0.04170921444892883, -0.06264249235391617, -0.11825110763311386, -0.5540133118629456, -0.08251150697469711, 0.545672357...	9	Rock art theories: a brief overview of the salient theories concerning Palaeolithic rock art in Europe and around the world. In the early 1900's, the theories concerning rock art were known as 'utilitarian', triggered by the work of Walter Baldwin Spencer and Francis J Gillen on the Arunta of Central Australia. This was endorsed by the likes of Salomon Reinach, Henri Breuil - Abbé Breuil - and Count Bégouën. The theory stated that the Palaeolithic paintings had a magic-religious cause; by painting the animals it would multiply their numbers. 'Hunting magic' was associated with 'sympathetic magic' whereby an act would influence reality. This utilitarian approach was unashamedly functional, linking the art to the supply of food. The theory gradually became more elaborate; by painting or carving the animal the artist would gain the strength of that animal, or even be protected by it. Or perhaps it was a form of trophy. It might also have been a method of mental preparation for the hunt. But with these 'hunting' explanations came the need - and desire - to prove them. Did they stack up? Analysis showed that the Palaeolithic diets, based on faunal bones found near the rock art sites, did not really reflect the animals depicted. For example at Lascaux, 90% of the bones were from reindeer, but there is only one painting of the reindeer. Researchers accepted that some elements of the hunting magic theory were legitimate, but it certainly didn't explain everything; it was too simple given the complexity and variety of the compositions and further explanations were sought. Comment	340	ENGLISH	1
By the spring of 1862, a year into the American Civil War, Major General Ulysses S. Grant had pushed deep into Confederate territory along the Tennessee River. In early April, he was camped at Pittsburg Landing, near Shiloh, Tennessee, waiting for Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell’s army to meet up with him. On the morning of April 6, Confederate troops based out of nearby Corinth, Mississippi, launched a surprise offensive against Grant’s troops, hoping to defeat them before the second army arrived. Grant’s men, augmented by the first arrivals from the Ohio, managed to hold some ground, though, and establish a battle line anchored with artillery. Fighting continued until after dark, and by the next morning, the full force of the Ohio had arrived and the Union outnumbered the Confederates by more than 10,000. The Union troops began forcing the Confederates back, and while a counterattack stopped their advance it did not break their line. Eventually, the Southern commanders realized they could not win and fell back to Corinth until another offensive in August (for a more detailed explanation of the battle, see this animated history). All told, the fighting at the Battle of Shiloh left more than 16,000 soldiers wounded and more 3,000 dead, and neither federal or Confederate medics were prepared for the carnage. The bullet and bayonet wounds were bad enough on their own, but soldiers of the era were also prone to infections. Wounds contaminated by shrapnel or dirt became warm, moist refuges for bacteria, which could feast on a buffet of damaged tissue. After months marching and eating field rations on the battlefront, many soldiers’ immune systems were weakened and couldn’t fight off infection on their own. Even the army doctors couldn’t do much; microorganisms weren’t well understood and the germ theory of disease and antibiotics were still a few years away. Many soldiers died from infections that modern medicine would be able to nip in the bud. A BRIGHT SPOT Some of the Shiloh soldiers sat in the mud for two rainy days and nights waiting for the medics to get around to them. As dusk fell the first night, some of them noticed something very strange: their wounds were glowing, casting a faint light into the darkness of the battlefield. Even stranger, when the troops were eventually moved to field hospitals, those whose wounds glowed had a better survival rate and had their wounds heal more quickly and cleanly than their unilluminated brothers-in-arms. The seemingly protective effect of the mysterious light earned it the nickname “Angel’s Glow.” In 2001, almost one hundred and forty years after the battle, seventeen-year-old Bill Martin was visiting the Shiloh battlefield with his family. When he heard about the glowing wounds, he asked his mom – a microbiologist at the USDA Agricultural Research Service who had studied luminescent bacteria that lived in soil – about it. “So you know, he comes home and, ‘Mom, you’re working with a glowing bacteria. Could that have caused the glowing wounds?’” Martin told Science Netlinks. “And so, being a scientist, of course I said, ‘Well, you can do an experiment to find out.’” And that’s just what Bill did. He and his friend, Jon Curtis, did some research on both the bacteria and the conditions during the Battle of Shiloh. They learned that Photorhabdus luminescens, the bacteria that Bill’s mom studied and the one he thought might have something to do with the glowing wounds, live in the guts of parasitic worms called nematodes, and the two share a strange lifecycle. Read more at Mental Floss	<urn:uuid:6a6ca72f-7856-44c6-bb34-b0954f987f23>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://sofrep.com/news/how-civil-war-soldiers-increased-their-survival-rate-by-glowing-in-the-dark/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00202.warc.gz	en	0.980101	798	3.65625	4	[ -0.5741840600967407, 0.48271363973617554, 0.3530499339103699, 0.13618101179599762, 0.03735187277197838, -0.1261306256055832, -0.012416305020451546, 0.13572227954864502, -0.22696606814861298, -0.12278831750154495, 0.09603862464427948, -0.0960397943854332, 0.15237529575824738, 0.458472371101...	7	By the spring of 1862, a year into the American Civil War, Major General Ulysses S. Grant had pushed deep into Confederate territory along the Tennessee River. In early April, he was camped at Pittsburg Landing, near Shiloh, Tennessee, waiting for Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell’s army to meet up with him. On the morning of April 6, Confederate troops based out of nearby Corinth, Mississippi, launched a surprise offensive against Grant’s troops, hoping to defeat them before the second army arrived. Grant’s men, augmented by the first arrivals from the Ohio, managed to hold some ground, though, and establish a battle line anchored with artillery. Fighting continued until after dark, and by the next morning, the full force of the Ohio had arrived and the Union outnumbered the Confederates by more than 10,000. The Union troops began forcing the Confederates back, and while a counterattack stopped their advance it did not break their line. Eventually, the Southern commanders realized they could not win and fell back to Corinth until another offensive in August (for a more detailed explanation of the battle, see this animated history). All told, the fighting at the Battle of Shiloh left more than 16,000 soldiers wounded and more 3,000 dead, and neither federal or Confederate medics were prepared for the carnage. The bullet and bayonet wounds were bad enough on their own, but soldiers of the era were also prone to infections. Wounds contaminated by shrapnel or dirt became warm, moist refuges for bacteria, which could feast on a buffet of damaged tissue. After months marching and eating field rations on the battlefront, many soldiers’ immune systems were weakened and couldn’t fight off infection on their own. Even the army doctors couldn’t do much; microorganisms weren’t well understood and the germ theory of disease and antibiotics were still a few years away. Many soldiers died from infections that modern medicine would be able to nip in the bud. A BRIGHT SPOT Some of the Shiloh soldiers sat in the mud for two rainy days and nights waiting for the medics to get around to them. As dusk fell the first night, some of them noticed something very strange: their wounds were glowing, casting a faint light into the darkness of the battlefield. Even stranger, when the troops were eventually moved to field hospitals, those whose wounds glowed had a better survival rate and had their wounds heal more quickly and cleanly than their unilluminated brothers-in-arms. The seemingly protective effect of the mysterious light earned it the nickname “Angel’s Glow.” In 2001, almost one hundred and forty years after the battle, seventeen-year-old Bill Martin was visiting the Shiloh battlefield with his family. When he heard about the glowing wounds, he asked his mom – a microbiologist at the USDA Agricultural Research Service who had studied luminescent bacteria that lived in soil – about it. “So you know, he comes home and, ‘Mom, you’re working with a glowing bacteria. Could that have caused the glowing wounds?’” Martin told Science Netlinks. “And so, being a scientist, of course I said, ‘Well, you can do an experiment to find out.’” And that’s just what Bill did. He and his friend, Jon Curtis, did some research on both the bacteria and the conditions during the Battle of Shiloh. They learned that Photorhabdus luminescens, the bacteria that Bill’s mom studied and the one he thought might have something to do with the glowing wounds, live in the guts of parasitic worms called nematodes, and the two share a strange lifecycle. Read more at Mental Floss	771	ENGLISH	1
Our opening hours are reduced on the Australia Day public holiday, Monday 27 January. More information › On 15 June 1839, the territory administered by New South Wales was extended to cover New Zealand. This decision was pre-empted by earlier British actions which saw King William IV accept a national flag for New Zealand owned vessels in 1834 and the following year ratify a signed request by the United Tribes of New Zealand for protection from other nations. Both actions were provoked by the unscrupulous practices of traders and whalers, particularly those in the Bay of Islands, where a lack of laws governing Europeans (Pakehas) created problems for Māori who were being pressured to sell their land. On 14 January 1840, William Hobson, a British Royal Naval Officer, was sworn in as Lieutenant Governor of New Zealand by the Governor of New South Wales, Sir George Gipps. Hobson travelled to the Bay of Islands in New Zealand to take up his new position. Upon his arrival he advised Māori and settlers of his new powers and that land titles would no longer be recognised unless purchased through the Crown. Proclamations of these powers were issued on 30 January 1840 after being printed at the missionary press at Paihia in the Bay of Islands. Having assumed office Hobson then set about persuading Māori to give their assent to this assumption of power. Over the passage of a few days Hobson, with the aid of administrators and missionaries, put together a treaty document which outlined Māori protection by the Queen, laws for the sale of land, and acknowledged existing ownership of land by Māori. On 6 February 1840, after discussion with chiefs on the lawns of the British Resident’s house in Waitangi, some 45 chiefs signed a treaty of cession, now known as the Treaty of Waitangi. In February 1840, just a few weeks after the signing of the Treaty, Governor Gipps drafted his own agreement to collect the signatures of some ten Maori Chiefs visiting Sydney. They had been brought to Sydney by John Jones, a Sydney landowner, who wanted them to sign a deed conveying all the land not yet sold in the South Island to Jones, William Charles Wentworth and three others. Based on the wording of the Treaty of Waitangi, Gipps' agreement has the Colonial Secretary’s seals and lists the names of the Chiefs who were going to ratify the agreement with Hobson once back in New Zealand. Gipps’s treaty differed from the one signed at Waitangi as it was in English only and had the chiefs ceding ‘absolute Sovereignty in and over the said Native Chiefs, their Tribes and country’ to the Queen. The Chiefs refused the Crown's offer and signed Jones's deed. While this was happening in Sydney Hobson had copies of the Treaty of Waitangi translated into Māori. These were taken by missionaries, colonial officials and military officers to other parts of New Zealand to gather more signatures. By 15 October the marks of 512 chiefs had been collated together from the various copies of the treaty. These were then sent by dispatch to London and were formally approved 30 March 1841. The Treaty was unable to stop the ongoing problems between Maori and Pakeha. Hone Wiremu (Hone Heke) Henare had signed the original treaty but within a few years, he had become disillusioned with the new Pakeha regulations. On 8 July 1844, Heke ordered his second-in-command Te Haratua to cut down the British flagpole at Kororareka in the Bay of Islands. The flagstaff had previously flown the colours of United Tribes of New Zealand but had been replaced by the Union Jack. For Heke and his ally Te Ruki Kawiti this symbolised their grievances about changes made following the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi. On 8-10 of January 1845, he cut the flagpole down again. Hobson then issued a reward for his capture. Finally on 11 March 1845, Heke cut down the flagstaff and drove the settlers out of the town starting what is commonly known as the New Zealand Wars. In May the British attacked Heke’s Pā (fort) at Puketutu (Te Mawhe). The British rocket launchers failed o hit the Pā and after a counter-attack by Heke’s soldiers, the British troops retreated to the Bay of Islands. Throughout this period the affairs of New Zealand were managed by the Governor General, based in New South Wales. As a result, government dispatches and other official documents relating to New Zealand were forwarded to Sydney. Many of these, along with other rare manuscripts, paintings and publications were collected by David Scott Mitchell and Sir William Dixson. Their collections were bequeathed to the Library. Sir William Dixson, in particular, focussed his attention on collecting materials relating to the Pacific and the Library holds extensive collections relating to European activities in Oceania. Senior Curator, Research and Discovery	<urn:uuid:f0be0c2f-fadc-40df-b88e-44f4a750ca01>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/stories/treaty-waitangi-1840	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00555.warc.gz	en	0.982913	1,050	3.890625	4	[ -0.3051478862762451, 0.4137011170387268, 0.4425879120826721, 0.08680514246225357, -0.12992742657661438, -0.009847491979598999, 0.14292514324188232, -0.05311424285173416, -0.0875726267695427, 0.4558025896549225, 0.024502087384462357, -0.48080629110336304, 0.223781555891037, 0.60956257581710...	1	Our opening hours are reduced on the Australia Day public holiday, Monday 27 January. More information › On 15 June 1839, the territory administered by New South Wales was extended to cover New Zealand. This decision was pre-empted by earlier British actions which saw King William IV accept a national flag for New Zealand owned vessels in 1834 and the following year ratify a signed request by the United Tribes of New Zealand for protection from other nations. Both actions were provoked by the unscrupulous practices of traders and whalers, particularly those in the Bay of Islands, where a lack of laws governing Europeans (Pakehas) created problems for Māori who were being pressured to sell their land. On 14 January 1840, William Hobson, a British Royal Naval Officer, was sworn in as Lieutenant Governor of New Zealand by the Governor of New South Wales, Sir George Gipps. Hobson travelled to the Bay of Islands in New Zealand to take up his new position. Upon his arrival he advised Māori and settlers of his new powers and that land titles would no longer be recognised unless purchased through the Crown. Proclamations of these powers were issued on 30 January 1840 after being printed at the missionary press at Paihia in the Bay of Islands. Having assumed office Hobson then set about persuading Māori to give their assent to this assumption of power. Over the passage of a few days Hobson, with the aid of administrators and missionaries, put together a treaty document which outlined Māori protection by the Queen, laws for the sale of land, and acknowledged existing ownership of land by Māori. On 6 February 1840, after discussion with chiefs on the lawns of the British Resident’s house in Waitangi, some 45 chiefs signed a treaty of cession, now known as the Treaty of Waitangi. In February 1840, just a few weeks after the signing of the Treaty, Governor Gipps drafted his own agreement to collect the signatures of some ten Maori Chiefs visiting Sydney. They had been brought to Sydney by John Jones, a Sydney landowner, who wanted them to sign a deed conveying all the land not yet sold in the South Island to Jones, William Charles Wentworth and three others. Based on the wording of the Treaty of Waitangi, Gipps' agreement has the Colonial Secretary’s seals and lists the names of the Chiefs who were going to ratify the agreement with Hobson once back in New Zealand. Gipps’s treaty differed from the one signed at Waitangi as it was in English only and had the chiefs ceding ‘absolute Sovereignty in and over the said Native Chiefs, their Tribes and country’ to the Queen. The Chiefs refused the Crown's offer and signed Jones's deed. While this was happening in Sydney Hobson had copies of the Treaty of Waitangi translated into Māori. These were taken by missionaries, colonial officials and military officers to other parts of New Zealand to gather more signatures. By 15 October the marks of 512 chiefs had been collated together from the various copies of the treaty. These were then sent by dispatch to London and were formally approved 30 March 1841. The Treaty was unable to stop the ongoing problems between Maori and Pakeha. Hone Wiremu (Hone Heke) Henare had signed the original treaty but within a few years, he had become disillusioned with the new Pakeha regulations. On 8 July 1844, Heke ordered his second-in-command Te Haratua to cut down the British flagpole at Kororareka in the Bay of Islands. The flagstaff had previously flown the colours of United Tribes of New Zealand but had been replaced by the Union Jack. For Heke and his ally Te Ruki Kawiti this symbolised their grievances about changes made following the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi. On 8-10 of January 1845, he cut the flagpole down again. Hobson then issued a reward for his capture. Finally on 11 March 1845, Heke cut down the flagstaff and drove the settlers out of the town starting what is commonly known as the New Zealand Wars. In May the British attacked Heke’s Pā (fort) at Puketutu (Te Mawhe). The British rocket launchers failed o hit the Pā and after a counter-attack by Heke’s soldiers, the British troops retreated to the Bay of Islands. Throughout this period the affairs of New Zealand were managed by the Governor General, based in New South Wales. As a result, government dispatches and other official documents relating to New Zealand were forwarded to Sydney. Many of these, along with other rare manuscripts, paintings and publications were collected by David Scott Mitchell and Sir William Dixson. Their collections were bequeathed to the Library. Sir William Dixson, in particular, focussed his attention on collecting materials relating to the Pacific and the Library holds extensive collections relating to European activities in Oceania. Senior Curator, Research and Discovery	1,076	ENGLISH	1
Emiliano Zapata had very much greater influence on the Mexican history than any other great revolutionaries in the 1910s. He aggressively expressed his role as an agrarian reformist and coined the phrase tierra y Libetad which meant land and freedom. Unlike many of other Mexican revolutionists, he fought not for personal but ideal gain. This paper will discuss and determine why Emiliano Zapata was an important person to be remembered hundred years later. Emiliano Zapata was born in august 1879 in Morelos, Mexico. He was the son of a small peasant farmer. After the death of his father when he was 18, he had to take care of his mother and three sisters through their little land. In 1909 he was elected the president of the village’s defense committee which was charged with defending the interests of the community against the dictator president of Mexico Porfirio Diaz. In his own village of Anenecuilco, he became involved in the struggles for the rights of campesinos and was able to oversee the redistribution of the land from the haciendas peacefully. He was in the frontline to observe many conflicts between villagers and hacendados (landowners) over theft of the village land and in some instances, he saw the hacendandos torch a whole village. He was fiercely involved in the campaign for the rights of the villagers. He first established ancient title deeds claim to disputed land and pressed the governor of Morieles into action but when he found that the government was too slow to react and that was biased towards the wealthy plantation farmers, Zapata used armed forced to take over the disputed land. He was to become a leading figure in the Mexican revolution which broke out in 1910 and was in many ways directed to the then president Diaz. During the Mexican revolution, Zapata formed and commanded a very important and revolutionary force called the Liberation Army of the South that challenged the president (Emiliano Zapata). First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service - Your research paper is written by a PhD professor - Your requirements and targets are always met - You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment - You get a chance to become an excellent student! Zapata was also known for his brainy quotes some of which are still famous in Mexico, &lduo;It is better to die on your feet than to live a lifetime on your knees,” "I would rather die on my feet then live on my knees" and when he threatened the president by telling him, “you can begin counting days, because in a month I will be in Mexico city with twenty thousand men and I will have the pleasure of…hanging you from the tallest tree in the forest.” The 1910 revolution As President Diaz’s tenure was threatened by the candidacy of Francisco I Madero, Zapata took the opportunity to make quiet alliances as he perceived him as a genuine change the country needed. In 1910 he became the general of Ejército Libertador del Sur, the liberation army in Morels. Madero had lost the 1910 elections to Dictator Diaz and fled to the US but later re-entered Mexico and Zapata and his peasant friends decided to support Madero. Madero’s revolutionary plan included returning of seized land to peasant farmers and thus he became a darling to most peasants. This plan became a rallying cry for peasantry and Zapata organized revolutionary bands that rode from village to village and tore down hacienda fences and opposed fiercely the land elite’s encroachment into their villages (Ink and Internet -- Emiliano Zapata). In 1911, a bloody phase of the Mexican revolution took place at the Villa de Ayala. Most villagers who were sympathetic to the revolution and did not offer any resistance as most of them were hacienda workers. The revolution took a more bloody twist when fighting started in the north by the legendary Pancho Villa. By May after heavy fighting, the Zapata followers otherwise known as Zapatistas had taken the town of Cuautla. Two days later Madero signed a treaty with the Mexican government known as the Treaty of Ciudad Juarez that ended the presidency of Porfirio Diaz and the former ambassador to US, León de la Barra, was named the interim president (Ink and Internet -- Emiliano Zapata.) But the new president was not a darling of Zapata because he could not assuage the peasants. This was because Barra’s allegiance was seen to be with the rich planters who were now aiming to regain the control of Mexico. Although he had ceased his hostilities briefly, Zapata with his 5,000 strong men captured Cuernavaca the capital of Morelos state. Barra was overthrown and Madero was elected president. When Zapata and Madero met to discuss peasantry demands, the meeting proved fruitless and the two parted in anger. In the “Plan of Ayala”, Zapata declared Madero unfit to fulfill his goals. He issued a statement to Madero, “you can begin counting days, because in a month I will be in Mexico City with twenty thousand men and I will have the pleasure of…hanging you from the tallest tree in the forest.” Zapata went into the forest and issued his plan of the Ayala (Emiliano Zapata of Mexico). The plan was to award the peasants a third of all land occupied by the haciendas by forcefully taking the land and compensating those who were willing to cede their plantations. The revolutionary was later into full swing and for the first time that Zapata used his famous slogan of Tierra y Libertad which meant Land and Liberty (Ink and Internet -- Emiliano Zapata). In the course of these revolutions, Zapata forcefully took land from the haciendas and redistributed them to peasants. Zapata had thousands of men whom he paid by taxes imposed on provincial cities and extortions from the rich (Emiliano Zapata). In 1917, Carranza was elected president and he set up Zapata to be ambushed. An emissary of Carranza, Colonel Jesus Guajardo, invited Zapata to a meeting pretending to join his cause and when he arrived at the meeting, he was ambushed, shot and assassinated (Emiliano Zapata of Mexico). Zapata’s ideology was that of an agrarian one. He wanted the re-establishment of ejidas which is communally owned land with shared use of rights which was seen as a communist idea but the fact was Zapata was fighting for restoration of titles. His main goal was political and economic emancipation of Mexico’s peasants. He argued against the feudal system that kept sharecroppers and small farmers in perpetual poverty. Most popular orders	<urn:uuid:e13d6710-7651-4af0-b19e-c5e0f5635df5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essaysexperts.com/essays/history/emiliano-zapata.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00262.warc.gz	en	0.981476	1,413	3.34375	3	[ -0.08950561285018921, 0.7084219455718994, 0.2667556703090668, 0.125697523355484, -0.14586760103702545, 0.007836488075554371, 0.2590394616127014, 0.3954201340675354, -0.34226083755493164, -0.1503547728061676, 0.10903945565223694, 0.10893169045448303, 0.23970192670822144, 0.2541654109954834,...	1	Emiliano Zapata had very much greater influence on the Mexican history than any other great revolutionaries in the 1910s. He aggressively expressed his role as an agrarian reformist and coined the phrase tierra y Libetad which meant land and freedom. Unlike many of other Mexican revolutionists, he fought not for personal but ideal gain. This paper will discuss and determine why Emiliano Zapata was an important person to be remembered hundred years later. Emiliano Zapata was born in august 1879 in Morelos, Mexico. He was the son of a small peasant farmer. After the death of his father when he was 18, he had to take care of his mother and three sisters through their little land. In 1909 he was elected the president of the village’s defense committee which was charged with defending the interests of the community against the dictator president of Mexico Porfirio Diaz. In his own village of Anenecuilco, he became involved in the struggles for the rights of campesinos and was able to oversee the redistribution of the land from the haciendas peacefully. He was in the frontline to observe many conflicts between villagers and hacendados (landowners) over theft of the village land and in some instances, he saw the hacendandos torch a whole village. He was fiercely involved in the campaign for the rights of the villagers. He first established ancient title deeds claim to disputed land and pressed the governor of Morieles into action but when he found that the government was too slow to react and that was biased towards the wealthy plantation farmers, Zapata used armed forced to take over the disputed land. He was to become a leading figure in the Mexican revolution which broke out in 1910 and was in many ways directed to the then president Diaz. During the Mexican revolution, Zapata formed and commanded a very important and revolutionary force called the Liberation Army of the South that challenged the president (Emiliano Zapata). First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service - Your research paper is written by a PhD professor - Your requirements and targets are always met - You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment - You get a chance to become an excellent student! Zapata was also known for his brainy quotes some of which are still famous in Mexico, &lduo;It is better to die on your feet than to live a lifetime on your knees,” "I would rather die on my feet then live on my knees" and when he threatened the president by telling him, “you can begin counting days, because in a month I will be in Mexico city with twenty thousand men and I will have the pleasure of…hanging you from the tallest tree in the forest.” The 1910 revolution As President Diaz’s tenure was threatened by the candidacy of Francisco I Madero, Zapata took the opportunity to make quiet alliances as he perceived him as a genuine change the country needed. In 1910 he became the general of Ejército Libertador del Sur, the liberation army in Morels. Madero had lost the 1910 elections to Dictator Diaz and fled to the US but later re-entered Mexico and Zapata and his peasant friends decided to support Madero. Madero’s revolutionary plan included returning of seized land to peasant farmers and thus he became a darling to most peasants. This plan became a rallying cry for peasantry and Zapata organized revolutionary bands that rode from village to village and tore down hacienda fences and opposed fiercely the land elite’s encroachment into their villages (Ink and Internet -- Emiliano Zapata). In 1911, a bloody phase of the Mexican revolution took place at the Villa de Ayala. Most villagers who were sympathetic to the revolution and did not offer any resistance as most of them were hacienda workers. The revolution took a more bloody twist when fighting started in the north by the legendary Pancho Villa. By May after heavy fighting, the Zapata followers otherwise known as Zapatistas had taken the town of Cuautla. Two days later Madero signed a treaty with the Mexican government known as the Treaty of Ciudad Juarez that ended the presidency of Porfirio Diaz and the former ambassador to US, León de la Barra, was named the interim president (Ink and Internet -- Emiliano Zapata.) But the new president was not a darling of Zapata because he could not assuage the peasants. This was because Barra’s allegiance was seen to be with the rich planters who were now aiming to regain the control of Mexico. Although he had ceased his hostilities briefly, Zapata with his 5,000 strong men captured Cuernavaca the capital of Morelos state. Barra was overthrown and Madero was elected president. When Zapata and Madero met to discuss peasantry demands, the meeting proved fruitless and the two parted in anger. In the “Plan of Ayala”, Zapata declared Madero unfit to fulfill his goals. He issued a statement to Madero, “you can begin counting days, because in a month I will be in Mexico City with twenty thousand men and I will have the pleasure of…hanging you from the tallest tree in the forest.” Zapata went into the forest and issued his plan of the Ayala (Emiliano Zapata of Mexico). The plan was to award the peasants a third of all land occupied by the haciendas by forcefully taking the land and compensating those who were willing to cede their plantations. The revolutionary was later into full swing and for the first time that Zapata used his famous slogan of Tierra y Libertad which meant Land and Liberty (Ink and Internet -- Emiliano Zapata). In the course of these revolutions, Zapata forcefully took land from the haciendas and redistributed them to peasants. Zapata had thousands of men whom he paid by taxes imposed on provincial cities and extortions from the rich (Emiliano Zapata). In 1917, Carranza was elected president and he set up Zapata to be ambushed. An emissary of Carranza, Colonel Jesus Guajardo, invited Zapata to a meeting pretending to join his cause and when he arrived at the meeting, he was ambushed, shot and assassinated (Emiliano Zapata of Mexico). Zapata’s ideology was that of an agrarian one. He wanted the re-establishment of ejidas which is communally owned land with shared use of rights which was seen as a communist idea but the fact was Zapata was fighting for restoration of titles. His main goal was political and economic emancipation of Mexico’s peasants. He argued against the feudal system that kept sharecroppers and small farmers in perpetual poverty. Most popular orders	1,396	ENGLISH	1
For thousands of years, indigenous peoples lived along the waterways of Louisiana. They were able to hunt plentiful game and harvest fish from the rivers. In historic times, this area was inhabited by the Attakapa and Chitimacha. In the early 1860s, Jean Pierre Gueydan, the founder of the European-American town, lived in Abbeville, Louisiana, about 30 miles east of present-day Gueydan. As had the Attapaka and earlier American Indian tribes, he often came to the future town site to hunt deer, ducks, geese, pheasant, cache-cache (jack snipe), papabottes, and other game. The area was a hunter's paradise. Game and fish were boundless. In 1884 the brothers Jean-Pierre and François Gueydan purchased forty thousand acres (160 km2) of land described by surveyors as "sea marsh, unfit for cultivation", for twelve and one-half cents per acre. By 1896 a small portion of their purchase became known as the "Gueydan Pasture". It was chartered as a village when the population reached 250. Jean Pierre was the official founder of Gueydan, as by then he had purchased his brother's landholdings. In 1902, the settlement became the town of Gueydan. Realizing the importance of a railroad to the rice farmers, Gueydan donated a section of land and extensive right-of-way to induce the Southern Pacific Railroad to build a branch line from Midland, Louisiana. Shortly after, he offered the first property lots for sale. Settlers began to arrive from other parts of the state and the rest of the country. The first irrigation pump in the state of Louisiana was built nearby at Primeaux Landing. This enabled water to be pumped to irrigate thousands of acres of rice. With the pump, the area grew as a producer of rice. In the late 19th century, farmers recruited Italian immigrants as laborers, but they quickly left the role of farm workers. Some established local businesses, such as groceries, barber shops and tailors, in small towns across Louisiana. The founder Jean Pierre Gueydan lived at his plantation, St. Bennette, about two miles south of the community. In 1894 the plantation house was used to house the town's first school, which opened with 10 students. The town of Gueydan suffered numerous near catastrophes. Fires in 1901, 1903, 1910, and 1927 caused extensive damage. The worst tragedy was the Flood of 1940. After near-record rainfalls in August 1940, the entire town was inundated. Locals still vividly recall the disaster. The area had extensive flooding because it is nearly flat prairie, with an average elevation of only nine feet above the Gulf of Mexico. The elevation tends to be in the range of 5 to 12 feet. The whole area was once low marshy land, now called wetlands, subject to overflow by the waters of the nearby Mermentau River. Developers created a modern system of canals for drainage purposes and irrigation as early as 1901, but it interfered with the natural processes of the wetlands. Development of the town and rice culture further reduced the natural capacity of the wetlands to absorb flooding, and created a built-up area where flooding was a threat. Gueydan is located at 30°1′38″N 92°30′27″W (30.027123, -92.507449). According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 0.9 square miles (2.3 km2), all of it land. As of the census of 2000, there were 1,598 people, 644 households, and 416 families residing in the town. The population density was 1,874.9 people per square mile (725.9/km2). There were 724 housing units at an average density of 849.5 per square mile (328.9/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 86.61% White, 12.83% African American, 0.13% Native American, 0.31% from other races, and 0.13% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.25% of the population. There were 644 households out of which 31.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.3% were married couples living together, 15.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.4% were non-families. 31.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 15.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.38 and the average family size was 2.99. In the town, the population was spread out with 25.0% under the age of 18, 10.0% from 18 to 24, 23.5% from 25 to 44, 20.7% from 45 to 64, and 20.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females there were 82.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 76.4 males. The median income for a household in the town was $22,165, and the median income for a family was $32,039. Males had a median income of $25,682 versus $13,500 for females. The per capita income for the town was $13,738. About 16.1% of families and 21.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 26.6% of those under age 18 and 21.9% of those age 65 or over. The town is the site of the annual Duck Festival,which is held the weekend before Labor Day, and is officially recognized as the Duck Capital of America. The Louisiana state championships for duck and goose calling are held in conjunction with the festival.Iron Eyes Cody grew up here. (Of Sicilian descent, he was born Espera de Corti, but portrayed Native Americans as a film actor in more than 200 films) Bob Hensgens, the former mayor of Gueydan, is the Republican state representative from Vermilion and Cameron parishes. Jeannette Knoll, associate justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court, reared in Gueydan prior to high school Rod Melancon, recording artist for Medina River Records, grew up in the farming community of Wright, just outside Gueydan. Many of the songs on his album Parish Lines are stories about growing up in the area. The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Gueydan has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps.	<urn:uuid:5d8aa0ed-2208-4df0-a9d0-d35a371f77af>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://alchetron.com/Gueydan%2C-Louisiana	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00411.warc.gz	en	0.980891	1,440	3.765625	4	[ 0.04793456941843033, 0.26131296157836914, 0.1884976476430893, 0.07588036358356476, 0.04947133734822273, -0.5265975594520569, 0.09963428229093552, -0.17261824011802673, -0.2995893061161041, -0.33073052763938904, 0.3345957398414612, -0.09959366917610168, 0.3676571846008301, 0.166508764028549...	1	For thousands of years, indigenous peoples lived along the waterways of Louisiana. They were able to hunt plentiful game and harvest fish from the rivers. In historic times, this area was inhabited by the Attakapa and Chitimacha. In the early 1860s, Jean Pierre Gueydan, the founder of the European-American town, lived in Abbeville, Louisiana, about 30 miles east of present-day Gueydan. As had the Attapaka and earlier American Indian tribes, he often came to the future town site to hunt deer, ducks, geese, pheasant, cache-cache (jack snipe), papabottes, and other game. The area was a hunter's paradise. Game and fish were boundless. In 1884 the brothers Jean-Pierre and François Gueydan purchased forty thousand acres (160 km2) of land described by surveyors as "sea marsh, unfit for cultivation", for twelve and one-half cents per acre. By 1896 a small portion of their purchase became known as the "Gueydan Pasture". It was chartered as a village when the population reached 250. Jean Pierre was the official founder of Gueydan, as by then he had purchased his brother's landholdings. In 1902, the settlement became the town of Gueydan. Realizing the importance of a railroad to the rice farmers, Gueydan donated a section of land and extensive right-of-way to induce the Southern Pacific Railroad to build a branch line from Midland, Louisiana. Shortly after, he offered the first property lots for sale. Settlers began to arrive from other parts of the state and the rest of the country. The first irrigation pump in the state of Louisiana was built nearby at Primeaux Landing. This enabled water to be pumped to irrigate thousands of acres of rice. With the pump, the area grew as a producer of rice. In the late 19th century, farmers recruited Italian immigrants as laborers, but they quickly left the role of farm workers. Some established local businesses, such as groceries, barber shops and tailors, in small towns across Louisiana. The founder Jean Pierre Gueydan lived at his plantation, St. Bennette, about two miles south of the community. In 1894 the plantation house was used to house the town's first school, which opened with 10 students. The town of Gueydan suffered numerous near catastrophes. Fires in 1901, 1903, 1910, and 1927 caused extensive damage. The worst tragedy was the Flood of 1940. After near-record rainfalls in August 1940, the entire town was inundated. Locals still vividly recall the disaster. The area had extensive flooding because it is nearly flat prairie, with an average elevation of only nine feet above the Gulf of Mexico. The elevation tends to be in the range of 5 to 12 feet. The whole area was once low marshy land, now called wetlands, subject to overflow by the waters of the nearby Mermentau River. Developers created a modern system of canals for drainage purposes and irrigation as early as 1901, but it interfered with the natural processes of the wetlands. Development of the town and rice culture further reduced the natural capacity of the wetlands to absorb flooding, and created a built-up area where flooding was a threat. Gueydan is located at 30°1′38″N 92°30′27″W (30.027123, -92.507449). According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 0.9 square miles (2.3 km2), all of it land. As of the census of 2000, there were 1,598 people, 644 households, and 416 families residing in the town. The population density was 1,874.9 people per square mile (725.9/km2). There were 724 housing units at an average density of 849.5 per square mile (328.9/km2). The racial makeup of the town was 86.61% White, 12.83% African American, 0.13% Native American, 0.31% from other races, and 0.13% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 1.25% of the population. There were 644 households out of which 31.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 46.3% were married couples living together, 15.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 35.4% were non-families. 31.1% of all households were made up of individuals and 15.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.38 and the average family size was 2.99. In the town, the population was spread out with 25.0% under the age of 18, 10.0% from 18 to 24, 23.5% from 25 to 44, 20.7% from 45 to 64, and 20.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 39 years. For every 100 females there were 82.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 76.4 males. The median income for a household in the town was $22,165, and the median income for a family was $32,039. Males had a median income of $25,682 versus $13,500 for females. The per capita income for the town was $13,738. About 16.1% of families and 21.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 26.6% of those under age 18 and 21.9% of those age 65 or over. The town is the site of the annual Duck Festival,which is held the weekend before Labor Day, and is officially recognized as the Duck Capital of America. The Louisiana state championships for duck and goose calling are held in conjunction with the festival.Iron Eyes Cody grew up here. (Of Sicilian descent, he was born Espera de Corti, but portrayed Native Americans as a film actor in more than 200 films) Bob Hensgens, the former mayor of Gueydan, is the Republican state representative from Vermilion and Cameron parishes. Jeannette Knoll, associate justice of the Louisiana Supreme Court, reared in Gueydan prior to high school Rod Melancon, recording artist for Medina River Records, grew up in the farming community of Wright, just outside Gueydan. Many of the songs on his album Parish Lines are stories about growing up in the area. The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Gueydan has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps.	1,619	ENGLISH	1
When we think of the 1930s, the images of the Great Depression leave the impression that nothing good happened because the entire country was focused simply on survival. But in the area of automobile development, car designs of the 1930s developed some of the most significant new features for automobiles despite economic hard times. As is demonstrated by the popularity of vintage 1930s cars, some of the automobile designs of this period in history were exceptionally artistic and sophisticated. It is phenomenal that such forward movement in the 1930s car industry occurred in light of how few in this era were privileged enough to be able to buy any kind of transportation at all, much less a new model that had ground breaking design innovation as part of its feature package. Nonetheless, automobile manufacturers saw a refinement of the manufacturing process and the invention of some important features that would become standard in cars across the industry in the near future. Such developments like automatic transmissions and the diversity of power in engines including the V-8, the V-12 and the V-16 laid the groundwork for future design developments in the future that improved on these important breakthroughs in 1930s car design. Like many other areas of culture, the 1920s car manufacturers put more emphasis on style and looks because that is what the customer demanded. And while 1930s cars had an elegant design look to them, the emphasis was on quality mechanical qualities. This may also reflect that the 1930s were a time when people were more pragmatic in light of the tough economic times all around them. The outcome of this renewed interest in mechanical innovation in 1930s cars was that the decade experienced a leap forward in automotive design and technical sophistication that would benefit the car industry forever. It was 1930s cars that saw the introduction of automatic chocks, gearshifts on the sheering column, smoothly shifting transmissions, trunks that were built into the car and hydraulic brakes. It is hard to imagine a car without these features in modern cars. So that makes it even more impressive that so many important design features came out of the 1930s car industry. The 1930s car industry saw the rise of what came to be known as the "big 3 auto makers". Those big three 1930s car manufacturers were GM, Ford and Chrysler. It took some smart design and marketing to sell cars in the 1930s. The economy was in shambles due to the Great Depression so not only was there great competition in technical design development, cars also had to look great to catch the attention of the few buyers there were to buy a car. The result was that 1930s cars not only saw a leap forward in technical design but the styles that were created for this era of car manufacturing were distinctive and imaginative. At the beginning of the 1930s cars almost universally were made to a four square design that was nothing if not boring. But as the decade unfolded, some unique designs that we still identify with classic 1930s cars began to become popular. Among those designs was the tear drop shape that defined car design for many decades to come. By the end of the 1930s, cars looked so much differently and were so much better made that they were almost unrecognizable as the same machines that cars were before the arrival of the 1930s. This was a decade when American automotive innovation dominated the markets around the world. It is to be hoped that such design innovation can return American car manufacturers to that same position of dominance for decades to come. - The Beginning of Modern Art Can be Tracked Back to 1930s Art Deco. - The 1930s and the Great Depression - Jazz Music in the 1930s Goes from Great to Greater - Jazz Grows up in the 1930s - Big Changes Came to Fashion Trends in the 1930s - 1930 Hairstyles Let a Girl be a Girl - 1930s Clothing Announced the Return of Femininity	<urn:uuid:fec124e4-8457-4654-af4f-e8ad66cf103e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thefinertimes.com/The-1930s/1930s-cars-great-innovation-despite-tough-times.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00096.warc.gz	en	0.985545	778	3.390625	3	[ -0.11277451366186142, 0.2530854344367981, 0.28970256447792053, 0.13992950320243835, -0.11778213828802109, 0.3993462920188904, -0.37370729446411133, 0.30146926641464233, -0.35931700468063354, -0.41084709763526917, 0.1097964197397232, 0.4109054207801819, 0.5383133888244629, 0.105815425515174...	1	When we think of the 1930s, the images of the Great Depression leave the impression that nothing good happened because the entire country was focused simply on survival. But in the area of automobile development, car designs of the 1930s developed some of the most significant new features for automobiles despite economic hard times. As is demonstrated by the popularity of vintage 1930s cars, some of the automobile designs of this period in history were exceptionally artistic and sophisticated. It is phenomenal that such forward movement in the 1930s car industry occurred in light of how few in this era were privileged enough to be able to buy any kind of transportation at all, much less a new model that had ground breaking design innovation as part of its feature package. Nonetheless, automobile manufacturers saw a refinement of the manufacturing process and the invention of some important features that would become standard in cars across the industry in the near future. Such developments like automatic transmissions and the diversity of power in engines including the V-8, the V-12 and the V-16 laid the groundwork for future design developments in the future that improved on these important breakthroughs in 1930s car design. Like many other areas of culture, the 1920s car manufacturers put more emphasis on style and looks because that is what the customer demanded. And while 1930s cars had an elegant design look to them, the emphasis was on quality mechanical qualities. This may also reflect that the 1930s were a time when people were more pragmatic in light of the tough economic times all around them. The outcome of this renewed interest in mechanical innovation in 1930s cars was that the decade experienced a leap forward in automotive design and technical sophistication that would benefit the car industry forever. It was 1930s cars that saw the introduction of automatic chocks, gearshifts on the sheering column, smoothly shifting transmissions, trunks that were built into the car and hydraulic brakes. It is hard to imagine a car without these features in modern cars. So that makes it even more impressive that so many important design features came out of the 1930s car industry. The 1930s car industry saw the rise of what came to be known as the "big 3 auto makers". Those big three 1930s car manufacturers were GM, Ford and Chrysler. It took some smart design and marketing to sell cars in the 1930s. The economy was in shambles due to the Great Depression so not only was there great competition in technical design development, cars also had to look great to catch the attention of the few buyers there were to buy a car. The result was that 1930s cars not only saw a leap forward in technical design but the styles that were created for this era of car manufacturing were distinctive and imaginative. At the beginning of the 1930s cars almost universally were made to a four square design that was nothing if not boring. But as the decade unfolded, some unique designs that we still identify with classic 1930s cars began to become popular. Among those designs was the tear drop shape that defined car design for many decades to come. By the end of the 1930s, cars looked so much differently and were so much better made that they were almost unrecognizable as the same machines that cars were before the arrival of the 1930s. This was a decade when American automotive innovation dominated the markets around the world. It is to be hoped that such design innovation can return American car manufacturers to that same position of dominance for decades to come. - The Beginning of Modern Art Can be Tracked Back to 1930s Art Deco. - The 1930s and the Great Depression - Jazz Music in the 1930s Goes from Great to Greater - Jazz Grows up in the 1930s - Big Changes Came to Fashion Trends in the 1930s - 1930 Hairstyles Let a Girl be a Girl - 1930s Clothing Announced the Return of Femininity	877	ENGLISH	1
Way We Were: Changing standards for milk Park City Museum Public health became an increasingly prevalent concern in the United States in the late 19th century. As scientists and medical professionals came to understand more about pathogens, disease and sanitation, regulations grew more stringent. It was during this era that local and national standards governing dairy farms and milk products were introduced. Standards were usually based on two criteria: health and cleanliness; and quality. The primary health concern was bovine tuberculosis, which was communicable to humans through bacteria in milk. 1890 marked the first year regulations were instituted regarding bovine tuberculosis and over the next several decades, farmers worked to eradicate the disease entirely. One method was to test dairy herds once a year and eliminate infected animals from the herd. This method was expensive but provided very satisfactory long-term results. A second method, usually employed along with the first, was to pasteurize the milk itself. In the short-run this solution was cheaper than testing herds for bacteria and so was often used even before a farmer could afford to pay to have his herd inspected. Pasteurization by heating milk to 140 degrees Fahrenheit for at least twenty minutes before consumption killed the tuberculosis bacteria in contaminated milk and prevented spread of the disease. While health and cleanliness standards protected humans from dangerous bacteria, quality standards were designed to prevent fraud. For instance, skimming milk was considered reducing its food value and, in the early 1900s, was illegal in several places throughout the country. Where it was legal, the milk was required to be labeled as skimmed before it could be sold. Watering down milk was also considered fraud and anyone caught selling sub-standard quality milk faced consequences, sometimes even in criminal court. Park City had several instances of dairy fraud. In 1910, Food and Dairy Commissioner Walter J. Frazier revoked C.H. Steven’s permit to ship milk to Salt Lake City. The reasons cited were related to the “fluid being bellowed the standard and very dirty.” In addition to not meeting cleanliness standards, the milk was discovered to be watered. In shipping to Salt Lake, Steven’s business crossed county lines. Because of this, his case was handed over to the state food inspector for resolution. Just one year later, Mary Payne, a respected long-time Parkite, was brought before a county judge accused of watering down the milk that she sold. The Payne family farmed in Parley’s Park (Snyderville) in 1911 and was one of eleven milk distributors in the area. Mary Payne’s case was less clear-cut than Steven’s. Dozens of loyal customers testified that the milk she sold was “perfectly satisfactory.” Payne’s attorney argued that the state health inspector “had not complied with the law” in his evaluation process. At trial, the prosecutor “failed to make much of a case.” Nevertheless, Judge Waters found her guilty and imposed a fine of $100. On recommendation of both the prosecuting attorney and the state inspector who’d originally filed the complaint, the fine was reduced to $25. Start a dialogue, stay on topic and be civil. If you don't follow the rules, your comment may be deleted. Tens of thousands of visitors from all over the world are descending on the Park City area amid fears of a coronavirus outbreak. Summit County health officials are talking to the CDC, but say as of now, it’s the flu that poses more of a danger.	<urn:uuid:0c51918a-3148-4a27-bfbf-2a61c5eb4453>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.parkrecord.com/news/changing-standards-for-milk/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00187.warc.gz	en	0.981362	730	3.375	3	[ 0.2709784507751465, -0.3238455057144165, 0.6612578630447388, -0.0024205283261835575, 0.32759523391723633, 0.11852078884840012, 0.13259416818618774, 0.4838254451751709, -0.3278818130493164, 0.17171460390090942, -0.2856588363647461, -0.4499545395374298, 0.0740329697728157, 0.0346967354416847...	1	Way We Were: Changing standards for milk Park City Museum Public health became an increasingly prevalent concern in the United States in the late 19th century. As scientists and medical professionals came to understand more about pathogens, disease and sanitation, regulations grew more stringent. It was during this era that local and national standards governing dairy farms and milk products were introduced. Standards were usually based on two criteria: health and cleanliness; and quality. The primary health concern was bovine tuberculosis, which was communicable to humans through bacteria in milk. 1890 marked the first year regulations were instituted regarding bovine tuberculosis and over the next several decades, farmers worked to eradicate the disease entirely. One method was to test dairy herds once a year and eliminate infected animals from the herd. This method was expensive but provided very satisfactory long-term results. A second method, usually employed along with the first, was to pasteurize the milk itself. In the short-run this solution was cheaper than testing herds for bacteria and so was often used even before a farmer could afford to pay to have his herd inspected. Pasteurization by heating milk to 140 degrees Fahrenheit for at least twenty minutes before consumption killed the tuberculosis bacteria in contaminated milk and prevented spread of the disease. While health and cleanliness standards protected humans from dangerous bacteria, quality standards were designed to prevent fraud. For instance, skimming milk was considered reducing its food value and, in the early 1900s, was illegal in several places throughout the country. Where it was legal, the milk was required to be labeled as skimmed before it could be sold. Watering down milk was also considered fraud and anyone caught selling sub-standard quality milk faced consequences, sometimes even in criminal court. Park City had several instances of dairy fraud. In 1910, Food and Dairy Commissioner Walter J. Frazier revoked C.H. Steven’s permit to ship milk to Salt Lake City. The reasons cited were related to the “fluid being bellowed the standard and very dirty.” In addition to not meeting cleanliness standards, the milk was discovered to be watered. In shipping to Salt Lake, Steven’s business crossed county lines. Because of this, his case was handed over to the state food inspector for resolution. Just one year later, Mary Payne, a respected long-time Parkite, was brought before a county judge accused of watering down the milk that she sold. The Payne family farmed in Parley’s Park (Snyderville) in 1911 and was one of eleven milk distributors in the area. Mary Payne’s case was less clear-cut than Steven’s. Dozens of loyal customers testified that the milk she sold was “perfectly satisfactory.” Payne’s attorney argued that the state health inspector “had not complied with the law” in his evaluation process. At trial, the prosecutor “failed to make much of a case.” Nevertheless, Judge Waters found her guilty and imposed a fine of $100. On recommendation of both the prosecuting attorney and the state inspector who’d originally filed the complaint, the fine was reduced to $25. Start a dialogue, stay on topic and be civil. If you don't follow the rules, your comment may be deleted. Tens of thousands of visitors from all over the world are descending on the Park City area amid fears of a coronavirus outbreak. Summit County health officials are talking to the CDC, but say as of now, it’s the flu that poses more of a danger.	712	ENGLISH	1
Survey. The act of surveying; the operation of finding the contour, dimensions, position, or other particulars of, as any part of the earth’s surface, whether land or water; also, a measured plan and description of any line or portion of country. Surveying. That branch of applied mathematics which teaches the art of determining the area of any portion of the earth’s surface, the lengths and directions of the bounding lines, the contour of the surface, &c., with an accurate delineation of the whole on paper. Surveyor. One who views and examines for the purpose of ascertaining the condition, quantity, or quality of any thing; as, a surveyor of highways; surveyors of ordinance. One who measures land, or practices the art of surveying. – Webster, 1882 “Spring came, and with it the surveyors. Father used to go with them and one day he came home and said the town was all located. After dinner I went to the top of the hill, east of where the court house is, to see the town, and all I saw was a lot of stakes in the ground. I went back and told Mother there was nothing but a lot of sticks stuck in the ground and she told me that where they were would be houses, stores, a schoolhouse and a church.” – Carrie Ingalls Swanzey to Aubrey Sherwood, 1930 Surveyors are mentioned in By the Shores of Silver Lake, but not the job they do, which was an important one to the Ingalls family throughout the Little House books. From the Big Woods to the Dakota prairies, Charles Ingalls knew the boundaries of the farms he purchased, the claims he filed on, and the town lots he purchased because they had been surveyed. It was only when the Ingallses acted in advance of the original survey and squatted on land on the Osage Diminished Reserve in Kansas that they got into trouble. There are no named surveyors in Pioneer Girl or the Little House books, but the Ingallses and Wilders knew one surveyor well: Samuel O. Masters. Trained in New York as a civil engineer, Masters was county surveyor both in Redwood County, Minnesota, and Kingsbury County, Dakota Territory (a position he held until his death). His job included administration over the county land records, review of property boundaries, and maintenance of permanent survey monuments. Masters laid out and surveyed some later additions to the original town of De Smet, including Brown’s First Addition, where the graded schoolhouse was built. Although Wilder doesn’t differentiate between railroad surveyors and town lot surveyors in By the Shores of Silver Lake, these were separate groups of men working under the jurisdiction of different branches of the Chicago and North-Western (the hyphen was later removed). Both the railroad surveyors and town lot surveyors had access to the original surveys of more than fifty townships the railroad impacted, surveys made anywhere from days to years prior to their own work. An original survey refers to the first created, marked, and documented record of the boundary of land grants made by the United States government. Public lands acquired by the federal government from states, a foreign country, or by the cession of Indian lands by treaty or purchase were legally designated according to the “Rectangular System” or the “Section, Township, Range” system. They were laid out in a large grid broken down by Section, Township, and Range (or fractional part thereof) identified by their distance from a particular Baseline and Principal Meridian, two lines which were at right angles to each other at a specific point on the earth. These two lines form the foundation for the surveys of all lands within the territory they control. Other land surveys, such as in Burr Oak, typically used a system of “metes and bounds,” which referred to descriptions of local vegetation and obvious physical features of the land (mountains, bodies of water, trees, rocks, proximity of buildings) for location of property boundaries. Original township survey maps are available online at the Bureau of Land Management website HERE. You can see all 24 survey maps available for “Kingsbury County, South Dakota” by entering the state and county only. If you know other details (such as township and range), you can narrow your search. De Smet was platted in Section 27, Township 111 North, Range 56 West of the 5th Principal Meridian. HERE is that township map. Survey maps weren’t meant to be topographic maps recording the earth’s contours and changes in elevation, they were cadastral surveys showing government boundaries. However, major monumental features were typically included, such as buttes, sloughs, lakes, and rivers. You can easily spot Silver Lake on the 111-56 (Kingsbury D.T.) survey. Survey maps also record who conducted the surveys, the name of the Surveyor-General at the time of the survey, and when surveys were conducted. Note that there are no railroads shown on the 111-56 survey map, nor are there towns with lots/blocks indicated. Survey maps sometimes showed old exploration or Indian trails: the survey that includes the land in Walnut Grove and the Ingallses’ preemption claim in Redwood County, Minnesota, includes part of the 1859 trail made by Col. William H. Nobles through Minnesota into Canada. Walnut Grove is in Redwood County, Minnesota, in Township 109 North, Range 38 West of the 5th Principal Meridian. Can you find that original survey on the BLM website? RAILROAD SURVEYORS. The pioneer head railroad surveyor was typically a civil engineer with a sense of adventure. He was trained to make complex calculations in solid geometry but also had to have a working knowledge of geography, history, land laws, and the railroad engine itself. He located the railroad track on ground that could support the weight of a fully-loaded boxcar, calculated curves and inclines based on what the train could handle, and selected the best route to avoid seasonal floods while being close enough to water needed at regular intervals for the steam engine to function. He and his crew dealt with all types of problems, from wild weather to wild animals. Multiple maps were drawn in plan (as if looking down from above to the layout below) as well as elevation (to record the rise and fall of the land, with the track elevation showing areas to be cut or filled). Charles Wood Irish (1834-1904) was born in New York City to Quaker parents. The family moved to Tama County, Iowa, when Charles was a boy. Educated as a civil engineer and surveyor, he worked to survey the first rail line across Iowa. Hired by the Winona and St. Peter Railroad to locate and survey a line west of Tracy, Irish began preparations for his work in January 1879, traveling to Chicago for instructions, rail passes, and $150 with which to make purchases. Irish was in charge of a crew that included a chainman, leveler, transit-man, teamsters, and cook. They had extra saddle horses, shotguns, and ammunition. Irish He made a month-long exploration trip from Mankato into Dakota Territory, criss-crossing the area and recording and mapping his preliminary observations. After a week at home, his work began in earnest. In Winona on March 17th, met John Blunt (chief engineer for the Chicago and Northwestern Railroad) and some of the men who would make up his surveying party. It was cold and snowy and Irish was sick with what he called lung fever, but by the following week, they were in Tracy and already running multiple lines west (in order to determine the best route to take), even though there was several inches of snow on the ground. The surveyors slept in tents, two to a hay bed, but with buffalo robes and layers of blankets for warmth. Irish collected feathers from the ducks and geese they ate, sending them back to his daughter. Because they were working in settled country, they could send and receive letters and packages, although he also recorded problems with Indians when on the open prairie. Evenings, Irish worked on calculations and drawings. He also made numerous sketches of interesting features of the land and the layout of their camp. Around mid-April, Irish’s team began surveying in Dakota Territory, soon completing their survey to the Big Sioux River in Brookings County. In early May, railroad officials came to Tracy on a special train and announced that grading work would soon begin on the road west of Tracy to the Missouri River. The surveyors worked about four months ahead of the grading crew. When the Ingallses reached the railroad camp just east of the Big Sioux River in September, Irish and his men had already reached Pierre, where they remained at work through February 1880. Although he traveled all over the west locating railroads, Charles Irish’s home was in Iowa City, where his wife and daughters lived and his brother was newspaper editor. From 1886-1893, Irish served as Surveyor General of Nevada; he then served as head of the irrigation board in Washington, D.C. Later moving to Reno, Irish became involved in mining. He was also an avid astronomer, botanist, and outdoors-man his whole life. In 1904, Charles Irish died near Elko, Nevada; he was buried in Iowa City. TOWN LOTS SURVEYORS. Although Laura Ingalls Wilder implies that the railroad surveyors left their tools and equipment in the surveyors’ house over the winter and returned for them in the spring, this was not the case as they were still working and using them along the line months after the Ingallses moved in the house. As what Wilder called the surveyors’ house was the railroad section house, what was left there was probably tools or machinery used in connection with laying the tracks, as that activity ceased in December once the trains were running as far west as Volga. The town lot surveying team arrived in the area and laid out the town of De Smet in late March, 1880, completing their work by March 27th and filing the plat on April 6th. According to Charles Ingalls, his family moved into the “company building” (surveyors’ house) for the winter after the graders left on December 1, 1879. They moved into the first building constructed by Charles Ingalls (first used by Couse Hardware) on April 6, the same day the town plat was filed. During the summer of 1880, there were sixteen buildings put up in the town, as well as a depot. [see “The Settlement of De Smet” in Treasures from C.P. Ingalls and Laura Ingalls Wilder, compiled and published by Aubrey H. Sherwood circa 1982.] Arthur Heinz Hartman Jacobi (1826-1888) was born in Germany and came to America in 1848, settling in Jefferson County, Wisconsin. Following his marriage and citizenship in 1854, he and his wife moved to Green Bay, where Jacobi started The Banner, a German newspaper; he also worked as a lawyer. A graduate of military school in Germany and having served as a Lieutenant in the German Army at age 22, Jacobi organized a regiment at the outbreak of the Civil War they were mustered into the 9th Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry. Jacobi was rapidly promoted to colonel of the regiment, which saw action in Missouri and Arkansas. Following the war, Jacobi worked as a Civil Engineer, serving as Green Bay’s city engineer. He was hired by the Chicago and North-Western as a draftsman, moving to Chicago in 1871. Jacobi’s work was lauded for its precision and accuracy. At the request of Marvin Hewitt, Jacobi staked out and surveyed the town of De Smet for Western Town Lots Company into “lots and blocks, streets and alleys,” also designating warehouse lots and depot grounds north of town. Jacobi laid two stones as northernmost corner markers, one of which is still in place at the corner of Joliet Avenue and First Street. Although some buildings were put on the townsite prior to survey, the sale of town lots by the railroad began in May, with Royal Wilder signing the first contract. Jacobi surveyed a number of towns and additions along the Winona & St. Peter and Dakota Central lines, including a railroad addition for Marshall (1879), Balaton townsite (1879). Grandview (1878), Morgan (1878), Paxton (1878), and De Smet (1880). A copy of the survey from the De Smet town lots records is shown below. Jacobi worked for the railroad until his death in 1888. surveyor (SSL 7, 10, 13-14, 26-27; LTP 24; PG) head surveyor (SSL 13) – see writ of attachment railroad surveyor (PG) surveyors / surveyors’ house (SSL 10, 13-15, 17, 19; PG) – see surveyors’ house surveyors’ office (SSL 21) surveyors’ pantry (SSL 21) surveyors’ stakes (SSL 7)	<urn:uuid:701e0469-21ee-4c39-a532-156b418f4e9b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.pioneergirl.com/blog/archives/13034	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00032.warc.gz	en	0.980536	2,781	3.296875	3	[ -0.19454163312911987, -0.04028220474720001, 0.34452366828918457, -0.2885562777519226, -0.15992462635040283, -0.1985073685646057, 0.14222845435142517, -0.03610752522945404, -0.19352611899375916, 0.08459198474884033, -0.05622096359729767, -0.30856865644454956, 0.12430316209793091, 0.44136101...	7	Survey. The act of surveying; the operation of finding the contour, dimensions, position, or other particulars of, as any part of the earth’s surface, whether land or water; also, a measured plan and description of any line or portion of country. Surveying. That branch of applied mathematics which teaches the art of determining the area of any portion of the earth’s surface, the lengths and directions of the bounding lines, the contour of the surface, &c., with an accurate delineation of the whole on paper. Surveyor. One who views and examines for the purpose of ascertaining the condition, quantity, or quality of any thing; as, a surveyor of highways; surveyors of ordinance. One who measures land, or practices the art of surveying. – Webster, 1882 “Spring came, and with it the surveyors. Father used to go with them and one day he came home and said the town was all located. After dinner I went to the top of the hill, east of where the court house is, to see the town, and all I saw was a lot of stakes in the ground. I went back and told Mother there was nothing but a lot of sticks stuck in the ground and she told me that where they were would be houses, stores, a schoolhouse and a church.” – Carrie Ingalls Swanzey to Aubrey Sherwood, 1930 Surveyors are mentioned in By the Shores of Silver Lake, but not the job they do, which was an important one to the Ingalls family throughout the Little House books. From the Big Woods to the Dakota prairies, Charles Ingalls knew the boundaries of the farms he purchased, the claims he filed on, and the town lots he purchased because they had been surveyed. It was only when the Ingallses acted in advance of the original survey and squatted on land on the Osage Diminished Reserve in Kansas that they got into trouble. There are no named surveyors in Pioneer Girl or the Little House books, but the Ingallses and Wilders knew one surveyor well: Samuel O. Masters. Trained in New York as a civil engineer, Masters was county surveyor both in Redwood County, Minnesota, and Kingsbury County, Dakota Territory (a position he held until his death). His job included administration over the county land records, review of property boundaries, and maintenance of permanent survey monuments. Masters laid out and surveyed some later additions to the original town of De Smet, including Brown’s First Addition, where the graded schoolhouse was built. Although Wilder doesn’t differentiate between railroad surveyors and town lot surveyors in By the Shores of Silver Lake, these were separate groups of men working under the jurisdiction of different branches of the Chicago and North-Western (the hyphen was later removed). Both the railroad surveyors and town lot surveyors had access to the original surveys of more than fifty townships the railroad impacted, surveys made anywhere from days to years prior to their own work. An original survey refers to the first created, marked, and documented record of the boundary of land grants made by the United States government. Public lands acquired by the federal government from states, a foreign country, or by the cession of Indian lands by treaty or purchase were legally designated according to the “Rectangular System” or the “Section, Township, Range” system. They were laid out in a large grid broken down by Section, Township, and Range (or fractional part thereof) identified by their distance from a particular Baseline and Principal Meridian, two lines which were at right angles to each other at a specific point on the earth. These two lines form the foundation for the surveys of all lands within the territory they control. Other land surveys, such as in Burr Oak, typically used a system of “metes and bounds,” which referred to descriptions of local vegetation and obvious physical features of the land (mountains, bodies of water, trees, rocks, proximity of buildings) for location of property boundaries. Original township survey maps are available online at the Bureau of Land Management website HERE. You can see all 24 survey maps available for “Kingsbury County, South Dakota” by entering the state and county only. If you know other details (such as township and range), you can narrow your search. De Smet was platted in Section 27, Township 111 North, Range 56 West of the 5th Principal Meridian. HERE is that township map. Survey maps weren’t meant to be topographic maps recording the earth’s contours and changes in elevation, they were cadastral surveys showing government boundaries. However, major monumental features were typically included, such as buttes, sloughs, lakes, and rivers. You can easily spot Silver Lake on the 111-56 (Kingsbury D.T.) survey. Survey maps also record who conducted the surveys, the name of the Surveyor-General at the time of the survey, and when surveys were conducted. Note that there are no railroads shown on the 111-56 survey map, nor are there towns with lots/blocks indicated. Survey maps sometimes showed old exploration or Indian trails: the survey that includes the land in Walnut Grove and the Ingallses’ preemption claim in Redwood County, Minnesota, includes part of the 1859 trail made by Col. William H. Nobles through Minnesota into Canada. Walnut Grove is in Redwood County, Minnesota, in Township 109 North, Range 38 West of the 5th Principal Meridian. Can you find that original survey on the BLM website? RAILROAD SURVEYORS. The pioneer head railroad surveyor was typically a civil engineer with a sense of adventure. He was trained to make complex calculations in solid geometry but also had to have a working knowledge of geography, history, land laws, and the railroad engine itself. He located the railroad track on ground that could support the weight of a fully-loaded boxcar, calculated curves and inclines based on what the train could handle, and selected the best route to avoid seasonal floods while being close enough to water needed at regular intervals for the steam engine to function. He and his crew dealt with all types of problems, from wild weather to wild animals. Multiple maps were drawn in plan (as if looking down from above to the layout below) as well as elevation (to record the rise and fall of the land, with the track elevation showing areas to be cut or filled). Charles Wood Irish (1834-1904) was born in New York City to Quaker parents. The family moved to Tama County, Iowa, when Charles was a boy. Educated as a civil engineer and surveyor, he worked to survey the first rail line across Iowa. Hired by the Winona and St. Peter Railroad to locate and survey a line west of Tracy, Irish began preparations for his work in January 1879, traveling to Chicago for instructions, rail passes, and $150 with which to make purchases. Irish was in charge of a crew that included a chainman, leveler, transit-man, teamsters, and cook. They had extra saddle horses, shotguns, and ammunition. Irish He made a month-long exploration trip from Mankato into Dakota Territory, criss-crossing the area and recording and mapping his preliminary observations. After a week at home, his work began in earnest. In Winona on March 17th, met John Blunt (chief engineer for the Chicago and Northwestern Railroad) and some of the men who would make up his surveying party. It was cold and snowy and Irish was sick with what he called lung fever, but by the following week, they were in Tracy and already running multiple lines west (in order to determine the best route to take), even though there was several inches of snow on the ground. The surveyors slept in tents, two to a hay bed, but with buffalo robes and layers of blankets for warmth. Irish collected feathers from the ducks and geese they ate, sending them back to his daughter. Because they were working in settled country, they could send and receive letters and packages, although he also recorded problems with Indians when on the open prairie. Evenings, Irish worked on calculations and drawings. He also made numerous sketches of interesting features of the land and the layout of their camp. Around mid-April, Irish’s team began surveying in Dakota Territory, soon completing their survey to the Big Sioux River in Brookings County. In early May, railroad officials came to Tracy on a special train and announced that grading work would soon begin on the road west of Tracy to the Missouri River. The surveyors worked about four months ahead of the grading crew. When the Ingallses reached the railroad camp just east of the Big Sioux River in September, Irish and his men had already reached Pierre, where they remained at work through February 1880. Although he traveled all over the west locating railroads, Charles Irish’s home was in Iowa City, where his wife and daughters lived and his brother was newspaper editor. From 1886-1893, Irish served as Surveyor General of Nevada; he then served as head of the irrigation board in Washington, D.C. Later moving to Reno, Irish became involved in mining. He was also an avid astronomer, botanist, and outdoors-man his whole life. In 1904, Charles Irish died near Elko, Nevada; he was buried in Iowa City. TOWN LOTS SURVEYORS. Although Laura Ingalls Wilder implies that the railroad surveyors left their tools and equipment in the surveyors’ house over the winter and returned for them in the spring, this was not the case as they were still working and using them along the line months after the Ingallses moved in the house. As what Wilder called the surveyors’ house was the railroad section house, what was left there was probably tools or machinery used in connection with laying the tracks, as that activity ceased in December once the trains were running as far west as Volga. The town lot surveying team arrived in the area and laid out the town of De Smet in late March, 1880, completing their work by March 27th and filing the plat on April 6th. According to Charles Ingalls, his family moved into the “company building” (surveyors’ house) for the winter after the graders left on December 1, 1879. They moved into the first building constructed by Charles Ingalls (first used by Couse Hardware) on April 6, the same day the town plat was filed. During the summer of 1880, there were sixteen buildings put up in the town, as well as a depot. [see “The Settlement of De Smet” in Treasures from C.P. Ingalls and Laura Ingalls Wilder, compiled and published by Aubrey H. Sherwood circa 1982.] Arthur Heinz Hartman Jacobi (1826-1888) was born in Germany and came to America in 1848, settling in Jefferson County, Wisconsin. Following his marriage and citizenship in 1854, he and his wife moved to Green Bay, where Jacobi started The Banner, a German newspaper; he also worked as a lawyer. A graduate of military school in Germany and having served as a Lieutenant in the German Army at age 22, Jacobi organized a regiment at the outbreak of the Civil War they were mustered into the 9th Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry. Jacobi was rapidly promoted to colonel of the regiment, which saw action in Missouri and Arkansas. Following the war, Jacobi worked as a Civil Engineer, serving as Green Bay’s city engineer. He was hired by the Chicago and North-Western as a draftsman, moving to Chicago in 1871. Jacobi’s work was lauded for its precision and accuracy. At the request of Marvin Hewitt, Jacobi staked out and surveyed the town of De Smet for Western Town Lots Company into “lots and blocks, streets and alleys,” also designating warehouse lots and depot grounds north of town. Jacobi laid two stones as northernmost corner markers, one of which is still in place at the corner of Joliet Avenue and First Street. Although some buildings were put on the townsite prior to survey, the sale of town lots by the railroad began in May, with Royal Wilder signing the first contract. Jacobi surveyed a number of towns and additions along the Winona & St. Peter and Dakota Central lines, including a railroad addition for Marshall (1879), Balaton townsite (1879). Grandview (1878), Morgan (1878), Paxton (1878), and De Smet (1880). A copy of the survey from the De Smet town lots records is shown below. Jacobi worked for the railroad until his death in 1888. surveyor (SSL 7, 10, 13-14, 26-27; LTP 24; PG) head surveyor (SSL 13) – see writ of attachment railroad surveyor (PG) surveyors / surveyors’ house (SSL 10, 13-15, 17, 19; PG) – see surveyors’ house surveyors’ office (SSL 21) surveyors’ pantry (SSL 21) surveyors’ stakes (SSL 7)	2,834	ENGLISH	1
If the sonnet is, as Dante Gabriel Rossetti claimed, “a moment’s monument”, then The House of Life is the record of a lifetime. In this continually growing and changing sequence of poems, Rossetti recorded the subtlest shifts in a life torn between two great doomed passions: his love for his wife, Elizabeth Siddal, whom he married in 1860 but who died only two years later; and his love for his mistress, Jane Morris, who was married to his friend, colleague, and business partner William Morris. Sixteen sonnets were first published, not in book form, in 1869. In 1870, Rossetti published his first book of poetry, entitled simply Poems. The longest section of the volume was a collection of fifty sonnets and ten songs “Towards a work to be called ’The House of Life’”. Rossetti continued to write poetry throughout the next decade. The bulk of his literary composition occurred in 1870-1872 and in 1879-1881; in 1881 Rossetti published his last book of poetry, entitled Ballads and Sonnets. The longest section of that volume, too, was The House of Life, which grew to 102 sonnets. The cumulative effect of adding, rearranging, and, in one case, deleting verses was to change radically the reading experience of The House of Life; therefore, a full analysis must cover both the 1870 and the 1881 versions of the sonnet sequence.	<urn:uuid:8396ed48-14a8-4710-995a-b55b86834d24>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://books.apple.com/us/book/the-house-of-life/id500612738	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00542.warc.gz	en	0.980621	306	3.296875	3	[ -0.19633802771568298, -0.014892684295773506, 0.5378924012184143, 0.1698780506849289, -0.05396424978971481, -0.07212837785482407, -0.04306620731949806, -0.26217859983444214, -0.12014877796173096, -0.38254037499427795, 0.17364339530467987, 0.5028674006462097, 0.11186949908733368, 0.745959341...	1	If the sonnet is, as Dante Gabriel Rossetti claimed, “a moment’s monument”, then The House of Life is the record of a lifetime. In this continually growing and changing sequence of poems, Rossetti recorded the subtlest shifts in a life torn between two great doomed passions: his love for his wife, Elizabeth Siddal, whom he married in 1860 but who died only two years later; and his love for his mistress, Jane Morris, who was married to his friend, colleague, and business partner William Morris. Sixteen sonnets were first published, not in book form, in 1869. In 1870, Rossetti published his first book of poetry, entitled simply Poems. The longest section of the volume was a collection of fifty sonnets and ten songs “Towards a work to be called ’The House of Life’”. Rossetti continued to write poetry throughout the next decade. The bulk of his literary composition occurred in 1870-1872 and in 1879-1881; in 1881 Rossetti published his last book of poetry, entitled Ballads and Sonnets. The longest section of that volume, too, was The House of Life, which grew to 102 sonnets. The cumulative effect of adding, rearranging, and, in one case, deleting verses was to change radically the reading experience of The House of Life; therefore, a full analysis must cover both the 1870 and the 1881 versions of the sonnet sequence.	333	ENGLISH	1
Cahokia: The ‘lost’ American city A long time ago on a continent not-so-far away Before Europeans began their systematic colonization of North America in the 1500s, huge populations of Native Americans thrived on the continent. Some historians estimate that the population of people living in the Americas before Europeans arrived was upwards of 100 million, which is pretty impressive considering the population of Europe at that time was only around 70 million. There were hundreds of different Native American Tribes, each with their own unique culture and way of life, and over a thousand different languages were spoken across the continents. Many of them lived together in communities, some of which were quite large. The city of Teotihuacan, for instance, had up to 200,000 people in it during its peak at around 450 CE. In North America, there was a city now known as Cahokia, which lies directly across the Mississippi River from St. Louis. With a peak population of up to 40,000 people at around 1050 CE, it was the largest city in North America at that time, bigger even than many European cities, including London. The birth of a city Cahokia, as we think of it today, was first settled in 600 CE, although there is evidence to suggest that the area was occupied many centuries before. The city was at its peak between the years 1050 and 1200, however, its population soon began to decline, and the city was completely abandoned just two centuries later. Some historians believe this was due to soil exhaustion, that it became agriculturally incapable of supporting the number of people that lived there. Frequent flooding likely contributed to this, leading Cahokia to become uninhabitable. Cahokia itself was established by Mississippians, a people who were mostly forgotten due to their lack of writing system and their susceptibility to the diseases brought over by Europeans. One thing we do know is that Mississippians were mound builders. At its peak, The city was home to more than 100 mounds, which acted as centers for religious activities. They functioned both as burial sites for prominent individuals, and as places to perform sacrifices. One such mound, creatively named Mound 72, holds the remains of almost 300 people, many of whom were sacrificed. Mound 72 is also on the site containing a “wood henge,” which as the name suggests, is an arrangement of wood similar to the stones in Stonehenge. More than meets the eye Of course, Cahokia wasn’t just a collection of mounds and wood. Although cities from a millennium ago would have looked very different to the cities of today, there were likely still some similarities. Dr. Kristin Hedman, assistant director of Bioarchaeology with the Illinois State Archaeological Survey (ISAS) describes some of the features one might have seen in ancient Cahokia. “There were large plazas that would have served as gathering places, market areas, and workshop areas for the manufacture of utilitarian objects, ornaments, and ritual items,” Hedman said. “Large scale events did take place –- likely tied to celestial events, and political or religious in nature. These likely would have been visible to the larger community and were, in that sense, theatrical. ” The people of Cahokia didn’t just come from a single tribe, either. It was an incredibly diverse community, particularly for its time period. By analyzing the tooth enamel from humans long ago buried at the site, researchers found that about one-third of the people were non-local, indicating there was a substantial immigrant population. They also traded extensively with other tribes. Materials such as exotic seashells from the Pacific, shark teeth from the Gulf Coast, and copper from the Great Lakes have all been found at the site, suggesting their trade networks extended vast distances in every direction. Dr. Scott Manning Stevens, associate professor of Native American and Indigenous Studies at Syracuse University, explains how they also influenced other tribes culturally. “They did leave pictographic evidence, and there are certain symbols that remain unknown to us to this day,” he said. “That’s how we can trace their influence; we’ll find pictographs of some kind of divine figure, and we’ll find the same representation of this divinity as far north as northern Wisconsin and as far south as Georgia, so we know they had a large cultural impact.” When they weren’t busy trading or making sacrifices, some of the inhabitants of Cahokia might have participated in a popular Native American sport known as chunkey, which is a sort of a cross between lawn bowling and javelin throwing. The game involves throwing a disc-shaped stone, known as a “chunkey stone,” onto a playing field, while players throw spears at it in an attempt to land them as close as possible to the stone. Onlookers would often gamble on the outcome of these matches. Much of what we know about the ancient metropolis comes from archaeological finds since no evidence of any written records seems to exist. Hedman explains how we can use various techniques to learn about places like Cahokia: “From archaeological features we can determine how large their houses and other buildings were, what they were constructed from, and what kinds of internal features they had, such as hearths/fire pits, benches, and posts. By mapping where features are relative to one another we can reconstruct household and community structure – where were storage pits relative to house structures? Were particular types of structures or features clustered together which might indicate specialized areas of a site? Is there evidence for palisades or fortifications that might indicate the community faced an outside threat?” She adds that: “Different types of artifacts might have different distribution patterns across a site. For example, fragments of cooking vessels might be very common inhabitation features/houses, while more ornate vessels and exotic shell ornaments might be more common in mortuary contexts. Food remains to provide information not only on what plant and animal resources were available and utilized as food, but tell us something about seasons of occupation, hunting practices, and food preferences. “In the case of Cahokia, maize (corn) agriculture was important in feeding the large population, and we see evidence for this in the plant remains, the types of cooking vessels and processing implements, and agricultural tools recovered. We have even found remnants of textiles that show how baskets, bags, twine, etc. were constructed,” she concludes. Unfortunately, sometimes the motives of present-day humans can hinder our efforts to learn about our past. “These mounds were found throughout parts of the Midwest, and a lot of them were simply plowed under by farms,” Stevens explains. “In terms of archaeological evidence, sometimes it was plundered during the early republic, but as often as not people thought ‘I don’t want that mound in my field,’ so they’d plow it down. Even Cahokia itself at one point in the 1950s was in threat of the same thing when they wanted to build an interstate through the site. In 1982 Cahokia became a UNESCO World Heritage Site, one of just 11 cultural heritage sites in the USA. There are still 69 human-made mounds at the site, including Monks Mound, the largest pre-Columbian earthwork in the Americas. But Cahokia isn’t the only lingering example of the rich communities formed by some Native American tribes. Stevens puts it best when he states: “We’re so trained in American history to think of Native people of this continent as either nomadic or living in temporary villages and so on, but this is just not the case. There are a variety of effigy mounds around the Midwest. Those things are still there as evidence of the complexity of culture, and also the length of occupation that these people have been there.”	<urn:uuid:c713d1ce-035e-4d89-aff1-1637e4f70d04>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.history101.com/cahokia-the-lost-american-city/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00430.warc.gz	en	0.981136	1,673	3.609375	4	[ 0.019162196666002274, 0.0006878066342324018, 0.15862810611724854, 0.35982078313827515, -0.45891743898391724, -0.18577168881893158, -0.16103500127792358, 0.10232669860124588, -0.24942633509635925, 0.27802687883377075, -0.05065618455410004, -0.2629254162311554, -0.15919235348701477, 0.367509...	6	Cahokia: The ‘lost’ American city A long time ago on a continent not-so-far away Before Europeans began their systematic colonization of North America in the 1500s, huge populations of Native Americans thrived on the continent. Some historians estimate that the population of people living in the Americas before Europeans arrived was upwards of 100 million, which is pretty impressive considering the population of Europe at that time was only around 70 million. There were hundreds of different Native American Tribes, each with their own unique culture and way of life, and over a thousand different languages were spoken across the continents. Many of them lived together in communities, some of which were quite large. The city of Teotihuacan, for instance, had up to 200,000 people in it during its peak at around 450 CE. In North America, there was a city now known as Cahokia, which lies directly across the Mississippi River from St. Louis. With a peak population of up to 40,000 people at around 1050 CE, it was the largest city in North America at that time, bigger even than many European cities, including London. The birth of a city Cahokia, as we think of it today, was first settled in 600 CE, although there is evidence to suggest that the area was occupied many centuries before. The city was at its peak between the years 1050 and 1200, however, its population soon began to decline, and the city was completely abandoned just two centuries later. Some historians believe this was due to soil exhaustion, that it became agriculturally incapable of supporting the number of people that lived there. Frequent flooding likely contributed to this, leading Cahokia to become uninhabitable. Cahokia itself was established by Mississippians, a people who were mostly forgotten due to their lack of writing system and their susceptibility to the diseases brought over by Europeans. One thing we do know is that Mississippians were mound builders. At its peak, The city was home to more than 100 mounds, which acted as centers for religious activities. They functioned both as burial sites for prominent individuals, and as places to perform sacrifices. One such mound, creatively named Mound 72, holds the remains of almost 300 people, many of whom were sacrificed. Mound 72 is also on the site containing a “wood henge,” which as the name suggests, is an arrangement of wood similar to the stones in Stonehenge. More than meets the eye Of course, Cahokia wasn’t just a collection of mounds and wood. Although cities from a millennium ago would have looked very different to the cities of today, there were likely still some similarities. Dr. Kristin Hedman, assistant director of Bioarchaeology with the Illinois State Archaeological Survey (ISAS) describes some of the features one might have seen in ancient Cahokia. “There were large plazas that would have served as gathering places, market areas, and workshop areas for the manufacture of utilitarian objects, ornaments, and ritual items,” Hedman said. “Large scale events did take place –- likely tied to celestial events, and political or religious in nature. These likely would have been visible to the larger community and were, in that sense, theatrical. ” The people of Cahokia didn’t just come from a single tribe, either. It was an incredibly diverse community, particularly for its time period. By analyzing the tooth enamel from humans long ago buried at the site, researchers found that about one-third of the people were non-local, indicating there was a substantial immigrant population. They also traded extensively with other tribes. Materials such as exotic seashells from the Pacific, shark teeth from the Gulf Coast, and copper from the Great Lakes have all been found at the site, suggesting their trade networks extended vast distances in every direction. Dr. Scott Manning Stevens, associate professor of Native American and Indigenous Studies at Syracuse University, explains how they also influenced other tribes culturally. “They did leave pictographic evidence, and there are certain symbols that remain unknown to us to this day,” he said. “That’s how we can trace their influence; we’ll find pictographs of some kind of divine figure, and we’ll find the same representation of this divinity as far north as northern Wisconsin and as far south as Georgia, so we know they had a large cultural impact.” When they weren’t busy trading or making sacrifices, some of the inhabitants of Cahokia might have participated in a popular Native American sport known as chunkey, which is a sort of a cross between lawn bowling and javelin throwing. The game involves throwing a disc-shaped stone, known as a “chunkey stone,” onto a playing field, while players throw spears at it in an attempt to land them as close as possible to the stone. Onlookers would often gamble on the outcome of these matches. Much of what we know about the ancient metropolis comes from archaeological finds since no evidence of any written records seems to exist. Hedman explains how we can use various techniques to learn about places like Cahokia: “From archaeological features we can determine how large their houses and other buildings were, what they were constructed from, and what kinds of internal features they had, such as hearths/fire pits, benches, and posts. By mapping where features are relative to one another we can reconstruct household and community structure – where were storage pits relative to house structures? Were particular types of structures or features clustered together which might indicate specialized areas of a site? Is there evidence for palisades or fortifications that might indicate the community faced an outside threat?” She adds that: “Different types of artifacts might have different distribution patterns across a site. For example, fragments of cooking vessels might be very common inhabitation features/houses, while more ornate vessels and exotic shell ornaments might be more common in mortuary contexts. Food remains to provide information not only on what plant and animal resources were available and utilized as food, but tell us something about seasons of occupation, hunting practices, and food preferences. “In the case of Cahokia, maize (corn) agriculture was important in feeding the large population, and we see evidence for this in the plant remains, the types of cooking vessels and processing implements, and agricultural tools recovered. We have even found remnants of textiles that show how baskets, bags, twine, etc. were constructed,” she concludes. Unfortunately, sometimes the motives of present-day humans can hinder our efforts to learn about our past. “These mounds were found throughout parts of the Midwest, and a lot of them were simply plowed under by farms,” Stevens explains. “In terms of archaeological evidence, sometimes it was plundered during the early republic, but as often as not people thought ‘I don’t want that mound in my field,’ so they’d plow it down. Even Cahokia itself at one point in the 1950s was in threat of the same thing when they wanted to build an interstate through the site. In 1982 Cahokia became a UNESCO World Heritage Site, one of just 11 cultural heritage sites in the USA. There are still 69 human-made mounds at the site, including Monks Mound, the largest pre-Columbian earthwork in the Americas. But Cahokia isn’t the only lingering example of the rich communities formed by some Native American tribes. Stevens puts it best when he states: “We’re so trained in American history to think of Native people of this continent as either nomadic or living in temporary villages and so on, but this is just not the case. There are a variety of effigy mounds around the Midwest. Those things are still there as evidence of the complexity of culture, and also the length of occupation that these people have been there.”	1,627	ENGLISH	1
Sparta Free Essay Example Greeks have one the most interesting and oldest history in world. With its current development and economic developments, Greece as a nation went through diverse moments most of which contributed in shaping of its current status. Like other ancient nations, warfare was quiet common in determining the strength of an empire leading to capture of land, slaves and other properties. As a result, military planning and preparedness was a necessity for every empire. These wars led to displacement of people, intermarriages resulting into transformation of societal values, culture and traditions. This analysis focuses on Helots who originally occupied Messenia and Laconia in the Spartan society before they were captured by Spartans. The research comprehensively covers the history of Helots and their contribution to Spartan society and Sparta’s military success. To achieve this target, secondary sources of research which included books and journal articles were employed with special attention to the helots. Clearly, the helots had a detailed history and played a major role in the Spartan society and even towards its military success. The significance of Greek culture in western countless has been considered to be quite great with regard to politics, art, architecture and literature among other aspects of a social life. This led to transformation of many nations into what they are today through cultivation of democracy and visions. Greeks are well known for their early scientific discoveries in areas which included but not limited to astronomy, mathematics and mathematics. They further steered the exploration of logic and science of the mind. Although they lack a detailed history, significant events revolved their entire life. It is however important to mention that they humbly begun their history with sea transport being the main means of transport which introduced them to the western world. As a result of interaction, other many different communities explored Greece and begun the journey of development. Growth and expansion of communities led to conflicts which later developed into wars that greatly shaped Greece. One of the cities of Greece which played a significant role in shaping its history was Sparta. It was the capital city of Laconia and was also considered as the most influential state. The city was believed to have been founded by Lacedaemon who decided to name the city after his beloved wife. Because of the warfare which characterized the life of many Greek cities, Spartan life and education mainly revolved around military affairs. Spartans mainly focused on endurance, obedience and the success in military life as a way of viewing life and overcoming numerous challenges which came their way. This was clearly the baseline for the success and the entire greatness of Spartans. This was quite significant in ensuring the success and superiority of a community. As a powerful community, Spartans went ahead to conquer a number of territories and later the capture of Laconia. This led to a series of captures including the Helots who were mainly reduced to mere slaves. As warfare continued, Spartans advanced in their strategies becoming the most powerful with all its neighbours not willing to go against it. Even during the Messenian War no single territory was willing to support it apart from the Corinthians due to the fact that they had powerful neighbours. According to history records, a major attack was made on Tegea by the Spartans during the sixth century that and later led to its capture even after it attained its independence. It is worth noting that although Spartans conquered Tegea after a fierce battle, their opponents were also considered powerful. This series of warfare events led to another and the attack on Argos was the last one. As long time rivals, Sparta and Argos fought for supremacy over the ownership and control of resources. However, the battle was not easy for Argos because most of its early allies had been seriously beaten by Sparta and lost their independence. After a long battle Spartans won and were declared as the masters of the entire Cynuria. Many neighbouring territories viewed Sparta as the most powerful city around in terms of military and war fare. As a result, some territories like Scythian approached her for support during the preparations of invading Darius leading the expansion of the reputation and weaponry ability of Spartans. Due to the powerful nature of Sparta, many territories came under its control. Among these people conquered by Spartans were the helots. These people lived in total captivity without enjoying a better portion of their entire life. Also they formed part of the Spartan society they were deprived off almost each of their right making them acquire the title of state owned serf property. Although all human beings are equal with a common ancestry, helots were considered to be less human and as people who did not qualify for a single basic human right in life. Most of the available human privileges were mainly reserved for citizens. Since helots were not considered as full citizens of Sparta, they never lived to see these benefits. Among other restrictions, magistrate positions were all meant for men thus giving less consideration to women with regard to legal processes and judicial system of the society. On the other hand, not everyone in the community was allowed to marry thus denying majority of helots to their conjugal rights which accompanies marriage. Furthermore, Sparta authority did not allow every man to serve in the military but only those who were physically fit and healthy. Although unoccupied land was in plenty many helots remained landless due to the fact that they were not allowed to any piece of land. The issue of class also dominated the society with poor people being considered less human. The equality right never existed in this society a fact that greatly affected the lower class that was never recognized. Map Your Success Out! Attract high grades like a magnet! Time to get on the right side of your professor. The absence of equality in Sparta society led to division of people based social and economical status. Helots were considered as a group of un-free laborers who were to continuously render their services to those who valued themselves from a selfish and inhuman point of view. Helots were generally peasants and also found in different Spartan sectors offering their services in odd job positions like servants and guards. They were totally viewed to be different in terms of ethnicity but they could be released to join the other free world that enjoyed life. This clearly reveals the fact that helots live a life that was not easy to describe. As affirmed by many authors and ancient historical researchers, helots lived a life that was quite different from was known as un-free labor. Unlike other slaves in other cities like Athens, Helots were allowed to have families and communities without the right to any property. As a result, helots earned several names which were aimed at describing their lifestyle which fall in between free people and slaves. Notably, other authors referred to them as public slaves whereas others called them Commonwealth slaves. Nevertheless, majority agreed that helots were simply un-free laborers. Despite the lifestyle of helots which was not appealing from a human perspective, helots came into existence long ago during ancient war period in Greece. Helots are believed to have been a result of the war between the Dorians and Laconia. Researchers argue that the population of Laconia reduced to helots after being conquered by the Dorians. This argument is based on the perceived meaning of the word heilotes which implies capture. Regardless of the findings, Dorian invasion lacks substantial research evidence which makes it hard for to give an account of a poorly researched event using poorly researched evidence. It is obvious that many explanations surround the origin and establishment of helots but the truth is the fact that war and slavery was a major cause for the emerging of helot’s society which became a community of un-free labor. During its early formation time, helots offered forced labor on farms but they were not allowed to consume fruits which came from the land but them over to Spartans. Despite this equality disparity, helots organized themselves into communities which remained stable. Due to the organization in their community, they were allowed to carry out various religious activities. Step 1. Order Placement Step 2. Order Payment Step 3. Paper Downloading It is however important to note that helots firmly retained their original identity as Messenians and continually hoped for a liberation day. Many historical recording reveal that there were numerous revolts done by Messenian helots and that they deliberately ate raw which belonged to their master. There was an increase in the number of helots at in Messenia leading to a number of problems. These problems caused Spartans to introduce military discipline which saw the perfection of a military class. Military officers were to remain on guard fulltime without any free time. Inhumanly, if a helot was killed by a Spartan, the case was not considered as murder but simply a war activity. Although, helots suffered in chains, it exerted pressure on the entire Spartan society as a result of rebellion. It is also important to note that helots multiplied and overdid the number of Spartans, their masters. This system never lasted for long after the helots were liberated by the Theban commander who attacked Sparta and conquered it at Leuctra. Helots’ contribution towards the success of Spartans military affairs is on the reasons why this community has remained very important not only in the history of Spartans but in the entire history of Greeks. Helots were quite instrumental in tilling the land. This involved the allocation of a fixed amount of work to be covered in order to provide for their masters and other Spartan leaders. They however never gave up with their desire and deliberation hope that made them revolt always without worrying about death. This led to the death of many helots especially during the Messenian War. Don't spend another minute worrying about deadlines or grades. Have a question? Chat with us! The success of the Spartan military was attributed to the fact that military training was mandatory among healthy men. Since the state was considered more powerful than any other, many citizens had extreme attachment to their state. As a result, the soldiers were expected to fully protect the community at all times. The military rule viewed those people who were unfit to serve in the military as unqualified members of the Spartan society. This led to the growth in the number of military officers. It is astonishing to mention that military training among Spartans begun at a tender age of six years. On the other hand, infants who failed the military examination test were always killed over a cliff to promote nurturing of an all round military society. However, the interview which was done by elders was inhuman and unacceptable since it involved killing of innocent children due to poor military observable qualifications. Involving military training of young boys also contributed in expansion of military warfare. This training equipped trainees with skills which were to help them overcome life challengers especially in the presence of an attack. Trainees were also taught how to look for food in the absence of basic food. However, some the methods were unethical and risky. Soldiers were taught how to steal as an option of finding food during hunger or starvation. However, the training intensified as their years increased. Although there were several steps which were taken by Sparta in strengthening its military force, helots too played a major role. Their hope for liberation that triggered them to revolt frequently and violently pushed Sparta leaders to invest in military training for defense purposes. They also contributed to the military labor force despite the fact that not every helot man was allowed to join the military.	<urn:uuid:b0116af3-f217-47aa-b76a-b0ef4e7b46c8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://premiumqualityessays.com/essays/research/the-helots/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00107.warc.gz	en	0.986881	2,303	3.265625	3	[ -0.08600971847772598, 0.3040611743927002, 0.5649243593215942, -0.3509184718132019, -0.33686336874961853, -0.2589377164840698, -0.010046862065792084, 0.6655049920082092, -0.31662383675575256, -0.09673181176185608, -0.4193997383117676, -0.055826131254434586, -0.10878061503171921, 0.499184399...	14	Sparta Free Essay Example Greeks have one the most interesting and oldest history in world. With its current development and economic developments, Greece as a nation went through diverse moments most of which contributed in shaping of its current status. Like other ancient nations, warfare was quiet common in determining the strength of an empire leading to capture of land, slaves and other properties. As a result, military planning and preparedness was a necessity for every empire. These wars led to displacement of people, intermarriages resulting into transformation of societal values, culture and traditions. This analysis focuses on Helots who originally occupied Messenia and Laconia in the Spartan society before they were captured by Spartans. The research comprehensively covers the history of Helots and their contribution to Spartan society and Sparta’s military success. To achieve this target, secondary sources of research which included books and journal articles were employed with special attention to the helots. Clearly, the helots had a detailed history and played a major role in the Spartan society and even towards its military success. The significance of Greek culture in western countless has been considered to be quite great with regard to politics, art, architecture and literature among other aspects of a social life. This led to transformation of many nations into what they are today through cultivation of democracy and visions. Greeks are well known for their early scientific discoveries in areas which included but not limited to astronomy, mathematics and mathematics. They further steered the exploration of logic and science of the mind. Although they lack a detailed history, significant events revolved their entire life. It is however important to mention that they humbly begun their history with sea transport being the main means of transport which introduced them to the western world. As a result of interaction, other many different communities explored Greece and begun the journey of development. Growth and expansion of communities led to conflicts which later developed into wars that greatly shaped Greece. One of the cities of Greece which played a significant role in shaping its history was Sparta. It was the capital city of Laconia and was also considered as the most influential state. The city was believed to have been founded by Lacedaemon who decided to name the city after his beloved wife. Because of the warfare which characterized the life of many Greek cities, Spartan life and education mainly revolved around military affairs. Spartans mainly focused on endurance, obedience and the success in military life as a way of viewing life and overcoming numerous challenges which came their way. This was clearly the baseline for the success and the entire greatness of Spartans. This was quite significant in ensuring the success and superiority of a community. As a powerful community, Spartans went ahead to conquer a number of territories and later the capture of Laconia. This led to a series of captures including the Helots who were mainly reduced to mere slaves. As warfare continued, Spartans advanced in their strategies becoming the most powerful with all its neighbours not willing to go against it. Even during the Messenian War no single territory was willing to support it apart from the Corinthians due to the fact that they had powerful neighbours. According to history records, a major attack was made on Tegea by the Spartans during the sixth century that and later led to its capture even after it attained its independence. It is worth noting that although Spartans conquered Tegea after a fierce battle, their opponents were also considered powerful. This series of warfare events led to another and the attack on Argos was the last one. As long time rivals, Sparta and Argos fought for supremacy over the ownership and control of resources. However, the battle was not easy for Argos because most of its early allies had been seriously beaten by Sparta and lost their independence. After a long battle Spartans won and were declared as the masters of the entire Cynuria. Many neighbouring territories viewed Sparta as the most powerful city around in terms of military and war fare. As a result, some territories like Scythian approached her for support during the preparations of invading Darius leading the expansion of the reputation and weaponry ability of Spartans. Due to the powerful nature of Sparta, many territories came under its control. Among these people conquered by Spartans were the helots. These people lived in total captivity without enjoying a better portion of their entire life. Also they formed part of the Spartan society they were deprived off almost each of their right making them acquire the title of state owned serf property. Although all human beings are equal with a common ancestry, helots were considered to be less human and as people who did not qualify for a single basic human right in life. Most of the available human privileges were mainly reserved for citizens. Since helots were not considered as full citizens of Sparta, they never lived to see these benefits. Among other restrictions, magistrate positions were all meant for men thus giving less consideration to women with regard to legal processes and judicial system of the society. On the other hand, not everyone in the community was allowed to marry thus denying majority of helots to their conjugal rights which accompanies marriage. Furthermore, Sparta authority did not allow every man to serve in the military but only those who were physically fit and healthy. Although unoccupied land was in plenty many helots remained landless due to the fact that they were not allowed to any piece of land. The issue of class also dominated the society with poor people being considered less human. The equality right never existed in this society a fact that greatly affected the lower class that was never recognized. Map Your Success Out! Attract high grades like a magnet! Time to get on the right side of your professor. The absence of equality in Sparta society led to division of people based social and economical status. Helots were considered as a group of un-free laborers who were to continuously render their services to those who valued themselves from a selfish and inhuman point of view. Helots were generally peasants and also found in different Spartan sectors offering their services in odd job positions like servants and guards. They were totally viewed to be different in terms of ethnicity but they could be released to join the other free world that enjoyed life. This clearly reveals the fact that helots live a life that was not easy to describe. As affirmed by many authors and ancient historical researchers, helots lived a life that was quite different from was known as un-free labor. Unlike other slaves in other cities like Athens, Helots were allowed to have families and communities without the right to any property. As a result, helots earned several names which were aimed at describing their lifestyle which fall in between free people and slaves. Notably, other authors referred to them as public slaves whereas others called them Commonwealth slaves. Nevertheless, majority agreed that helots were simply un-free laborers. Despite the lifestyle of helots which was not appealing from a human perspective, helots came into existence long ago during ancient war period in Greece. Helots are believed to have been a result of the war between the Dorians and Laconia. Researchers argue that the population of Laconia reduced to helots after being conquered by the Dorians. This argument is based on the perceived meaning of the word heilotes which implies capture. Regardless of the findings, Dorian invasion lacks substantial research evidence which makes it hard for to give an account of a poorly researched event using poorly researched evidence. It is obvious that many explanations surround the origin and establishment of helots but the truth is the fact that war and slavery was a major cause for the emerging of helot’s society which became a community of un-free labor. During its early formation time, helots offered forced labor on farms but they were not allowed to consume fruits which came from the land but them over to Spartans. Despite this equality disparity, helots organized themselves into communities which remained stable. Due to the organization in their community, they were allowed to carry out various religious activities. Step 1. Order Placement Step 2. Order Payment Step 3. Paper Downloading It is however important to note that helots firmly retained their original identity as Messenians and continually hoped for a liberation day. Many historical recording reveal that there were numerous revolts done by Messenian helots and that they deliberately ate raw which belonged to their master. There was an increase in the number of helots at in Messenia leading to a number of problems. These problems caused Spartans to introduce military discipline which saw the perfection of a military class. Military officers were to remain on guard fulltime without any free time. Inhumanly, if a helot was killed by a Spartan, the case was not considered as murder but simply a war activity. Although, helots suffered in chains, it exerted pressure on the entire Spartan society as a result of rebellion. It is also important to note that helots multiplied and overdid the number of Spartans, their masters. This system never lasted for long after the helots were liberated by the Theban commander who attacked Sparta and conquered it at Leuctra. Helots’ contribution towards the success of Spartans military affairs is on the reasons why this community has remained very important not only in the history of Spartans but in the entire history of Greeks. Helots were quite instrumental in tilling the land. This involved the allocation of a fixed amount of work to be covered in order to provide for their masters and other Spartan leaders. They however never gave up with their desire and deliberation hope that made them revolt always without worrying about death. This led to the death of many helots especially during the Messenian War. Don't spend another minute worrying about deadlines or grades. Have a question? Chat with us! The success of the Spartan military was attributed to the fact that military training was mandatory among healthy men. Since the state was considered more powerful than any other, many citizens had extreme attachment to their state. As a result, the soldiers were expected to fully protect the community at all times. The military rule viewed those people who were unfit to serve in the military as unqualified members of the Spartan society. This led to the growth in the number of military officers. It is astonishing to mention that military training among Spartans begun at a tender age of six years. On the other hand, infants who failed the military examination test were always killed over a cliff to promote nurturing of an all round military society. However, the interview which was done by elders was inhuman and unacceptable since it involved killing of innocent children due to poor military observable qualifications. Involving military training of young boys also contributed in expansion of military warfare. This training equipped trainees with skills which were to help them overcome life challengers especially in the presence of an attack. Trainees were also taught how to look for food in the absence of basic food. However, some the methods were unethical and risky. Soldiers were taught how to steal as an option of finding food during hunger or starvation. However, the training intensified as their years increased. Although there were several steps which were taken by Sparta in strengthening its military force, helots too played a major role. Their hope for liberation that triggered them to revolt frequently and violently pushed Sparta leaders to invest in military training for defense purposes. They also contributed to the military labor force despite the fact that not every helot man was allowed to join the military.	2,307	ENGLISH	1
Contribution of Women in American Revolution Essay Contributions of Women during the American Revolution During the American Revolution thousands of women took an active role in both the American and British armies. Most were the wives or daughters of officers or soldiers. These women, who maintained an almost constant presence in military camps, were known as “camp followers. ” Here at Stony Point Battlefield, there were 52 women who were captured with the British garrison on the night of July 15, 1779 by the American Corps of Light Infantry. In spite of the fact that these women were not considered to be part of the army they were still included in the list of British prisoners taken at Stony Point. Because women frequently did not serve any military function during the war, their individual names were never listed in the records of the day and are therefore unknown to us. It is also difficult to state accurately what their duties were as camp followers. It may be surmised though that their duties consisted primarily of cooking, mending, laundry, childcare, and nursing the sick. As a camp follower a woman was paid a small wage and was supplied with a half ration of food for herself. While the above mentioned tasks were performed by the majority of women found within camp life, an occasional woman found herself placed or placed herself in extraordinary circumstances. Her participation in such situations were frequently well beyond the roles dictated by 18th-century society. One of the most remarkable individuals of the Revolution was a young lady by the name of Deborah Sampson. It was her desire to avoid hard labor on the family farm that led her to impersonate a man and join the American army. Sampson first enlisted under the name Timothy Thayer early in 1782. When she failed to report for duty after a night spent imbibing at a local tavern, her true identity was discovered. In May of 1782, she re-enlisted, this time in Captain George Webb’s Co. 4th Massachusetts Regiment, under the name of Robert Shurtleff. She participated in several battles and in 1783 was named aide-de-camp to General John Paterson at West Point. Her identity was again discovered during the summer of 1783 by a physician who treated her when she became seriously ill. Shortly thereafter she was honorably discharged from the army. She subsequently returned to Massachusetts where she married. Margaret Cochran Corbin (Captain Molly), was the wife of John Corbin, an artilleryman in Captain Thomas Proctor’s 1st Company of Pennsylvania Artillery. Unlike Deborah Sampson, Margaret was a camp follower. Following her husband’s example she was taught how to load and fire cannons gaining the respect and admiration from the other artillerymen in the Company. On November 16, 1776, Margaret assisted in the battle at Fort Washington, New York. “Molly”, as she later became known, stood on the front line with her husband John. In the course of the battle he was mortally wounded. As a result she assumed his duties as matross and was injured herself. Once the fort fell she was moved to Philadelphia where she was paroled and later pensioned by Congress. Corbin was later assigned to the Corps of Invalids at West Point where she remained until her death in 1800. “Captain Molly” is now buried on the grounds of the United States Military Academy. Mary Ludwig Hays, another camp follower, accompanied her husband John, a member of the 1st Pennsylvania Artillery, into the Monmouth, New Jersey Campaign of 1778. During the battle she supplied water to the troops, thereby receiving the name “Molly Pitcher. ” Like Corbin before her, when Mary’s husband was wounded, she assumed his duties as matross assisting the other artillerymen in the Company. Shortly after the war ended John died and Mary remarried. Unfortunately her second marriage did not last long. She supported herself until her death in 1832 with grants, however unlike Margaret Corbin, never received a military pension. These accounts are only a few of the many examples of women who have served their country since its beginnings, something to be proudly remembered during Women’s History Month.	<urn:uuid:8bc9ea11-a8b5-4d70-b123-f173515c55a7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://niagarafallshypnosiscenter.com/contribution-of-women-in-american-revolution/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00312.warc.gz	en	0.989006	864	3.75	4	[ -0.16627436876296997, 0.48616302013397217, 0.15767930448055267, 0.003457979764789343, -0.1999618262052536, 0.5668938755989075, 0.2266770601272583, 0.3295460343360901, -0.35460859537124634, -0.28795942664146423, 0.17974510788917542, -0.151002436876297, 0.0880378857254982, 0.0671367123723030...	2	Contribution of Women in American Revolution Essay Contributions of Women during the American Revolution During the American Revolution thousands of women took an active role in both the American and British armies. Most were the wives or daughters of officers or soldiers. These women, who maintained an almost constant presence in military camps, were known as “camp followers. ” Here at Stony Point Battlefield, there were 52 women who were captured with the British garrison on the night of July 15, 1779 by the American Corps of Light Infantry. In spite of the fact that these women were not considered to be part of the army they were still included in the list of British prisoners taken at Stony Point. Because women frequently did not serve any military function during the war, their individual names were never listed in the records of the day and are therefore unknown to us. It is also difficult to state accurately what their duties were as camp followers. It may be surmised though that their duties consisted primarily of cooking, mending, laundry, childcare, and nursing the sick. As a camp follower a woman was paid a small wage and was supplied with a half ration of food for herself. While the above mentioned tasks were performed by the majority of women found within camp life, an occasional woman found herself placed or placed herself in extraordinary circumstances. Her participation in such situations were frequently well beyond the roles dictated by 18th-century society. One of the most remarkable individuals of the Revolution was a young lady by the name of Deborah Sampson. It was her desire to avoid hard labor on the family farm that led her to impersonate a man and join the American army. Sampson first enlisted under the name Timothy Thayer early in 1782. When she failed to report for duty after a night spent imbibing at a local tavern, her true identity was discovered. In May of 1782, she re-enlisted, this time in Captain George Webb’s Co. 4th Massachusetts Regiment, under the name of Robert Shurtleff. She participated in several battles and in 1783 was named aide-de-camp to General John Paterson at West Point. Her identity was again discovered during the summer of 1783 by a physician who treated her when she became seriously ill. Shortly thereafter she was honorably discharged from the army. She subsequently returned to Massachusetts where she married. Margaret Cochran Corbin (Captain Molly), was the wife of John Corbin, an artilleryman in Captain Thomas Proctor’s 1st Company of Pennsylvania Artillery. Unlike Deborah Sampson, Margaret was a camp follower. Following her husband’s example she was taught how to load and fire cannons gaining the respect and admiration from the other artillerymen in the Company. On November 16, 1776, Margaret assisted in the battle at Fort Washington, New York. “Molly”, as she later became known, stood on the front line with her husband John. In the course of the battle he was mortally wounded. As a result she assumed his duties as matross and was injured herself. Once the fort fell she was moved to Philadelphia where she was paroled and later pensioned by Congress. Corbin was later assigned to the Corps of Invalids at West Point where she remained until her death in 1800. “Captain Molly” is now buried on the grounds of the United States Military Academy. Mary Ludwig Hays, another camp follower, accompanied her husband John, a member of the 1st Pennsylvania Artillery, into the Monmouth, New Jersey Campaign of 1778. During the battle she supplied water to the troops, thereby receiving the name “Molly Pitcher. ” Like Corbin before her, when Mary’s husband was wounded, she assumed his duties as matross assisting the other artillerymen in the Company. Shortly after the war ended John died and Mary remarried. Unfortunately her second marriage did not last long. She supported herself until her death in 1832 with grants, however unlike Margaret Corbin, never received a military pension. These accounts are only a few of the many examples of women who have served their country since its beginnings, something to be proudly remembered during Women’s History Month.	873	ENGLISH	1
Top 11 Interesting Facts about William the Conqueror History is paved with legendary characters. From Alexander the Great to Napoléon, all ages have had their fair share of great figures. Among them, few have had the importance of William the Conqueror. A medieval duke and king, William the Conqueror changed the face of Europe, mostly known for the crucial stabilization of the Duchy of Normandy, and the conquest and deep transformations of England. Here are ten facts about William the Conqueror. 1. William the Conqueror was a bastard William was born in 1027, in Falaise, a small town in Normandy. He was the son of Robert, Duke of Normandy, and Arlette, his concubine, whom he met – according to the legend – as she was cleaning her clothes by the river, in Falaise. Although Robert and Arlette loved each other, Robert never married her, so William was born out of wedlock. During his lifetime, he was called by several names. William II was his official name when he took the title of Duke of Normandy, but he was also often nicknamed “William the Great”. “The Conqueror” was not a nickname contemporary of his time, since it was given nearly two centuries after his death. Likewise, his detractor would later call him “William the Bastard” as a reference to his birth from unmarried parents. However, this name likely was used posthumously as a quick explanation of his personality, rather than during his own life. 2. Multiple attempts were made to assassinate William the Conqueror when he was only a child In 1034, Duke Robert of Normandy announces he wishes to go on pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Most of his counsellors advised against it, since he didn’t have a legitimate heir to succeed to him in case anything happened during the journey– once again William was considered illegitimate. To have the remarks stop, Robert announced he wished William to be his successor, should anything bad occur. One year later, on his way back from the Holy City, Robert died, leaving the Normandy without a ruler. Although the lineage was clearly stated by Robert’s will, the new and young Duke’s legitimacy was much questioned. Barely aged 8, William was seen unfit to rule by most of Normandy’s nobility. Mainly supported by members of his family, William – officially Duke of Normandy – mostly had to hide during the first months of his reign, since Normandy was plagued with instability. William was the target of several murder attempts. One night in Valognes, he even had to flee, alone, to avoid an assassination attempt which was reported to him by his Fool. The fact that he fled alone in the night at such a young age contributed to forging his reputation of a young and valorous man. Also supported by the King of France, Richard the First, William definitively recuperated the power of Normandy during the battle of Val-Ès-Dune, and became recognized as the Duke of Normandy. 3. William the Conqueror secured the borders of Normandy and its stability Now established as Duke of Normandy, William had as main worry to ensure stability throughout his Duchy and around. One major move of his was his marriage with Matilda of Flanders, the daughter of the Count of Flanders. Although the Pope refused the marriage, on grounds of consanguinity, the union took place, thus allowing the once enemy County of Flanders and Duchy of Normandy to become allies. A close relative to the King of France and of descent from the House of Wessex in Anglo-Saxon England, Matilda was a very useful pawn in William’s greater scheme. In the meantime, to complete his securing of his Duchy borders with the neighboring territories, William occupied the state of Maine which allowed Normandy to have a safety cushion against rival County of Anjou. He also ensured that the rebels which shook neighboring Brittany were reinforced, thus troubling the stability of Brittany. Brittany held a grudge against Normandy which took the Island of Mont-Saint-Michel, years earlier. To date, Mont-Saint-Michel, which you can visit with our Day-trip specialty tour here – is still part of Normandy, despite being geographically at the entrance of the Britannic peninsula. With inner trouble, Britannic rulers could not plan anything against Normandy. 4. William the Conqueror lost to Harold Godwinson for the thone In 1051, King Edward of England who did not have any heir, designated William, his far cousin, as heir to the throne of England. William however, finding the choice strange, remained doubtful. To convince him, Edward sent him a messenger, the powerful British earl Harold Godwinson. Harold swore to William, on the relics of the Bayeux Cathedral, that he and the British nobility, would recognize William as King of England, as per the current King’s will. The move convinced William who could now contemplate new goals. However, a few years later, Edward changed his mind, and declared on his death bed that his successor would be Harold, after all… The laws of Anglo-Saxons considered that the King’s last wish was the one that prevailed, while the Norman laws considered the first word to be irrevocable – most especially to avoid that very situation! Feeling aggrieved, William prepared an expedition to get what he considered to be his lawful land. In the meantime, Harold sat on the English throne… 5. William the Conqueror won the Battle of Hastings against the King Harold & his army William landed onto British soil on September 29, 1066, accompanied by many Norman landlords and barons, whom he had convinced. It took nearly two weeks for Harold to hear from the Norman landing and to react. On October 12, the two armies were on the verge of fighting. While the Normans understood the gravity of the situation and calmly and solemnly prepared for war, the Anglo-Saxons were much more relaxed, and drank and partied. The next day, the most important battle in the history of England took place, in a field, near Hastings. The battle of Hastings lasted exceptionally long. Instead of the usual couple of hours that most medieval battles lasted, Hastings lasted from dawn to dusk. Although the first hours were clearly at the advantage of William, the odds changed in the afternoon, and the Anglo-Saxons became clear favorite. Up until the last quarter of hour of the battle, the Normans really braced for their ultimate defeat. However, William ordered a few knights to focus all their efforts on Harold. The British King was quickly targeted and died, marking the loss of the Anglo-Saxons. The following days, William and his troops reached London, all the while sacking the villages and lands they went through. 6. The crowning of William the Conqueror was “celebrated” by setting buildings on fire William was crowned King of England on December 25, 1066. The ceremony took place in Westminster. During the crowning, cheers and acclamations were mistaken by the guards for a rebellion against the new king. They decided to make a diversion by setting the surrounding buildings on fire. The event started a panic and the crowds, inside and outside the abbey started running everywhere. Eventually, a shaking William got to finish his crowning, which forever remained a quite inglorious moment of his reign. 7. William the Conquerer constructed the Tower of London By conquering England, the Normans brought many things from their culture to that land. Among the most important ones were fortresses. To assert his power, William had hundreds of fortifications built throughout the country, most of which still standing today. One of them became the symbol of the King’s power: the White Tower in London. Set on the banks of the river Thames, the White Tower was the most perfect example of Norman constructions, with high walls built in Caen stone. Today, the White Tower is better known under the name Tower of London, and is still a symbol of the Royal power. 8. William the Conquerer used fear tactics to control his people William’s strategy to ensure he kept the control was to be rather tough with the Anglo-Saxons and to impose a Norman leadership. Most of the Saxon’s high-value goods were confiscated, and key positions in the nobility and the clergy were filled by Normans. Naturally, the Saxon people did not let themselves be controlled so easily. Revolts and riots took place all across England, but William resisted the pressure and exerted a systematic and tough retaliation. The most important example is the revolt of York in 1069. To counteract violent riots in the Duchy of York, William engaged in one of the most violent examples of retaliation. He forced the whole region to bend by ruining the area. He ordered absolute devastation, murdering people, slaughtering animals, setting entire fields and harvests on fire, ruining soils, and pushing local populations to starvation, and poverty. With such a hard pressure exerted, William managed to be recognized by most of the English in a rather short time. 9. William the Conqueror’s third son, Henri, unexpectedly became ruler of both England and Normandy On September 9, 1087, William passed away. Before he died, he decided to split his kingdom in two territories, England on one side, Normandy on the other – as you can see, Brexit was not such a new idea! He gave Normandy to his first son, Robert, and England to his second son, William. Henri, his third son did not get anything. However, the unfair deal was to turn in favor of Henri. In England, the young William was not very appreciated. In 1100, he accidentally died while hunting. Henri, who was there, seized the opportunity. He ran to Winchester to get his hand on the royal treasure, and once he secured it, took the throne, without much resistance, thus becoming the new King of England. In Normandy, another opportunity occurred when Robert left for a crusade. Henri took advantage of the empty throne to sit on it, and when Robert got back, he had him imprisoned. Now King of England and Duke of Normandy, Henri had his revenge. Hoping for his son to take his succession, he saw his hopes vain when the said son died at sea, however. Fearing for his lineage, he decided to marry his daughter to a Norman high-class man, of the Plantagenet family. From this union was born Henri II, who later married Eleanor of Aquitaine, thus enshrining the beginning of the Plantagenet dynasty. 10. William the Conquerer cemented the Nordic, Germanic & Roman influences in the English language In addition to architecture and culture, William the Conqueror brought another important thing to England: the language. The Anglo-Saxon language was a founding element of today’s English language and was highly influenced by Nordic (Norse) languages. However, William did not speak a word of it! With his Court, he spoke Norman dialects, which were mostly Roman languages. In modern English, the mix between Germanic and Nordic languages and Roman languages is still perceivable. 11. William the Conqueror’s “Domesday Book” was one of the first examples of national population census Upon sitting on the throne, William the Conqueror had no clue of how the society he was about to lead was made. He did not know how many people lived in England, nor how many households composed it. He did not know who owned what. Therefore, he commissioned several of his aides to go across the country and list in a unique book all the people of his land, their possessions, their livestock, and their housing. That large intelligence data was call “the Domesday Book”, old-English form of “Doomsday”. The book was supposed to give a very accurate vision of the kingdom and could be used in case of a crisis. The document is a precious source for historians as it gives a good idea of eleventh century England. It is to note that many Englishmen lied about their possessions to avoid extra-taxes, though. The Domesday Book was one of the first national population census. A major figure of the European Middle Ages, William the Conqueror changed the course of history for England and the North of France. His heritage marked the Norman and British cultures so profoundly that they still are very perceivable today.	<urn:uuid:a0cdae4b-6e3f-4dde-b858-d8a89b4b571c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.discoverwalks.com/blog/top-10-interesting-facts-about-william-the-conqueror/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00309.warc.gz	en	0.985069	2,630	3.515625	4	[ -0.10317294299602509, 0.4663749933242798, 0.4247684180736542, -0.31149807572364807, -0.3564710021018982, -0.10892640054225922, 0.3687828779220581, -0.03270550072193146, 0.13759052753448486, -0.042267609387636185, 0.07102891802787781, -0.2219098061323166, 0.11858272552490234, 0.161168873310...	5	Top 11 Interesting Facts about William the Conqueror History is paved with legendary characters. From Alexander the Great to Napoléon, all ages have had their fair share of great figures. Among them, few have had the importance of William the Conqueror. A medieval duke and king, William the Conqueror changed the face of Europe, mostly known for the crucial stabilization of the Duchy of Normandy, and the conquest and deep transformations of England. Here are ten facts about William the Conqueror. 1. William the Conqueror was a bastard William was born in 1027, in Falaise, a small town in Normandy. He was the son of Robert, Duke of Normandy, and Arlette, his concubine, whom he met – according to the legend – as she was cleaning her clothes by the river, in Falaise. Although Robert and Arlette loved each other, Robert never married her, so William was born out of wedlock. During his lifetime, he was called by several names. William II was his official name when he took the title of Duke of Normandy, but he was also often nicknamed “William the Great”. “The Conqueror” was not a nickname contemporary of his time, since it was given nearly two centuries after his death. Likewise, his detractor would later call him “William the Bastard” as a reference to his birth from unmarried parents. However, this name likely was used posthumously as a quick explanation of his personality, rather than during his own life. 2. Multiple attempts were made to assassinate William the Conqueror when he was only a child In 1034, Duke Robert of Normandy announces he wishes to go on pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Most of his counsellors advised against it, since he didn’t have a legitimate heir to succeed to him in case anything happened during the journey– once again William was considered illegitimate. To have the remarks stop, Robert announced he wished William to be his successor, should anything bad occur. One year later, on his way back from the Holy City, Robert died, leaving the Normandy without a ruler. Although the lineage was clearly stated by Robert’s will, the new and young Duke’s legitimacy was much questioned. Barely aged 8, William was seen unfit to rule by most of Normandy’s nobility. Mainly supported by members of his family, William – officially Duke of Normandy – mostly had to hide during the first months of his reign, since Normandy was plagued with instability. William was the target of several murder attempts. One night in Valognes, he even had to flee, alone, to avoid an assassination attempt which was reported to him by his Fool. The fact that he fled alone in the night at such a young age contributed to forging his reputation of a young and valorous man. Also supported by the King of France, Richard the First, William definitively recuperated the power of Normandy during the battle of Val-Ès-Dune, and became recognized as the Duke of Normandy. 3. William the Conqueror secured the borders of Normandy and its stability Now established as Duke of Normandy, William had as main worry to ensure stability throughout his Duchy and around. One major move of his was his marriage with Matilda of Flanders, the daughter of the Count of Flanders. Although the Pope refused the marriage, on grounds of consanguinity, the union took place, thus allowing the once enemy County of Flanders and Duchy of Normandy to become allies. A close relative to the King of France and of descent from the House of Wessex in Anglo-Saxon England, Matilda was a very useful pawn in William’s greater scheme. In the meantime, to complete his securing of his Duchy borders with the neighboring territories, William occupied the state of Maine which allowed Normandy to have a safety cushion against rival County of Anjou. He also ensured that the rebels which shook neighboring Brittany were reinforced, thus troubling the stability of Brittany. Brittany held a grudge against Normandy which took the Island of Mont-Saint-Michel, years earlier. To date, Mont-Saint-Michel, which you can visit with our Day-trip specialty tour here – is still part of Normandy, despite being geographically at the entrance of the Britannic peninsula. With inner trouble, Britannic rulers could not plan anything against Normandy. 4. William the Conqueror lost to Harold Godwinson for the thone In 1051, King Edward of England who did not have any heir, designated William, his far cousin, as heir to the throne of England. William however, finding the choice strange, remained doubtful. To convince him, Edward sent him a messenger, the powerful British earl Harold Godwinson. Harold swore to William, on the relics of the Bayeux Cathedral, that he and the British nobility, would recognize William as King of England, as per the current King’s will. The move convinced William who could now contemplate new goals. However, a few years later, Edward changed his mind, and declared on his death bed that his successor would be Harold, after all… The laws of Anglo-Saxons considered that the King’s last wish was the one that prevailed, while the Norman laws considered the first word to be irrevocable – most especially to avoid that very situation! Feeling aggrieved, William prepared an expedition to get what he considered to be his lawful land. In the meantime, Harold sat on the English throne… 5. William the Conqueror won the Battle of Hastings against the King Harold & his army William landed onto British soil on September 29, 1066, accompanied by many Norman landlords and barons, whom he had convinced. It took nearly two weeks for Harold to hear from the Norman landing and to react. On October 12, the two armies were on the verge of fighting. While the Normans understood the gravity of the situation and calmly and solemnly prepared for war, the Anglo-Saxons were much more relaxed, and drank and partied. The next day, the most important battle in the history of England took place, in a field, near Hastings. The battle of Hastings lasted exceptionally long. Instead of the usual couple of hours that most medieval battles lasted, Hastings lasted from dawn to dusk. Although the first hours were clearly at the advantage of William, the odds changed in the afternoon, and the Anglo-Saxons became clear favorite. Up until the last quarter of hour of the battle, the Normans really braced for their ultimate defeat. However, William ordered a few knights to focus all their efforts on Harold. The British King was quickly targeted and died, marking the loss of the Anglo-Saxons. The following days, William and his troops reached London, all the while sacking the villages and lands they went through. 6. The crowning of William the Conqueror was “celebrated” by setting buildings on fire William was crowned King of England on December 25, 1066. The ceremony took place in Westminster. During the crowning, cheers and acclamations were mistaken by the guards for a rebellion against the new king. They decided to make a diversion by setting the surrounding buildings on fire. The event started a panic and the crowds, inside and outside the abbey started running everywhere. Eventually, a shaking William got to finish his crowning, which forever remained a quite inglorious moment of his reign. 7. William the Conquerer constructed the Tower of London By conquering England, the Normans brought many things from their culture to that land. Among the most important ones were fortresses. To assert his power, William had hundreds of fortifications built throughout the country, most of which still standing today. One of them became the symbol of the King’s power: the White Tower in London. Set on the banks of the river Thames, the White Tower was the most perfect example of Norman constructions, with high walls built in Caen stone. Today, the White Tower is better known under the name Tower of London, and is still a symbol of the Royal power. 8. William the Conquerer used fear tactics to control his people William’s strategy to ensure he kept the control was to be rather tough with the Anglo-Saxons and to impose a Norman leadership. Most of the Saxon’s high-value goods were confiscated, and key positions in the nobility and the clergy were filled by Normans. Naturally, the Saxon people did not let themselves be controlled so easily. Revolts and riots took place all across England, but William resisted the pressure and exerted a systematic and tough retaliation. The most important example is the revolt of York in 1069. To counteract violent riots in the Duchy of York, William engaged in one of the most violent examples of retaliation. He forced the whole region to bend by ruining the area. He ordered absolute devastation, murdering people, slaughtering animals, setting entire fields and harvests on fire, ruining soils, and pushing local populations to starvation, and poverty. With such a hard pressure exerted, William managed to be recognized by most of the English in a rather short time. 9. William the Conqueror’s third son, Henri, unexpectedly became ruler of both England and Normandy On September 9, 1087, William passed away. Before he died, he decided to split his kingdom in two territories, England on one side, Normandy on the other – as you can see, Brexit was not such a new idea! He gave Normandy to his first son, Robert, and England to his second son, William. Henri, his third son did not get anything. However, the unfair deal was to turn in favor of Henri. In England, the young William was not very appreciated. In 1100, he accidentally died while hunting. Henri, who was there, seized the opportunity. He ran to Winchester to get his hand on the royal treasure, and once he secured it, took the throne, without much resistance, thus becoming the new King of England. In Normandy, another opportunity occurred when Robert left for a crusade. Henri took advantage of the empty throne to sit on it, and when Robert got back, he had him imprisoned. Now King of England and Duke of Normandy, Henri had his revenge. Hoping for his son to take his succession, he saw his hopes vain when the said son died at sea, however. Fearing for his lineage, he decided to marry his daughter to a Norman high-class man, of the Plantagenet family. From this union was born Henri II, who later married Eleanor of Aquitaine, thus enshrining the beginning of the Plantagenet dynasty. 10. William the Conquerer cemented the Nordic, Germanic & Roman influences in the English language In addition to architecture and culture, William the Conqueror brought another important thing to England: the language. The Anglo-Saxon language was a founding element of today’s English language and was highly influenced by Nordic (Norse) languages. However, William did not speak a word of it! With his Court, he spoke Norman dialects, which were mostly Roman languages. In modern English, the mix between Germanic and Nordic languages and Roman languages is still perceivable. 11. William the Conqueror’s “Domesday Book” was one of the first examples of national population census Upon sitting on the throne, William the Conqueror had no clue of how the society he was about to lead was made. He did not know how many people lived in England, nor how many households composed it. He did not know who owned what. Therefore, he commissioned several of his aides to go across the country and list in a unique book all the people of his land, their possessions, their livestock, and their housing. That large intelligence data was call “the Domesday Book”, old-English form of “Doomsday”. The book was supposed to give a very accurate vision of the kingdom and could be used in case of a crisis. The document is a precious source for historians as it gives a good idea of eleventh century England. It is to note that many Englishmen lied about their possessions to avoid extra-taxes, though. The Domesday Book was one of the first national population census. A major figure of the European Middle Ages, William the Conqueror changed the course of history for England and the North of France. His heritage marked the Norman and British cultures so profoundly that they still are very perceivable today.	2,615	ENGLISH	1
Paper type: Essay Pages: 10 (2397 words) The question “were the British soldiers ‘Lions led by Donkeys?'” has been an ongoing debate since the end of the war. A war which is dominated by images of bloody battles such as the Somme and Passchendaele – futile frontal attacks against the machine guns. There is a lot of evidence to suggest that the troops were ‘lions led by donkeys’. The definition that the soldiers were ‘lions’ in the war has never been questioned – due to the horrific reports of their lives in the war. The soldiers were just young men: young men from all over Britain thrown into war. It was hardly heard of men refusing to serve in the war – re-cruitment posters (source A) put pressure on men to join, by playing on their conscience. Boys were recruited, teenage boys as young as 14 or 15! Even though the age was 18. Once boys had joined, whatever age, they were “in the army now” and so had to go and fight: to see horrific visuals they should never have seen. The Soldiers had miserable lives in the trenches: the food was limited to Bully beef, biscuits, tinned foods etc. The soldiers always thought that they had half of what they really should have. The officers also enjoyed better quality food. Life in the trenches consisted of working during the night, and trying to get some rest during the day: as well as having to fight and fire guns. The stand-to called at dawn and dusk routinely also saw the soldiers standing sometimes for hours waiting for enemy attacks that rarely ever came. Tedium was a major problem in the trenches, so many soldiers took to writing poetry or letters to home. Letters where they were not really allowed to write of the full horrors they saw. The trenches were simply huge ditches, the low ground meaning that they were often water-logged, and very wet and muddy. The filthy trench conditions attracted all types of unpleasant creatures – strange horned beetles (source C). They were also infested with lice and rats and frogs. The dugouts where the men had to sleep would be crawling with lice and they were driven wild with itching. The rats also helped the spread of diseases through the trenches and the men, feeding upon dead human flesh. Adding to the atrocities of trench life, were the horrible scents lingering there: (source E) the smell of the mud, human waste and decomposing bodies. The soldiers lived in daily fear in the trenches, of the smell of lingering gas. It was the most feared weapon. The enemy would bomb the gases into the allied trenches – gases such as chlorine , mustard gas, and Napalm. These gases had horrific effects such as to make the soldiers cough up their lungs, or to even rot alive! The soldiers also suffered great deals in Battles such as the Somme, and Ypres etc. Events where they drowned in mud, were mowed down by German machine guns, and suffered great losses. All these pressures of the soldiers and their experience of the war, or the stories the survivors had to tell show that they were ‘lions’ in this war. The issue mainly discussed though on the topic of the First World War is that of the generals being ‘donkeys’. The question being – where the soldiers of WW1 brave men, sent to their deaths by incompetent officers? Source N strongly suggests that men were getting slaughtered by the enemy, due to the “stupidity…of those in charge”. This is direct criticism against the generals, and evidence that the soldiers were ‘lions led by donkeys’. The Commander-in-cheif Generals of the British Army during the First World War were Sir John French (1915) and Sir Douglas Haig (!915 onwards). French was seen as an overall bad leader to the B.E.F. Seen in such examples as the First Battle of Ypres (1914). The British and German troops co-incidentally met at Ypres, both with the intentions of out-flanking the opposition. However the British army were not only less in numbers, but badly led by French – who was described as ‘jumping from bursts of extreme confidence to gloom’. So therefore, the British suffered great losses, with new troops being filed in day after day – more casualties adding to the list. Also in 1915, French staged an attack at a place called Neuve Chapelle on the 10th March. The British had no shells, so there was no preliminary bombardment – so the attack on the Germans was a complete surprise and initially a success. However French continued to fail from here as the British hesitated to fill the gap they had made in the German lines in a wait for re-inforcements: by which time the Germans had filled the gap. A pointless battle which lasted only three days. Other so-called battles like these took place while Joffre insisted on ‘one more attack’. This resulted in 50,000 French being lost in February (advancing only 500 yards) in Champagne. 60,000 were lost at St Mihiel, and 120,000 were lost in May near Arras. The British tried new offensives at Festubert and Aubers Ridge, which only resulted in a larger scale of casualties. Surely this is evidence enough to show that the Generals were not making the right decisions on either part of the Allied armies, and that is was simply causing more men to die: even at this early stage of the war. The next action that Sir John French took proved to set an example to all Generals and officers throughout the war: British generals who prolonged the slaughter kept their posts and won promotions, Whereas those who protested to the decisions were in danger of dismissal. This warning was made during the attack at Ypres, where the Germans used the new weapon if poison gas on the British. French responded by insisting on counter-attacks, but only proved to increases the casualty list. When the army commander, General Smith-Dorrien argued against French’s decision, he was rapidly dismissed. However, the General whose decisions made most influence on the war was that of Douglas Haig, who for the majority of the war was the British Commander-in-chief. Many people criticised, and still do criticise him for the way in which he ran the army. Many believe that Haig was too remote from the soldiers, and that he had no comprehension of their lives in the trenches. As he failed to visit them even once – one of the worst scenarios being during the Battle of the Somme, (source L): where he dined 40 miles away in a comfortable chateau. And remained ignorant to the horrors he was sending his men into. Haig also did not communicate very well with the other generals. They were afraid of him, and so they never conversed about the war, and so many views were never told or corrected. Such as seen in Haig (eg: during the Somme) where his tendency to monitor the missions, yet not correct officers who were doing a bad job, cost the lives of many more men. The Battle of the Somme is also a topic where Haig can be criticised strongly. The ideas given by Foch and Haig (sources G-H) which were used in the battle plan for the Somme were highly wrong and unrealistic. It was the huge underestimation of the machine gun that cost so many lives. Haig and Foch believed that ‘grit and determination’ could overcome the firepower and fatality of the machine gun. There was also huge speculation over how the bombardment would succeed. There was so much assumption that the barbed wire would be cut, and that (as Haig quoted) not “even a rat” would be left alive. It become obvious in evaluation of the events of the battle that no plans for safety were made (source M). Only the one possibility of success was thought of, which again proved fatal for the British soldiers as they were ploughed down by the German machine guns, as they marched unprotected across no-mans land: the Germans had nearly all survived in the strong fortifications of their underground bunkers. A number of faults can be picked out from the plan for the battle of the Somme. Source K suggests that ‘any Tommy’ would have known the idea of cutting the barbed wire would not have worked. This does not provide good evidence for the Generals. There were two aims set to visibly achieve in the Somme. They were to kill as many Germans as possible, and to destroy the barbed wire fortifying the German trenches. The artillery did not succeed to do their jobs well, and therefore both of these aims failed. The German bunkers were deep, and there was simply not enough artillery. The area chosen to attack on was also too widespread, and had very little effect on the German trenches. Haig having criticised French strongly for some of his offensives during his time in command, once in command himself began to think that they could work. He had a favourite strategical plan which was to attack Flanders and then ‘roll up’ the Germans from the North. This was his initial idea for the Somme. However, Joffre did not like this idea and instead pointed out the Somme as a point, (which tactically would turn out to be better for the Germans) yet Haig failed to defend his own idea. It was a very unsuccessful plan, receiving 57,000 casualties on the first day alone. A horrific figure. But yet Haig pressed on, and the Battle waged for 4½ months. Many cannot understand why Haig chose to do this, and believe it was an act purely resulting in criminal neglegance. Other Battles where Haig is remembered as being an unsuccessful leader is in that of the third battle of Ypres – Passchendaele. Passchendaele was at a similar time to the Somme and had similar results also. Which emphasised Haig’s inability to learn from his mistakes. A stronger point against him being a bad general. Haig launched the Battle with an aim on the German-occupied ports on the Belgian coast. It went ahead on the 7th June 1917, and on its first day cost 24,000 men. The main attack was on low ground, over water sources. Shelling had churned the clay soil and smashed the drainage systems beneath. Making it the worst scenario for a battle possible – with men, their horses and pack mules simply drowning in the mud. All the shell holes filed with water, and the only other solid objects in the desolation were the German strong points – where they operated their machine guns to scyth down the attackers. Despite all this, Haig let the battle continue – where it eventually ended in November of that year. What was supposed to be a “thrusting break through” had turned into a battle of attrition. The British had made a total advance of just 5 miles – at the cost of ¼ million casualties! The only consolation the British generals took from this battle was that the Germans had also suffered grievously. The question which remains unanswered to many is why Haig let a battle, fought in such terrible conditions, to continue; especially at such a high price and number of casualties, where there was the Somme also to show the error of battles like these. Lloyd George (Prime minister) also asked the opinion of the two out-of-work generals – French and Wilson, who both opposed Haig’s decision to keep the battle going; in the thought that the ‘Germans will collapse’. Haig pushed his army deeper into a battle, that many called the Slough of Despond. Reflected in poems such as that of Siegfried Sassoon’s – “I died in hell – They called it Passchendaele.” However, contrary to this evidence that the WW1 generals were all ‘donkeys’ there is evidence to prove otherwise. The myth of popular belief that all the generals were uncaring, and reamained isolated from their troops at the frontline can be disagreed with. Less widely known is the fact that 78 British and Dominion officers of the rank Brigadier General or above died on active duty in WW1. And there was a total of another 146 wounded. These figures provide proof, that contrary to popular belief, generals frequently went close enough to the battle front to place themselves in serious danger. There was also pressure applied on the generals because of politicians. At the beginning of the war, to keep the British public happy the politicians were promising that the war would ‘be over by Christmas’ and that it would only be a ‘quick war’. This put tremendous pressure on the generals who felt they had to comply to these promises that were being made. However it is impossible to secure how long a war will last for, and what military tactics at such an early stage in the war would end the whole thing! In 1917, when Lloyd George became Priminister, he placed the British army under the control of the French. So therefore the British army had to follow the French plans, and not their own, due to the interferance of politicians; who had no military knowledge. And again, politicians interfered with military plans, such as Joffre insisting in 1916 that a battle plan Haig had devised should be fought at the Somme. A place which worked out tactically due to the geography of the location, to be at the advantage of the Enemy troops! It therefore being a location that Haig would have never chosen himself. Critics also pressed on that during the First World War the generals were looking to the past; which was not entirely true. They were interested in new technology, as in 1916 having invented the tank, and being the first ever army to use them in warfare, by introducing them at the Somme. Anyone who wants to criticise the generals of WW1 will immediately refer to battles such as the Somme or Passchendaele – the most horrific, and where the British suffered most loss. Despite the fact the British suffered great casualties in the Somme, there were decent aims behind the battle (source F). And contradicting sources such as K (suggesting that the plan failed, and it had always been doubted) Source O suggests that the attack was well planned and that soldiers felt confident and thoroughly informed. Cite this page Were the British soldiers lions led by donkeys?. (2016, Jul 04). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/were-the-british-soldiers-lions-led-by-donkeys-essay	<urn:uuid:a028e19e-1ebc-4871-bf42-6b553703fcf7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studymoose.com/were-the-british-soldiers-lions-led-by-donkeys-essay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00329.warc.gz	en	0.989243	3,102	3.34375	3	[ -0.24550986289978027, 0.3527155816555023, 0.3389064371585846, 0.37555253505706787, 0.2573201656341553, -0.04753030836582184, -0.18871653079986572, 0.5174287557601929, -0.14955759048461914, 0.06415482610464096, 0.05485428869724274, -0.5770347118377686, 0.30787110328674316, 0.092696674168109...	1	Paper type: Essay Pages: 10 (2397 words) The question “were the British soldiers ‘Lions led by Donkeys?'” has been an ongoing debate since the end of the war. A war which is dominated by images of bloody battles such as the Somme and Passchendaele – futile frontal attacks against the machine guns. There is a lot of evidence to suggest that the troops were ‘lions led by donkeys’. The definition that the soldiers were ‘lions’ in the war has never been questioned – due to the horrific reports of their lives in the war. The soldiers were just young men: young men from all over Britain thrown into war. It was hardly heard of men refusing to serve in the war – re-cruitment posters (source A) put pressure on men to join, by playing on their conscience. Boys were recruited, teenage boys as young as 14 or 15! Even though the age was 18. Once boys had joined, whatever age, they were “in the army now” and so had to go and fight: to see horrific visuals they should never have seen. The Soldiers had miserable lives in the trenches: the food was limited to Bully beef, biscuits, tinned foods etc. The soldiers always thought that they had half of what they really should have. The officers also enjoyed better quality food. Life in the trenches consisted of working during the night, and trying to get some rest during the day: as well as having to fight and fire guns. The stand-to called at dawn and dusk routinely also saw the soldiers standing sometimes for hours waiting for enemy attacks that rarely ever came. Tedium was a major problem in the trenches, so many soldiers took to writing poetry or letters to home. Letters where they were not really allowed to write of the full horrors they saw. The trenches were simply huge ditches, the low ground meaning that they were often water-logged, and very wet and muddy. The filthy trench conditions attracted all types of unpleasant creatures – strange horned beetles (source C). They were also infested with lice and rats and frogs. The dugouts where the men had to sleep would be crawling with lice and they were driven wild with itching. The rats also helped the spread of diseases through the trenches and the men, feeding upon dead human flesh. Adding to the atrocities of trench life, were the horrible scents lingering there: (source E) the smell of the mud, human waste and decomposing bodies. The soldiers lived in daily fear in the trenches, of the smell of lingering gas. It was the most feared weapon. The enemy would bomb the gases into the allied trenches – gases such as chlorine , mustard gas, and Napalm. These gases had horrific effects such as to make the soldiers cough up their lungs, or to even rot alive! The soldiers also suffered great deals in Battles such as the Somme, and Ypres etc. Events where they drowned in mud, were mowed down by German machine guns, and suffered great losses. All these pressures of the soldiers and their experience of the war, or the stories the survivors had to tell show that they were ‘lions’ in this war. The issue mainly discussed though on the topic of the First World War is that of the generals being ‘donkeys’. The question being – where the soldiers of WW1 brave men, sent to their deaths by incompetent officers? Source N strongly suggests that men were getting slaughtered by the enemy, due to the “stupidity…of those in charge”. This is direct criticism against the generals, and evidence that the soldiers were ‘lions led by donkeys’. The Commander-in-cheif Generals of the British Army during the First World War were Sir John French (1915) and Sir Douglas Haig (!915 onwards). French was seen as an overall bad leader to the B.E.F. Seen in such examples as the First Battle of Ypres (1914). The British and German troops co-incidentally met at Ypres, both with the intentions of out-flanking the opposition. However the British army were not only less in numbers, but badly led by French – who was described as ‘jumping from bursts of extreme confidence to gloom’. So therefore, the British suffered great losses, with new troops being filed in day after day – more casualties adding to the list. Also in 1915, French staged an attack at a place called Neuve Chapelle on the 10th March. The British had no shells, so there was no preliminary bombardment – so the attack on the Germans was a complete surprise and initially a success. However French continued to fail from here as the British hesitated to fill the gap they had made in the German lines in a wait for re-inforcements: by which time the Germans had filled the gap. A pointless battle which lasted only three days. Other so-called battles like these took place while Joffre insisted on ‘one more attack’. This resulted in 50,000 French being lost in February (advancing only 500 yards) in Champagne. 60,000 were lost at St Mihiel, and 120,000 were lost in May near Arras. The British tried new offensives at Festubert and Aubers Ridge, which only resulted in a larger scale of casualties. Surely this is evidence enough to show that the Generals were not making the right decisions on either part of the Allied armies, and that is was simply causing more men to die: even at this early stage of the war. The next action that Sir John French took proved to set an example to all Generals and officers throughout the war: British generals who prolonged the slaughter kept their posts and won promotions, Whereas those who protested to the decisions were in danger of dismissal. This warning was made during the attack at Ypres, where the Germans used the new weapon if poison gas on the British. French responded by insisting on counter-attacks, but only proved to increases the casualty list. When the army commander, General Smith-Dorrien argued against French’s decision, he was rapidly dismissed. However, the General whose decisions made most influence on the war was that of Douglas Haig, who for the majority of the war was the British Commander-in-chief. Many people criticised, and still do criticise him for the way in which he ran the army. Many believe that Haig was too remote from the soldiers, and that he had no comprehension of their lives in the trenches. As he failed to visit them even once – one of the worst scenarios being during the Battle of the Somme, (source L): where he dined 40 miles away in a comfortable chateau. And remained ignorant to the horrors he was sending his men into. Haig also did not communicate very well with the other generals. They were afraid of him, and so they never conversed about the war, and so many views were never told or corrected. Such as seen in Haig (eg: during the Somme) where his tendency to monitor the missions, yet not correct officers who were doing a bad job, cost the lives of many more men. The Battle of the Somme is also a topic where Haig can be criticised strongly. The ideas given by Foch and Haig (sources G-H) which were used in the battle plan for the Somme were highly wrong and unrealistic. It was the huge underestimation of the machine gun that cost so many lives. Haig and Foch believed that ‘grit and determination’ could overcome the firepower and fatality of the machine gun. There was also huge speculation over how the bombardment would succeed. There was so much assumption that the barbed wire would be cut, and that (as Haig quoted) not “even a rat” would be left alive. It become obvious in evaluation of the events of the battle that no plans for safety were made (source M). Only the one possibility of success was thought of, which again proved fatal for the British soldiers as they were ploughed down by the German machine guns, as they marched unprotected across no-mans land: the Germans had nearly all survived in the strong fortifications of their underground bunkers. A number of faults can be picked out from the plan for the battle of the Somme. Source K suggests that ‘any Tommy’ would have known the idea of cutting the barbed wire would not have worked. This does not provide good evidence for the Generals. There were two aims set to visibly achieve in the Somme. They were to kill as many Germans as possible, and to destroy the barbed wire fortifying the German trenches. The artillery did not succeed to do their jobs well, and therefore both of these aims failed. The German bunkers were deep, and there was simply not enough artillery. The area chosen to attack on was also too widespread, and had very little effect on the German trenches. Haig having criticised French strongly for some of his offensives during his time in command, once in command himself began to think that they could work. He had a favourite strategical plan which was to attack Flanders and then ‘roll up’ the Germans from the North. This was his initial idea for the Somme. However, Joffre did not like this idea and instead pointed out the Somme as a point, (which tactically would turn out to be better for the Germans) yet Haig failed to defend his own idea. It was a very unsuccessful plan, receiving 57,000 casualties on the first day alone. A horrific figure. But yet Haig pressed on, and the Battle waged for 4½ months. Many cannot understand why Haig chose to do this, and believe it was an act purely resulting in criminal neglegance. Other Battles where Haig is remembered as being an unsuccessful leader is in that of the third battle of Ypres – Passchendaele. Passchendaele was at a similar time to the Somme and had similar results also. Which emphasised Haig’s inability to learn from his mistakes. A stronger point against him being a bad general. Haig launched the Battle with an aim on the German-occupied ports on the Belgian coast. It went ahead on the 7th June 1917, and on its first day cost 24,000 men. The main attack was on low ground, over water sources. Shelling had churned the clay soil and smashed the drainage systems beneath. Making it the worst scenario for a battle possible – with men, their horses and pack mules simply drowning in the mud. All the shell holes filed with water, and the only other solid objects in the desolation were the German strong points – where they operated their machine guns to scyth down the attackers. Despite all this, Haig let the battle continue – where it eventually ended in November of that year. What was supposed to be a “thrusting break through” had turned into a battle of attrition. The British had made a total advance of just 5 miles – at the cost of ¼ million casualties! The only consolation the British generals took from this battle was that the Germans had also suffered grievously. The question which remains unanswered to many is why Haig let a battle, fought in such terrible conditions, to continue; especially at such a high price and number of casualties, where there was the Somme also to show the error of battles like these. Lloyd George (Prime minister) also asked the opinion of the two out-of-work generals – French and Wilson, who both opposed Haig’s decision to keep the battle going; in the thought that the ‘Germans will collapse’. Haig pushed his army deeper into a battle, that many called the Slough of Despond. Reflected in poems such as that of Siegfried Sassoon’s – “I died in hell – They called it Passchendaele.” However, contrary to this evidence that the WW1 generals were all ‘donkeys’ there is evidence to prove otherwise. The myth of popular belief that all the generals were uncaring, and reamained isolated from their troops at the frontline can be disagreed with. Less widely known is the fact that 78 British and Dominion officers of the rank Brigadier General or above died on active duty in WW1. And there was a total of another 146 wounded. These figures provide proof, that contrary to popular belief, generals frequently went close enough to the battle front to place themselves in serious danger. There was also pressure applied on the generals because of politicians. At the beginning of the war, to keep the British public happy the politicians were promising that the war would ‘be over by Christmas’ and that it would only be a ‘quick war’. This put tremendous pressure on the generals who felt they had to comply to these promises that were being made. However it is impossible to secure how long a war will last for, and what military tactics at such an early stage in the war would end the whole thing! In 1917, when Lloyd George became Priminister, he placed the British army under the control of the French. So therefore the British army had to follow the French plans, and not their own, due to the interferance of politicians; who had no military knowledge. And again, politicians interfered with military plans, such as Joffre insisting in 1916 that a battle plan Haig had devised should be fought at the Somme. A place which worked out tactically due to the geography of the location, to be at the advantage of the Enemy troops! It therefore being a location that Haig would have never chosen himself. Critics also pressed on that during the First World War the generals were looking to the past; which was not entirely true. They were interested in new technology, as in 1916 having invented the tank, and being the first ever army to use them in warfare, by introducing them at the Somme. Anyone who wants to criticise the generals of WW1 will immediately refer to battles such as the Somme or Passchendaele – the most horrific, and where the British suffered most loss. Despite the fact the British suffered great casualties in the Somme, there were decent aims behind the battle (source F). And contradicting sources such as K (suggesting that the plan failed, and it had always been doubted) Source O suggests that the attack was well planned and that soldiers felt confident and thoroughly informed. Cite this page Were the British soldiers lions led by donkeys?. (2016, Jul 04). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/were-the-british-soldiers-lions-led-by-donkeys-essay	3,051	ENGLISH	1
Albert Einstein, 1879 – 1955 Born: 14 March 1879, Ulm, Kingdom of Württemberg, German Empire Died: 18 April 1955, Princeton, New Jersey Raised in a family of non-observant Jews, Einstein attended a Catholic elementary school before entering Luitpold Gymnasium. A poor Jewish medical student ate dinner with the Einstein family every Thursday for six years, tutoring Albert in science and philosophy in exchange. He renounced his citizenship in the German Empire to avoid military service, then entered a four-year program for teachers of math and physics at the Polytechnic in Zurich. After two years trying to find a position he went to as a patent examiner at Bern where he evaluated electromechanical devices, but more importantly continued to work on his own. He published a paper on capillary forces in 1901, four years later he has his “miracle year”: he finished his thesis and published four ground breaking papers on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and the famous relationship between mass and energy. In 1911 he postulated that light rays would be deflected by gravity, this was confirmed during a solar eclipse in 1919 which brought him to world fame and the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics. Because his theory of special relativity was still controversial, it was his work on the photoelectric effect that was the nominal reason for the prize. He was a visiting professor at the California Institute of Technology when Hitler was elected, he returned to Europe but not to Germany, learning that there was a $5,000 bounty available for him. He joined the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey, where he worked for the rest of his life. Hitler’s rise led him to turn from pacificism to preparedness and in 1939 signed an influential letter to President Roosevelt warning of German progress in creating an atomic bomb. In 1940 Einstein became an American citizen and was active in the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. In 1952 he was offered the largely-ceremonial post of President of Israel. He had an abdominal aortic aneurysm which surgically reinforced in 1948 but it ruptured, he took a draft of a speech with him to the hospital but died the next day. Biography from Wikipedia and Nobel Foundation	<urn:uuid:b23389cf-b3bb-4351-9a24-4391d2a8ff04>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://einstein.amsterdam/?page_id=140	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00244.warc.gz	en	0.982965	477	3.53125	4	[ -0.3158048987388611, 0.390966534614563, -0.005832291208207607, 0.04057721048593521, -0.35814547538757324, -0.18500801920890808, 0.3778313994407654, 0.3112437129020691, -0.13637684285640717, -0.2270997166633606, 0.6865443587303162, -0.3733072280883789, -0.09157570451498032, 0.55955713987350...	2	Albert Einstein, 1879 – 1955 Born: 14 March 1879, Ulm, Kingdom of Württemberg, German Empire Died: 18 April 1955, Princeton, New Jersey Raised in a family of non-observant Jews, Einstein attended a Catholic elementary school before entering Luitpold Gymnasium. A poor Jewish medical student ate dinner with the Einstein family every Thursday for six years, tutoring Albert in science and philosophy in exchange. He renounced his citizenship in the German Empire to avoid military service, then entered a four-year program for teachers of math and physics at the Polytechnic in Zurich. After two years trying to find a position he went to as a patent examiner at Bern where he evaluated electromechanical devices, but more importantly continued to work on his own. He published a paper on capillary forces in 1901, four years later he has his “miracle year”: he finished his thesis and published four ground breaking papers on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and the famous relationship between mass and energy. In 1911 he postulated that light rays would be deflected by gravity, this was confirmed during a solar eclipse in 1919 which brought him to world fame and the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics. Because his theory of special relativity was still controversial, it was his work on the photoelectric effect that was the nominal reason for the prize. He was a visiting professor at the California Institute of Technology when Hitler was elected, he returned to Europe but not to Germany, learning that there was a $5,000 bounty available for him. He joined the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey, where he worked for the rest of his life. Hitler’s rise led him to turn from pacificism to preparedness and in 1939 signed an influential letter to President Roosevelt warning of German progress in creating an atomic bomb. In 1940 Einstein became an American citizen and was active in the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People. In 1952 he was offered the largely-ceremonial post of President of Israel. He had an abdominal aortic aneurysm which surgically reinforced in 1948 but it ruptured, he took a draft of a speech with him to the hospital but died the next day. Biography from Wikipedia and Nobel Foundation	519	ENGLISH	1
In 264 BC, the Gladiatorial games began. During these games professional fighters fought each other for show . Two men would go in a group and attack each other. These fights usually took place in amphitheaters, especially the famous colosseum. They gladiatorial games were most likely introduced from Etruria. They were originally funeral games. In most of these vicious games, there where 100 couples, but mostly in the imperial games there where 5000 pairs. During the games, the Gladiators where armored differently. For instance, a heavily armored man might compete against a Thracian, who fought with a dagger and small, round shield. Or he might be opposed against a Betiarius, who almost fought nude, and got a net and a trident as his only weapon. And in often events the gladiators were forced to fight wild animals. Once a gladiator is defeated, he would usually be killed by his conquerer, unless the people convey their desire for the defeated gladiator, and wanted him spared. At first Gladiators were prisoners or slaves where they trained excessively. Some in their depressing time imprisoned, got popularity. Some of the gladiators led by Spartacus took part in the servile war. Soon after, Constantine 1 forbade the gladiatorial games, however; they still went on until AD 405.	<urn:uuid:18293a93-05b1-4efe-a627-c98436627e5b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.joshuashistorycorner.com/2017/07/01/gladiator/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00209.warc.gz	en	0.988087	278	3.4375	3	[ -0.5558830499649048, 0.6336078643798828, 0.05606290325522423, -0.10510054975748062, -0.2958333194255829, -0.029906218871474266, 0.14387844502925873, 0.14974220097064972, 0.3219195008277893, -0.28892990946769714, -0.35599857568740845, -0.2549941837787628, 0.01021144725382328, 0.252270996570...	12	In 264 BC, the Gladiatorial games began. During these games professional fighters fought each other for show . Two men would go in a group and attack each other. These fights usually took place in amphitheaters, especially the famous colosseum. They gladiatorial games were most likely introduced from Etruria. They were originally funeral games. In most of these vicious games, there where 100 couples, but mostly in the imperial games there where 5000 pairs. During the games, the Gladiators where armored differently. For instance, a heavily armored man might compete against a Thracian, who fought with a dagger and small, round shield. Or he might be opposed against a Betiarius, who almost fought nude, and got a net and a trident as his only weapon. And in often events the gladiators were forced to fight wild animals. Once a gladiator is defeated, he would usually be killed by his conquerer, unless the people convey their desire for the defeated gladiator, and wanted him spared. At first Gladiators were prisoners or slaves where they trained excessively. Some in their depressing time imprisoned, got popularity. Some of the gladiators led by Spartacus took part in the servile war. Soon after, Constantine 1 forbade the gladiatorial games, however; they still went on until AD 405.	291	ENGLISH	1
Despite constant pain from scoliosis and a tumor on her optic nerve, pianist Clara Haskil became renowned for the purity and delicacy of her interpretations of Mozart and other classical composers. An early prodigy, Haskil spent a year at the Bucharest Conservatory in 1901. Her uncle Avram then took her to Vienna, where she trained for three years with Richard Robert. She entered the Paris Conservatoire at age 10 in 1905 and graduated in 1910, although her debut concert tour across Europe was interrupted by her scoliosis, which required that she spend four years in a nursing home, confined by a cast. She resumed performing in 1921, struggling with her physical limitations with the help of her family. In 1941, she had a tumor removed from her eye, which left her plagued by headaches for the rest of her life. Despite her physical challenges, she performed with many of the great musicians and under the great conductors of her time, and was awarded the French Légion d’Honneur. Although primarily known for her piano playing, she also briefly studied violin and occasionally traded instruments with great violinists for duets while they played on her piano. She died suddenly, from injuries sustained in a fall at a train station in Brussels. In 1965, five years after her death, the Clara Haskil International Piano Competition was created in her honor. More on Clara Haskil How to cite this page Jewish Women's Archive. "Clara Haskil." (Viewed on January 25, 2020) <https://qa.jwa.org/people/haskil-clara>.	<urn:uuid:ffc7506a-1b14-43c7-b867-91a508fd198d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://qa.jwa.org/people/haskil-clara	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00059.warc.gz	en	0.981984	337	3.3125	3	[ -0.04742112383246422, -0.16453759372234344, 0.629455029964447, -0.23309555649757385, -0.5877098441123962, 0.616226315498352, 0.05576707795262337, 0.3780989348888397, 0.13170768320560455, -0.23532794415950775, 0.22655363380908966, 0.03496819734573364, 0.09367868304252625, 0.0616825148463249...	1	Despite constant pain from scoliosis and a tumor on her optic nerve, pianist Clara Haskil became renowned for the purity and delicacy of her interpretations of Mozart and other classical composers. An early prodigy, Haskil spent a year at the Bucharest Conservatory in 1901. Her uncle Avram then took her to Vienna, where she trained for three years with Richard Robert. She entered the Paris Conservatoire at age 10 in 1905 and graduated in 1910, although her debut concert tour across Europe was interrupted by her scoliosis, which required that she spend four years in a nursing home, confined by a cast. She resumed performing in 1921, struggling with her physical limitations with the help of her family. In 1941, she had a tumor removed from her eye, which left her plagued by headaches for the rest of her life. Despite her physical challenges, she performed with many of the great musicians and under the great conductors of her time, and was awarded the French Légion d’Honneur. Although primarily known for her piano playing, she also briefly studied violin and occasionally traded instruments with great violinists for duets while they played on her piano. She died suddenly, from injuries sustained in a fall at a train station in Brussels. In 1965, five years after her death, the Clara Haskil International Piano Competition was created in her honor. More on Clara Haskil How to cite this page Jewish Women's Archive. "Clara Haskil." (Viewed on January 25, 2020) <https://qa.jwa.org/people/haskil-clara>.	359	ENGLISH	1
Few can rival Christine de Pisan’s success in writing. A woman in the early 1300’s and late 1400’s, she challenged the social standards of women in France. Her unprecedented work showed critics that women are just as intelligent as men, and are entitled to their own political opinions. De Pisan was born in 1363, the daughter of Tommaso di Benvenuto da Pizzano, an Italian scholar. He was an appointed scholar and physician of the court of Charles V of France. In 1369, a very young De Pisan and her mother moved to live with him, where he taught her many subjects such as literature and the sciences, despite her mother’s opposition. She also had access to the family’s expansive library. In 1389, De Pisan wed Etienne du Castel, a lesser member of the French court that her father had known since she was a born. Though she was only fifteen years old, and he was twenty-four, they shared a marriage of mutual respect for one another. Castel supported De Pisan and encouraged her academic growth. The couple had three children; a daughter in 1381 who would later become a nun, a son who died in infancy, and a second son in 1385 who was raised by the Earl of Salisbury. In 1380, tragedy struck Christine de Pisan and her family. Charles V died and her father was dismissed from the French court. Not long afterwards, he grew ill and passed away. In 1389, her husband died of the bubonic plague. The death of her father and husband left De Pisan with several debts and two children to support. Rather than remarry, Christine de Pisan chose instead to use writing to support herself. During this time, intellectuals of the period popularized an argument on the role of women in society. Christine de Pisan wrote several responses on this argument, among which were the slightly humorous The Epistle to the God of Love, The Tale of the Rose, and possibly her most influential work, The City of Ladies. The City of Ladies was a collection of the stories of notable women in history, as well as a discussion on he role of women in society and their lack of education. Her later writings focused almost entirely on politics of the time. She frequently wrote of restoring peace to the French kingdom. De Pisan’s last work was a narrative account on Joan of Arc, celebrating her achievements at Orleans, as well as praising her dedication to Christianity. In 1431, Christine de Pisan passed away at the age of ninety-six. She is considered one of the greatest writers of the time period and the first feminist author, a well-deserved title.	<urn:uuid:64748847-d531-4880-9546-d95825005f88>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.freeonlineresearchpapers.com/life-of-christine-de-pisan	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00334.warc.gz	en	0.98562	564	3.4375	3	[ -0.27141204476356506, 0.6891950368881226, -0.15015572309494019, -0.06381405144929886, -0.45285770297050476, 0.3396020531654358, -0.17838571965694427, 0.5255832672119141, -0.02101694419980049, -0.18075266480445862, -0.2716899514198303, -0.19851934909820557, 0.3717747926712036, 0.10796386003...	12	Few can rival Christine de Pisan’s success in writing. A woman in the early 1300’s and late 1400’s, she challenged the social standards of women in France. Her unprecedented work showed critics that women are just as intelligent as men, and are entitled to their own political opinions. De Pisan was born in 1363, the daughter of Tommaso di Benvenuto da Pizzano, an Italian scholar. He was an appointed scholar and physician of the court of Charles V of France. In 1369, a very young De Pisan and her mother moved to live with him, where he taught her many subjects such as literature and the sciences, despite her mother’s opposition. She also had access to the family’s expansive library. In 1389, De Pisan wed Etienne du Castel, a lesser member of the French court that her father had known since she was a born. Though she was only fifteen years old, and he was twenty-four, they shared a marriage of mutual respect for one another. Castel supported De Pisan and encouraged her academic growth. The couple had three children; a daughter in 1381 who would later become a nun, a son who died in infancy, and a second son in 1385 who was raised by the Earl of Salisbury. In 1380, tragedy struck Christine de Pisan and her family. Charles V died and her father was dismissed from the French court. Not long afterwards, he grew ill and passed away. In 1389, her husband died of the bubonic plague. The death of her father and husband left De Pisan with several debts and two children to support. Rather than remarry, Christine de Pisan chose instead to use writing to support herself. During this time, intellectuals of the period popularized an argument on the role of women in society. Christine de Pisan wrote several responses on this argument, among which were the slightly humorous The Epistle to the God of Love, The Tale of the Rose, and possibly her most influential work, The City of Ladies. The City of Ladies was a collection of the stories of notable women in history, as well as a discussion on he role of women in society and their lack of education. Her later writings focused almost entirely on politics of the time. She frequently wrote of restoring peace to the French kingdom. De Pisan’s last work was a narrative account on Joan of Arc, celebrating her achievements at Orleans, as well as praising her dedication to Christianity. In 1431, Christine de Pisan passed away at the age of ninety-six. She is considered one of the greatest writers of the time period and the first feminist author, a well-deserved title.	573	ENGLISH	1
Why Airplane Windows Are Round And Not Square While we may use them to take photos of the gorgeous view outside while flying at 30,000 feet in the sky, the plane windows, which once were square, are round for a very scientific reason! Earlier, planes had rectangular/square windows. So what changed? Multiple airliners crashed in the early 1950s which were caused by square windows. "In the 1950s, when jetliners were starting to become mainstream, the de Havilland Comet came into fashion. With a pressurised cabin, it was able to go higher and faster than other aircraft. However, the plane had square windows and in 1953 two planes fell apart in the air, killing 56 people in total. The reason for the crashes? The windows." Basically, "where there's a corner, there's a weak spot. Windows, having four corners, have four potential weak spots, making them likely to crash under stress – such as air pressure," explains this Independent article. Learning from the mistake made by using square windows, use of circular or oval shaped windows was initiated, as it avoids the problem by not allowing stress to concentrate at the corners	<urn:uuid:39d11b2f-a7b8-4558-a8b4-8bf533f2cf0e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://says.com/my/tech/here-s-why-the-airplane-windows-weren-t-always-round-like-they-are-now	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00545.warc.gz	en	0.980604	241	3.546875	4	[ -0.0074517312459647655, -0.223318412899971, 0.35208940505981445, 0.15364407002925873, -0.025587555021047592, 0.3362549841403961, 0.26654231548309326, 0.25207602977752686, 0.021410606801509857, -0.018304863944649696, 0.11711905896663666, -0.10124504566192627, 0.13639488816261292, 0.26994648...	2	Why Airplane Windows Are Round And Not Square While we may use them to take photos of the gorgeous view outside while flying at 30,000 feet in the sky, the plane windows, which once were square, are round for a very scientific reason! Earlier, planes had rectangular/square windows. So what changed? Multiple airliners crashed in the early 1950s which were caused by square windows. "In the 1950s, when jetliners were starting to become mainstream, the de Havilland Comet came into fashion. With a pressurised cabin, it was able to go higher and faster than other aircraft. However, the plane had square windows and in 1953 two planes fell apart in the air, killing 56 people in total. The reason for the crashes? The windows." Basically, "where there's a corner, there's a weak spot. Windows, having four corners, have four potential weak spots, making them likely to crash under stress – such as air pressure," explains this Independent article. Learning from the mistake made by using square windows, use of circular or oval shaped windows was initiated, as it avoids the problem by not allowing stress to concentrate at the corners	254	ENGLISH	1
The Danes, you remember, had the eastern and northern parts of England in the time of Alfred. Alfred's successors drove them farther and farther north, and at length the Danish kingdom in England came to an end for a time. But the Danes in Denmark did not forget that there had been such a kingdom and in the year 1013 Sweyn (swane), King of Denmark, invaded England and defeated the Anglo-Saxons. Ethelred, their king, fled to Normandy . Sweyn now called himself the king of England ; but in a short time he died and his son Canute succeeded to his throne. Canute was nineteen years old. He had been his father's companion during the war with the Anglo-Saxons, and thus had had a good deal of experience as a soldier. After the death of Sweyn some of the Anglo-Saxons recalled King Ethelred and revolted against the Danes. Canute, however, went to Denmark and there raised one of the largest armies of Danes that had ever been assembled. With this powerful force he sailed to England . When he landed Northumberland and Wessex acknowledged him as king. Shortly after this Ethelred died. Canute now thought he would find it easy to get possession of all England . This was a mistake. Ethelred left a son named Edmund Ironside who was a very brave soldier. He became, by his father's death, the king of Saxon England and at once raised an army to defend his kingdom. A battle was fought and Edmund was victorious. This was the first of five battles that were fought in one year. In none of them could the Danes do more than gain a slight advantage now and then. However, the Saxons were at last defeated in a sixth battle through the act of a traitor. Edric, a Saxon noble, took his men out of the fight and his treachery so weakened the Saxon army that Edmund Ironside had to surrender to Canute. But the young Dane had greatly admired Edmund for the way in which he had fought against heavy odds, so he now treated him most generously. Canute took certain portions of England and the remainder was given to Edmund Ironside. Thus for a short time the Anglo-Saxon people had at once a Danish and a Saxon monarch.	<urn:uuid:56199085-9ebf-4a15-a114-efe7fa95f1bd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://e-reading.mobi/chapter.php/70959/62/Haaren_-_Famous_Men_of_The_Middle_Ages.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00013.warc.gz	en	0.993119	487	3.734375	4	[ -0.09519939124584198, 0.668626070022583, 0.12124598026275635, -0.23264794051647186, -0.1190464049577713, -0.1091788187623024, -0.06653853505849838, 0.015486001037061214, -0.039947398006916046, -0.5459935069084167, 0.04949755221605301, -0.4849225580692291, 0.448925256729126, 0.1988335102796...	1	The Danes, you remember, had the eastern and northern parts of England in the time of Alfred. Alfred's successors drove them farther and farther north, and at length the Danish kingdom in England came to an end for a time. But the Danes in Denmark did not forget that there had been such a kingdom and in the year 1013 Sweyn (swane), King of Denmark, invaded England and defeated the Anglo-Saxons. Ethelred, their king, fled to Normandy . Sweyn now called himself the king of England ; but in a short time he died and his son Canute succeeded to his throne. Canute was nineteen years old. He had been his father's companion during the war with the Anglo-Saxons, and thus had had a good deal of experience as a soldier. After the death of Sweyn some of the Anglo-Saxons recalled King Ethelred and revolted against the Danes. Canute, however, went to Denmark and there raised one of the largest armies of Danes that had ever been assembled. With this powerful force he sailed to England . When he landed Northumberland and Wessex acknowledged him as king. Shortly after this Ethelred died. Canute now thought he would find it easy to get possession of all England . This was a mistake. Ethelred left a son named Edmund Ironside who was a very brave soldier. He became, by his father's death, the king of Saxon England and at once raised an army to defend his kingdom. A battle was fought and Edmund was victorious. This was the first of five battles that were fought in one year. In none of them could the Danes do more than gain a slight advantage now and then. However, the Saxons were at last defeated in a sixth battle through the act of a traitor. Edric, a Saxon noble, took his men out of the fight and his treachery so weakened the Saxon army that Edmund Ironside had to surrender to Canute. But the young Dane had greatly admired Edmund for the way in which he had fought against heavy odds, so he now treated him most generously. Canute took certain portions of England and the remainder was given to Edmund Ironside. Thus for a short time the Anglo-Saxon people had at once a Danish and a Saxon monarch.	480	ENGLISH	1
John Tyler was born on March 29, 1790 in Charles City County, Virginia. Tyler was one of eight children and was born into a wealthy family. His father was a tobacco planter and judge at the U.S. Circuit Court at Richmond, Virginia. By the time John was twelve he was enrolled at the College of William Mary and graduated at 17. After college, John studied law with his father, who had been elected as Governor of Virginia (1808-1811). John was admitted to the Virginia state bar in 1809 and began practicing law in Charles City County . His political career began in 1811 when he was elected to the Virginia House of Delegates (Virginia General Assembly today). From 1816-1821 he served in the Virginia House of Representatives before returning to the House of Delegates. In 1825, he was elected Governor of Virginia and served for two years. From 1827 to 1836, John served as Senator. In 1840, Tyler switched political allegiance to the Whig party after it promised to make him the vice-presidential running mate of presidential candidateWilliam Henry Harrison in the upcoming election. "Tippecanoe and Tyler too," was their famous slogan and Tyler was inaugurated as vice-president in 1841. Just a month after inauguration, William Henry Harrison died of pneumonia and Tyler ascended to the presidency. He would become the first president to ascend to the presidency because of the death of the president. Tyler's rise to the presidency was controversial and many detractors referred to him as "His Accidency," because he "accidentally" became president. Nevertheless, Tyler insisted on taking on the full duties of the president. The Staunch Whig Tyler, however, had plans to put his personal stamp on the presidency (much to the dismay of the Whigs). Although it was thought Tyler would strictly adhere to Whig policies and ideals, he repeatedly vetoed legislation introduced by Whig party members, including two banking acts proposed by the influential Henry Clay. As a result, the president was expelled from the Whig Party and became "the man without a party." Furthermore, the entire cabinet appointed by Harrison resigned within a year of Tyler's ascent. Texas Becomes a State Tyler struggled in his presidency to be taken seriously and had a contentious relationship with Congress. Nevertheless, his presidency produced several positive outcomes. His Secretary of State, Daniel Webster, negotiated the Waterton-Ashburton Treaty that fixed the border between Maine and British Canada and ended hostile relations between the two nations over the disputed borders. In addition, The "Log-Cabin" bill enabled a settler to claim 160 acres of land before it was offered publicly for sale, and later pay $1.25 an acre for it. In 1845, the Republic of Texas was annexed and granted statehood, making it the nation's largest state. On his last day in office, Florida was admitted as a state. Death Not Mourned in Congress After his presidency, Tyler retired to his plantation in Charles City County. He renamed his land "Sherwood Forest," as a final jab at the Whig Party that had expelled him. During the Civil War, he sided with the Confederacy and even became a member of the Provisional Confederate Congress. Tyler died in 1862. Because of his support for the Confederacy he was the only President whose death was not mourned in Washington . Furthermore, he is considered the only president to have died outside of the United States (his death occurred when Virginia had seceded from the Union.). During his life he married two women, Letitia Christian, who died in the White House in 1842, and Julia Gardiner, whom he married after the death of his first wife. Tyler would have fifteen children in all, eight with his first wife and seven with his second. He is buried in Richmond, Virginia. John Tyler was the first President to have had two first ladies. His first wife, Letitia died early in his presidency and he remarried Julia Gardiner at the end of his presidency.	<urn:uuid:54bf73f5-6c91-4065-8712-331eb572dc9c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mrnussbaum.com/president-10-john-tyler-presidents-series	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00126.warc.gz	en	0.992496	824	3.703125	4	[ -0.134708970785141, 0.6691604852676392, 0.43327027559280396, 0.12089302390813828, -0.47961485385894775, 0.2711045742034912, 0.2778080701828003, 0.05728613957762718, -0.06679925322532654, 0.39025822281837463, 0.16277369856834412, 0.06783889979124069, 0.0786643773317337, 0.16589424014091492,...	3	John Tyler was born on March 29, 1790 in Charles City County, Virginia. Tyler was one of eight children and was born into a wealthy family. His father was a tobacco planter and judge at the U.S. Circuit Court at Richmond, Virginia. By the time John was twelve he was enrolled at the College of William Mary and graduated at 17. After college, John studied law with his father, who had been elected as Governor of Virginia (1808-1811). John was admitted to the Virginia state bar in 1809 and began practicing law in Charles City County . His political career began in 1811 when he was elected to the Virginia House of Delegates (Virginia General Assembly today). From 1816-1821 he served in the Virginia House of Representatives before returning to the House of Delegates. In 1825, he was elected Governor of Virginia and served for two years. From 1827 to 1836, John served as Senator. In 1840, Tyler switched political allegiance to the Whig party after it promised to make him the vice-presidential running mate of presidential candidateWilliam Henry Harrison in the upcoming election. "Tippecanoe and Tyler too," was their famous slogan and Tyler was inaugurated as vice-president in 1841. Just a month after inauguration, William Henry Harrison died of pneumonia and Tyler ascended to the presidency. He would become the first president to ascend to the presidency because of the death of the president. Tyler's rise to the presidency was controversial and many detractors referred to him as "His Accidency," because he "accidentally" became president. Nevertheless, Tyler insisted on taking on the full duties of the president. The Staunch Whig Tyler, however, had plans to put his personal stamp on the presidency (much to the dismay of the Whigs). Although it was thought Tyler would strictly adhere to Whig policies and ideals, he repeatedly vetoed legislation introduced by Whig party members, including two banking acts proposed by the influential Henry Clay. As a result, the president was expelled from the Whig Party and became "the man without a party." Furthermore, the entire cabinet appointed by Harrison resigned within a year of Tyler's ascent. Texas Becomes a State Tyler struggled in his presidency to be taken seriously and had a contentious relationship with Congress. Nevertheless, his presidency produced several positive outcomes. His Secretary of State, Daniel Webster, negotiated the Waterton-Ashburton Treaty that fixed the border between Maine and British Canada and ended hostile relations between the two nations over the disputed borders. In addition, The "Log-Cabin" bill enabled a settler to claim 160 acres of land before it was offered publicly for sale, and later pay $1.25 an acre for it. In 1845, the Republic of Texas was annexed and granted statehood, making it the nation's largest state. On his last day in office, Florida was admitted as a state. Death Not Mourned in Congress After his presidency, Tyler retired to his plantation in Charles City County. He renamed his land "Sherwood Forest," as a final jab at the Whig Party that had expelled him. During the Civil War, he sided with the Confederacy and even became a member of the Provisional Confederate Congress. Tyler died in 1862. Because of his support for the Confederacy he was the only President whose death was not mourned in Washington . Furthermore, he is considered the only president to have died outside of the United States (his death occurred when Virginia had seceded from the Union.). During his life he married two women, Letitia Christian, who died in the White House in 1842, and Julia Gardiner, whom he married after the death of his first wife. Tyler would have fifteen children in all, eight with his first wife and seven with his second. He is buried in Richmond, Virginia. John Tyler was the first President to have had two first ladies. His first wife, Letitia died early in his presidency and he remarried Julia Gardiner at the end of his presidency.	871	ENGLISH	1
common sense – noun – good sense and sound judgment in practical matters (Google) “…commonsensical ideas are often what help us to make sense of and feel at ease with the things that get repeated in our everyday lives” (Kumashiro 2009). This paper, written by Kumashiro, was an interesting one. It discussed Kumashiro’s own personal experience teaching in Nepal. He mentioned how different the culture and habits of the people were compared to the West, which is where he grew up. He believed it to be strange but didn’t necessarily argue or go against those practices (at least none mentioned in the paper). However, he goes on to describe how he taught at the schools there. Naturally, his style of teaching imitated what he observed from his own teachers in the USA. Most of those lessons were fun and easy for the students of Nepal, but they didn’t fully appreciate it. They thought he was teaching wrong. Kumashiro states: “My classes might have been “fun” and I might have been “nice,” but I was certainly not doing what teachers were supposed to be doing and that was a problem” (2009). Students naturally became anxious that he wasn’t paving out a successful path for them, and instead, forced them to choose the easier and “fun” route. He goes on to explain how this was a form of oppression. Kumashiro wasn’t interested in what the Nepali kids valued and wanted to get from their education. Obviously, they wanted a more rigorous curriculum with lots of memorization and tests. They didn’t want to interact with one another or build a community. This is a form of colonialism, in some ways, because he’s forcing his own US/Western values and sees it as superior across all cultures and situations. He goes on to urge future teachers to be open to several ideas, and to make it build a more anti-oppressive community. We tend to justify anti-oppression as “habits we do because they are common sense”. It’s commonsense that we study certain things in school, such as the World Wars, and not others, such as histories about the Indigenous peoples. This might make more sense because the World Wars impacted everyone around the world. Everyone should know about it, and Canada should not be an exception. We value certain things because it makes sense. It’s commonsense that we close school on Christmas but not on any other spiritual or religious holiday. It’s commonsense to start school after summer, and focus the four core subjects of social studies, English, math, and science (Kumashiro 2009). We should get rid of this excuse and learn adjust the curriculum so that it is inclusive. Kumashiro has four steps that attempt to get rid of the “commonsense” idea. The steps are: - make minority groups feel more comfortable and included. - instruct and inform students about minority groups so they can be less ignorant. - understanding that there are invisible forces that push society to believe certain things. - understand why this topic is important. Naturally, this topic is important and relevant to many teachers. This can also be part of the “hidden curriculum”. We model acceptable behavior to our students, so if we do not talk about this in a healthy manner or address issues that are already present, students end up believing the issue doesn’t exist, isn’t up for discussion, isn’t important, or can’t be discussed in a healthy, productive manner. There were plenty of ideas that popped up into my head as I was reading this article. I, myself, am very passionate about social conditions and justice so I found myself with several ideas to ruminate over. I resonated with Kumashiro when he said: “I assumed that these schools and people desperately needed our help” (2009). Many future teachers see their profession as somehow a noble calling, or an act of valour. Many teachers feel a sense of self-importance and pride by teaching the next generation and filling them with a sense of wonder. Many would go on to suggest that teachers are the foundation of society as a whole, as we are teaching the future doctors, firefighters, peace-advocates, environmentalists, historians, etc. I can see how Kumashiro thought that. I also resonated in another way. The way he described the conditions of Nepal reminded me of the conditions of Pakistan, which is my home country. I have lived in Canada, the West, for almost my entire life. I went back when I was ten and was given quite a culture shock. Like Nepal, things weren’t always clean. It wasn’t quiet either. People didn’t eat a lot, but drank a lot of tea. One day, I decided I wanted to go to school with my cousin. She was two years older than me. However, she said I could come to school with her, and sit with her in class. She said the teacher didn’t mind. I walked to school with her, and she went into this little classroom. There were only girls in the class, and the teacher was also a woman. All the girls had modest uniforms that consisted of a dupputa head scarf. I sat down, and none of the girls seemed to mind that a random person walked in. They were curious because they hadn’t seen me around town, rather than around school. We sat on the floor, in a cluster, and the teacher had a prop-up board to write on. I vaguely remember introducing myself when the class day started. I remember how each student had a textbook, but everything they learned was very basic. They were learning about the five senses, and had to say it out in English. I was ten at the time, so I was wondering what they were doing learning something so simple so late in their lives. One student misbehaved, so the teacher closed her paper-back text book and slapped in on her head. This was how teacher punished, and it surprised me. The student smacked seemed unfazed, and no one else appeared shocked or surprised. The school day lasted only two or three hours, and we only learned the senses that day. Most girls tend to be absent in school, preferring to do chores at home than focus on academics. I remember thinking that the schools in America were better. My teacher would never make hitting a norm. My teacher would want us to work in groups. My teacher would make sure we were on time everyday of the class. My education was taken seriously but it was also fun. However, Kumashiro’s article made me think back to that event in a new light. Most of us go to school for social purposes – to talk to our peers, to suffer math homework and complain about teachers together. In Pakistan, people are not disconnected. Again, Pakistan is loud. Family is everywhere. Your neighbours are your cousins and aunts or what have you. The “social/community” aspect of education, enforced through group work and discussion, is almost redundant and unnecessary. You’re sitting in a room filled with childhood friend, and you interact with the course content accidently on your recess break. It’s bound to come up when kids are bored. However, someone might examine this style of learning and deem it sexist. Perhaps it is and perhaps it isn’t. I know that the boys had hard-cover books and were learning complicated math. They were also in school longer. More boys went on to complete a high school degree and pursue a university education than the girls. They did not leave school early to do the laundry or make dinner. There’s nothing wrong with wanting to fulfil traditional female roles, though. They aren’t lesser than a traditionally masculine job. Being a house wife/husband is as difficult, with some variation, as an accountant. However, I wonder if students should have still been offered math and history and language courses. The greatest literary genius or someone with the mind to cure cancer could have been sitting in the room with me, talking about the weather or clothes or some other topic. Maybe not having some silence in the day, some disconnect to society, was detrimental to their health. I’m connecting this idea to Virgina Woolf’s novel, A Room of One’s Own. She mentions that people need silence, and space, to think things over. The art of writing fiction and poetry requires an amount of mental strength and concentration. If it is constantly disturbed, the next literary genius will see writing and reading as futile and abandon their poems and books. Kumashiro’s “fun” style of learning is also oppressive in other ways. It assumes students are naturally “happy-go-lucky” or might need to be coerced into learning. Creativity is often dampened by stress. When students stress over grades or tests, the teacher’s easy courses can rub the wrong way. It might appear that the teacher doesn’t care about their education. The student is thinking, “This is so hard! Why are we doing group projects? Why doesn’t the teacher feel the stress? Doesn’t she/he know this is important to me? What is she/he putting on the test? Why doesn’t she/he want me to succeed?” They might end up antagonizing the teacher, since their lessons appear to be frivolous and distracting. It’s all fun and games until the tests arrives and you don’t know half the stuff on the test because you didn’t study the way your normally did because you didn’t know how because of how differently the teacher taught the unit. Students find this frustrating. For Kumashiro, attempting to change the education system is equal to attempting to change their entire social system and history and their commonsense. Education is linked to years of culture, and that must be undone for you to shift the education model. To westernize the Nepali education system, you must westernize Nepal, and that is colonialism. At the end of the day, we all want to avoid oppressing others. Kumashiro mentions how oppression seeks to avoid harming people at its core when he says “… harm can result from discrimination” (2019). Naturally, as human beings, we want to help one another and survive as a species. If we destroy others’ cultures and oppress them, we lose the fundamental joy of being a human as well as the joy of learning about one another as we journey through our lives. We find meaning in ourselves through the company of others, and being culturally aware and sensitive helps in that endeavor.	<urn:uuid:55666d34-cd9d-4dfa-95a9-cf866af46c93>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://fantasies.sport.blog/category/ecs-210/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00558.warc.gz	en	0.981765	2,257	3.53125	4	[ 0.11995958536863327, -0.09052672982215881, 0.1150161474943161, -0.16985003650188446, -0.2602764666080475, -0.07526032626628876, 0.5145715475082397, 0.029719840735197067, 0.31779515743255615, 0.2862817347049713, -0.12567642331123352, -0.3177375793457031, 0.1178748682141304, 0.46984931826591...	1	common sense – noun – good sense and sound judgment in practical matters (Google) “…commonsensical ideas are often what help us to make sense of and feel at ease with the things that get repeated in our everyday lives” (Kumashiro 2009). This paper, written by Kumashiro, was an interesting one. It discussed Kumashiro’s own personal experience teaching in Nepal. He mentioned how different the culture and habits of the people were compared to the West, which is where he grew up. He believed it to be strange but didn’t necessarily argue or go against those practices (at least none mentioned in the paper). However, he goes on to describe how he taught at the schools there. Naturally, his style of teaching imitated what he observed from his own teachers in the USA. Most of those lessons were fun and easy for the students of Nepal, but they didn’t fully appreciate it. They thought he was teaching wrong. Kumashiro states: “My classes might have been “fun” and I might have been “nice,” but I was certainly not doing what teachers were supposed to be doing and that was a problem” (2009). Students naturally became anxious that he wasn’t paving out a successful path for them, and instead, forced them to choose the easier and “fun” route. He goes on to explain how this was a form of oppression. Kumashiro wasn’t interested in what the Nepali kids valued and wanted to get from their education. Obviously, they wanted a more rigorous curriculum with lots of memorization and tests. They didn’t want to interact with one another or build a community. This is a form of colonialism, in some ways, because he’s forcing his own US/Western values and sees it as superior across all cultures and situations. He goes on to urge future teachers to be open to several ideas, and to make it build a more anti-oppressive community. We tend to justify anti-oppression as “habits we do because they are common sense”. It’s commonsense that we study certain things in school, such as the World Wars, and not others, such as histories about the Indigenous peoples. This might make more sense because the World Wars impacted everyone around the world. Everyone should know about it, and Canada should not be an exception. We value certain things because it makes sense. It’s commonsense that we close school on Christmas but not on any other spiritual or religious holiday. It’s commonsense to start school after summer, and focus the four core subjects of social studies, English, math, and science (Kumashiro 2009). We should get rid of this excuse and learn adjust the curriculum so that it is inclusive. Kumashiro has four steps that attempt to get rid of the “commonsense” idea. The steps are: - make minority groups feel more comfortable and included. - instruct and inform students about minority groups so they can be less ignorant. - understanding that there are invisible forces that push society to believe certain things. - understand why this topic is important. Naturally, this topic is important and relevant to many teachers. This can also be part of the “hidden curriculum”. We model acceptable behavior to our students, so if we do not talk about this in a healthy manner or address issues that are already present, students end up believing the issue doesn’t exist, isn’t up for discussion, isn’t important, or can’t be discussed in a healthy, productive manner. There were plenty of ideas that popped up into my head as I was reading this article. I, myself, am very passionate about social conditions and justice so I found myself with several ideas to ruminate over. I resonated with Kumashiro when he said: “I assumed that these schools and people desperately needed our help” (2009). Many future teachers see their profession as somehow a noble calling, or an act of valour. Many teachers feel a sense of self-importance and pride by teaching the next generation and filling them with a sense of wonder. Many would go on to suggest that teachers are the foundation of society as a whole, as we are teaching the future doctors, firefighters, peace-advocates, environmentalists, historians, etc. I can see how Kumashiro thought that. I also resonated in another way. The way he described the conditions of Nepal reminded me of the conditions of Pakistan, which is my home country. I have lived in Canada, the West, for almost my entire life. I went back when I was ten and was given quite a culture shock. Like Nepal, things weren’t always clean. It wasn’t quiet either. People didn’t eat a lot, but drank a lot of tea. One day, I decided I wanted to go to school with my cousin. She was two years older than me. However, she said I could come to school with her, and sit with her in class. She said the teacher didn’t mind. I walked to school with her, and she went into this little classroom. There were only girls in the class, and the teacher was also a woman. All the girls had modest uniforms that consisted of a dupputa head scarf. I sat down, and none of the girls seemed to mind that a random person walked in. They were curious because they hadn’t seen me around town, rather than around school. We sat on the floor, in a cluster, and the teacher had a prop-up board to write on. I vaguely remember introducing myself when the class day started. I remember how each student had a textbook, but everything they learned was very basic. They were learning about the five senses, and had to say it out in English. I was ten at the time, so I was wondering what they were doing learning something so simple so late in their lives. One student misbehaved, so the teacher closed her paper-back text book and slapped in on her head. This was how teacher punished, and it surprised me. The student smacked seemed unfazed, and no one else appeared shocked or surprised. The school day lasted only two or three hours, and we only learned the senses that day. Most girls tend to be absent in school, preferring to do chores at home than focus on academics. I remember thinking that the schools in America were better. My teacher would never make hitting a norm. My teacher would want us to work in groups. My teacher would make sure we were on time everyday of the class. My education was taken seriously but it was also fun. However, Kumashiro’s article made me think back to that event in a new light. Most of us go to school for social purposes – to talk to our peers, to suffer math homework and complain about teachers together. In Pakistan, people are not disconnected. Again, Pakistan is loud. Family is everywhere. Your neighbours are your cousins and aunts or what have you. The “social/community” aspect of education, enforced through group work and discussion, is almost redundant and unnecessary. You’re sitting in a room filled with childhood friend, and you interact with the course content accidently on your recess break. It’s bound to come up when kids are bored. However, someone might examine this style of learning and deem it sexist. Perhaps it is and perhaps it isn’t. I know that the boys had hard-cover books and were learning complicated math. They were also in school longer. More boys went on to complete a high school degree and pursue a university education than the girls. They did not leave school early to do the laundry or make dinner. There’s nothing wrong with wanting to fulfil traditional female roles, though. They aren’t lesser than a traditionally masculine job. Being a house wife/husband is as difficult, with some variation, as an accountant. However, I wonder if students should have still been offered math and history and language courses. The greatest literary genius or someone with the mind to cure cancer could have been sitting in the room with me, talking about the weather or clothes or some other topic. Maybe not having some silence in the day, some disconnect to society, was detrimental to their health. I’m connecting this idea to Virgina Woolf’s novel, A Room of One’s Own. She mentions that people need silence, and space, to think things over. The art of writing fiction and poetry requires an amount of mental strength and concentration. If it is constantly disturbed, the next literary genius will see writing and reading as futile and abandon their poems and books. Kumashiro’s “fun” style of learning is also oppressive in other ways. It assumes students are naturally “happy-go-lucky” or might need to be coerced into learning. Creativity is often dampened by stress. When students stress over grades or tests, the teacher’s easy courses can rub the wrong way. It might appear that the teacher doesn’t care about their education. The student is thinking, “This is so hard! Why are we doing group projects? Why doesn’t the teacher feel the stress? Doesn’t she/he know this is important to me? What is she/he putting on the test? Why doesn’t she/he want me to succeed?” They might end up antagonizing the teacher, since their lessons appear to be frivolous and distracting. It’s all fun and games until the tests arrives and you don’t know half the stuff on the test because you didn’t study the way your normally did because you didn’t know how because of how differently the teacher taught the unit. Students find this frustrating. For Kumashiro, attempting to change the education system is equal to attempting to change their entire social system and history and their commonsense. Education is linked to years of culture, and that must be undone for you to shift the education model. To westernize the Nepali education system, you must westernize Nepal, and that is colonialism. At the end of the day, we all want to avoid oppressing others. Kumashiro mentions how oppression seeks to avoid harming people at its core when he says “… harm can result from discrimination” (2019). Naturally, as human beings, we want to help one another and survive as a species. If we destroy others’ cultures and oppress them, we lose the fundamental joy of being a human as well as the joy of learning about one another as we journey through our lives. We find meaning in ourselves through the company of others, and being culturally aware and sensitive helps in that endeavor.	2,142	ENGLISH	1
16 October 2017 Class 1 Week 6 This week we have had a dinosaur focus and have found out lots of facts about different dinosaurs. We learnt that when the dinosaurs lived there were no people, some of the dinosaurs were meat eaters and some of them were plant eaters. We looked at the different features they had to help them find food. We also talked about how the dinosaurs became extinct. We did some fabulous independent writing about our favourite dinosaurs, made dinosaur masks and played with the dinosaur small world. Outside we enjoyed playing in the den and pretending to be different characters with our dressing up box. We learnt how to play hopscotch and developed our balancing skills. We had our woodworking equipment out for the first time this week and worked hard to develop our skills with hammers and nails. In the classroom we focussed on kitchen role play in our home corner and had lots of good language development talking about what we would like to eat and how we could cook it. We developed our measuring skills learning about capacity when we poured cups of tea for each other. Our technology focus was on using the Smartboard to put things in size order. We also explored 3D shape using our building blocks. We had a visit from the school nurse who talked to us all about keeping clean. Some of us had to cover our hands in green paint and pretend it was germs then try and wash it off! Posted by Stalmine Admin on 16 October 2017 Category: Class 1	<urn:uuid:b6067dea-ce88-435b-8a0c-3ef7db070497>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.stalmineprimary.co.uk/blog/2017-10-16-19-32-15-autumn-week-6-all-about-dinosaurs	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00508.warc.gz	en	0.990232	304	3.28125	3	[ 0.03628494590520859, 0.04201201722025871, 0.6392674446105957, -0.27665022015571594, -0.4204377830028534, -0.3124943673610687, 0.23634277284145355, 0.21951298415660858, -0.35046184062957764, -0.1969601958990097, -0.0714820995926857, -0.262308806180954, -0.45502209663391113, 0.32090848684310...	1	16 October 2017 Class 1 Week 6 This week we have had a dinosaur focus and have found out lots of facts about different dinosaurs. We learnt that when the dinosaurs lived there were no people, some of the dinosaurs were meat eaters and some of them were plant eaters. We looked at the different features they had to help them find food. We also talked about how the dinosaurs became extinct. We did some fabulous independent writing about our favourite dinosaurs, made dinosaur masks and played with the dinosaur small world. Outside we enjoyed playing in the den and pretending to be different characters with our dressing up box. We learnt how to play hopscotch and developed our balancing skills. We had our woodworking equipment out for the first time this week and worked hard to develop our skills with hammers and nails. In the classroom we focussed on kitchen role play in our home corner and had lots of good language development talking about what we would like to eat and how we could cook it. We developed our measuring skills learning about capacity when we poured cups of tea for each other. Our technology focus was on using the Smartboard to put things in size order. We also explored 3D shape using our building blocks. We had a visit from the school nurse who talked to us all about keeping clean. Some of us had to cover our hands in green paint and pretend it was germs then try and wash it off! Posted by Stalmine Admin on 16 October 2017 Category: Class 1	313	ENGLISH	1
(Last Updated on : 15/11/2014) Lord Dalhousie decided to tackle the problem of Oudh. In 1848, Sleeman was sent to Lucknow as a Resident to undertake the reconstruction of the oppressed country. In 1849, he was instructed to make a tour and report on the conditions prevailing in the country. His report was that the people killed their female children and buried them alive. Lucknow was in perpetual turmoil of processions, illuminations and festivities. The only companions of the king were fiddlers and buffoons. The ambition of the king was limited to the reputation of being known as the best drum-beater, dancer and poet of the day. Most of his associates were out-castes from the low classes. He was always in need of money and used the army to squeeze as much as possible. The condition of the peasantry in Oudh was miserable. The governing classes had no sympathy for the subjects who suffered terribly under their tyranny. The officials took delight in plundering the peasants. Although the condition of Oudh was not satisfactory, Sleeman was opposed to its annexation. In 1851 Dalhousie himself journeyed on the borders of Oudh and heard the use of heavy cannon for the purpose of collecting revenues by the servants of the king. In spite of that, Dalhousie hesitated to take action. In 1854, Sleeman was replaced by Outram as Resident. The new Resident reported that the administration of the country was an orgy of massacre and corruption set to music. The recommendation of Dalhousie was that while Wajid Ali Shah, the ruler of Oudh, be allowed to retain his title, the entire administration of the country be taken over by the English Company. On account of the loyalty of the king, Dalhousie did not recommend his forcible abduction and annexation of his territory. The members of the Executive were divided. In January 1856, Dalhousie got the orders of the Court of Directors with regard to the future of Oudh. He was to offer to the king a kind of Vatican sovereignty, the title of the king, adequate funds and full jurisdiction. Outram was sent back to Lucknow and a brigade followed him. The king refused to accept the new position and was deposed. He was sent to Calcutta (Kolkata ) and he died in 1857. Sleeman believed that the annexation of Oudh was a political blunder. The English used their giant's strength and had injured their reputation in the eyes of the Indians. During the Revolt of 1857, the sepoys of Oudh had brought about havoc and had added to the difficulties of the British. It is said that the forced abduction of Wajid Ali Shah and annexation of Oudh were offences against good faith and public conscience.	<urn:uuid:1a0d7df7-c264-4647-9ca5-3c4932d386a8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.indianetzone.com/47/annexation_oudh.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00274.warc.gz	en	0.98932	597	3.453125	3	[ -0.16383492946624756, 0.3574695587158203, 0.45059508085250854, -0.1851651966571808, -0.20642659068107605, -0.5332627296447754, 0.17093273997306824, -0.04692183434963226, -0.21808888018131256, 0.02939283289015293, 0.32195159792900085, -0.5399150252342224, 0.22414271533489227, 0.065165758132...	1	(Last Updated on : 15/11/2014) Lord Dalhousie decided to tackle the problem of Oudh. In 1848, Sleeman was sent to Lucknow as a Resident to undertake the reconstruction of the oppressed country. In 1849, he was instructed to make a tour and report on the conditions prevailing in the country. His report was that the people killed their female children and buried them alive. Lucknow was in perpetual turmoil of processions, illuminations and festivities. The only companions of the king were fiddlers and buffoons. The ambition of the king was limited to the reputation of being known as the best drum-beater, dancer and poet of the day. Most of his associates were out-castes from the low classes. He was always in need of money and used the army to squeeze as much as possible. The condition of the peasantry in Oudh was miserable. The governing classes had no sympathy for the subjects who suffered terribly under their tyranny. The officials took delight in plundering the peasants. Although the condition of Oudh was not satisfactory, Sleeman was opposed to its annexation. In 1851 Dalhousie himself journeyed on the borders of Oudh and heard the use of heavy cannon for the purpose of collecting revenues by the servants of the king. In spite of that, Dalhousie hesitated to take action. In 1854, Sleeman was replaced by Outram as Resident. The new Resident reported that the administration of the country was an orgy of massacre and corruption set to music. The recommendation of Dalhousie was that while Wajid Ali Shah, the ruler of Oudh, be allowed to retain his title, the entire administration of the country be taken over by the English Company. On account of the loyalty of the king, Dalhousie did not recommend his forcible abduction and annexation of his territory. The members of the Executive were divided. In January 1856, Dalhousie got the orders of the Court of Directors with regard to the future of Oudh. He was to offer to the king a kind of Vatican sovereignty, the title of the king, adequate funds and full jurisdiction. Outram was sent back to Lucknow and a brigade followed him. The king refused to accept the new position and was deposed. He was sent to Calcutta (Kolkata ) and he died in 1857. Sleeman believed that the annexation of Oudh was a political blunder. The English used their giant's strength and had injured their reputation in the eyes of the Indians. During the Revolt of 1857, the sepoys of Oudh had brought about havoc and had added to the difficulties of the British. It is said that the forced abduction of Wajid Ali Shah and annexation of Oudh were offences against good faith and public conscience.	619	ENGLISH	1
Dorothea Dix Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Also Known For : Birth Place : Early Life And Work Dorothea Lynde Dix was born on April 4, 1802, in Hampden, Maine, but grew up in Worchester, Massachusetts. She was the first of three children to Joseph Dix and Mary Bigelow. Her father was an itinerant worker, and a Methodist preach. Her parents were both alcoholics, and her father was very abusive, therefore when Dix was 12 years old, she went to live with her grandmother Dorothea in Boston. In 1821, Dorothea Dix opened a school in Boston, which was sponsored by wealthy families. She also began teaching poor children out of her grandmother’s barn. In 1824, she published her first book, Conversations on Common Things. This book was followed by The Garland of Flora and Private Hours, Prisons and Prison Discipline. Her health status made her give up the schoolwork, and Dorothea Dix began working as a governess for Dr. W. E. Channing. She traveled to St. Croix with the family and witnessed slavery. In 1831, Dix moved to Boston and established a model school for girls, which operated until 1836, when her health again forced to stop teaching. She then traveled to Europe and was inspired to start working towards equal rights for the mentally ill. She went to England, where she introduced a reform movement known as the lunacy reform. Dorothea Dix returned to America in 1840 and began carrying out investigations of the care of insane poor in Massachusetts. She found out that individuals were abused and she published her results to the state legislature. Her work resulted in the expansion of the mental hospital in Worcester. In 1944, she began visiting jails and almshouses in New Jersey to carry out a similar investigation. She prepared a memorial of her findings to be presented at the New Jersey Legislature. The report was also introduced in the Senate, and the bill was passed to establish new state facilities for the mentally ill. Dorothea Dix continued to carry out her investigations in several states. She was instrumental in the founding of the first public mental hospital in Pennsylvania. One of her most significant works was the Bill for the Benefit of the Indigent Insane, which awarded 12,225,000 acres of Federal land to use for the benefit of the insane and the blind, deaf and dumb. Dix sold the property, and the money was spent to build and maintain asylums in several states. During 1854, Dix investigated several mental hospitals in Scotland and found out that they also have similarly poor conditions. In 1857, the reforms were also made in Scotland to improve the conditions of mentally ill. During the American Civil War, Dorothea Dix worked as the Superintendent of Army Nurses for the Union Army. Firstly she set guidelines to nurse candidates and created requirements for their uniforms. Dix often fired nurses that she hadn’t hired or trained herself, and feuded with army doctors over the control of medical facilities. Many doctors at the time did not want female nurses, but thanks to Dix’s efforts, the War Department introduced an order that granted the permission to Surgeon General and Superintendent of Army Nurses to hire female nurses. Dorothea Dix implemented the Federal army nursing program, which led to around 3000 women serving the cause. Dix believed in even caring for the Union and Confederate soldiers, which meant that her nurses often gave the only help to the wounded Confederates in the field. Life After War After the end of the war, Dorothea Dix began to raise funds for a monument to the deceased soldiers. Later she continued her work towards improving the conditions of prisoners, disabled and mentally ill. She started with reviewing the damages to the facilities of the South. In 1881, Dorothea Dix moved to New Jersey, where she began working at the Morris Plains, State Hospital of New Jersey. Although she was not able to travel, Dix continued to correspond with her colleagues in England, Japan, and other countries. Dorothea Dix was briefly engaged to her cousin Edward Bangs but never married. She died on July 17, 1887. Throughout her life, Dorothea Dix received many honors and awards. She was elected the President for Life of the Army Nurses Association. In 1866, she was awarded two national flags for her service in Civil War. Dix’s name has been remembered with several honors, like the Dix Ward at the McLean Asylum and the Dixmont Hospital in Pennsylvania. A ship in World War II was also named Dorothea L. Dix in her honor. Matilda Joslyn Gage Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan	<urn:uuid:9771694d-072e-45b1-bf95-67e2993c3e7f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/dorothea-dix/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00079.warc.gz	en	0.982861	1,007	3.3125	3	[ 0.013389931991696358, 0.12185011804103851, 0.6466808319091797, -0.2149927318096161, -0.10724355280399323, 0.3289214074611664, 0.025591392070055008, 0.22032666206359863, -0.281363844871521, -0.3387743830680847, 0.277983158826828, -0.011015987023711205, 0.215968519449234, 0.34613776206970215...	1	Dorothea Dix Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Also Known For : Birth Place : Early Life And Work Dorothea Lynde Dix was born on April 4, 1802, in Hampden, Maine, but grew up in Worchester, Massachusetts. She was the first of three children to Joseph Dix and Mary Bigelow. Her father was an itinerant worker, and a Methodist preach. Her parents were both alcoholics, and her father was very abusive, therefore when Dix was 12 years old, she went to live with her grandmother Dorothea in Boston. In 1821, Dorothea Dix opened a school in Boston, which was sponsored by wealthy families. She also began teaching poor children out of her grandmother’s barn. In 1824, she published her first book, Conversations on Common Things. This book was followed by The Garland of Flora and Private Hours, Prisons and Prison Discipline. Her health status made her give up the schoolwork, and Dorothea Dix began working as a governess for Dr. W. E. Channing. She traveled to St. Croix with the family and witnessed slavery. In 1831, Dix moved to Boston and established a model school for girls, which operated until 1836, when her health again forced to stop teaching. She then traveled to Europe and was inspired to start working towards equal rights for the mentally ill. She went to England, where she introduced a reform movement known as the lunacy reform. Dorothea Dix returned to America in 1840 and began carrying out investigations of the care of insane poor in Massachusetts. She found out that individuals were abused and she published her results to the state legislature. Her work resulted in the expansion of the mental hospital in Worcester. In 1944, she began visiting jails and almshouses in New Jersey to carry out a similar investigation. She prepared a memorial of her findings to be presented at the New Jersey Legislature. The report was also introduced in the Senate, and the bill was passed to establish new state facilities for the mentally ill. Dorothea Dix continued to carry out her investigations in several states. She was instrumental in the founding of the first public mental hospital in Pennsylvania. One of her most significant works was the Bill for the Benefit of the Indigent Insane, which awarded 12,225,000 acres of Federal land to use for the benefit of the insane and the blind, deaf and dumb. Dix sold the property, and the money was spent to build and maintain asylums in several states. During 1854, Dix investigated several mental hospitals in Scotland and found out that they also have similarly poor conditions. In 1857, the reforms were also made in Scotland to improve the conditions of mentally ill. During the American Civil War, Dorothea Dix worked as the Superintendent of Army Nurses for the Union Army. Firstly she set guidelines to nurse candidates and created requirements for their uniforms. Dix often fired nurses that she hadn’t hired or trained herself, and feuded with army doctors over the control of medical facilities. Many doctors at the time did not want female nurses, but thanks to Dix’s efforts, the War Department introduced an order that granted the permission to Surgeon General and Superintendent of Army Nurses to hire female nurses. Dorothea Dix implemented the Federal army nursing program, which led to around 3000 women serving the cause. Dix believed in even caring for the Union and Confederate soldiers, which meant that her nurses often gave the only help to the wounded Confederates in the field. Life After War After the end of the war, Dorothea Dix began to raise funds for a monument to the deceased soldiers. Later she continued her work towards improving the conditions of prisoners, disabled and mentally ill. She started with reviewing the damages to the facilities of the South. In 1881, Dorothea Dix moved to New Jersey, where she began working at the Morris Plains, State Hospital of New Jersey. Although she was not able to travel, Dix continued to correspond with her colleagues in England, Japan, and other countries. Dorothea Dix was briefly engaged to her cousin Edward Bangs but never married. She died on July 17, 1887. Throughout her life, Dorothea Dix received many honors and awards. She was elected the President for Life of the Army Nurses Association. In 1866, she was awarded two national flags for her service in Civil War. Dix’s name has been remembered with several honors, like the Dix Ward at the McLean Asylum and the Dixmont Hospital in Pennsylvania. A ship in World War II was also named Dorothea L. Dix in her honor. Matilda Joslyn Gage Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan	1,020	ENGLISH	1
If it isn’t broken, why fix it? A history of spelling and writing in English In August of 1965, a young boy beginning his first day of education, put his hand up in his class when he noticed the teacher write the word ‘police’. But it was not written the way he had been taught by his mother: as far as he was concerned, this particular spelling was completely wrong. It went something like this: (I think. Well, come on! I was only five, for goodness sake!) It was raising my arm that got me switched from a class that would otherwise have inflicted the Initial Teaching Alphabet on me, an orthographic system of lower case lettering from the Roman alphabet, but with additional phonemic symbols to represent diagraphs (two letters used to write or make one distinct sound) making a total of 42 letters (two short of 44 phonemes, the same number of characters that make up the Phonetic alphabet). It was invented by Sir James Pitman, grandson of Sir Issac Pitman (the inventor of shorthand), who was a keen enthusiast in trying to overhaul the way English is written and pronounced. ITA was one of many such attempts by several reformers over the centuries in an attempt to clarify the way we use the English language. But why should we change it? Indeed, why should we even consider changing the way we write letters and even how to spell our words? A BRIEF HISTORY To understand why some individuals want to change the way we spell words in the English language, we have to understand why English orthography is the way it is. A basic ITA chart (public domain) After the Romans withdrew some four centuries later, England was again invaded, this time by the Germanic-speaking Saxons, Angles, and Jutes from Western Europe. Thanks to their influence and languages, by the fifth century an early form of English appeared, although in its written form it consisted of Runic inscriptions (or more accurately, Runic script). The oldest known piece of writing that we do know of is a carving that was found on a roe-deer’s ankle-bone in Norfolk, England. It appears to read as raïhan (meaning roe-deer); what we don’t know is whether this represents English or another Germanic dialect that existed at the time. It is, however, an example of Runic script from which the earliest English was written, and was an alphabet based on simple lines that could easily be carved into wood or bone. Where this script comes from we’re not sure, but it does appear to be modelled on the Latin or Greek alphabet, but what we do know is that runes were used in a number of Germanic languages abroad and so was brought to England from mainland Europe. In its early days, Britain was made up of a number of Celtic-speaking peoples spread across the land that we know today as England, Wales and Scotland, that was, up until the Roman Invasion of England in 50BC, after which Latin became the official language. Runic inscriptions are considered important to language historians as they provided evidence on how words were pronounced, the fact that words and sentences were written in a circle (early English at that time was not fixed to lines written from left to right), the shape of the letters, their order and the range (the old English alphabet consisting or runes was known as the ‘futhorc’, named after the first few letters of the alphabet. But the runes were not the only writing system at this time. There was a lettering system known as the ‘ogham’ script, which like the futhorc, was made up of angled lines. However, it was not related to Greek or Latin and were often read from bottom to top, and is not considered a part of the development of English writing. THE DOMINANCE OF LATIN SCRIPT The writing system that was most widespread before the Anglo-Saxon invasions was Latin. It was used for many centuries as the main language of writing texts, particularly in religion, science and legal documents. The church would effectively control the skills of writing and perhaps, not surprisingly, Latin script would win over runic, the first books in English using Latin. After Christian missionaries from Rome arrived in the sixth century and in turn brought with them over 400 words to the language, it was the Vikings that then invaded the east of England, and they added close to 2000 additional words to the slowly emerging language that would eventually become what we know as Old English. Unfortunately very little written evidence is available to us as regards the Old English and subsequent Middle English periods, but it does exist in the form of very decorative and artistic manuscripts that were produced by scribes (a person who wrote copies of things such as letters or documents) who were housed in various monasteries around the country. What documents do exist today reveal that even in this time, there were differences in the spelling of the same word. This is perhaps because the scribes had to write down what they were hearing and interpret the many different accents as they understood, and this resulted in the different spellings and grammar construction, pretty though the very artistic pieces of text were! Combined with the way people spoke at the time and the region they came from, Old English Spelling was still largely based on the principles of Latin, and in that time it was a more phonemic language. THE NORMAN CONQUEST The next big change was in the eleventh century during the Norman Conquest. Latin, and particularly French, displaced English as the language of literacy, and subsequently absorbed many French words such as double, couple, route – along with further Latin – to its vocabulary. The north, largely unaffected by the conquest, retained its Scandinavian influences, and consequently further spelling variants occurred. By the twelfth century scribes were now starting to set up their own scriptoriums thanks to the demands of business, along with academic documents that had to be drawn up. However, they were still writing in the various dialects that were scattered around the country. PRINTING AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF A FIXED WRITTEN LANGUAGE When William Caxton set about printing the first book in 1473, a translation into English from French, he decided that the printed word, its spelling and pronunciation, would be based upon the dialect of London and the south east, a decision that virtually established the future direction of English orthography. Subsequently in the eighteenth century Doctor Samuel Johnson attempted to write a definitive English dictionary, favouring past language influences such as French and Latin. It was to prove influential. As a result, most of the spelling in that time is now pretty much the spelling that we have today – a language that had developed and enriched by subsequent invaders. All these, according to the English Spelling Society, along with the arrival of printing by Caxton, resulted in a language whose spelling system, is ‘more complicated than most’. Clearly, it can be argued that English orthography is one of the least successful applications of the Roman alphabet. EARLY ATTEMPTS TO ALTER THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH The first attempts at some kind of English language reform – although in this case this was brought about because of concerns about falling literacy – go back to King Alfred in the ninth century. He had a document (originally produced some 300 years earlier by Pope Gregory the Great) translated into Old English from Latin, and in turn appealed to bishops to ‘assist in the renewal of learning by translating more works in the vernacular’. During the invasions from Scandinavia, many of the Northumbrian monasteries - where a great deal of the written literature at the time had been produced - were destroyed. During the 16th century various books appeared attempting to explain the workings of the language, but the first to address spelling – as well as including vocabulary and grammar, was Bullokar’s Bref Grammar for English. As John Hart, an author on books on spelling observed in 1569, the language at that time had around 45 phonemes and an insufficient number of letters. Numerous suggestions had been made to replace the alphabet over the centuries, including an international competition producing an alphabet using a completely new orthography back in 1962, but to this day the Roman alphabet has proved difficult to displace. Many of the reformers have instead put forward suggestions to change the spelling rather than the alphabet, mainly concentrating on making it more phonetic. As already mentioned, there are well over 40 different phonemes, the figure varying depending on the dialect. This would prove to be a massive problem to overcome, and is a problem that still lingers today – it is still used by some as an argument to retain the current orthography. One argument in favour of a change in spelling is that it might well introduce a form of dialect levelling, but there are many who would object to the idea of having their regional dialect shaped into something that already reflects another particular region of the country. In 1644, in his spelling book English Primrose, Richard Hodges suggested a rather extreme use of diacritics: an excessive placing of dots and dashes above and below the letters, resulting in a rather messy looking page and almost impossible to proof properly. As it became clear that such an approach would be ineffective, others would try to extend the alphabet further by introducing new, or bringing in some old English letters. Another enthusiastic reformer of spelling was scientist and statesman Benjamin Franklin, who came up with an extended alphabet in 1779. However, many of his suggested letters looked very similar: it would have created many problems as regards reading. But this did not stop Noah Webster’s language reforms who, like Franklin, was keen for the emerging United States of America to truly establish its own identity. Fresh from becoming an independent state, in 1789 Webster put forward far-reaching proposals to create linguistic uniformity – in this case, using the existing Roman alphabet, but making much of the spelling reflect the pronunciation. He was determined to do away with the various influences that had affected English spelling since the Viking invasions. Although much of what he put forward was implemented, there were many other radical examples such as giv, bilt, relm, and speek. Fortunately, these remained only as ideas; cultural divisions ensured that Webster’s dream of linguistic unification would not be totally fulfilled. LATER ATTEMPTS IN THE 20TH CENTURY Sir Issac Pitman, inventor of a shorthand writing system based on phonological principles which enabled spoken language to be written quickly, turned his attention to a new kind of orthography in which much research into many other alphabets was conducted. Working with phonetician Alexander Ellis, he subsequently published his ideas in the form of popular journals. In turn, by the twentieth century there was sufficient interest in changing English spelling, and Sir James Pitman, (the son of Sir Issac), who was also a member of the Simplified Spelling Society, put forward a private member’s bill in parliament to reform English spelling, which was only narrowly defeated. But the Simplified Spelling Bill, a much watered-down proposal, was passed in 1953. This introduced, for many, the infamous Initial Teaching Alphabet, a system that was supposed to assist children, who were beginning school, in learning to read and spell the language, after which they would then be able to easily switch to ‘ordinary’ or normal English. According to the Simplified Spelling Society, those children taught with i.t.a. received higher scores than those taught normal spelling. However, not everyone agreed: several, including my older sister, would have considerable problems making the switch later in life, claiming that it had a lasting effect on their normal spelling ability. Today, debate still rages to the benefits of a system introduced to schools in the sixties, with the alphabet still having its supporters, particularly in the USA, where it is still being taught in some establishments. I was fortunate in being taught to read and write English before I started my primary school education, but even now I can clearly recall at seven years of age the difficulties other children had in my class with the transition. Plus, of course, it did not address one problem – the pronunciations were based on Received Pronunciation – anyone used to hearing words ‘pronounced with a Scots accent was completely lost’. But one form that has been successful – albeit the kind that can be used with any language using the Roman alphabet – is the International Phonetic Alphabet. Based on research by Pitman and Ellis, it has now become the lingua franca for transcribing pronunciations and is used extensively in dictionaries and increasingly in English language learning. There are those that argue if the language kept to phonemes, as it did with Old English, spelling would still be undergoing constant development and change even now. The problem is that to change the way we spell would mean to somehow uniting speakers of the English language – and here, depending on your source, we are talking several hundreds of millions – into using one common means of pronunciation. But which one? In their piece The Structure of Modern English Orthography, Graddol, Cheshire and Swann point out that psychologists have observed readers recognizing words by their orthographic shape, and then immediately understanding the word by its shape and forming a mental image of its pronunciation. Basically, regardless of whether one speaks English with a Welsh or Birmingham accent or dialect, the words remain instantly recognizable to the reader regardless of where he or she comes from, and this remains an insurmountable problem reformers continue to face. (Even now, I have taught my boys to read English using a method that focuses only on word recognition rather than using phonics. It certainly helped me.) For sure, unlike Latin or French before it, English now has the considerable advantage of being available in countless publications, newspapers, and makes up 80% of published websites around the world. As English continues to expand across the globe, it will become virtually impossible to reform spelling. Plus, of course, there remains a significant proportion of the population who would not want to change it. But strangely enough, there might still be hope for the reformists, even though it's perhaps not in the form they would expect. Text messaging is still a comparatively recent phenomenon, and much of the abbreviated language remains understood only by a small circle of people, being particularly popular among the younger age groups. We get phrases such as LUV U, OMG, IMHO, C U L8TR 4 MTNG THS AFTRN, and so on. It remains to be seen as to whether any of their abbreviated spellings make their way into the OED. Ah, I completely forgot… EMOJIS, anyone?	<urn:uuid:e65aaf0c-6d60-4eca-84c0-f291ed26d643>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.typicalerrorsinenglish.com/english-spelling-and-a-history	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00193.warc.gz	en	0.980895	3,091	3.296875	3	[ -0.5937777161598206, -0.15897805988788605, 0.5592735409736633, -0.11941307783126831, -0.48277270793914795, 0.06849240511655807, -0.15474048256874084, -0.061953987926244736, 0.014084887690842152, -0.094320148229599, 0.2190483808517456, -0.11902356147766113, 0.08735508471727371, -0.059263590...	13	If it isn’t broken, why fix it? A history of spelling and writing in English In August of 1965, a young boy beginning his first day of education, put his hand up in his class when he noticed the teacher write the word ‘police’. But it was not written the way he had been taught by his mother: as far as he was concerned, this particular spelling was completely wrong. It went something like this: (I think. Well, come on! I was only five, for goodness sake!) It was raising my arm that got me switched from a class that would otherwise have inflicted the Initial Teaching Alphabet on me, an orthographic system of lower case lettering from the Roman alphabet, but with additional phonemic symbols to represent diagraphs (two letters used to write or make one distinct sound) making a total of 42 letters (two short of 44 phonemes, the same number of characters that make up the Phonetic alphabet). It was invented by Sir James Pitman, grandson of Sir Issac Pitman (the inventor of shorthand), who was a keen enthusiast in trying to overhaul the way English is written and pronounced. ITA was one of many such attempts by several reformers over the centuries in an attempt to clarify the way we use the English language. But why should we change it? Indeed, why should we even consider changing the way we write letters and even how to spell our words? A BRIEF HISTORY To understand why some individuals want to change the way we spell words in the English language, we have to understand why English orthography is the way it is. A basic ITA chart (public domain) After the Romans withdrew some four centuries later, England was again invaded, this time by the Germanic-speaking Saxons, Angles, and Jutes from Western Europe. Thanks to their influence and languages, by the fifth century an early form of English appeared, although in its written form it consisted of Runic inscriptions (or more accurately, Runic script). The oldest known piece of writing that we do know of is a carving that was found on a roe-deer’s ankle-bone in Norfolk, England. It appears to read as raïhan (meaning roe-deer); what we don’t know is whether this represents English or another Germanic dialect that existed at the time. It is, however, an example of Runic script from which the earliest English was written, and was an alphabet based on simple lines that could easily be carved into wood or bone. Where this script comes from we’re not sure, but it does appear to be modelled on the Latin or Greek alphabet, but what we do know is that runes were used in a number of Germanic languages abroad and so was brought to England from mainland Europe. In its early days, Britain was made up of a number of Celtic-speaking peoples spread across the land that we know today as England, Wales and Scotland, that was, up until the Roman Invasion of England in 50BC, after which Latin became the official language. Runic inscriptions are considered important to language historians as they provided evidence on how words were pronounced, the fact that words and sentences were written in a circle (early English at that time was not fixed to lines written from left to right), the shape of the letters, their order and the range (the old English alphabet consisting or runes was known as the ‘futhorc’, named after the first few letters of the alphabet. But the runes were not the only writing system at this time. There was a lettering system known as the ‘ogham’ script, which like the futhorc, was made up of angled lines. However, it was not related to Greek or Latin and were often read from bottom to top, and is not considered a part of the development of English writing. THE DOMINANCE OF LATIN SCRIPT The writing system that was most widespread before the Anglo-Saxon invasions was Latin. It was used for many centuries as the main language of writing texts, particularly in religion, science and legal documents. The church would effectively control the skills of writing and perhaps, not surprisingly, Latin script would win over runic, the first books in English using Latin. After Christian missionaries from Rome arrived in the sixth century and in turn brought with them over 400 words to the language, it was the Vikings that then invaded the east of England, and they added close to 2000 additional words to the slowly emerging language that would eventually become what we know as Old English. Unfortunately very little written evidence is available to us as regards the Old English and subsequent Middle English periods, but it does exist in the form of very decorative and artistic manuscripts that were produced by scribes (a person who wrote copies of things such as letters or documents) who were housed in various monasteries around the country. What documents do exist today reveal that even in this time, there were differences in the spelling of the same word. This is perhaps because the scribes had to write down what they were hearing and interpret the many different accents as they understood, and this resulted in the different spellings and grammar construction, pretty though the very artistic pieces of text were! Combined with the way people spoke at the time and the region they came from, Old English Spelling was still largely based on the principles of Latin, and in that time it was a more phonemic language. THE NORMAN CONQUEST The next big change was in the eleventh century during the Norman Conquest. Latin, and particularly French, displaced English as the language of literacy, and subsequently absorbed many French words such as double, couple, route – along with further Latin – to its vocabulary. The north, largely unaffected by the conquest, retained its Scandinavian influences, and consequently further spelling variants occurred. By the twelfth century scribes were now starting to set up their own scriptoriums thanks to the demands of business, along with academic documents that had to be drawn up. However, they were still writing in the various dialects that were scattered around the country. PRINTING AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF A FIXED WRITTEN LANGUAGE When William Caxton set about printing the first book in 1473, a translation into English from French, he decided that the printed word, its spelling and pronunciation, would be based upon the dialect of London and the south east, a decision that virtually established the future direction of English orthography. Subsequently in the eighteenth century Doctor Samuel Johnson attempted to write a definitive English dictionary, favouring past language influences such as French and Latin. It was to prove influential. As a result, most of the spelling in that time is now pretty much the spelling that we have today – a language that had developed and enriched by subsequent invaders. All these, according to the English Spelling Society, along with the arrival of printing by Caxton, resulted in a language whose spelling system, is ‘more complicated than most’. Clearly, it can be argued that English orthography is one of the least successful applications of the Roman alphabet. EARLY ATTEMPTS TO ALTER THE SPELLING OF ENGLISH The first attempts at some kind of English language reform – although in this case this was brought about because of concerns about falling literacy – go back to King Alfred in the ninth century. He had a document (originally produced some 300 years earlier by Pope Gregory the Great) translated into Old English from Latin, and in turn appealed to bishops to ‘assist in the renewal of learning by translating more works in the vernacular’. During the invasions from Scandinavia, many of the Northumbrian monasteries - where a great deal of the written literature at the time had been produced - were destroyed. During the 16th century various books appeared attempting to explain the workings of the language, but the first to address spelling – as well as including vocabulary and grammar, was Bullokar’s Bref Grammar for English. As John Hart, an author on books on spelling observed in 1569, the language at that time had around 45 phonemes and an insufficient number of letters. Numerous suggestions had been made to replace the alphabet over the centuries, including an international competition producing an alphabet using a completely new orthography back in 1962, but to this day the Roman alphabet has proved difficult to displace. Many of the reformers have instead put forward suggestions to change the spelling rather than the alphabet, mainly concentrating on making it more phonetic. As already mentioned, there are well over 40 different phonemes, the figure varying depending on the dialect. This would prove to be a massive problem to overcome, and is a problem that still lingers today – it is still used by some as an argument to retain the current orthography. One argument in favour of a change in spelling is that it might well introduce a form of dialect levelling, but there are many who would object to the idea of having their regional dialect shaped into something that already reflects another particular region of the country. In 1644, in his spelling book English Primrose, Richard Hodges suggested a rather extreme use of diacritics: an excessive placing of dots and dashes above and below the letters, resulting in a rather messy looking page and almost impossible to proof properly. As it became clear that such an approach would be ineffective, others would try to extend the alphabet further by introducing new, or bringing in some old English letters. Another enthusiastic reformer of spelling was scientist and statesman Benjamin Franklin, who came up with an extended alphabet in 1779. However, many of his suggested letters looked very similar: it would have created many problems as regards reading. But this did not stop Noah Webster’s language reforms who, like Franklin, was keen for the emerging United States of America to truly establish its own identity. Fresh from becoming an independent state, in 1789 Webster put forward far-reaching proposals to create linguistic uniformity – in this case, using the existing Roman alphabet, but making much of the spelling reflect the pronunciation. He was determined to do away with the various influences that had affected English spelling since the Viking invasions. Although much of what he put forward was implemented, there were many other radical examples such as giv, bilt, relm, and speek. Fortunately, these remained only as ideas; cultural divisions ensured that Webster’s dream of linguistic unification would not be totally fulfilled. LATER ATTEMPTS IN THE 20TH CENTURY Sir Issac Pitman, inventor of a shorthand writing system based on phonological principles which enabled spoken language to be written quickly, turned his attention to a new kind of orthography in which much research into many other alphabets was conducted. Working with phonetician Alexander Ellis, he subsequently published his ideas in the form of popular journals. In turn, by the twentieth century there was sufficient interest in changing English spelling, and Sir James Pitman, (the son of Sir Issac), who was also a member of the Simplified Spelling Society, put forward a private member’s bill in parliament to reform English spelling, which was only narrowly defeated. But the Simplified Spelling Bill, a much watered-down proposal, was passed in 1953. This introduced, for many, the infamous Initial Teaching Alphabet, a system that was supposed to assist children, who were beginning school, in learning to read and spell the language, after which they would then be able to easily switch to ‘ordinary’ or normal English. According to the Simplified Spelling Society, those children taught with i.t.a. received higher scores than those taught normal spelling. However, not everyone agreed: several, including my older sister, would have considerable problems making the switch later in life, claiming that it had a lasting effect on their normal spelling ability. Today, debate still rages to the benefits of a system introduced to schools in the sixties, with the alphabet still having its supporters, particularly in the USA, where it is still being taught in some establishments. I was fortunate in being taught to read and write English before I started my primary school education, but even now I can clearly recall at seven years of age the difficulties other children had in my class with the transition. Plus, of course, it did not address one problem – the pronunciations were based on Received Pronunciation – anyone used to hearing words ‘pronounced with a Scots accent was completely lost’. But one form that has been successful – albeit the kind that can be used with any language using the Roman alphabet – is the International Phonetic Alphabet. Based on research by Pitman and Ellis, it has now become the lingua franca for transcribing pronunciations and is used extensively in dictionaries and increasingly in English language learning. There are those that argue if the language kept to phonemes, as it did with Old English, spelling would still be undergoing constant development and change even now. The problem is that to change the way we spell would mean to somehow uniting speakers of the English language – and here, depending on your source, we are talking several hundreds of millions – into using one common means of pronunciation. But which one? In their piece The Structure of Modern English Orthography, Graddol, Cheshire and Swann point out that psychologists have observed readers recognizing words by their orthographic shape, and then immediately understanding the word by its shape and forming a mental image of its pronunciation. Basically, regardless of whether one speaks English with a Welsh or Birmingham accent or dialect, the words remain instantly recognizable to the reader regardless of where he or she comes from, and this remains an insurmountable problem reformers continue to face. (Even now, I have taught my boys to read English using a method that focuses only on word recognition rather than using phonics. It certainly helped me.) For sure, unlike Latin or French before it, English now has the considerable advantage of being available in countless publications, newspapers, and makes up 80% of published websites around the world. As English continues to expand across the globe, it will become virtually impossible to reform spelling. Plus, of course, there remains a significant proportion of the population who would not want to change it. But strangely enough, there might still be hope for the reformists, even though it's perhaps not in the form they would expect. Text messaging is still a comparatively recent phenomenon, and much of the abbreviated language remains understood only by a small circle of people, being particularly popular among the younger age groups. We get phrases such as LUV U, OMG, IMHO, C U L8TR 4 MTNG THS AFTRN, and so on. It remains to be seen as to whether any of their abbreviated spellings make their way into the OED. Ah, I completely forgot… EMOJIS, anyone?	3,044	ENGLISH	1
At the present time, practically to every person living in Russia, and far beyond its borders, the powerful and majestic Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin is famous. But not everyone knows that this grandiose construction began, from a tree-earthen mound, which was oval in shape and framed one of the Dyatlovy Mountains. Such a structure was created to protect the population living throughout the district. After the construction was completed, people from all surrounding villages flocked here during the enemy attacks. And for them special barracks were provided here. Also on the territory of the ancient Kremlin were the Mikhailo-Arkhangelsk and Spaso-Preobrazhensky cathedrals – these were the main temples of the city. As already mentioned, initially, the Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin was wooden, but later there was a real need to create a stone fortification. And in 1365, Prince Boris Konstantinovich began the construction of a new Kremlin, which was already built of stone. Work on the construction of the fortification was then stopped, then again began. After Boris Konstantinovich the Kremlin was continued to build by his brother Dmitry Konstantinovich. However, the work was still carried out intermittently. And only in 1509 by the order of Prince Vasily Ivanovich Moskovsky, the building of the fortification went much faster. Here were sent the architect-Italian Peter Fryazin, as well as a huge number of masters from Pskov. After the completion of the construction, the Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin numbered thirteen towers, which were located in the lines of the walls, and the fourteenth tower was a drain, pentagonal in terms of a strelnitsa. It was connected to the Dmitrovsky Gate by a stone bridge. The walls of the Kremlin were also particularly strong. These were walls with a thickness of four to five meters, erected on monolithic tape foundations. Moreover, the masonry of the walls was spilled with lime mortar, which gave it additional strength. During the entire existence of the Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin, he was never captured by the enemy.	<urn:uuid:818779c1-bd38-4570-a126-1197605c1aa5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://set-travel.com/en/blog/10800-unconquered-nizhny-novgorod-kremlin	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00050.warc.gz	en	0.985108	453	3.265625	3	[ -0.12170818448066711, 0.08231156319379807, 0.2545202374458313, 0.09678524732589722, 0.09341460466384888, -0.3610214293003082, -0.055438075214624405, 0.12227549403905869, -0.07198398560285568, 0.140745148062706, -0.09430916607379913, -0.008224479854106903, -0.005327970255166292, 0.266434967...	1	At the present time, practically to every person living in Russia, and far beyond its borders, the powerful and majestic Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin is famous. But not everyone knows that this grandiose construction began, from a tree-earthen mound, which was oval in shape and framed one of the Dyatlovy Mountains. Such a structure was created to protect the population living throughout the district. After the construction was completed, people from all surrounding villages flocked here during the enemy attacks. And for them special barracks were provided here. Also on the territory of the ancient Kremlin were the Mikhailo-Arkhangelsk and Spaso-Preobrazhensky cathedrals – these were the main temples of the city. As already mentioned, initially, the Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin was wooden, but later there was a real need to create a stone fortification. And in 1365, Prince Boris Konstantinovich began the construction of a new Kremlin, which was already built of stone. Work on the construction of the fortification was then stopped, then again began. After Boris Konstantinovich the Kremlin was continued to build by his brother Dmitry Konstantinovich. However, the work was still carried out intermittently. And only in 1509 by the order of Prince Vasily Ivanovich Moskovsky, the building of the fortification went much faster. Here were sent the architect-Italian Peter Fryazin, as well as a huge number of masters from Pskov. After the completion of the construction, the Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin numbered thirteen towers, which were located in the lines of the walls, and the fourteenth tower was a drain, pentagonal in terms of a strelnitsa. It was connected to the Dmitrovsky Gate by a stone bridge. The walls of the Kremlin were also particularly strong. These were walls with a thickness of four to five meters, erected on monolithic tape foundations. Moreover, the masonry of the walls was spilled with lime mortar, which gave it additional strength. During the entire existence of the Nizhny Novgorod Kremlin, he was never captured by the enemy.	454	ENGLISH	1
Had King George III of Britain listened to William Pitt, those living in Pittsburgh today might be sipping tea and watching cricket instead of drinking Iron City beer and watching Steelers football. The city of Pittsburgh was named for the noted politician and statesman, William Pitt the Elder (not to be confused with his son, William Pitt the Younger) who often defended the rights of American colonists. Pitt was born on November 15, 1708, in Westminster, England, to Robert Pitt, a Member of Parliament, and Harriet Villiers, granddaughter of the Fourth Viscount Grandison. His paternal grandfather was Thomas “Diamond” Pitt, who was governor of the East India Company in Madras, India. He acquired the “Diamond” nickname because of the valuable diamond he secured while in India, one of the world’s largest. He sold this gem to the regent of France, netting a large fortune and establishing the Pitt family as one of standing but lacking in nobility. William Pitt was educated at Eton, and it was there that he first experienced an attack of hereditary gout—something that plagued him for his entire life. In 1727, he entered Trinity College at Oxford, and when his father suddenly died, Pitt left Oxford and transferred to study at the University of Utrecht in what was then the Dutch Republic. After a brief stint in the military, he was elected to the House of Commons. There he established himself as a great orator, an opponent of the patronage system, and an outspoken critic of Prime Minister Robert Walpole’s policies. Criticizing the Prime Minister was essentially criticizing the king, and this was akin to treason and earned Pitt the wrath of King George II. Pitt was appointed to various prestigious positions such as paymaster-general and Secretary of State for the Southern Department, which included southern England, Wales, Ireland, and the American Colonies. Many of these positions were known for being rife with corruption, where the occupant could line his pockets, but Pitt proved to be upright and honest. He married Hester Grenville in 1754 when he was 46 and had five children. He was also an adept political leader during the French and Indian War, which in England was called the Seven Years’ War. During this time, Pitt treated the American colonists as compatriots and not subordinates to the English crown, earning him the respect and admiration of those colonists. So much so that after Fort Duquesne was captured from the French by the British, the fort was renamed Fort Pitt in 1759 in his honor. Fort Pitt grew into what is now known as Pittsburgh. Pitt eventually returned to the House of Commons, and after George II died, Pitt was charged with forming a new government and was appointed Lord Privy Seal, which came with elevation to the House of Lords, necessitating Pitt to accept a peerage, something heretofore he had declined. William Pitt was named the Earl of Chatham in the county of Kent. He served as Prime Minister from 1766-1768. As King George III imposed increasingly harsher penalties on the American colonies, Pitt came to their defense. Although Pitt did not support American independence, he did advocate for finding a compromise with the American colonies over rising tensions. He proposed the “Provisional Act,” which would both keep Parliament as the authority but would also meet colonial demands and grant the colonists rights. The House of Lords would have none of it and defeated the proposal. Once war broke out, Pitt predicted that the American colonists would not be defeated. The colonists so esteemed Pitt that the June 5 issue of The Pennsylvania Gazette reported that the residents of Baltimore erect a statue for Pitt, reporting “in Honour of the glorious and truly patriotic WILLIAM PITT, esq; as in Acknowledgment for the innumerable Services (not only) done to this Province, and continent, but to the Lovers of Liberty in general.” The same issue also reported that in Boston patriots hung portraits of William Pitt in their homes. By 1778, Pitt was crippled by gout and attended his last session of Parliament on April 7, 1778. He retired to his home in Kent where he died on May 11, 1778. Though he had ruffled many feathers while in Parliament, he nevertheless was known for being fair, upright, and honest, earning him the moniker of the “Great Commoner.” After a public funeral, Pitt was laid to rest in Westminster Abbey with the following inscription on his monument: Erected by the King and Parliament As a Testimony to The Virtues and Ability of WILLIAM PITT EARL OF CHATHAM During whose Administration In the reign of George II and George III Divine Providence Exalted Great Britain To a Height of Prosperity and Glory Unknown to a Former Age Born November 15, 1708; Died May 11, 1778. His son William Pitt the Younger also became Prime Minister, taking the helm at the age of 24, the youngest Prime Minister ever. He is also well-regarded and noted for working for the “Catholic Emancipation Act,” which would have granted Catholics freedoms and for attempting to abolish the slave trade. Sadly, the “Catholic Emancipation Act” was defeated in Parliament, prompting Pitt to resign. A friend of abolitionist William Wilberforce, Pitt worked with Wilberforce to eliminate the slave trade, but he was stymied in Parliament once again. It was only after Pitt’s death that slavery was abolished. Like his father, William Pitt the Younger is well-regarded and buried in Westminster Abbey. Both men were noted for their integrity and for being champions of freedom. In addition to Pittsburgh, numerous streets, towns, counties, and colleges and universities around the world bear either the name Pitt or Chatham, commemorating the two men including our own Chatham College and the University of Pittsburgh. In addition, there is a bust of Pittsburgh’s namesake, William Pitt the Elder, in the City-County Building on the first floor. It was presented to the city in 1922 by former London Mayor Sir Charles Wakefield to Mayor William A. Magee on the anniversary of the Battle of Grant’s Hill. By Janice Lane Palko	<urn:uuid:62b00ffb-c86c-4c61-a84f-f6967161a78a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://popularpittsburgh.com/william-pitt-the-elder-pittsburghs-well-respected-namesake/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00177.warc.gz	en	0.985287	1,296	3.265625	3	[ -0.14608228206634521, 0.306592732667923, 0.2752281427383423, -0.44474080204963684, -0.18713104724884033, -0.3749251365661621, 0.4749017357826233, -0.14344093203544617, -0.5014582276344299, 0.34534895420074463, 0.06439074873924255, -0.25043606758117676, 0.2919934391975403, 0.121684879064559...	11	Had King George III of Britain listened to William Pitt, those living in Pittsburgh today might be sipping tea and watching cricket instead of drinking Iron City beer and watching Steelers football. The city of Pittsburgh was named for the noted politician and statesman, William Pitt the Elder (not to be confused with his son, William Pitt the Younger) who often defended the rights of American colonists. Pitt was born on November 15, 1708, in Westminster, England, to Robert Pitt, a Member of Parliament, and Harriet Villiers, granddaughter of the Fourth Viscount Grandison. His paternal grandfather was Thomas “Diamond” Pitt, who was governor of the East India Company in Madras, India. He acquired the “Diamond” nickname because of the valuable diamond he secured while in India, one of the world’s largest. He sold this gem to the regent of France, netting a large fortune and establishing the Pitt family as one of standing but lacking in nobility. William Pitt was educated at Eton, and it was there that he first experienced an attack of hereditary gout—something that plagued him for his entire life. In 1727, he entered Trinity College at Oxford, and when his father suddenly died, Pitt left Oxford and transferred to study at the University of Utrecht in what was then the Dutch Republic. After a brief stint in the military, he was elected to the House of Commons. There he established himself as a great orator, an opponent of the patronage system, and an outspoken critic of Prime Minister Robert Walpole’s policies. Criticizing the Prime Minister was essentially criticizing the king, and this was akin to treason and earned Pitt the wrath of King George II. Pitt was appointed to various prestigious positions such as paymaster-general and Secretary of State for the Southern Department, which included southern England, Wales, Ireland, and the American Colonies. Many of these positions were known for being rife with corruption, where the occupant could line his pockets, but Pitt proved to be upright and honest. He married Hester Grenville in 1754 when he was 46 and had five children. He was also an adept political leader during the French and Indian War, which in England was called the Seven Years’ War. During this time, Pitt treated the American colonists as compatriots and not subordinates to the English crown, earning him the respect and admiration of those colonists. So much so that after Fort Duquesne was captured from the French by the British, the fort was renamed Fort Pitt in 1759 in his honor. Fort Pitt grew into what is now known as Pittsburgh. Pitt eventually returned to the House of Commons, and after George II died, Pitt was charged with forming a new government and was appointed Lord Privy Seal, which came with elevation to the House of Lords, necessitating Pitt to accept a peerage, something heretofore he had declined. William Pitt was named the Earl of Chatham in the county of Kent. He served as Prime Minister from 1766-1768. As King George III imposed increasingly harsher penalties on the American colonies, Pitt came to their defense. Although Pitt did not support American independence, he did advocate for finding a compromise with the American colonies over rising tensions. He proposed the “Provisional Act,” which would both keep Parliament as the authority but would also meet colonial demands and grant the colonists rights. The House of Lords would have none of it and defeated the proposal. Once war broke out, Pitt predicted that the American colonists would not be defeated. The colonists so esteemed Pitt that the June 5 issue of The Pennsylvania Gazette reported that the residents of Baltimore erect a statue for Pitt, reporting “in Honour of the glorious and truly patriotic WILLIAM PITT, esq; as in Acknowledgment for the innumerable Services (not only) done to this Province, and continent, but to the Lovers of Liberty in general.” The same issue also reported that in Boston patriots hung portraits of William Pitt in their homes. By 1778, Pitt was crippled by gout and attended his last session of Parliament on April 7, 1778. He retired to his home in Kent where he died on May 11, 1778. Though he had ruffled many feathers while in Parliament, he nevertheless was known for being fair, upright, and honest, earning him the moniker of the “Great Commoner.” After a public funeral, Pitt was laid to rest in Westminster Abbey with the following inscription on his monument: Erected by the King and Parliament As a Testimony to The Virtues and Ability of WILLIAM PITT EARL OF CHATHAM During whose Administration In the reign of George II and George III Divine Providence Exalted Great Britain To a Height of Prosperity and Glory Unknown to a Former Age Born November 15, 1708; Died May 11, 1778. His son William Pitt the Younger also became Prime Minister, taking the helm at the age of 24, the youngest Prime Minister ever. He is also well-regarded and noted for working for the “Catholic Emancipation Act,” which would have granted Catholics freedoms and for attempting to abolish the slave trade. Sadly, the “Catholic Emancipation Act” was defeated in Parliament, prompting Pitt to resign. A friend of abolitionist William Wilberforce, Pitt worked with Wilberforce to eliminate the slave trade, but he was stymied in Parliament once again. It was only after Pitt’s death that slavery was abolished. Like his father, William Pitt the Younger is well-regarded and buried in Westminster Abbey. Both men were noted for their integrity and for being champions of freedom. In addition to Pittsburgh, numerous streets, towns, counties, and colleges and universities around the world bear either the name Pitt or Chatham, commemorating the two men including our own Chatham College and the University of Pittsburgh. In addition, there is a bust of Pittsburgh’s namesake, William Pitt the Elder, in the City-County Building on the first floor. It was presented to the city in 1922 by former London Mayor Sir Charles Wakefield to Mayor William A. Magee on the anniversary of the Battle of Grant’s Hill. By Janice Lane Palko	1,319	ENGLISH	1
Posted on January 14 2020 People always say that I didn’t give up my seat because I was tired, but that isn’t true. I was not tired physical-ly... No, the only tired I was, was tired of giving in.” —Rosa Parks On December 1, 1955, a 42-year old African American woman fin-ished her job as a seamstress in a department store in Montgomery, Alabama. She waited to board the Cleveland Avenue city bus that, al-though it had taken her home ev-ery day, wouldn’t that day. Instead, she would be arrested, providing the spark the Civil Rights Movement needed to rally and demand change.In 1955, seating on buses was seg-regated, with white people seated towards the front of the bus and Af-rican Americans at the rear. African Americans boarded the bus, paid the bus driver, exited, and then boarded at the back door. If the seats in the front of the bus filled up, as they did on that December day, and more white passengers got on, the bus driver told the African American pas-sengers to give up their seats. Rosa was seated in the row just be-hind the seats reserved for whites. When a white man entered the full bus, the driver insisted that all four African Americans sitting just behind the white section give up their seats so that the man could sit there, creat-ing a new white row. The other three moved, but Rosa made a choice: she refused to give up her seat. Rosa had felt the injustice and hu-miliation of racism all her life. After her parents separated, she and her mother had lived with her grandpar-ents, who were former slaves, on their farm. As a child, she had walked to a run-down schoolhouse while white children rode on the bus to the new school. “I’d see the bus pass every day,” she said. “But to me, that was a way of life; we had no choice but to accept what was the custom. The bus was among the first ways I realized there was a black world and a white world.” Rosa and her husband, Ray-mond Parks, were active members of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Her refusal was unplanned but felt right. “When I made that de-cision,” she said later, “I knew that I had the strength of my ancestors with me.” She was arrested, but wasn’t afraid. She was convicted of violat-ing the laws of segregation, known as “Jim Crow laws,” which affected nearly every aspect of life in public places. African Americans couldn’t use the same drinking fountains or restrooms as whites and were sepa-rated in restaurants, workplaces, li-braries, schools, trains, and buses. Rosa wasn’t the first to refuse to give up her seat, but she was a well-liked, dignified woman known in the com-munity. She paid a $14 fine but ap-pealed her conviction, challenging the legality of segregation. On the day of her conviction, the local civil rights movement be-gan boycotting (avoided using) the Montgomery bus system. African Americans walked, took taxis, and carpooled. As African Americans made up 75% of the bus riders, the boycott crippled the bus system, and buses sat empty along roads. Lead-ing the boycott was a young preach-er named Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., who became a legendary activist. The 381-day Montgomery Bus Boy-cott ended when the Supreme Court ruled that bus segregation was un-constitutional. It was one of the big-gest and most effective movements against racial segregation in history; it came at a cost. Rosa and Raymond had to be brave as they lost their jobs, were threat-ened, and harassed. Eventually, they moved to Detroit, Michigan, where Rosa worked for Congressman John Conyers, Jr. until she retired. To help Detroit’s youth, she co-founded the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self-Development. Throughout her life she worked for civil rights. She wrote books, including her au-tobiography, “Rosa Parks: My Story,” and received numerous medals, in-cluding the Congressional Gold Med-al, the highest honor a civilian can earn. When she died at age 92 on Oc-tober 24, 2005, she became the first woman in the nation’s history to lie in state (letting 50,000 pay their re-spects at her casket) at the U.S. Capi-tol, where her statue now stands.Brought to you by Geography News Network. February 5, 2015. #133. - How do you think the Civil Rights Movement would have been different if Rosa had given up her seat? - Why do you think Rosa wasn’t afraid of being arrested? - Is there still more work to be done in the Civil Rights Movement? If so, what? This post was brought to you by Maps101. Maps101.com is a web-based, interactive repository of lesson plans, geography tools, and extension activities to help expand your students’ world views. Learn more and receive a free trial today.	<urn:uuid:4da0cea2-1241-4396-bd3d-816358c72965>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.maps.com/blogs/news/the-mother-of-the-civil-rights-movementrosa-parks	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00238.warc.gz	en	0.987054	1,126	3.28125	3	[ -0.2041439712047577, 0.10166412591934204, 0.3270606994628906, 0.11286158859729767, -0.2925020158290863, 0.024736804887652397, 0.4748595654964447, 0.03463909029960632, 0.11618448793888092, 0.08295358717441559, 0.2603721022605896, 0.30272728204727173, -0.19308865070343018, -0.003172144992277...	8	Posted on January 14 2020 People always say that I didn’t give up my seat because I was tired, but that isn’t true. I was not tired physical-ly... No, the only tired I was, was tired of giving in.” —Rosa Parks On December 1, 1955, a 42-year old African American woman fin-ished her job as a seamstress in a department store in Montgomery, Alabama. She waited to board the Cleveland Avenue city bus that, al-though it had taken her home ev-ery day, wouldn’t that day. Instead, she would be arrested, providing the spark the Civil Rights Movement needed to rally and demand change.In 1955, seating on buses was seg-regated, with white people seated towards the front of the bus and Af-rican Americans at the rear. African Americans boarded the bus, paid the bus driver, exited, and then boarded at the back door. If the seats in the front of the bus filled up, as they did on that December day, and more white passengers got on, the bus driver told the African American pas-sengers to give up their seats. Rosa was seated in the row just be-hind the seats reserved for whites. When a white man entered the full bus, the driver insisted that all four African Americans sitting just behind the white section give up their seats so that the man could sit there, creat-ing a new white row. The other three moved, but Rosa made a choice: she refused to give up her seat. Rosa had felt the injustice and hu-miliation of racism all her life. After her parents separated, she and her mother had lived with her grandpar-ents, who were former slaves, on their farm. As a child, she had walked to a run-down schoolhouse while white children rode on the bus to the new school. “I’d see the bus pass every day,” she said. “But to me, that was a way of life; we had no choice but to accept what was the custom. The bus was among the first ways I realized there was a black world and a white world.” Rosa and her husband, Ray-mond Parks, were active members of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Her refusal was unplanned but felt right. “When I made that de-cision,” she said later, “I knew that I had the strength of my ancestors with me.” She was arrested, but wasn’t afraid. She was convicted of violat-ing the laws of segregation, known as “Jim Crow laws,” which affected nearly every aspect of life in public places. African Americans couldn’t use the same drinking fountains or restrooms as whites and were sepa-rated in restaurants, workplaces, li-braries, schools, trains, and buses. Rosa wasn’t the first to refuse to give up her seat, but she was a well-liked, dignified woman known in the com-munity. She paid a $14 fine but ap-pealed her conviction, challenging the legality of segregation. On the day of her conviction, the local civil rights movement be-gan boycotting (avoided using) the Montgomery bus system. African Americans walked, took taxis, and carpooled. As African Americans made up 75% of the bus riders, the boycott crippled the bus system, and buses sat empty along roads. Lead-ing the boycott was a young preach-er named Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., who became a legendary activist. The 381-day Montgomery Bus Boy-cott ended when the Supreme Court ruled that bus segregation was un-constitutional. It was one of the big-gest and most effective movements against racial segregation in history; it came at a cost. Rosa and Raymond had to be brave as they lost their jobs, were threat-ened, and harassed. Eventually, they moved to Detroit, Michigan, where Rosa worked for Congressman John Conyers, Jr. until she retired. To help Detroit’s youth, she co-founded the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self-Development. Throughout her life she worked for civil rights. She wrote books, including her au-tobiography, “Rosa Parks: My Story,” and received numerous medals, in-cluding the Congressional Gold Med-al, the highest honor a civilian can earn. When she died at age 92 on Oc-tober 24, 2005, she became the first woman in the nation’s history to lie in state (letting 50,000 pay their re-spects at her casket) at the U.S. Capi-tol, where her statue now stands.Brought to you by Geography News Network. February 5, 2015. #133. - How do you think the Civil Rights Movement would have been different if Rosa had given up her seat? - Why do you think Rosa wasn’t afraid of being arrested? - Is there still more work to be done in the Civil Rights Movement? If so, what? This post was brought to you by Maps101. Maps101.com is a web-based, interactive repository of lesson plans, geography tools, and extension activities to help expand your students’ world views. Learn more and receive a free trial today.	1,095	ENGLISH	1
Copper was discovered in the eastern region of Tennessee in 1843. Because of this, the Ducktown Basin mines were established. These mines remained operational from 1850 to 1987. Even though many of the mines closed before 1987, some of the functions of the mines and the sulfuric acid industry that was associated with the Ducktown Basin Mines remained functional. The Ducktown Basin Museum was first opened in 1978 in a tiny store on Main Street in Ducktown. It was comprised mostly of donated items, but the citizens who established it were determined to maintain the mining heritage of the area. The museum was moved to the site of the Burra Burra mine in 1982. The property was then purchased by the state of Tennessee in 1988. The museum itself was able to expand its collection as new artifacts were donated when the mines closed. The museum has also received many of the mining company's records, photographs, and documents, giving it a wide variety of mining history to display. Nearly all of the original mine buildings and outbuildings remain on the site, a total of 16 structures. The headframe, however, was demolished in 1958 after the closing of the Burra Burra mine. The museum's collection is housed in the mine's office, the only building on site visitors can enter at any time. Visitors are also able to tour the grounds by appointment.	<urn:uuid:9f3d8736-dc94-4948-81ca-3d0ec5384fb4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theclio.com/entry/1818	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00254.warc.gz	en	0.986135	275	3.328125	3	[ -0.022470837458968163, 0.19682180881500244, 0.2824569642543793, 0.3902069926261902, 0.011042644269764423, -0.1068023145198822, 0.21423310041427612, 0.1267792135477066, -0.34348320960998535, 0.45941755175590515, 0.352787584066391, -0.39098161458969116, 0.35444873571395874, 0.402074038982391...	2	Copper was discovered in the eastern region of Tennessee in 1843. Because of this, the Ducktown Basin mines were established. These mines remained operational from 1850 to 1987. Even though many of the mines closed before 1987, some of the functions of the mines and the sulfuric acid industry that was associated with the Ducktown Basin Mines remained functional. The Ducktown Basin Museum was first opened in 1978 in a tiny store on Main Street in Ducktown. It was comprised mostly of donated items, but the citizens who established it were determined to maintain the mining heritage of the area. The museum was moved to the site of the Burra Burra mine in 1982. The property was then purchased by the state of Tennessee in 1988. The museum itself was able to expand its collection as new artifacts were donated when the mines closed. The museum has also received many of the mining company's records, photographs, and documents, giving it a wide variety of mining history to display. Nearly all of the original mine buildings and outbuildings remain on the site, a total of 16 structures. The headframe, however, was demolished in 1958 after the closing of the Burra Burra mine. The museum's collection is housed in the mine's office, the only building on site visitors can enter at any time. Visitors are also able to tour the grounds by appointment.	305	ENGLISH	1
The Samlesbury witches were three women from the Lancashire village of Samlesbury – Jane Southworth, Jennet Bierley, and Ellen Bierley – accused by a 14-year-old girl, Grace Sowerbutts, of practising witchcraft. Their trial at Lancaster Assizes in England on 19 August 1612 was one in a series of witch trials held there over two days, among the most famous in English history. The trials were unusual for England at that time in two respects: Thomas Potts, the clerk to the court, published the proceedings in his The Wonderfull Discoverie of Witches in the Countie of Lancaster; and the number of the accused found guilty and hanged was unusually high, ten at Lancaster and another at York. All three of the Samlesbury women were acquitted however. The charges against the women included child murder and cannibalism. In contrast, the others tried at the same assizes, who included the Pendle witches, were accused of maleficium – causing harm by witchcraft. The case against the three women collapsed "spectacularly" when the chief prosecution witness, Grace Sowerbutts, was exposed by the trial judge to be "the perjuring tool of a Catholic priest". Many historians, notably Hugh Trevor-Roper, have suggested that the witch trials of the 16th and 17th centuries were a consequence of the religious struggles of the period, with both the Catholic and Protestant Churches determined to stamp out what they regarded as heresy. The trial of the Samlesbury witches is perhaps one clear example of that trend; it has been described as "largely a piece of anti-Catholic propaganda", and even as a show-trial, to demonstrate that Lancashire, considered at that time to be a wild and lawless region, was being purged not only of witches but also of "popish plotters" (i.e., recusant Catholics). King James I, who came to the English throne from Scotland in 1603, had a keen interest in witchcraft. By the early 1590s, he was convinced that Scottish witches were plotting against him. His 1597 book, Daemonologie, instructed his followers that they must denounce and prosecute any supporters or practitioners of witchcraft. In 1604, the year following James's accession to the English throne, a new witchcraft law was enacted, "An Act against Conjuration, Witchcraft and dealing with evil and wicked spirits", imposing the death penalty for causing harm by the use of magic or the exhumation of corpses for magical purposes. James was, however, sceptical of the evidence presented in witch trials, even to the extent of personally exposing discrepancies in the testimonies presented against some accused witches. The accused witches lived in Lancashire, an English county which, at the end of the 16th century, was regarded by the authorities as a wild and lawless region, "fabled for its theft, violence and sexual laxity, where the church was honoured without much understanding of its doctrines by the common people". Since the death of Queen Mary and the accession to the throne of her half-sister Elizabeth in 1558, Catholic priests had been forced into hiding, but in remote areas like Lancashire they continued to celebrate mass in secret. In early 1612, the year of the trials, each justice of the peace (JP) in Lancashire was ordered to compile a list of the recusants in their area – those who refused to attend the services of the Church of England, a criminal offence at that time. The 16th-century English Reformation, during which the Church of England broke away from the authority of the pope and the Catholic Church, split the Southworth family of Samlesbury Hall. Sir John Southworth, head of the family, was a leading recusant who had been arrested several times for refusing to abandon his Catholic faith. His eldest son, also called John, did convert to the Church of England, for which he was disinherited, but the rest of the family remained staunchly Catholic. One of the accused witches, Jane Southworth, was the widow of the disinherited son, John. Relations between John and his father do not seem to have been amicable; according to a statement made by John Singleton, in which he referred to Sir John as his "old Master", Sir John refused even to pass his son's house if he could avoid it, and believed that Jane would probably kill her husband. Jane Southworth (née Sherburne) and John were married in about 1598, and the couple lived in Samlesbury Lower Hall. Jane had been widowed only a few months before her trial for witchcraft in 1612, and had seven children. On 21 March 1612, Alizon Device, who lived just outside the Lancashire village of Fence, near Pendle Hill, encountered John Law, a pedlar from Halifax. She asked him for some pins, which he refused to give to her, and a few minutes later Law suffered a stroke, for which he blamed Alizon. Along with her mother Elizabeth and her brother James, Alizon was summoned to appear before local magistrate Roger Nowell on 30 March 1612. Based on the evidence and confessions he obtained, Nowell committed Alizon and ten others to Lancaster Gaol to be tried at the next assizes for maleficium, causing harm by witchcraft. Other Lancashire magistrates learned of Nowell's discovery of witchcraft in the county, and on 15 April 1612 JP Robert Holden began investigations in his own area of Samlesbury. As a result, eight individuals were committed to Lancaster Assizes, three of whom – Jane Southworth, Jennet Bierley, and Ellen Bierley – were accused of practising witchcraft on Grace Sowerbutts, Jennet's granddaughter and Ellen's niece. The trial was held on 19 August 1612 before Sir Edward Bromley, a judge seeking promotion to a circuit nearer London, and who might therefore have been keen to impress King James, the head of the judiciary. Before the trial began, Bromley ordered the release of five of the eight defendants from Samlesbury, with a warning about their future conduct. The remainder – Jane Southworth, Jennet Bierley, and Ellen Bierley – were accused of using "diverse devillish and wicked Arts, called Witchcrafts, Inchauntments, Charmes, and Sorceries, in and upon one Grace Sowerbutts", to which they pleaded not guilty. Fourteen-year-old Grace was the chief prosecution witness. Grace was the first to give evidence. In her statement she claimed that both her grandmother and aunt, Jennet and Ellen Bierley, were able to transform themselves into dogs and that they had "haunted and vexed her" for years. She further alleged that they had transported her to the top of a hayrick by her hair, and on another occasion had tried to persuade her to drown herself. According to Grace, her relatives had taken her to the house of Thomas Walshman and his wife, from whom they had stolen a baby to suck its blood. Grace claimed that the child died the following night, and that after its burial at Samlesbury Church Ellen and Jennet dug up the body and took it home, where they cooked and ate some of it and used the rest to make an ointment that enabled them to change themselves into other shapes. Grace also alleged that her grandmother and aunt, with Jane Southworth, attended sabbats held every Thursday and Sunday night at Red Bank, on the north shore of the River Ribble. At those secret meetings they met with "foure black things, going upright, and yet not like men in the face", with whom they ate, danced, and had sex. Thomas Walshman, the father of the baby allegedly killed and eaten by the accused, was the next to give evidence. He confirmed that his child had died of unknown causes at about one year old. He added that Grace Sowerbutts was discovered lying as if dead in his father's barn on about 15 April, and did not recover until the following day. Two other witnesses, John Singleton and William Alker, confirmed that Sir John Southworth, Jane Southworth's father-in-law, had been reluctant to pass the house where his son lived, as he believed Jane to be an "evil woman, and a Witch". Thomas Potts, the clerk to the Lancaster Assizes, records that after hearing the evidence many of those in court were persuaded of the accused's guilt. On being asked by the judge what answer they could make to the charges laid against them, Potts reports that they "humbly fell upon their knees with weeping teares", and "desired him [Bromley] for Gods cause to examine Grace Sowerbutts". Immediately "the countenance of this Grace Sowerbutts changed"; the witnesses "began to quarrel and accuse one another", and eventually admitted that Grace had been coached in her story by a Catholic priest they called Thompson. Bromley then committed the girl to be examined by two JPs, William Leigh and Edward Chisnal. Under questioning Grace readily admitted that her story was untrue, and said she had been told what to say by Jane Southworth's uncle, Christopher Southworth aka Thompson, a Jesuit priest who was in hiding in the Samlesbury area; Southworth was the chaplain at Samlesbury Hall, and Jane Southworth's uncle by marriage. Leigh and Chisnal questioned the three accused women in an attempt to discover why Southworth might have fabricated evidence against them, but none could offer any reason other than that each of them "goeth to the [Anglican] Church". After the statements had been read out in court Bromley ordered the jury to find the defendants not guilty, stating that: God hath delivered you beyond expectation, I pray God you may use this mercie and favour well; and take heed you fall not hereafter: And so the court doth order that you shall be delivered. Potts concludes his account of the trial with the words: "Thus were these poore Innocent creatures, by the great care and paines of this honourable Judge, delivered from the danger of this Conspiracie; this bloudie practise of the Priest laid open". Almost everything that is known about the trials comes from a report of the proceedings written by Thomas Potts, the clerk to the Lancaster Assizes. Potts was instructed to write his account by the trial judges, and had completed the work by 16 November 1612. Bromley revised and corrected the manuscript before its publication in 1613, declaring it to be "truly reported" and "fit and worthie to be published". Although written as an apparently verbatim account, the book is not a report of what was actually said at the trial, but instead a reflection on what happened. Nevertheless, Potts "seems to give a generally trustworthy, although not comprehensive, account of an Assize witchcraft trial, provided that the reader is constantly aware of his use of written material instead of verbatim reports". In his introduction to the trial, Potts writes; "Thus have we for a time left the Graund Witches of the Forrest of Pendle, to the good consideration of a very sufficient jury." Bromley had by then heard the cases against the three Pendle witches who had confessed to their guilt, but he had yet to deal with the others, who maintained their innocence. He knew that the only testimony against them would come from a nine-year-old girl, and that King James had cautioned judges to examine carefully the evidence presented against accused witches, warning against credulity. In his conclusion to the account of the trial, Potts says that it was interposed in the expected sequence "by special order and commandment", presumably of the trial judges. After having convicted and sentenced to death three witches, Bromley may have been keen to avoid any suspicion of credulity by presenting his "masterful exposure" of the evidence presented by Grace Sowerbutts, before turning his attention back to the remainder of the Pendle witches. Potts declares that "this Countie of Lancashire ... now may lawfully bee said to abound asmuch in Witches of divers kinds as Seminaries, Jesuites, and Papists", and describes the three accused women as having once been "obstinate Papists, and now came to Church". The judges would certainly have been keen to be regarded by King James, the head of the judiciary, as having dealt resolutely with Catholic recusants as well as with witchcraft, the "two big threats to Jacobean order in Lancashire". Samlesbury Hall, the family home of the Southworths, was suspected by the authorities of being a refuge for Catholic priests, and it was under secret government surveillance for some considerable time before the trial of 1612. It may be that JP Robert Holden was at least partially motivated in his investigations by a desire to "smoke out its Jesuit chaplain", Christopher Southworth. The English experience of witchcraft was somewhat different from the European one, with only one really mass witchhunt, that of Matthew Hopkins in East Anglia during 1645. That one incident accounted for more than 20 per cent of the number of witches it is estimated were executed in England between the early 15th and mid-18th century, fewer than 500. The English legal system also differed significantly from the inquisitorial model used in Europe, requiring members of the public to accuse their neighbours of some crime, and for the case to be decided by a jury of their peers. English witch trials of the period "revolved around popular beliefs, according to which the crime of witchcraft was one of ... evil-doing", for which tangible evidence had to be provided. Potts devotes several pages to a fairly detailed criticism of the evidence presented in Grace Sowerbutts' statement, giving an insight into the discrepancies that existed during the early 17th century between the Protestant establishment's view of witchcraft and the beliefs of the common people, who may have been influenced by the more continental views of Catholic priests such as Christopher Southworth. Unlike their European counterparts, the English Protestant elite believed that witches kept familiars, or companion animals, and so it was not considered credible that the Samlesbury witches had none. Grace's story of the sabbat, too, was unfamiliar to the English at that time, although belief in such secret gatherings of witches was widespread in Europe. Most demonologists of the period, including King James, held that only God could perform miracles, and that he had not given the power to go against the laws of nature to those in league with the Devil. Hence Potts dismisses Sowerbutts' claim that Jennet Bierley transformed herself into a black dog with the comment "I would know by what means any Priest can maintaine this point of Evidence". He equally lightly dismisses Grace's account of the sabbat she claimed to have attended, where she met with "foure black things ... not like men in the face", with the comment that "The Seminarie [priest] mistakes the face for the feete: For Chattox [one of the Pendle witches] and all her fellow witches agree, the Devill is cloven-footed: but Fancie [Chattox's familiar] had a very good face, and was a proper man." It is perhaps unlikely that the accused women would have failed to draw the examining magistrate's attention to their suspicions concerning Grace Sowerbutts' motivations when first examined, only to do so at the very end of their trial when asked by the judge if they had anything to say in their defence. The trial of the Samlesbury witches in 1612 may have been "largely a piece of anti-Catholic propaganda", or even a "show-trial", the purpose of which was to demonstrate that Lancashire was being purged not only of witches, but also of "popish plotters". Bromley achieved his desired promotion to the Midlands Circuit in 1616. Potts was given the keepership of Skalme Park by King James in 1615, to breed and train the king's hounds. In 1618 he was given responsibility for "collecting the forfeitures on the laws concerning sewers, for twenty-one years". Jane Southworth's eldest son, Thomas, eventually inherited his grandfather's estate of Samlesbury Hall.	<urn:uuid:986d848d-ac0d-45fd-b7c4-34859433f2f2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wikiredia.info/wiki/Samlesbury_witches	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00030.warc.gz	en	0.982283	3,422	3.640625	4	[ 0.13859251141548157, -0.022530144080519676, 0.03507772833108902, 0.06627573072910309, 0.22370445728302002, 0.16579921543598175, 0.1043267548084259, -0.17916500568389893, 0.05801203101873398, -0.1903122365474701, -0.29152393341064453, -0.09121271967887878, -0.2541637420654297, -0.0735166817...	1	The Samlesbury witches were three women from the Lancashire village of Samlesbury – Jane Southworth, Jennet Bierley, and Ellen Bierley – accused by a 14-year-old girl, Grace Sowerbutts, of practising witchcraft. Their trial at Lancaster Assizes in England on 19 August 1612 was one in a series of witch trials held there over two days, among the most famous in English history. The trials were unusual for England at that time in two respects: Thomas Potts, the clerk to the court, published the proceedings in his The Wonderfull Discoverie of Witches in the Countie of Lancaster; and the number of the accused found guilty and hanged was unusually high, ten at Lancaster and another at York. All three of the Samlesbury women were acquitted however. The charges against the women included child murder and cannibalism. In contrast, the others tried at the same assizes, who included the Pendle witches, were accused of maleficium – causing harm by witchcraft. The case against the three women collapsed "spectacularly" when the chief prosecution witness, Grace Sowerbutts, was exposed by the trial judge to be "the perjuring tool of a Catholic priest". Many historians, notably Hugh Trevor-Roper, have suggested that the witch trials of the 16th and 17th centuries were a consequence of the religious struggles of the period, with both the Catholic and Protestant Churches determined to stamp out what they regarded as heresy. The trial of the Samlesbury witches is perhaps one clear example of that trend; it has been described as "largely a piece of anti-Catholic propaganda", and even as a show-trial, to demonstrate that Lancashire, considered at that time to be a wild and lawless region, was being purged not only of witches but also of "popish plotters" (i.e., recusant Catholics). King James I, who came to the English throne from Scotland in 1603, had a keen interest in witchcraft. By the early 1590s, he was convinced that Scottish witches were plotting against him. His 1597 book, Daemonologie, instructed his followers that they must denounce and prosecute any supporters or practitioners of witchcraft. In 1604, the year following James's accession to the English throne, a new witchcraft law was enacted, "An Act against Conjuration, Witchcraft and dealing with evil and wicked spirits", imposing the death penalty for causing harm by the use of magic or the exhumation of corpses for magical purposes. James was, however, sceptical of the evidence presented in witch trials, even to the extent of personally exposing discrepancies in the testimonies presented against some accused witches. The accused witches lived in Lancashire, an English county which, at the end of the 16th century, was regarded by the authorities as a wild and lawless region, "fabled for its theft, violence and sexual laxity, where the church was honoured without much understanding of its doctrines by the common people". Since the death of Queen Mary and the accession to the throne of her half-sister Elizabeth in 1558, Catholic priests had been forced into hiding, but in remote areas like Lancashire they continued to celebrate mass in secret. In early 1612, the year of the trials, each justice of the peace (JP) in Lancashire was ordered to compile a list of the recusants in their area – those who refused to attend the services of the Church of England, a criminal offence at that time. The 16th-century English Reformation, during which the Church of England broke away from the authority of the pope and the Catholic Church, split the Southworth family of Samlesbury Hall. Sir John Southworth, head of the family, was a leading recusant who had been arrested several times for refusing to abandon his Catholic faith. His eldest son, also called John, did convert to the Church of England, for which he was disinherited, but the rest of the family remained staunchly Catholic. One of the accused witches, Jane Southworth, was the widow of the disinherited son, John. Relations between John and his father do not seem to have been amicable; according to a statement made by John Singleton, in which he referred to Sir John as his "old Master", Sir John refused even to pass his son's house if he could avoid it, and believed that Jane would probably kill her husband. Jane Southworth (née Sherburne) and John were married in about 1598, and the couple lived in Samlesbury Lower Hall. Jane had been widowed only a few months before her trial for witchcraft in 1612, and had seven children. On 21 March 1612, Alizon Device, who lived just outside the Lancashire village of Fence, near Pendle Hill, encountered John Law, a pedlar from Halifax. She asked him for some pins, which he refused to give to her, and a few minutes later Law suffered a stroke, for which he blamed Alizon. Along with her mother Elizabeth and her brother James, Alizon was summoned to appear before local magistrate Roger Nowell on 30 March 1612. Based on the evidence and confessions he obtained, Nowell committed Alizon and ten others to Lancaster Gaol to be tried at the next assizes for maleficium, causing harm by witchcraft. Other Lancashire magistrates learned of Nowell's discovery of witchcraft in the county, and on 15 April 1612 JP Robert Holden began investigations in his own area of Samlesbury. As a result, eight individuals were committed to Lancaster Assizes, three of whom – Jane Southworth, Jennet Bierley, and Ellen Bierley – were accused of practising witchcraft on Grace Sowerbutts, Jennet's granddaughter and Ellen's niece. The trial was held on 19 August 1612 before Sir Edward Bromley, a judge seeking promotion to a circuit nearer London, and who might therefore have been keen to impress King James, the head of the judiciary. Before the trial began, Bromley ordered the release of five of the eight defendants from Samlesbury, with a warning about their future conduct. The remainder – Jane Southworth, Jennet Bierley, and Ellen Bierley – were accused of using "diverse devillish and wicked Arts, called Witchcrafts, Inchauntments, Charmes, and Sorceries, in and upon one Grace Sowerbutts", to which they pleaded not guilty. Fourteen-year-old Grace was the chief prosecution witness. Grace was the first to give evidence. In her statement she claimed that both her grandmother and aunt, Jennet and Ellen Bierley, were able to transform themselves into dogs and that they had "haunted and vexed her" for years. She further alleged that they had transported her to the top of a hayrick by her hair, and on another occasion had tried to persuade her to drown herself. According to Grace, her relatives had taken her to the house of Thomas Walshman and his wife, from whom they had stolen a baby to suck its blood. Grace claimed that the child died the following night, and that after its burial at Samlesbury Church Ellen and Jennet dug up the body and took it home, where they cooked and ate some of it and used the rest to make an ointment that enabled them to change themselves into other shapes. Grace also alleged that her grandmother and aunt, with Jane Southworth, attended sabbats held every Thursday and Sunday night at Red Bank, on the north shore of the River Ribble. At those secret meetings they met with "foure black things, going upright, and yet not like men in the face", with whom they ate, danced, and had sex. Thomas Walshman, the father of the baby allegedly killed and eaten by the accused, was the next to give evidence. He confirmed that his child had died of unknown causes at about one year old. He added that Grace Sowerbutts was discovered lying as if dead in his father's barn on about 15 April, and did not recover until the following day. Two other witnesses, John Singleton and William Alker, confirmed that Sir John Southworth, Jane Southworth's father-in-law, had been reluctant to pass the house where his son lived, as he believed Jane to be an "evil woman, and a Witch". Thomas Potts, the clerk to the Lancaster Assizes, records that after hearing the evidence many of those in court were persuaded of the accused's guilt. On being asked by the judge what answer they could make to the charges laid against them, Potts reports that they "humbly fell upon their knees with weeping teares", and "desired him [Bromley] for Gods cause to examine Grace Sowerbutts". Immediately "the countenance of this Grace Sowerbutts changed"; the witnesses "began to quarrel and accuse one another", and eventually admitted that Grace had been coached in her story by a Catholic priest they called Thompson. Bromley then committed the girl to be examined by two JPs, William Leigh and Edward Chisnal. Under questioning Grace readily admitted that her story was untrue, and said she had been told what to say by Jane Southworth's uncle, Christopher Southworth aka Thompson, a Jesuit priest who was in hiding in the Samlesbury area; Southworth was the chaplain at Samlesbury Hall, and Jane Southworth's uncle by marriage. Leigh and Chisnal questioned the three accused women in an attempt to discover why Southworth might have fabricated evidence against them, but none could offer any reason other than that each of them "goeth to the [Anglican] Church". After the statements had been read out in court Bromley ordered the jury to find the defendants not guilty, stating that: God hath delivered you beyond expectation, I pray God you may use this mercie and favour well; and take heed you fall not hereafter: And so the court doth order that you shall be delivered. Potts concludes his account of the trial with the words: "Thus were these poore Innocent creatures, by the great care and paines of this honourable Judge, delivered from the danger of this Conspiracie; this bloudie practise of the Priest laid open". Almost everything that is known about the trials comes from a report of the proceedings written by Thomas Potts, the clerk to the Lancaster Assizes. Potts was instructed to write his account by the trial judges, and had completed the work by 16 November 1612. Bromley revised and corrected the manuscript before its publication in 1613, declaring it to be "truly reported" and "fit and worthie to be published". Although written as an apparently verbatim account, the book is not a report of what was actually said at the trial, but instead a reflection on what happened. Nevertheless, Potts "seems to give a generally trustworthy, although not comprehensive, account of an Assize witchcraft trial, provided that the reader is constantly aware of his use of written material instead of verbatim reports". In his introduction to the trial, Potts writes; "Thus have we for a time left the Graund Witches of the Forrest of Pendle, to the good consideration of a very sufficient jury." Bromley had by then heard the cases against the three Pendle witches who had confessed to their guilt, but he had yet to deal with the others, who maintained their innocence. He knew that the only testimony against them would come from a nine-year-old girl, and that King James had cautioned judges to examine carefully the evidence presented against accused witches, warning against credulity. In his conclusion to the account of the trial, Potts says that it was interposed in the expected sequence "by special order and commandment", presumably of the trial judges. After having convicted and sentenced to death three witches, Bromley may have been keen to avoid any suspicion of credulity by presenting his "masterful exposure" of the evidence presented by Grace Sowerbutts, before turning his attention back to the remainder of the Pendle witches. Potts declares that "this Countie of Lancashire ... now may lawfully bee said to abound asmuch in Witches of divers kinds as Seminaries, Jesuites, and Papists", and describes the three accused women as having once been "obstinate Papists, and now came to Church". The judges would certainly have been keen to be regarded by King James, the head of the judiciary, as having dealt resolutely with Catholic recusants as well as with witchcraft, the "two big threats to Jacobean order in Lancashire". Samlesbury Hall, the family home of the Southworths, was suspected by the authorities of being a refuge for Catholic priests, and it was under secret government surveillance for some considerable time before the trial of 1612. It may be that JP Robert Holden was at least partially motivated in his investigations by a desire to "smoke out its Jesuit chaplain", Christopher Southworth. The English experience of witchcraft was somewhat different from the European one, with only one really mass witchhunt, that of Matthew Hopkins in East Anglia during 1645. That one incident accounted for more than 20 per cent of the number of witches it is estimated were executed in England between the early 15th and mid-18th century, fewer than 500. The English legal system also differed significantly from the inquisitorial model used in Europe, requiring members of the public to accuse their neighbours of some crime, and for the case to be decided by a jury of their peers. English witch trials of the period "revolved around popular beliefs, according to which the crime of witchcraft was one of ... evil-doing", for which tangible evidence had to be provided. Potts devotes several pages to a fairly detailed criticism of the evidence presented in Grace Sowerbutts' statement, giving an insight into the discrepancies that existed during the early 17th century between the Protestant establishment's view of witchcraft and the beliefs of the common people, who may have been influenced by the more continental views of Catholic priests such as Christopher Southworth. Unlike their European counterparts, the English Protestant elite believed that witches kept familiars, or companion animals, and so it was not considered credible that the Samlesbury witches had none. Grace's story of the sabbat, too, was unfamiliar to the English at that time, although belief in such secret gatherings of witches was widespread in Europe. Most demonologists of the period, including King James, held that only God could perform miracles, and that he had not given the power to go against the laws of nature to those in league with the Devil. Hence Potts dismisses Sowerbutts' claim that Jennet Bierley transformed herself into a black dog with the comment "I would know by what means any Priest can maintaine this point of Evidence". He equally lightly dismisses Grace's account of the sabbat she claimed to have attended, where she met with "foure black things ... not like men in the face", with the comment that "The Seminarie [priest] mistakes the face for the feete: For Chattox [one of the Pendle witches] and all her fellow witches agree, the Devill is cloven-footed: but Fancie [Chattox's familiar] had a very good face, and was a proper man." It is perhaps unlikely that the accused women would have failed to draw the examining magistrate's attention to their suspicions concerning Grace Sowerbutts' motivations when first examined, only to do so at the very end of their trial when asked by the judge if they had anything to say in their defence. The trial of the Samlesbury witches in 1612 may have been "largely a piece of anti-Catholic propaganda", or even a "show-trial", the purpose of which was to demonstrate that Lancashire was being purged not only of witches, but also of "popish plotters". Bromley achieved his desired promotion to the Midlands Circuit in 1616. Potts was given the keepership of Skalme Park by King James in 1615, to breed and train the king's hounds. In 1618 he was given responsibility for "collecting the forfeitures on the laws concerning sewers, for twenty-one years". Jane Southworth's eldest son, Thomas, eventually inherited his grandfather's estate of Samlesbury Hall.	3,482	ENGLISH	1
Black History Month in the United States, is a whole month dedicated to the remembrance of the hardships that African-Americans went through in the past centuries to get to where they are today. In celebration of Black History, here is a top 5 list of the most influential African-American leaders that has helped promote the black community of America. 1. Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Luther King Jr was born on January 15, 1929, in Atlanta, Georgia, and was sadly assassinated on April 4, 1968, in Memphis, Tennessee. He was an African-American Baptist Minister and an African-American civil right leader. Through his impeccable leading style and powerful messages to the world, he single-handedly enacted a major change in the minds of political leaders, which gave way to African-Americans gaining more rights in America. A very famous quote made by him was, “I have a dream”; which was the name of his well-known speech which helped changed the face of America today. 2. Nelson Mandela Nelson Mandela was born July 18, 1918, in Mvezo, South Africa, and sadly died on December 2, 2013, in Houghton Estate, City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality, South Africa. Mandela was a philanthropist, as well as a political leader, who was also a former South African President. He was South Africa’s first ever Black Chief Executive, who had influenced many and provided many with freedom and peace. He had also given way to the ending of the apartheid, which meant freedom for everyone and no separation. 3. Malcolm X Malcolm Little was born on May 19, 1925, in Omaha, Nebraska, and was also sadly assassinated in Washington Heights, New York City, New York, on February 21, 1965. Malcolm X was an African-American Muslim Minister. and African-American human rights activist. He preached self-worth to the community of Blacks in America and tried to teach many to reflect on where they came from and what they have accomplished; while also teaching them to love themselves and appreciate who they are and what they have. 4. Rosa Parks Rosa Parks was born February 4, 1913, in Tuskegee, Alabama, and unfortunately died on October 24, 2005, in Detroit, Michigan. Rosa Parks was a civil rights activist who played a major role in the equality of Blacks and Whites in America. One of her many commitments to trying to provide equality for everyone was refusing to move to the back of a bus to let a white individual sit. Through her strong involvement in the community, she gained these titles from the United States Congress called: “the first lady of civil rights” and “the mother of the freedom movement”. 5. Barack Obama President Barack Obama was born on August 4, 1961, at the Kapiolani Medical Center for Women and Children, in Honolulu, Hawaii. Obama was a United States Politician who became America’s first African-American President. He served from January 20, 2009, through January 20, 2017. With being America’s first Black President, he showed how much the African-American population in America has achieved in the past centuries as a whole. He proved that African-Americans has achieved the most that they ever have in history. With these 5 most influential African-American leaders, they have all showed why Black History Month is so important; as well as showing why African-Americans deserve to have the month of February to promote themselves and their accomplishments.	<urn:uuid:60f3685c-383d-4d1f-9f16-e88a27058328>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.puzzlepiecesmarketing.com/black-leaders/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00531.warc.gz	en	0.986523	724	3.65625	4	[ -0.3642546534538269, 0.6925185918807983, 0.3177644610404968, 0.06737862527370453, -0.2711396813392639, 0.14415428042411804, 0.19026732444763184, -0.20476877689361572, -0.3767690062522888, 0.2259751409292221, 0.21262240409851074, 0.26756078004837036, 0.013085685670375824, 0.0925510376691818...	2	Black History Month in the United States, is a whole month dedicated to the remembrance of the hardships that African-Americans went through in the past centuries to get to where they are today. In celebration of Black History, here is a top 5 list of the most influential African-American leaders that has helped promote the black community of America. 1. Martin Luther King Jr. Martin Luther King Jr was born on January 15, 1929, in Atlanta, Georgia, and was sadly assassinated on April 4, 1968, in Memphis, Tennessee. He was an African-American Baptist Minister and an African-American civil right leader. Through his impeccable leading style and powerful messages to the world, he single-handedly enacted a major change in the minds of political leaders, which gave way to African-Americans gaining more rights in America. A very famous quote made by him was, “I have a dream”; which was the name of his well-known speech which helped changed the face of America today. 2. Nelson Mandela Nelson Mandela was born July 18, 1918, in Mvezo, South Africa, and sadly died on December 2, 2013, in Houghton Estate, City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality, South Africa. Mandela was a philanthropist, as well as a political leader, who was also a former South African President. He was South Africa’s first ever Black Chief Executive, who had influenced many and provided many with freedom and peace. He had also given way to the ending of the apartheid, which meant freedom for everyone and no separation. 3. Malcolm X Malcolm Little was born on May 19, 1925, in Omaha, Nebraska, and was also sadly assassinated in Washington Heights, New York City, New York, on February 21, 1965. Malcolm X was an African-American Muslim Minister. and African-American human rights activist. He preached self-worth to the community of Blacks in America and tried to teach many to reflect on where they came from and what they have accomplished; while also teaching them to love themselves and appreciate who they are and what they have. 4. Rosa Parks Rosa Parks was born February 4, 1913, in Tuskegee, Alabama, and unfortunately died on October 24, 2005, in Detroit, Michigan. Rosa Parks was a civil rights activist who played a major role in the equality of Blacks and Whites in America. One of her many commitments to trying to provide equality for everyone was refusing to move to the back of a bus to let a white individual sit. Through her strong involvement in the community, she gained these titles from the United States Congress called: “the first lady of civil rights” and “the mother of the freedom movement”. 5. Barack Obama President Barack Obama was born on August 4, 1961, at the Kapiolani Medical Center for Women and Children, in Honolulu, Hawaii. Obama was a United States Politician who became America’s first African-American President. He served from January 20, 2009, through January 20, 2017. With being America’s first Black President, he showed how much the African-American population in America has achieved in the past centuries as a whole. He proved that African-Americans has achieved the most that they ever have in history. With these 5 most influential African-American leaders, they have all showed why Black History Month is so important; as well as showing why African-Americans deserve to have the month of February to promote themselves and their accomplishments.	759	ENGLISH	1
On October 3rd of 1967, folk musician Woody Guthrie died of Huntington's Chorea, a progressive, incurable, genetically transmitted disorder that causes the brain to rot. The disease mostly attacks victims in their 30s and 40s. Woody Guthrie lived to the ripe old age of 55, but the last ten years of his life was spent in hospitals. Although probably best known for the song This Land is Your Land, Woody Guthrie was a pioneer of folk and protest music who spearheaded the folk revival movement of the 1950s. The music of Woody Guthrie has influenced the music of Bob Dylan, Johnny Cash, Jerry Garcia, and Bruce Springsteen, among at least a dozen others. Woodrow Wilson Guthrie was born on July 14th of 1912 in Okemah, Oklahoma. He was pretty much on his own by age fourteen, as his father was seldom around and his mother, after years of being institutionalized, died of Huntington's disease in 1930. After learning to play a harmonica, Woody realized he had an ear for music, and started playing around town for food or spare change. Sometimes he would perform at dances with his Uncle Jeff, a fiddle player. Many of his songs are about his experiences in the “dust bowl” era during the Great Depression. He traveled with displaced farmers from Oklahoma to California in search of work, leaving his first wife and three children behind. One of these children would die in an accident at the age of 23, and the other two would succumb to Huntington's disease, both at the age of 41. Guthrie learned songs from the traveling farmers, and earned himself the nickname “The Dustbowl Troubadour.” After a while, Guthrie returned to his wife and kids in Texas, but his natural wanderlust soon drove him off again. He then traveled to New York City, where he was embraced by its leftist folk community. Guthrie was later known for performing with the slogan, “This Machine Kills Fascists” displayed on his guitar. Woody Guthrie was married three times and fathered eight children. His second wife helped him with his autobiography, called Bound for Glory. One of his children is American folk musician Arlo Guthrie, who was scared half to death for many years that he might come down with Huntington's disease, as so many in his family had done. Fortunately, Arlo Guthrie escaped the disease that had killed his father, his aunt, his grandmother, two of his half-sisters, and probably other family members as well. By the time Woody Guthrie reached his forties, his health was in serious decline. His second wife divorced him for his erratic behavior, which she feared might be from schizophrenia or alcoholism, and therefore a danger to their children. Nothing much was known of Huntington's disease back then. Woody Guthrie was the man who put a face on the disease. After his second divorce, Guthrie went alone to California. As his health continued to get worse, he met and married his third wife. They had one child. However, she soon filed for divorce, citing the strain of having to take care of him. After his third wife divorced him, his second wife, Marjorie, reentered his life and cared for him until his death. At first, she visited him on Sundays. Then he was moved to a hospital nearer to the family home. After his death, Marjorie founded the Huntington's Disease Society of America.	<urn:uuid:0640dad8-62ed-4753-942b-bbc413bd1df2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://historianinsight.com/woody-guthrie-passes-10-3-1967	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00073.warc.gz	en	0.995751	718	3.4375	3	[ 0.14582480490207672, -0.08289781957864761, 0.3717622756958008, -0.4300377368927002, 0.09249954670667648, 0.5169116854667664, 0.11466269195079803, 0.0587695948779583, -0.1598520278930664, -0.08715937286615372, 0.011674962937831879, 0.0681217610836029, 0.15307113528251648, 0.2995953559875488...	1	On October 3rd of 1967, folk musician Woody Guthrie died of Huntington's Chorea, a progressive, incurable, genetically transmitted disorder that causes the brain to rot. The disease mostly attacks victims in their 30s and 40s. Woody Guthrie lived to the ripe old age of 55, but the last ten years of his life was spent in hospitals. Although probably best known for the song This Land is Your Land, Woody Guthrie was a pioneer of folk and protest music who spearheaded the folk revival movement of the 1950s. The music of Woody Guthrie has influenced the music of Bob Dylan, Johnny Cash, Jerry Garcia, and Bruce Springsteen, among at least a dozen others. Woodrow Wilson Guthrie was born on July 14th of 1912 in Okemah, Oklahoma. He was pretty much on his own by age fourteen, as his father was seldom around and his mother, after years of being institutionalized, died of Huntington's disease in 1930. After learning to play a harmonica, Woody realized he had an ear for music, and started playing around town for food or spare change. Sometimes he would perform at dances with his Uncle Jeff, a fiddle player. Many of his songs are about his experiences in the “dust bowl” era during the Great Depression. He traveled with displaced farmers from Oklahoma to California in search of work, leaving his first wife and three children behind. One of these children would die in an accident at the age of 23, and the other two would succumb to Huntington's disease, both at the age of 41. Guthrie learned songs from the traveling farmers, and earned himself the nickname “The Dustbowl Troubadour.” After a while, Guthrie returned to his wife and kids in Texas, but his natural wanderlust soon drove him off again. He then traveled to New York City, where he was embraced by its leftist folk community. Guthrie was later known for performing with the slogan, “This Machine Kills Fascists” displayed on his guitar. Woody Guthrie was married three times and fathered eight children. His second wife helped him with his autobiography, called Bound for Glory. One of his children is American folk musician Arlo Guthrie, who was scared half to death for many years that he might come down with Huntington's disease, as so many in his family had done. Fortunately, Arlo Guthrie escaped the disease that had killed his father, his aunt, his grandmother, two of his half-sisters, and probably other family members as well. By the time Woody Guthrie reached his forties, his health was in serious decline. His second wife divorced him for his erratic behavior, which she feared might be from schizophrenia or alcoholism, and therefore a danger to their children. Nothing much was known of Huntington's disease back then. Woody Guthrie was the man who put a face on the disease. After his second divorce, Guthrie went alone to California. As his health continued to get worse, he met and married his third wife. They had one child. However, she soon filed for divorce, citing the strain of having to take care of him. After his third wife divorced him, his second wife, Marjorie, reentered his life and cared for him until his death. At first, she visited him on Sundays. Then he was moved to a hospital nearer to the family home. After his death, Marjorie founded the Huntington's Disease Society of America.	733	ENGLISH	1
National Geographic as part of their kick-off for this year’s Geography Awareness Week, asked all one hundred senators from the fifty United States to draw a map of their state by hand. The request dovetailed into this year’s theme of Get Lost in Mapping: Find Your Place in the World. Each senator was only asked to draw their state from memory, but they were also asked to label and annotate three points of interest on their map. Only twelve senators from eleven states (Georgia was the only state where both senators returned maps) actually took part in the challenge. Democrats responded slightly better (total of seven senators) than Republicans (five responded). What does this say about the remaining 88 senators’ sense of geography or of their support of geography in education? Of course, Al Franken, whose original parlor trick of drawing the lower 48 states from memory was one of the senator’s taking part. Later on, at the urging of Alaska Senator Mark Begich, Franken also added Alaska and Hawaii. Senator Mark Begich, apparently one to put his money where his mouth is, was also one of the senator’s contributing to the challenge.	<urn:uuid:88f73899-ecf6-4e3a-8d65-ca0895286664>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.geographyrealm.com/senators-statements/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00209.warc.gz	en	0.980877	240	3.328125	3	[ -0.3880251944065094, -0.30740615725517273, 0.13054150342941284, -0.22965304553508759, -0.12625692784786224, 0.22457186877727509, 0.0643259733915329, 0.29667025804519653, -0.3025577962398529, 0.04816562682390213, -0.1629944145679474, -0.34134575724601746, 0.11562936007976532, 0.555930376052...	2	National Geographic as part of their kick-off for this year’s Geography Awareness Week, asked all one hundred senators from the fifty United States to draw a map of their state by hand. The request dovetailed into this year’s theme of Get Lost in Mapping: Find Your Place in the World. Each senator was only asked to draw their state from memory, but they were also asked to label and annotate three points of interest on their map. Only twelve senators from eleven states (Georgia was the only state where both senators returned maps) actually took part in the challenge. Democrats responded slightly better (total of seven senators) than Republicans (five responded). What does this say about the remaining 88 senators’ sense of geography or of their support of geography in education? Of course, Al Franken, whose original parlor trick of drawing the lower 48 states from memory was one of the senator’s taking part. Later on, at the urging of Alaska Senator Mark Begich, Franken also added Alaska and Hawaii. Senator Mark Begich, apparently one to put his money where his mouth is, was also one of the senator’s contributing to the challenge.	230	ENGLISH	1
Charles Darwin Biography Charles Darwin was an influential naturalist from the UK. He introduced the Theory of Evolution. The theory stated that all of life on the earth had descended from a common ancestor. He influenced our knowledge of life on the earth. Fast Facts: – - His full name was Charles Robert Darwin. He was born on February 12, 1809. - He shared his birthday with Abraham Lincoln. - His father Robert Darwin was a physician and wanted his son to follow his steps. - In 1831, he was offered a position of naturalist on HMS Beagle. The voyage was a five year mission. - Darwin’s major work was ‘On the Origin of Species’. - He married his first cousin Emma Wedgewood in 1839. - Charles and Emma had 10 kids. - He went to the University of Edinburgh to study medicine but dropped out in the second year. - Later, he went to the University of Cambridge to get a degree of B.A. - He dined on animals which were unknown to human palate. - Charles Darwin was elected to the Royal Society in 1839 and to the French Academy of Sciences in 1878. - He died on April 19, 1882 and after that buried in Westminster Abbey.	<urn:uuid:cee381e8-874c-4769-bc61-c4cb022f29dc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://easyscienceforkids.com/best-charles-darwin-biography-video-for-kids/?print=1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00472.warc.gz	en	0.981152	269	3.578125	4	[ -0.000009333114576293156, 0.6120306253433228, 0.43215590715408325, 0.037324145436286926, 0.0487825945019722, -0.3598972260951996, 0.7560445070266724, 0.3180219233036041, -0.1926872283220291, -0.17536045610904694, 0.1604379564523697, -0.47923344373703003, 0.2881598472595215, 0.1984760165214...	2	Charles Darwin Biography Charles Darwin was an influential naturalist from the UK. He introduced the Theory of Evolution. The theory stated that all of life on the earth had descended from a common ancestor. He influenced our knowledge of life on the earth. Fast Facts: – - His full name was Charles Robert Darwin. He was born on February 12, 1809. - He shared his birthday with Abraham Lincoln. - His father Robert Darwin was a physician and wanted his son to follow his steps. - In 1831, he was offered a position of naturalist on HMS Beagle. The voyage was a five year mission. - Darwin’s major work was ‘On the Origin of Species’. - He married his first cousin Emma Wedgewood in 1839. - Charles and Emma had 10 kids. - He went to the University of Edinburgh to study medicine but dropped out in the second year. - Later, he went to the University of Cambridge to get a degree of B.A. - He dined on animals which were unknown to human palate. - Charles Darwin was elected to the Royal Society in 1839 and to the French Academy of Sciences in 1878. - He died on April 19, 1882 and after that buried in Westminster Abbey.	275	ENGLISH	1
Featured Passage: 1 Samuel 9-12 The people wanted a king, so God had a particular man in mind for the job. This young man’s name was Saul, and he was from the tribe of Benjamin. Saul was the tallest and most handsome man in all the land! God told Samuel that he wanted Saul to be king. Little did Saul know about what was in store for him! One day, Saul’s father told him to take a servant with him to look for his two missing donkeys. Saul and his servant searched and searched but they could not find them. They were about to give up when they remembered Samuel and decided that the man of God would be able to help them. He was, of course, able to help them, but not in the way that Saul expected. How could Saul know that the two missing donkeys were part of God’s plan to anoint a king over Israel? - Saul was tall and handsome. Do you think this was part of the reason God chose him to be the first king? - When Samuel first told Saul about God’s plan to make him king, how did Saul react? How do we react when someone tells us something surprising? - Why do you think Saul kept it a secret that he had been anointed by Samuel to be the king? - When Samuel went to proclaim to the people who would be king, where was Saul? Why do you think he was hiding? - Later, God said that Saul was “small in his own eyes” at this time. This is another way of saying that he was “humble”. What exactly does it mean to be “humble” or “small in your own eyes?” 1 Samuel 10:24 And Samuel said to all the people, “Do you see him whom the Lord has chosen, that there is no one like him among all the people?” So all the people shouted and said, “Long live the king!”	<urn:uuid:32fbd8ed-d472-4440-a690-fe9f9d294a9a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.lcgeducation.org/childrens-bible-program-level-1-lesson-45-samuel-and-saul/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00325.warc.gz	en	0.992375	423	3.421875	3	[ -0.3024173974990845, 0.20055653154850006, -0.12535934150218964, -0.4489106833934784, -0.2267351895570755, -0.32589516043663025, 0.5697669386863708, 0.05951676890254021, -0.06312570720911026, 0.05306048318743706, 0.3377762734889984, -0.18785308301448822, 0.3104363679885864, -0.0028861584141...	12	Featured Passage: 1 Samuel 9-12 The people wanted a king, so God had a particular man in mind for the job. This young man’s name was Saul, and he was from the tribe of Benjamin. Saul was the tallest and most handsome man in all the land! God told Samuel that he wanted Saul to be king. Little did Saul know about what was in store for him! One day, Saul’s father told him to take a servant with him to look for his two missing donkeys. Saul and his servant searched and searched but they could not find them. They were about to give up when they remembered Samuel and decided that the man of God would be able to help them. He was, of course, able to help them, but not in the way that Saul expected. How could Saul know that the two missing donkeys were part of God’s plan to anoint a king over Israel? - Saul was tall and handsome. Do you think this was part of the reason God chose him to be the first king? - When Samuel first told Saul about God’s plan to make him king, how did Saul react? How do we react when someone tells us something surprising? - Why do you think Saul kept it a secret that he had been anointed by Samuel to be the king? - When Samuel went to proclaim to the people who would be king, where was Saul? Why do you think he was hiding? - Later, God said that Saul was “small in his own eyes” at this time. This is another way of saying that he was “humble”. What exactly does it mean to be “humble” or “small in your own eyes?” 1 Samuel 10:24 And Samuel said to all the people, “Do you see him whom the Lord has chosen, that there is no one like him among all the people?” So all the people shouted and said, “Long live the king!”	399	ENGLISH	1
Decades before working people won the legal right to unionize, 700 bricklayers, masons and carpenters had forged unions in Hartford to protect their wages and working conditions. An important aspect of those protections was the right to have a “walking delegate” who could represent workers in disputes with their supervisors at a worksite. One such representative was George Butler. In August, 1904, Delegate Butler was informed he was being let go due to lack of work. He and several other workers, who had been employed at a tobacco warehouse construction site, went to find the boss, Major Andrus, for an explanation. Butler was told that there was no work for him and he was laid off. When he asked for his pay, he was told to go to the contractor’s office. He refused and the money was finally brought to him. When it arrived, Butler reckoned he had been shortchanged by 75 cents. Andrus refused to pay him the difference and, in response, Butler’s co-workers walked off their jobs. A newspaper account laid the blame on Butler, maintaining that he failed to go to the firm’s office to collect his pay in a timely manner. But a more likely scenario is that the company simply thought it could get away with cheating Butler. The Union charged that when Butler was let go, two other workers were hired immediately afterwards in his place. In addition, being paid at the worksite was the common practice. As even one building contractor publicly admitted, it was the employer’s responsibility to bring the wages to a worker and not the other way around. The strike affected a variety of union construction sites and building repairs, including the First Methodist Church, the Wadsworth Street school, Brown Thomson and Company, Sage Allen, St. Mary’s Home in West Hartford, and the local poorhouse. Major Andrus argued that the strike was unnecessary, since his men could always talk to him when they had a problem. He blamed Butler for “forcing” a strike vote by the Union. He claimed that most workers didn’t attend the union meetings anyway and only joined because they had to. In fact, from all accounts, it was Major Andrus who ended up looking like the unreasonable party. Andrus’ refusal to re-employ Butler smelled like blacklisting to the union, a common tactic to keep union activists off the payroll. Andrus also used heavy-handed tactics to force other builders to lock out their workers, reluctantly dragging them into the dispute. He threatened to turn Hartford into an “Open Shop” (that is, non-union) town. And when the Union agreed to continue work on a south end grammar school so that children wouldn’t miss the first day of school, he refused to let them on the worksite. In addition, Andrus instigated a lawsuit against Butler and the Bricklayers Union, charging that they had extorted money from a Windsor brick maker–three years earlier! In fact, the Union had fined the brick maker for selling to non-union construction sites including the Swedish Lutheran Church on Capitol Avenue and Hungerford Street. Finally, one pro-union contractor broke ranks with Andrus. William O’Neil valued his relationship with his union workers and refused to lock them out. Several other contractors then supported O’Neil. The strike was taking its toll on all local contractors once the tradesmen started looking for work elsewhere and were issued “travelling cards” by their unions so they could leave the state for other union jobs. In the spirit of the union slogan “an injury to one is an injury to all,” 700 workers had stayed off the job in support of the delegate. As each day passed, Butler and his co-workers upped the ante. By the time Andrus gave in, the amount it took to get the union construction workers back on the job was a $10.00 bill.Butler offered to burn the money to show that the issue was one of union principle. He didn’t need to. In the end, the union was stronger, and Butler was $10 richer.	<urn:uuid:fea12f2a-ba9c-47a3-9f48-e0befd80d735>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://shoeleatherhistoryproject.com/2013/05/06/solidarity-and-75-cents/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00359.warc.gz	en	0.989408	858	3.265625	3	[ -0.47824740409851074, 0.14577728509902954, -0.13755720853805542, 0.010117832571268082, -0.44274547696113586, 0.07395179569721222, 0.19144941866397858, -0.09251663088798523, -0.29584115743637085, 0.14312744140625, -0.26521486043930054, 0.30009013414382935, -0.0431363508105278, 0.26929998397...	13	Decades before working people won the legal right to unionize, 700 bricklayers, masons and carpenters had forged unions in Hartford to protect their wages and working conditions. An important aspect of those protections was the right to have a “walking delegate” who could represent workers in disputes with their supervisors at a worksite. One such representative was George Butler. In August, 1904, Delegate Butler was informed he was being let go due to lack of work. He and several other workers, who had been employed at a tobacco warehouse construction site, went to find the boss, Major Andrus, for an explanation. Butler was told that there was no work for him and he was laid off. When he asked for his pay, he was told to go to the contractor’s office. He refused and the money was finally brought to him. When it arrived, Butler reckoned he had been shortchanged by 75 cents. Andrus refused to pay him the difference and, in response, Butler’s co-workers walked off their jobs. A newspaper account laid the blame on Butler, maintaining that he failed to go to the firm’s office to collect his pay in a timely manner. But a more likely scenario is that the company simply thought it could get away with cheating Butler. The Union charged that when Butler was let go, two other workers were hired immediately afterwards in his place. In addition, being paid at the worksite was the common practice. As even one building contractor publicly admitted, it was the employer’s responsibility to bring the wages to a worker and not the other way around. The strike affected a variety of union construction sites and building repairs, including the First Methodist Church, the Wadsworth Street school, Brown Thomson and Company, Sage Allen, St. Mary’s Home in West Hartford, and the local poorhouse. Major Andrus argued that the strike was unnecessary, since his men could always talk to him when they had a problem. He blamed Butler for “forcing” a strike vote by the Union. He claimed that most workers didn’t attend the union meetings anyway and only joined because they had to. In fact, from all accounts, it was Major Andrus who ended up looking like the unreasonable party. Andrus’ refusal to re-employ Butler smelled like blacklisting to the union, a common tactic to keep union activists off the payroll. Andrus also used heavy-handed tactics to force other builders to lock out their workers, reluctantly dragging them into the dispute. He threatened to turn Hartford into an “Open Shop” (that is, non-union) town. And when the Union agreed to continue work on a south end grammar school so that children wouldn’t miss the first day of school, he refused to let them on the worksite. In addition, Andrus instigated a lawsuit against Butler and the Bricklayers Union, charging that they had extorted money from a Windsor brick maker–three years earlier! In fact, the Union had fined the brick maker for selling to non-union construction sites including the Swedish Lutheran Church on Capitol Avenue and Hungerford Street. Finally, one pro-union contractor broke ranks with Andrus. William O’Neil valued his relationship with his union workers and refused to lock them out. Several other contractors then supported O’Neil. The strike was taking its toll on all local contractors once the tradesmen started looking for work elsewhere and were issued “travelling cards” by their unions so they could leave the state for other union jobs. In the spirit of the union slogan “an injury to one is an injury to all,” 700 workers had stayed off the job in support of the delegate. As each day passed, Butler and his co-workers upped the ante. By the time Andrus gave in, the amount it took to get the union construction workers back on the job was a $10.00 bill.Butler offered to burn the money to show that the issue was one of union principle. He didn’t need to. In the end, the union was stronger, and Butler was $10 richer.	832	ENGLISH	1
Sancho II of Portugal, the Pious, fourth king of Portugal, born in September 8 1207 in Coimbra, was the oldest son of Afonso II of Portugal by his wife, princess Urraca of Castile. Sancho became king in 1233 and was succeeded his brother, king Afonso III in 1247. He died in his exile in Toledo in January 4 1248. By the time of his accession to the throne, in 1233, Portugal was embroiled in a difficult diplomatic conflict with the Catholic church. Afonso II, his father, had been excommunicated by Pope Honorius III, for his attempts of reducing the Church power within the country. A treaty of 10 articles was signed between the Pope and Sancho II, but the king paid little attention to its fulfilment. His priority was the Reconquista, the conquest of the southern Iberian Peninsula to the Moors. From 1236 onwards, Sancho II conquered several cities in Algarve and Alentejo, securing the Portuguese position in the region. Sancho II proved a capable commander but in the equally important administrative issues he was less competent. With his total attention focused on military campaigns, the ground was open for internal disputes. The nobility was displeased by the king's conduct and started to conspire. Moreover, the middle class of merchants quarrelled frequently with the clergy, without any intervention from the king. As a result, the archbishop of Porto made a formal complaint to the Pope about the state of the affairs. Since the Church was the super power of the 13th century, the Pope felt free to issue a bule ordering the Portuguese to choose themselves a new king to replace the so-called heretic. In 1246 recalcitrant nobles invited Sancho's brother Afonso, then living in France as Count of Boulogne, to take the throne. Afonso immediately abdicated from his French possessions and marched into Portugal. Sancho II was removed from the throne in 1247 and fled to exile in Toledo where he died in January 4 1248. Sancho married Mecia Lopez de Haro, a Castilian lady, but had no legitimate sons. See also: Kings of Portugal family tree D. Afonso II \|List of Portuguese monarchs\|\| D. Afonso III	<urn:uuid:4747a550-1af0-4ba6-9606-c1ce9933204c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.infomutt.com/s/sa/sancho_ii_of_portugal.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00196.warc.gz	en	0.982419	485	3.796875	4	[ 0.04381253942847252, 0.6144192814826965, -0.1279916763305664, -0.58211749792099, -0.3201567530632019, -0.34569671750068665, -0.3101651072502136, -0.06595708429813385, 0.26985445618629456, 0.09495546668767929, -0.28592368960380554, -0.5919345021247864, 0.14642493426799774, 0.334213435649871...	2	Sancho II of Portugal, the Pious, fourth king of Portugal, born in September 8 1207 in Coimbra, was the oldest son of Afonso II of Portugal by his wife, princess Urraca of Castile. Sancho became king in 1233 and was succeeded his brother, king Afonso III in 1247. He died in his exile in Toledo in January 4 1248. By the time of his accession to the throne, in 1233, Portugal was embroiled in a difficult diplomatic conflict with the Catholic church. Afonso II, his father, had been excommunicated by Pope Honorius III, for his attempts of reducing the Church power within the country. A treaty of 10 articles was signed between the Pope and Sancho II, but the king paid little attention to its fulfilment. His priority was the Reconquista, the conquest of the southern Iberian Peninsula to the Moors. From 1236 onwards, Sancho II conquered several cities in Algarve and Alentejo, securing the Portuguese position in the region. Sancho II proved a capable commander but in the equally important administrative issues he was less competent. With his total attention focused on military campaigns, the ground was open for internal disputes. The nobility was displeased by the king's conduct and started to conspire. Moreover, the middle class of merchants quarrelled frequently with the clergy, without any intervention from the king. As a result, the archbishop of Porto made a formal complaint to the Pope about the state of the affairs. Since the Church was the super power of the 13th century, the Pope felt free to issue a bule ordering the Portuguese to choose themselves a new king to replace the so-called heretic. In 1246 recalcitrant nobles invited Sancho's brother Afonso, then living in France as Count of Boulogne, to take the throne. Afonso immediately abdicated from his French possessions and marched into Portugal. Sancho II was removed from the throne in 1247 and fled to exile in Toledo where he died in January 4 1248. Sancho married Mecia Lopez de Haro, a Castilian lady, but had no legitimate sons. See also: Kings of Portugal family tree D. Afonso II \|List of Portuguese monarchs\|\| D. Afonso III	511	ENGLISH	1
Originally Published June 2009. There is a certain amount of evidence that women in Celtic societies enjoyed more freedom and power in comparison to their Greek, or Roman sisters. While they were far from being treated as the equals of their men, marriages seem to have been a bit closer to a partnership than in other cultures. Julius Caesar reported that among the Gauls a husband and wife would pool their wealth and the surviving partner inherited everything upon the death of a spouse. In spite of this, Caesar also reported than men had the power of life an death over their wives, although in practice this may have been more a theoretical concept than a reality. It has also been claimed that in some early Celtic groups a person’s social status was inherited from the matriarchal line — the status of a person’s mother, rather than their father. However, the evidence for this seems to be rather scant, although it is reasonable to think that the female line was of more importance than in the rest of the Classical world. As in other cultures, the advantages experienced by the daughters of the powerful, were balanced with the possibility of being used as pawns in brokering political marriages. One, Dumnorix, a Gallic noble, is said to have married the daughter of Orgetorix to gain an alliance with him, as well as having married off his own female relatives to nobles from other tribes. A controversial note from Caesar claimed that some Celtic women actually shared several husbands, but many scholars have dismissed this claim as an exaggeration. However, certain Celtic noblewomen are said to have scandalized the Romans with their alleged promiscuity since in sexual relations Celtic women seem to have been more open and independent than the Roman women. Argentocoxus, the wife of a Caledonian Chieftain is said to have been challenged by the empress Julia Augusta and responded “We consort openly with the best men, whereas you let yourselves be debauched in secret with the vilest“. Even though Celtic women seem to have been on the battlefields, there seems to be little evidence that they carried arms in battle, in spite of a common modern belief to the contrary. The idea of Boudica leading a rebellion against the Romans may be an exception. But even in her case some scholars have suggested that her role may actually have been more symbolic than actual. The rape of her daughters and her own flogging may have supplied focus for the outrage already felt by her tribe against the Roman invaders. Thus, while Celtic women may have had some advantages compared to other contemporary societies, we should be careful not to assume they were as “liberated” as some New Age writers would have us think.	<urn:uuid:ef1c4fac-76aa-4a3c-8658-0bdedef37899>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.kilts-n-stuff.com/Blog/celtic-women/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00443.warc.gz	en	0.98813	556	3.265625	3	[ -0.307856023311615, 0.3778022229671478, 0.038683392107486725, 0.16711264848709106, -0.3939105272293091, -0.1166531890630722, 0.14476467669010162, 0.2726765275001526, 0.4580260217189789, -0.24693650007247925, -0.09717519581317902, -0.2621847093105316, -0.08796997368335724, -0.06279867887496...	3	Originally Published June 2009. There is a certain amount of evidence that women in Celtic societies enjoyed more freedom and power in comparison to their Greek, or Roman sisters. While they were far from being treated as the equals of their men, marriages seem to have been a bit closer to a partnership than in other cultures. Julius Caesar reported that among the Gauls a husband and wife would pool their wealth and the surviving partner inherited everything upon the death of a spouse. In spite of this, Caesar also reported than men had the power of life an death over their wives, although in practice this may have been more a theoretical concept than a reality. It has also been claimed that in some early Celtic groups a person’s social status was inherited from the matriarchal line — the status of a person’s mother, rather than their father. However, the evidence for this seems to be rather scant, although it is reasonable to think that the female line was of more importance than in the rest of the Classical world. As in other cultures, the advantages experienced by the daughters of the powerful, were balanced with the possibility of being used as pawns in brokering political marriages. One, Dumnorix, a Gallic noble, is said to have married the daughter of Orgetorix to gain an alliance with him, as well as having married off his own female relatives to nobles from other tribes. A controversial note from Caesar claimed that some Celtic women actually shared several husbands, but many scholars have dismissed this claim as an exaggeration. However, certain Celtic noblewomen are said to have scandalized the Romans with their alleged promiscuity since in sexual relations Celtic women seem to have been more open and independent than the Roman women. Argentocoxus, the wife of a Caledonian Chieftain is said to have been challenged by the empress Julia Augusta and responded “We consort openly with the best men, whereas you let yourselves be debauched in secret with the vilest“. Even though Celtic women seem to have been on the battlefields, there seems to be little evidence that they carried arms in battle, in spite of a common modern belief to the contrary. The idea of Boudica leading a rebellion against the Romans may be an exception. But even in her case some scholars have suggested that her role may actually have been more symbolic than actual. The rape of her daughters and her own flogging may have supplied focus for the outrage already felt by her tribe against the Roman invaders. Thus, while Celtic women may have had some advantages compared to other contemporary societies, we should be careful not to assume they were as “liberated” as some New Age writers would have us think.	552	ENGLISH	1
The British potter Josiah Wedgwood (12 July 1730 – 3 January 1795) was not only a ceramic artist, but also on the forefront of the Industrial Revolution. Wedgwood brought science into the manufacturing process. He also introduced work standards, time sheets, and many other methods that are common in the modern-day workplace. While experiments to gain knowledge were already well known in science, craftsmen still followed the old traditions and rarely improved their craft. Josiah Wedgwood was one of the first industrialists who used this scientific method of experimenting and collecting data to propel his wares to an never-before-seen level of quality. Combining this with his keen business sense, he and his firm prospered, and the works of his firm are still highly regarded even today. Continue reading 225th Anniversary of the Death of Josiah Wedgwood – Father of Science in Manufacturing	<urn:uuid:104176b3-d816-4bde-b1ce-52391c47f98a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.allaboutlean.com/tag/wedgwood/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00361.warc.gz	en	0.984397	184	3.5625	4	[ 0.08224494755268097, 0.39616039395332336, 0.629128634929657, -0.2351294457912445, -0.20840367674827576, -0.22973020374774933, 0.18142563104629517, 0.22448687255382538, -0.6082105040550232, -0.06368544697761536, -0.43125641345977783, -0.18691204488277435, -0.19623899459838867, 0.40172576904...	2	The British potter Josiah Wedgwood (12 July 1730 – 3 January 1795) was not only a ceramic artist, but also on the forefront of the Industrial Revolution. Wedgwood brought science into the manufacturing process. He also introduced work standards, time sheets, and many other methods that are common in the modern-day workplace. While experiments to gain knowledge were already well known in science, craftsmen still followed the old traditions and rarely improved their craft. Josiah Wedgwood was one of the first industrialists who used this scientific method of experimenting and collecting data to propel his wares to an never-before-seen level of quality. Combining this with his keen business sense, he and his firm prospered, and the works of his firm are still highly regarded even today. Continue reading 225th Anniversary of the Death of Josiah Wedgwood – Father of Science in Manufacturing	191	ENGLISH	1
TEAM 1403 COUGAR ROBOTICS PROJECT/ACTIVITY: Culture Class Where: Montgomery High School Number of Students: 73 Action Items: Plastic Cups, Construction Paper, Tape Impact on Team: Instead of a teacher or a mentor starting the Cougar Class, team members from various cultures gave brief presentations of their heritage, such as where they came from, the history of their country, and the diverse culture which is relevant in this country. This shows how diverse Team 1403 really is, as students had the opportunity to connect with one another through their similarities. After all the mentors presented their culture, the challenge activity started. The students were split into teams and each group was given a piece of paper with two cups displayed on it. The cups were positioned differently for each group, which caused confusion among the students. Prior to this, the students were not given any directions, which made groups confused and forced them to improvise. As the challenge progressed, the students finally understood what they should do, which was to invent a product including the orientation of the cups and create a two-minute “Shark Tank” style presentation for the mentors. They had to explain the specifics of their product, including its cost, functions, and how the members worked together cohesively to create it. Teams were critiqued on their presentation and their product, which the mentors used to decide the winner. This Cougar Class exposed many students to different cultures and habits that they were previously not aware of. To extend this idea, Team 1403 gathered a new understanding of their peers who were starting to know each other. In another aspect, the challenge activity helped the team with etiquette (especially with judges), presentational skills, and teamwork. The stakes of presenting to mentors and designing a project represents designing and presenting during build season, which ultimately helps us prepare for it.	<urn:uuid:9b5bd2e1-782d-42ec-a64e-d5a2ad35b427>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://cougarrobotics.com/2019/12/2019-cougar-class-5-culture-class/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00301.warc.gz	en	0.980148	388	3.484375	3	[ 0.04669877514243126, 0.16304172575473785, 0.017965851351618767, -0.19444707036018372, -0.2713254690170288, 0.03867592662572861, 0.19313165545463562, 0.42426279187202454, -0.15336841344833374, -0.1588195264339447, 0.43441781401634216, -0.36489999294281006, 0.3864542245864868, 0.168705120682...	14	TEAM 1403 COUGAR ROBOTICS PROJECT/ACTIVITY: Culture Class Where: Montgomery High School Number of Students: 73 Action Items: Plastic Cups, Construction Paper, Tape Impact on Team: Instead of a teacher or a mentor starting the Cougar Class, team members from various cultures gave brief presentations of their heritage, such as where they came from, the history of their country, and the diverse culture which is relevant in this country. This shows how diverse Team 1403 really is, as students had the opportunity to connect with one another through their similarities. After all the mentors presented their culture, the challenge activity started. The students were split into teams and each group was given a piece of paper with two cups displayed on it. The cups were positioned differently for each group, which caused confusion among the students. Prior to this, the students were not given any directions, which made groups confused and forced them to improvise. As the challenge progressed, the students finally understood what they should do, which was to invent a product including the orientation of the cups and create a two-minute “Shark Tank” style presentation for the mentors. They had to explain the specifics of their product, including its cost, functions, and how the members worked together cohesively to create it. Teams were critiqued on their presentation and their product, which the mentors used to decide the winner. This Cougar Class exposed many students to different cultures and habits that they were previously not aware of. To extend this idea, Team 1403 gathered a new understanding of their peers who were starting to know each other. In another aspect, the challenge activity helped the team with etiquette (especially with judges), presentational skills, and teamwork. The stakes of presenting to mentors and designing a project represents designing and presenting during build season, which ultimately helps us prepare for it.	386	ENGLISH	1
Ancient Greece social system Ancient Greece was an ardent civilization that belongs to ancient Greek history. The ancient Greek was also a part of nations where people were divided on the basis of socialism – means the classes. Some classes were superior to other while some inferior. Superior classes enjoyed some special rights and benefits over the inferior ones. These social classes have been described below in a pattern starting with the highest class and ending with the lowest one in Ancient Greek social hierarchy: - Athens – The Upper Class - Metics – The Middle Class: - Freedmen – The Lower Class: - The Slaves Athens – The Upper Class: The topmost class in the Ancient Greek Hierarchy was the Upper Class. The people of this class possessed the uppermost power and position in the society. One has to be born in Athens to be a part of the Upper Class as the rights for this class could only be inherited on the hereditary basis. The upper class symbolized a good civil character, good artistic taste, and highly socialized individuals. The people from this class handled all the government work, philosophy as well as the literature department, and also the war. Athens people always got slaves so as to perform their materialistic works so as to save their precious time which they had to use for administrative purposes. The Upper Class can also be symbolized as the Leisure Class. They kept their time for the important activities related with the administration of the kingdom. Metics – The Middle Class: This was the next class in Ancient Greece Social Hierarchy. These people were not the natives of Athens, but came to Athens to settle down. They came to Athens for earning their livelihood. Such people were apt for the Middle Class. They were free men, they were not slaves but they possessed very little rights as compared to the Upper Class. They were majorly involved in the trading and manufacturing related jobs. Freedmen – The Lower Class: Freedmen were the next class in the Ancient Greek Social Hierarchy and it incorporates those people who were once slaves but somehow were freed by their owner by any mode. This was the lower class people category but did not belong to Athens, i.e. these were neither Athens nor were granted citizenship in their life what so ever money they earned. These were the people who possessed least amount of privileges, but still got few, as compared to salves who had zero privileges. The Slaves: This is the lowest most class, actually a level because Greeks never considered it as a class. These people were either rescued from war, some criminals or even bought upon people. These people possessed zero rights or authority. They did not even possess right of their own life. Very little number of Greeks were slaves otherwise the majority of slaves were non-Greeks. They had to pay a ransom amount to buy their freedom and get themselves free. - HondroStrong Latvija www.goodshelp.com/hondrostrong-latvija/. Charlotte Home Furnishings 3658-5055 Acanthus Tapestry Cushion Wall Hanging - Green, H 46 x W 27 Home (Charlotte Home Furnishings) Was there a social class system of ancient Greece. Yes there was a social class system in Ancient Greece but it was not a rigid class system. Every society has a class system. Today society is measured by wealth (and sometimes fame). The President is not in a different class system than Bill Gates, but they are both in a different class system than us. Greece being a warrior society ment that women also had many powers. In Sparta, for example, young boys were sent to training at the age of 7 and only returned at age 30. They received very high honors for diying in battle, and this same honor was given to women who died in child birth. (…	<urn:uuid:16b082c1-a05a-48a2-8d9b-2f6a87b3a935>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://politesprevezas.eu/?author=1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00366.warc.gz	en	0.985659	788	3.9375	4	[ -0.15430264174938202, 0.3578590750694275, 0.22019514441490173, -0.7626668214797974, -0.32177358865737915, -0.6294313669204712, -0.0024470980279147625, 0.1747087836265564, 0.02342776395380497, 0.04400433599948883, -0.35962116718292236, -0.03330498933792114, -0.003823034930974245, 0.39378774...	1	Ancient Greece social system Ancient Greece was an ardent civilization that belongs to ancient Greek history. The ancient Greek was also a part of nations where people were divided on the basis of socialism – means the classes. Some classes were superior to other while some inferior. Superior classes enjoyed some special rights and benefits over the inferior ones. These social classes have been described below in a pattern starting with the highest class and ending with the lowest one in Ancient Greek social hierarchy: - Athens – The Upper Class - Metics – The Middle Class: - Freedmen – The Lower Class: - The Slaves Athens – The Upper Class: The topmost class in the Ancient Greek Hierarchy was the Upper Class. The people of this class possessed the uppermost power and position in the society. One has to be born in Athens to be a part of the Upper Class as the rights for this class could only be inherited on the hereditary basis. The upper class symbolized a good civil character, good artistic taste, and highly socialized individuals. The people from this class handled all the government work, philosophy as well as the literature department, and also the war. Athens people always got slaves so as to perform their materialistic works so as to save their precious time which they had to use for administrative purposes. The Upper Class can also be symbolized as the Leisure Class. They kept their time for the important activities related with the administration of the kingdom. Metics – The Middle Class: This was the next class in Ancient Greece Social Hierarchy. These people were not the natives of Athens, but came to Athens to settle down. They came to Athens for earning their livelihood. Such people were apt for the Middle Class. They were free men, they were not slaves but they possessed very little rights as compared to the Upper Class. They were majorly involved in the trading and manufacturing related jobs. Freedmen – The Lower Class: Freedmen were the next class in the Ancient Greek Social Hierarchy and it incorporates those people who were once slaves but somehow were freed by their owner by any mode. This was the lower class people category but did not belong to Athens, i.e. these were neither Athens nor were granted citizenship in their life what so ever money they earned. These were the people who possessed least amount of privileges, but still got few, as compared to salves who had zero privileges. The Slaves: This is the lowest most class, actually a level because Greeks never considered it as a class. These people were either rescued from war, some criminals or even bought upon people. These people possessed zero rights or authority. They did not even possess right of their own life. Very little number of Greeks were slaves otherwise the majority of slaves were non-Greeks. They had to pay a ransom amount to buy their freedom and get themselves free. - HondroStrong Latvija www.goodshelp.com/hondrostrong-latvija/. Charlotte Home Furnishings 3658-5055 Acanthus Tapestry Cushion Wall Hanging - Green, H 46 x W 27 Home (Charlotte Home Furnishings) Was there a social class system of ancient Greece. Yes there was a social class system in Ancient Greece but it was not a rigid class system. Every society has a class system. Today society is measured by wealth (and sometimes fame). The President is not in a different class system than Bill Gates, but they are both in a different class system than us. Greece being a warrior society ment that women also had many powers. In Sparta, for example, young boys were sent to training at the age of 7 and only returned at age 30. They received very high honors for diying in battle, and this same honor was given to women who died in child birth. (…	781	ENGLISH	1
G Lindop: November 2018 Last week in Base 4, we had a science week as part of our digestion theme. We learnt about the structure of the teeth and how sugar can impact on healthy teeth. We decided to launch an investigation into the effect that sugar can have. We used hard-boiled eggs and put them into 4 different drinks — water, sugar-free orange squash, cola and orange juice to see the effects that the sugar in each of those drinks will have. Belle made a great prediction, "The cola will make the egg decay because that has the most sugar in it." We're opening our egg jars on Tuesday this week and already can see what has happened to some of the eggs. It could be a smelly lesson! Thanks to everyone's great research for their homework, we also used our weighing and measuring skills to see how much sugar there was in the different drinks we enjoy every day. Marloe was amazed to see quite how much sugar there was in a carton of apple juice. We really enjoyed doing some practical work. We also learnt about food chains and constructed our own "human" food chains in the hall. We learnt that producers in food chains get their energy from the sun and are usually green plants and that different animals can be both predators and prey. Base 4 didn't think of themselves as predators until we put humans into our food chain! In Maths, we have been continuing with our multiplication and division topic, learning about what happens when multiplying and dividing by 10, 100 and 1000. Some children also enjoyed correcting some of Mr. Lindop's times-table facts which he had done in a rush! In English, we've been expanding our descriptive writing by learning how to use fronted adverbials in our writing to describe what David might see at the train station before he was evacuated. Finally, Base 4 were second again in the battle for a golden ticket for attendance. A great effort everyone, even with a few coughs and sniffles around. Let's go for 100% attendance this week! popular recent articlesAlso in the news Sophie read some of our class story today- we really enjoy listening to each other when we... So, where did that week go? We have had another great, busy, fun-filled week in school. Our music, RE and writing in particular this week has just blown me away. The children have been continuing with their singing, this time adding rap to to their repertoire ! I can't believe they managed to say all those words so well! I loved to see you guys bobbing and moving to the beat; wonderful! We... A great week of learning in Base 4 this week — we've been working incredibly hard on our learning journey and getting creative in Music too.We returned to the feast at Heorot, only to find that the mead-hall had been destroyed by the foul beast, Grendel. We learnt more about Grendel and banked lots of wonderful language to describe him.Our Maths has focused on tenths and hundredths. ...	<urn:uuid:c873e9aa-604f-4699-90a7-3049d1f65f87>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wrenburyschool.org.uk/school-news/base-4-and-our-eggs-periment.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00383.warc.gz	en	0.980662	634	3.65625	4	[ -0.3775522708892822, -0.21998745203018188, 0.0777149349451065, 0.11567667126655579, 0.3086492717266083, 0.21005851030349731, 0.21723073720932007, 0.10597717761993408, -0.29537492990493774, -0.24354144930839539, 0.14793500304222107, -0.2856798768043518, -0.16414672136306763, 0.2588890194892...	1	G Lindop: November 2018 Last week in Base 4, we had a science week as part of our digestion theme. We learnt about the structure of the teeth and how sugar can impact on healthy teeth. We decided to launch an investigation into the effect that sugar can have. We used hard-boiled eggs and put them into 4 different drinks — water, sugar-free orange squash, cola and orange juice to see the effects that the sugar in each of those drinks will have. Belle made a great prediction, "The cola will make the egg decay because that has the most sugar in it." We're opening our egg jars on Tuesday this week and already can see what has happened to some of the eggs. It could be a smelly lesson! Thanks to everyone's great research for their homework, we also used our weighing and measuring skills to see how much sugar there was in the different drinks we enjoy every day. Marloe was amazed to see quite how much sugar there was in a carton of apple juice. We really enjoyed doing some practical work. We also learnt about food chains and constructed our own "human" food chains in the hall. We learnt that producers in food chains get their energy from the sun and are usually green plants and that different animals can be both predators and prey. Base 4 didn't think of themselves as predators until we put humans into our food chain! In Maths, we have been continuing with our multiplication and division topic, learning about what happens when multiplying and dividing by 10, 100 and 1000. Some children also enjoyed correcting some of Mr. Lindop's times-table facts which he had done in a rush! In English, we've been expanding our descriptive writing by learning how to use fronted adverbials in our writing to describe what David might see at the train station before he was evacuated. Finally, Base 4 were second again in the battle for a golden ticket for attendance. A great effort everyone, even with a few coughs and sniffles around. Let's go for 100% attendance this week! popular recent articlesAlso in the news Sophie read some of our class story today- we really enjoy listening to each other when we... So, where did that week go? We have had another great, busy, fun-filled week in school. Our music, RE and writing in particular this week has just blown me away. The children have been continuing with their singing, this time adding rap to to their repertoire ! I can't believe they managed to say all those words so well! I loved to see you guys bobbing and moving to the beat; wonderful! We... A great week of learning in Base 4 this week — we've been working incredibly hard on our learning journey and getting creative in Music too.We returned to the feast at Heorot, only to find that the mead-hall had been destroyed by the foul beast, Grendel. We learnt more about Grendel and banked lots of wonderful language to describe him.Our Maths has focused on tenths and hundredths. ...	635	ENGLISH	1
Report of General Monthly Meeting - Tuesday 12th November 2019 Louis XIV and the Court at Versailles: Richard Costard Louis XIV ruled France from 1638 until his death in 1715 and was thus king for more than 72 years – the longest rule recorded of any monarch of a European country. He believed in the divine right of kings and created a centralised state with himself at the centre. He moved the centre of power from Paris to his wonderful new palace of Versailles with its fantastic gardens and fountains, amazing hall of mirrors and glass imported from Venice. The cost of the building and furniture was immense, and nearly bankrupted a country still recovering from the cost of the recent war with Spain. One reason for moving the centre of power to Versailles was to increase the kings’ control; many members of the nobility were required to reside at Versailles so it was more difficult for any dissenting plots to develop. Versailles was also a great cultural centre; Louis surrounded himself h the great artistic and literary figures of the time. He also commissioned hundreds of portraits of himself and a number of statues – sometimes portraying him as the god Apollo. Louis XIV also enforced the uniformity of the Catholic religion, revoking the Edict of Nantes and thus removing any rights of the Protestant Huguenots who were forced either to flee the country or convert to Catholicism. His first marriage to Marie Therese of Spain had been arranged for political reasons, and although they had seven children (of whom only the Dauphin Louis survived to adulthood), he had official mistresses for much of his married life. He had further children with his mistresses who included Louise de Valliere (five children) and Marquise de Montesfan (seven children). Following the death of his wife Marie Therese, he secretly married again to Francoise d’Aubique; this was widely known although never officially acknowledged. Richard showed us a wide selection of images which demonstrated what a splendid palace Versailles was in the seventeenth century for those sufficiently privileged to be living there. He gave us a feeling of the scale of extravagance which was so great, however, and in such contrast to the poverty of the vast majority of the population that is it small wonder that there was revolution by the end of the eighteenth century.	<urn:uuid:4214747c-326f-496a-88df-89c3a668da47>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://winchesteru3a.co.uk/index.php/monmeet11-19	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00361.warc.gz	en	0.981878	475	3.3125	3	[ 0.007001100108027458, 0.44253695011138916, -0.2208908051252365, -0.22749187052249908, 0.03089248016476631, 0.07292819768190384, -0.20494189858436584, -0.05188676714897156, 0.23149923980236053, -0.015540363267064095, 0.00018217161414213479, 0.11268144100904465, 0.013658646494150162, 0.66563...	6	Report of General Monthly Meeting - Tuesday 12th November 2019 Louis XIV and the Court at Versailles: Richard Costard Louis XIV ruled France from 1638 until his death in 1715 and was thus king for more than 72 years – the longest rule recorded of any monarch of a European country. He believed in the divine right of kings and created a centralised state with himself at the centre. He moved the centre of power from Paris to his wonderful new palace of Versailles with its fantastic gardens and fountains, amazing hall of mirrors and glass imported from Venice. The cost of the building and furniture was immense, and nearly bankrupted a country still recovering from the cost of the recent war with Spain. One reason for moving the centre of power to Versailles was to increase the kings’ control; many members of the nobility were required to reside at Versailles so it was more difficult for any dissenting plots to develop. Versailles was also a great cultural centre; Louis surrounded himself h the great artistic and literary figures of the time. He also commissioned hundreds of portraits of himself and a number of statues – sometimes portraying him as the god Apollo. Louis XIV also enforced the uniformity of the Catholic religion, revoking the Edict of Nantes and thus removing any rights of the Protestant Huguenots who were forced either to flee the country or convert to Catholicism. His first marriage to Marie Therese of Spain had been arranged for political reasons, and although they had seven children (of whom only the Dauphin Louis survived to adulthood), he had official mistresses for much of his married life. He had further children with his mistresses who included Louise de Valliere (five children) and Marquise de Montesfan (seven children). Following the death of his wife Marie Therese, he secretly married again to Francoise d’Aubique; this was widely known although never officially acknowledged. Richard showed us a wide selection of images which demonstrated what a splendid palace Versailles was in the seventeenth century for those sufficiently privileged to be living there. He gave us a feeling of the scale of extravagance which was so great, however, and in such contrast to the poverty of the vast majority of the population that is it small wonder that there was revolution by the end of the eighteenth century.	482	ENGLISH	1
This week we have been learning about dissolving. Children chose to show their learning in different ways - some drew diagrams and wrote about the process, some came up with enquiry questions and conducted investigations, and others made videos explaining the process. 13th January 2020 Our theme for British Values this term is 'Freedom of Expression'. We had lots of great discussion on our rights to freedom of speech, what can and can't be said and ways that people express their views such as protests and street art. The children were set a challenge to express a thought about their life, the local area or a global issue through writing or artwork and came up with some really mature and insightful views. 9th January 2020 We have been looking at what it means to be resilient. We came up with different expressions for resilience and then showed resilience by learning the 'cup song'.	<urn:uuid:c8a48748-f23d-48a8-9f9a-cf1440affa46>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.st-anselms.kent.sch.uk/spring-term-learning-1/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00375.warc.gz	en	0.983666	176	3.28125	3	[ -0.21807463467121124, -0.07417327910661697, 0.16140003502368927, -0.6010821461677551, -0.10750589519739151, 0.43887653946876526, -0.26800596714019775, 0.18101057410240173, -0.006729836575686932, -0.03774545341730118, 0.049583643674850464, -0.10255217552185059, 0.13683554530143738, 0.291748...	1	This week we have been learning about dissolving. Children chose to show their learning in different ways - some drew diagrams and wrote about the process, some came up with enquiry questions and conducted investigations, and others made videos explaining the process. 13th January 2020 Our theme for British Values this term is 'Freedom of Expression'. We had lots of great discussion on our rights to freedom of speech, what can and can't be said and ways that people express their views such as protests and street art. The children were set a challenge to express a thought about their life, the local area or a global issue through writing or artwork and came up with some really mature and insightful views. 9th January 2020 We have been looking at what it means to be resilient. We came up with different expressions for resilience and then showed resilience by learning the 'cup song'.	181	ENGLISH	1
Before She was Harriet Before She was Harriet is about the life of Harriet Tubman. Harriet was an African American woman who is a hero. Harriet started her life as a slave, and then became a conductor on the Underground Railroad, helping other slaves to freedom. During the Civil War, she was a nurse and a Union spy. She risked her life taking secret messages across battlefields. After the war, Harriet became a suffragist, which means that she fought for women’s right to vote. Harriet really was a hero who fought for a lot of things in our country. I really liked reading Before She was Harriet because I think it was really neat to learn about real people. I had never heard of Harriet Tubman before, so I didn’t know what the story would be about. It follows her life story, but backwards. The book starts with Harriet as an old woman and ends with young Harriet being taught to read the stars by her father. The illustrations are really beautiful, like a painting, and I really liked looking at them. I would recommend this book to children who like learning about people in history and to classrooms that are learning about Harriet Tubman or slavery. After reading Before She was Harriet, I would like to learn more about her and will be looking for other books about Harriet Tubman for my library. \|Author\|\|Lesa Cline-Ransome • James E. Ransome, Illustrator\| \|Page Count\|\|32 pages\| \|Amazon\|\|Buy this Book\|	<urn:uuid:18387a83-fe88-4099-b95b-4bc9f6380102>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kidsbookbuzz.com/product/before-she-was-harriet/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00028.warc.gz	en	0.980317	312	3.546875	4	[ -0.2857981026172638, 0.07698412239551544, 0.4612041413784027, 0.5404306650161743, 0.019322415813803673, 0.13062913715839386, 0.12292042374610901, 0.16121985018253326, -0.3241933584213257, 0.27215132117271423, 0.3432416021823883, 0.1123431921005249, -0.10824432969093323, 0.10979418456554413...	6	Before She was Harriet Before She was Harriet is about the life of Harriet Tubman. Harriet was an African American woman who is a hero. Harriet started her life as a slave, and then became a conductor on the Underground Railroad, helping other slaves to freedom. During the Civil War, she was a nurse and a Union spy. She risked her life taking secret messages across battlefields. After the war, Harriet became a suffragist, which means that she fought for women’s right to vote. Harriet really was a hero who fought for a lot of things in our country. I really liked reading Before She was Harriet because I think it was really neat to learn about real people. I had never heard of Harriet Tubman before, so I didn’t know what the story would be about. It follows her life story, but backwards. The book starts with Harriet as an old woman and ends with young Harriet being taught to read the stars by her father. The illustrations are really beautiful, like a painting, and I really liked looking at them. I would recommend this book to children who like learning about people in history and to classrooms that are learning about Harriet Tubman or slavery. After reading Before She was Harriet, I would like to learn more about her and will be looking for other books about Harriet Tubman for my library. \|Author\|\|Lesa Cline-Ransome • James E. Ransome, Illustrator\| \|Page Count\|\|32 pages\| \|Amazon\|\|Buy this Book\|	318	ENGLISH	1
In chemistry class at Sachse High, students were generating carbon dioxide and seeing how it reacts to temperature. However, the students in this classroom are actually teachers. This class took place in the weeks leading up to the start of school. Educators from around the country come to Texas to learn new ways to teach science skills and learn from one another. The latest news from around North Texas. "When we go through these types of experiments and we can see where the flaws are, and where the kids are going to get tripped up, it's easier to go and facilitate for them," said Katherine Borne, who teaches AP Environmental Science at Sachse High. She tackled an experiment idea after seeing how it would be the best way to motivate her students. "We do a lot of lab already, but the more involved I get them the most it's going to stick with them," Borne said. It's called "Summmer Institutes." The National Math and Science Initiative puts it on each year to inspire teachers to not just try new things, but understand them. "I could provide you a tool box of all these great things, but if you don't open it and experience it you're not going to take the time to do that during the year when you have a million other things to do," said Toni Schneider of the National Math & Science Institute. Each group of "students" were given the same assignment, but had to come up with their own unique way to generate their data. It helps expose them to different things that come up in the classroom and be prepared to handle it. As much as they got out of the experiments, many of these teachers are the science specialists at their schools, and they don't have another person just like them on campus. This was a chance to socialize, share ideas and information from someone who speaks their language.	<urn:uuid:2631d5a0-e8f0-4968-b24b-0e9d6fbd8e44>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nbcdfw.com/news/local/teachers-become-students-in-effort-to-improve-learning/1963206/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00041.warc.gz	en	0.980932	388	3.625	4	[ -0.27564042806625366, 0.24967187643051147, 0.10672708600759506, -0.13164539635181427, -0.0358211025595665, -0.02753398008644581, 0.09106944501399994, 0.19805896282196045, -0.37975120544433594, -0.32963746786117554, 0.14809629321098328, -0.0570400133728981, 0.022431597113609314, 0.274469226...	2	In chemistry class at Sachse High, students were generating carbon dioxide and seeing how it reacts to temperature. However, the students in this classroom are actually teachers. This class took place in the weeks leading up to the start of school. Educators from around the country come to Texas to learn new ways to teach science skills and learn from one another. The latest news from around North Texas. "When we go through these types of experiments and we can see where the flaws are, and where the kids are going to get tripped up, it's easier to go and facilitate for them," said Katherine Borne, who teaches AP Environmental Science at Sachse High. She tackled an experiment idea after seeing how it would be the best way to motivate her students. "We do a lot of lab already, but the more involved I get them the most it's going to stick with them," Borne said. It's called "Summmer Institutes." The National Math and Science Initiative puts it on each year to inspire teachers to not just try new things, but understand them. "I could provide you a tool box of all these great things, but if you don't open it and experience it you're not going to take the time to do that during the year when you have a million other things to do," said Toni Schneider of the National Math & Science Institute. Each group of "students" were given the same assignment, but had to come up with their own unique way to generate their data. It helps expose them to different things that come up in the classroom and be prepared to handle it. As much as they got out of the experiments, many of these teachers are the science specialists at their schools, and they don't have another person just like them on campus. This was a chance to socialize, share ideas and information from someone who speaks their language.	373	ENGLISH	1
Study Habits of Students Essay Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are separated by a net. Each team tries to score points by grounding a ball on the other team's court under organized rules. It has been a part of the official program of the Summer Olympic Games since 1964. The rally continues, with each team allowed as many as three consecutive touches, until either (1): a team makes a kill, grounding the ball on the opponent's court and winning the rally; or (2): a team commits a fault and loses the rally. The team that wins the rally is awarded a point, and serves the ball to start the next rally. A few of the most common faults include: * Causing the ball to touch the ground outside the opponents' court or without …show more content… Refinements and later developments The first official ball used in volleyball is disputed; some sources say that Spalding created the first official ball in 1896, while others claim it was created in 1900. The rules evolved over time: in the Philippines by 1916, the skill and power of the set and spike had been introduced, and four years later a "three hits" rule and a rule against hitting from the back row were established. In 1917, the game was changed from 21 to 15 points. In 1919, about 16,000 volleyballs were distributed by the American Expeditionary Forces to their troops and allies, which sparked the growth of volleyball in new countries. The first country outside the United States to adopt volleyball was	<urn:uuid:ade25367-10b1-4da4-8b4c-64b7a232b721>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cram.com/essay/Study-Habits-of-Students/PKJ8W5PK5J	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00086.warc.gz	en	0.981894	316	3.46875	3	[ -0.4152355194091797, 0.199025958776474, 0.2902555763721466, -0.45061740279197693, -0.3160359561443329, 0.37464281916618347, 0.27838271856307983, -0.03022606670856476, 0.27377504110336304, -0.08667060732841492, -0.020484384149312973, -0.0738031193614006, 0.03551361709833145, 0.3158238232135...	1	Study Habits of Students Essay Volleyball is a team sport in which two teams of six players are separated by a net. Each team tries to score points by grounding a ball on the other team's court under organized rules. It has been a part of the official program of the Summer Olympic Games since 1964. The rally continues, with each team allowed as many as three consecutive touches, until either (1): a team makes a kill, grounding the ball on the opponent's court and winning the rally; or (2): a team commits a fault and loses the rally. The team that wins the rally is awarded a point, and serves the ball to start the next rally. A few of the most common faults include: * Causing the ball to touch the ground outside the opponents' court or without …show more content… Refinements and later developments The first official ball used in volleyball is disputed; some sources say that Spalding created the first official ball in 1896, while others claim it was created in 1900. The rules evolved over time: in the Philippines by 1916, the skill and power of the set and spike had been introduced, and four years later a "three hits" rule and a rule against hitting from the back row were established. In 1917, the game was changed from 21 to 15 points. In 1919, about 16,000 volleyballs were distributed by the American Expeditionary Forces to their troops and allies, which sparked the growth of volleyball in new countries. The first country outside the United States to adopt volleyball was	345	ENGLISH	1
Western Colonialism is when Europe takes over another country with their power. This happened in Asia and is still happening today. In Vietnam, colonialism affected their ways of living. A main problem in Vietnam is that Christians are being kicked out of the country for their beliefs. An underlying factor to this is that Vietnam is a communist country. South Korea has growing tension with North Korea because of the Korean War. These are some aspects that can affect the thought Europeans to Asian countries. Colonialism makes major impacts on countries and can affect the way they live. The Vietnam War and the French were staples as to why Vietnam is a communist country today. The Vietnam War was one of the longest most impacting wars for the U.S. Before the war, when the French were defeated, Vietnam split into the North and South. One side (the North) was communist and the South were anti communist. The french tried to gain imperial control over Vietnam. After the war, Viet Minh who led the communist and anti-French movement gained control. When an uprising between France and Viet Minh broke out, the Indochina war began. Although France was defeated, there were later problems relating to communism. Because the president Ngo Dinh Diem did not want to go to the Geneva Accord, South Vietnam had a problem with this. Northern Communists later joined the South and fought Viet Cong. The United States agreed with Vietnam’s containment policy meaning the were in favor of spreading communism. They sent Vietnam tools and troops to help them out. Later on, the North and South were reunited as the Social Republic of Vietnam. Even though this may have been solved at the time, (no more conflict between China and Vietnam) later years affected the Communist country. Just in 2016, Tran Dai Quang was elected president and he is a communist. This means that him and the new prime minister are making Vietnam a one sided communist country for even longer. This is how colonial war can make a series of impacts to one country. Another country that was impacted by colonialism or even by a war is South Korea. During the war, North Korea invaded South Korea which caused a three year war. Once again, the United States sent in troops to help South Korea. China was worried that the war would enter their country so they sent troops to help North Korea out. The war eventually ended in agreement even though no peace treaty was signed. After the war ended, there was still tension between both countries. A policy was made to ease the tension between North and South Korea. This worked for a while until North Korea fired on a small island in the Yellow Sea. North Korea threatened to destroy South Korea, the United States, and Japan. This tension from the colonial war is still present today. In 2015, two South Korean soldiers were injured and they blamed this on North Korea, causing more tension and conflict.	<urn:uuid:896d6089-7edc-47dc-a83b-c6207293297d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://taxteaparty.com/western-with-north-korea-because-of-the-korean/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00508.warc.gz	en	0.986623	578	3.421875	3	[ -0.012061323039233685, 0.1511174440383911, 0.47528785467147827, -0.22459645569324493, 0.3502073884010315, 0.14724037051200867, -0.08607438951730728, 0.0928075835108757, 0.0631827563047409, 0.23675331473350525, 0.2180098444223404, 0.04137376695871353, 0.3035259246826172, 0.5276139974594116,...	2	Western Colonialism is when Europe takes over another country with their power. This happened in Asia and is still happening today. In Vietnam, colonialism affected their ways of living. A main problem in Vietnam is that Christians are being kicked out of the country for their beliefs. An underlying factor to this is that Vietnam is a communist country. South Korea has growing tension with North Korea because of the Korean War. These are some aspects that can affect the thought Europeans to Asian countries. Colonialism makes major impacts on countries and can affect the way they live. The Vietnam War and the French were staples as to why Vietnam is a communist country today. The Vietnam War was one of the longest most impacting wars for the U.S. Before the war, when the French were defeated, Vietnam split into the North and South. One side (the North) was communist and the South were anti communist. The french tried to gain imperial control over Vietnam. After the war, Viet Minh who led the communist and anti-French movement gained control. When an uprising between France and Viet Minh broke out, the Indochina war began. Although France was defeated, there were later problems relating to communism. Because the president Ngo Dinh Diem did not want to go to the Geneva Accord, South Vietnam had a problem with this. Northern Communists later joined the South and fought Viet Cong. The United States agreed with Vietnam’s containment policy meaning the were in favor of spreading communism. They sent Vietnam tools and troops to help them out. Later on, the North and South were reunited as the Social Republic of Vietnam. Even though this may have been solved at the time, (no more conflict between China and Vietnam) later years affected the Communist country. Just in 2016, Tran Dai Quang was elected president and he is a communist. This means that him and the new prime minister are making Vietnam a one sided communist country for even longer. This is how colonial war can make a series of impacts to one country. Another country that was impacted by colonialism or even by a war is South Korea. During the war, North Korea invaded South Korea which caused a three year war. Once again, the United States sent in troops to help South Korea. China was worried that the war would enter their country so they sent troops to help North Korea out. The war eventually ended in agreement even though no peace treaty was signed. After the war ended, there was still tension between both countries. A policy was made to ease the tension between North and South Korea. This worked for a while until North Korea fired on a small island in the Yellow Sea. North Korea threatened to destroy South Korea, the United States, and Japan. This tension from the colonial war is still present today. In 2015, two South Korean soldiers were injured and they blamed this on North Korea, causing more tension and conflict.	582	ENGLISH	1
The history of the American Civil War is fraught with myth. Some developed over time, as myths do, and some are deliberate alterations of truth. The Civil War was the most traumatic event in American history, in many ways a continuation of the Revolution. It determined whether the promises of the Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights were extended to all, or whether they were truths which only applied to privileged white men of European descent. Over time, the central issue of the war has been shrouded with more noble motives; the sovereignty of the individual states over the federal compact being just one example. The southern states which attempted to cancel the federal union promulgated under the Constitution did so primarily because they wished to maintain slavery in America. Slavery was critical to their economy, to their moral beliefs, and to their way of life. Since the war ended scores of other motivations, all of them intended to mask that central truth, have been offered as causes for secession. They are camouflage which cannot mask a true study of history. They are also the source of many myths which hide some truths about the Civil War, many of which are still taught as historical fact. Here are just a few of them. 10. Grant was a butcher who disregarded casualties During the Civil War, the armies led by Ulysses S. Grant incurred approximately 154,000 casualties. In turn, his armies inflicted just under 200,000 casualties on the forces opposing him. Grant’s victories in the Civil War led to his immense popularity in the United States in its aftermath, and to acclaim in Europe. It was later, during the era of Jim Crow which created the Lost Cause myth, that Grant was slandered as being a drunkard and a butcher who cared little for the carnage his orders created. The same era elevated Robert E. Lee to near sainthood in the south, and created an image of the southern general as being the greatest of the era, and to some the greatest American general of all time. Lee made error after error during his offensive campaigns in Maryland and Pennsylvania, while Grant’s initiatives led to the surrender of the Confederate citadel at Vicksburg. Grant relieved the Union forces trapped at Chattanooga. He then drove Lee into the trenches at Richmond and Petersburg, and ultimately surrender. Over the course of the war Lee’s armies lost more men, in terms of percentages of troops engaged, than Grant’s. Grant won campaigns in the west and in Virginia, while Lee remained in the eastern theater throughout the war, eventually losing his army due to his aggressive policies and the high casualties they caused. 9. Southern blockade runners thwarted the Union blockade The dashing Southern sea captain and his intrepid crew eluded the Union Navy ships and delivered medicines, weapons, and the occasional trinkets for deserving belles of the Lost Cause. Such myths include Rhett Butler, perhaps as the personification of the profession. There were a few Southern blockade runners, most of them businessmen who operated from Charleston and Wilmington once the war began. But the overwhelming majority of the blockade runners were British seamen, who operated British ships held by British owners, delivering goods which allowed their investors to profit handsomely in the early years of the war. Royal Navy officers on extended leave commanded many of the runners. Investment companies in Liverpool, Greenock, and Nassau, as well as other British ports, developed a well-organized trade. British ships shuttled between British island ports and those of the Confederacy, principally Wilmington. Cotton and other commodities were delivered to ports like Nassau, and war materiel was acquired for use in the south. The cotton was then shipped to Liverpool, Bristol, or another port in Britain. Very few of the blockade runners were crewed by Southerners, one reason being there were few Southern seamen available after the first year of the war. 8. The war was about state’s rights, rather than slavery The Civil War was fought over slavery. The Constitution of the United States, as it was originally written and ratified, protected slavery. The original seven states of the Confederacy announced their secession from the Union because of their perception that the Constitutional protection of slavery would be amended. In their documents of secession and their ensuing state constitutions they ensured protection of slavery remained. By that time leading Southern politicians and socially prominent religious leaders argued that slavery was beneficial to blacks and whites. Although a minority of southerners were actually slave owners (Mississippi had the highest concentration at 49%) whites of all social levels defended the system. White supremacy was an accepted fact in the South, and was referenced in several of the Confederate State constitutions. The nation was regarded as having been founded for and by white men of European descent (an attitude which extended to American Indian tribes as well). The Lost Cause diluted the Southern idea of white racial domination and shifted southern motives to the preservation of individual and state’s rights from a grasping, tyrannical federal government. When South Carolina seceded from the Union, it stated as its primary reason, “increasing hostility on the part of the non-slaveholding States to the Institution of Slavery.” 7. Union aggression was the cause of the war Between the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 and his inauguration in March, 1861, seven southern states seceded from the Union. Interestingly, only one of the seceding states, Texas, allowed the voters a say in the matter by holding a referendum. The other six made the decision in their legislatures, all of which were dominated by slaveowners. Both outgoing President Buchanan and his successor viewed the actions as illegal. Lincoln addressed the issue at his inauguration, reassuring the recalcitrant states that he had no intention of interfering with slavery where it already existed. The states ignored his plea to preserve the Union, and called up their militias. In South Carolina, the garrison of Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor frequented the city when not on duty at the fort. They routinely interacted with the citizens of the city, a hotbed of secessionist activity. Following Lincoln’s Inauguration, they withdrew to the fort in the harbor. South Carolina authorities demanded the fort be abandoned by the Union. When it wasn’t and it was attempted to land supplies for the garrison, the fort was fired upon by South Carolina troops, which initiated the Civil War. Lincoln called for volunteers to subdue the rebellion, which led four additional states, including Virginia, to join the Confederacy. 6. Robert E. Lee was a hero whose conscience wouldn’t allow him to fight against Virginia Robert E. Lee was, with the possible exception of Winfield Scott, the most famous soldier in America in 1861. A graduate of West Point, Lee had taken an oath to “bear true allegiance to the United States of America, and that I will serve them honestly and faithfully against all their enemies or opposers whatsoever”. Lee was a slaveowner himself, and historians debate his relationship to the institution, with some claiming he denounced it and others offering examples of his supporting it. In a letter to his wife, written in 1856, Lee wrote, “The blacks are immeasurably better off here than in Africa, morally, socially and physically … How long their subjugation may be necessary is known and ordered by a wise Merciful Providence.” In March, 1861, Lee was promoted to Colonel and assigned command of the Union First Cavalry Regiment. He accepted and again, as part of assuming command, took an oath of allegiance to the United States. Informed that he was to be offered command of the army of volunteers being formed to quell the insurrection, Lee declined. Instead he resigned his commission, which in his view negated his repeated oaths of allegiance, and joined with the Confederacy. Nearly 40% of Army officers from Virginia chose to honor their oaths and remained in the Union service. Lee took several oaths to defend the United States before reneging upon them and taking one to defend Virginia, an act which was treasonous and to many of the day, dishonorable. 5. Lee was a superior general to Ulysses S. Grant A longstanding myth of the Civil War supports Robert E. Lee as a general superior in leadership, tactics, and command to Ulysses S. Grant. Grant’s victory was attributed to superior numbers and equipment, which Lee heroically resisted with consummate skill. In truth, Lee’s aggressive tactics caused high casualties among his troops, which could not be replaced due to the limited manpower in the South. He twice launched calamitous invasions of the North, at a time when a defensive posture would have served the South better. He served in only the Eastern Theater, and failed to offer much support to other critical theaters of the war. Grant won early Union victories in the West, including at Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, and the bloodbath at Shiloh. Finding Vicksburg’s defenses too strong to be carried by direct assault, he successfully directed a textbook siege, co-operating with the Navy to win one of the most important victories of the war. It culminated as Lee was destroying much of his own army at Gettysburg through ill-advised assaults. In the final year of the war Grant commanded all Union Armies, including Sheridan’s in the Shenandoah Valley and Sherman’s in the South, as well as the Army of the Potomac with which he travelled. Lee was but a theater commander. Lee’s superiority is another example of his reputation which evolved during the period of the Lost Cause, when most of the Confederacy was mythologized. 4. The Confederate Army did not include slaves In 1863 the Army of Northern Virginia invaded the North for the second time, hoping to forage in Maryland and Pennsylvania and threaten the cities of Baltimore and Washington from a new direction. With it traveled up to 10,000 slaves. Slaves were part of the makeup of all the main Southern Armies, and as the war went on their numbers and duties increased. Initially they were, for the most part, personal servants to officers. They became wagoners, butchers, cooks, blacksmiths, ambulance drivers, gravediggers, foragers, tailors, and messengers. They erected tents, dug fortifications and latrines, felled trees, and performed the hard labor required of an army in camp or on the march. During the invasion into Pennsylvania, the Confederate Army kidnapped about 100 free blacks as it approached Gettysburg, forcing them to work as camp slaves. Many slaves escaped during the retreat from Gettysburg, but many others, mostly personal servants, remained with their masters, or carried the news of their deaths to their families at home. Beginning in the 1970s or thereabouts, myths of some slaves serving as Confederate soldiers began to emerge, based on oral traditions. The South did not arm slaves during the war, though there were several calls to do so as the Confederacy collapsed in 1865. 3. Ulysses S. Grant commanded the Army of the Potomac in Virginia From the beginning of the Civil War until late June, 1863, a series of commanders of the Union Army of the Potomac exasperated President Lincoln. Generals McDowell, McClellan, Burnside, and Hooker all took turns commanding it (McClellan twice) and were all subjected to humiliating defeats by Confederates under Stonewall Jackson and Robert E. Lee. On June 28, 1863, as the Confederates were converging on Gettysburg, Lincoln fired Hooker and placed Pennsylvanian George Meade in command. It was Meade who commanded the Army of the Potomac at Gettysburg, and during the largely failed pursuit of the defeated Confederates which followed. In 1864 Grant was summoned to Washington, promoted to Lieutenant General, and assigned to command all of the Union Armies in the field. Grant chose to make his headquarters with the main Union Army in the eastern theater rather than in Washington. Though he traveled with the Army of the Potomac (and set the strategy for the Overland Campaign) George Meade retained command. As General in Chief of all Union Armies Grant set overall strategy for the remainder of the war. It was Grant who directed the Overland Campaign, outflanking Lee after each bloody repulse of attempts to dislodge him, just as he directed Sherman to take Atlanta and Sheridan to ravage the Shenandoah Valley. Meade finally resigned his command on June 28, 1865. 2. Southern troops were volunteers, motivated by patriotism The Confederacy passed the first conscription act in April, 1862, mandating military service for all able-bodied males aged 18 to 35. Service was for three years. Two additional conscription acts were enacted by the South during the war. Exemptions were available, including for slaveowners who demonstrated the need to retain men in order to prevent slaves from escaping, or rebelling against their owners. Substitutes could be hired. The draft was heavily resisted in the South. Resistance to conscription and high desertion rates plagued the Southern armies throughout the war. About twice as many draftees served in the Confederate Army as did in the Union Army. In September, 1864, Confederate President Jefferson Davis complained that more the 60% of his troops had deserted from their various commands. Early in the war Confederate deserters were executed upon capture. In the mountainous regions of Appalachia deserters formed renegade bands to resist Southern troops trying to capture them. In February, 1864, the Confederacy extended the mandatory service requirement to men between the ages of 17 and 50. In areas of the South where slavery was not widely spread, Appalachia and the Ozarks for example, the draft was met with particularly strong resistance. 1. The Confederacy stood for individual freedom and liberty, opposed to a central government The Constitution of the Confederate States of America was largely drawn from the Constitution of the United States, with whole sections repeated verbatim, though it also included major differences. Slavery was much more firmly protected. The President was elected to a six-year term. Re-election was not allowed. The President was also given the line-item veto, as were most of the Confederate governors. Under the state constitutions adopted, most state governors held greater power than the President. They could deny troops to the Confederate Army, retaining them within the state. Taxes collected within a state by the Confederate government could not be spent in other states on improvements. Using the Army to make arrests, the Confederate government severely restricted individual freedom and liberty. Passports were required for movement between states. Persons suspected of being sympathetic to the Union were subject to arrest and incarceration without trial. Many were hanged, often in public places with signs signifying their crimes. The draft and food shortages caused riots, often put down using troops of the Confederate Army or local militias. As the war went on and the situation in the South worsened, the central government imposed more and more draconian measures to control the population.	<urn:uuid:5f52781d-a77e-4526-bf46-f10fa5eb48f8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.toptenz.net/these-american-civil-war-myths-just-wont-go-away.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00312.warc.gz	en	0.980307	3,094	3.78125	4	[ 0.00434768246486783, 0.409064918756485, 0.4231818914413452, 0.23838824033737183, -0.002041642786934972, 0.42108529806137085, 0.11786779761314392, 0.028754090890288353, -0.1010391116142273, 0.2072959542274475, -0.026985397562384605, 0.2022470235824585, -0.12666434049606323, 0.40308749675750...	10	The history of the American Civil War is fraught with myth. Some developed over time, as myths do, and some are deliberate alterations of truth. The Civil War was the most traumatic event in American history, in many ways a continuation of the Revolution. It determined whether the promises of the Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights were extended to all, or whether they were truths which only applied to privileged white men of European descent. Over time, the central issue of the war has been shrouded with more noble motives; the sovereignty of the individual states over the federal compact being just one example. The southern states which attempted to cancel the federal union promulgated under the Constitution did so primarily because they wished to maintain slavery in America. Slavery was critical to their economy, to their moral beliefs, and to their way of life. Since the war ended scores of other motivations, all of them intended to mask that central truth, have been offered as causes for secession. They are camouflage which cannot mask a true study of history. They are also the source of many myths which hide some truths about the Civil War, many of which are still taught as historical fact. Here are just a few of them. 10. Grant was a butcher who disregarded casualties During the Civil War, the armies led by Ulysses S. Grant incurred approximately 154,000 casualties. In turn, his armies inflicted just under 200,000 casualties on the forces opposing him. Grant’s victories in the Civil War led to his immense popularity in the United States in its aftermath, and to acclaim in Europe. It was later, during the era of Jim Crow which created the Lost Cause myth, that Grant was slandered as being a drunkard and a butcher who cared little for the carnage his orders created. The same era elevated Robert E. Lee to near sainthood in the south, and created an image of the southern general as being the greatest of the era, and to some the greatest American general of all time. Lee made error after error during his offensive campaigns in Maryland and Pennsylvania, while Grant’s initiatives led to the surrender of the Confederate citadel at Vicksburg. Grant relieved the Union forces trapped at Chattanooga. He then drove Lee into the trenches at Richmond and Petersburg, and ultimately surrender. Over the course of the war Lee’s armies lost more men, in terms of percentages of troops engaged, than Grant’s. Grant won campaigns in the west and in Virginia, while Lee remained in the eastern theater throughout the war, eventually losing his army due to his aggressive policies and the high casualties they caused. 9. Southern blockade runners thwarted the Union blockade The dashing Southern sea captain and his intrepid crew eluded the Union Navy ships and delivered medicines, weapons, and the occasional trinkets for deserving belles of the Lost Cause. Such myths include Rhett Butler, perhaps as the personification of the profession. There were a few Southern blockade runners, most of them businessmen who operated from Charleston and Wilmington once the war began. But the overwhelming majority of the blockade runners were British seamen, who operated British ships held by British owners, delivering goods which allowed their investors to profit handsomely in the early years of the war. Royal Navy officers on extended leave commanded many of the runners. Investment companies in Liverpool, Greenock, and Nassau, as well as other British ports, developed a well-organized trade. British ships shuttled between British island ports and those of the Confederacy, principally Wilmington. Cotton and other commodities were delivered to ports like Nassau, and war materiel was acquired for use in the south. The cotton was then shipped to Liverpool, Bristol, or another port in Britain. Very few of the blockade runners were crewed by Southerners, one reason being there were few Southern seamen available after the first year of the war. 8. The war was about state’s rights, rather than slavery The Civil War was fought over slavery. The Constitution of the United States, as it was originally written and ratified, protected slavery. The original seven states of the Confederacy announced their secession from the Union because of their perception that the Constitutional protection of slavery would be amended. In their documents of secession and their ensuing state constitutions they ensured protection of slavery remained. By that time leading Southern politicians and socially prominent religious leaders argued that slavery was beneficial to blacks and whites. Although a minority of southerners were actually slave owners (Mississippi had the highest concentration at 49%) whites of all social levels defended the system. White supremacy was an accepted fact in the South, and was referenced in several of the Confederate State constitutions. The nation was regarded as having been founded for and by white men of European descent (an attitude which extended to American Indian tribes as well). The Lost Cause diluted the Southern idea of white racial domination and shifted southern motives to the preservation of individual and state’s rights from a grasping, tyrannical federal government. When South Carolina seceded from the Union, it stated as its primary reason, “increasing hostility on the part of the non-slaveholding States to the Institution of Slavery.” 7. Union aggression was the cause of the war Between the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 and his inauguration in March, 1861, seven southern states seceded from the Union. Interestingly, only one of the seceding states, Texas, allowed the voters a say in the matter by holding a referendum. The other six made the decision in their legislatures, all of which were dominated by slaveowners. Both outgoing President Buchanan and his successor viewed the actions as illegal. Lincoln addressed the issue at his inauguration, reassuring the recalcitrant states that he had no intention of interfering with slavery where it already existed. The states ignored his plea to preserve the Union, and called up their militias. In South Carolina, the garrison of Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor frequented the city when not on duty at the fort. They routinely interacted with the citizens of the city, a hotbed of secessionist activity. Following Lincoln’s Inauguration, they withdrew to the fort in the harbor. South Carolina authorities demanded the fort be abandoned by the Union. When it wasn’t and it was attempted to land supplies for the garrison, the fort was fired upon by South Carolina troops, which initiated the Civil War. Lincoln called for volunteers to subdue the rebellion, which led four additional states, including Virginia, to join the Confederacy. 6. Robert E. Lee was a hero whose conscience wouldn’t allow him to fight against Virginia Robert E. Lee was, with the possible exception of Winfield Scott, the most famous soldier in America in 1861. A graduate of West Point, Lee had taken an oath to “bear true allegiance to the United States of America, and that I will serve them honestly and faithfully against all their enemies or opposers whatsoever”. Lee was a slaveowner himself, and historians debate his relationship to the institution, with some claiming he denounced it and others offering examples of his supporting it. In a letter to his wife, written in 1856, Lee wrote, “The blacks are immeasurably better off here than in Africa, morally, socially and physically … How long their subjugation may be necessary is known and ordered by a wise Merciful Providence.” In March, 1861, Lee was promoted to Colonel and assigned command of the Union First Cavalry Regiment. He accepted and again, as part of assuming command, took an oath of allegiance to the United States. Informed that he was to be offered command of the army of volunteers being formed to quell the insurrection, Lee declined. Instead he resigned his commission, which in his view negated his repeated oaths of allegiance, and joined with the Confederacy. Nearly 40% of Army officers from Virginia chose to honor their oaths and remained in the Union service. Lee took several oaths to defend the United States before reneging upon them and taking one to defend Virginia, an act which was treasonous and to many of the day, dishonorable. 5. Lee was a superior general to Ulysses S. Grant A longstanding myth of the Civil War supports Robert E. Lee as a general superior in leadership, tactics, and command to Ulysses S. Grant. Grant’s victory was attributed to superior numbers and equipment, which Lee heroically resisted with consummate skill. In truth, Lee’s aggressive tactics caused high casualties among his troops, which could not be replaced due to the limited manpower in the South. He twice launched calamitous invasions of the North, at a time when a defensive posture would have served the South better. He served in only the Eastern Theater, and failed to offer much support to other critical theaters of the war. Grant won early Union victories in the West, including at Fort Henry, Fort Donelson, and the bloodbath at Shiloh. Finding Vicksburg’s defenses too strong to be carried by direct assault, he successfully directed a textbook siege, co-operating with the Navy to win one of the most important victories of the war. It culminated as Lee was destroying much of his own army at Gettysburg through ill-advised assaults. In the final year of the war Grant commanded all Union Armies, including Sheridan’s in the Shenandoah Valley and Sherman’s in the South, as well as the Army of the Potomac with which he travelled. Lee was but a theater commander. Lee’s superiority is another example of his reputation which evolved during the period of the Lost Cause, when most of the Confederacy was mythologized. 4. The Confederate Army did not include slaves In 1863 the Army of Northern Virginia invaded the North for the second time, hoping to forage in Maryland and Pennsylvania and threaten the cities of Baltimore and Washington from a new direction. With it traveled up to 10,000 slaves. Slaves were part of the makeup of all the main Southern Armies, and as the war went on their numbers and duties increased. Initially they were, for the most part, personal servants to officers. They became wagoners, butchers, cooks, blacksmiths, ambulance drivers, gravediggers, foragers, tailors, and messengers. They erected tents, dug fortifications and latrines, felled trees, and performed the hard labor required of an army in camp or on the march. During the invasion into Pennsylvania, the Confederate Army kidnapped about 100 free blacks as it approached Gettysburg, forcing them to work as camp slaves. Many slaves escaped during the retreat from Gettysburg, but many others, mostly personal servants, remained with their masters, or carried the news of their deaths to their families at home. Beginning in the 1970s or thereabouts, myths of some slaves serving as Confederate soldiers began to emerge, based on oral traditions. The South did not arm slaves during the war, though there were several calls to do so as the Confederacy collapsed in 1865. 3. Ulysses S. Grant commanded the Army of the Potomac in Virginia From the beginning of the Civil War until late June, 1863, a series of commanders of the Union Army of the Potomac exasperated President Lincoln. Generals McDowell, McClellan, Burnside, and Hooker all took turns commanding it (McClellan twice) and were all subjected to humiliating defeats by Confederates under Stonewall Jackson and Robert E. Lee. On June 28, 1863, as the Confederates were converging on Gettysburg, Lincoln fired Hooker and placed Pennsylvanian George Meade in command. It was Meade who commanded the Army of the Potomac at Gettysburg, and during the largely failed pursuit of the defeated Confederates which followed. In 1864 Grant was summoned to Washington, promoted to Lieutenant General, and assigned to command all of the Union Armies in the field. Grant chose to make his headquarters with the main Union Army in the eastern theater rather than in Washington. Though he traveled with the Army of the Potomac (and set the strategy for the Overland Campaign) George Meade retained command. As General in Chief of all Union Armies Grant set overall strategy for the remainder of the war. It was Grant who directed the Overland Campaign, outflanking Lee after each bloody repulse of attempts to dislodge him, just as he directed Sherman to take Atlanta and Sheridan to ravage the Shenandoah Valley. Meade finally resigned his command on June 28, 1865. 2. Southern troops were volunteers, motivated by patriotism The Confederacy passed the first conscription act in April, 1862, mandating military service for all able-bodied males aged 18 to 35. Service was for three years. Two additional conscription acts were enacted by the South during the war. Exemptions were available, including for slaveowners who demonstrated the need to retain men in order to prevent slaves from escaping, or rebelling against their owners. Substitutes could be hired. The draft was heavily resisted in the South. Resistance to conscription and high desertion rates plagued the Southern armies throughout the war. About twice as many draftees served in the Confederate Army as did in the Union Army. In September, 1864, Confederate President Jefferson Davis complained that more the 60% of his troops had deserted from their various commands. Early in the war Confederate deserters were executed upon capture. In the mountainous regions of Appalachia deserters formed renegade bands to resist Southern troops trying to capture them. In February, 1864, the Confederacy extended the mandatory service requirement to men between the ages of 17 and 50. In areas of the South where slavery was not widely spread, Appalachia and the Ozarks for example, the draft was met with particularly strong resistance. 1. The Confederacy stood for individual freedom and liberty, opposed to a central government The Constitution of the Confederate States of America was largely drawn from the Constitution of the United States, with whole sections repeated verbatim, though it also included major differences. Slavery was much more firmly protected. The President was elected to a six-year term. Re-election was not allowed. The President was also given the line-item veto, as were most of the Confederate governors. Under the state constitutions adopted, most state governors held greater power than the President. They could deny troops to the Confederate Army, retaining them within the state. Taxes collected within a state by the Confederate government could not be spent in other states on improvements. Using the Army to make arrests, the Confederate government severely restricted individual freedom and liberty. Passports were required for movement between states. Persons suspected of being sympathetic to the Union were subject to arrest and incarceration without trial. Many were hanged, often in public places with signs signifying their crimes. The draft and food shortages caused riots, often put down using troops of the Confederate Army or local militias. As the war went on and the situation in the South worsened, the central government imposed more and more draconian measures to control the population.	3,168	ENGLISH	1
Frankfurt Cathedral (Kaiserdom Sankt Bartholomäus, St. Bartholomew's Imperial Cathedral) is the largest religious building in Frankfurt and a former collegiate church. As former election and coronation church of the Holy Roman Empire, the cathedral is one of the major buildings of the Empire history and was mainly in the 19th century a symbol of national unity. The present church building is the third church in the same place. Since the late 19th excavated century buildings can be traced back to the 7th century. The history is closely linked with the General history of Frankfurt and the Frankfurt old town because the cathedral had an associated role as religious counterpart of the Royal Palace Frankfurt. The St. Bartholomew's is the main church of Frankfurt and was constructed in the 14th and 15th centuries on the foundation of an earlier church from the Merovingian time. From 1356 onwards, emperors of the Holy Roman Empire were elected in this collegiate church as kings in Germany, and from 1562 to 1792, emperors-elect were crowned here. The imperial elections were held in the Wahlkapelle, a chapel on the south side of the choir built for this purpose in 1425 and the anointing and crowning of the emperors-elect as kings in Germany took place before the central altar–believed to enshrine part of the head of St. Bartholomew – in the crossing of the church, at the entrance to the choir. In the course of the German Mediatisation the city of Frankfurt finally secularised and appropriated the remaining Catholic churches and their endowments of earning assets, however, leaving the usage of the church buildings to the existing Catholic parishes. Thus St. Bartholomew's became of the city's dotation churches, owned and maintained by the city but used by Catholic or Lutheran congregations. St. Bartholomew's was seen as symbol for national unity in Germany, especially during the 19th century. Although it had never been a bishop's seat, it was the largest church in Frankfurt and its role in imperial politics, including crowning of medieval German emperors, made the church one of the most important buildings of Imperial history. In 1867, St. Bartholomew's was destroyed by a fire and rebuilt in its present style. During World War II, between October 1943 and March 1944, the old town of Frankfurt, the biggest old Gothic town in Central Europe, was devastated by six bombardments of the Allied Air Forces. The greatest losses occurred in an attack by the Royal Air Force on March 22, 1944, when more than a thousand buildings of the old town, most of them half-timbered houses, were destroyed. St. Bartholomew's suffered severe damage; the interior was burned out completely. The building was reconstructed in the 1950s.References: Medvedgrad is a medieval fortified town located on the south slopes of Medvednica mountain, approximately halfway from the Croatian capital Zagreb to the mountain top Sljeme. For defensive purposes it was built on a hill, Mali Plazur, that is a spur of the main ridge of the mountain that overlooks the city. On a clear day the castle can be seen from far away, especially the high main tower. Below the main tower of the castle is Oltar Domovine (Altar of the homeland) which is dedicated to Croatian soldiers killed in the Croatian War of Independence. In 1242, Mongols invaded Zagreb. The city was destroyed and burned to the ground. This prompted the building of Medvedgrad. Encouraged by Pope Innocent IV, Philip Türje, bishop of Zagreb, built the fortress between 1249 and 1254. It was later owned by bans of Slavonia. Notable Croatian and Hungarian poet and ban of Slavonia Janus Pannonius (Ivan Česmički) died in the Medvedgrad castle on March 27, 1472. The last Medvedgrad owners and inhabitants was the Gregorijanec family, who gained possession of Medvedgrad in 1562. In 1574, the walls of Medvedgrad were reinforced, but after the 1590 Neulengbach earthquake, the fortress was heavily damaged and ultimately abandoned. It remained in ruins until the late 20th century, when it was partly restored and now offers a panoramic view of the city from an altitude of over 500 meters.	<urn:uuid:b632185c-e71b-4be8-8747-99337e88ca1e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.spottinghistory.com/view/5060/frankfurt-cathedral/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00476.warc.gz	en	0.981972	916	3.53125	4	[ 0.3586497902870178, 0.540753960609436, 0.04407774657011032, 0.02156476117670536, -0.0716995894908905, 0.2958024740219116, -0.45853346586227417, 0.27397042512893677, 0.311087965965271, -0.2758215069770813, -0.22929847240447998, -0.6032378077507019, -0.007436258718371391, 0.25263774394989014...	1	Frankfurt Cathedral (Kaiserdom Sankt Bartholomäus, St. Bartholomew's Imperial Cathedral) is the largest religious building in Frankfurt and a former collegiate church. As former election and coronation church of the Holy Roman Empire, the cathedral is one of the major buildings of the Empire history and was mainly in the 19th century a symbol of national unity. The present church building is the third church in the same place. Since the late 19th excavated century buildings can be traced back to the 7th century. The history is closely linked with the General history of Frankfurt and the Frankfurt old town because the cathedral had an associated role as religious counterpart of the Royal Palace Frankfurt. The St. Bartholomew's is the main church of Frankfurt and was constructed in the 14th and 15th centuries on the foundation of an earlier church from the Merovingian time. From 1356 onwards, emperors of the Holy Roman Empire were elected in this collegiate church as kings in Germany, and from 1562 to 1792, emperors-elect were crowned here. The imperial elections were held in the Wahlkapelle, a chapel on the south side of the choir built for this purpose in 1425 and the anointing and crowning of the emperors-elect as kings in Germany took place before the central altar–believed to enshrine part of the head of St. Bartholomew – in the crossing of the church, at the entrance to the choir. In the course of the German Mediatisation the city of Frankfurt finally secularised and appropriated the remaining Catholic churches and their endowments of earning assets, however, leaving the usage of the church buildings to the existing Catholic parishes. Thus St. Bartholomew's became of the city's dotation churches, owned and maintained by the city but used by Catholic or Lutheran congregations. St. Bartholomew's was seen as symbol for national unity in Germany, especially during the 19th century. Although it had never been a bishop's seat, it was the largest church in Frankfurt and its role in imperial politics, including crowning of medieval German emperors, made the church one of the most important buildings of Imperial history. In 1867, St. Bartholomew's was destroyed by a fire and rebuilt in its present style. During World War II, between October 1943 and March 1944, the old town of Frankfurt, the biggest old Gothic town in Central Europe, was devastated by six bombardments of the Allied Air Forces. The greatest losses occurred in an attack by the Royal Air Force on March 22, 1944, when more than a thousand buildings of the old town, most of them half-timbered houses, were destroyed. St. Bartholomew's suffered severe damage; the interior was burned out completely. The building was reconstructed in the 1950s.References: Medvedgrad is a medieval fortified town located on the south slopes of Medvednica mountain, approximately halfway from the Croatian capital Zagreb to the mountain top Sljeme. For defensive purposes it was built on a hill, Mali Plazur, that is a spur of the main ridge of the mountain that overlooks the city. On a clear day the castle can be seen from far away, especially the high main tower. Below the main tower of the castle is Oltar Domovine (Altar of the homeland) which is dedicated to Croatian soldiers killed in the Croatian War of Independence. In 1242, Mongols invaded Zagreb. The city was destroyed and burned to the ground. This prompted the building of Medvedgrad. Encouraged by Pope Innocent IV, Philip Türje, bishop of Zagreb, built the fortress between 1249 and 1254. It was later owned by bans of Slavonia. Notable Croatian and Hungarian poet and ban of Slavonia Janus Pannonius (Ivan Česmički) died in the Medvedgrad castle on March 27, 1472. The last Medvedgrad owners and inhabitants was the Gregorijanec family, who gained possession of Medvedgrad in 1562. In 1574, the walls of Medvedgrad were reinforced, but after the 1590 Neulengbach earthquake, the fortress was heavily damaged and ultimately abandoned. It remained in ruins until the late 20th century, when it was partly restored and now offers a panoramic view of the city from an altitude of over 500 meters.	984	ENGLISH	1
Julius Caesar was the dictator of Rome from 61-44 BCE. He was born in the year 100 BC into a patrician family who claimed decendancy from the kings of Alba Langa. At the time of his birth, Rome was still a republic and the empire was only beginning. Caesar made his way to praetorship by 62 BC and many senate felt him a dangerous, ambitious man. The senate did their best to keep him out of consulship. He finally became consul in 59 BC. Caesar was at the pinnacle of his power when he returned from Spain in 45, yet within a year he was once again facing problems with the Optimates, and had seeming lost the support of the ever fickle populance of Rome. The problem was himself and his absolute power. With his impatience, he often denigrated the Republic as a shadow without a body but the majority of the conservative aristocracy failed to understand this. In Caesar they saw only the threat of a king, a word which was linked with the word tyrant in Roman history which is cruel or unjust rule.Order now Now that Caesar had control over the lands of Bituriges, Vercingetorix started to lead his army to the Boii oppidum of Gorgobina whom Caesar had settled under the protection of the Aedui after he had defeated them in battle. Caesar sent word that he was going to help them. On the way he stopped his troops at Vellaundunum, oppidum of the Senones, and set up siege. He didn’t want to leave any enemies behind him who might get in the way of the grain deliveries and supply. His siege lasted three days before a deputation was sent out to surrender. The Carnute had only jus heard of the siege at Vellaundunum. They gathered troops to garrison Cenabum, the Carnutes stronghold. The Carnutes had expected the siege to last longer than it had and were suprised to see Caesar camped outside of the town. The Carnutes decided to escape over the bridge at the back but Caesar predicted they would try that and sent troops to guard the bridge during the night. When Julius heard of the escape, he set fire to the gates of the Oppidum and entered because the bridge and roads were so narrow, that few inhabitants escaped. Julius Caesar stated that cowards die many times before their deaths; The valiant never taste of death but once. Julius Caesar had lived, and died by this principle. The assassination of Julius Caesar was a somewhat cruel one because he was stabbed in the neck and the groin while some say that he fought and resisted by shifting his body to avoid the blows, and calling out for help. When Julius noticed that his brother Brutus had drawn his sword, he covered his face with his robe and submitted, letting himself, whether it were was by chance or that he was pushed in that direction by his murderers. At the foot of the pedestal on which Pompeiuss statue stood, was wetted with his blood. Julius Caesar was feared by many because of his ambitiousness. That is why the senate tried to keep him from becoming Consul. He was one of the best leaders of the Roman Empire because he cared more for the empire, than himself. He was truly a very intelligent man who wanted to be King. It was too bad that he was assassinated but he said himself that cowards die many times before their deaths; The valiant never taste of death but once.	<urn:uuid:5ab7bf76-7da9-441c-94e9-ae242209ab6d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://artscolumbia.org/essays/julius-caesar-essay-80365/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00128.warc.gz	en	0.993978	723	3.875	4	[ -0.5902277231216431, 0.6148458123207092, 0.1595844030380249, 0.28090357780456543, -0.6244028806686401, -0.25856903195381165, 0.36847519874572754, 0.3481156826019287, 0.3103393316268921, -0.08710582554340363, 0.13135220110416412, -0.27033042907714844, 0.08290597051382065, 0.3376877903938293...	3	Julius Caesar was the dictator of Rome from 61-44 BCE. He was born in the year 100 BC into a patrician family who claimed decendancy from the kings of Alba Langa. At the time of his birth, Rome was still a republic and the empire was only beginning. Caesar made his way to praetorship by 62 BC and many senate felt him a dangerous, ambitious man. The senate did their best to keep him out of consulship. He finally became consul in 59 BC. Caesar was at the pinnacle of his power when he returned from Spain in 45, yet within a year he was once again facing problems with the Optimates, and had seeming lost the support of the ever fickle populance of Rome. The problem was himself and his absolute power. With his impatience, he often denigrated the Republic as a shadow without a body but the majority of the conservative aristocracy failed to understand this. In Caesar they saw only the threat of a king, a word which was linked with the word tyrant in Roman history which is cruel or unjust rule.Order now Now that Caesar had control over the lands of Bituriges, Vercingetorix started to lead his army to the Boii oppidum of Gorgobina whom Caesar had settled under the protection of the Aedui after he had defeated them in battle. Caesar sent word that he was going to help them. On the way he stopped his troops at Vellaundunum, oppidum of the Senones, and set up siege. He didn’t want to leave any enemies behind him who might get in the way of the grain deliveries and supply. His siege lasted three days before a deputation was sent out to surrender. The Carnute had only jus heard of the siege at Vellaundunum. They gathered troops to garrison Cenabum, the Carnutes stronghold. The Carnutes had expected the siege to last longer than it had and were suprised to see Caesar camped outside of the town. The Carnutes decided to escape over the bridge at the back but Caesar predicted they would try that and sent troops to guard the bridge during the night. When Julius heard of the escape, he set fire to the gates of the Oppidum and entered because the bridge and roads were so narrow, that few inhabitants escaped. Julius Caesar stated that cowards die many times before their deaths; The valiant never taste of death but once. Julius Caesar had lived, and died by this principle. The assassination of Julius Caesar was a somewhat cruel one because he was stabbed in the neck and the groin while some say that he fought and resisted by shifting his body to avoid the blows, and calling out for help. When Julius noticed that his brother Brutus had drawn his sword, he covered his face with his robe and submitted, letting himself, whether it were was by chance or that he was pushed in that direction by his murderers. At the foot of the pedestal on which Pompeiuss statue stood, was wetted with his blood. Julius Caesar was feared by many because of his ambitiousness. That is why the senate tried to keep him from becoming Consul. He was one of the best leaders of the Roman Empire because he cared more for the empire, than himself. He was truly a very intelligent man who wanted to be King. It was too bad that he was assassinated but he said himself that cowards die many times before their deaths; The valiant never taste of death but once.	733	ENGLISH	1
Quick The Taming of the Shrew Info The Taming of the Shrew is a play within a play by Shakespeare. It’s a story told by a man, Sly, in an alehouse in England, and his story is set in Padua, Italy – in a public square, in Baptista’s house, and in Lucentio’s house. Other scenes take place in Petruchio’s country house and on the road between there and Lucentio’s house. Read more about The Taming Of The Shrew settings. Date written: 1592 Genre classification: The Taming of the Shrew is a comedy play. Main characters in The Taming of the Shrew: The action revolves around Katherine (Kate), the daughter of Baptista and the older sister of Bianca. Katherine has no suitors because she is not conventionally attractive but more seriously, she is notoriously shrewish, and seems to hate men, which makes it difficult for any man to deal with her. Bianca is sweet natured and beautiful but can’t marry until her older sister does. Petruchio is a gentleman from Verona who agrees to marry Katherine because of her large dowry. The action is mainly concerned with his efforts to tame her. Lucentio, a young man from Pisa, falls in love with Bianca and because she can’t marry, they elope. The Taming of the Shrew Summary Here is a brief plot summary of The Taming of the Shrew: A wealthy Padua merchant, Baptista, has two daughters. One day Lucentio, a student, comes to Padua, sees Bianca, the younger sister, and falls madly in love with her. He has heard, though, that Baptista will not allow Bianca to be married before her older sister, Katherina, a very forceful character who has a scornful attitude to men and expresses that without restraint. The situation regarding Bianca is very complicated and Lucentio’s entry into the equation makes things even more complicated. Two local men, Hortensio and the elderly Gremio, are pursuing Bianca but she doesn’t like either of them so they have to resort to a range of tactics to try and further their interest. Gremio hires Lucentio, disguised as a Latin tutor, to woo Bianca on his behalf. Hortensio poses as a musician to try and get into her company. While all this is going on Petruchio, a young friend of Hortensio from Verona, pays a visit to his friend and hears the story about the feisty Kate. He sees her as a challenge, which he decides to rise to. Baptista welcomes this as he is fed up with Kate’s disruptive behaviour, that makes family life difficult. He accepts Petruchio’s offer of marriage and although Kate opposes it, she cannot do anything about a father’s right to marry his daughter off. Petruchio arrives at the church outlandishly dressed and whisks her off to Verona as soon as the marriage is pronounced. During the journey, Kate rebels against her husband but he begins training her to obey him. On arrival at his house, Petruchio mistreats her and instructs his servants to do the same. She is denied everything she wants for a civilised life, including food and sleep. She is not allowed new clothes or any luxury. That wears her resistance down and eventually, she submits and becomes an obedient wife. It is time to visit her father where Petruchio plans to demonstrate his wife’s obedience. In the meantime Hortensio has given up on Bianca and married a widow. Lucentio and Bianca, having fallen in love, have run off and married secretly. They return now, while Petruchio and Kate are visiting and Baptista, relieved that it’s all turned out better than he had thought it would, hosts a party for his daughters. They all have a good time and as the men gather together after the meal Petruchio challenges Lucentio and Hortensio to a competition to see which of their wives is the most obedient. Each one is to command his wife to come to him. Bianco and the widow fail to respond whereas Kate does and, furthermore, delivers a lecture to the other wives on the duties of a wife. The Taming of the Shrew Themes This is an interesting play in that Shakespeare explores the relationship between men and women intensely – more so than in any other play. The way women are treated and the effects of that is the main theme of the play. Baptista has complete domination over his daughters and dictates to them on every matter. Katherine is ‘tamed’ by her husband as though she were a wild animal. Men and women are rude and cruel to each other. Even Bianca, the sweet sister, at one point calls her husband a fool. Petruchio is alarmingly cruel to Katherine. It’s funny, but Shakespeare is making a serious point. Money and the greed for it, is another major theme. Dowries and their size, and how much women are worth features strongly. As usual in Shakespeare, the theme of appearance and reality is strongly expressed. Nothing is what it seems to be. Even the shrewishness of Katherine conceals a compliable nature: her shrewishness is a reaction to the hurt she feels at the treatment she has received from men. The action is largely driven by people disguised to conceal their identities and achieve their goals, which are not always what they seem to be.	<urn:uuid:e1228da8-960d-4d1d-9001-3f4181f87c40>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nosweatshakespeare.com/taming-shrew-play/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00216.warc.gz	en	0.980345	1,179	3.40625	3	[ -0.25584328174591064, 0.26879048347473145, 0.26697179675102234, -0.42304927110671997, -0.3769168555736542, 0.2592678964138031, 0.35606956481933594, 0.0428902842104435, -0.1343274861574173, 0.17309759557247162, 0.024245260283350945, -0.17160621285438538, 0.27099961042404175, -0.049225091934...	12	Quick The Taming of the Shrew Info The Taming of the Shrew is a play within a play by Shakespeare. It’s a story told by a man, Sly, in an alehouse in England, and his story is set in Padua, Italy – in a public square, in Baptista’s house, and in Lucentio’s house. Other scenes take place in Petruchio’s country house and on the road between there and Lucentio’s house. Read more about The Taming Of The Shrew settings. Date written: 1592 Genre classification: The Taming of the Shrew is a comedy play. Main characters in The Taming of the Shrew: The action revolves around Katherine (Kate), the daughter of Baptista and the older sister of Bianca. Katherine has no suitors because she is not conventionally attractive but more seriously, she is notoriously shrewish, and seems to hate men, which makes it difficult for any man to deal with her. Bianca is sweet natured and beautiful but can’t marry until her older sister does. Petruchio is a gentleman from Verona who agrees to marry Katherine because of her large dowry. The action is mainly concerned with his efforts to tame her. Lucentio, a young man from Pisa, falls in love with Bianca and because she can’t marry, they elope. The Taming of the Shrew Summary Here is a brief plot summary of The Taming of the Shrew: A wealthy Padua merchant, Baptista, has two daughters. One day Lucentio, a student, comes to Padua, sees Bianca, the younger sister, and falls madly in love with her. He has heard, though, that Baptista will not allow Bianca to be married before her older sister, Katherina, a very forceful character who has a scornful attitude to men and expresses that without restraint. The situation regarding Bianca is very complicated and Lucentio’s entry into the equation makes things even more complicated. Two local men, Hortensio and the elderly Gremio, are pursuing Bianca but she doesn’t like either of them so they have to resort to a range of tactics to try and further their interest. Gremio hires Lucentio, disguised as a Latin tutor, to woo Bianca on his behalf. Hortensio poses as a musician to try and get into her company. While all this is going on Petruchio, a young friend of Hortensio from Verona, pays a visit to his friend and hears the story about the feisty Kate. He sees her as a challenge, which he decides to rise to. Baptista welcomes this as he is fed up with Kate’s disruptive behaviour, that makes family life difficult. He accepts Petruchio’s offer of marriage and although Kate opposes it, she cannot do anything about a father’s right to marry his daughter off. Petruchio arrives at the church outlandishly dressed and whisks her off to Verona as soon as the marriage is pronounced. During the journey, Kate rebels against her husband but he begins training her to obey him. On arrival at his house, Petruchio mistreats her and instructs his servants to do the same. She is denied everything she wants for a civilised life, including food and sleep. She is not allowed new clothes or any luxury. That wears her resistance down and eventually, she submits and becomes an obedient wife. It is time to visit her father where Petruchio plans to demonstrate his wife’s obedience. In the meantime Hortensio has given up on Bianca and married a widow. Lucentio and Bianca, having fallen in love, have run off and married secretly. They return now, while Petruchio and Kate are visiting and Baptista, relieved that it’s all turned out better than he had thought it would, hosts a party for his daughters. They all have a good time and as the men gather together after the meal Petruchio challenges Lucentio and Hortensio to a competition to see which of their wives is the most obedient. Each one is to command his wife to come to him. Bianco and the widow fail to respond whereas Kate does and, furthermore, delivers a lecture to the other wives on the duties of a wife. The Taming of the Shrew Themes This is an interesting play in that Shakespeare explores the relationship between men and women intensely – more so than in any other play. The way women are treated and the effects of that is the main theme of the play. Baptista has complete domination over his daughters and dictates to them on every matter. Katherine is ‘tamed’ by her husband as though she were a wild animal. Men and women are rude and cruel to each other. Even Bianca, the sweet sister, at one point calls her husband a fool. Petruchio is alarmingly cruel to Katherine. It’s funny, but Shakespeare is making a serious point. Money and the greed for it, is another major theme. Dowries and their size, and how much women are worth features strongly. As usual in Shakespeare, the theme of appearance and reality is strongly expressed. Nothing is what it seems to be. Even the shrewishness of Katherine conceals a compliable nature: her shrewishness is a reaction to the hurt she feels at the treatment she has received from men. The action is largely driven by people disguised to conceal their identities and achieve their goals, which are not always what they seem to be.	1,139	ENGLISH	1
Some children are outgoing and more sociable, while others are shy. Therefore, there are always some parents who talk about their own children. Although they like to go to school and study, it is very quiet outside and it seems difficult to make friends. Don't worry, everyone tells you how to encourage them to socialize. Children 's performance A shy child who seems to hang on his mother or dad, or without an adult close to him, often sits alone, lowers his head, and doesn't talk to anyone. They do not participate in any activities, they hardly communicate with others, even if they dare to say something, it is difficult to understand. "He's not like this at home," parents often tell teachers, pediatricians, or people they don't know. A shy child is not deliberately unfriendly, but is more likely to behave coldly in the presence of a stranger or when he is disturbed. How to help your child In fact, shyness is common among preschool children. When the child can calmly face the strange environment, it means that he has grown up. There are things you can do to help your child build self-esteem and encourage him to show his personality. Methods as below: You can perform common scenes often encountered by children. You can use dolls or puppets. Ask the child to imagine him (or his doll) walking into the classroom. What does he do? What does he say? Then switch. You play the role of a shy child and make the child an adult who helps him. Note the methods he uses to comfort others. It can give you some clues as to why your child does this. 2. Share your own shyness There is a good chance that you will feel a little shy for a while, for example the first day of work is extremely stressful. Tell your child about this and it will make the child understand that they are not alone. 3. Ask why There may be a reason why children do this at home and do that in front of others. Although he may have difficulty expressing himself, through some exploratory questions, you may be able to find the source of the problem. 4. Prepare in advance If your child faces a situation that may make them uncomfortable, you will know in advance. Maybe you are going to a large event. That morning, talk to your child about where you are going, who will go there, and what will happen. Making a play plan may make your child feel more comfortable. 5. Help him make friends Not everyone naturally becomes friends. For preschoolers, this is a whole new activity and can be a challenge. So please intervene a little. Start slowly and introduce your children to people of their age. Maybe it was someone they knew at school, or even someone they knew. If they feel comfortable together and the child is warming up, ask another child to come and play. When your child becomes comfortable in front of other children, he is likely to take these to other places. (Original work, all rights reserved. Reproduction is not allowed without authorization!) Back to Sohu, see more	<urn:uuid:6015f975-7a4d-4c3d-b8c2-f2fd86367039>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.italianozamalkawy.com/a/365771626_119869	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00318.warc.gz	en	0.983332	646	3.453125	3	[ 0.36585718393325806, -0.14912410080432892, 0.1869887262582779, -0.4699864089488983, -0.237378790974617, 0.19322437047958374, 0.48713982105255127, -0.3198544979095459, 0.1880393773317337, -0.42640817165374756, 0.3477884531021118, 0.25522565841674805, 0.3472203016281128, 0.19632676243782043,...	1	Some children are outgoing and more sociable, while others are shy. Therefore, there are always some parents who talk about their own children. Although they like to go to school and study, it is very quiet outside and it seems difficult to make friends. Don't worry, everyone tells you how to encourage them to socialize. Children 's performance A shy child who seems to hang on his mother or dad, or without an adult close to him, often sits alone, lowers his head, and doesn't talk to anyone. They do not participate in any activities, they hardly communicate with others, even if they dare to say something, it is difficult to understand. "He's not like this at home," parents often tell teachers, pediatricians, or people they don't know. A shy child is not deliberately unfriendly, but is more likely to behave coldly in the presence of a stranger or when he is disturbed. How to help your child In fact, shyness is common among preschool children. When the child can calmly face the strange environment, it means that he has grown up. There are things you can do to help your child build self-esteem and encourage him to show his personality. Methods as below: You can perform common scenes often encountered by children. You can use dolls or puppets. Ask the child to imagine him (or his doll) walking into the classroom. What does he do? What does he say? Then switch. You play the role of a shy child and make the child an adult who helps him. Note the methods he uses to comfort others. It can give you some clues as to why your child does this. 2. Share your own shyness There is a good chance that you will feel a little shy for a while, for example the first day of work is extremely stressful. Tell your child about this and it will make the child understand that they are not alone. 3. Ask why There may be a reason why children do this at home and do that in front of others. Although he may have difficulty expressing himself, through some exploratory questions, you may be able to find the source of the problem. 4. Prepare in advance If your child faces a situation that may make them uncomfortable, you will know in advance. Maybe you are going to a large event. That morning, talk to your child about where you are going, who will go there, and what will happen. Making a play plan may make your child feel more comfortable. 5. Help him make friends Not everyone naturally becomes friends. For preschoolers, this is a whole new activity and can be a challenge. So please intervene a little. Start slowly and introduce your children to people of their age. Maybe it was someone they knew at school, or even someone they knew. If they feel comfortable together and the child is warming up, ask another child to come and play. When your child becomes comfortable in front of other children, he is likely to take these to other places. (Original work, all rights reserved. Reproduction is not allowed without authorization!) Back to Sohu, see more	634	ENGLISH	1
23/09/19: We've been focusing on place value and number. During our first two weeks, we've looked at the value of different numbers and also examined how these are changed if we add 10, 100, 1,000 and 10,000. We have been focusing on numbers up to 1,000,000. This is all building on our knowledge from the Year 4 curriculum and enhancing the skills we already had. Rounding has been the focus of this week and we've applied our knowledge to data taken from WWI, particularly the number of soldiers wounded or killed. Private Peaceful has been an absolute hit with the class. We've empathised with Tommo and the horrific incident he witnessed with his father in the woods. This has lead onto some great reading philosophy and we have discussed situations where it has made us emotional. Predicting skills have been the order of the day and we're building on these by continually referring back to the text. EVIDENCE. EVIDENCE. EVIDENCE!! A mantra that we remember when reading through narratives. Within French lessons, we've been learning the alphabet and also playing some fun Bingo! games in class. Look below at some really helpful YouTube clips which say each letter in turn and I've also attached a VERY catchy song too. There are quite a few letters which are similar to those in the English language. Take a look... What are we learning about in class!? 30/09/19 We've been learning about negative numbers in our maths lesson over the last week. We can now add and subtract from negative integers. Our knowledge of negative numbers was applied to data, particularly temperatures. We learnt about the Battle of Arras being a very important battle during WWI and also for the men from Holbrook who fought on the frontline. It was not only men from Britain who fought in Arras, but also soldiers from other countries such as Russia and Canada. During our lessons, we looked at life in the trenches and examined temperatures which they may have been faced with. Conditions in the trenches were harsh and it wasn't an easy life for the soldiers. Over the coming week, we are going to be cracking different codes using Roman Numerals and we are really look forward to our visit to Imperial War Museum, London. Within our English sessions, we have been looking at the Colonel within the text. He has taken a dislike to the children in the story and we were all quite shocked by his reaction to Bertha being on his land. We read about Tommo and Charlie watching Bertha being killed before their very eyes. This said a lot about the Colonel and illustrated his personality clearly when he could kill such an innocent creature. We understood that he saw her as a commodity and that if she wasn't able to hunt for him then she was better dead. During our reading sessions, we were quite impressed with how mother could appease him and persuade him not to take such drastic action against the young boys for taking Bertha away. It did appear that the Colonel had the last laugh as he took Bertha away from them, forever. This was, however, a catalyst for Big Joe running away and we discussed his motives for this. It was a very stressful time in the story, but brought the family together. During our humanities lessons, we have been looking at the second instalment of Bertie's letter. We are really unpicking these historical sources and are becoming aware of what are primary and secondary sources. The trip on Friday will give us a really good idea of what life was like during 1914-1918 and bring some of the concepts we have been discussing in class to life. Holbrook was a very different place in the past and we are beginning to bring this alive by looking at soldiers who were examined during the Poppy Trail.	<urn:uuid:4e99f4ef-303a-4096-b593-ad2fa0a29534>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.holbrook-pri.suffolk.sch.uk/archived-learning/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00112.warc.gz	en	0.986315	778	3.6875	4	[ -0.469407320022583, 0.021725580096244812, 0.31809836626052856, -0.5178584456443787, 0.025818612426519394, 0.3973669111728668, 0.2970108985900879, 0.3046749532222748, 0.3394913077354431, -0.06736808270215988, -0.12206719070672989, -0.4585931599140167, 0.14153754711151123, 0.6086883544921875...	1	23/09/19: We've been focusing on place value and number. During our first two weeks, we've looked at the value of different numbers and also examined how these are changed if we add 10, 100, 1,000 and 10,000. We have been focusing on numbers up to 1,000,000. This is all building on our knowledge from the Year 4 curriculum and enhancing the skills we already had. Rounding has been the focus of this week and we've applied our knowledge to data taken from WWI, particularly the number of soldiers wounded or killed. Private Peaceful has been an absolute hit with the class. We've empathised with Tommo and the horrific incident he witnessed with his father in the woods. This has lead onto some great reading philosophy and we have discussed situations where it has made us emotional. Predicting skills have been the order of the day and we're building on these by continually referring back to the text. EVIDENCE. EVIDENCE. EVIDENCE!! A mantra that we remember when reading through narratives. Within French lessons, we've been learning the alphabet and also playing some fun Bingo! games in class. Look below at some really helpful YouTube clips which say each letter in turn and I've also attached a VERY catchy song too. There are quite a few letters which are similar to those in the English language. Take a look... What are we learning about in class!? 30/09/19 We've been learning about negative numbers in our maths lesson over the last week. We can now add and subtract from negative integers. Our knowledge of negative numbers was applied to data, particularly temperatures. We learnt about the Battle of Arras being a very important battle during WWI and also for the men from Holbrook who fought on the frontline. It was not only men from Britain who fought in Arras, but also soldiers from other countries such as Russia and Canada. During our lessons, we looked at life in the trenches and examined temperatures which they may have been faced with. Conditions in the trenches were harsh and it wasn't an easy life for the soldiers. Over the coming week, we are going to be cracking different codes using Roman Numerals and we are really look forward to our visit to Imperial War Museum, London. Within our English sessions, we have been looking at the Colonel within the text. He has taken a dislike to the children in the story and we were all quite shocked by his reaction to Bertha being on his land. We read about Tommo and Charlie watching Bertha being killed before their very eyes. This said a lot about the Colonel and illustrated his personality clearly when he could kill such an innocent creature. We understood that he saw her as a commodity and that if she wasn't able to hunt for him then she was better dead. During our reading sessions, we were quite impressed with how mother could appease him and persuade him not to take such drastic action against the young boys for taking Bertha away. It did appear that the Colonel had the last laugh as he took Bertha away from them, forever. This was, however, a catalyst for Big Joe running away and we discussed his motives for this. It was a very stressful time in the story, but brought the family together. During our humanities lessons, we have been looking at the second instalment of Bertie's letter. We are really unpicking these historical sources and are becoming aware of what are primary and secondary sources. The trip on Friday will give us a really good idea of what life was like during 1914-1918 and bring some of the concepts we have been discussing in class to life. Holbrook was a very different place in the past and we are beginning to bring this alive by looking at soldiers who were examined during the Poppy Trail.	800	ENGLISH	1
My earlier post on the Pernkopf Anatomy Atlas discussed the ethical implications associated with the source of cadavers for use in medical education. And while I mentioned that medical history is spotted with such ethical controversies, modern day medical and anatomical resources aren’t without scrutiny. The Visible Human Project, established in 1989, set out to complete a full digital library representing the anatomy of a normal adult male and female. The Visible Human Male was completed in 1994 and the Visible Human Female completed the following year. While you can find this information and more on the The Visible Human Project website, what they don’t mention is how they acquired the male and female bodies. The Visible Human Male was a mechanic from Texas named Joseph Paul Jernigan. On July 3, 1981 he stabbed and shot a 75-year-old man who surprised him during a robbery. Jernigan was convicted of murder and sentenced to death on November 20, 1981. He was finally executed, by lethal injection, 12 years later on August 5, 1993. Before his execution a prison chaplain convinced Jernigan to donate his body to the Texas Anatomy Board. Jernigan had no idea that his body would become part of one of the most important anatomy resources of the 20th century; the first completely digitized human being. The U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM) organized the Visible Human Project. Cadavers for the project were selected from people who had donated their bodies to medical research. Soon after death MRI and CT scans were performed on these bodies, which were then frozen in gelatin. A selected committee from the NLM then reviewed the MRI and CT scans and chose the best cadaver representing the most normal anatomy, proportion, height, and weight of a male and female. The committee subsequently chose Jernigan’s body without knowing that he was an executed prisoner convicted of murder. But, the committee decided that since Jernigan had donated his body to science there were no ethical implications against his body becoming part of the project. So, should we judge the use of Jernigan’s body for the Visible Human Project? Would the committee have chosen Jernigan if they would have known that he was an executed prisoner convicted of murder? What are your thoughts?	<urn:uuid:54e4a97b-b3f2-4727-a94c-510cf40eea38>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://streetanatomy.com/2007/04/12/the-visible-humanprisoner/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00010.warc.gz	en	0.982614	477	3.3125	3	[ -0.25956210494041443, 0.47024574875831604, 0.15674203634262085, 0.01229498814791441, 0.27531495690345764, 0.09287149459123611, 0.5567537546157837, 0.6024500131607056, -0.14265455305576324, -0.09130282700061798, 0.1519147902727127, 0.10297573357820511, 0.04452012479305267, 0.324274986982345...	3	My earlier post on the Pernkopf Anatomy Atlas discussed the ethical implications associated with the source of cadavers for use in medical education. And while I mentioned that medical history is spotted with such ethical controversies, modern day medical and anatomical resources aren’t without scrutiny. The Visible Human Project, established in 1989, set out to complete a full digital library representing the anatomy of a normal adult male and female. The Visible Human Male was completed in 1994 and the Visible Human Female completed the following year. While you can find this information and more on the The Visible Human Project website, what they don’t mention is how they acquired the male and female bodies. The Visible Human Male was a mechanic from Texas named Joseph Paul Jernigan. On July 3, 1981 he stabbed and shot a 75-year-old man who surprised him during a robbery. Jernigan was convicted of murder and sentenced to death on November 20, 1981. He was finally executed, by lethal injection, 12 years later on August 5, 1993. Before his execution a prison chaplain convinced Jernigan to donate his body to the Texas Anatomy Board. Jernigan had no idea that his body would become part of one of the most important anatomy resources of the 20th century; the first completely digitized human being. The U.S. National Library of Medicine (NLM) organized the Visible Human Project. Cadavers for the project were selected from people who had donated their bodies to medical research. Soon after death MRI and CT scans were performed on these bodies, which were then frozen in gelatin. A selected committee from the NLM then reviewed the MRI and CT scans and chose the best cadaver representing the most normal anatomy, proportion, height, and weight of a male and female. The committee subsequently chose Jernigan’s body without knowing that he was an executed prisoner convicted of murder. But, the committee decided that since Jernigan had donated his body to science there were no ethical implications against his body becoming part of the project. So, should we judge the use of Jernigan’s body for the Visible Human Project? Would the committee have chosen Jernigan if they would have known that he was an executed prisoner convicted of murder? What are your thoughts?	481	ENGLISH	1
"The whole world and its history was waiting for this man." E RASMUS was sixteen years old when Martin Luther was born,—Martin Luther, the great German Reformer, whose name was soon to be known throughout the whole continent of Europe. This is the story of his life. He was born in the year 1483. His father was a humble miner, his mother was noted for her goodness and virtue. When quite a little child, his parents wished to make a "scholar " of him—so he was early taught to read and write, and at six years old he was sent to school. Both at home and at school his training was very severe; his father whipped him for mere trifles, and one day poor little Martin was beaten fifteen times! He was bright and clever, but he had a strong will of his own, and a love of fun and mischief. When he was fourteen his parents could not afford to keep him any longer, so they sent him forth into the world with his bag on his back, to seek for learning from the charity of strangers. With a boy friend he set forth to walk to Magdeburg, where there was a school for poor boys kept by the Franciscan monks. In order to get food on the way, the boys had to beg or to sing. They were thankful enough for a morsel of bread or a night's shelter. Indeed, life became such a hard struggle, that Martin told himself he would never be a scholar, and it would be better to return home and win an honest livelihood with his spade. But at this moment the tide turned. By his sweet voice he attracted the notice of a good lady, who took pity on him and gave him a comfortable home. Here he worked hard, making great progress in Latin, till he was eighteen. By this time his father had made enough money to send him to a university, where he took his degree in 1505. And now a strange thing happened, that altered his whole life. One day he was walking with a friend, when a tremendous thunderstorm came on. A sudden vivid flash of lightning struck the friend at his side, who fell down dead at his feet. The suddenness of the young man's death made a great impression on Martin Luther. Struck to the heart, he made up his mind that henceforth he would devote his life to God and God's service. In spite of his father's protests he became a monk. For the first two years his life was a very hard one: his food was very scanty, he had to perform the lowliest tasks, and to beg for alms and bread. Whatever spare time he had, he worked hard at his books, studying the epistles and gospels diligently. In the library of the university he found a complete Bible in Latin. It was the first time he had seen one. He devoured it eagerly. A new light came into his life, and in his close study of the Bible he strengthened himself for his future work. Before long he had risen to a position of importance in the monastery. He became a priest and went to live at Wittenberg—a town which he made famous by his name. In 1509 he began to lecture on the Scriptures. Bibles were not in the hands of all as they are "This monk," said the head of the university, "will bring in a new doctrine." He also began now to preach in the churches. He was very earnest, and the people who listened to him were deeply moved at his words. In 1511 he was sent on a mission to Rome, where Leo X. was Pope. Now, from early times there has been a Pope (Papa) or Father of Rome, who in the Middle Ages had come to be looked on as the Head of the Christian Church by many, if not all, of the countries of Europe. At first the Pope was a Bishop of Rome, as other Bishops were in other cities, but when Rome was no longer the sole imperial city, the power of the Bishops became greater and greater until, in the twelfth century, under Innocent III., the papal authority reached its height. Now during the Middle Ages many abuses had crept into the Church. One of these was known as the "sale of indulgences." All feel it right that sinners should suffer for their sins, but there is no Biblical foundation for the teaching that by money payments a sinner may be saved from the punishment of his sin. Yet, in those days, persons who paid money received an "indulgence," and agents went about the country selling them. One of these, named John Tetzel, came to Germany. He disgusted Martin Luther by his method of extorting money from ignorant people, and being a man of great courage, Luther felt it his duty to remonstrate. He stood up boldly in his pulpit and denounced the system openly. It was a tremendous moment. It was indeed the visible beginning of the Reformation—that great movement which was to spread wider and wider until it should affect the whole Christian world. Into the deeper causes of the Reformation we cannot enter here. The revival of Greek learning had caused men to study the Scriptures for themselves as Luther did, and this caused dissatisfaction with the mediaeval corruption of the Roman Church.	<urn:uuid:feb9ed17-7974-42aa-8733-3465e2feab91>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/displayitem.php?item=books/synge/awakening/luther	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00308.warc.gz	en	0.995095	1,113	3.484375	3	[ -0.33042892813682556, 0.46452200412750244, 0.3593354821205139, 0.042441051453351974, -0.32154959440231323, 0.015668444335460663, -0.035557541996240616, 0.2576218247413635, 0.10872592777013779, -0.09859928488731384, -0.19760720431804657, -0.16179275512695312, 0.11297076940536499, -0.2309836...	3	"The whole world and its history was waiting for this man." E RASMUS was sixteen years old when Martin Luther was born,—Martin Luther, the great German Reformer, whose name was soon to be known throughout the whole continent of Europe. This is the story of his life. He was born in the year 1483. His father was a humble miner, his mother was noted for her goodness and virtue. When quite a little child, his parents wished to make a "scholar " of him—so he was early taught to read and write, and at six years old he was sent to school. Both at home and at school his training was very severe; his father whipped him for mere trifles, and one day poor little Martin was beaten fifteen times! He was bright and clever, but he had a strong will of his own, and a love of fun and mischief. When he was fourteen his parents could not afford to keep him any longer, so they sent him forth into the world with his bag on his back, to seek for learning from the charity of strangers. With a boy friend he set forth to walk to Magdeburg, where there was a school for poor boys kept by the Franciscan monks. In order to get food on the way, the boys had to beg or to sing. They were thankful enough for a morsel of bread or a night's shelter. Indeed, life became such a hard struggle, that Martin told himself he would never be a scholar, and it would be better to return home and win an honest livelihood with his spade. But at this moment the tide turned. By his sweet voice he attracted the notice of a good lady, who took pity on him and gave him a comfortable home. Here he worked hard, making great progress in Latin, till he was eighteen. By this time his father had made enough money to send him to a university, where he took his degree in 1505. And now a strange thing happened, that altered his whole life. One day he was walking with a friend, when a tremendous thunderstorm came on. A sudden vivid flash of lightning struck the friend at his side, who fell down dead at his feet. The suddenness of the young man's death made a great impression on Martin Luther. Struck to the heart, he made up his mind that henceforth he would devote his life to God and God's service. In spite of his father's protests he became a monk. For the first two years his life was a very hard one: his food was very scanty, he had to perform the lowliest tasks, and to beg for alms and bread. Whatever spare time he had, he worked hard at his books, studying the epistles and gospels diligently. In the library of the university he found a complete Bible in Latin. It was the first time he had seen one. He devoured it eagerly. A new light came into his life, and in his close study of the Bible he strengthened himself for his future work. Before long he had risen to a position of importance in the monastery. He became a priest and went to live at Wittenberg—a town which he made famous by his name. In 1509 he began to lecture on the Scriptures. Bibles were not in the hands of all as they are "This monk," said the head of the university, "will bring in a new doctrine." He also began now to preach in the churches. He was very earnest, and the people who listened to him were deeply moved at his words. In 1511 he was sent on a mission to Rome, where Leo X. was Pope. Now, from early times there has been a Pope (Papa) or Father of Rome, who in the Middle Ages had come to be looked on as the Head of the Christian Church by many, if not all, of the countries of Europe. At first the Pope was a Bishop of Rome, as other Bishops were in other cities, but when Rome was no longer the sole imperial city, the power of the Bishops became greater and greater until, in the twelfth century, under Innocent III., the papal authority reached its height. Now during the Middle Ages many abuses had crept into the Church. One of these was known as the "sale of indulgences." All feel it right that sinners should suffer for their sins, but there is no Biblical foundation for the teaching that by money payments a sinner may be saved from the punishment of his sin. Yet, in those days, persons who paid money received an "indulgence," and agents went about the country selling them. One of these, named John Tetzel, came to Germany. He disgusted Martin Luther by his method of extorting money from ignorant people, and being a man of great courage, Luther felt it his duty to remonstrate. He stood up boldly in his pulpit and denounced the system openly. It was a tremendous moment. It was indeed the visible beginning of the Reformation—that great movement which was to spread wider and wider until it should affect the whole Christian world. Into the deeper causes of the Reformation we cannot enter here. The revival of Greek learning had caused men to study the Scriptures for themselves as Luther did, and this caused dissatisfaction with the mediaeval corruption of the Roman Church.	1,115	ENGLISH	1
ILLIAM and Mary had no children, so Mary's sister, Anne, the younger daughter of At last a peace was made called the Peace of Utrecht. By this treaty Louis acknowledged Anne as the rightful Queen of Britain, and also promised to send James the Pretender, as the son of Marlborough was a famous soldier, but he was also a great statesman, and indeed he and his wife, the Duchess of Marlborough, ruled the Queen for many years. He was brave and clever, but he was greedy and not quite honest. He made many enemies, who succeeded at last in having him disgraced, and both he and his wife were sent away from court. The Duchess had a very bad temper, and she was so angry when she had to leave court that she smashed all the furniture in her rooms, and threw the Queen's keys at the Duke's head, when he was sent to ask for them. It was no wonder that the Queen, who was gentle and kind, had been afraid of the Duchess, and had been ruled by her. Other clever men succeeded Marlborough, and another clever woman succeeded the Duchess, for Queen Anne was not a strong-minded woman, and she allowed herself to be ruled and led by favourites and statesmen. Like Queen Elizabeth she had many great men around her, and although they thought more perhaps of making themselves famous and powerful than of what was best for the country, still the country prospered. The greatest thing that happened in the reign of Anne was the union of the Parliaments of England and Scotland. Since 1603 A.D., when Wise men saw that there could be no real union until there was only one Parliament, until English and Scots met and discussed the laws together. Cromwell indeed had called English, Scottish, and Irish members to his Parliament, but it had been for so short a time, and in such troubled days that people had almost forgotten about it. Even now it was not an easy thing to do, but at last all difficulties were smoothed away. It was agreed among other things that each country should keep its own law courts and its own religion, but that they should have the same King, the same Parliament, the same money, and the same flag, and that the country should be called Great Britain. The English flag was a red The reason we call our flag the Union Jack is because When the Queen gave her consent to the act of union, as it was named, she called both Lords and Commons together, and made a speech to them. "I desire and expect from all my subjects of both nations, that from henceforth they act with all possible respect and kindness to one another, that so it may appear to all the world they have hearts disposed to become one people. This will give me great pleasure." Then the last English Parliament rose, and, on It was a great state ceremony. Each Scottish lord was led to his place by two English lords. The Queen in her royal robes made a speech from the throne in which she heartily welcomed the new members, and ever since that day, in spite of difficulties and troubles, England and Scotland have really been one country. Queen Anne died on	<urn:uuid:62a7530b-ba4a-401a-8e3b-6a3a07458b30>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/displayitem.php?item=books/marshall/island/union	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00411.warc.gz	en	0.992178	680	3.3125	3	[ -0.2738032639026642, 0.13737721741199493, 0.5296551585197449, -0.20375046133995056, -0.05660947039723396, -0.15303049981594086, 0.20036378502845764, -0.2027749866247177, 0.3076428174972534, 0.26967155933380127, -0.07754755765199661, -0.3648117780685425, 0.02145259827375412, 0.1768285632133...	5	ILLIAM and Mary had no children, so Mary's sister, Anne, the younger daughter of At last a peace was made called the Peace of Utrecht. By this treaty Louis acknowledged Anne as the rightful Queen of Britain, and also promised to send James the Pretender, as the son of Marlborough was a famous soldier, but he was also a great statesman, and indeed he and his wife, the Duchess of Marlborough, ruled the Queen for many years. He was brave and clever, but he was greedy and not quite honest. He made many enemies, who succeeded at last in having him disgraced, and both he and his wife were sent away from court. The Duchess had a very bad temper, and she was so angry when she had to leave court that she smashed all the furniture in her rooms, and threw the Queen's keys at the Duke's head, when he was sent to ask for them. It was no wonder that the Queen, who was gentle and kind, had been afraid of the Duchess, and had been ruled by her. Other clever men succeeded Marlborough, and another clever woman succeeded the Duchess, for Queen Anne was not a strong-minded woman, and she allowed herself to be ruled and led by favourites and statesmen. Like Queen Elizabeth she had many great men around her, and although they thought more perhaps of making themselves famous and powerful than of what was best for the country, still the country prospered. The greatest thing that happened in the reign of Anne was the union of the Parliaments of England and Scotland. Since 1603 A.D., when Wise men saw that there could be no real union until there was only one Parliament, until English and Scots met and discussed the laws together. Cromwell indeed had called English, Scottish, and Irish members to his Parliament, but it had been for so short a time, and in such troubled days that people had almost forgotten about it. Even now it was not an easy thing to do, but at last all difficulties were smoothed away. It was agreed among other things that each country should keep its own law courts and its own religion, but that they should have the same King, the same Parliament, the same money, and the same flag, and that the country should be called Great Britain. The English flag was a red The reason we call our flag the Union Jack is because When the Queen gave her consent to the act of union, as it was named, she called both Lords and Commons together, and made a speech to them. "I desire and expect from all my subjects of both nations, that from henceforth they act with all possible respect and kindness to one another, that so it may appear to all the world they have hearts disposed to become one people. This will give me great pleasure." Then the last English Parliament rose, and, on It was a great state ceremony. Each Scottish lord was led to his place by two English lords. The Queen in her royal robes made a speech from the throne in which she heartily welcomed the new members, and ever since that day, in spite of difficulties and troubles, England and Scotland have really been one country. Queen Anne died on	666	ENGLISH	1
Both Canada and the USA have governments that seem to work quite well, amidst their differences. While the USA is a republic, Canada is a constitutional monarchy, and both are based on the ideas of democracy. However, they are different in many ways, and each government has it’s share of better methods than the other. For example, the USA has a definite term of office set for the president, 4 years, so that the president will know when he is done, and elections do not come as a surprise to the citizens. In Canada, the Prime Minister may sit for up to 5 years, calling an election any time he/she wants, from his/her first day in office, until the day before their last day in office. This can come as a surprise to the public, leaving them unprepared for an election. This is one of the ways that makes the USA system seem better than the Canadian. However, with the exact date known well in advance, campaigns in the USA start over a year ahead of the election, which can be quite annoying to many people. Canadian campaigns last for only 50 days. The Canadian system does have it’s strong points, as well. In the USA, presidents may only be in office for a maximum of 10 years with the rare possibility that their predecessor is no longer able to run the country, during a term. In most cases, the maximum is 8 years per president, in 2 terms. This is not a very good system, if a president that is liked by all and makes decisions well is kept in office for 8 years, he is no longer allowed to be the president, no matter how much he’s liked. In Canada, there is no limit on how much a leader may be Prime Minister. If the Prime Minister proves himself to be a very good leader, he will be kept in office for as long as needed. If the Prime minister proves to be a bad leader, they will not be re-elected. The parties keep or replace leaders as they see fit, and the voters have the final word. The Americans have the better model for choosing government representatives, however. In an American election, the voters will vote on both the president and vice president, to ensure that they are who the people want. In Canada, we only indirectly vote for our prime minister, who then chooses his own staff all by himself, most likely all will be members of his own party. Canadians also have a better separation system between the highest levels of government, as well. When the voters in America elect a head of government, they are also electing the head of state. This one person is the president, who occupies both titles. In Canada, the head of state is the Queen and the Governor General, who are above the differences between the parties. They are there just to be the monarch, not to get involved with all the different ideologies of the political parties. In the USA, the president will be either republican or democratic, which does not bode well for the patriotic symbol of head of state. If there’s blame to be had, the American’s don’t know who did what, there are different parties in the different branches, and each branch blames the other. In Canada, it will always be the government party, so that the voters know for certain who did it. I can’t say for certain which government system I believe is better. Each country has different strengths and weaknesses, which balance each other out quite nicely. Canadian voters are more involved in government decisions, but lack the involvement in who is running the government, the Prime Minister appoints his staff. America lets their voters get more involved in choosing their leaders, but they cannot determine who to blame when something goes wrong. If I had to choose between them for sure, I believe I would choose Canada as the better government. Canada has a few poor qualities, such as the prime minister having immense power, but they can be made up for simply, such as choosing a prime minister that everyone can trust. You can order custom essays, term papers, research papers, dissertations and thesis papers on Canada and the USA from our professional custom writing service. Here is a list of the most popular essay writing topics on Canada:	<urn:uuid:72d547f3-77c8-4853-a147-898871e91566>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://howtowrite.customwritings.com/post/essay-canada-usa/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00086.warc.gz	en	0.980024	874	3.265625	3	[ -0.36553794145584106, 0.19277754426002502, 0.42766040563583374, -0.15683406591415405, 0.009020638652145863, 0.4101576805114746, 0.04346918314695358, 0.11181020736694336, 0.6388450264930725, 0.5738111734390259, 0.0801306664943695, 0.6310214400291443, 0.14509537816047668, 0.07575123012065887...	10	Both Canada and the USA have governments that seem to work quite well, amidst their differences. While the USA is a republic, Canada is a constitutional monarchy, and both are based on the ideas of democracy. However, they are different in many ways, and each government has it’s share of better methods than the other. For example, the USA has a definite term of office set for the president, 4 years, so that the president will know when he is done, and elections do not come as a surprise to the citizens. In Canada, the Prime Minister may sit for up to 5 years, calling an election any time he/she wants, from his/her first day in office, until the day before their last day in office. This can come as a surprise to the public, leaving them unprepared for an election. This is one of the ways that makes the USA system seem better than the Canadian. However, with the exact date known well in advance, campaigns in the USA start over a year ahead of the election, which can be quite annoying to many people. Canadian campaigns last for only 50 days. The Canadian system does have it’s strong points, as well. In the USA, presidents may only be in office for a maximum of 10 years with the rare possibility that their predecessor is no longer able to run the country, during a term. In most cases, the maximum is 8 years per president, in 2 terms. This is not a very good system, if a president that is liked by all and makes decisions well is kept in office for 8 years, he is no longer allowed to be the president, no matter how much he’s liked. In Canada, there is no limit on how much a leader may be Prime Minister. If the Prime Minister proves himself to be a very good leader, he will be kept in office for as long as needed. If the Prime minister proves to be a bad leader, they will not be re-elected. The parties keep or replace leaders as they see fit, and the voters have the final word. The Americans have the better model for choosing government representatives, however. In an American election, the voters will vote on both the president and vice president, to ensure that they are who the people want. In Canada, we only indirectly vote for our prime minister, who then chooses his own staff all by himself, most likely all will be members of his own party. Canadians also have a better separation system between the highest levels of government, as well. When the voters in America elect a head of government, they are also electing the head of state. This one person is the president, who occupies both titles. In Canada, the head of state is the Queen and the Governor General, who are above the differences between the parties. They are there just to be the monarch, not to get involved with all the different ideologies of the political parties. In the USA, the president will be either republican or democratic, which does not bode well for the patriotic symbol of head of state. If there’s blame to be had, the American’s don’t know who did what, there are different parties in the different branches, and each branch blames the other. In Canada, it will always be the government party, so that the voters know for certain who did it. I can’t say for certain which government system I believe is better. Each country has different strengths and weaknesses, which balance each other out quite nicely. Canadian voters are more involved in government decisions, but lack the involvement in who is running the government, the Prime Minister appoints his staff. America lets their voters get more involved in choosing their leaders, but they cannot determine who to blame when something goes wrong. If I had to choose between them for sure, I believe I would choose Canada as the better government. Canada has a few poor qualities, such as the prime minister having immense power, but they can be made up for simply, such as choosing a prime minister that everyone can trust. You can order custom essays, term papers, research papers, dissertations and thesis papers on Canada and the USA from our professional custom writing service. Here is a list of the most popular essay writing topics on Canada:	859	ENGLISH	1
Listed among Alexander’s star-studded triumphs are Egypt, strategic Phoenician ports, and, after a long rivalry with King Darius II, the colossal empire of Persia. During a short 12-year-reign, Alexander conquered most of the known world and created a Eurasian empire that stretched from Greece to India. Prince, king, general, and legend—there’s a great deal to unpack in Alexander the Great’s name. To better understand his layered life, read on to learn ten important facts. Here are 10 facts about Alexander the Great—the legendary military genius—that you may not know. 1. He was of royal lineage on both sides. Alexander was born in 354 BCE to King Philip II of Macedonia and his fourth wife, Olympia. Although not Macedonian herself, Olympia was the daughter of the king of the Molossians, an ancient Greek tribe in Epirus. Her family even claimed relation to the Trojan War hero Achilles. After Alexander’s birth, Olympia was made the principal wife. However, their marriage was not all sunshine and roses. Due to Alexander’s mixed heritage, his claim to the throne was constantly questioned, causing tension between Philip II and Olympia. 2. Alexander’s father paved the way for his military success. Although his name is now dwarfed by the legacy of his successful son, King Philip II of Macedonia (382-336 BCE) was an acclaimed tactician in his own right. Under his reign, Macedonia grew from a small periphery kingdom to a military powerhouse—dominating its neighbor Greece in the span of 25 years. To do this, Philip II utilized diplomacy, marriage alliances, as well as a reformed army. Alexander’s father developed an infantry formation known as the Macedonian phalanx. In this strategy, a block of infantry is packed tightly together, with each soldier carrying a 20-foot-long pikes called a sarissa. This was typically used to hold off forces while cavalry went on the offensive. Accordingly, Philip II was responsible for transforming the Macedonian military into the commanding force Alexander later used to meet his goals. 3. He was tutored by Aristotle. As son to the Macedonian king, Alexander was constantly surrounded by educational sources to teach him math, history, archery, and other important subjects. Among the esteemed names called in to teach the 13-year-old prince was the acclaimed Greek philosopher Aristotle. (King Philip II promised to rebuild Aristotle’s home in Stagira in exchange for tutoring his son.) This encounter seemed to have inspired a life-long love of philosophy and its different forms. According to legend, Alexander, while still a prince, sought Diogenes the Cynic—an infamous philosopher who was known to reject propriety and sleep in a large clay jar. When Alexander found the Diogenes, he asked the philosopher if there was anything his fortune could do for him. “Yes,” Diogenes replied, “stand aside. You’re blocking my sun.” This meeting made such an impression on Alexander that he was quoted as saying, “If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes.” 4. The Iliad was his favorite book. The Greek biographer Plutarch wrote that Alexander was known to carry a copy of Homer’s Iliad annotated by his tutor Aristotle wherever he went. Plutarch said, “He esteemed it a perfect portable treasure of all military virtue and knowledge.” 5. Bucephalus was the name of his mighty steed. Plutarch’s biography of Alexander also says that when Alexander was ten years old, his father was offered a large and magnificent horse that refused to be tamed. The prince, however, noticed that the horse feared its shadow, and through quick wit was able to mount it. Philip II, feeling intense pride in his son’s courage, declared, “My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you.” Alexander ended up keeping the horse, naming it Bucephalas, meaning “ox-head.” 6. Alexander’s assumption to the throne was violent. In 336 BCE, Philip II was assassinated by the captain of his own bodyguards, who was also killed during his own escape. Despite years of contentions regarding legitimacy and heritage, 20-year-old Alexander was declared king in the very same hour by the nobles and army. However, Alexander was not easily placated. To feel secure in his reign, Alexander eliminated all potential rivals to the throne, including his cousin and two lesser Macedonian princes, to name only a few. As a freshly minted king, Alexander immediately went on to crush Greek rebellions, marking the start of a dominating regime. 7. He (might have) cut the “Gordian Knot.” Multiple ancient sources agree that Alexander, already a king, did, in fact, encounter the challenge of the famous “Gordian Knot.” It was during a campaign through Turkey that Alexander came across the knot—which was reportedly tied to the yoke of the wagon of King Midas’ father, Gordius. An oracle stated that whoever was able to undo the knot would become ruler of Asia. Alexander’s solution, however, is disputed. Some confirm Alexander cut the knot as the legend states, but others say he was able to untie it. All in all, it is historically accepted that Alexander the Great “cut” the Gordian Knot, and, whether through fate or coincidence, did indeed partially fulfill the prophecy by reaching India. 8. Alexander was never defeated in battle. Although Philip II deserves due credit for developing the Macedonian phalanx formation, it was his son that utilized it to its fullest potential. Already as a teenage general, Alexander was well respected for leading men into battle at extraordinary speed. Assuming the crown only served to strengthen Alexander’s talents. According to records, even after 15 years of warfare, Alexander never lost a battle. Moreover, the Macedonian king and his army are calculated to have walked over 11,000 miles during his 12-year-reign. Additionally, Alexander’s empire—from Greece to India—totaled 20 million square miles. 9. He named more than 70 cities after himself. From Egypt to Turkey, Alexander left his mark all across his empire. By the end of his reign, Alexander named a total of 70 cities after himself—the most famous of these being the large Egyptian metropolis. The Macedonian king even founded a city called Bucephala in India, named after his beloved horse’s death. 10. Alexander’s death is still a mystery. In 323 BCE, Alexander died from a fever at 32 years of age. According to records, Alexander’s death occurred in the palace of King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon, two weeks after a large celebration. The cause of death is still speculated among historians. Some believe Alexander may have been poisoned by those closest to him. Others propose he died of environmental causes such as malaria, lung infection, or typhoid fever. Due to the historical records of Alexander’s prolific drinking, there are also historians who suspect that he died of liver failure. After his death, however, it was reported that Alexander’s body was covered in honey before being placed in a golden sarcophagus, which was then stored inside a casket. One or two years later, Alexander’s body was sent back to Macedonia only to be intercepted by forces Ptolemy I, who changed its course to Egypt. Ptolemy I aimed to be seen as Alexander’s successor by obtaining control of the Macedonian king’s body. Ultimately, a tomb for Alexander’s remains was constructed in the Egyptian city of Alexandria.	<urn:uuid:32c1f8c1-55eb-4d58-bab9-2a7dcd4f21d9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mymodernmet.com/alexander-the-great-facts/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00278.warc.gz	en	0.983488	1,673	3.3125	3	[ -0.10632964968681335, 0.5651121139526367, 0.34978848695755005, -0.2978530526161194, -0.6860735416412354, -0.49666619300842285, 0.39020979404449463, 0.5357370376586914, -0.10313593596220016, 0.03218500316143036, 0.0495682954788208, -0.3797195553779602, 0.14746439456939697, 0.074328050017356...	4	Listed among Alexander’s star-studded triumphs are Egypt, strategic Phoenician ports, and, after a long rivalry with King Darius II, the colossal empire of Persia. During a short 12-year-reign, Alexander conquered most of the known world and created a Eurasian empire that stretched from Greece to India. Prince, king, general, and legend—there’s a great deal to unpack in Alexander the Great’s name. To better understand his layered life, read on to learn ten important facts. Here are 10 facts about Alexander the Great—the legendary military genius—that you may not know. 1. He was of royal lineage on both sides. Alexander was born in 354 BCE to King Philip II of Macedonia and his fourth wife, Olympia. Although not Macedonian herself, Olympia was the daughter of the king of the Molossians, an ancient Greek tribe in Epirus. Her family even claimed relation to the Trojan War hero Achilles. After Alexander’s birth, Olympia was made the principal wife. However, their marriage was not all sunshine and roses. Due to Alexander’s mixed heritage, his claim to the throne was constantly questioned, causing tension between Philip II and Olympia. 2. Alexander’s father paved the way for his military success. Although his name is now dwarfed by the legacy of his successful son, King Philip II of Macedonia (382-336 BCE) was an acclaimed tactician in his own right. Under his reign, Macedonia grew from a small periphery kingdom to a military powerhouse—dominating its neighbor Greece in the span of 25 years. To do this, Philip II utilized diplomacy, marriage alliances, as well as a reformed army. Alexander’s father developed an infantry formation known as the Macedonian phalanx. In this strategy, a block of infantry is packed tightly together, with each soldier carrying a 20-foot-long pikes called a sarissa. This was typically used to hold off forces while cavalry went on the offensive. Accordingly, Philip II was responsible for transforming the Macedonian military into the commanding force Alexander later used to meet his goals. 3. He was tutored by Aristotle. As son to the Macedonian king, Alexander was constantly surrounded by educational sources to teach him math, history, archery, and other important subjects. Among the esteemed names called in to teach the 13-year-old prince was the acclaimed Greek philosopher Aristotle. (King Philip II promised to rebuild Aristotle’s home in Stagira in exchange for tutoring his son.) This encounter seemed to have inspired a life-long love of philosophy and its different forms. According to legend, Alexander, while still a prince, sought Diogenes the Cynic—an infamous philosopher who was known to reject propriety and sleep in a large clay jar. When Alexander found the Diogenes, he asked the philosopher if there was anything his fortune could do for him. “Yes,” Diogenes replied, “stand aside. You’re blocking my sun.” This meeting made such an impression on Alexander that he was quoted as saying, “If I were not Alexander, I would be Diogenes.” 4. The Iliad was his favorite book. The Greek biographer Plutarch wrote that Alexander was known to carry a copy of Homer’s Iliad annotated by his tutor Aristotle wherever he went. Plutarch said, “He esteemed it a perfect portable treasure of all military virtue and knowledge.” 5. Bucephalus was the name of his mighty steed. Plutarch’s biography of Alexander also says that when Alexander was ten years old, his father was offered a large and magnificent horse that refused to be tamed. The prince, however, noticed that the horse feared its shadow, and through quick wit was able to mount it. Philip II, feeling intense pride in his son’s courage, declared, “My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you.” Alexander ended up keeping the horse, naming it Bucephalas, meaning “ox-head.” 6. Alexander’s assumption to the throne was violent. In 336 BCE, Philip II was assassinated by the captain of his own bodyguards, who was also killed during his own escape. Despite years of contentions regarding legitimacy and heritage, 20-year-old Alexander was declared king in the very same hour by the nobles and army. However, Alexander was not easily placated. To feel secure in his reign, Alexander eliminated all potential rivals to the throne, including his cousin and two lesser Macedonian princes, to name only a few. As a freshly minted king, Alexander immediately went on to crush Greek rebellions, marking the start of a dominating regime. 7. He (might have) cut the “Gordian Knot.” Multiple ancient sources agree that Alexander, already a king, did, in fact, encounter the challenge of the famous “Gordian Knot.” It was during a campaign through Turkey that Alexander came across the knot—which was reportedly tied to the yoke of the wagon of King Midas’ father, Gordius. An oracle stated that whoever was able to undo the knot would become ruler of Asia. Alexander’s solution, however, is disputed. Some confirm Alexander cut the knot as the legend states, but others say he was able to untie it. All in all, it is historically accepted that Alexander the Great “cut” the Gordian Knot, and, whether through fate or coincidence, did indeed partially fulfill the prophecy by reaching India. 8. Alexander was never defeated in battle. Although Philip II deserves due credit for developing the Macedonian phalanx formation, it was his son that utilized it to its fullest potential. Already as a teenage general, Alexander was well respected for leading men into battle at extraordinary speed. Assuming the crown only served to strengthen Alexander’s talents. According to records, even after 15 years of warfare, Alexander never lost a battle. Moreover, the Macedonian king and his army are calculated to have walked over 11,000 miles during his 12-year-reign. Additionally, Alexander’s empire—from Greece to India—totaled 20 million square miles. 9. He named more than 70 cities after himself. From Egypt to Turkey, Alexander left his mark all across his empire. By the end of his reign, Alexander named a total of 70 cities after himself—the most famous of these being the large Egyptian metropolis. The Macedonian king even founded a city called Bucephala in India, named after his beloved horse’s death. 10. Alexander’s death is still a mystery. In 323 BCE, Alexander died from a fever at 32 years of age. According to records, Alexander’s death occurred in the palace of King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon, two weeks after a large celebration. The cause of death is still speculated among historians. Some believe Alexander may have been poisoned by those closest to him. Others propose he died of environmental causes such as malaria, lung infection, or typhoid fever. Due to the historical records of Alexander’s prolific drinking, there are also historians who suspect that he died of liver failure. After his death, however, it was reported that Alexander’s body was covered in honey before being placed in a golden sarcophagus, which was then stored inside a casket. One or two years later, Alexander’s body was sent back to Macedonia only to be intercepted by forces Ptolemy I, who changed its course to Egypt. Ptolemy I aimed to be seen as Alexander’s successor by obtaining control of the Macedonian king’s body. Ultimately, a tomb for Alexander’s remains was constructed in the Egyptian city of Alexandria.	1,589	ENGLISH	1
TAGANROG, city in S.W. Rostov district, Russia. Jews first settled in Taganrog at the beginning of the 19th century, when "New Russia" was settled by Jewish immigrants from the northwest area of the *Pale of Settlement. In the 1860s a synagogue with a choir was built. In 1887 Taganrog was incorporated in the administrative region of the Don army, which was beyond the Pale of Settlement; consequently, Jews were henceforth forbidden to live in Taganrog, excepting those who had been living there previously. In 1897 there were 2,960 Jews in Taganrog (6% of its total population); in 1926 they numbered 2,673 (about 3%). In 1939 there were 3,124. Under the Soviet regime the Jewish community and institutions were abolished. When the Germans occupied the city in World War ii, all the Jews who did not manage to escape were killed. By 2005 the new Jewish community of Taganrog had established a community center, a youth club, a women's club, a veterans' club, a Sunday school, and a burial society, as well as a Holocaust Scientific Educational Center. [Yehuda Slutsky / Ruth Beloff (2nd ed.)]	<urn:uuid:de1bf19e-a00e-4b1f-9b4b-538a6dd3ec8c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.encyclopedia.com/places/commonwealth-independent-states-and-baltic-nations/cis-and-baltic-political-geography/taganrog	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00532.warc.gz	en	0.984126	259	3.390625	3	[ 0.14227594435214996, -0.06561585515737534, 0.2934454083442688, 0.11962097138166428, -0.012667493894696236, -0.31795167922973633, -0.16345220804214478, 0.37081658840179443, -0.5179843902587891, -0.20129090547561646, 0.08802376687526703, -0.15093331038951874, 0.12056486308574677, 0.451442003...	2	TAGANROG, city in S.W. Rostov district, Russia. Jews first settled in Taganrog at the beginning of the 19th century, when "New Russia" was settled by Jewish immigrants from the northwest area of the *Pale of Settlement. In the 1860s a synagogue with a choir was built. In 1887 Taganrog was incorporated in the administrative region of the Don army, which was beyond the Pale of Settlement; consequently, Jews were henceforth forbidden to live in Taganrog, excepting those who had been living there previously. In 1897 there were 2,960 Jews in Taganrog (6% of its total population); in 1926 they numbered 2,673 (about 3%). In 1939 there were 3,124. Under the Soviet regime the Jewish community and institutions were abolished. When the Germans occupied the city in World War ii, all the Jews who did not manage to escape were killed. By 2005 the new Jewish community of Taganrog had established a community center, a youth club, a women's club, a veterans' club, a Sunday school, and a burial society, as well as a Holocaust Scientific Educational Center. [Yehuda Slutsky / Ruth Beloff (2nd ed.)]	288	ENGLISH	1
This oil painting of Thomas Kendall (right) with the Ngāpuhi chiefs Waikato (left) and Hongi Hika was painted when the three visited Britain in 1820. Kendall, who had arrived at the Bay of Islands with the Church Missionary Society (CMS) mission in 1814 and started a school in 1816, was visiting England to help compile a Māori grammar. Kendall became fascinated by the Māori world view, and on the basis of their ideas became convinced that they were descended from the Egyptians. Although Kendall's ideas were misguided and his relations with other missionaries deteriorated, he was the first European resident to attempt a serious study of the language and ideas of Māori. Using this item Permission of the Alexander Turnbull Library, National Library of New Zealand, Te Puna Mātauranga o Aotearoa, must be obtained before any re-use of this image.	<urn:uuid:40cca779-8471-4d00-9b54-4750aba624f3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://teara.govt.nz/en/artwork/45464/thomas-kendall-with-waikato-and-hongi-hika-1820	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00205.warc.gz	en	0.982395	190	3.34375	3	[ -0.005965877324342728, 0.5500469207763672, -0.15926536917686462, 0.04562988132238388, -0.0453009232878685, -0.07335105538368225, -0.04293524846434593, -0.28848564624786377, -0.2487647831439972, 0.2720431387424469, 0.09411418437957764, -0.8976950645446777, 0.39958372712135315, 0.48973363637...	5	This oil painting of Thomas Kendall (right) with the Ngāpuhi chiefs Waikato (left) and Hongi Hika was painted when the three visited Britain in 1820. Kendall, who had arrived at the Bay of Islands with the Church Missionary Society (CMS) mission in 1814 and started a school in 1816, was visiting England to help compile a Māori grammar. Kendall became fascinated by the Māori world view, and on the basis of their ideas became convinced that they were descended from the Egyptians. Although Kendall's ideas were misguided and his relations with other missionaries deteriorated, he was the first European resident to attempt a serious study of the language and ideas of Māori. Using this item Permission of the Alexander Turnbull Library, National Library of New Zealand, Te Puna Mātauranga o Aotearoa, must be obtained before any re-use of this image.	196	ENGLISH	1
« ՆախորդըՇարունակել » In the third quarter of the fifth century the most important of the Frankish chiefs of the Merovingian line was a prince of the Salians, named Childerich, who dwelt at Tournay, and ruled in the valley of the upper Scheldt. He died in 481, leaving his throne to his sixteen-year-old son and heir, a prince named Chlodovech or Chlodwig, who was destined to found the great Frankish kingdom, by extinguishing the other Frankish principalities, and conquering southern and central Gaul. Such an event seemed most unlikely at the time of Chlodovech's accession, when the dominant power in the land was that of the fierce and able king Euric the Visigoth. It was Euric who had brought the Visigothic kingdom up to its largest extent, by driving the Sueves into a corner of Spain, conquering the last Roman provinces in central Gaul, and receiving Provence from the hands of Odoacer, king of Italy. He was the first Visigothic king to publish a code of laws, and would have left a good name in history but for his assassination of his brother Theodoric, and his persecutions of the Catholics.' Though not such an oppressor as the Vandals Gaiseric and Hunneric, he had made himself hated by refusing to allow the election of Catholic bishops, and by closing or handing over to his favourites, the Arians, many of the churches of the orthodox. Euric died in 485, just as Chlodovech was about to commence his conquering career in northern Gaul, a career which the Visigoth would probably have checked if a longer life had been granted him. He was succeeded by his son Alaric, a boy of only sixteen or seventeen years. It was in the very year of Euric's death that Chlodovech, now aged twenty-one, set out on the first of his warlike expeditions. In company with his kinsman Ragnachar, king of Cambrai, he invaded the realm of the Roman patrician Syagrius. The Gaulish troops were unable to resist the onset of the Franks, and their leader, after a short struggle, abandoned his home, and fled for safety to the court of Alaric the Visigoth. The councillors of Alaric, either wishing to gratify their Teutonic neighbours, or fearing the event of a war while their king was yet so young, threw the patrician into bonds, chlodovech and sent him back to Chlodovech, who promptly jo, put him to death. The Seine valley and the 486. great towns of Soissons, Paris, Rouen, and Rheims now fell into the hands of the Frankish king, and, in the course of the next three years, he extended his power up to the Loire and boundary of Armorica, where the Romano-Celts of the extreme west still succeeded in holding out. Chlodovech took all the spoils for himself, none fell to his neighbours, the other kings of the Salian Franks. It was these princes who were next to feel the force of his arm. He picked quarrels with his kinsmen the kings of Cambrai and Térouanne, the one for not helping him against Syagrius, the other for claiming part of the spoil of the Roman, and slew them both, the one by treachery, the other in open battle. The remaining Merovingian princes of the Belgic plains soon shared their fate; then Chlodovech pressed eastward against the Ripuarian Franks, and conquered the Thoringi, their chief tribe, in the year 491 In a short time he had won all the Frankish kingdoms save that of his ally Sigebert the Lame, king of Köln. He remorselessly slew every prince of Meroving blood who fell into his hands, and did his best to exterminate all the rival lines. When he could find no more to kill, he is said to have made open lamentation that he was left alone in the world, and that the royal house of the Franks was threatened with extinction ; he then bade any kinsman who might yet survive come to him without fear. But it was cruelty, not remorse, that moved him, for his only object was to catch and slay any Meroving who might yet survive. His conquests in Ripuaria brought Chlodovech into touch with new neighbours, the Burgundians to the south, and the confederacy of the Alamanni to the east, along the Main and Neckar. With the first named he entered into friendly relations, and married Chrotechildis (Clotilde), niece of King Gundobad, in 492. The princess, unlike her uncle and most of her tribe, was a devout Catholic, and much was destined to chiedeyeen's follow from her alliance with the pagan Frank. wars with the With the Alamanni the relations of Chlodovech * were from the first hostile; in fact, when he brought his frontier up to the middle Rhine, he was constrained to take up an already existing feud between the Ripuarians and their eastern neighbours. For several years he was engaged in a struggle with this confederacy, who held the east bank of the Rhine from Coblenz upwards, the valleys of the Main and Neckar, and all the Black Forest. At last, in 496, he got the better of them in a decisive battle—apparently near Strasburg—and forced the main body of the confederacy to do him homage and acknowledge him as over-lord... An obstinate remnant retired over the Rhine, and took refuge in Rhaetia under the protection of the great Theodoric, but all the rest became Frankish vassals. As a result of this war the Alamanni were driven southward out of the Main valley, which was seized and settled by Ripuarian settlers, and became a Frankish country under the name of East Francia, or Franconia. A suggestive legend and an important fact are connected with these campaigns of Chlodovech against the Alamanni. The ecclesiastic writers of the next century state that, in his decisive battle with the confederates, Chlodovech was driven back and almost routed. Then, recalling the words of his wife Chrotechildis, “who never ceased to persuade him that he should serve the true God,” that the Lord was the Lord of Hosts and the arbiter of battles, he cried aloud, “O Christ Jesu, I crave as a suppliant Thy glorious aid; and if Thou grantest me victory over these enemies I will believe in Thee, and be baptized in Thy name.’ At once the Alamanni began to give back, and the king obtained a complete triumph. Whether this was the manner of his conversion or not, it is at any rate certain that Chlodovech, on returning from his Alamannic campaign, had himself baptized at Rheims on Christmas Day, 496. His sister and 3ooo of his warriors followed him to the font. Every reader of history knows the famous tale how Archbishop Remigius hailed the king with the words, “Bow thy neck Sigambrian, adore that which thou hast burnt, and burn that which thou hast adored.’ First among the converted Teutonic kings Chlodovech was received into the Catholic Church, and did not become an Arian like his neighbours. In this we may, no doubt, trace the influence of his orthodox queen Chrotechildis. The conse- conversion quences of his conversion to the orthodox of chlofaith were most important; he was the only ** Teutonic king who adopted the faith of his Roman subjects, and was therefore served by them, and more especially by their clergy, with a loyalty which no Goth, Vandal, or Burgundian prince could ever win. Not least among the causes of Chlodovech's easy triumphs and of the permanence of his kingdom may be reckoned his adherence to Catholicism. It cannot be said that the king's conversion made any favourable change in his character or his conduct. He still remained the cruel, unscrupulous, treacherous tyrant that he had always been. It will be seen that his last recorded action was an elaborate incitement to parricide followed by a horrid murder. Yet he was granted a measure of success that was refused to kings of far better disposition and far stronger intellect, such as Theodoric the Ostrogoth, or Ataulf the Visigoth. After their king's conversion the Franks, both Salian and Ripuarian, hastened to follow him to the fold of the Church, and in a single generation the old Frankish paganism disappeared. But, as with king so with people, the change was almost entirely superficial ; it is long before we trace the influence of any Christian graces on the ungodly and perfidious race of the Franks. After subduing the Alamanni, Chlodovech's next war was with the people of his wife's uncle, Gundobad, the king of Burgundy. He made a secret agreement with Godegisl, Gundobad's younger brother, to invade and divide the Burgundian realm. While the treacherous brother raised war in Helvetia, where he possessed an appanage, the king of the Franks attacked Gundobad from the front, and invaded the valley of the Saône. It appeared as if here, as well as in the lands farther north, Chlodovech would sweep all before him. The Burgundian king was beaten and driven out of Dijon, Lyons, and Valence into Avignon, the southernmost fortress of his realm, while his brother was made king by the Frank, and became his vassal. But, in the next year, Gundobad recovered all he had lost, slew Godegisl at Vienne, and drove the Franks out of Burgundy with such success that Chlodovech ere long made peace with him (501). But the next campaign of the Frankish king was one of far greater importance and success. He was set on trying his fortune against the young king of the Visigoths, whose personal weakness and unpopularity with his Roman subjects tempted him to an invasion of Aquitaine. It would seem that Chlodovech carefully chose as a casus belli the Arian persecutions of Alaric, who, like his father Euric, was a bad chlodovech master to his Catholic subjects. A first quarrel Xo, in 504 was composed by the great Theodoric, 507. who, as father-in-law of the Visigoth and brotherin-law of the Frank, could appeal with authority to each of the rivals. But in 507 Chlodovech declared war on the Visigoths. ‘I cannot bear,’ he said, ‘that those Arians should hold any part of Gaul. With God's aid we will go against them, and subdue their land beneath our sway.” Knowing the strength of the Visigothic realm, Chlodovech allied to himself for the struggle his old enemy Gundobad the Burgundian, and Sigebert of Köln, the last surviving Ripuarian king. Advancing from Paris Chlodovech crossed the Loire, and met the Visigoths and their king on the Campus Vocladensis, the plain of Vouglé, near Poictiers. Whether from cowardice, or from distrust of his own generalship, Alaric held back from fighting, but his army forced him to give battle. He attacked	<urn:uuid:8d40f29b-f511-47ec-9671-f95bc9e39fef>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://books.google.am/books?id=N6A-AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA62&focus=viewport&vq=Visigothic&dq=editions:HARVARD32044087964383&hl=hy&output=text	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00374.warc.gz	en	0.983861	2,519	3.265625	3	[ -0.4282527565956116, 0.27830827236175537, 0.1693611741065979, -0.07044344395399094, -0.45895132422447205, 0.0035957267973572016, 0.24299271404743195, 0.2900761365890503, -0.0011713444255292416, -0.22274917364120483, -0.18128137290477753, -0.6684006452560425, 0.3350624740123749, 0.161320090...	4	« ՆախորդըՇարունակել » In the third quarter of the fifth century the most important of the Frankish chiefs of the Merovingian line was a prince of the Salians, named Childerich, who dwelt at Tournay, and ruled in the valley of the upper Scheldt. He died in 481, leaving his throne to his sixteen-year-old son and heir, a prince named Chlodovech or Chlodwig, who was destined to found the great Frankish kingdom, by extinguishing the other Frankish principalities, and conquering southern and central Gaul. Such an event seemed most unlikely at the time of Chlodovech's accession, when the dominant power in the land was that of the fierce and able king Euric the Visigoth. It was Euric who had brought the Visigothic kingdom up to its largest extent, by driving the Sueves into a corner of Spain, conquering the last Roman provinces in central Gaul, and receiving Provence from the hands of Odoacer, king of Italy. He was the first Visigothic king to publish a code of laws, and would have left a good name in history but for his assassination of his brother Theodoric, and his persecutions of the Catholics.' Though not such an oppressor as the Vandals Gaiseric and Hunneric, he had made himself hated by refusing to allow the election of Catholic bishops, and by closing or handing over to his favourites, the Arians, many of the churches of the orthodox. Euric died in 485, just as Chlodovech was about to commence his conquering career in northern Gaul, a career which the Visigoth would probably have checked if a longer life had been granted him. He was succeeded by his son Alaric, a boy of only sixteen or seventeen years. It was in the very year of Euric's death that Chlodovech, now aged twenty-one, set out on the first of his warlike expeditions. In company with his kinsman Ragnachar, king of Cambrai, he invaded the realm of the Roman patrician Syagrius. The Gaulish troops were unable to resist the onset of the Franks, and their leader, after a short struggle, abandoned his home, and fled for safety to the court of Alaric the Visigoth. The councillors of Alaric, either wishing to gratify their Teutonic neighbours, or fearing the event of a war while their king was yet so young, threw the patrician into bonds, chlodovech and sent him back to Chlodovech, who promptly jo, put him to death. The Seine valley and the 486. great towns of Soissons, Paris, Rouen, and Rheims now fell into the hands of the Frankish king, and, in the course of the next three years, he extended his power up to the Loire and boundary of Armorica, where the Romano-Celts of the extreme west still succeeded in holding out. Chlodovech took all the spoils for himself, none fell to his neighbours, the other kings of the Salian Franks. It was these princes who were next to feel the force of his arm. He picked quarrels with his kinsmen the kings of Cambrai and Térouanne, the one for not helping him against Syagrius, the other for claiming part of the spoil of the Roman, and slew them both, the one by treachery, the other in open battle. The remaining Merovingian princes of the Belgic plains soon shared their fate; then Chlodovech pressed eastward against the Ripuarian Franks, and conquered the Thoringi, their chief tribe, in the year 491 In a short time he had won all the Frankish kingdoms save that of his ally Sigebert the Lame, king of Köln. He remorselessly slew every prince of Meroving blood who fell into his hands, and did his best to exterminate all the rival lines. When he could find no more to kill, he is said to have made open lamentation that he was left alone in the world, and that the royal house of the Franks was threatened with extinction ; he then bade any kinsman who might yet survive come to him without fear. But it was cruelty, not remorse, that moved him, for his only object was to catch and slay any Meroving who might yet survive. His conquests in Ripuaria brought Chlodovech into touch with new neighbours, the Burgundians to the south, and the confederacy of the Alamanni to the east, along the Main and Neckar. With the first named he entered into friendly relations, and married Chrotechildis (Clotilde), niece of King Gundobad, in 492. The princess, unlike her uncle and most of her tribe, was a devout Catholic, and much was destined to chiedeyeen's follow from her alliance with the pagan Frank. wars with the With the Alamanni the relations of Chlodovech * were from the first hostile; in fact, when he brought his frontier up to the middle Rhine, he was constrained to take up an already existing feud between the Ripuarians and their eastern neighbours. For several years he was engaged in a struggle with this confederacy, who held the east bank of the Rhine from Coblenz upwards, the valleys of the Main and Neckar, and all the Black Forest. At last, in 496, he got the better of them in a decisive battle—apparently near Strasburg—and forced the main body of the confederacy to do him homage and acknowledge him as over-lord... An obstinate remnant retired over the Rhine, and took refuge in Rhaetia under the protection of the great Theodoric, but all the rest became Frankish vassals. As a result of this war the Alamanni were driven southward out of the Main valley, which was seized and settled by Ripuarian settlers, and became a Frankish country under the name of East Francia, or Franconia. A suggestive legend and an important fact are connected with these campaigns of Chlodovech against the Alamanni. The ecclesiastic writers of the next century state that, in his decisive battle with the confederates, Chlodovech was driven back and almost routed. Then, recalling the words of his wife Chrotechildis, “who never ceased to persuade him that he should serve the true God,” that the Lord was the Lord of Hosts and the arbiter of battles, he cried aloud, “O Christ Jesu, I crave as a suppliant Thy glorious aid; and if Thou grantest me victory over these enemies I will believe in Thee, and be baptized in Thy name.’ At once the Alamanni began to give back, and the king obtained a complete triumph. Whether this was the manner of his conversion or not, it is at any rate certain that Chlodovech, on returning from his Alamannic campaign, had himself baptized at Rheims on Christmas Day, 496. His sister and 3ooo of his warriors followed him to the font. Every reader of history knows the famous tale how Archbishop Remigius hailed the king with the words, “Bow thy neck Sigambrian, adore that which thou hast burnt, and burn that which thou hast adored.’ First among the converted Teutonic kings Chlodovech was received into the Catholic Church, and did not become an Arian like his neighbours. In this we may, no doubt, trace the influence of his orthodox queen Chrotechildis. The conse- conversion quences of his conversion to the orthodox of chlofaith were most important; he was the only ** Teutonic king who adopted the faith of his Roman subjects, and was therefore served by them, and more especially by their clergy, with a loyalty which no Goth, Vandal, or Burgundian prince could ever win. Not least among the causes of Chlodovech's easy triumphs and of the permanence of his kingdom may be reckoned his adherence to Catholicism. It cannot be said that the king's conversion made any favourable change in his character or his conduct. He still remained the cruel, unscrupulous, treacherous tyrant that he had always been. It will be seen that his last recorded action was an elaborate incitement to parricide followed by a horrid murder. Yet he was granted a measure of success that was refused to kings of far better disposition and far stronger intellect, such as Theodoric the Ostrogoth, or Ataulf the Visigoth. After their king's conversion the Franks, both Salian and Ripuarian, hastened to follow him to the fold of the Church, and in a single generation the old Frankish paganism disappeared. But, as with king so with people, the change was almost entirely superficial ; it is long before we trace the influence of any Christian graces on the ungodly and perfidious race of the Franks. After subduing the Alamanni, Chlodovech's next war was with the people of his wife's uncle, Gundobad, the king of Burgundy. He made a secret agreement with Godegisl, Gundobad's younger brother, to invade and divide the Burgundian realm. While the treacherous brother raised war in Helvetia, where he possessed an appanage, the king of the Franks attacked Gundobad from the front, and invaded the valley of the Saône. It appeared as if here, as well as in the lands farther north, Chlodovech would sweep all before him. The Burgundian king was beaten and driven out of Dijon, Lyons, and Valence into Avignon, the southernmost fortress of his realm, while his brother was made king by the Frank, and became his vassal. But, in the next year, Gundobad recovered all he had lost, slew Godegisl at Vienne, and drove the Franks out of Burgundy with such success that Chlodovech ere long made peace with him (501). But the next campaign of the Frankish king was one of far greater importance and success. He was set on trying his fortune against the young king of the Visigoths, whose personal weakness and unpopularity with his Roman subjects tempted him to an invasion of Aquitaine. It would seem that Chlodovech carefully chose as a casus belli the Arian persecutions of Alaric, who, like his father Euric, was a bad chlodovech master to his Catholic subjects. A first quarrel Xo, in 504 was composed by the great Theodoric, 507. who, as father-in-law of the Visigoth and brotherin-law of the Frank, could appeal with authority to each of the rivals. But in 507 Chlodovech declared war on the Visigoths. ‘I cannot bear,’ he said, ‘that those Arians should hold any part of Gaul. With God's aid we will go against them, and subdue their land beneath our sway.” Knowing the strength of the Visigothic realm, Chlodovech allied to himself for the struggle his old enemy Gundobad the Burgundian, and Sigebert of Köln, the last surviving Ripuarian king. Advancing from Paris Chlodovech crossed the Loire, and met the Visigoths and their king on the Campus Vocladensis, the plain of Vouglé, near Poictiers. Whether from cowardice, or from distrust of his own generalship, Alaric held back from fighting, but his army forced him to give battle. He attacked	2,490	ENGLISH	1
Explain the underlying and immediate causes of the Great Depression. The causes of the Great Depression are all important and mostly interrelated. The distribution of wealth was far outbalanced as much more money was acquired by the rich. Oversupply and the inability of consumers to buy products caused several more problems. The declining demand was receding long before 1929. The coal, railroad, and textile industries were all losing money. Major industries’: such as automobiles, construction, and mechanized agriculture, consumption levels stayed the same. However, when the demand began to level, the supply surpassed demand. Many unsold products were stored and many workers were laid off. Wages soon decreased and so did the purchasing power of the employed. People borrowed money from many sources. When the stock market crashed, the loans were expected to be paid back. Many withdrew their savings to payback the loans. This caused several banks to collapse. Upper classes grew richer and middle and lower class’s income did not increase. International economic problems also influenced or were influenced by the depression. American imports and exports declined. Foreigners’ money flow to buy American products decreased because they did not receive money from selling their goods to us and they profited less by selling their goods here because of tariffs. Europeans withdrew their investments in the United States to cope with their economic problems. The Great Depression will always be reminder to the public and the government of what can happen to the economy. It was a great time of change and development for our country. It influenced how our society works, saves, and spends to this very day.	<urn:uuid:754d40d5-710f-46d7-a7f4-0098d4685cb9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://pennsylvaniaangerclass.com/great-depression/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00328.warc.gz	en	0.985417	327	3.6875	4	[ -0.07375330477952957, 0.3101010024547577, 0.1454010009765625, 0.18924841284751892, 0.1272846758365631, -0.062162481248378754, 0.00817420706152916, 0.15290918946266174, -0.3272668123245239, -0.11100350320339203, 0.4080670475959778, 0.20908550918102264, 0.16891586780548096, 0.336785554885864...	4	Explain the underlying and immediate causes of the Great Depression. The causes of the Great Depression are all important and mostly interrelated. The distribution of wealth was far outbalanced as much more money was acquired by the rich. Oversupply and the inability of consumers to buy products caused several more problems. The declining demand was receding long before 1929. The coal, railroad, and textile industries were all losing money. Major industries’: such as automobiles, construction, and mechanized agriculture, consumption levels stayed the same. However, when the demand began to level, the supply surpassed demand. Many unsold products were stored and many workers were laid off. Wages soon decreased and so did the purchasing power of the employed. People borrowed money from many sources. When the stock market crashed, the loans were expected to be paid back. Many withdrew their savings to payback the loans. This caused several banks to collapse. Upper classes grew richer and middle and lower class’s income did not increase. International economic problems also influenced or were influenced by the depression. American imports and exports declined. Foreigners’ money flow to buy American products decreased because they did not receive money from selling their goods to us and they profited less by selling their goods here because of tariffs. Europeans withdrew their investments in the United States to cope with their economic problems. The Great Depression will always be reminder to the public and the government of what can happen to the economy. It was a great time of change and development for our country. It influenced how our society works, saves, and spends to this very day.	320	ENGLISH	1
Archaeologists during a survey of the Baradla Cave in northeastern Hungary discovered a large number of precious bronze age artifacts and ancient human remains. The discovery is reported by Index. It was made in the cave of Baradla, famous for its treasures. Over the past 150 years, many artifacts, including gold items, have been found in it. This time, a group of archaeologists as a result of four years of excavation discovered bronze artifacts, ceramics, as well as bones of humans and animals of two periods: the Bukk culture (about 5000 BC) and the Kizhatice culture (about 1200 BC) Artifacts of Bukk culture are fragments of ceramics, brightly decorated with geometric patterns. They are abstract, and their patterns are significantly different from the ceramics that other local peoples traditionally made. Perhaps the representatives of the Bukk culture were great travelers. 59 bronze items were also found, including a large number of discs. They were found near an underground stream under a pile of stones. By the way they were folded, archaeologists have determined that in ancient times someone carefully wrapped them in cloth and then hid them under stones. Bones of animals found nearby indicate a ritual feast or sacrifice that took place in the cave of Baradla. The human remains discovered there belong to the Neolithic era. Apparently, Baradla Cave thousands of years ago was considered a sacred place. “Nowadays, the walls of the cave are covered with black soot, but then they were light, and it must have looked very beautiful,” says the project’s lead archaeologist Dr. Gabor Szabo. “Even today, breathing in the air of the Baradla cave, you feel that this is a mystical place “	<urn:uuid:fea05378-7e01-453a-b9a9-6e85120b4dd7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://earth-chronicles.com/science/prehistoric-treasures-found-in-a-hungarian-cave.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00441.warc.gz	en	0.981486	366	3.375	3	[ -0.09952747821807861, 0.5242732763290405, 0.5498648881912231, 0.07108290493488312, -0.03389254957437515, -0.11874017119407654, 0.04967733845114708, -0.043961819261312485, -0.05901291221380234, -0.19729380309581757, 0.021442409604787827, -0.6746629476547241, 0.023222727701067924, 0.57996827...	3	Archaeologists during a survey of the Baradla Cave in northeastern Hungary discovered a large number of precious bronze age artifacts and ancient human remains. The discovery is reported by Index. It was made in the cave of Baradla, famous for its treasures. Over the past 150 years, many artifacts, including gold items, have been found in it. This time, a group of archaeologists as a result of four years of excavation discovered bronze artifacts, ceramics, as well as bones of humans and animals of two periods: the Bukk culture (about 5000 BC) and the Kizhatice culture (about 1200 BC) Artifacts of Bukk culture are fragments of ceramics, brightly decorated with geometric patterns. They are abstract, and their patterns are significantly different from the ceramics that other local peoples traditionally made. Perhaps the representatives of the Bukk culture were great travelers. 59 bronze items were also found, including a large number of discs. They were found near an underground stream under a pile of stones. By the way they were folded, archaeologists have determined that in ancient times someone carefully wrapped them in cloth and then hid them under stones. Bones of animals found nearby indicate a ritual feast or sacrifice that took place in the cave of Baradla. The human remains discovered there belong to the Neolithic era. Apparently, Baradla Cave thousands of years ago was considered a sacred place. “Nowadays, the walls of the cave are covered with black soot, but then they were light, and it must have looked very beautiful,” says the project’s lead archaeologist Dr. Gabor Szabo. “Even today, breathing in the air of the Baradla cave, you feel that this is a mystical place “	361	ENGLISH	1
The Aeneid Through The Song of Roland The Song of Roland tells us that Rolands pride led basically to the massacre of his men, who made up the rear of Charlemagnes great Frank contingent going home after a campaign in Spain. True, it was his Ganelon who compromised Rolands position to the Muslims out of an impulse for revenge and a history of strife with his stepson, but in the midst of the fight Roland had the choice to call for help by blowing his horn. Against the sensible advice of his close associate Oliver, he stuck it on his own, not thinking that by doing so he was essentially compromising not just the lives of his men but also his own life. It was a vain impulse to stand ones ground in essence, and to think oneself capable of subduing an army that was greater than his own. It was heroic but futile and in a way stupid. In the end he did end up calling for reinforcement, but not after the damage had been done, with their contingent being totally decimated and incapable of turning back the Muslim combatants. One cannot distinguish where the heroism started and the foolishness ended, because while it was true that he volunteered to lead the contingent making up the rear of the Frankish army, an act that was brave and responsible, nevertheless he proceeded to lead his men to certain death when he failed to call for help while there was still time and while they were still alive in substantial numbers (O’Hagan). One can also see that Rolands heroism in a way is a blind heroism because it fails to take into account the inputs of those around the hero. In this case the wise words of Oliver fell on deaf ears, and those deaf ears in turn proved deadly for a contingent who lived and died on the wisdom of the leader and the leaders judgments. On hindsight it seems arrogant for Roland to want to face the enemy alone, when the more prudent thing to do was to call for help even before one person in his care got killed. While there is nothing in the poem to suggest that Roland was filled with a kind of personal hubris that maybe wanted to get the glory for turning back the Muslims on his own, the ways of the human heart are hard to fathom. The whole situation is tragic and reflects the failings of the heroic mind. One can also say in retrospect that just volunteering to lead the most vulnerable part of the great army, the rear, was heroic enough. To push that attitude to its extreme is no longer heroic, one can argue, but foolish. Even the last act of Roland to blow the horn when all was lost can be construed as a move that is full of ego, notwithstanding the heroism that it also implied. It was heroic in that Roland only called for help when he could no longer stay standing and the entire contingent had been decimated. His version of heroism seemed to consist of staking his own life and digging in in the midst of the Muslim ambush, rather than involving the rest of the Frankish army and calling attention to himself (O’Hagan). One can say that this tragic heroism reflects the culture out of which the piece comes into being. Charlemagnes reign was characterized by the Crusades and the conflict with the Muslims, and here the emphasis seemed to be in high moral ideals, which Roland seemed to embody in a very large and bold way. He was a hero and one whose intentions and impulses were noble and true. He was extremely loyal to Charlemagne and was extremely antagonistic to the enemy, the Muslims. In this stance he was willing to stand guard and to sacrifice his life if that was what was needed. These high ideals of courage and heroism was something that was looked up to and immortalized in the poem. At the same time, the culture had a heavy emphasis on religious themes and the way human tragedy insists itself into the course of some of the most important events of the time. The simple narration too reflects a black and white, good versus evil conception of the universe, reflecting the spirit of the time, with the Franks and Roland on the side of the good and just, and The Muslims on the side of the enemy (O’Hagan). O’Hagan, John. “The Song of Roland (Translation)”. Fordham University Internet History Sourcebooks/ Harvard Classics No. XLIX. 1910. Web. 12 March 2014.	<urn:uuid:0d63c6ad-dbb5-4fa0-b5f6-d39a04b52164>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://summarystory.com/song-of-roland/the-aeneid-through-the-song-of-roland/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00086.warc.gz	en	0.982947	897	3.671875	4	[ -0.48720937967300415, 0.737909197807312, -0.15218885242938995, 0.45637965202331543, -0.33796679973602295, -0.003209874965250492, 0.5010868906974792, 0.31949853897094727, 0.29984307289123535, -0.41849058866500854, 0.17455315589904785, -0.07324980944395065, 0.43412327766418457, -0.0381953157...	10	The Aeneid Through The Song of Roland The Song of Roland tells us that Rolands pride led basically to the massacre of his men, who made up the rear of Charlemagnes great Frank contingent going home after a campaign in Spain. True, it was his Ganelon who compromised Rolands position to the Muslims out of an impulse for revenge and a history of strife with his stepson, but in the midst of the fight Roland had the choice to call for help by blowing his horn. Against the sensible advice of his close associate Oliver, he stuck it on his own, not thinking that by doing so he was essentially compromising not just the lives of his men but also his own life. It was a vain impulse to stand ones ground in essence, and to think oneself capable of subduing an army that was greater than his own. It was heroic but futile and in a way stupid. In the end he did end up calling for reinforcement, but not after the damage had been done, with their contingent being totally decimated and incapable of turning back the Muslim combatants. One cannot distinguish where the heroism started and the foolishness ended, because while it was true that he volunteered to lead the contingent making up the rear of the Frankish army, an act that was brave and responsible, nevertheless he proceeded to lead his men to certain death when he failed to call for help while there was still time and while they were still alive in substantial numbers (O’Hagan). One can also see that Rolands heroism in a way is a blind heroism because it fails to take into account the inputs of those around the hero. In this case the wise words of Oliver fell on deaf ears, and those deaf ears in turn proved deadly for a contingent who lived and died on the wisdom of the leader and the leaders judgments. On hindsight it seems arrogant for Roland to want to face the enemy alone, when the more prudent thing to do was to call for help even before one person in his care got killed. While there is nothing in the poem to suggest that Roland was filled with a kind of personal hubris that maybe wanted to get the glory for turning back the Muslims on his own, the ways of the human heart are hard to fathom. The whole situation is tragic and reflects the failings of the heroic mind. One can also say in retrospect that just volunteering to lead the most vulnerable part of the great army, the rear, was heroic enough. To push that attitude to its extreme is no longer heroic, one can argue, but foolish. Even the last act of Roland to blow the horn when all was lost can be construed as a move that is full of ego, notwithstanding the heroism that it also implied. It was heroic in that Roland only called for help when he could no longer stay standing and the entire contingent had been decimated. His version of heroism seemed to consist of staking his own life and digging in in the midst of the Muslim ambush, rather than involving the rest of the Frankish army and calling attention to himself (O’Hagan). One can say that this tragic heroism reflects the culture out of which the piece comes into being. Charlemagnes reign was characterized by the Crusades and the conflict with the Muslims, and here the emphasis seemed to be in high moral ideals, which Roland seemed to embody in a very large and bold way. He was a hero and one whose intentions and impulses were noble and true. He was extremely loyal to Charlemagne and was extremely antagonistic to the enemy, the Muslims. In this stance he was willing to stand guard and to sacrifice his life if that was what was needed. These high ideals of courage and heroism was something that was looked up to and immortalized in the poem. At the same time, the culture had a heavy emphasis on religious themes and the way human tragedy insists itself into the course of some of the most important events of the time. The simple narration too reflects a black and white, good versus evil conception of the universe, reflecting the spirit of the time, with the Franks and Roland on the side of the good and just, and The Muslims on the side of the enemy (O’Hagan). O’Hagan, John. “The Song of Roland (Translation)”. Fordham University Internet History Sourcebooks/ Harvard Classics No. XLIX. 1910. Web. 12 March 2014.	905	ENGLISH	1
James Clark Ross James Clark Ross (15 April 1800 – 3 April 1862) was a British explorer of the Antarctic who, between 1839 and 1843, commanded an Antarctic expedition comprising the vessels HMS Erebus and HMS Terror; he charted much of the coastline of the continent. Ross was born in London, the nephew of Sir John Ross, under whom he entered the navy in 1812, accompanying him on Sir John's first Arctic voyage in search of a Northwest Passage in 1818. Between 1819 and 1827, Ross took part in four Arctic expeditions under Sir William Parry, and in 1829 to 1833, again served under his uncle on Sir John's second Arctic voyage. It was during this trip that a small party led by James Ross (including Thomas Abernethy) located the position of the North Magnetic Pole on 1 June 1831 on the Boothia Peninsula in the far north of Canada. It was on this trip, too, that Ross charted the Beaufort Islands, later renamed Clarence Islands by his uncle. Between 1839 and 1843, Ross commanded HMS Erebus on his own Antarctic expedition and charted much of the continent's coastline. Captain Francis Crozier was second-in-command of the expedition, commanding HMS Terror. Support for the expedition had been arranged by Francis Beaufort, hydrographer of the Navy and a member of several scientific societies. On the expedition was Joseph Dalton Hooker, who had been invited along as assistant ship's surgeon. Erebus and Terror were bomb vessels—an unusual type of warship named after the mortar bombs they were designed to fire and constructed with extremely strong hulls, to withstand the recoil of the mortars, which were to prove of great value in thick ice. In 1841, James Ross discovered the Ross Sea, Victoria Land, and the volcanoes Mount Erebus and Mount Terror, which were named for the expedition's vessels. They sailed for 250 nautical miles (460 km) along the edge of the low, flat-topped ice shelf they called variously the Barrier or the Great Ice Barrier, later named the Ross Ice Shelf in his honor. The following year, he attempted to penetrate south at about 55° W, and explored the eastern side of what is now known as James Ross Island, discovering and naming Snow Hill Island and Seymour Island. Ross reported that Admiralty Sound (which he named Admiralty Inlet) appeared to him to have been blocked by glaciers at its southern end. Ross's ships arrived back in England on 4 September 1843. He was awarded the Grande Médaille d'Or des Explorations in 1843, knighted in 1844, and elected to the Royal Society in 1848. He was married to Lady Ann Coulman. He died at Aylesbury in 1862, five years after his wife. A blue plaque marks Ross's home in Eliot Place, Blackheath, London. His closest friend was Francis Crozier, with whom he sailed many times. He also lived in the ancient House of the Abbots of St. Albans in Buckinghamshire. He is buried with his wife in the local churchyard of St. James the Great, Aston Abbotts. In the gardens of the Abbey there is a lake with two islands, named after the ships Terror and Erebus.	<urn:uuid:630f70c6-0ce7-4733-835b-58418a3a11ec>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.westarctica.wiki/index.php/James_Clark_Ross	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00488.warc.gz	en	0.983496	688	3.671875	4	[ -0.3716953992843628, -0.07342052459716797, 0.6979902982711792, -0.6591372489929199, -0.18137818574905396, -0.3411385416984558, 0.1549110859632492, 0.16278141736984253, -0.3858904540538788, -0.09503577649593353, 0.4183644950389862, -0.6990655660629272, 0.30922645330429077, 0.135620653629302...	2	James Clark Ross James Clark Ross (15 April 1800 – 3 April 1862) was a British explorer of the Antarctic who, between 1839 and 1843, commanded an Antarctic expedition comprising the vessels HMS Erebus and HMS Terror; he charted much of the coastline of the continent. Ross was born in London, the nephew of Sir John Ross, under whom he entered the navy in 1812, accompanying him on Sir John's first Arctic voyage in search of a Northwest Passage in 1818. Between 1819 and 1827, Ross took part in four Arctic expeditions under Sir William Parry, and in 1829 to 1833, again served under his uncle on Sir John's second Arctic voyage. It was during this trip that a small party led by James Ross (including Thomas Abernethy) located the position of the North Magnetic Pole on 1 June 1831 on the Boothia Peninsula in the far north of Canada. It was on this trip, too, that Ross charted the Beaufort Islands, later renamed Clarence Islands by his uncle. Between 1839 and 1843, Ross commanded HMS Erebus on his own Antarctic expedition and charted much of the continent's coastline. Captain Francis Crozier was second-in-command of the expedition, commanding HMS Terror. Support for the expedition had been arranged by Francis Beaufort, hydrographer of the Navy and a member of several scientific societies. On the expedition was Joseph Dalton Hooker, who had been invited along as assistant ship's surgeon. Erebus and Terror were bomb vessels—an unusual type of warship named after the mortar bombs they were designed to fire and constructed with extremely strong hulls, to withstand the recoil of the mortars, which were to prove of great value in thick ice. In 1841, James Ross discovered the Ross Sea, Victoria Land, and the volcanoes Mount Erebus and Mount Terror, which were named for the expedition's vessels. They sailed for 250 nautical miles (460 km) along the edge of the low, flat-topped ice shelf they called variously the Barrier or the Great Ice Barrier, later named the Ross Ice Shelf in his honor. The following year, he attempted to penetrate south at about 55° W, and explored the eastern side of what is now known as James Ross Island, discovering and naming Snow Hill Island and Seymour Island. Ross reported that Admiralty Sound (which he named Admiralty Inlet) appeared to him to have been blocked by glaciers at its southern end. Ross's ships arrived back in England on 4 September 1843. He was awarded the Grande Médaille d'Or des Explorations in 1843, knighted in 1844, and elected to the Royal Society in 1848. He was married to Lady Ann Coulman. He died at Aylesbury in 1862, five years after his wife. A blue plaque marks Ross's home in Eliot Place, Blackheath, London. His closest friend was Francis Crozier, with whom he sailed many times. He also lived in the ancient House of the Abbots of St. Albans in Buckinghamshire. He is buried with his wife in the local churchyard of St. James the Great, Aston Abbotts. In the gardens of the Abbey there is a lake with two islands, named after the ships Terror and Erebus.	742	ENGLISH	1
Discrimination and segregation started during the early 1700’s when European settlements were happening. The South African Union was now being formed by british colonies. When the colonies took over the Union the discrimination and segregation became worse than it already was. Many black Africans wanted to assert their rights at the same when the British colonies were segregating. It became very hard to let their voices be heard. In the early 1600’s and over the years Nelson Mandela became an important figure in history for trying to end discrimination and segregation in South Africa. Nelson Mandela was born of tribal royalty. Mandela went to school at the university of Fort Hare for South Africans. He became a political activist and organized student protests. In 1940 he was expelled for participating in student strikes. He moved to Johannesburg and started studying law. Mandela then encountered the ANC. The ANC was formed by 7 young activists and they created an organization. This organization became known as the African National Congress. In 1952 the Pass Laws Act was formed. Segregation guaranteed white dominance and it deliberately created unequal facilities for jobs, education, and housing for the Africans. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Nelson Mandela: Inspirational Activist" essay for you Treatment worsened for the Africans after apartheid was legalized. The ANC drafted a freedom chart that declared human and civil rights. In December 1956 Mandela was a arrested for treason along with 155 other people. After the trial ended Mandela worked to organize a national strike in 1961. He traveled to other African Nations to gain support for the ANC. On the way back from his travels he was arrested at a police checkpoint. He was charged for leaving the country without a passport and for having workers from different areas to strike. He was sentenced to 5 years in prison. During his imprisonment he was also charged with sabotage. They raided the MK headquarters and found documents that Mandela said he had. He then was sentenced to life in prison on june 11,1964. Mandela went to prison on Robben island where he would spend most of his sentence. The prison was known for their harsh conditions and cruel treatments. The guards would yell racial slurs and beat the prisoners. Mandela was only allowed to have one visitor and send one letter every 6 months. While in prison Mandela stood openly opposed to racism. He fought for better treatment for the prisoners. He was finally elected as the voice for prisoners. After his voice was heard the prisoners got better treatment. They received better food and they were able to play different games. International and national media forgot about Mandela for awhile. Over a period of time anti apartheid gained international attention. Many anti apartheid activists, including Mandela were in prison, many black africans were exiled. Did you like this example? Having doubts about how to write your paper correctly? Our editors will help you fix any mistakes and get an A+!	<urn:uuid:1799de85-1e47-4248-b948-27a8b87886aa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studydriver.com/nelson-mandela-inspirational-activist/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00154.warc.gz	en	0.988752	589	4.1875	4	[ -0.3956769108772278, 0.4495110511779785, -0.1576557159423828, -0.10208697617053986, -0.31949907541275024, 0.29906541109085083, 0.2584648132324219, -0.4001748561859131, 0.09993860870599747, 0.42275822162628174, 0.4411678910255432, -0.3222756087779999, 0.09972111880779266, 0.2904003560543060...	1	Discrimination and segregation started during the early 1700’s when European settlements were happening. The South African Union was now being formed by british colonies. When the colonies took over the Union the discrimination and segregation became worse than it already was. Many black Africans wanted to assert their rights at the same when the British colonies were segregating. It became very hard to let their voices be heard. In the early 1600’s and over the years Nelson Mandela became an important figure in history for trying to end discrimination and segregation in South Africa. Nelson Mandela was born of tribal royalty. Mandela went to school at the university of Fort Hare for South Africans. He became a political activist and organized student protests. In 1940 he was expelled for participating in student strikes. He moved to Johannesburg and started studying law. Mandela then encountered the ANC. The ANC was formed by 7 young activists and they created an organization. This organization became known as the African National Congress. In 1952 the Pass Laws Act was formed. Segregation guaranteed white dominance and it deliberately created unequal facilities for jobs, education, and housing for the Africans. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Nelson Mandela: Inspirational Activist" essay for you Treatment worsened for the Africans after apartheid was legalized. The ANC drafted a freedom chart that declared human and civil rights. In December 1956 Mandela was a arrested for treason along with 155 other people. After the trial ended Mandela worked to organize a national strike in 1961. He traveled to other African Nations to gain support for the ANC. On the way back from his travels he was arrested at a police checkpoint. He was charged for leaving the country without a passport and for having workers from different areas to strike. He was sentenced to 5 years in prison. During his imprisonment he was also charged with sabotage. They raided the MK headquarters and found documents that Mandela said he had. He then was sentenced to life in prison on june 11,1964. Mandela went to prison on Robben island where he would spend most of his sentence. The prison was known for their harsh conditions and cruel treatments. The guards would yell racial slurs and beat the prisoners. Mandela was only allowed to have one visitor and send one letter every 6 months. While in prison Mandela stood openly opposed to racism. He fought for better treatment for the prisoners. He was finally elected as the voice for prisoners. After his voice was heard the prisoners got better treatment. They received better food and they were able to play different games. International and national media forgot about Mandela for awhile. Over a period of time anti apartheid gained international attention. Many anti apartheid activists, including Mandela were in prison, many black africans were exiled. Did you like this example? Having doubts about how to write your paper correctly? Our editors will help you fix any mistakes and get an A+!	611	ENGLISH	1
While technology has advanced greatly in the last 20 years, we still do not have time machines. There are many things that were conceived by science fiction writers, that actually came true. Arthur C. Clarke is best known for his book, “2001 A Space Odyssey.” However, the idea for satellites for communication was proposed by Mr. Clarke in a series of papers he wrote in 1945. The idea of playing with time and being able to travel backwards, was first written about in 1733 in a fiction work by author Samuel Madden. There are many reasons why time travel is so appealing. The ultimate reason, is to correct the mistakes that were made in life. While time travel is not available to us at this point, time management is something everyone can do. Before we get into managing time, let’s clarify exactly what it is. To be realistic… There is no way to alter time. We can fool ourselves by turning back our clock, but time keeps marching forward. Therefore… in reality we cannot manage time, we have to manage what we do with it and that comes by managing ourselves. In this course, we will discuss 21 valuable ways to manage yourself and make time work for you.	<urn:uuid:9cc1d0db-fada-4d7c-a836-94f943e4b762>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://davidsamuel.com.au/shop/business-development/business-courses/time-management-hacks/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00482.warc.gz	en	0.984994	252	3.46875	3	[ -0.3851034641265869, 0.08784180879592896, 0.2506711781024933, -0.1613771617412567, -0.30079489946365356, -0.09363333135843277, -0.05433649569749832, 0.23148339986801147, 0.04123608395457268, -0.15505635738372803, 0.20843049883842468, 0.09777268767356873, -0.13434521853923798, 0.22504039108...	3	While technology has advanced greatly in the last 20 years, we still do not have time machines. There are many things that were conceived by science fiction writers, that actually came true. Arthur C. Clarke is best known for his book, “2001 A Space Odyssey.” However, the idea for satellites for communication was proposed by Mr. Clarke in a series of papers he wrote in 1945. The idea of playing with time and being able to travel backwards, was first written about in 1733 in a fiction work by author Samuel Madden. There are many reasons why time travel is so appealing. The ultimate reason, is to correct the mistakes that were made in life. While time travel is not available to us at this point, time management is something everyone can do. Before we get into managing time, let’s clarify exactly what it is. To be realistic… There is no way to alter time. We can fool ourselves by turning back our clock, but time keeps marching forward. Therefore… in reality we cannot manage time, we have to manage what we do with it and that comes by managing ourselves. In this course, we will discuss 21 valuable ways to manage yourself and make time work for you.	254	ENGLISH	1
- Join over 1.2 million students every month - Accelerate your learning by 29% - Unlimited access from just £6.99 per month GCSE: Vietnam 1954-1975 Meet our team of inspirational teachers - Marked by Teachers essays 2 forces, all of which will be dealt with in this essay. In the mid-1800s, Vietnam was colonized by French forces, which imposed dramatic political and cultural changes on to the country. And though they helped boost the country's economy, fuelled by exports, the French government often ignore calls for self-government and to improve human rights in Vietnam. The French continued their control of Vietnam, until shortly after World War 2, when Japanese forces invaded the country; using the natural resources in Vietnam to continue their wars against British forces in the colonies of Burma, Malay and India. - Word count: 2132 The attempt to halt the flow of communism that was spreading across the globe. This was America's Cold War aim and Vietnam was simply an extension of that aim. This is useful because it shows the public continuation of an existing policy. Containment was used as justification for going to war. Vietnam could have been any other country and America may have taken exactly the same steps to stop them becoming communist. This was all to maintain the US image. - Word count: 2151 This didn't go down well with the Vietnamese, who now saw the returning French soldiers as a threat to their much-celebrated republic, which had been declared by Ho Chi Minh in September 1945. In October 1945, British troops landed in southern Vietnam and established a provisional administration, liberating French captives from the Japanese imprisonment during the war - this then returned the authority of the area to the French. After establishing negotiations with the PRC (which later became Communist on October 1, 1949 under Mao) - Word count: 2683 How was the opposition to the Vietnam war protrayed in contemporary literature, film and popular song? This he who they referred to is a priest a Chaplin, giving them their last rites as the soldiers take their first steps into war. They are obviously frightened and for some, this is their first time going into war and leaving their loved ones behind. I can tell that the Chaplin in some way shape or form has experienced war for it says in the song "He smiles at the young soldiers, tells them it's all right. He knows of their fear in the forthcoming fight" I think that this part of the song it is talking about a speech which the Chaplin is making to try to inspire the young soldiers. - Word count: 2179 As such, the source clearly disagrees with the theory presented to us in Source M, instead attributing North Vietnamese victory to superior military tactics and experience. The next source, Source E, has become an infamous representation of the conflict in Vietnam. It depicts Phan Thi Kim Phuc, a Vietnamese girl aged about nine at the time, and another child burnt badly by napalm as they run away from their village home of Trang Bang screaming in pain. Behind her is a congregation of American military personnel walking down the same path and making no effort whatsoever to assist the two children. - Word count: 2327 The citizens of America, especially the rich, did not want communism at all. Henceforth, America and the Soviet Union went to war. However, the two countries did not physically fight each other, because they new they were equally powerful, and therefore undefeatable. Instead they started the 'Cold War'. It was more of a competition between the two countries, Russia was trying to get as many countries communist as it could, and America was trying to stop it from doing this. However, in 1949 the USA received a major blow. China had now also become communist. - Word count: 2007 Therefore the United States set up their own government in Vietnam, led bye Ngo Dinh Diem. Diem's regime was very corrupt and his anti-Buddhist views were hated by most of the peasants who were themselves Buddhist. This led to the Viet Cong being created, built for the liberation of South Vietnam. The violence towards the government set up by the United States led Kennedy to send in military 'advisers' which otherwise meant soldiers. President Kennedy was later assassinated in 1963, and his replacement Lyndon Johnson was much more eager to commit the United States to a full-blown war. - Word count: 2468 The French were allowed to maintain their presence in South Vietnam. There was due to be elections, yet Ngo Dinh Diem refused to hold them in case he lost his place. He claimed the north would never hold elections. The US supported him, even thought it was a breach of the Geneva peace agreement of which the American had promised to support. At the 1954 French Diem Bien Phu battle, the French asked the US for help with naval and air power. - Word count: 2099 What different tactics were used by both sides in an attempt to win the conflict in Vietnam between 1965-1968? This was the start of civil war between Vietnam and America. Now I will discuss the tactics used by the Vietcong beginning with Guerrilla Warfare. The Vietcong began using Guerrilla Warfare when they realised they could never directly confront the American soldiers as their weapons were not sophisticated or advanced enough to come up against the Americans. They also began using Guerrilla Warfare because it was something that the battle-hardened Vietcong were good at, as they had been fighting since the Japanese occupation of Vietnam during World War 2. - Word count: 2250 The Americans lost a lot of support in the war by standing by the South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinah Diem, who was a devoted catholic which caused a major problem with the public in south Vietnam as most of the population was Buddhist, more importantly though, he broke the Geneva agreement by fixing the elections in South Vietnam, and then shortly afterwards suppressed the peasants and made his close friends and family into power. Then there was Diems 'strategic hamlet' programme which was a complete failure due to the fact that the peasants involved were moved away from there homes - Word count: 2159 Hence on December 20th 1960 the NLF was formed in order to overthrow Diem and reunify the country. Between 1960 and 1965 the war was merely small scale conflict and very little large scale offensives. In the past the Vietminh had succeeded in using guerrilla warfare against the Japanese and French. Ho Chi Minh said: "When fighting in an enemy occupied area, we must use guerrilla tactics. We must absolutely not go in for large scale battles and big victories unless we are 100% sure of success." - Word count: 2013	<urn:uuid:0d315344-8650-48e0-ae02-2b6b74f9d4df>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.markedbyteachers.com/gcse/history/modern-world-history/vietnam-1954-1975/?essay_length=296	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00553.warc.gz	en	0.984183	1,390	3.640625	4	[ -0.36757001280784607, 0.13727980852127075, 0.0075622303411364555, -0.38639479875564575, 0.27944719791412354, 0.2555467188358307, -0.05616610869765282, 0.059846047312021255, 0.10287473350763321, -0.11201180517673492, 0.33421897888183594, -0.11319476366043091, 0.3791472911834717, 0.365696579...	3	- Join over 1.2 million students every month - Accelerate your learning by 29% - Unlimited access from just £6.99 per month GCSE: Vietnam 1954-1975 Meet our team of inspirational teachers - Marked by Teachers essays 2 forces, all of which will be dealt with in this essay. In the mid-1800s, Vietnam was colonized by French forces, which imposed dramatic political and cultural changes on to the country. And though they helped boost the country's economy, fuelled by exports, the French government often ignore calls for self-government and to improve human rights in Vietnam. The French continued their control of Vietnam, until shortly after World War 2, when Japanese forces invaded the country; using the natural resources in Vietnam to continue their wars against British forces in the colonies of Burma, Malay and India. - Word count: 2132 The attempt to halt the flow of communism that was spreading across the globe. This was America's Cold War aim and Vietnam was simply an extension of that aim. This is useful because it shows the public continuation of an existing policy. Containment was used as justification for going to war. Vietnam could have been any other country and America may have taken exactly the same steps to stop them becoming communist. This was all to maintain the US image. - Word count: 2151 This didn't go down well with the Vietnamese, who now saw the returning French soldiers as a threat to their much-celebrated republic, which had been declared by Ho Chi Minh in September 1945. In October 1945, British troops landed in southern Vietnam and established a provisional administration, liberating French captives from the Japanese imprisonment during the war - this then returned the authority of the area to the French. After establishing negotiations with the PRC (which later became Communist on October 1, 1949 under Mao) - Word count: 2683 How was the opposition to the Vietnam war protrayed in contemporary literature, film and popular song? This he who they referred to is a priest a Chaplin, giving them their last rites as the soldiers take their first steps into war. They are obviously frightened and for some, this is their first time going into war and leaving their loved ones behind. I can tell that the Chaplin in some way shape or form has experienced war for it says in the song "He smiles at the young soldiers, tells them it's all right. He knows of their fear in the forthcoming fight" I think that this part of the song it is talking about a speech which the Chaplin is making to try to inspire the young soldiers. - Word count: 2179 As such, the source clearly disagrees with the theory presented to us in Source M, instead attributing North Vietnamese victory to superior military tactics and experience. The next source, Source E, has become an infamous representation of the conflict in Vietnam. It depicts Phan Thi Kim Phuc, a Vietnamese girl aged about nine at the time, and another child burnt badly by napalm as they run away from their village home of Trang Bang screaming in pain. Behind her is a congregation of American military personnel walking down the same path and making no effort whatsoever to assist the two children. - Word count: 2327 The citizens of America, especially the rich, did not want communism at all. Henceforth, America and the Soviet Union went to war. However, the two countries did not physically fight each other, because they new they were equally powerful, and therefore undefeatable. Instead they started the 'Cold War'. It was more of a competition between the two countries, Russia was trying to get as many countries communist as it could, and America was trying to stop it from doing this. However, in 1949 the USA received a major blow. China had now also become communist. - Word count: 2007 Therefore the United States set up their own government in Vietnam, led bye Ngo Dinh Diem. Diem's regime was very corrupt and his anti-Buddhist views were hated by most of the peasants who were themselves Buddhist. This led to the Viet Cong being created, built for the liberation of South Vietnam. The violence towards the government set up by the United States led Kennedy to send in military 'advisers' which otherwise meant soldiers. President Kennedy was later assassinated in 1963, and his replacement Lyndon Johnson was much more eager to commit the United States to a full-blown war. - Word count: 2468 The French were allowed to maintain their presence in South Vietnam. There was due to be elections, yet Ngo Dinh Diem refused to hold them in case he lost his place. He claimed the north would never hold elections. The US supported him, even thought it was a breach of the Geneva peace agreement of which the American had promised to support. At the 1954 French Diem Bien Phu battle, the French asked the US for help with naval and air power. - Word count: 2099 What different tactics were used by both sides in an attempt to win the conflict in Vietnam between 1965-1968? This was the start of civil war between Vietnam and America. Now I will discuss the tactics used by the Vietcong beginning with Guerrilla Warfare. The Vietcong began using Guerrilla Warfare when they realised they could never directly confront the American soldiers as their weapons were not sophisticated or advanced enough to come up against the Americans. They also began using Guerrilla Warfare because it was something that the battle-hardened Vietcong were good at, as they had been fighting since the Japanese occupation of Vietnam during World War 2. - Word count: 2250 The Americans lost a lot of support in the war by standing by the South Vietnamese President Ngo Dinah Diem, who was a devoted catholic which caused a major problem with the public in south Vietnam as most of the population was Buddhist, more importantly though, he broke the Geneva agreement by fixing the elections in South Vietnam, and then shortly afterwards suppressed the peasants and made his close friends and family into power. Then there was Diems 'strategic hamlet' programme which was a complete failure due to the fact that the peasants involved were moved away from there homes - Word count: 2159 Hence on December 20th 1960 the NLF was formed in order to overthrow Diem and reunify the country. Between 1960 and 1965 the war was merely small scale conflict and very little large scale offensives. In the past the Vietminh had succeeded in using guerrilla warfare against the Japanese and French. Ho Chi Minh said: "When fighting in an enemy occupied area, we must use guerrilla tactics. We must absolutely not go in for large scale battles and big victories unless we are 100% sure of success." - Word count: 2013	1,474	ENGLISH	1
The development and institution of slavery in the United States began when the U.S didn't even exist. When British colonies where beginning to pop up all over North East America there was a very noticeable problem; too much land and not enough people to work it. In order to work the land as much as possible many wealthy British colonist would pay to have indentured servants come to the new world and in return the indentured servants would work for them for seven years for free. At this time the servant would become free, however many servants died or ran away therefore fewer and fewer Europeans wanted to come to the New World. A very quick and very devastating solution to this was slave labor from Africa. The institution of slavery was supplied with slaves as people who where sentenced to it, kidnapped, and a vast majority where captured in war and put into slavery. Of all the slaves that where shipped into the New World one third would die on the way, and 90% of those would end up in countries like Brazil, Cuba, Barbados and Jamaica. In North America the first documented African American slaves arrived in 1640 in Jamestown, approximately 20, and where sold as indentured servants, but an event in the early 1640's would change that when three indentured servants fled their master and where captured. The two whites had seven years added to their service but the African was enslaved for life. As time goes on, the idea of Ethnocentrism begins to snowball until Africans are stripped of all human rights and become pieces of property. By 1700 most slaves are men, however some women begin to be brought over and self-sustaining supply of slaves begins to emerge. At this time the south begins t... ... middle of paper ... ...tific Slavery, which said that slaves where closer to apes by measuring the shape of their heads to prove that they weren't very knowledgeable. Southerners also said that being one of their slaves was better than being a wage slave to Northern Factories because Southern slave owners would take care of their slaves into old age and sickness. Another rationalization was that all slaves where to be treated as children because they could not govern themselves properly. These same white southerners reacted very quickly to threats made against slavery such as seizing and destroying mail-promoting abolitionism. Southern mobs would beat up, and tar and feather any suspicious Northerners. The Gag Rule also came into play, which meant that between 1834 and 1836 no petitions dealing with slavery would be turned away by (?). Stronger fugitive slave laws where also passed. Need Writing Help? Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper » - Contrary to popular belief that the United States was founded on equality, freedom and apple pie, that is not exactly how the dice fell in our beloved country’s story. America was built on the promise of giving opportunities to some, while also depriving those same promised opportunities to others. Slavery grew from a group of exploited workers who had hopes for a better future, to becoming the foundation that shaped the United States. Through building an independent economy, establishing the American class system and pressuring the colonist to fight for their “rights”, slavery brought its original beginnings into the creation of America as an ideal and government.... [tags: Slavery, Slavery in the United States] 2050 words (5.9 pages) - As many people know the history of United States is a great legendary that filled with enormous events. One of the most historic moments would be the beginning of slavery in 1619 in Jamestown, Virginia. I choose to start from decades of slavery because I believe that African American have played a big role in America history. As many people know, African Americans was descendants of black slaves that being mistreated by English. They have fought tirelessly to earn their freedom with different of wars such as the Bacon’s rebellion, and how the significant theory of abolishing the slavery of Thomas Jefferson affect the slavery.... [tags: Slavery, Slavery in the United States] 862 words (2.5 pages) - The first African American slaves to arrive in the New World, also known as the United States, was 1620. The law to abolish the act of slavery took action in 1865. But is slavery actually non-existent now that it is illegal. Actually, “twice as many people are in bondage in the world today than were taken from Africa during the 350 years of the Atlantic slave trade” (Bales and Soodalter 722). It is now all ages, races, and genders. America is the land of the free, yet slavery still exists. As a result, the government should ensure that illegal labor is not being of use.... [tags: Slavery, Slavery in the United States] 853 words (2.4 pages) - I personally think it’s sad that our nation has come to this point that we have to look back on the refection that settlers showed upon other people of different skin. I feel that when slaves were brought to this country it changes people’s minds of how they look at other people and treat them. Yes there were some good slave owners but you always hear about awfulness of what these slaves went through. As Settlers came to this country they stole the land of Indians and forced them to be slaves. Some slave owned over 100s of slaves or more to run their plantations.... [tags: Slavery in the United States, Slavery] 722 words (2.1 pages) - As slavery became exceedingly prominent in the states the plight of its victims increased. Mixed children of slave owners were used and seen worth more than other slave children. The masters of these children refused to sell them, such as the case of Elizabeth Hemings, who later became her master, John Wales’s mistress. Thomas Jefferson was a regular visitor of Wales and later married his daughter Martha. After Wales died the slave became Jefferson’s, soon Martha died and Jefferson failed to attend his affairs and left for France with his daughters for a while.... [tags: Slavery in the United States, Slavery] 921 words (2.6 pages) - In Fredrick Douglass’s autobiography, he describes how it was to be a slave in the United States. He shares his experiences and incorporate them into how slaves were, back then. In the time of slavery, slaves were given an allowance of food and clothing. The slaves would receive their monthly food of eight pounds of pork or the equal amount of fish and one bucket of corn. As for their clothing, which they were given each year. They got two linen shirts, one pair of pants, and a jacket for the winter.... [tags: Slavery, Slavery in the United States] 1451 words (4.1 pages) - Slavery in the South of the United States of America Slavery was a system in which people were impoverished from their basic needs and rights. Slaves worked endless hours without getting paid and their lives belonged to someone else, none themselves. While the Northern States were against slavery, the Southern States were in favor of keeping slaves to grow their economy. The black community was hopelessly oppressed and redeemed. At the beginning of the 1800’s, there was not any law to protect or defend Negroes’ rights until the 13th amendment was passed in 1865, abolishing slavery.The sufferings of Frederick Douglass were displayed in his book called “Narrative Life of Frederick Douglass,... [tags: Slavery in the United States, Slavery] 1727 words (4.9 pages) - Background- Before 1819 the United States landowners had indentured servants working for the masters. In 1819 however a Dutch Ship arrived in the United States containing African Americans, and so the Americans traded the Dutch food and services for the slaves (History.com Staff, Slavery in America). From 1819 to 1865 slaves were used for southerners who could afford to own slaves. Slaves worked eighteen hours a day, doing anything from harvesting cotton, to doing work around the master 's house (John Simkin, Field Slaves).... [tags: Slavery in the United States, Slavery] 1121 words (3.2 pages) - As we study slavery we find out that it was not the same all over the south. It developed more in some areas where they would have over 200 slaves and a plantation with over 1,000 acres, and other areas there weren’t as many slaves or a large plantation. In Swing the Sickle we focus on two counties in Georgia, Wilkes and Glynn County, and the way slavery developed there. We also look at the way gender played or did not play a role in the way tasks were given out. A lot of things varied from the way labor was distributed with both agricultural and non-agricultural areas, to how the slaves interacted with other slaves on the plantation and those who lived on other plantations.... [tags: Slavery in the United States, Slavery, Plantation] 1019 words (2.9 pages) - Slavery in the United States Slavery first started in the United States in the 17th century when an English warship brought slaves into Jamestown in 1619. John Rolfe was the one that reported that he thought it was a Dutch ship but it was the English warship the White Lion that actually brought the first slaves into Jamestown. Slavery ended not by the Emancipation Proclamation, but it was the 13th amendment that officially abolished it. While slavery was very cruel and horrible to do to African Americans, it was an effective way of making crops and harvesting crops in a very cheap and fast way.... [tags: Slavery in the United States, American Civil War] 709 words (2 pages)	<urn:uuid:cafc0932-ae61-44c1-a1e9-3ec50647f1a5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.123helpme.com/preview.asp?id=134090	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00248.warc.gz	en	0.981117	2,043	4.125	4	[ -0.4118081331253052, -0.010508853942155838, 0.39725568890571594, -0.20147809386253357, 0.004883260000497103, -0.2325231283903122, -0.36383360624313354, -0.30029529333114624, 0.056262098252773285, 0.1525828242301941, 0.4502418637275696, 0.010348383337259293, -0.12266628444194794, 0.10375046...	1	The development and institution of slavery in the United States began when the U.S didn't even exist. When British colonies where beginning to pop up all over North East America there was a very noticeable problem; too much land and not enough people to work it. In order to work the land as much as possible many wealthy British colonist would pay to have indentured servants come to the new world and in return the indentured servants would work for them for seven years for free. At this time the servant would become free, however many servants died or ran away therefore fewer and fewer Europeans wanted to come to the New World. A very quick and very devastating solution to this was slave labor from Africa. The institution of slavery was supplied with slaves as people who where sentenced to it, kidnapped, and a vast majority where captured in war and put into slavery. Of all the slaves that where shipped into the New World one third would die on the way, and 90% of those would end up in countries like Brazil, Cuba, Barbados and Jamaica. In North America the first documented African American slaves arrived in 1640 in Jamestown, approximately 20, and where sold as indentured servants, but an event in the early 1640's would change that when three indentured servants fled their master and where captured. The two whites had seven years added to their service but the African was enslaved for life. As time goes on, the idea of Ethnocentrism begins to snowball until Africans are stripped of all human rights and become pieces of property. By 1700 most slaves are men, however some women begin to be brought over and self-sustaining supply of slaves begins to emerge. At this time the south begins t... ... middle of paper ... ...tific Slavery, which said that slaves where closer to apes by measuring the shape of their heads to prove that they weren't very knowledgeable. Southerners also said that being one of their slaves was better than being a wage slave to Northern Factories because Southern slave owners would take care of their slaves into old age and sickness. Another rationalization was that all slaves where to be treated as children because they could not govern themselves properly. These same white southerners reacted very quickly to threats made against slavery such as seizing and destroying mail-promoting abolitionism. Southern mobs would beat up, and tar and feather any suspicious Northerners. The Gag Rule also came into play, which meant that between 1834 and 1836 no petitions dealing with slavery would be turned away by (?). Stronger fugitive slave laws where also passed. Need Writing Help? Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper » - Contrary to popular belief that the United States was founded on equality, freedom and apple pie, that is not exactly how the dice fell in our beloved country’s story. America was built on the promise of giving opportunities to some, while also depriving those same promised opportunities to others. Slavery grew from a group of exploited workers who had hopes for a better future, to becoming the foundation that shaped the United States. Through building an independent economy, establishing the American class system and pressuring the colonist to fight for their “rights”, slavery brought its original beginnings into the creation of America as an ideal and government.... [tags: Slavery, Slavery in the United States] 2050 words (5.9 pages) - As many people know the history of United States is a great legendary that filled with enormous events. One of the most historic moments would be the beginning of slavery in 1619 in Jamestown, Virginia. I choose to start from decades of slavery because I believe that African American have played a big role in America history. As many people know, African Americans was descendants of black slaves that being mistreated by English. They have fought tirelessly to earn their freedom with different of wars such as the Bacon’s rebellion, and how the significant theory of abolishing the slavery of Thomas Jefferson affect the slavery.... [tags: Slavery, Slavery in the United States] 862 words (2.5 pages) - The first African American slaves to arrive in the New World, also known as the United States, was 1620. The law to abolish the act of slavery took action in 1865. But is slavery actually non-existent now that it is illegal. Actually, “twice as many people are in bondage in the world today than were taken from Africa during the 350 years of the Atlantic slave trade” (Bales and Soodalter 722). It is now all ages, races, and genders. America is the land of the free, yet slavery still exists. As a result, the government should ensure that illegal labor is not being of use.... [tags: Slavery, Slavery in the United States] 853 words (2.4 pages) - I personally think it’s sad that our nation has come to this point that we have to look back on the refection that settlers showed upon other people of different skin. I feel that when slaves were brought to this country it changes people’s minds of how they look at other people and treat them. Yes there were some good slave owners but you always hear about awfulness of what these slaves went through. As Settlers came to this country they stole the land of Indians and forced them to be slaves. Some slave owned over 100s of slaves or more to run their plantations.... [tags: Slavery in the United States, Slavery] 722 words (2.1 pages) - As slavery became exceedingly prominent in the states the plight of its victims increased. Mixed children of slave owners were used and seen worth more than other slave children. The masters of these children refused to sell them, such as the case of Elizabeth Hemings, who later became her master, John Wales’s mistress. Thomas Jefferson was a regular visitor of Wales and later married his daughter Martha. After Wales died the slave became Jefferson’s, soon Martha died and Jefferson failed to attend his affairs and left for France with his daughters for a while.... [tags: Slavery in the United States, Slavery] 921 words (2.6 pages) - In Fredrick Douglass’s autobiography, he describes how it was to be a slave in the United States. He shares his experiences and incorporate them into how slaves were, back then. In the time of slavery, slaves were given an allowance of food and clothing. The slaves would receive their monthly food of eight pounds of pork or the equal amount of fish and one bucket of corn. As for their clothing, which they were given each year. They got two linen shirts, one pair of pants, and a jacket for the winter.... [tags: Slavery, Slavery in the United States] 1451 words (4.1 pages) - Slavery in the South of the United States of America Slavery was a system in which people were impoverished from their basic needs and rights. Slaves worked endless hours without getting paid and their lives belonged to someone else, none themselves. While the Northern States were against slavery, the Southern States were in favor of keeping slaves to grow their economy. The black community was hopelessly oppressed and redeemed. At the beginning of the 1800’s, there was not any law to protect or defend Negroes’ rights until the 13th amendment was passed in 1865, abolishing slavery.The sufferings of Frederick Douglass were displayed in his book called “Narrative Life of Frederick Douglass,... [tags: Slavery in the United States, Slavery] 1727 words (4.9 pages) - Background- Before 1819 the United States landowners had indentured servants working for the masters. In 1819 however a Dutch Ship arrived in the United States containing African Americans, and so the Americans traded the Dutch food and services for the slaves (History.com Staff, Slavery in America). From 1819 to 1865 slaves were used for southerners who could afford to own slaves. Slaves worked eighteen hours a day, doing anything from harvesting cotton, to doing work around the master 's house (John Simkin, Field Slaves).... [tags: Slavery in the United States, Slavery] 1121 words (3.2 pages) - As we study slavery we find out that it was not the same all over the south. It developed more in some areas where they would have over 200 slaves and a plantation with over 1,000 acres, and other areas there weren’t as many slaves or a large plantation. In Swing the Sickle we focus on two counties in Georgia, Wilkes and Glynn County, and the way slavery developed there. We also look at the way gender played or did not play a role in the way tasks were given out. A lot of things varied from the way labor was distributed with both agricultural and non-agricultural areas, to how the slaves interacted with other slaves on the plantation and those who lived on other plantations.... [tags: Slavery in the United States, Slavery, Plantation] 1019 words (2.9 pages) - Slavery in the United States Slavery first started in the United States in the 17th century when an English warship brought slaves into Jamestown in 1619. John Rolfe was the one that reported that he thought it was a Dutch ship but it was the English warship the White Lion that actually brought the first slaves into Jamestown. Slavery ended not by the Emancipation Proclamation, but it was the 13th amendment that officially abolished it. While slavery was very cruel and horrible to do to African Americans, it was an effective way of making crops and harvesting crops in a very cheap and fast way.... [tags: Slavery in the United States, American Civil War] 709 words (2 pages)	2,080	ENGLISH	1
First Intermediate Period The First Intermediate Period was the time in Ancient Egypt that was called the “Dark Age.” This was a period of time from 2181 B.C. to 2055 B.C. This period of time took place after the Old Kingdom ended. The dynasties that are part of the First Intermediate Period are the Seventh Dynasty, the Eighth Dynasty, the Ninth Dynasty, the Tenth Dynasty and the Eleventh Dynasty. The Seventh Dynasty and the Eighth Dynasty are sometimes not talked about because many people and historians do not know much about them. It was during this time though, that a historian wrote about there being 70 kings that ruled for 70 days. No one is really sure what this meant but some believe that this means that there were a lot of people that were ruling this time and that there was not just one king or one ruler. During the Eight Dynasty, some believe that the people that ruled were sons and grandsons of the people from the Seventh Dynasty, but no one is really sure. The only real proof that they have are scarabs, which are Egyptians seals and a jasper cylinder that is thought to be from the Eighth Dynasty. There was also a small pyramid that some historian’s thinks is from King Ibi who was a king during the Eighth Dynasty. How the First Intermediate Period Formed When the Old Kingdom fell, it was a time when there was a lot of fighting and bad things that were happening. Pepi II was the pharaoh during this time and he ruled until he was very old. He lived so long that he did not have a son that lived long enough to become the next pharaoh. Since there was no one to take over the rule, this caused the Old Kingdom to start to fall. During this time, the people that had government jobs and their families tried to keep in power because they did not want to lose their places. This caused them to become too powerful and they were able to rule without a king. Many of these government figures became so mighty that they built tombs for themselves and they also thought it was best to build up armies and to fight the neighboring lands. When the people started building armies, this caused there to be war between them. Eventually, a drought came, and it caused there to be little food and water. Having little water is called a drought and having little food is called a famine. When the famine and drought came, it finished tearing down the Old Kingdom and this is when the First Intermediate Period came along. There is not a lot of information during this time period, but it was a time when Egypt was divided. There were two areas, the Hierakonpolis that was located in Lower Egypt and the Thebes that was located in Upper Egypt that were majorly divided. During this time, there were things that were happening like artwork was being destroyed, statues of kings were being torn down and broken and houses and temples were being robbed. There was a lot of violence during this time because the area was so divided. End of Division Eventually, there was so much chaos that something had to be done. During the Eleventh Dynasty, Mentuhotep II took over these areas and became the single ruler of the areas. This stopped much of the violence that was happening. There were some rulers during this priod that ruled during the Ninth Dynasty and Tenth Dynasty and this included 19 different rulers. Here are a few of them that ruled during this time. - Akhtoy-evil and violent ruler. - Wahkare Khety I-Killed by a crocodile. - Kheti II-known as Meryibre. - Khetti III There were also kings from the Eleventh Dynasty and the Twelfth Dynasty that ruled during this time. Here is a list of some of them: - Inteff II-attacked Heracleopolis kings. - Mantuhotep II Facts About the First Intermediate Period: - Literature became a powerful thing during this time period. - Ipuwer Papyrus is a book that was written during this time. - Even though Egypt was divided during this time, people that loved art would paint paintings and would draw. This art style was called “Pre-Unification Theban Style.” - There is little known about the art during this time. - Many statues were found that give historians an idea of what kind of art the people built. What Did You Learn? - What was the period of time between 2181 B.C. to 2055 B.C. called? This period of time was called the First Intermediate Period. - Was Egypt one land during this time? No, Egypt was split into two different areas. - What was the problem with those areas? The people were always at war from the different areas at this time. - What dynasties are part of the First Intermediate Period? The dynasties that were part of this period are the Seventh Dynasty, the Eighth Dynasty, the Ninth Dynasty, the Tenth Dynasty and the Eleventh Dynasty. - What was the number of kings and days that one historian said took place during this period? One historian said that there were 70 kings for 70 days during this time period.	<urn:uuid:fbc0cfbe-96bb-4219-bec7-270b1201fd0c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historyforkids.net/ancient-egypt/overview/first-intermediate-period.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00327.warc.gz	en	0.992806	1,103	3.5625	4	[ -0.3388364315032959, 0.8115199208259583, 0.11012724041938782, -0.1890583634376526, -0.3962515890598297, -0.27447134256362915, -0.027547212317585945, -0.40620559453964233, -0.003359332913532853, 0.07424317300319672, 0.18900977075099945, -0.39675065875053406, 0.11029493808746338, 0.265728384...	14	First Intermediate Period The First Intermediate Period was the time in Ancient Egypt that was called the “Dark Age.” This was a period of time from 2181 B.C. to 2055 B.C. This period of time took place after the Old Kingdom ended. The dynasties that are part of the First Intermediate Period are the Seventh Dynasty, the Eighth Dynasty, the Ninth Dynasty, the Tenth Dynasty and the Eleventh Dynasty. The Seventh Dynasty and the Eighth Dynasty are sometimes not talked about because many people and historians do not know much about them. It was during this time though, that a historian wrote about there being 70 kings that ruled for 70 days. No one is really sure what this meant but some believe that this means that there were a lot of people that were ruling this time and that there was not just one king or one ruler. During the Eight Dynasty, some believe that the people that ruled were sons and grandsons of the people from the Seventh Dynasty, but no one is really sure. The only real proof that they have are scarabs, which are Egyptians seals and a jasper cylinder that is thought to be from the Eighth Dynasty. There was also a small pyramid that some historian’s thinks is from King Ibi who was a king during the Eighth Dynasty. How the First Intermediate Period Formed When the Old Kingdom fell, it was a time when there was a lot of fighting and bad things that were happening. Pepi II was the pharaoh during this time and he ruled until he was very old. He lived so long that he did not have a son that lived long enough to become the next pharaoh. Since there was no one to take over the rule, this caused the Old Kingdom to start to fall. During this time, the people that had government jobs and their families tried to keep in power because they did not want to lose their places. This caused them to become too powerful and they were able to rule without a king. Many of these government figures became so mighty that they built tombs for themselves and they also thought it was best to build up armies and to fight the neighboring lands. When the people started building armies, this caused there to be war between them. Eventually, a drought came, and it caused there to be little food and water. Having little water is called a drought and having little food is called a famine. When the famine and drought came, it finished tearing down the Old Kingdom and this is when the First Intermediate Period came along. There is not a lot of information during this time period, but it was a time when Egypt was divided. There were two areas, the Hierakonpolis that was located in Lower Egypt and the Thebes that was located in Upper Egypt that were majorly divided. During this time, there were things that were happening like artwork was being destroyed, statues of kings were being torn down and broken and houses and temples were being robbed. There was a lot of violence during this time because the area was so divided. End of Division Eventually, there was so much chaos that something had to be done. During the Eleventh Dynasty, Mentuhotep II took over these areas and became the single ruler of the areas. This stopped much of the violence that was happening. There were some rulers during this priod that ruled during the Ninth Dynasty and Tenth Dynasty and this included 19 different rulers. Here are a few of them that ruled during this time. - Akhtoy-evil and violent ruler. - Wahkare Khety I-Killed by a crocodile. - Kheti II-known as Meryibre. - Khetti III There were also kings from the Eleventh Dynasty and the Twelfth Dynasty that ruled during this time. Here is a list of some of them: - Inteff II-attacked Heracleopolis kings. - Mantuhotep II Facts About the First Intermediate Period: - Literature became a powerful thing during this time period. - Ipuwer Papyrus is a book that was written during this time. - Even though Egypt was divided during this time, people that loved art would paint paintings and would draw. This art style was called “Pre-Unification Theban Style.” - There is little known about the art during this time. - Many statues were found that give historians an idea of what kind of art the people built. What Did You Learn? - What was the period of time between 2181 B.C. to 2055 B.C. called? This period of time was called the First Intermediate Period. - Was Egypt one land during this time? No, Egypt was split into two different areas. - What was the problem with those areas? The people were always at war from the different areas at this time. - What dynasties are part of the First Intermediate Period? The dynasties that were part of this period are the Seventh Dynasty, the Eighth Dynasty, the Ninth Dynasty, the Tenth Dynasty and the Eleventh Dynasty. - What was the number of kings and days that one historian said took place during this period? One historian said that there were 70 kings for 70 days during this time period.	1,069	ENGLISH	1
This week begins the book begins the book of Exodus, and continues the story of the Israelites in Egypt. From the beginning it juxtaposes the success and blessings Joseph had earned for his family in Egypt with the slavery they were forced into. Yet, while the picture is bleak, it is not without its irony. Pharaoh, out of fear for of the Israelites stated: Behold, the people of the sons of Israel are more and mightier than we. Come, let us deal wisely with them, or else they will multiply and in the event of war, they will also join themselves to those who hate us, and fight against us and depart from the land.Exodus 1:9b-10 (NASB) One wonders if Pharaoh’s true concern was for himself, rather than his people. At the end of Genesis we read how as the famine continued the Egyptians sold everything they had to by food from Pharaoh’s storehouses, and still did not have enough. In the end they sold their animals, their land, and finally themselves into the service of Pharaoh (Genesis 47:13-26). Yet, the indication is that the children of Israel did not have to do this. Living under Joseph’s protection they were able to remain separate and successful despite the famine. It is possible that this new Pharaoh’s true concern was of a people in the land who were not beholden to the throne. All Egypt was sold into slavery to Pharaoh, except this group of outsiders in Goshen. And they were multiplying. And so Pharaoh decided to act “wisely” with them. Yet his wisdom ended like most human wisdom does, in folly. His first response was to make the Israelites like the rest of Egypt, slaves. What they did not do willingly, they were forced to do. The parallels with a world today that attempts to force conformity while proclaiming tolerance for difference is clear. We, like the Israelites, must continue to be like the witness given about the Israelite women who, “were not as the Egyptian women.” And thus we see that Pharaoh’s second attempt ended as the first will, in failure. When faced with the failure of his first attempted genocide, Pharaoh turns to more brutal methods. Yet with this decision, he seals the consequences he will eventually face. Then Pharaoh commanded all his people, saying, “Every son who is born you are to cast into the Nile, and every daughter you are to keep alive.”Exodus 1:22 (NASB) It is undoubted that many innocent children died at the cruel command at Pharaoh. But Scripture only records one child who was actually put into the Nile. Moses, cast into the Nile, saved by Pharaoh’s daughter, became the one to tell Pharaoh (albeit the current ruler’s successor) that just as the firstborn of Israel were singled out, so would be the firstborn of Egypt. Bitter irony. Yet sin, so often ends this way. In an attempt to remove ourselves from danger, better our lives, or protect ourselves or others, we end up doing the opposite. It has been said that the worst consequence of sin is the consequence sin naturally leads to. Perhaps this is what Paul had in mind when he wrote: Therefore Elohim gave them over in the lusts of their hearts to impurity, so that their bodies would be dishonored among them. For they exchanged the truth of Elohim for a lie, and worshiped and served the creature rather than the Creator, who is blessed forever. Amen.Romans 1:25-25 May we always be reminded of the true consequence of sin, death. It does not lead to whatever it is we hope for as we commit it. It will always and only lead to pain, suffering and eventually death. This is what James reminds us in James 1:14-15. But the wonderful news of faith is that Elohim, through His son Yeshua, has given us a good gift. The gift of life. Just as Moses was protected from the river that was to be his deathbed, so too are we through the work of our Creator and King. “Do not be deceived, my beloved brethren.Every good thing given and every perfect gift is from above, coming down from the Father of lights, with whom there is no variation or shifting shadow.In the exercise of His will He brought us forth by the word of truth, so that we would be a kind of first fruits among His creatures.”(James 1:16–18 NASB	<urn:uuid:a861aceb-a21a-43d5-b2cc-0ee06b8242b8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://koltikvahdayton.com/parsha-thought-shemot-2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00295.warc.gz	en	0.982887	952	3.3125	3	[ -0.2764655351638794, 0.6316360235214233, -0.05826270580291748, -0.09300483018159866, -0.45650649070739746, 0.09187587350606918, 0.08343619108200073, -0.028685931116342545, -0.10285762697458267, 0.25457412004470825, -0.01554377842694521, -0.35426458716392517, -0.0023829638957977295, 0.33052...	3	This week begins the book begins the book of Exodus, and continues the story of the Israelites in Egypt. From the beginning it juxtaposes the success and blessings Joseph had earned for his family in Egypt with the slavery they were forced into. Yet, while the picture is bleak, it is not without its irony. Pharaoh, out of fear for of the Israelites stated: Behold, the people of the sons of Israel are more and mightier than we. Come, let us deal wisely with them, or else they will multiply and in the event of war, they will also join themselves to those who hate us, and fight against us and depart from the land.Exodus 1:9b-10 (NASB) One wonders if Pharaoh’s true concern was for himself, rather than his people. At the end of Genesis we read how as the famine continued the Egyptians sold everything they had to by food from Pharaoh’s storehouses, and still did not have enough. In the end they sold their animals, their land, and finally themselves into the service of Pharaoh (Genesis 47:13-26). Yet, the indication is that the children of Israel did not have to do this. Living under Joseph’s protection they were able to remain separate and successful despite the famine. It is possible that this new Pharaoh’s true concern was of a people in the land who were not beholden to the throne. All Egypt was sold into slavery to Pharaoh, except this group of outsiders in Goshen. And they were multiplying. And so Pharaoh decided to act “wisely” with them. Yet his wisdom ended like most human wisdom does, in folly. His first response was to make the Israelites like the rest of Egypt, slaves. What they did not do willingly, they were forced to do. The parallels with a world today that attempts to force conformity while proclaiming tolerance for difference is clear. We, like the Israelites, must continue to be like the witness given about the Israelite women who, “were not as the Egyptian women.” And thus we see that Pharaoh’s second attempt ended as the first will, in failure. When faced with the failure of his first attempted genocide, Pharaoh turns to more brutal methods. Yet with this decision, he seals the consequences he will eventually face. Then Pharaoh commanded all his people, saying, “Every son who is born you are to cast into the Nile, and every daughter you are to keep alive.”Exodus 1:22 (NASB) It is undoubted that many innocent children died at the cruel command at Pharaoh. But Scripture only records one child who was actually put into the Nile. Moses, cast into the Nile, saved by Pharaoh’s daughter, became the one to tell Pharaoh (albeit the current ruler’s successor) that just as the firstborn of Israel were singled out, so would be the firstborn of Egypt. Bitter irony. Yet sin, so often ends this way. In an attempt to remove ourselves from danger, better our lives, or protect ourselves or others, we end up doing the opposite. It has been said that the worst consequence of sin is the consequence sin naturally leads to. Perhaps this is what Paul had in mind when he wrote: Therefore Elohim gave them over in the lusts of their hearts to impurity, so that their bodies would be dishonored among them. For they exchanged the truth of Elohim for a lie, and worshiped and served the creature rather than the Creator, who is blessed forever. Amen.Romans 1:25-25 May we always be reminded of the true consequence of sin, death. It does not lead to whatever it is we hope for as we commit it. It will always and only lead to pain, suffering and eventually death. This is what James reminds us in James 1:14-15. But the wonderful news of faith is that Elohim, through His son Yeshua, has given us a good gift. The gift of life. Just as Moses was protected from the river that was to be his deathbed, so too are we through the work of our Creator and King. “Do not be deceived, my beloved brethren.Every good thing given and every perfect gift is from above, coming down from the Father of lights, with whom there is no variation or shifting shadow.In the exercise of His will He brought us forth by the word of truth, so that we would be a kind of first fruits among His creatures.”(James 1:16–18 NASB	945	ENGLISH	1
THE COURAGE TO PERSERVERE William Wilberforce was a British parliamentarian, a Christian, and an abolitionist. The turning point in his life came at the age of 28, after having served in Parliament for seven years. He wrote in his diary: “Almighty God has set before me two great objectives- the abolition of the slave trade and the reformation of manners.” When Wilberforce began his crusade against slavery, the prospects could not have been worse. The slave trade was a boon to England’s economy. Hundreds of parliamentarians were in the pockets of the slavers, and the public was indifferent to suffering slaves in the distant Caribbean. However, Wilberforce introduced bills against the slave trade every year. For 20 consecutive years Parliament voted down all but the mildest reforms. Yet Wilberforce refused to allow political setbacks or chronic ill health to discourage him. He persevered, and in 1807, Parliament finally abolished the slave trade. In 1833, as Wilberforce lay dying, slavery was abolished throughout the British Empire, 46 years after the battle was joined.	<urn:uuid:da9ffba2-30b9-4e44-a7db-a3469c9c4bfa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.confessingumc.org/single-post/2017/11/24/Friday-November-24-2017	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00009.warc.gz	en	0.981123	237	3.765625	4	[ -0.5076786279678345, 0.4072539806365967, 0.2609241306781769, -0.06301993131637573, 0.0329195074737072, -0.2703087627887726, -0.16358380019664764, -0.09533994644880295, -0.04172541946172714, 0.21913199126720428, 0.14133748412132263, -0.5300331711769104, -0.11624078452587128, 0.0426739901304...	2	THE COURAGE TO PERSERVERE William Wilberforce was a British parliamentarian, a Christian, and an abolitionist. The turning point in his life came at the age of 28, after having served in Parliament for seven years. He wrote in his diary: “Almighty God has set before me two great objectives- the abolition of the slave trade and the reformation of manners.” When Wilberforce began his crusade against slavery, the prospects could not have been worse. The slave trade was a boon to England’s economy. Hundreds of parliamentarians were in the pockets of the slavers, and the public was indifferent to suffering slaves in the distant Caribbean. However, Wilberforce introduced bills against the slave trade every year. For 20 consecutive years Parliament voted down all but the mildest reforms. Yet Wilberforce refused to allow political setbacks or chronic ill health to discourage him. He persevered, and in 1807, Parliament finally abolished the slave trade. In 1833, as Wilberforce lay dying, slavery was abolished throughout the British Empire, 46 years after the battle was joined.	237	ENGLISH	1
by Aggelos Skordas On the early morning of December 13th, 1943, the people of Kalavryta, in the mountains of Achaea, Peloponnese, woke up to the sounds of ringing church bells. The omens were bad. Within hours, at 9 am, the first German soldiers of the Wehrmacht 117th Jägerdivision appeared in the town’s main road. The orders were definite: Everyone should assemble to the local school. Half an hour later all women and children were locked in the schoolhouse while all men, between 12 and 80 years of age, were lined up and driven to a nearby hillside (Kappi Hill). The infamous “Unternehmen Kalavryta” (Operation Kalavryta) had just begun. In less than three hours the heroic town would be burned to ashes and only 13 of its inhabitants would survive to keep the memory of their beloved ones alive, along with the shocking testimonies describing the Nazis’ atrocities. It is reported that over 500 men and boys were murdered in this single incident. While women and children were locked in the school and men were marching towards the hill by the town, Nazi soldiers were burning houses, churches, and public buildings, looting and loading the spoils on trucks. The men who could see their own houses being burned down were ordered to dig their own graves. A few minutes later the signal for the mass execution was finally given and the machine guns began firing. At midday one of the worst atrocities Europe has seen in the 20th century was complete. Women and children managed to free themselves from the flaming school only to witness that the rest of the town was set ablaze and their fathers, brothers, and sons were butchered. The mass shooting at Kalavryta was the largest single massacre in Greece and it came as the Nazis responded to an operation carried out by the partisans of ELAS, in October 1943, which left some 80 German soldiers dead. The order for the massacre was signed by the commander of the 117th Jägerdivision, Generalmajor Karl von Le Suire. Ironically, the “butcher of Peloponnese” was the grandson of Bavarian, Lieutenant General Wilhelm von Le Suire, who served as the War Minister of Greece under his compatriot King Otto in 1833. His instruction was to “level” Kalavryta and the nearby village of Mazeika along with other villages the citizens of which secured support to the partisans. German reports describe how the participating military units torched within a few days 24 villages and towns, three monasteries (among which that of Agia Lavra where the Greek revolutionary flags had been blessed prior to the War of Independence) and executed 696 inhabitants. Independent as well as Greek sources, though, increase the number of those killed in Kalavryta and the surrounding area to more than 1.100. According to survivors’ testimonies, the burial of those killed occupied the women -who managed to free themselves from the burning schoolhouse (certain sources refer to an Austrian soldier who pitied them and assisted the escape) for the next 40 days. At the same time, they also had to face starvation as the departing Germans, apart from the houses and the warehouses, burned nearby fields and took all food with them to cover the occupation army needs. The school where women and children were locked up currently houses the “Kalavryta Holocaust Museum”, founded in 2005. The sight of the sacrifice, on top of the Kappi Hill, is kept as a memorial site, featuring a white cross and stones inscribed with the names of those brutally executed. The commander of the Wehrmacht 117th Jägerdivision, Karl von Le Suire, who ordered the massacre -and witnessed it personally- died in 1954 as a prisoner of war of the Red Army in Stalingrad. Some 50 years after the massacre the President of the Federal Republic of Germany, Johannes Rau, visited Kalavryta and stated: “I came here to keep the memory of this event alive in Germany. Here, at this place, I feel immense grief and shame. The only one who knows and accepts his part can find the path to a better future”, adding that the two countries have “the opportunity to shape a European future of peace, democracy, and respect for human rights. In such, European atrocities and destruction have no place”.	<urn:uuid:b991cd93-0877-4fa6-beb0-934e41ba44d8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://greekcitytimes.com/2019/12/13/commemorating-kalavryta-massacre-1943/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00206.warc.gz	en	0.982535	924	3.3125	3	[ -0.11671458184719086, 0.5838368535041809, 0.02844090573489666, 0.14479221403598785, 0.14501887559890747, 0.05501655861735344, -0.23715463280677795, 0.2318447232246399, -0.0542919747531414, 0.23963794112205505, 0.09777693450450897, -0.20557643473148346, -0.2560350000858307, 0.59899628162384...	6	by Aggelos Skordas On the early morning of December 13th, 1943, the people of Kalavryta, in the mountains of Achaea, Peloponnese, woke up to the sounds of ringing church bells. The omens were bad. Within hours, at 9 am, the first German soldiers of the Wehrmacht 117th Jägerdivision appeared in the town’s main road. The orders were definite: Everyone should assemble to the local school. Half an hour later all women and children were locked in the schoolhouse while all men, between 12 and 80 years of age, were lined up and driven to a nearby hillside (Kappi Hill). The infamous “Unternehmen Kalavryta” (Operation Kalavryta) had just begun. In less than three hours the heroic town would be burned to ashes and only 13 of its inhabitants would survive to keep the memory of their beloved ones alive, along with the shocking testimonies describing the Nazis’ atrocities. It is reported that over 500 men and boys were murdered in this single incident. While women and children were locked in the school and men were marching towards the hill by the town, Nazi soldiers were burning houses, churches, and public buildings, looting and loading the spoils on trucks. The men who could see their own houses being burned down were ordered to dig their own graves. A few minutes later the signal for the mass execution was finally given and the machine guns began firing. At midday one of the worst atrocities Europe has seen in the 20th century was complete. Women and children managed to free themselves from the flaming school only to witness that the rest of the town was set ablaze and their fathers, brothers, and sons were butchered. The mass shooting at Kalavryta was the largest single massacre in Greece and it came as the Nazis responded to an operation carried out by the partisans of ELAS, in October 1943, which left some 80 German soldiers dead. The order for the massacre was signed by the commander of the 117th Jägerdivision, Generalmajor Karl von Le Suire. Ironically, the “butcher of Peloponnese” was the grandson of Bavarian, Lieutenant General Wilhelm von Le Suire, who served as the War Minister of Greece under his compatriot King Otto in 1833. His instruction was to “level” Kalavryta and the nearby village of Mazeika along with other villages the citizens of which secured support to the partisans. German reports describe how the participating military units torched within a few days 24 villages and towns, three monasteries (among which that of Agia Lavra where the Greek revolutionary flags had been blessed prior to the War of Independence) and executed 696 inhabitants. Independent as well as Greek sources, though, increase the number of those killed in Kalavryta and the surrounding area to more than 1.100. According to survivors’ testimonies, the burial of those killed occupied the women -who managed to free themselves from the burning schoolhouse (certain sources refer to an Austrian soldier who pitied them and assisted the escape) for the next 40 days. At the same time, they also had to face starvation as the departing Germans, apart from the houses and the warehouses, burned nearby fields and took all food with them to cover the occupation army needs. The school where women and children were locked up currently houses the “Kalavryta Holocaust Museum”, founded in 2005. The sight of the sacrifice, on top of the Kappi Hill, is kept as a memorial site, featuring a white cross and stones inscribed with the names of those brutally executed. The commander of the Wehrmacht 117th Jägerdivision, Karl von Le Suire, who ordered the massacre -and witnessed it personally- died in 1954 as a prisoner of war of the Red Army in Stalingrad. Some 50 years after the massacre the President of the Federal Republic of Germany, Johannes Rau, visited Kalavryta and stated: “I came here to keep the memory of this event alive in Germany. Here, at this place, I feel immense grief and shame. The only one who knows and accepts his part can find the path to a better future”, adding that the two countries have “the opportunity to shape a European future of peace, democracy, and respect for human rights. In such, European atrocities and destruction have no place”.	959	ENGLISH	1
As a member of the French Resistance, Denise Schorr began saving Jewish children when she was still just seventeen. When World War II broke out, Schorr became involved with the French Resistance through the Union Generale des Israelites de France, where she worked as a social worker with Jewish children, placing them with gentile families through underground connections. Towards the end of the occupation, she also helped adults and the elderly who were in hiding. After the liberation of Paris, she met an American soldier who was part of the force that stormed the beach at Normandy, and became engaged after three dates, returning to the US with him. Together they raised five adopted children. In America, Schorr taught French cooking and wrote several cookbooks. Until her death, she continued to speak at schools about her wartime experiences, educating children about the Holocaust and the French Resistance. Denise Schorr was honored at the 2000 Women Who Dared event in Boston. How to cite this page Jewish Women's Archive. "Denise Schorr." (Viewed on January 28, 2020) <https://jwa.org/people/schorr-denise>.	<urn:uuid:c62a21be-4208-4bad-ba78-d4379666e8b6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://jwa.org/people/schorr-denise	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00489.warc.gz	en	0.981194	233	3.671875	4	[ -0.1377772092819214, 0.49057525396347046, -0.23499122262001038, -0.2279997020959854, -0.26891934871673584, 0.361901193857193, -0.29572001099586487, 0.3518229126930237, -0.5006433725357056, -0.15952171385288239, 0.29176169633865356, -0.06367086619138718, -0.00859916117042303, 0.084204033017...	1	As a member of the French Resistance, Denise Schorr began saving Jewish children when she was still just seventeen. When World War II broke out, Schorr became involved with the French Resistance through the Union Generale des Israelites de France, where she worked as a social worker with Jewish children, placing them with gentile families through underground connections. Towards the end of the occupation, she also helped adults and the elderly who were in hiding. After the liberation of Paris, she met an American soldier who was part of the force that stormed the beach at Normandy, and became engaged after three dates, returning to the US with him. Together they raised five adopted children. In America, Schorr taught French cooking and wrote several cookbooks. Until her death, she continued to speak at schools about her wartime experiences, educating children about the Holocaust and the French Resistance. Denise Schorr was honored at the 2000 Women Who Dared event in Boston. How to cite this page Jewish Women's Archive. "Denise Schorr." (Viewed on January 28, 2020) <https://jwa.org/people/schorr-denise>.	240	ENGLISH	1
Despite the improved relations between Mecca and Medinah after the signing of the Treaty of Hudaybiyah, the ten-year peace was to be broken by Quraysh who, with their allies, the Bani Bakr, attacked the Khuza’ah tribe. Now Khuza’ah were allies of the Muslims and when the Prophet (pbuh)heard of the attack he immediately ordered his men to prepare for war. When they were ready he told them that their destination was Mecca and, as he did not want any fighting within the walls of the city, he told them they must move quickly and take the enemy by surprise. In this way the Meccans would not have time to prepare for war and, being surrounded would have to surrender. The Muslims would then be able to take the city without injury or loss of life to anyone. When the Muslim army, which numbered ten thousand, set out for Mecca it was the month of Ramadan in the eighth year of the Hijrah. Many of the men kept the fast, even though they were not obliged to because they were travelling. Everyone was jubilant because they were going to Mecca, especially as some of them had not seen their homes in the city for eight long years. In the meantime, the Prophet’s uncle, al-‘Abbas, had decided that the time had come for him and his wife to leave Mecca and join the Prophet (pbuh) in Medinah. They did not, however, have to go far as after a distance of only twenty-five kilometers they came across the Muslim camp. When the Prophet (pbuh) saw them he said, ‘Uncle, your emigration is the last emigration. My prophecy is the last prophecy.’ Al-‘Abbas then joined the army and his wife went on to the safety of Medinah. Night fell and the Muslims made fires to light their camp. The Meccans, looking out of the city, were amazed to see the many fires, and Abu Sufyan went all over Mecca trying to find out whose camp it was. Suddenly he saw al-‘Abbas riding towards him from the direction of the fires. He was returning as a messenger of peace from the Prophet (pbuh) and said to Abu Sufyan, ‘The Muslims have come with a large army. They do not wish to fight, only to enter the city. It would be better to surrender and not fight. Come under my protection and meet the Prophet (pbuh).’ Abu Sufyan agreed, and got up behind al-Abbas, who was riding the Prophet’s white mule. It was still night as they entered the Muslim camp. Each time they passed a fire, someone would call out, ‘Who goes there?’ None of them recognized the stranger as the leader of their enemy but all knew al-‘Abbas and so let them through. As they passed by ‘Umar, however, he immediately recognized Abu Sufyan and yelled out, ‘Abu Sufyan! The enemy of Allah!’ He ran after them intending to kill his enemy but al-‘Abbas made the mule go faster. They reached the Prophet’s tent just before ‘Umar who rushed in after them quite out of breath. ‘Umar begged the Prophet (pbuh), ‘O Messenger of Allah, let me end the life of Abu Sufyan, this enemy of Islam, who has led the Quraysh armies in their attacks on us!’ Al-‘Abbas interrupted, saying, ‘I have sworn to protect him during his time here whereupon the Prophet (pbuh) told his uncle to take Abu Sufyan to his tent for the night. In the morning Abu Sufyan was taken to the Prophet (pbuh) who said, ‘Abu Sufyan! Have you not yet realized that there is no divinity but Allah?’ To this Abu Sufyan replied, ‘If there had been another he surely would Have helped me by now.’ ‘Shame on you, Abu Sufyan’, responded the Prophet (pbuh), ‘it is time you realize that I am truly Allah’s Messenger.’ After a moment or two, Abu Sufyan, who remembered how ‘Umar had not been allowed to kill him, replied: ‘I can see you are a generous and forgiving man but I still cannot be sure of that.’ At this, al-‘Abbas, who had been standing nearby turned to him and said: ‘Believe as I do now.’ Abu Sufyan stood quietly for a moment, then in a calm, clear voice swore in front of everyone, there is no divinity but Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah.’ The Prophet (pbuh) then told Abu Sufyan to go back to Mecca and tell the people that the Muslims would enter the city the next morning. Before he left, however, al-‘Abbas suggested to the Prophet (pbuh) that as Abu Sufyan was a proud man, it would be good to give him an honorable position. The Prophet (pbuh) took this advice, saying to Abu Sufyan, ‘Tell the people that when we enter, anyone seeking refuge in your house will be safe.’ This was a great honor for Abu Sufyan. In addition, the Prophet (pbuh) told him to assure the Meccans that those who remained in their own homes or at the Ka’bah would also be protected. Abu Sufyan returned quickly to the city. He made straight for the hill Hagar had climbed in her search for water and from which the Prophet (pbuh) later spoke, and called upon Quraysh to come to him. Abu Sufyan then spoke to the people, ‘0 people of Mecca, the fires we saw all around us were the camp fires of Muhammad and his men. He has come with a strong army and there are too many for us to fight. It is best, therefore, to surrender. Anyone who stays in my house, or in his own home, or at the Ka’bah will be safe.’ Early next day, the Muslims entered Mecca from all sides. They had been ordered to cause no harm unless anyone tried to stop them entering. When the Prophet (pbuh) arrived, he got off his camel, bowed down on the ground and thanked Allah for this victory. When the unbelievers saw this, they knew that the Prophet (pbuh) had come in peace. People began leaving their homes and running towards the Ka’bah. When they arrived there, they found the Prophet (pbuh) performing the ritual encircling of the Ka’bah, the tawaf on his camel, surrounded by the Muslims. When he had finished, he said, ‘There no divinity except Allah and He has no partner. Men and women of Quraysh be not proud for all are equal; we are all the sons of Adam, and Adam was made of dust.’ Then he recited this verse to them: In the Name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful “O mankind! Lo! We have created you male and female, and have made you nations and tribes so you may know each another. Surely the noblest of you, in the sight of Allah, is the best in conduct. Lo! Allah is All-knowing, All-aware”. (Koran xlix.13) After this he said to them: ‘O Quraysh, what do you think I am going to do to you?’ The people thought carefully before answering because they knew that according to the laws of war they could all be taken prisoner. They also knew, however, that the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) was generous, so they replied, ‘You will treat us as a kind nephew and a generous brother would.’ To this he replied with the words used by the Prophet Joseph when his brothers came to Egypt: ‘God forgives you and He is the Most Merciful of the merciful.’ Later the Prophet (pbuh) went to the hill of Safa and there the crowd followed him and surged forward, taking his hand one by one, to declare themselves Muslim. He then turned to the Ka’bah and, pointing his staff at the three hundred and sixty-five idols which were placed there, recited from the Koran: In the Name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful “… Truth has come and falsehood has vanished away. Lo! Falsehood is ever bound to vanish”. (Koran xvii.81) At this, each idol fell over onto its face. Together with his followers the Prophet (pbuh) then proceeded to purify the Ka’bah, after which he ordered Bilal to climb on top of it and perform the call to prayer. Since then the call to prayer has been heard five times a day in Mecca. The Ka’bah, the House of Allah, has served the purpose for which it was built by Abraham thousands of years ago, as a sanctuary for the worship of Allah, our Creator, and Mecca continues to be the spiritual centre of Islam. On the day Mecca was conquered, the Prophet (pbuh) addressed the people saying: ‘Allah made Mecca holy the day He created heaven and earth and it is the Holy of Holies until the Resurrection Day. It is not lawful for anyone who believes in Allah and the Last Day to shed blood therein, nor to cut down trees therein. It was not lawful for anyone before me and it will not be lawful for anyone after me. Indeed it is not lawful for me except at this time, only Allah’s anger against his people makes it permissible. Mecca has now regained its former holiness. Let those here now go forth and tell others.’ Source : islamway.com Main article : This Is Muhammad Let’s share as alms …	<urn:uuid:12c24c44-bfb1-4de7-87bb-d3222bac5cc1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ceramahmotivasi.com/2018/03/this-is-muhammad-entry-into-mecca/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00390.warc.gz	en	0.98597	2,146	3.4375	3	[ -0.658431351184845, 0.8344701528549194, -0.1987408846616745, 0.10788923501968384, -0.21269401907920837, 0.10994547605514526, -0.05951644480228424, -0.17675867676734924, -0.14270299673080444, 0.2824234962463379, 0.10955087840557098, -0.37723588943481445, 0.26197579503059387, 0.0458163022994...	2	Despite the improved relations between Mecca and Medinah after the signing of the Treaty of Hudaybiyah, the ten-year peace was to be broken by Quraysh who, with their allies, the Bani Bakr, attacked the Khuza’ah tribe. Now Khuza’ah were allies of the Muslims and when the Prophet (pbuh)heard of the attack he immediately ordered his men to prepare for war. When they were ready he told them that their destination was Mecca and, as he did not want any fighting within the walls of the city, he told them they must move quickly and take the enemy by surprise. In this way the Meccans would not have time to prepare for war and, being surrounded would have to surrender. The Muslims would then be able to take the city without injury or loss of life to anyone. When the Muslim army, which numbered ten thousand, set out for Mecca it was the month of Ramadan in the eighth year of the Hijrah. Many of the men kept the fast, even though they were not obliged to because they were travelling. Everyone was jubilant because they were going to Mecca, especially as some of them had not seen their homes in the city for eight long years. In the meantime, the Prophet’s uncle, al-‘Abbas, had decided that the time had come for him and his wife to leave Mecca and join the Prophet (pbuh) in Medinah. They did not, however, have to go far as after a distance of only twenty-five kilometers they came across the Muslim camp. When the Prophet (pbuh) saw them he said, ‘Uncle, your emigration is the last emigration. My prophecy is the last prophecy.’ Al-‘Abbas then joined the army and his wife went on to the safety of Medinah. Night fell and the Muslims made fires to light their camp. The Meccans, looking out of the city, were amazed to see the many fires, and Abu Sufyan went all over Mecca trying to find out whose camp it was. Suddenly he saw al-‘Abbas riding towards him from the direction of the fires. He was returning as a messenger of peace from the Prophet (pbuh) and said to Abu Sufyan, ‘The Muslims have come with a large army. They do not wish to fight, only to enter the city. It would be better to surrender and not fight. Come under my protection and meet the Prophet (pbuh).’ Abu Sufyan agreed, and got up behind al-Abbas, who was riding the Prophet’s white mule. It was still night as they entered the Muslim camp. Each time they passed a fire, someone would call out, ‘Who goes there?’ None of them recognized the stranger as the leader of their enemy but all knew al-‘Abbas and so let them through. As they passed by ‘Umar, however, he immediately recognized Abu Sufyan and yelled out, ‘Abu Sufyan! The enemy of Allah!’ He ran after them intending to kill his enemy but al-‘Abbas made the mule go faster. They reached the Prophet’s tent just before ‘Umar who rushed in after them quite out of breath. ‘Umar begged the Prophet (pbuh), ‘O Messenger of Allah, let me end the life of Abu Sufyan, this enemy of Islam, who has led the Quraysh armies in their attacks on us!’ Al-‘Abbas interrupted, saying, ‘I have sworn to protect him during his time here whereupon the Prophet (pbuh) told his uncle to take Abu Sufyan to his tent for the night. In the morning Abu Sufyan was taken to the Prophet (pbuh) who said, ‘Abu Sufyan! Have you not yet realized that there is no divinity but Allah?’ To this Abu Sufyan replied, ‘If there had been another he surely would Have helped me by now.’ ‘Shame on you, Abu Sufyan’, responded the Prophet (pbuh), ‘it is time you realize that I am truly Allah’s Messenger.’ After a moment or two, Abu Sufyan, who remembered how ‘Umar had not been allowed to kill him, replied: ‘I can see you are a generous and forgiving man but I still cannot be sure of that.’ At this, al-‘Abbas, who had been standing nearby turned to him and said: ‘Believe as I do now.’ Abu Sufyan stood quietly for a moment, then in a calm, clear voice swore in front of everyone, there is no divinity but Allah, and Muhammad is the messenger of Allah.’ The Prophet (pbuh) then told Abu Sufyan to go back to Mecca and tell the people that the Muslims would enter the city the next morning. Before he left, however, al-‘Abbas suggested to the Prophet (pbuh) that as Abu Sufyan was a proud man, it would be good to give him an honorable position. The Prophet (pbuh) took this advice, saying to Abu Sufyan, ‘Tell the people that when we enter, anyone seeking refuge in your house will be safe.’ This was a great honor for Abu Sufyan. In addition, the Prophet (pbuh) told him to assure the Meccans that those who remained in their own homes or at the Ka’bah would also be protected. Abu Sufyan returned quickly to the city. He made straight for the hill Hagar had climbed in her search for water and from which the Prophet (pbuh) later spoke, and called upon Quraysh to come to him. Abu Sufyan then spoke to the people, ‘0 people of Mecca, the fires we saw all around us were the camp fires of Muhammad and his men. He has come with a strong army and there are too many for us to fight. It is best, therefore, to surrender. Anyone who stays in my house, or in his own home, or at the Ka’bah will be safe.’ Early next day, the Muslims entered Mecca from all sides. They had been ordered to cause no harm unless anyone tried to stop them entering. When the Prophet (pbuh) arrived, he got off his camel, bowed down on the ground and thanked Allah for this victory. When the unbelievers saw this, they knew that the Prophet (pbuh) had come in peace. People began leaving their homes and running towards the Ka’bah. When they arrived there, they found the Prophet (pbuh) performing the ritual encircling of the Ka’bah, the tawaf on his camel, surrounded by the Muslims. When he had finished, he said, ‘There no divinity except Allah and He has no partner. Men and women of Quraysh be not proud for all are equal; we are all the sons of Adam, and Adam was made of dust.’ Then he recited this verse to them: In the Name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful “O mankind! Lo! We have created you male and female, and have made you nations and tribes so you may know each another. Surely the noblest of you, in the sight of Allah, is the best in conduct. Lo! Allah is All-knowing, All-aware”. (Koran xlix.13) After this he said to them: ‘O Quraysh, what do you think I am going to do to you?’ The people thought carefully before answering because they knew that according to the laws of war they could all be taken prisoner. They also knew, however, that the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) was generous, so they replied, ‘You will treat us as a kind nephew and a generous brother would.’ To this he replied with the words used by the Prophet Joseph when his brothers came to Egypt: ‘God forgives you and He is the Most Merciful of the merciful.’ Later the Prophet (pbuh) went to the hill of Safa and there the crowd followed him and surged forward, taking his hand one by one, to declare themselves Muslim. He then turned to the Ka’bah and, pointing his staff at the three hundred and sixty-five idols which were placed there, recited from the Koran: In the Name of Allah, the Beneficent, the Merciful “… Truth has come and falsehood has vanished away. Lo! Falsehood is ever bound to vanish”. (Koran xvii.81) At this, each idol fell over onto its face. Together with his followers the Prophet (pbuh) then proceeded to purify the Ka’bah, after which he ordered Bilal to climb on top of it and perform the call to prayer. Since then the call to prayer has been heard five times a day in Mecca. The Ka’bah, the House of Allah, has served the purpose for which it was built by Abraham thousands of years ago, as a sanctuary for the worship of Allah, our Creator, and Mecca continues to be the spiritual centre of Islam. On the day Mecca was conquered, the Prophet (pbuh) addressed the people saying: ‘Allah made Mecca holy the day He created heaven and earth and it is the Holy of Holies until the Resurrection Day. It is not lawful for anyone who believes in Allah and the Last Day to shed blood therein, nor to cut down trees therein. It was not lawful for anyone before me and it will not be lawful for anyone after me. Indeed it is not lawful for me except at this time, only Allah’s anger against his people makes it permissible. Mecca has now regained its former holiness. Let those here now go forth and tell others.’ Source : islamway.com Main article : This Is Muhammad Let’s share as alms …	2,046	ENGLISH	1
Fredrick Douglass, an Abolitionist The well-known abolitionist leader, Frederick Douglass was born into slavery in the 19th century and at a early age he realized that there was a connection between literacy and freedom, giving this the first step for his works. He became a prominent intellectual, advising presidents and lecturing on a range of causes. Within his writings there are several autobiographies, including Narrative of the Life of Fredrick Douglass, An American Slave. This was written as a response to cynics who refused to accept that he was a slave, without a formal education; thus disapproving of his ideals. Fredrick Douglass published his autobiography to advocate for freedom and to establish the truth about slavery by using rhetorical devices, which served to strengthen the abolitionist point of view. Fredrick Douglass narrated the hardships that he had to endure as a slave, while describing his life with rich and descriptive language. This does not only serve as an autobiography but also has a political purpose. He appeals to his audience by conveying his emotions and drawing empathy from the readers. With, his works he tries to bolster people to understand his point of view and to finally, to be able to end slavery. He does excellent job writing with rhetorical devices and compelling descriptive stories. Throughout Fredrick Douglass’s autobiography, he implements pathos, ethos, and logos as a way to connect and persuade the reader. In this autobiography the emotion mainly implemented is sympathy, which is not hard because of how slaves were treated as Douglass deeply describes. Implementing pathos he stated: “His presence was painful; his eye flashed confusion; and seldom was his sharp, shrill voice heard, without producing horror and trembling in their ranks.” Douglass uses words as painful, confusion, horror, and trembling to show how Mr. Gorge’s treatment and actions affected them, making it a pathos argument. Another quote that’s pathos is when he narrates what occurred to Demby: “His mangled body sank out of sight, and blood and brains marked the water where he had stood.” Words exactly like mangled body, blood, and brains definitely makes the reader feel all types of emotions. This reality that slaves had to endure, just like the one previously mentioned, stays vividly in the minds of the readers. By recounting his experiences, he allowed to emphasize his hardships and how it felt to have no self-power because another person owned him. This also helped the readers to feel scared; just as he felt as a boy. Using this argument based on emotions helped connected with their pain. Pathos, for me, is the easiest form of rhetoric to find use and identify with. He constructs his ethical appeal, ethos, by fabricating an argument from the beginning of his memoir. Fredrick Douglass starts by claiming that he did not know his birthday or a slave who did. “By far the larger part of the slaves know as little of their ages as horses know of theirs, and it is the wish of most masters within my knowledge to keep their slaves thus ignorant. I do not remember to have ever met a slave who could tell of his birthday”. This is not common in the 21rst century, since everybody knows his or her birthdays. In his time, mainly only white people were able to know this day, because of their position in society. He makes a comparison that they didn’t know their birthday more than horses, which meant that their masters tried to keep their ignorance on high. By developing Christianity as a focus point, Fredrick Douglass’s credibility is supported. This clearly states the ethical asymmetries in the practice of slavery. “Mr. Covey’s forte consisted in his power to deceive. His life was devoted to planning and perpetrating the grossest deceptions. Every thing he possessed in the shape of learning or religion, he made conform to his disposition to deceive. He seemed to think himself equal to deceiving the Almighty. He would make a short prayer in the morning, and a long prayer at night; and, strange as it may seem, few men would at times appear more devotional than he.” Douglass reveals the irony within Mr. Covey by exposing him as a sinner. This establishes an ethical paradox of being a Christian and a slave owner. “My awkwardness was almost always his excuse for whipping me”. The quote stated previously make no sense since “being awkward” is not reason to beat a person, not that it can ever be justified. Beating up a person for any reason is considered to be irrational, since we couldn’t understand what being owned feels. This makes the readers see Mr. Covey as a bad person, reaching this conclusion by thinking logically. Douglass makes a convincing argument due to his logical and well-written autobiography. He uses sophisticated vocabulary along with specific geographic locations. He gives credit where it is due in order to avoid accusation of unjust bias. Personification is also used throughout Douglass’s personal story. “Those beautiful vessels, robed in purest white, so delightful to the eye of freemen, were to me so many shrouded ghosts, to terrify and torment me with thoughts of my wretched condition.” The passage above describes how Douglass watches ships sailing away from Chesapeake Bay. By personifying one of the ships in the eyes of freed men, he creates a very powerful connotation of being free. By doing this he laments his position in compared to the ship. At the same time, cleverly he created a connotation from the slave’s perspective by personifying the hip a “shrouded ghost”. Throughout his autobiography he also introduces parallelism as a way to connect with the audience. “If a slave was convicted of a high misdemeanor, became unmanageable, or evinced a determination to run away, he was brought immediately here, severely whipped, put on board the sloop… and “they find less difficulty from the want of beds, that the want of time to sleep.” These sentences demonstrate the strict dominance that owners had over slaves. The first quote is a very long sentence, which Douglass introduced to emphasize the process that owners went through when they were being torture, making it seem almost dull to the slave owners and for the slave, totally comprehensible. They were so abused that they got slaves to believe that the plantation was a good place for them. Fredrick Douglass’s complex word choices and advanced sentence structure lead one to believe that his writing was intended to be read by an upper class. He had to prove that he was intelligent and should be taken seriously. He is able to be successful in establishing ethos, pathos and logos. By establishing himself equal to his audience, he is able to stimulate emotion and influence their feelings of a need for change, persuading them. By desiring for his audience to understanding him, he establishes credibility, while connecting with the audience through rhetorical devices. He did an amazing job in writing this autobiography and integrating rhetorical appeals such as: appeals, personification and parallelism, showing his transformation from an uneducated slave to a very well known orator.	<urn:uuid:78a0f45c-78ac-423d-b3c0-71f2ffca82bb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essayhub.net/essays/the-analysis-of-fredrick-douglass-autobiography	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00522.warc.gz	en	0.986547	1,505	4.0625	4	[ -0.027626823633909225, 0.43716174364089966, 0.48221391439437866, 0.32097893953323364, -0.26682478189468384, 0.004810703452676535, 0.22984591126441956, -0.1411859691143036, -0.1962544471025467, -0.1426895260810852, -0.2166559398174286, 0.04050838202238083, -0.3685036897659302, 0.29614740610...	2	Fredrick Douglass, an Abolitionist The well-known abolitionist leader, Frederick Douglass was born into slavery in the 19th century and at a early age he realized that there was a connection between literacy and freedom, giving this the first step for his works. He became a prominent intellectual, advising presidents and lecturing on a range of causes. Within his writings there are several autobiographies, including Narrative of the Life of Fredrick Douglass, An American Slave. This was written as a response to cynics who refused to accept that he was a slave, without a formal education; thus disapproving of his ideals. Fredrick Douglass published his autobiography to advocate for freedom and to establish the truth about slavery by using rhetorical devices, which served to strengthen the abolitionist point of view. Fredrick Douglass narrated the hardships that he had to endure as a slave, while describing his life with rich and descriptive language. This does not only serve as an autobiography but also has a political purpose. He appeals to his audience by conveying his emotions and drawing empathy from the readers. With, his works he tries to bolster people to understand his point of view and to finally, to be able to end slavery. He does excellent job writing with rhetorical devices and compelling descriptive stories. Throughout Fredrick Douglass’s autobiography, he implements pathos, ethos, and logos as a way to connect and persuade the reader. In this autobiography the emotion mainly implemented is sympathy, which is not hard because of how slaves were treated as Douglass deeply describes. Implementing pathos he stated: “His presence was painful; his eye flashed confusion; and seldom was his sharp, shrill voice heard, without producing horror and trembling in their ranks.” Douglass uses words as painful, confusion, horror, and trembling to show how Mr. Gorge’s treatment and actions affected them, making it a pathos argument. Another quote that’s pathos is when he narrates what occurred to Demby: “His mangled body sank out of sight, and blood and brains marked the water where he had stood.” Words exactly like mangled body, blood, and brains definitely makes the reader feel all types of emotions. This reality that slaves had to endure, just like the one previously mentioned, stays vividly in the minds of the readers. By recounting his experiences, he allowed to emphasize his hardships and how it felt to have no self-power because another person owned him. This also helped the readers to feel scared; just as he felt as a boy. Using this argument based on emotions helped connected with their pain. Pathos, for me, is the easiest form of rhetoric to find use and identify with. He constructs his ethical appeal, ethos, by fabricating an argument from the beginning of his memoir. Fredrick Douglass starts by claiming that he did not know his birthday or a slave who did. “By far the larger part of the slaves know as little of their ages as horses know of theirs, and it is the wish of most masters within my knowledge to keep their slaves thus ignorant. I do not remember to have ever met a slave who could tell of his birthday”. This is not common in the 21rst century, since everybody knows his or her birthdays. In his time, mainly only white people were able to know this day, because of their position in society. He makes a comparison that they didn’t know their birthday more than horses, which meant that their masters tried to keep their ignorance on high. By developing Christianity as a focus point, Fredrick Douglass’s credibility is supported. This clearly states the ethical asymmetries in the practice of slavery. “Mr. Covey’s forte consisted in his power to deceive. His life was devoted to planning and perpetrating the grossest deceptions. Every thing he possessed in the shape of learning or religion, he made conform to his disposition to deceive. He seemed to think himself equal to deceiving the Almighty. He would make a short prayer in the morning, and a long prayer at night; and, strange as it may seem, few men would at times appear more devotional than he.” Douglass reveals the irony within Mr. Covey by exposing him as a sinner. This establishes an ethical paradox of being a Christian and a slave owner. “My awkwardness was almost always his excuse for whipping me”. The quote stated previously make no sense since “being awkward” is not reason to beat a person, not that it can ever be justified. Beating up a person for any reason is considered to be irrational, since we couldn’t understand what being owned feels. This makes the readers see Mr. Covey as a bad person, reaching this conclusion by thinking logically. Douglass makes a convincing argument due to his logical and well-written autobiography. He uses sophisticated vocabulary along with specific geographic locations. He gives credit where it is due in order to avoid accusation of unjust bias. Personification is also used throughout Douglass’s personal story. “Those beautiful vessels, robed in purest white, so delightful to the eye of freemen, were to me so many shrouded ghosts, to terrify and torment me with thoughts of my wretched condition.” The passage above describes how Douglass watches ships sailing away from Chesapeake Bay. By personifying one of the ships in the eyes of freed men, he creates a very powerful connotation of being free. By doing this he laments his position in compared to the ship. At the same time, cleverly he created a connotation from the slave’s perspective by personifying the hip a “shrouded ghost”. Throughout his autobiography he also introduces parallelism as a way to connect with the audience. “If a slave was convicted of a high misdemeanor, became unmanageable, or evinced a determination to run away, he was brought immediately here, severely whipped, put on board the sloop… and “they find less difficulty from the want of beds, that the want of time to sleep.” These sentences demonstrate the strict dominance that owners had over slaves. The first quote is a very long sentence, which Douglass introduced to emphasize the process that owners went through when they were being torture, making it seem almost dull to the slave owners and for the slave, totally comprehensible. They were so abused that they got slaves to believe that the plantation was a good place for them. Fredrick Douglass’s complex word choices and advanced sentence structure lead one to believe that his writing was intended to be read by an upper class. He had to prove that he was intelligent and should be taken seriously. He is able to be successful in establishing ethos, pathos and logos. By establishing himself equal to his audience, he is able to stimulate emotion and influence their feelings of a need for change, persuading them. By desiring for his audience to understanding him, he establishes credibility, while connecting with the audience through rhetorical devices. He did an amazing job in writing this autobiography and integrating rhetorical appeals such as: appeals, personification and parallelism, showing his transformation from an uneducated slave to a very well known orator.	1,449	ENGLISH	1
Method of destroying railroads: The ties were lighted and rails heated until, from their weight, they bent out of shape. (Picture Source: Carlisle Military Institute) Note: The following newspaper clipping was included in Van W. Sargent's memoirs. Origin and date of paper unknown. TB Sherman devoted himself for awhile to further cripple the Southern Confederacy in his division, by a raid to Meridian, Miss., a very important railroad center where most of the Southern railroads united. He collected an army of two divisions of 10,000 men each at Vicksburg under Gens. Hurlbut and McPherson, and Feb. 3 marched thence to Meridian, 150 miles distant. Gen. Sooy Smith was to cooperate with a large force of cavalry, while Gen. Logan, at Bellefonte, Ala., was to threaten Rome, Ga., and Gen. Thomas was to demonstrate against the troops under Gen. Johnston, at Rocky Face Ridge. Meridian was reached Feb. 14, and the Confederate troops under Gen. Polk withdrew as Sherman advanced. The arsenal, extensive storehouses and cantonments were burned, and the railroads were thoroughly destroyed in some instances for 55 miles; the trestles over swamps were burned, and all rails rendered useless. By this action the bringing up of supplies from Mississippi and Alabama was thoroughly prevented and the railroads were not restored untill after the war. Sooy Smith did not cooperate, as was intended, and thus the expedition was prevented from pushing on to Selma, a chief center of the South. The rebels had openly retired from Meridian and reinforced Selma and Mobile, Ala. Sherman returned to Vicksburg after his command and marched from 300 to 400 miles.	<urn:uuid:a3b8b80e-f55a-4909-bda1-35f840faf097>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://homepages.rootsweb.com/~27thiowa/general/railroaddestruct.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00403.warc.gz	en	0.982879	358	3.515625	4	[ -0.11753715574741364, 0.32630419731140137, 0.4986100494861603, 0.3242665231227875, 0.1698840856552124, -0.4122256934642792, -0.13611608743667603, 0.0317285992205143, -0.5976612567901611, -0.26377010345458984, 0.17005690932273865, -0.23758138716220856, 0.39877521991729736, 0.208815902471542...	4	Method of destroying railroads: The ties were lighted and rails heated until, from their weight, they bent out of shape. (Picture Source: Carlisle Military Institute) Note: The following newspaper clipping was included in Van W. Sargent's memoirs. Origin and date of paper unknown. TB Sherman devoted himself for awhile to further cripple the Southern Confederacy in his division, by a raid to Meridian, Miss., a very important railroad center where most of the Southern railroads united. He collected an army of two divisions of 10,000 men each at Vicksburg under Gens. Hurlbut and McPherson, and Feb. 3 marched thence to Meridian, 150 miles distant. Gen. Sooy Smith was to cooperate with a large force of cavalry, while Gen. Logan, at Bellefonte, Ala., was to threaten Rome, Ga., and Gen. Thomas was to demonstrate against the troops under Gen. Johnston, at Rocky Face Ridge. Meridian was reached Feb. 14, and the Confederate troops under Gen. Polk withdrew as Sherman advanced. The arsenal, extensive storehouses and cantonments were burned, and the railroads were thoroughly destroyed in some instances for 55 miles; the trestles over swamps were burned, and all rails rendered useless. By this action the bringing up of supplies from Mississippi and Alabama was thoroughly prevented and the railroads were not restored untill after the war. Sooy Smith did not cooperate, as was intended, and thus the expedition was prevented from pushing on to Selma, a chief center of the South. The rebels had openly retired from Meridian and reinforced Selma and Mobile, Ala. Sherman returned to Vicksburg after his command and marched from 300 to 400 miles.	377	ENGLISH	1
by Kathleen Brigham Director, The Learning Consultants of Manhattan For many middle school students, putting ideas on paper or computer is not an easy task. You ask them to write about anything and they cannot come up with a single thing. I use the following techniques to help my middle schoolers with writing blocks, but really you can use these ideas with any age. Often the idea of brainstorming is too vague and open ended. Students need some structure and guidelines around brainstorming. I ask a student what he wants to write about, if he doesn’t know, I ask him what he likes to do outside of school. If he can’t answer that or those ideas do not excite him, I ask him what he did over the weekend. Usually this conversation sparks something of interest, such as “I had a sleepover”. This conversation then turns into a story itself and I ask the student to start writing down what we are talking about. I often have to point out that they have just brainstormed their way into a writing topic. If a student is just too stuck to even speak, I tell them to get up. I get a tennis ball and start throwing it back and forth. They look at me like I am crazy and then I start to ask them questions. The only rule is that they have to throw the ball back right away and can’t hang onto it. I then throw the ball and ask them what they did yesterday (or over the summer or last weekend) and they tell me. I keep throwing the ball and asking more questions and they start to laugh and loosen up. Soon their ideas are flowing and they are telling me what they did, how it looked and what they felt. Changing the way they focus and having them think about something else often helps a student to become less stressed and therefore less blocked. Usually my students are begging me to do this with them every time. I tell them to do it with a parent or friend or I explain that even throwing the ball with themselves can do the trick. STARTING TO WRITE Now that we have the idea, once I ask the student to now start writing the story, they turn blank again. This is when I turn to the list idea. I ask the student to simply list what happened at the sleepover. Where did he go, what did they have for dinner, what movie did they watch, what time did they get to sleep. They look at me in disbelief and tell me that this story is not interesting. I tell them to keep listing. Once the list of events is down, I then ask them to go back and add in detail. Describe the house you went to, what was the dinner like, where did you sleep? And then I ask them to go back and tell me how they FELT in those situations. Was dinner something you had never eaten and was it gross? Was the room you slept in creepy and too dark? What did your sleeping bag smell like? Were you nervous? Excited? This idea of show, don’t just tell, is a difficult one. But I find by going back to the story once it is organized into beginning, middle and end, the student has an easier time adding these details of description. Often it is just too overwhelming to try to do all of that at once. Somehow when a student speaks about something that happened to them, all kinds of descriptive and interesting words are used. Ask that same student to write down what happened and the same words are used again and again and the sentences are all list form. I went to my friend’s house. We had dinner. Then we watched a movie. It was fun. I give my students a few options here to help with their word choice and sentence structure. The first is to write the story and then go back and switch up and change words. For instance, if they say something was fun, I tell them that they have to tell me why it was fun. In telling me that it was fun because it was exciting or scary, they can change the sentence to use these words instead. As far as sentence structure goes, I tell the students to change the order after they have written the sentence. For instance, if they write, “I was so excited to go to John’s house for a sleepover” I tell them to change the order around. “Sleeping over at John’s house made me so excited I could hardly sleep the night before.” This helps students stick with their ideas but makes the structure more interesting and varied for the reader. Most of these exercises really help students when it comes to getting unblocked. But I have found for a few students, that none of this helps. This is when I offer to become the typist. I have the student come out of the room with me and turn his back to me. We then start talking about anything. I ask him about school and what sports he likes, he tells me what he did the night before. Invariably, some funny story is triggered and he starts chatting. I start typing and before you know it he is dictating a story to me! Now this is labor and time intensive, but for the student who really cannot get out of his own way, this approach illustrates to him that he has the ability to write a story, he just needed the bridge to get there. I see myself as the bridge. It is not to be done often or every time, but to do it once and show the student that the ideas are in there, gives them the confidence to try it the other ways next time. Middle school aged children have a lot of ideas and like most things they do, they have a hard time breaking ideas down and organizing their thoughts. These tips can help break the ideas down into manageable pieces and show the student that he can in fact write.	<urn:uuid:2a7fbecb-6b91-46f4-ba4a-a79915adbe88>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.tutoringmanhattannewyork.com/2013/04/how-to-dissolve-the-hidden-obstacles-to-middle-school-writing/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00386.warc.gz	en	0.982764	1,217	3.484375	3	[ -0.33296361565589905, 0.08676186203956604, 0.1062084436416626, -0.3121678829193115, -0.07836048305034637, 0.05351914465427399, 0.3359515964984894, 0.39454880356788635, -0.08031195402145386, -0.2893238663673401, 0.06160302460193634, 0.6172131299972534, 0.07181087881326675, 0.185429453849792...	2	by Kathleen Brigham Director, The Learning Consultants of Manhattan For many middle school students, putting ideas on paper or computer is not an easy task. You ask them to write about anything and they cannot come up with a single thing. I use the following techniques to help my middle schoolers with writing blocks, but really you can use these ideas with any age. Often the idea of brainstorming is too vague and open ended. Students need some structure and guidelines around brainstorming. I ask a student what he wants to write about, if he doesn’t know, I ask him what he likes to do outside of school. If he can’t answer that or those ideas do not excite him, I ask him what he did over the weekend. Usually this conversation sparks something of interest, such as “I had a sleepover”. This conversation then turns into a story itself and I ask the student to start writing down what we are talking about. I often have to point out that they have just brainstormed their way into a writing topic. If a student is just too stuck to even speak, I tell them to get up. I get a tennis ball and start throwing it back and forth. They look at me like I am crazy and then I start to ask them questions. The only rule is that they have to throw the ball back right away and can’t hang onto it. I then throw the ball and ask them what they did yesterday (or over the summer or last weekend) and they tell me. I keep throwing the ball and asking more questions and they start to laugh and loosen up. Soon their ideas are flowing and they are telling me what they did, how it looked and what they felt. Changing the way they focus and having them think about something else often helps a student to become less stressed and therefore less blocked. Usually my students are begging me to do this with them every time. I tell them to do it with a parent or friend or I explain that even throwing the ball with themselves can do the trick. STARTING TO WRITE Now that we have the idea, once I ask the student to now start writing the story, they turn blank again. This is when I turn to the list idea. I ask the student to simply list what happened at the sleepover. Where did he go, what did they have for dinner, what movie did they watch, what time did they get to sleep. They look at me in disbelief and tell me that this story is not interesting. I tell them to keep listing. Once the list of events is down, I then ask them to go back and add in detail. Describe the house you went to, what was the dinner like, where did you sleep? And then I ask them to go back and tell me how they FELT in those situations. Was dinner something you had never eaten and was it gross? Was the room you slept in creepy and too dark? What did your sleeping bag smell like? Were you nervous? Excited? This idea of show, don’t just tell, is a difficult one. But I find by going back to the story once it is organized into beginning, middle and end, the student has an easier time adding these details of description. Often it is just too overwhelming to try to do all of that at once. Somehow when a student speaks about something that happened to them, all kinds of descriptive and interesting words are used. Ask that same student to write down what happened and the same words are used again and again and the sentences are all list form. I went to my friend’s house. We had dinner. Then we watched a movie. It was fun. I give my students a few options here to help with their word choice and sentence structure. The first is to write the story and then go back and switch up and change words. For instance, if they say something was fun, I tell them that they have to tell me why it was fun. In telling me that it was fun because it was exciting or scary, they can change the sentence to use these words instead. As far as sentence structure goes, I tell the students to change the order after they have written the sentence. For instance, if they write, “I was so excited to go to John’s house for a sleepover” I tell them to change the order around. “Sleeping over at John’s house made me so excited I could hardly sleep the night before.” This helps students stick with their ideas but makes the structure more interesting and varied for the reader. Most of these exercises really help students when it comes to getting unblocked. But I have found for a few students, that none of this helps. This is when I offer to become the typist. I have the student come out of the room with me and turn his back to me. We then start talking about anything. I ask him about school and what sports he likes, he tells me what he did the night before. Invariably, some funny story is triggered and he starts chatting. I start typing and before you know it he is dictating a story to me! Now this is labor and time intensive, but for the student who really cannot get out of his own way, this approach illustrates to him that he has the ability to write a story, he just needed the bridge to get there. I see myself as the bridge. It is not to be done often or every time, but to do it once and show the student that the ideas are in there, gives them the confidence to try it the other ways next time. Middle school aged children have a lot of ideas and like most things they do, they have a hard time breaking ideas down and organizing their thoughts. These tips can help break the ideas down into manageable pieces and show the student that he can in fact write.	1,180	ENGLISH	1
Are the travels of Marco Polo fact or fiction? Marco Polo was one of the greatest’ explorers of the Middle Ages and he was the first person to make Europe aware of the great power and culture of China. He recounted his travels, throughout Asia, in a book that made him famous. The influence of the story of Marco Polo and his travels on Europeans cannot be overstated. His adventures inspired many later explores, such as Christopher Columbus and his accounts did much to encourage the development of cartography. However, not everyone believed Polo’s accounts of his travel in Asia and China. Many have regarded his account as a delightful work of fiction, and some believe him to be a liar. This article discusses if Marco Polo’s travels were based on actual events and are the Italian’s account plausible. It will also examine’ issues such as omissions, exaggerations and how reliable is the great traveler’s account as a historical document. Life of Marco Polo Marco was born in 1254 in the Republic of Venice which was a great mercantile power in medieval Europe and had extensive trading contacts with the Muslim world. He was born into a successful family of merchants. We know little about his early life, but he appears to have been apprenticed to a merchant and received little formal education. At the age of seventeen, he accompanied his uncle and father on a trading expedition to Asia. They had already traded and traveled in Asia for many years. The Polo’s left Venice and did not return home for 24 years. They had traveled the Silk Road and made their way to China and they appear to have been very successful. Marco apparently even served in the administration of the Emperor and had visited the Imperial court, many times . The Polos returned to Venice in 1295 with a great many gemstones and jewels. Marco was a wealthy man and married the daughter of a leading merchant. Venice was frequently at war with its great rival, the Italian city-state of Genoa. Marco was so wealthy that he fitted out a warship which he personally commanded. He was captured at the great Venetian defeat by Genoa at the battle of Curzola (1298), imprisoned by the Genoese and held for ransom. In prison, the merchant was held captive with Rustichello da Pisa, who was a well-known popular writer. Marco recounted his many adventures in Asia to the Pisan writer. Rustichello later used Marco’s stories and he incorporated them into a book. . The book The Travels of Marco Polo was a best-seller and was read throughout Europe. Marco was later released and returned to his native Venice. Polo continued to trade but he never again left his home city and he died in 1324. There has been controversy over the veracity of his claims, since his death. The travels in China and elsewhere Based on the book, it is possible to reconstruct the travels of Marco, it has been estimated that he traveled over 15,000 miles on horseback, ship and foot. The books opens with an account of his uncle and father traveling the Silk Road and meeting the great Emperor, Kublai Khan, the Emperor of China in his capital Dadu (present-day Beijing). He was the grandson of the Mongol conqueror Genghis Khan and he ruled Northern China and later conquered south China and beyond, forging one of the greatest Empires in the Medieval World. Kubali Khan founded the Yuan Dynasty, that ruled all much of East Asia, for almost a century (1271-1368). He requested that the Polos secure him some holy oil and to bring a message of goodwill from him to the Pope. The two Venetians eventually made their way to Venice and here Marco met his father for the first time in years. He accompanied the two older men back to Asia and traversed the Silk Road and he vividly describes the dangers on this route, including bandits, deserts and dust storms. Upon his arrival in China, he met Kublai Khan and became a valued member of his court, partly because of his skill with languages . Polo even carried out administrative duties for the Khan and as a result, he visited many areas of China. He traveled throughout the domains of the Mongols in East Asia. He also visited Tibet, Burma and even sailed on the South China Sea. Marco met many members of the Mongol and Chinese elite and visited many cities. The Khan was reluctant to leave the Venetians to return home, for reasons unknown. The Europeans knew that they needed the protection of the Khan and that if he suddenly died or was deposed they could be killed. Sometime in 1293, the Mongol ruler of the Ilkhanate Empire in Persia contracted a marriage alliance with Kublai Khan. The Emperor of China agreed and sent one of his daughters or a niece to Persia, to become the wife of the Mongol ruler . The Polo’s used this occasion to secure permission to leave the court of the Great Khan and they traveled to with the bride and her retinue. They took the sea route and Marco observed many islands and harbors, in modern Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and the Persian Gulf. The Polos barely survived the hazardous journey and after arriving in Persia they made their way to the Byzantine Empire and found a passage to Venice. Omissions and exaggerations The Travels of Marco Polo has always divided audiences. Many have treated the book as a work of fiction. There are those who believe that it does give a flawed account of East Asia. Those who are skeptical of the narrative point to the many omissions . This has led some to suggest that he only visited the Chinese capital, or only repeated stories he heard from others. There is, in fact, no mention of the Great Wall of China, which traverses a large part of the north of that vast country. Then while he makes references to many place names, modern scholars have not been able to identify them. Then he failed to mention many customs of the Chinese and Mongols, that would have seemed novel and noteworthy to a European traveller, such as footbinding. Then there have been many who accused the Venetian of fabricating some of his adventures. Some of his tales do verge on the fabulous and there are obvious embellishments. There are certainly omissions in the account of Polo, and this is something that is not unexpected. He did not actually write the book, he only dictated it to Rustichello. Moreover, Marco may have forgotten some facts, he was often recalling things that happened almost 20 years previously. Marco Polo has become synonymous with many down the centuries as a great exaggerator . In particular, he was accused of exaggeration and even outright lies when he recounted the sexual practices of single Tibetan women. However, anthropologists in the twentieth century confirmed Marco’s claims. There are some who dispute the fact that the Venetians could have become so close to the great Mongol leader Kublai Khan. However, the Yuan Dynasty often employed foreigners in China in the government because they did not trust the native Han Chinese and this increases the likelihood, that Marco was actually close to the Khan. Facts in his narratives There are some scholars who pointed out the many proven historical facts in the narrative of the Venetian merchant. He gave a very accurate account of the Mongol system of administration and their rule. The Italian also accurately describes Chinese social norms and practices at the time. He also recounts quite correctly the prosperity and advanced technology of the Chinese state and its many cities . Some of his observations have been proven to be correct by archaeologists. For example, the Italian observed that there were many Nestorian Churches in Central China and the remains of these have been found in recent decades. The story of the Mongol princess being sent to Persia to marry the Ilkhanate ruler has been confirmed by Persian documentary sources. Moreover, the Venetian was able to observe accurately the technologies of the Chinese, especially naval technology. It is believed that he shared these when he returned home to Venice. In general, many of his descriptions of the geography of China and East Asia was generally accurate and so too is his description of the Northern Silk Road. Evidence that he knew China very well can be seen in his accurate accounts of paper currency and taxation . There is a wealth of details that would confirm that the Italian visited and was familiar with Yuan society and its economy. There is also evidence that his descriptions of his travels outside China were also on the whole accurate. The Italian also gave a good description of Hindu customs in India, and the spices of South-East Asia. However, it is probably safe to assume that Marco did not always fully understand what he had seen . Rustichello and the travels of Marco Polo Many believed that the travelogue of the Venetian and his adventures was embellished by Rustichello. He was a writer who specialized in Romances and fabulous tales and was best known for his popular stories on King Arthur and Camelot. The Travels of Marco Polo has many of the stylistic characteristics of the Pisan writer’s earlier works. There are some references to marvels and fabulous stories in the narrative of the Italian. There are notorious descriptions in the book of men with the heads of dogs. Then there is the historically inaccurate story of a great Christian ruler in Asia, who was called Prester John. In some passages of the narrative, there is a blend of true facts and fabrications. For example, when the Italian, describes the Indonesian Island of Sumatra, he stated correctly, that there were cannibals on the island, but he also states that there were men with tails to be found here also. It seems likely that Rustichello either encouraged the Venetian to exaggerate somethings, or to make things up . This was in an effort to make the Venetian’s adventures more appealing. It also seems that the Pisan writer added material from his own writings, to make the work more appealing to the general audience. It was also expected, at the time that a work of travel literature would have fabulous stories and reports of marvels. The more fabulous stories in the travelogue have done much to undermine the credibility of the account of Marco Polo . During his lifetime and since many people believed that Marco had simply made his journey to China up and that he was something of a liar. As he lay on his deathbed, a Dominican friary implored the Venetian to admit that he had lied in his book and to repent, so that he would die sinless. The proud merchant refused and said he had only told the truth and that he had not related half of what he had witnessed. In general, the Venetian had given a faithful account of what he saw on his travels on the Silk Road, China, and Asia. His work is filled with many facts that are confirmed by other sources and archaeology. It does seem likely that he traveled extensively in China and served the great Khan. Much of what is recorded in the 14th-century narrative is accurate and therefore it has some historical value. However, it cannot be denied that there are many fabulous and incredible stories in the book. This may have been a result of the Pisan author who recorded the stories and his desire to make the work a success. Marco Polo’s records of his travels and adventures are in general authentic and somewhat reliable, however, they need to be read with care because of some fabrications, exaggerations, and omissions. Polo, Marco. The Travels of Marco Polo. No. 306 (London, JM Dent & Sons, 1918). Tucci, Giuseppe. "Marco Polo." East and West 5, no. 1 (1954): 5-14. Zhou, Gang. "Small Talk: A New Reading of Marco Polo's Il milione." MLN 124, no. 1 (2009): 1-22. - Burgan, Michael. Marco Polo: Marco Polo and the silk road to China (London, Capstone, 2002), p. 13 - Burgan, p 117 - Tulk, John. Marco Polo and the encounter of East and West. (Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 2008), p 119 - Tulk, p 113 - Wood, Frances. "Did Marco Polo Go to China?." Asian Affairs 27, no. 3 (1996): 296-304 - Wood, p 298 - Haeger, John W. "Marco Polo in China? Problems with internal evidence." Bulletin of Sung and Yüan Studies 14 (1978): 22-30 - Wood, p. 298 - Vogel, Hans Ulrich. Marco Polo was in China: new evidence from currencies, salt production, and revenues (Netherlands, Brill, 2012), p 67 - Vogel, p 115 - Vogel, p 189 - de Rachewiltz, Igor. "F. Wood's did Marco Polo go to China? A critical appraisal." ( ANU Research Publications, 2002), p. 4 - Jacoby, David. "Marco Polo, his close relatives, and his travel account: Some new insights." Mediterranean Historical Review 21, no. 2 (2006): 193-218	<urn:uuid:fb54a285-329f-486b-ad63-ecf5671b7409>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://dailyhistory.org/index.php?title=Are_the_travels_of_Marco_Polo_fact_or_fiction%3F&oldid=16706&printable=yes	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00228.warc.gz	en	0.983635	2,712	3.296875	3	[ 0.10789357870817184, -0.22008328139781952, 0.20749901235103607, -0.24501217901706696, -0.4821566045284271, -0.17768248915672302, 0.4934231638908386, -0.07534913718700409, -0.009483415633440018, -0.19291533529758453, 0.20587657392024994, -0.3955760598182678, 0.09851152449846268, 0.530861735...	2	Are the travels of Marco Polo fact or fiction? Marco Polo was one of the greatest’ explorers of the Middle Ages and he was the first person to make Europe aware of the great power and culture of China. He recounted his travels, throughout Asia, in a book that made him famous. The influence of the story of Marco Polo and his travels on Europeans cannot be overstated. His adventures inspired many later explores, such as Christopher Columbus and his accounts did much to encourage the development of cartography. However, not everyone believed Polo’s accounts of his travel in Asia and China. Many have regarded his account as a delightful work of fiction, and some believe him to be a liar. This article discusses if Marco Polo’s travels were based on actual events and are the Italian’s account plausible. It will also examine’ issues such as omissions, exaggerations and how reliable is the great traveler’s account as a historical document. Life of Marco Polo Marco was born in 1254 in the Republic of Venice which was a great mercantile power in medieval Europe and had extensive trading contacts with the Muslim world. He was born into a successful family of merchants. We know little about his early life, but he appears to have been apprenticed to a merchant and received little formal education. At the age of seventeen, he accompanied his uncle and father on a trading expedition to Asia. They had already traded and traveled in Asia for many years. The Polo’s left Venice and did not return home for 24 years. They had traveled the Silk Road and made their way to China and they appear to have been very successful. Marco apparently even served in the administration of the Emperor and had visited the Imperial court, many times . The Polos returned to Venice in 1295 with a great many gemstones and jewels. Marco was a wealthy man and married the daughter of a leading merchant. Venice was frequently at war with its great rival, the Italian city-state of Genoa. Marco was so wealthy that he fitted out a warship which he personally commanded. He was captured at the great Venetian defeat by Genoa at the battle of Curzola (1298), imprisoned by the Genoese and held for ransom. In prison, the merchant was held captive with Rustichello da Pisa, who was a well-known popular writer. Marco recounted his many adventures in Asia to the Pisan writer. Rustichello later used Marco’s stories and he incorporated them into a book. . The book The Travels of Marco Polo was a best-seller and was read throughout Europe. Marco was later released and returned to his native Venice. Polo continued to trade but he never again left his home city and he died in 1324. There has been controversy over the veracity of his claims, since his death. The travels in China and elsewhere Based on the book, it is possible to reconstruct the travels of Marco, it has been estimated that he traveled over 15,000 miles on horseback, ship and foot. The books opens with an account of his uncle and father traveling the Silk Road and meeting the great Emperor, Kublai Khan, the Emperor of China in his capital Dadu (present-day Beijing). He was the grandson of the Mongol conqueror Genghis Khan and he ruled Northern China and later conquered south China and beyond, forging one of the greatest Empires in the Medieval World. Kubali Khan founded the Yuan Dynasty, that ruled all much of East Asia, for almost a century (1271-1368). He requested that the Polos secure him some holy oil and to bring a message of goodwill from him to the Pope. The two Venetians eventually made their way to Venice and here Marco met his father for the first time in years. He accompanied the two older men back to Asia and traversed the Silk Road and he vividly describes the dangers on this route, including bandits, deserts and dust storms. Upon his arrival in China, he met Kublai Khan and became a valued member of his court, partly because of his skill with languages . Polo even carried out administrative duties for the Khan and as a result, he visited many areas of China. He traveled throughout the domains of the Mongols in East Asia. He also visited Tibet, Burma and even sailed on the South China Sea. Marco met many members of the Mongol and Chinese elite and visited many cities. The Khan was reluctant to leave the Venetians to return home, for reasons unknown. The Europeans knew that they needed the protection of the Khan and that if he suddenly died or was deposed they could be killed. Sometime in 1293, the Mongol ruler of the Ilkhanate Empire in Persia contracted a marriage alliance with Kublai Khan. The Emperor of China agreed and sent one of his daughters or a niece to Persia, to become the wife of the Mongol ruler . The Polo’s used this occasion to secure permission to leave the court of the Great Khan and they traveled to with the bride and her retinue. They took the sea route and Marco observed many islands and harbors, in modern Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and the Persian Gulf. The Polos barely survived the hazardous journey and after arriving in Persia they made their way to the Byzantine Empire and found a passage to Venice. Omissions and exaggerations The Travels of Marco Polo has always divided audiences. Many have treated the book as a work of fiction. There are those who believe that it does give a flawed account of East Asia. Those who are skeptical of the narrative point to the many omissions . This has led some to suggest that he only visited the Chinese capital, or only repeated stories he heard from others. There is, in fact, no mention of the Great Wall of China, which traverses a large part of the north of that vast country. Then while he makes references to many place names, modern scholars have not been able to identify them. Then he failed to mention many customs of the Chinese and Mongols, that would have seemed novel and noteworthy to a European traveller, such as footbinding. Then there have been many who accused the Venetian of fabricating some of his adventures. Some of his tales do verge on the fabulous and there are obvious embellishments. There are certainly omissions in the account of Polo, and this is something that is not unexpected. He did not actually write the book, he only dictated it to Rustichello. Moreover, Marco may have forgotten some facts, he was often recalling things that happened almost 20 years previously. Marco Polo has become synonymous with many down the centuries as a great exaggerator . In particular, he was accused of exaggeration and even outright lies when he recounted the sexual practices of single Tibetan women. However, anthropologists in the twentieth century confirmed Marco’s claims. There are some who dispute the fact that the Venetians could have become so close to the great Mongol leader Kublai Khan. However, the Yuan Dynasty often employed foreigners in China in the government because they did not trust the native Han Chinese and this increases the likelihood, that Marco was actually close to the Khan. Facts in his narratives There are some scholars who pointed out the many proven historical facts in the narrative of the Venetian merchant. He gave a very accurate account of the Mongol system of administration and their rule. The Italian also accurately describes Chinese social norms and practices at the time. He also recounts quite correctly the prosperity and advanced technology of the Chinese state and its many cities . Some of his observations have been proven to be correct by archaeologists. For example, the Italian observed that there were many Nestorian Churches in Central China and the remains of these have been found in recent decades. The story of the Mongol princess being sent to Persia to marry the Ilkhanate ruler has been confirmed by Persian documentary sources. Moreover, the Venetian was able to observe accurately the technologies of the Chinese, especially naval technology. It is believed that he shared these when he returned home to Venice. In general, many of his descriptions of the geography of China and East Asia was generally accurate and so too is his description of the Northern Silk Road. Evidence that he knew China very well can be seen in his accurate accounts of paper currency and taxation . There is a wealth of details that would confirm that the Italian visited and was familiar with Yuan society and its economy. There is also evidence that his descriptions of his travels outside China were also on the whole accurate. The Italian also gave a good description of Hindu customs in India, and the spices of South-East Asia. However, it is probably safe to assume that Marco did not always fully understand what he had seen . Rustichello and the travels of Marco Polo Many believed that the travelogue of the Venetian and his adventures was embellished by Rustichello. He was a writer who specialized in Romances and fabulous tales and was best known for his popular stories on King Arthur and Camelot. The Travels of Marco Polo has many of the stylistic characteristics of the Pisan writer’s earlier works. There are some references to marvels and fabulous stories in the narrative of the Italian. There are notorious descriptions in the book of men with the heads of dogs. Then there is the historically inaccurate story of a great Christian ruler in Asia, who was called Prester John. In some passages of the narrative, there is a blend of true facts and fabrications. For example, when the Italian, describes the Indonesian Island of Sumatra, he stated correctly, that there were cannibals on the island, but he also states that there were men with tails to be found here also. It seems likely that Rustichello either encouraged the Venetian to exaggerate somethings, or to make things up . This was in an effort to make the Venetian’s adventures more appealing. It also seems that the Pisan writer added material from his own writings, to make the work more appealing to the general audience. It was also expected, at the time that a work of travel literature would have fabulous stories and reports of marvels. The more fabulous stories in the travelogue have done much to undermine the credibility of the account of Marco Polo . During his lifetime and since many people believed that Marco had simply made his journey to China up and that he was something of a liar. As he lay on his deathbed, a Dominican friary implored the Venetian to admit that he had lied in his book and to repent, so that he would die sinless. The proud merchant refused and said he had only told the truth and that he had not related half of what he had witnessed. In general, the Venetian had given a faithful account of what he saw on his travels on the Silk Road, China, and Asia. His work is filled with many facts that are confirmed by other sources and archaeology. It does seem likely that he traveled extensively in China and served the great Khan. Much of what is recorded in the 14th-century narrative is accurate and therefore it has some historical value. However, it cannot be denied that there are many fabulous and incredible stories in the book. This may have been a result of the Pisan author who recorded the stories and his desire to make the work a success. Marco Polo’s records of his travels and adventures are in general authentic and somewhat reliable, however, they need to be read with care because of some fabrications, exaggerations, and omissions. Polo, Marco. The Travels of Marco Polo. No. 306 (London, JM Dent & Sons, 1918). Tucci, Giuseppe. "Marco Polo." East and West 5, no. 1 (1954): 5-14. Zhou, Gang. "Small Talk: A New Reading of Marco Polo's Il milione." MLN 124, no. 1 (2009): 1-22. - Burgan, Michael. Marco Polo: Marco Polo and the silk road to China (London, Capstone, 2002), p. 13 - Burgan, p 117 - Tulk, John. Marco Polo and the encounter of East and West. (Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 2008), p 119 - Tulk, p 113 - Wood, Frances. "Did Marco Polo Go to China?." Asian Affairs 27, no. 3 (1996): 296-304 - Wood, p 298 - Haeger, John W. "Marco Polo in China? Problems with internal evidence." Bulletin of Sung and Yüan Studies 14 (1978): 22-30 - Wood, p. 298 - Vogel, Hans Ulrich. Marco Polo was in China: new evidence from currencies, salt production, and revenues (Netherlands, Brill, 2012), p 67 - Vogel, p 115 - Vogel, p 189 - de Rachewiltz, Igor. "F. Wood's did Marco Polo go to China? A critical appraisal." ( ANU Research Publications, 2002), p. 4 - Jacoby, David. "Marco Polo, his close relatives, and his travel account: Some new insights." Mediterranean Historical Review 21, no. 2 (2006): 193-218	2,812	ENGLISH	1
On January 19, 1809, poet, author and literary critic Edgar Allan Poe is born in Boston, Massachusetts. By the time he was three years old, both of Poe’s parents had died, leaving him in the care of his godfather, John Allan, a wealthy tobacco merchant. After attending school in England, Poe entered the University of Virginia (UVA) in 1826. After fighting with Allan over his heavy gambling debts, he was forced to leave UVA after only eight months. Poe then served two years in the U.S. Army and won an appointment to West Point. After another falling-out, Allan cut him off completely and he got himself dismissed from the academy for rules infractions. Dark, handsome and brooding, Poe had published three works of poetry by that time, none of which had received much attention. In 1836, while working as an editor at the Southern Literary Messenger in Richmond, Virginia, Poe married his 13-year-old cousin, Virginia Clemm. He also completed his first full-length work of fiction, Arthur Gordon Pym, published in 1838. Poe lost his job at the Messenger due to his heavy drinking, and the couple moved to Philadelphia, where Poe worked as an editor at Burton’s Gentleman’s Magazine and Graham’s Magazine. He became known for his direct and incisive criticism, as well as for dark horror stories like “The Fall of the House of Usher” and “The Tell-Tale Heart.” Also around this time, Poe began writing mystery stories, including “The Murders in the Rue Morgue” and “The Purloined Letter”–works that would earn him a reputation as the father of the modern detective story. In 1844, the Poes moved to New York City. He scored a spectacular success the following year with his poem “The Raven.” While Poe was working to launch The Broadway Journal–which soon failed–his wife Virginia fell ill and died of tuberculosis in early 1847. His wife’s death drove Poe even deeper into alcoholism and drug abuse. After becoming involved with several women, Poe returned to Richmond in 1849 and got engaged to an old flame. Before the wedding, however, Poe died suddenly. Though circumstances are somewhat unclear, it appeared he began drinking at a party in Baltimore and disappeared, only to be found incoherent in a gutter three days later. Taken to the hospital, he died on October 7, 1849, at age 40. READ MORE: The Riddle of Edgar Allan Poe's Death	<urn:uuid:e97fa891-d4fc-4765-a8d9-9fb3dfc6b249>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/edgar-allan-poe-is-born?cmpid=email-hist-tdih-2016-0119-01192016&om_rid=de5e4076c942a595dbda53f758321d197499484f6d117f61b6ac5c08e0d6f0aa&om_mid=14920314&kx_EmailCampaignID=1830&kx_EmailCampaignName=email-hist-tdih-2016-0119-01192016&kx_EmailRecipientID=de5e4076c942a595dbda53f758321d197499484f6d117f61b6ac5c08e0d6f0aa	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00036.warc.gz	en	0.989333	538	3.421875	3	[ -0.06399692595005035, 0.31243234872817993, 0.3627021312713623, 0.19584354758262634, -0.41496652364730835, -0.024569304659962654, 0.21981216967105865, -0.16768771409988403, -0.17319469153881073, -0.12935712933540344, 0.2711030840873718, 0.36597418785095215, -0.09331558644771576, -0.07667566...	3	On January 19, 1809, poet, author and literary critic Edgar Allan Poe is born in Boston, Massachusetts. By the time he was three years old, both of Poe’s parents had died, leaving him in the care of his godfather, John Allan, a wealthy tobacco merchant. After attending school in England, Poe entered the University of Virginia (UVA) in 1826. After fighting with Allan over his heavy gambling debts, he was forced to leave UVA after only eight months. Poe then served two years in the U.S. Army and won an appointment to West Point. After another falling-out, Allan cut him off completely and he got himself dismissed from the academy for rules infractions. Dark, handsome and brooding, Poe had published three works of poetry by that time, none of which had received much attention. In 1836, while working as an editor at the Southern Literary Messenger in Richmond, Virginia, Poe married his 13-year-old cousin, Virginia Clemm. He also completed his first full-length work of fiction, Arthur Gordon Pym, published in 1838. Poe lost his job at the Messenger due to his heavy drinking, and the couple moved to Philadelphia, where Poe worked as an editor at Burton’s Gentleman’s Magazine and Graham’s Magazine. He became known for his direct and incisive criticism, as well as for dark horror stories like “The Fall of the House of Usher” and “The Tell-Tale Heart.” Also around this time, Poe began writing mystery stories, including “The Murders in the Rue Morgue” and “The Purloined Letter”–works that would earn him a reputation as the father of the modern detective story. In 1844, the Poes moved to New York City. He scored a spectacular success the following year with his poem “The Raven.” While Poe was working to launch The Broadway Journal–which soon failed–his wife Virginia fell ill and died of tuberculosis in early 1847. His wife’s death drove Poe even deeper into alcoholism and drug abuse. After becoming involved with several women, Poe returned to Richmond in 1849 and got engaged to an old flame. Before the wedding, however, Poe died suddenly. Though circumstances are somewhat unclear, it appeared he began drinking at a party in Baltimore and disappeared, only to be found incoherent in a gutter three days later. Taken to the hospital, he died on October 7, 1849, at age 40. READ MORE: The Riddle of Edgar Allan Poe's Death	540	ENGLISH	1
For a man whose works have been translated into more than 80 languages, including Klingon and Esperanto, we know remarkably little about England’s most famous playwright. Even his birth, on or around 23 April 1564, is unconfirmed – a proposed date based on an entry in a parish register, which lists the baptism of “Gulielmus filius Johannes Shakespere” (William, son of John Shakespeare) on 26 April 1564. Much of Shakespeare’s early life, too, is shrouded in mystery. We know that he was born in a two-storey, half-timbered house on Henley Street in the heart of Stratford-upon-Avon, and that he lived there until his mid-20s. The house, now open to the public, was purchased as a national monument in 1847 and is key to our understanding of Shakespeare as a boy. Millions of people continue to visit his birthplace in the hope it will reveal the innermost secrets of the great playwright – what he was like, how he wrote, what he thought and how he felt. John Shakespeare lived in the house from the early 1550s onwards, joined there around 1557 by his new wife Mary. The first documentary evidence linking the family to the house is a fine issued to John Shakespeare in April 1552 for leaving a “sterquinium”, or muckheap, outside the Henley Street property. William was the couple’s first surviving child. Two daughters, Joan and Margaret, had both died before their first birthdays. Five more children followed William’s birth: Gilbert (1566), Joan (1569), Anne (1571), Richard (1574) and Edmund (1580). As a child, Shakespeare would have heard the types of fables, stories and legends that appear in some of his later works, and it is fair to assume he attended the local boys’ grammar school a short walk from the family home. Attendance for local boys was free, and it would have been here that the young Shakespeare learned Latin, Greek rhetoric and classical literature, and discovered how language could be used. It’s probable that William, as the eldest son, would have been earmarked to take on his father’s glove-making business, learning the ropes as an apprentice. John Shakespeare ran his business from a workshop at the back of the house, selling his wares through a window onto the street. But in 1582, at the age of 18, Shakespeare’s path took a very different turn when he married a young woman named Anne Hathaway. Eight years William’s senior, Anne lived with her family on a 90-acre farm in the village of Shottery, less than a mile and a half from the Shakespeare family home. Frustratingly little is known about their relationship, but what we do know is that, on their wedding day in November 1582, Anne was about three months’ pregnant. At 26, Anne was legally able to marry, but William was still classed as a minor. Nevertheless, parental permission was granted and a special licence to marry was granted by the Bishop’s Court in Worcester, which allowed the wedding to take place as soon as possible. To avoid a scandal, the marriage needed to occur before the bride’s condition became too apparent. The couple’s first child, Susanna, was born the following May. Shakespeare’s birthplace on Henley Street in Stratford-upon-Avon. (Photo by: robertharding/Getty Images Plus) One of the most enduring questions relating to Shakespeare is whether he really loved his wife or if he was simply obliged to marry her once she fell pregnant. Certainly, by marrying at such a young age, his fortunes would have changed dramatically. As a married man, he would no longer have been legally permitted to enter into an apprenticeship, so inheriting his father’s glove-making business was now an unlikely career path. He and Anne would have lived at the Shakespeare family home – possibly in a two-roomed cottage added to the western end. Surely, as a new father, Shakespeare must have felt considerable pressure to provide for his growing family – twins Judith and Hamnet were born in 1585. Poacher or pilgrim? A seven-year gap in Shakespeare’s biography – between 1585 and 1592 – is another source of frustration to historians. At some point in this period, Shakespeare moved from Stratfordupon- Avon to London, where he emerges, in 1592, as a successful actor and playwright. These crucial seven years saw the making of William Shakespeare as we know him today, yet little-to-no evidence remains about what actually took place in that time. As with most historical mysteries, people have been keen to fill what are commonly known as the ‘lost years’ with several theories. In 1681, author John Aubrey, writing about the life of Shakespeare, stated that the Bard had “understood Latine pretty well: for he had been in his younger yeares a schoolmaster in the countrey”. Local historians of Titchfield near Southampton support this theory, maintaining that Shakespeare worked as a schoolmaster at a school there between 1589 and 1592. Another account, this time from the 18th century, stated that Shakespeare had been caught poaching venison from the estate of Sir omas Lucy and was forced to flee Stratford for a new life in London. Meanwhile, a more controversial theory has Shakespeare down as being a secret Catholic who left Stratford on a pilgrimage to Rome. Shakespeare’s religious beliefs are unconfirmed, but some scholars have speculated that he and his family may well have been Catholics, worshipping in secret to avoid persecution in Protestant England. In 2000, an English professor and Shakespeare scholar at the University of Mainz in Germany claimed she had found three Shakespeare signatures in a 16th-century leather-bound guest book belonging to the Venerable English College in Rome – a school of theology for English Catholic priests. To collaborate or not to collaborate, that is the question For centuries, scholars and historians have wondered whether Shakespeare alone was responsible for the wealth of written material attributed to him in his lifetime. With the concept of copyright not widely recognised, it was common for playwrights to copy and adapt each other’s works, as well as make major contributions to new plays by others. Writing plays during the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods was a collaborative business, and there’s no reason to think Shakespeare was any different to his contemporaries. What’s more, with the huge appetite among London audiences for new plays, collaborating with another author was the quickest way to meet a deadline. Analysis of Henry VI, Part 1, for example, suggests that Shakespeare wrote less than 20 per cent of the text – in fact, the number of different writing styles within the play would suggest it was written by a team of people. George Peele is believed to have worked with Shakespeare on Titus Andronicus; Thomas Middleton did work on Macbeth, All’s Well That Ends Well and Measure for Measure; while his reputed rival Christopher Marlowe is credited as co-author of the Henry VI trilogy. In fact, 17 of 44 plays attributed to William Shakespeare are now thought to have been written in tandem with other playwrights. The first entry, dated 1585, is signed by Arthurus Stratfordus Wigomniensis – deciphered as “[King] Arthur’s [compatriot] from Stratford [in the diocese] of Worcester”. A second, in 1587, is by Shfordus Cestriensis, which could translate as “Shakespeare from Stratford [in the diocese] of Chester”, while a third entry from 1589 names the visitor as Gulielmus Clerkue Stratfordiensis (“William the Clerk from Stratford”). Shakespeare does seem to have had some knowledge of Italy – around a third of his plays were at least partially based there – but the question of whether he ever visited Rome or Venice or Sicily or Verona is likely to remain unanswered. Whatever Shakespeare may or may not have done before reaching London, the earliest printed mention of him appears in Greenes Groats-Worth of Witte, a book by the playwright Robert Greene supposedly written on his deathbed. Published in 1592, the book contains public criticism of some of his enemies, including William Shakespeare.“There is an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his Tygers hart wrapt in a Players hyde, supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blanke verse as the best of you: and beeing an absolute Johannes fac totum is in his owne conceit the onely Shake-scene in a countrey,” he writes. The “upstart Crow” he refers to is William Shakespeare, whom Greene criticises for believing he can write as well as the best scholars, despite not attending university. Described as an “Johannes fac totum” (Jack of all trades) for being both actor and playwright, Shakespeare clearly inspired jealousy in Greene for his obvious talent and rapid advance. Indeed, by 1592, Shakespeare is already believed to have completed a number of works, including The Two Gentlemen of Verona, The Taming of the Shrew and Henry VI. Plague stops play But in June 1592, after Shakespeare had been working for a period of probably four or five years as a writer and actor on the London stage, a devastating outbreak of plague forced the closure of the city’s theatres. Some actors chose to take their plays out of London and on tour, but Shakespeare turned his talents to writing poetry, for which he became equally well known. His first publication, Venus and Adonis, was published in 1593 and dedicated to Henry Wriothesley, third Earl of Southampton – a move possibly acknowledging the patronage of the wealthy young earl. The following year, he published The Rape of Lucrece, a work also dedicated to Wriothesley. By the summer of 1594, the plague had subsided and London’s playhouses reopened once more. Touring companies returned to the city and took to the stage. Elizabeth I, a lover of the theatre, had in 1559 decided that players should be licensed. By the 1590s, this new rule had seen the many informal troupes of actors replaced by official touring companies, each headed by a patron from among the Queen’s leading courtiers. Elizabeth herself had initially championed her own troup, the Queen’s Men. Following their break-up, two other troupes dominated the London scene: the Admiral’s Men, led by Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham, and the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, headed by Henry Carey, 1st Baron Hunsdon. Shakespeare had made the most of his enforced time off-stage and emerged in 1594 as a member of the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, one of the most prominent companies in the city. Shakepeare performed at Elizabeth I’s court. (Photo: Fine Art Photographic Library/CORBIS/Corbis via Getty Images) As a founding member, actor, playwright and shareholder in the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, Shakespeare’s writing talents would have been more in demand than ever before. His role as the troupe’s regular dramatist meant that Shakespeare probably produced an average of two plays a year and, as a shareholder, benefited financially from the company’s income. The group performed at court on more than 170 occasions, often acting Shakespeare’s own plays, and had even invested in its own playhouse: the Globe. Shakespeare amassed considerable wealth during his time with the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, but historians continue to question how, in 1594, he could afford to purchase shares in the company, and buy one of the largest houses in Stratford, New Place, just three years later. At a time when the average wage of a schoolteacher was £20 a year, the house alone cost Shakespeare around £120. This was a huge sum of money. Some historians have suggested that, instead of being the impoverished writer and actor he is often portrayed as, Shakespeare actually received financial aid from his family that helped him buyup shares in his company, as well as land and property around Stratford and London. Research suggests that John Shakespeare, as well as making gloves, was also dealing in wool – an expensive and highly regulated commodity in the 16th century. Licences to buy and sell wool were restricted to dedicated traders, and it was illegal to do business without one. Yet historian David Fallow has suggested that John Shakespeare was actually investing in wool on a national level, often on the black market, and making a great deal of money as a result. This, he believes, could explain William Shakespeare’s move to London at some point between 1585 and 1592. With the majority of wool exports made through the capital, John would have needed a trusted London representative. Enter William Shakespeare. Whatever reason Shakespeare had for moving to London, the city would have been a far cry from the gentle pace of life in Stratford-upon-Avon. Elizabethan London was a maze of narrow, dirty streets, bustling with traders, prostitutes, beggars, thieves and animals. All of human life was there, from the very rich to the very poor. Shakespeare himself lived in lodgings during his time in the city – he can be traced to Bishopsgate, Bankside and Cripplegate at various points during his stay. But he was most likely anything but the lonely genius he is often made out to be. Plays like Henry IV, Part 1, which is set almost entirely in a Eastcheap pub, indicate that Shakespeare enjoyed a vibrant social life and was clearly familiar with the capital’s alehouses. He may also have been no stranger to the seedier side of street life – Shakespeare scholar Duncan Salkeld believes the mysterious Dark Lady of his sonnets may have been a London prostitute known as “Lucy Negro” or “Black Luce”, who ran a notorious bawdy house in Clerkenwell. “What’s done cannot be undone” (Macbeth Act V Scene I) Shakespeare’s popularity has continued to bloom since his death, and in 1890 one of the Bard’s biggest fans honoured him with an act that would have dramatic unforeseen consequences. Eugene Schieffelin, an eccentric US drug manufacturer, decided to demonstrate his love for Shakespeare by introducing to North America every bird mentioned in Shakespeare’s plays. The list was extensive – more than 60 species. On 6 March 1890, he released 60 starlings into New York’s Central Park, followed by a further 40 the following year. It’s unclear how many species of European bird Schieffelin managed to set free in America. None of the nightingales and skylarks previously released by the American Acclimatization Society, to which Schieffelin belonged, had survived. Sixty-eight of his starlings also perished in their new environment, but the remaining 32 set up home, fittingly, beneath the eaves of the American Museum of Natural History, just west of the park, and survived the bitterly cold winter. Today, some 200 million ancestors of those plucky European originals can be found from Alaska to Mexico. But their presence is not cause for celebration: an estimated 00m of crop damage is attributed to starlings every year – something Schieffelin could never have predicted. While Shakespeare was forging ahead with a successful career in London, Anne and their children appear to have remained in Stratford, although it’s probable that Shakespeare returned to his hometown frequently. In 1597, he moved his family into New Place, one of the grandest houses in Stratford, just a 10-minute walk from where he was born. The house was a public declaration of its owner’s success and wealth, but the purchase would have been tinged with sadness – the previous year the couple’s only son, Hamnet, had died, aged just 11. If Shakespeare wrote about his son’s death, it has since been lost to history, but in his play King John, thought to have been written in 1596, he describes the near-physical pain experienced by a mother after her son’s death: “Grief fills the room up of my absent child / Lies in his bed, walks up and down with me, / Puts on his pretty looks, repeats his words, / Remembers me of all his gracious parts, / Stuffs out his vacant garments with his form.” In 1611, at the age of 47, Shakespeare retired from London life and returned to his family in Stratford. His eldest daughter, Susanna, had married physician John Hall in 1607 and Shakespeare now had a granddaughter, Elizabeth. From his comfortable home, he attended to his business affairs in Stratford and wrote what was to be one of his last plays, The Two Noble Kinsmen, in collaboration with John Fletcher, around 1613. Five years after his return to Warwickshire, at the age of 52, Shakespeare breathed his last, and is thought to have died on 23 April 1616. Two days later, he was buried in the chancel of Stratford’s Church of the Holy Trinity. The cause of Shakespeare’s death is unknown – one theory cites that he contracted a fever after a drinking binge with fellow playwrights Ben Jonson and Michael Drayton. Another, more likely explanation is that Shakespeare was ill for several weeks before he finally died – on 25 March 1616 he dictated his will, which could indicate that he knew his days were numbered. His grave carries no name – just a chilling curse: “Good friend, for Jesus’ sake forbear, / To dig the dust enclosed here. / Blessed be the man that spares these stones, / And cursed be he that moves my bones. Lottie Goldfinch is a freelance journalist specialising in history This article was taken from the April 2019 issue of BBC History Revealed magazine	<urn:uuid:03f43d3c-e701-4dcd-8bce-b0683189a7b5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historyextra.com/period/william-shakespeare-rise-upstart-crow-great-playwright/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00160.warc.gz	en	0.983482	3,847	3.359375	3	[ 0.11206094920635223, 0.03897421061992645, 0.7085556983947754, -0.18648041784763336, -0.4189103841781616, -0.351471483707428, 0.03283210098743439, 0.19331850111484528, -0.3027781844139099, -0.10209179669618607, -0.20516005158424377, -0.22009572386741638, -0.17636141180992126, 0.298439681529...	3	For a man whose works have been translated into more than 80 languages, including Klingon and Esperanto, we know remarkably little about England’s most famous playwright. Even his birth, on or around 23 April 1564, is unconfirmed – a proposed date based on an entry in a parish register, which lists the baptism of “Gulielmus filius Johannes Shakespere” (William, son of John Shakespeare) on 26 April 1564. Much of Shakespeare’s early life, too, is shrouded in mystery. We know that he was born in a two-storey, half-timbered house on Henley Street in the heart of Stratford-upon-Avon, and that he lived there until his mid-20s. The house, now open to the public, was purchased as a national monument in 1847 and is key to our understanding of Shakespeare as a boy. Millions of people continue to visit his birthplace in the hope it will reveal the innermost secrets of the great playwright – what he was like, how he wrote, what he thought and how he felt. John Shakespeare lived in the house from the early 1550s onwards, joined there around 1557 by his new wife Mary. The first documentary evidence linking the family to the house is a fine issued to John Shakespeare in April 1552 for leaving a “sterquinium”, or muckheap, outside the Henley Street property. William was the couple’s first surviving child. Two daughters, Joan and Margaret, had both died before their first birthdays. Five more children followed William’s birth: Gilbert (1566), Joan (1569), Anne (1571), Richard (1574) and Edmund (1580). As a child, Shakespeare would have heard the types of fables, stories and legends that appear in some of his later works, and it is fair to assume he attended the local boys’ grammar school a short walk from the family home. Attendance for local boys was free, and it would have been here that the young Shakespeare learned Latin, Greek rhetoric and classical literature, and discovered how language could be used. It’s probable that William, as the eldest son, would have been earmarked to take on his father’s glove-making business, learning the ropes as an apprentice. John Shakespeare ran his business from a workshop at the back of the house, selling his wares through a window onto the street. But in 1582, at the age of 18, Shakespeare’s path took a very different turn when he married a young woman named Anne Hathaway. Eight years William’s senior, Anne lived with her family on a 90-acre farm in the village of Shottery, less than a mile and a half from the Shakespeare family home. Frustratingly little is known about their relationship, but what we do know is that, on their wedding day in November 1582, Anne was about three months’ pregnant. At 26, Anne was legally able to marry, but William was still classed as a minor. Nevertheless, parental permission was granted and a special licence to marry was granted by the Bishop’s Court in Worcester, which allowed the wedding to take place as soon as possible. To avoid a scandal, the marriage needed to occur before the bride’s condition became too apparent. The couple’s first child, Susanna, was born the following May. Shakespeare’s birthplace on Henley Street in Stratford-upon-Avon. (Photo by: robertharding/Getty Images Plus) One of the most enduring questions relating to Shakespeare is whether he really loved his wife or if he was simply obliged to marry her once she fell pregnant. Certainly, by marrying at such a young age, his fortunes would have changed dramatically. As a married man, he would no longer have been legally permitted to enter into an apprenticeship, so inheriting his father’s glove-making business was now an unlikely career path. He and Anne would have lived at the Shakespeare family home – possibly in a two-roomed cottage added to the western end. Surely, as a new father, Shakespeare must have felt considerable pressure to provide for his growing family – twins Judith and Hamnet were born in 1585. Poacher or pilgrim? A seven-year gap in Shakespeare’s biography – between 1585 and 1592 – is another source of frustration to historians. At some point in this period, Shakespeare moved from Stratfordupon- Avon to London, where he emerges, in 1592, as a successful actor and playwright. These crucial seven years saw the making of William Shakespeare as we know him today, yet little-to-no evidence remains about what actually took place in that time. As with most historical mysteries, people have been keen to fill what are commonly known as the ‘lost years’ with several theories. In 1681, author John Aubrey, writing about the life of Shakespeare, stated that the Bard had “understood Latine pretty well: for he had been in his younger yeares a schoolmaster in the countrey”. Local historians of Titchfield near Southampton support this theory, maintaining that Shakespeare worked as a schoolmaster at a school there between 1589 and 1592. Another account, this time from the 18th century, stated that Shakespeare had been caught poaching venison from the estate of Sir omas Lucy and was forced to flee Stratford for a new life in London. Meanwhile, a more controversial theory has Shakespeare down as being a secret Catholic who left Stratford on a pilgrimage to Rome. Shakespeare’s religious beliefs are unconfirmed, but some scholars have speculated that he and his family may well have been Catholics, worshipping in secret to avoid persecution in Protestant England. In 2000, an English professor and Shakespeare scholar at the University of Mainz in Germany claimed she had found three Shakespeare signatures in a 16th-century leather-bound guest book belonging to the Venerable English College in Rome – a school of theology for English Catholic priests. To collaborate or not to collaborate, that is the question For centuries, scholars and historians have wondered whether Shakespeare alone was responsible for the wealth of written material attributed to him in his lifetime. With the concept of copyright not widely recognised, it was common for playwrights to copy and adapt each other’s works, as well as make major contributions to new plays by others. Writing plays during the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods was a collaborative business, and there’s no reason to think Shakespeare was any different to his contemporaries. What’s more, with the huge appetite among London audiences for new plays, collaborating with another author was the quickest way to meet a deadline. Analysis of Henry VI, Part 1, for example, suggests that Shakespeare wrote less than 20 per cent of the text – in fact, the number of different writing styles within the play would suggest it was written by a team of people. George Peele is believed to have worked with Shakespeare on Titus Andronicus; Thomas Middleton did work on Macbeth, All’s Well That Ends Well and Measure for Measure; while his reputed rival Christopher Marlowe is credited as co-author of the Henry VI trilogy. In fact, 17 of 44 plays attributed to William Shakespeare are now thought to have been written in tandem with other playwrights. The first entry, dated 1585, is signed by Arthurus Stratfordus Wigomniensis – deciphered as “[King] Arthur’s [compatriot] from Stratford [in the diocese] of Worcester”. A second, in 1587, is by Shfordus Cestriensis, which could translate as “Shakespeare from Stratford [in the diocese] of Chester”, while a third entry from 1589 names the visitor as Gulielmus Clerkue Stratfordiensis (“William the Clerk from Stratford”). Shakespeare does seem to have had some knowledge of Italy – around a third of his plays were at least partially based there – but the question of whether he ever visited Rome or Venice or Sicily or Verona is likely to remain unanswered. Whatever Shakespeare may or may not have done before reaching London, the earliest printed mention of him appears in Greenes Groats-Worth of Witte, a book by the playwright Robert Greene supposedly written on his deathbed. Published in 1592, the book contains public criticism of some of his enemies, including William Shakespeare.“There is an upstart Crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his Tygers hart wrapt in a Players hyde, supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blanke verse as the best of you: and beeing an absolute Johannes fac totum is in his owne conceit the onely Shake-scene in a countrey,” he writes. The “upstart Crow” he refers to is William Shakespeare, whom Greene criticises for believing he can write as well as the best scholars, despite not attending university. Described as an “Johannes fac totum” (Jack of all trades) for being both actor and playwright, Shakespeare clearly inspired jealousy in Greene for his obvious talent and rapid advance. Indeed, by 1592, Shakespeare is already believed to have completed a number of works, including The Two Gentlemen of Verona, The Taming of the Shrew and Henry VI. Plague stops play But in June 1592, after Shakespeare had been working for a period of probably four or five years as a writer and actor on the London stage, a devastating outbreak of plague forced the closure of the city’s theatres. Some actors chose to take their plays out of London and on tour, but Shakespeare turned his talents to writing poetry, for which he became equally well known. His first publication, Venus and Adonis, was published in 1593 and dedicated to Henry Wriothesley, third Earl of Southampton – a move possibly acknowledging the patronage of the wealthy young earl. The following year, he published The Rape of Lucrece, a work also dedicated to Wriothesley. By the summer of 1594, the plague had subsided and London’s playhouses reopened once more. Touring companies returned to the city and took to the stage. Elizabeth I, a lover of the theatre, had in 1559 decided that players should be licensed. By the 1590s, this new rule had seen the many informal troupes of actors replaced by official touring companies, each headed by a patron from among the Queen’s leading courtiers. Elizabeth herself had initially championed her own troup, the Queen’s Men. Following their break-up, two other troupes dominated the London scene: the Admiral’s Men, led by Charles Howard, 1st Earl of Nottingham, and the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, headed by Henry Carey, 1st Baron Hunsdon. Shakespeare had made the most of his enforced time off-stage and emerged in 1594 as a member of the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, one of the most prominent companies in the city. Shakepeare performed at Elizabeth I’s court. (Photo: Fine Art Photographic Library/CORBIS/Corbis via Getty Images) As a founding member, actor, playwright and shareholder in the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, Shakespeare’s writing talents would have been more in demand than ever before. His role as the troupe’s regular dramatist meant that Shakespeare probably produced an average of two plays a year and, as a shareholder, benefited financially from the company’s income. The group performed at court on more than 170 occasions, often acting Shakespeare’s own plays, and had even invested in its own playhouse: the Globe. Shakespeare amassed considerable wealth during his time with the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, but historians continue to question how, in 1594, he could afford to purchase shares in the company, and buy one of the largest houses in Stratford, New Place, just three years later. At a time when the average wage of a schoolteacher was £20 a year, the house alone cost Shakespeare around £120. This was a huge sum of money. Some historians have suggested that, instead of being the impoverished writer and actor he is often portrayed as, Shakespeare actually received financial aid from his family that helped him buyup shares in his company, as well as land and property around Stratford and London. Research suggests that John Shakespeare, as well as making gloves, was also dealing in wool – an expensive and highly regulated commodity in the 16th century. Licences to buy and sell wool were restricted to dedicated traders, and it was illegal to do business without one. Yet historian David Fallow has suggested that John Shakespeare was actually investing in wool on a national level, often on the black market, and making a great deal of money as a result. This, he believes, could explain William Shakespeare’s move to London at some point between 1585 and 1592. With the majority of wool exports made through the capital, John would have needed a trusted London representative. Enter William Shakespeare. Whatever reason Shakespeare had for moving to London, the city would have been a far cry from the gentle pace of life in Stratford-upon-Avon. Elizabethan London was a maze of narrow, dirty streets, bustling with traders, prostitutes, beggars, thieves and animals. All of human life was there, from the very rich to the very poor. Shakespeare himself lived in lodgings during his time in the city – he can be traced to Bishopsgate, Bankside and Cripplegate at various points during his stay. But he was most likely anything but the lonely genius he is often made out to be. Plays like Henry IV, Part 1, which is set almost entirely in a Eastcheap pub, indicate that Shakespeare enjoyed a vibrant social life and was clearly familiar with the capital’s alehouses. He may also have been no stranger to the seedier side of street life – Shakespeare scholar Duncan Salkeld believes the mysterious Dark Lady of his sonnets may have been a London prostitute known as “Lucy Negro” or “Black Luce”, who ran a notorious bawdy house in Clerkenwell. “What’s done cannot be undone” (Macbeth Act V Scene I) Shakespeare’s popularity has continued to bloom since his death, and in 1890 one of the Bard’s biggest fans honoured him with an act that would have dramatic unforeseen consequences. Eugene Schieffelin, an eccentric US drug manufacturer, decided to demonstrate his love for Shakespeare by introducing to North America every bird mentioned in Shakespeare’s plays. The list was extensive – more than 60 species. On 6 March 1890, he released 60 starlings into New York’s Central Park, followed by a further 40 the following year. It’s unclear how many species of European bird Schieffelin managed to set free in America. None of the nightingales and skylarks previously released by the American Acclimatization Society, to which Schieffelin belonged, had survived. Sixty-eight of his starlings also perished in their new environment, but the remaining 32 set up home, fittingly, beneath the eaves of the American Museum of Natural History, just west of the park, and survived the bitterly cold winter. Today, some 200 million ancestors of those plucky European originals can be found from Alaska to Mexico. But their presence is not cause for celebration: an estimated 00m of crop damage is attributed to starlings every year – something Schieffelin could never have predicted. While Shakespeare was forging ahead with a successful career in London, Anne and their children appear to have remained in Stratford, although it’s probable that Shakespeare returned to his hometown frequently. In 1597, he moved his family into New Place, one of the grandest houses in Stratford, just a 10-minute walk from where he was born. The house was a public declaration of its owner’s success and wealth, but the purchase would have been tinged with sadness – the previous year the couple’s only son, Hamnet, had died, aged just 11. If Shakespeare wrote about his son’s death, it has since been lost to history, but in his play King John, thought to have been written in 1596, he describes the near-physical pain experienced by a mother after her son’s death: “Grief fills the room up of my absent child / Lies in his bed, walks up and down with me, / Puts on his pretty looks, repeats his words, / Remembers me of all his gracious parts, / Stuffs out his vacant garments with his form.” In 1611, at the age of 47, Shakespeare retired from London life and returned to his family in Stratford. His eldest daughter, Susanna, had married physician John Hall in 1607 and Shakespeare now had a granddaughter, Elizabeth. From his comfortable home, he attended to his business affairs in Stratford and wrote what was to be one of his last plays, The Two Noble Kinsmen, in collaboration with John Fletcher, around 1613. Five years after his return to Warwickshire, at the age of 52, Shakespeare breathed his last, and is thought to have died on 23 April 1616. Two days later, he was buried in the chancel of Stratford’s Church of the Holy Trinity. The cause of Shakespeare’s death is unknown – one theory cites that he contracted a fever after a drinking binge with fellow playwrights Ben Jonson and Michael Drayton. Another, more likely explanation is that Shakespeare was ill for several weeks before he finally died – on 25 March 1616 he dictated his will, which could indicate that he knew his days were numbered. His grave carries no name – just a chilling curse: “Good friend, for Jesus’ sake forbear, / To dig the dust enclosed here. / Blessed be the man that spares these stones, / And cursed be he that moves my bones. Lottie Goldfinch is a freelance journalist specialising in history This article was taken from the April 2019 issue of BBC History Revealed magazine	3,834	ENGLISH	1
Adjective(1) not having an identifying mark(2) not taken into account (1) The officers were sitting in an unmarked police car when the man shot at the windscreen with a handgun, showering them with glass and injuring one officer in the eye.(2) She eventually pushed her attacker away and ran back out into the road where she got help from police officers in an unmarked car.(3) Due to human error at some stage, this section of yellow line markings was left unmarked .(4) The door was unmarked and completely blank except for a single word written in a dark red script: Wayward.(5) He was caught doing 58 mph in a 50 mph zone by an unmarked police car, held his hands up and paid the £60 fine with three points.(6) If Chaucer's death went unmarked in the public world, his loss was deeply felt by the poets who followed after him.(7) Ten minutes later her son has put on his trainers and is escorted back to school in an unmarked police car.(8) Second, she had been able to identify many of the unmarked graves where stones had broken or fallen down.(9) WPC Milburn was accompanied home to Birstall by one marked and two unmarked police cars containing about six armed officers.(10) Every language has marked constructions alongside its ordinary unmarked ones.(11) It is the unmarked form of singing, and its use enables easy access to the genre's emotional range and its themes.(12) Help is still needed to identify unmarked graves in Bonniconlon new cemetery.(13) An unmarked police car, which had its siren sounding and lights flashing, was following a blue Volvo S40 T4 at 9.40 pm on Tuesday night.(14) None of them had noticed him; his launch had gone unmarked .(15) Eyewitnesses reported that riot vans, unmarked cars and several police vehicles surrounded the yard as officers armed with revolvers and machine guns stormed the site.(16) Witnesses counted at least 21 marked police cars plus several unmarked ones parked nearby. 2. unnoted :: English to Bengali Dictionary: unmarked Meaning and definitions of unmarked, translation in Bengali language for unmarked with similar and opposite words. Also find spoken pronunciation of unmarked in Bengali and in English language. Tags for the entry "unmarked" What unmarked means in Bengali, unmarked meaning in Bengali, unmarked definition, examples and pronunciation of unmarked in Bengali language.	<urn:uuid:ecff00ed-5f8b-411c-9383-a1fa0dfe6a5f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bdword.com/?q=unmarked	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00151.warc.gz	en	0.981742	506	3.390625	3	[ -0.31735968589782715, 0.13921590149402618, 0.16898344457149506, 0.14570015668869019, -0.2538205087184906, 0.21218393743038177, 1.1396294832229614, -0.01120596844702959, 0.1790563464164734, -0.18782880902290344, 0.5003213286399841, -0.5459824800491333, 0.11031689494848251, 0.062682941555976...	2	Adjective(1) not having an identifying mark(2) not taken into account (1) The officers were sitting in an unmarked police car when the man shot at the windscreen with a handgun, showering them with glass and injuring one officer in the eye.(2) She eventually pushed her attacker away and ran back out into the road where she got help from police officers in an unmarked car.(3) Due to human error at some stage, this section of yellow line markings was left unmarked .(4) The door was unmarked and completely blank except for a single word written in a dark red script: Wayward.(5) He was caught doing 58 mph in a 50 mph zone by an unmarked police car, held his hands up and paid the £60 fine with three points.(6) If Chaucer's death went unmarked in the public world, his loss was deeply felt by the poets who followed after him.(7) Ten minutes later her son has put on his trainers and is escorted back to school in an unmarked police car.(8) Second, she had been able to identify many of the unmarked graves where stones had broken or fallen down.(9) WPC Milburn was accompanied home to Birstall by one marked and two unmarked police cars containing about six armed officers.(10) Every language has marked constructions alongside its ordinary unmarked ones.(11) It is the unmarked form of singing, and its use enables easy access to the genre's emotional range and its themes.(12) Help is still needed to identify unmarked graves in Bonniconlon new cemetery.(13) An unmarked police car, which had its siren sounding and lights flashing, was following a blue Volvo S40 T4 at 9.40 pm on Tuesday night.(14) None of them had noticed him; his launch had gone unmarked .(15) Eyewitnesses reported that riot vans, unmarked cars and several police vehicles surrounded the yard as officers armed with revolvers and machine guns stormed the site.(16) Witnesses counted at least 21 marked police cars plus several unmarked ones parked nearby. 2. unnoted :: English to Bengali Dictionary: unmarked Meaning and definitions of unmarked, translation in Bengali language for unmarked with similar and opposite words. Also find spoken pronunciation of unmarked in Bengali and in English language. Tags for the entry "unmarked" What unmarked means in Bengali, unmarked meaning in Bengali, unmarked definition, examples and pronunciation of unmarked in Bengali language.	542	ENGLISH	1
Around 1500 AD the ancestors of the Moriori people left the South Island and settled Rēkohu (the Chatham Islands), 800 kilometres east of New Zealand. They came up against the difficulties encountered by their Māori ancestors when settling the North and South islands in the 13th century: adjusting to a different climate and adopting new resources. Introduced plants and animals While it is possible that plants introduced to New Zealand by Polynesians – such as kūmara and taro – were taken to the Chathams, they did not survive. None of the plants brought from Polynesia could grow because of the overcast temperate climate. However the edible seed from the kopi (karaka tree), which may have been brought from New Zealand, was planted and grew. While the kurī and the kiore may both have been taken to the islands, only the kiore survived. Kiore were commonly caught in broadleaf forest, especially in autumn. The only other food sources Moriori could rely on came from the islands themselves and the surrounding ocean. The plant foods eaten by Moriori were kernels from the kopi, small berries, nīkau buds and aruhe (bracken) fern root. Flax was used for clothing. Fish and shellfish Shellfish were plentiful and inshore fish were caught using set nets. There were a number of freshwater fish, but eels were exploited the most. Fur seals were common on the Chathams. There were breeding populations on the main islands and on offshore islets. Large seals lying on shore were the most plentiful and easily killed food resource available – they provided rich protein and fat, and their skins were also used for clothing. Occasionally, a pilot whale would be stranded, and leopard seals, sea lions and elephant seals were all taken if found locally. The heaviest and most easily caught birds were the native pigeon, bellbird and tūī, found in broadleaf forest. Rails lived in bog shrublands and at the forest edge. Ducks were plentiful in large wetland areas and lakes, and were easily caught during their moulting season. There were 16 species of penguins and flying oceanic birds which went ashore on the Chathams to breed or moult. Fledglings were easy to catch and were taken in large numbers. Adult birds were seldom taken. Oceanic birds were available all year, but in larger numbers in winter and summer. There were no large trees suitable for waka (canoes). The general lack of good-quality wood meant that Moriori adapted their waka design to the resources available. Moriori waka were more like rafts than canoes. They were made from flax stalks and wood from the māpou tree, with rimurapa (bull kelp) for flotation. Obsidian from Tūhua (Mayor Island), Aotea (Great Barrier Island) and Rotorua–Taupō, and argillite from Nelson, have been located in the Chathams, and would have been taken over by the first settlers. Stone resources found and used on the island included Takatika grit, dolomite and chert.	<urn:uuid:8b860665-4624-46a8-8802-eb043214b404>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://teara.govt.nz/en/te-ohanga-onamata-a-rohe-economic-regions/page-5	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00287.warc.gz	en	0.986004	674	3.65625	4	[ -0.0644175335764885, 0.22855406999588013, 0.026479583233594894, 0.10446552187204361, 0.15361925959587097, 0.002254002494737506, 0.08395026624202728, 0.06260780990123749, -0.38616135716438293, 0.6524003148078918, 0.24135428667068481, -0.9666351079940796, 0.4826616644859314, 0.49762299656867...	6	Around 1500 AD the ancestors of the Moriori people left the South Island and settled Rēkohu (the Chatham Islands), 800 kilometres east of New Zealand. They came up against the difficulties encountered by their Māori ancestors when settling the North and South islands in the 13th century: adjusting to a different climate and adopting new resources. Introduced plants and animals While it is possible that plants introduced to New Zealand by Polynesians – such as kūmara and taro – were taken to the Chathams, they did not survive. None of the plants brought from Polynesia could grow because of the overcast temperate climate. However the edible seed from the kopi (karaka tree), which may have been brought from New Zealand, was planted and grew. While the kurī and the kiore may both have been taken to the islands, only the kiore survived. Kiore were commonly caught in broadleaf forest, especially in autumn. The only other food sources Moriori could rely on came from the islands themselves and the surrounding ocean. The plant foods eaten by Moriori were kernels from the kopi, small berries, nīkau buds and aruhe (bracken) fern root. Flax was used for clothing. Fish and shellfish Shellfish were plentiful and inshore fish were caught using set nets. There were a number of freshwater fish, but eels were exploited the most. Fur seals were common on the Chathams. There were breeding populations on the main islands and on offshore islets. Large seals lying on shore were the most plentiful and easily killed food resource available – they provided rich protein and fat, and their skins were also used for clothing. Occasionally, a pilot whale would be stranded, and leopard seals, sea lions and elephant seals were all taken if found locally. The heaviest and most easily caught birds were the native pigeon, bellbird and tūī, found in broadleaf forest. Rails lived in bog shrublands and at the forest edge. Ducks were plentiful in large wetland areas and lakes, and were easily caught during their moulting season. There were 16 species of penguins and flying oceanic birds which went ashore on the Chathams to breed or moult. Fledglings were easy to catch and were taken in large numbers. Adult birds were seldom taken. Oceanic birds were available all year, but in larger numbers in winter and summer. There were no large trees suitable for waka (canoes). The general lack of good-quality wood meant that Moriori adapted their waka design to the resources available. Moriori waka were more like rafts than canoes. They were made from flax stalks and wood from the māpou tree, with rimurapa (bull kelp) for flotation. Obsidian from Tūhua (Mayor Island), Aotea (Great Barrier Island) and Rotorua–Taupō, and argillite from Nelson, have been located in the Chathams, and would have been taken over by the first settlers. Stone resources found and used on the island included Takatika grit, dolomite and chert.	667	ENGLISH	1
To the bat cave! These bats have their own gated neighborhood Gates erected to protect bats from public Caves aren't common in Mississippi so it's no wonder that Pitts Cave in Wayne County has long been an attraction. It has over 400 meters of passageways, various rooms and a stream that call to the adventurous. However, people exploring the cave can cause problems for one of its vulnerable residents — bats. "We have 15 different species in the state," said Kathy Shelton, South Mississippi conservation biologist with the Mississippi Museum of Natural Science. "Three are listed as endangered. "We have others that aren't endangered in their range, but are rare here. In winter, the tri-colored bat hibernates in the cave. That is a species that has been petitioned to be listed in the Endangered Species Act." It is also home to another species of bats. "This cave has Southeast myotis bats and it's a large maternity roost in the summer which means that's where mothers go to have their babies," Shelton said. "One of the problems is that so many people, even though it's on private land, would visit the cave. "They would potentially go in and disturb the bats while they're hibernating or worse, during the maternity season." And disturbing them during those periods can be fatal for bats. During hibernation, bats use stored energy and if they wake up, that energy is difficult to replace because food resources are low at that time. During the maternity season, disturbing the bats can cause the young to fall where they are exposed to potentially drowning, hypothermia and predators. The disturbances could also put a large number of bats at risk. Shelton said 500 to 1,000 tri-colored bats use the cave as do thousands of Southeastern myotis bats. It was decided among museum staff and the US Fish and Wildlife Service that the bats needed protection and gates were recently installed to prevent human access, but allow bats to fly in and out freely. "We started on a Thursday morning and finished three very long days later," Shelton said. "That was two gates; a smaller gate on one entrance and a larger gate on the front entrance." Jaime Smith of Ocean Springs is a University of Southern Mississippi graduate student studying herpetology. She volunteered to help with the project and said working with steel beams weighing hundreds of pounds was difficult, but worth it. "It was a lot of work," Smith said. "It was physically very challenging. "We got it done. You walk away with a sense of accomplishment. That's really nice when you get to have those moments." The gating project isn't the first time Smith has volunteered to work with bats. She and others have helped with locating and capturing bats so biologists can gather data about the populations in the state. "I would say it's just kind of fun," Smith said. "Who wouldn't want to go out at night and work with cute little bats and help out an endangered species. I had the opportunity and it sounded fun." More than fun The field work may be fun, but there's more to it. Shelton said she began working with bats at her current level about seven years ago, but before that little data was collected. Now she has a better image of what our populations look like. That's important because bats are facing a deadly illness known as white-nose syndrome. "White-nose syndrome has heavily impacted bat numbers in the Northeast," Shelton said. "They estimate billions of bats have died. "We haven't found white-nose syndrome in Mississippi, but we have found the fungus that causes it. That's a huge concern." Shelton said it's a concern because of the vital roles bats play. "Bats are the primary consumers of nocturnal insects," Shelton said. "It's said they save the agriculture industry billions of dollars just because they don't have to use as many pesticides on their crops. "In other areas, they are the primary pollinators for agricultural crops. They are a part of the ecosystem. They eat things and things eat them. If you lost all the bats in the Southeast you'd have so many impacts. Some plants would go extinct if bats disappeared." Given their importance, the threat of white-nose syndrome and the loss of habitat that bats face, Shelton said research and conservation projects such as the gating of Pitts Cave are much needed. "The gates are so important because there are so many stresses on bats," Shelton said. "If we can give them safety when they hibernate and have babies it might give them a little push. We just want to give them that little extra boost." To learn more about bats or to volunteer for bat conservation, visit the Mississippi Bat Working Group website at msbats.org. More Magnolia: Did you know you can go on a safari in central Mississippi? More Magnolia: 2,320 miles: Mississippi man paddles Mississippi River	<urn:uuid:bc225f0d-4844-4ce3-99b8-101c3d915e7e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.clarionledger.com/story/magnolia/2018/09/20/bat-conservation-mississippi/1302108002/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00180.warc.gz	en	0.980334	1,049	3.390625	3	[ -0.46637043356895447, 0.02129819244146347, -0.311594158411026, 0.37920743227005005, -0.0344725139439106, -0.1817747801542282, 0.07960069924592972, 0.06718180328607559, -0.30892711877822876, 0.4977172613143921, 0.09681068360805511, -0.3845675587654114, 0.14797455072402954, 0.255735605955123...	1	To the bat cave! These bats have their own gated neighborhood Gates erected to protect bats from public Caves aren't common in Mississippi so it's no wonder that Pitts Cave in Wayne County has long been an attraction. It has over 400 meters of passageways, various rooms and a stream that call to the adventurous. However, people exploring the cave can cause problems for one of its vulnerable residents — bats. "We have 15 different species in the state," said Kathy Shelton, South Mississippi conservation biologist with the Mississippi Museum of Natural Science. "Three are listed as endangered. "We have others that aren't endangered in their range, but are rare here. In winter, the tri-colored bat hibernates in the cave. That is a species that has been petitioned to be listed in the Endangered Species Act." It is also home to another species of bats. "This cave has Southeast myotis bats and it's a large maternity roost in the summer which means that's where mothers go to have their babies," Shelton said. "One of the problems is that so many people, even though it's on private land, would visit the cave. "They would potentially go in and disturb the bats while they're hibernating or worse, during the maternity season." And disturbing them during those periods can be fatal for bats. During hibernation, bats use stored energy and if they wake up, that energy is difficult to replace because food resources are low at that time. During the maternity season, disturbing the bats can cause the young to fall where they are exposed to potentially drowning, hypothermia and predators. The disturbances could also put a large number of bats at risk. Shelton said 500 to 1,000 tri-colored bats use the cave as do thousands of Southeastern myotis bats. It was decided among museum staff and the US Fish and Wildlife Service that the bats needed protection and gates were recently installed to prevent human access, but allow bats to fly in and out freely. "We started on a Thursday morning and finished three very long days later," Shelton said. "That was two gates; a smaller gate on one entrance and a larger gate on the front entrance." Jaime Smith of Ocean Springs is a University of Southern Mississippi graduate student studying herpetology. She volunteered to help with the project and said working with steel beams weighing hundreds of pounds was difficult, but worth it. "It was a lot of work," Smith said. "It was physically very challenging. "We got it done. You walk away with a sense of accomplishment. That's really nice when you get to have those moments." The gating project isn't the first time Smith has volunteered to work with bats. She and others have helped with locating and capturing bats so biologists can gather data about the populations in the state. "I would say it's just kind of fun," Smith said. "Who wouldn't want to go out at night and work with cute little bats and help out an endangered species. I had the opportunity and it sounded fun." More than fun The field work may be fun, but there's more to it. Shelton said she began working with bats at her current level about seven years ago, but before that little data was collected. Now she has a better image of what our populations look like. That's important because bats are facing a deadly illness known as white-nose syndrome. "White-nose syndrome has heavily impacted bat numbers in the Northeast," Shelton said. "They estimate billions of bats have died. "We haven't found white-nose syndrome in Mississippi, but we have found the fungus that causes it. That's a huge concern." Shelton said it's a concern because of the vital roles bats play. "Bats are the primary consumers of nocturnal insects," Shelton said. "It's said they save the agriculture industry billions of dollars just because they don't have to use as many pesticides on their crops. "In other areas, they are the primary pollinators for agricultural crops. They are a part of the ecosystem. They eat things and things eat them. If you lost all the bats in the Southeast you'd have so many impacts. Some plants would go extinct if bats disappeared." Given their importance, the threat of white-nose syndrome and the loss of habitat that bats face, Shelton said research and conservation projects such as the gating of Pitts Cave are much needed. "The gates are so important because there are so many stresses on bats," Shelton said. "If we can give them safety when they hibernate and have babies it might give them a little push. We just want to give them that little extra boost." To learn more about bats or to volunteer for bat conservation, visit the Mississippi Bat Working Group website at msbats.org. More Magnolia: Did you know you can go on a safari in central Mississippi? More Magnolia: 2,320 miles: Mississippi man paddles Mississippi River	1,017	ENGLISH	1
Art, along with architecture, music and films, was heavily shaped by Nazi ideology once Hitler gained power on January 30th1933. Hitler considered himself to be very knowledgeable with regards to art and effectively decided that there were two forms of art – un-German degenerate art of the likes of Pablo Picasso and classical realistic art that represented all that was good about Nazi Germany and Germans. Weimar Germany was famous for the artists that worked there. Various forms of art excelled in Weimar – expressionism, Dada, cubism and impressionism. The focal point in Germany of the art world’s attention was the Bauhaus where artists such as Paul Klee, Wassily Kandinsky and George Grosz all worked. Hitler had stated clearly in ‘Mein Kampf’ where his thoughts lay with regards to modern art as found in Dada and cubism: “This art is the sick production of crazy people. Pity the people who are no longer able to control this sickness” In his own mind, the new art forms all stemmed from the USSR and according to Hitler were even found for a very short time in the Bavarian Soviet Republic in the early days of the Weimar Republic. Hitler preferred the romantic form of art. He stated that a finished picture should never display anguish, distress or pain. They had to be realistic and heroic. Hitler believed that good artists should use colour in their paintings that “was different to those perceived in Nature by the normal eye.” Hitler wanted paintings to display “the true German spirit” and he preferred the work of artists such as Franz von Defregger, an Austrian who specialised in painting scenes of traditional Austrian rural life. Once he was made Chancellor, Hitler was in the perfect position to enforce his artistic values on the whole of Nazi Germany. The March 1933 E nablingAct gave him the legal basis to do this. Hitler created the Reich Chamber of Culture headed by Joseph Goebbels. This organisation was split into seven sections: fine arts, music, theatre, literature, press, radio and film. Each one of these was required to put Gleichschaltung into the way they operated – Hitler’s desired for coordination of the German population. 42,000 artists were given government approval but they were required to join the Reich Chamber of Visual Arts. The rules of the chamber were backed by law. Artists were not allowed to be “politically unreliable” and could be expelled from the chamber if they were. If they were expelled they were forbidden to paint, forbidden to teach and were deprived of the right to exhibit their work. Shops that sold paintings were given a list of approved artists and artists who had been banned for “political unreliability”. The Gestapo made surprise unannounced visits to art studios to ensure that they were doing all that was required of them – painting as the state required them to paint. Many artists left Nazi Germany as they were unable to work under such conditions. Klee left for Switzerland, Kandinsky went to Paris, Kokoschka left for England while Grosz emigrated to the United States of America. They were all labelled as “purveyors of non-German art”. Just months into his Chancellorship, Hitler ordered a display of “degenerate art” at Karlsruhe. It was to serve as a warning as to what was not acceptable. In 1936, Hitler created a tribunal made up of four Nazi-approved artists who were tasked with touring galleries and museums and removing “decadent art”. In total the four men removed 12,890 pieces of art including sculptures deemed degenerate or decadent. One of the men on the tribunal, Count von Baudissen made his views quite clear; “The most perfect shape…it is the steel helmet.” The removed art was put on display in Munich on March 31st 1936. The ‘degenerate art’ contained works by Picasso, Cezanne, Gauguin and Van Gogh. Nearby to the display was an exhibition of 900 pieces of approved art known as the Greater German Art Exhibition. To encourage German artists to develop acceptable methods of painting, Hitler introduced several hundred art competitions with good financial rewards for the winners. World War Two gave Hitler and other senior Nazis the opportunity to plunder art from the museums of countries under Nazi occupation. Over 5,000 works of art by the likes of Rubens, Goya and Rembrandt were sent back to Berlin.	<urn:uuid:521f272b-c6c0-49ad-8223-18edab2d4316>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/nazi-germany/art-in-nazi-germany/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00253.warc.gz	en	0.985753	949	3.921875	4	[ -0.07689130306243896, 0.47052687406539917, -0.042002663016319275, 0.07338931411504745, -0.03409430384635925, 0.4819679260253906, 0.17213837802410126, -0.12505386769771576, -0.3307410478591919, -0.29369157552719116, 0.16569708287715912, -0.2283366620540619, 0.03156544268131256, 0.3229114711...	2	Art, along with architecture, music and films, was heavily shaped by Nazi ideology once Hitler gained power on January 30th1933. Hitler considered himself to be very knowledgeable with regards to art and effectively decided that there were two forms of art – un-German degenerate art of the likes of Pablo Picasso and classical realistic art that represented all that was good about Nazi Germany and Germans. Weimar Germany was famous for the artists that worked there. Various forms of art excelled in Weimar – expressionism, Dada, cubism and impressionism. The focal point in Germany of the art world’s attention was the Bauhaus where artists such as Paul Klee, Wassily Kandinsky and George Grosz all worked. Hitler had stated clearly in ‘Mein Kampf’ where his thoughts lay with regards to modern art as found in Dada and cubism: “This art is the sick production of crazy people. Pity the people who are no longer able to control this sickness” In his own mind, the new art forms all stemmed from the USSR and according to Hitler were even found for a very short time in the Bavarian Soviet Republic in the early days of the Weimar Republic. Hitler preferred the romantic form of art. He stated that a finished picture should never display anguish, distress or pain. They had to be realistic and heroic. Hitler believed that good artists should use colour in their paintings that “was different to those perceived in Nature by the normal eye.” Hitler wanted paintings to display “the true German spirit” and he preferred the work of artists such as Franz von Defregger, an Austrian who specialised in painting scenes of traditional Austrian rural life. Once he was made Chancellor, Hitler was in the perfect position to enforce his artistic values on the whole of Nazi Germany. The March 1933 E nablingAct gave him the legal basis to do this. Hitler created the Reich Chamber of Culture headed by Joseph Goebbels. This organisation was split into seven sections: fine arts, music, theatre, literature, press, radio and film. Each one of these was required to put Gleichschaltung into the way they operated – Hitler’s desired for coordination of the German population. 42,000 artists were given government approval but they were required to join the Reich Chamber of Visual Arts. The rules of the chamber were backed by law. Artists were not allowed to be “politically unreliable” and could be expelled from the chamber if they were. If they were expelled they were forbidden to paint, forbidden to teach and were deprived of the right to exhibit their work. Shops that sold paintings were given a list of approved artists and artists who had been banned for “political unreliability”. The Gestapo made surprise unannounced visits to art studios to ensure that they were doing all that was required of them – painting as the state required them to paint. Many artists left Nazi Germany as they were unable to work under such conditions. Klee left for Switzerland, Kandinsky went to Paris, Kokoschka left for England while Grosz emigrated to the United States of America. They were all labelled as “purveyors of non-German art”. Just months into his Chancellorship, Hitler ordered a display of “degenerate art” at Karlsruhe. It was to serve as a warning as to what was not acceptable. In 1936, Hitler created a tribunal made up of four Nazi-approved artists who were tasked with touring galleries and museums and removing “decadent art”. In total the four men removed 12,890 pieces of art including sculptures deemed degenerate or decadent. One of the men on the tribunal, Count von Baudissen made his views quite clear; “The most perfect shape…it is the steel helmet.” The removed art was put on display in Munich on March 31st 1936. The ‘degenerate art’ contained works by Picasso, Cezanne, Gauguin and Van Gogh. Nearby to the display was an exhibition of 900 pieces of approved art known as the Greater German Art Exhibition. To encourage German artists to develop acceptable methods of painting, Hitler introduced several hundred art competitions with good financial rewards for the winners. World War Two gave Hitler and other senior Nazis the opportunity to plunder art from the museums of countries under Nazi occupation. Over 5,000 works of art by the likes of Rubens, Goya and Rembrandt were sent back to Berlin.	920	ENGLISH	1
In a new report, scientists have said that a 427-foot pyramid-shaped asteroid is all set to fly by Earth on Sunday (December 8). The Centre for Near-Earth Object Studies, located at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, has claimed that the object, dubbed as VH5 2019, will harmlessly fly past around 4.27 million miles from Earth at a speed of 6.1 miles per second. According to reports, the pyramid-shaped asteroid has dimensions of 57 meters (187 feet) by 130 meters (426.5 feet). This news of upcoming asteroid comes after the massive 2,000-foot asteroid flew past our planet last month. It is said that VH5 2019 is one of five asteroids which are due to fly past Earth over the weekend. However, all of them are at safe distances. In 2017, An asteroid named 2010 NY65, which was of a size of a skyscraper, flew past Earth at about eight times the distance between the Earth and the moon. PDCO to rack asteroids and comets Due to repeated incidents of asteroids in the past, NASA launched a new office called The Planetary Defense Coordination Office (PDCO) in 2016. The aim of PDCO was to track asteroids and comets that come too close to our planet. Based on a latest study, scientists have said that asteroids have been crashing into the Earth at nearly three times their previous rate over the last 290 million years. However, they are not sure about the exact reason behind this. Out of all the previous ones, the celestial body that had a major impact on Earth was the asteroid that killed the dinosaurs. It had an explosive impact on Earth that was 10 billion times bigger than the bomb which was dropped on Hiroshima and the debris would fly high into the air eventually escaping the Earth's gravity. When the size of the asteroid was compared, experts found that it was only 6.8 to 50.3 miles in diameter.	<urn:uuid:d704a71e-e84c-4b5f-a6c0-17906332dd4f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ibtimes.sg/doomsday-warning-massive-pyramid-shaped-asteroid-fly-past-earth-today-hours-35622	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00125.warc.gz	en	0.980199	399	3.28125	3	[ -0.06495580077171326, -0.25438830256462097, 0.3539498448371887, -0.007053987123072147, -0.16385774314403534, -0.042869601398706436, -0.243071511387825, 0.27862319350242615, -0.08716536313295364, 0.1867428719997406, 0.5365514159202576, -0.298138290643692, 0.20019102096557617, 0.218041732907...	4	In a new report, scientists have said that a 427-foot pyramid-shaped asteroid is all set to fly by Earth on Sunday (December 8). The Centre for Near-Earth Object Studies, located at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, has claimed that the object, dubbed as VH5 2019, will harmlessly fly past around 4.27 million miles from Earth at a speed of 6.1 miles per second. According to reports, the pyramid-shaped asteroid has dimensions of 57 meters (187 feet) by 130 meters (426.5 feet). This news of upcoming asteroid comes after the massive 2,000-foot asteroid flew past our planet last month. It is said that VH5 2019 is one of five asteroids which are due to fly past Earth over the weekend. However, all of them are at safe distances. In 2017, An asteroid named 2010 NY65, which was of a size of a skyscraper, flew past Earth at about eight times the distance between the Earth and the moon. PDCO to rack asteroids and comets Due to repeated incidents of asteroids in the past, NASA launched a new office called The Planetary Defense Coordination Office (PDCO) in 2016. The aim of PDCO was to track asteroids and comets that come too close to our planet. Based on a latest study, scientists have said that asteroids have been crashing into the Earth at nearly three times their previous rate over the last 290 million years. However, they are not sure about the exact reason behind this. Out of all the previous ones, the celestial body that had a major impact on Earth was the asteroid that killed the dinosaurs. It had an explosive impact on Earth that was 10 billion times bigger than the bomb which was dropped on Hiroshima and the debris would fly high into the air eventually escaping the Earth's gravity. When the size of the asteroid was compared, experts found that it was only 6.8 to 50.3 miles in diameter.	441	ENGLISH	1
Edgar Allan Poe was born. Soon after his birth, he was taken Into the family of John Allan after the death of his mother and father. Following this tragedy Pope’s brother died and his sister went Insane. Poe applied at the university of Flagella where “he became an active member of the Jefferson Literary Society’ (Wilson). He made good grades but failed to give enough money for the expenses of school, which forced him out of the university. Poe left for Boston here he started a new life as a private in the united States Army. After serving two years of service, he went to live with his aunt in Baltimore because his foster mother, Francis Allan, had passed away. Soon after this death his foster father died and Poe didn’t receive any of their large estate. In 1829 he published a second book of poetry named “AAA Raff, Temperance and Minor Poems”. This brought him into the life of writing and soon afterward he published a third volume. Poe was writing books, rose tales, and editing magazines. Then he became famous with the poem he wrote named ‘The Raven” In 1845. Everything seemed well until the year 1846. His wife died, which made Poe turn to alcohol. This Interfered with his work and gave him a bad reputation. On October 7, 1849, Edgar Allan Poe died, which remains a mystery until this day. Edgar Allan Poe experienced many tragic deaths in his life and expresses them into his poems. Edgar Allan Pope’s “The Raven” is a reflection on lost love, death, and loss of hope. Why Did Edgar Allan Poe Write About Death The poem explores the emotions of a young man who has lost his lover to death and who tries to distract himself from his sadness through books. Books, however, are little help, as his night becomes a nightmare from the raven interrupting his concentration. Throughout this poem, he uses different figurative language to show the grief and sorrow for the one he loves. “On the morrow he will leave me, as my hopes have flown before”(Poe). This depicts that Poe has had his hopes up with love but then they faded away because the one he loved died. Through Pope’s use of somber and melancholic tone he explores loss and fear In “The Raven. ” The loss and fear stems from a long lost woman he once loved. “Eagerly I wished the morrow; – vainly I had sought to borrow from my books surcease of sorrow sorrow for the lost Lenore” (Poe). The tone of the poem starts out with a dark, gloomy spirit and shifts after the first stanza to a sad depressing tone because he is reminded of his lost Lenore. The tone stays constant until the eleventh stanza. It rangers from being melancholy to fervent because the man becomes interested in what the raven has to say. “But the raven still beguiling all my sad soul into smiling, straight I wheeled a cushioned seat in front of bird and bust and door”(Poe). Edgar Allan Pope’s stories reflecting on the scientific parts of his work earned him much fame during his lifetime and after his death. His own life was scarred by tragedy at an early age. HIS parents died before he was three years old and in his poetry and books you can see his dark, depressing emotions. He sometimes uses an obsession with death and violence In his poems, but he also Includes the appreciation for the beautiful yet tragic ways of life. Edgar Allan Poe left behind a legacy of great literature, which most of it wasn’t published until after his death. He wrote poems tout loss, murder, tenant, Ana Duty . Poe wrote literature Walt n Nils Knowledge AT science and he experienced many tragic deaths in his life and expressed them into his poems. Works Cited The Raven. 4 cot. 2007. Nimbus, 9 May 2008. Wilson, James Southpaw. Pope’s Life. 2004. 9 May 2008.	<urn:uuid:807b23af-73b0-4ef0-8c25-81145f672256>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://paperap.com/paper-on-edgar-allan-poe-love-and-death/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00454.warc.gz	en	0.987816	852	3.65625	4	[ -0.25364580750465393, 0.21085360646247864, 0.28996044397354126, 0.2636803984642029, -0.27441996335983276, 0.03550346940755844, 0.4854714274406433, -0.22453102469444275, -0.021183952689170837, -0.4770010709762573, 0.24618324637413025, 0.09970980882644653, -0.06354683637619019, -0.0731627941...	2	Edgar Allan Poe was born. Soon after his birth, he was taken Into the family of John Allan after the death of his mother and father. Following this tragedy Pope’s brother died and his sister went Insane. Poe applied at the university of Flagella where “he became an active member of the Jefferson Literary Society’ (Wilson). He made good grades but failed to give enough money for the expenses of school, which forced him out of the university. Poe left for Boston here he started a new life as a private in the united States Army. After serving two years of service, he went to live with his aunt in Baltimore because his foster mother, Francis Allan, had passed away. Soon after this death his foster father died and Poe didn’t receive any of their large estate. In 1829 he published a second book of poetry named “AAA Raff, Temperance and Minor Poems”. This brought him into the life of writing and soon afterward he published a third volume. Poe was writing books, rose tales, and editing magazines. Then he became famous with the poem he wrote named ‘The Raven” In 1845. Everything seemed well until the year 1846. His wife died, which made Poe turn to alcohol. This Interfered with his work and gave him a bad reputation. On October 7, 1849, Edgar Allan Poe died, which remains a mystery until this day. Edgar Allan Poe experienced many tragic deaths in his life and expresses them into his poems. Edgar Allan Pope’s “The Raven” is a reflection on lost love, death, and loss of hope. Why Did Edgar Allan Poe Write About Death The poem explores the emotions of a young man who has lost his lover to death and who tries to distract himself from his sadness through books. Books, however, are little help, as his night becomes a nightmare from the raven interrupting his concentration. Throughout this poem, he uses different figurative language to show the grief and sorrow for the one he loves. “On the morrow he will leave me, as my hopes have flown before”(Poe). This depicts that Poe has had his hopes up with love but then they faded away because the one he loved died. Through Pope’s use of somber and melancholic tone he explores loss and fear In “The Raven. ” The loss and fear stems from a long lost woman he once loved. “Eagerly I wished the morrow; – vainly I had sought to borrow from my books surcease of sorrow sorrow for the lost Lenore” (Poe). The tone of the poem starts out with a dark, gloomy spirit and shifts after the first stanza to a sad depressing tone because he is reminded of his lost Lenore. The tone stays constant until the eleventh stanza. It rangers from being melancholy to fervent because the man becomes interested in what the raven has to say. “But the raven still beguiling all my sad soul into smiling, straight I wheeled a cushioned seat in front of bird and bust and door”(Poe). Edgar Allan Pope’s stories reflecting on the scientific parts of his work earned him much fame during his lifetime and after his death. His own life was scarred by tragedy at an early age. HIS parents died before he was three years old and in his poetry and books you can see his dark, depressing emotions. He sometimes uses an obsession with death and violence In his poems, but he also Includes the appreciation for the beautiful yet tragic ways of life. Edgar Allan Poe left behind a legacy of great literature, which most of it wasn’t published until after his death. He wrote poems tout loss, murder, tenant, Ana Duty . Poe wrote literature Walt n Nils Knowledge AT science and he experienced many tragic deaths in his life and expressed them into his poems. Works Cited The Raven. 4 cot. 2007. Nimbus, 9 May 2008. Wilson, James Southpaw. Pope’s Life. 2004. 9 May 2008.	846	ENGLISH	1
informaition about" Ebla " 54 Km away from Aleppo, lies the excavation site that used to be the capital of an ancient kingdom. Ebla the ancient city found at Tell Mardikh is one of the most important archaeological discoveries in Syria. In 1964 an Italian excavation team began to dig here and discovered this bronze age city. Ebla has been mentioned as one of the cities conquered in 2250 BC by the Akkadians from Mesopotamia under Naram Sin. It has been proved that Ebla was an important powerful kingdom, in the third and second millennia BC. Ebla has been considered something resembling a missing link, which now provides information on a kingdom that had important trading contacts with the Akkadians and Sumerians in Iraq, and north into Anatolia. Not much is known about the people of this kingdom, although it is thought that the founders are of Amorite descent. Their language is known as Eblaic, and it was recorded on clay tablets in the Akkadian cuneiform. Ebla flourished greatly between 2400 and 2250 BC, as a trading city with a sophisticated economic and social system. It was destroyed by the Akkadians under Naram Sin in 2250 BC, and in 2000 BC was annexed into the Aleppo kingdom of Yamkhad. In 1600 BC it was conquered and heavily damaged by the Hittites. In 1450 BC it is recorded at Karnak by the Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III as a city that the Egyptians went through on their way to the Euphrates. An Aramean fortress dating back to the 9th and 8th centuries BC, and other remains from the Persian and Byzantine show that it was still used, although it had lost its fame and was for the most part an abandoned city. The city was circular and surrounded by a 20 to 30 meter thick wall and had a citadel or acropolis in the center of it. At four points round the city, the wall was perforated by gateways guarded by bastions with towers. One of these gateways is still evident on the southwest side of the city walls. The citadel at the center includes to palaces, the main one is the royal palace on the west side that consists of the royal quarters and an administrative area. There are also three caves below this where some of the royals were buried. The palace archives were found in the southern part of this palace. North of the tell are the remains of an Amorite fortress, which was found under a villa dating back to the Persian and Hellenistic periods. Most of the artifacts and archives can be found at the Idlib museum	<urn:uuid:31654092-6410-484f-8438-c28b6d82d1e9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://algassania2.mam9.com/t666-informaition-about-ebla	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00308.warc.gz	en	0.981107	553	3.453125	3	[ -0.1019238606095314, 0.22422723472118378, 0.8085086345672607, -0.03646893799304962, -0.29598915576934814, -0.3126552402973175, -0.006311056204140186, 0.1273738443851471, -0.3577927350997925, 0.44990187883377075, -0.468966007232666, -0.6239771842956543, -0.013841461390256882, 0.242953896522...	2	informaition about" Ebla " 54 Km away from Aleppo, lies the excavation site that used to be the capital of an ancient kingdom. Ebla the ancient city found at Tell Mardikh is one of the most important archaeological discoveries in Syria. In 1964 an Italian excavation team began to dig here and discovered this bronze age city. Ebla has been mentioned as one of the cities conquered in 2250 BC by the Akkadians from Mesopotamia under Naram Sin. It has been proved that Ebla was an important powerful kingdom, in the third and second millennia BC. Ebla has been considered something resembling a missing link, which now provides information on a kingdom that had important trading contacts with the Akkadians and Sumerians in Iraq, and north into Anatolia. Not much is known about the people of this kingdom, although it is thought that the founders are of Amorite descent. Their language is known as Eblaic, and it was recorded on clay tablets in the Akkadian cuneiform. Ebla flourished greatly between 2400 and 2250 BC, as a trading city with a sophisticated economic and social system. It was destroyed by the Akkadians under Naram Sin in 2250 BC, and in 2000 BC was annexed into the Aleppo kingdom of Yamkhad. In 1600 BC it was conquered and heavily damaged by the Hittites. In 1450 BC it is recorded at Karnak by the Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III as a city that the Egyptians went through on their way to the Euphrates. An Aramean fortress dating back to the 9th and 8th centuries BC, and other remains from the Persian and Byzantine show that it was still used, although it had lost its fame and was for the most part an abandoned city. The city was circular and surrounded by a 20 to 30 meter thick wall and had a citadel or acropolis in the center of it. At four points round the city, the wall was perforated by gateways guarded by bastions with towers. One of these gateways is still evident on the southwest side of the city walls. The citadel at the center includes to palaces, the main one is the royal palace on the west side that consists of the royal quarters and an administrative area. There are also three caves below this where some of the royals were buried. The palace archives were found in the southern part of this palace. North of the tell are the remains of an Amorite fortress, which was found under a villa dating back to the Persian and Hellenistic periods. Most of the artifacts and archives can be found at the Idlib museum	577	ENGLISH	1
While steam engines have become a bit outdated, understanding how they work is still important. Steam engines and locomotives played a huge role in modernization and progress across the planet. Thanks to the steam engine, industrialization was possible on a massive scale and transport options were revolutionalized. So you might be wondering how one works. if you are, then you’ve found the right article for you. After all, while steam engines might not be in day-to-day use these days, they’re still important. Not only are they important historically, but you can still visit steam locomotives and have a ride on them today. They might not be the most common or normal form of transport today, but that doesn’t mean the steam engine doesn’t still have its uses. It does. And even if it didn’t, knowing how they work is still important. They use a lot of common principles that knowing a bit more about could help you understand a range of different technologies. What is a steam engine? A steam engine is an engine for a vehicle, normally a locomotive but also sometimes a car or ship. We’ll have a look at how a steam engine works in a bit more detail, but it’s important to understand a bit more about why steam engines were such a huge deal and how they helped revolutionalize the world before we do that. Why were steam engines so important? You might think steam engines are just one type of engine, like many others. You might think they shouldn’t be seen as any more important than electric engines, petrol engines, gas engines or any other type of engine. But that’s looking at things from a modern perspective. The reality is, the steam engine was the first real type of engine that could be produced on a grand scale and power a number of different vehicles. They became crucial in shrinking borders and cutting travel times. They were an integral part of the industrial revolution. Before steam engines and they transport options they bring, people had to get around on horseback. This made traveling even a few hundred miles take days. It meant that countries seemed much larger and locations that now seem close seemed much further away. This made it harder for people to mix with someone from different backgrounds. It meant you’d have to get a job in your local area (normally somewhere you could walk to). Employment, trade and general freedom was obviously nothing compared to what is today. The steam engine changed everything. When railways were built (thanks to the steam engine), communities became more connected. It now became possible to trade over much greater areas. Businesses and industries grew, trade flourished and employment opportunities boomed. That was the industrial revolution. And a lot of it was thanks to the steam engine. It could be argued that the world we see today was shaped by it. The modern world of global commerce has a lot to thank the humble steam engine for. And steam engines weren’t just hugely important in making trade and transport easier. They were actually a much more integral and direct part of the industrial revolution in a way some people fail to recognize: factories. That’s right, those factories that sprung up and are synonymous with the industrial revolution were most often powered by steam engines as well. Only ones that didn’t move. So the goods that were produced and the way they were transported were all thanks to steam engines. How does a steam engine work? Now you know a bit more about why steam engines were so important, you probably want to know how they really work. Well the obvious answer to that is: with steam. But let’s go into a bit more detail… A typical steam engine in a locomotive would be what’s known in more detail as a piston steam engine. These piston steam engines sometimes had double-acting valves that allowed steam to act more efficiently in the unit. A slide valve would be in charge of letting the steam out into the cylinders. This steam was normally created by burning coal, if you were unsure about that. That’s why running a locomotive often needed multiple workers constantly shoveling coal into the furnace. A control rod on the valve would normally be hooked to a cross-head so that the motion would work in the correct way for the steam engine to work properly. Exhaust steam would vent out into the air. A steam engine would need to be topped up with water regularly as this is lost quickly when turned into exhaust steam. The opening and closing of valves created the “choo-choo” sounds you might be familiar with. Steam is created at very high pressure and this in turn powers the momentum of the locomotive. That’s because the cross-head (that’s powered by steam) is connected to a drive rod which in turn is connected to coupling rods that drive the wheels on the track. The high-pressure steam that is created like this comes from a boiler. These are similar to the boilers you have in your home today, but aren’t completely the same. These boilers were either fire-tube boilers or water-tube boilers. Fire-tube boilers were more popular in the beginning. In a water tube boiler, water runs through a number of tubes that are placed in the fire. This heats the water and creates a steam output, as well as an output of hot gases which are sent elsewhere. So that’s generally how steam engines work. There are a lot of different variations, and the technology used in a locomotive differs slightly to that of a motor car or factory steam engine, but the principles remain the same, Obviously, you would need a much bigger steam engine with much more fuel to power a locomotive than a standard car, but they follow similar ideas.	<urn:uuid:c9595075-a7c9-4ecb-80c4-cbd4f202ae92>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://buyersimpact.co.uk/blog/how-does-a-steam-engine-work/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00517.warc.gz	en	0.985849	1,206	3.40625	3	[ -0.1402859091758728, -0.15147751569747925, 0.48334628343582153, -0.14984871447086334, 0.03687327355146408, 0.223580002784729, 0.252856969833374, -0.09604476392269135, -0.3156603276729584, -0.1384001225233078, -0.08590894937515259, -0.011369959451258183, -0.21448230743408203, 0.162662714719...	10	While steam engines have become a bit outdated, understanding how they work is still important. Steam engines and locomotives played a huge role in modernization and progress across the planet. Thanks to the steam engine, industrialization was possible on a massive scale and transport options were revolutionalized. So you might be wondering how one works. if you are, then you’ve found the right article for you. After all, while steam engines might not be in day-to-day use these days, they’re still important. Not only are they important historically, but you can still visit steam locomotives and have a ride on them today. They might not be the most common or normal form of transport today, but that doesn’t mean the steam engine doesn’t still have its uses. It does. And even if it didn’t, knowing how they work is still important. They use a lot of common principles that knowing a bit more about could help you understand a range of different technologies. What is a steam engine? A steam engine is an engine for a vehicle, normally a locomotive but also sometimes a car or ship. We’ll have a look at how a steam engine works in a bit more detail, but it’s important to understand a bit more about why steam engines were such a huge deal and how they helped revolutionalize the world before we do that. Why were steam engines so important? You might think steam engines are just one type of engine, like many others. You might think they shouldn’t be seen as any more important than electric engines, petrol engines, gas engines or any other type of engine. But that’s looking at things from a modern perspective. The reality is, the steam engine was the first real type of engine that could be produced on a grand scale and power a number of different vehicles. They became crucial in shrinking borders and cutting travel times. They were an integral part of the industrial revolution. Before steam engines and they transport options they bring, people had to get around on horseback. This made traveling even a few hundred miles take days. It meant that countries seemed much larger and locations that now seem close seemed much further away. This made it harder for people to mix with someone from different backgrounds. It meant you’d have to get a job in your local area (normally somewhere you could walk to). Employment, trade and general freedom was obviously nothing compared to what is today. The steam engine changed everything. When railways were built (thanks to the steam engine), communities became more connected. It now became possible to trade over much greater areas. Businesses and industries grew, trade flourished and employment opportunities boomed. That was the industrial revolution. And a lot of it was thanks to the steam engine. It could be argued that the world we see today was shaped by it. The modern world of global commerce has a lot to thank the humble steam engine for. And steam engines weren’t just hugely important in making trade and transport easier. They were actually a much more integral and direct part of the industrial revolution in a way some people fail to recognize: factories. That’s right, those factories that sprung up and are synonymous with the industrial revolution were most often powered by steam engines as well. Only ones that didn’t move. So the goods that were produced and the way they were transported were all thanks to steam engines. How does a steam engine work? Now you know a bit more about why steam engines were so important, you probably want to know how they really work. Well the obvious answer to that is: with steam. But let’s go into a bit more detail… A typical steam engine in a locomotive would be what’s known in more detail as a piston steam engine. These piston steam engines sometimes had double-acting valves that allowed steam to act more efficiently in the unit. A slide valve would be in charge of letting the steam out into the cylinders. This steam was normally created by burning coal, if you were unsure about that. That’s why running a locomotive often needed multiple workers constantly shoveling coal into the furnace. A control rod on the valve would normally be hooked to a cross-head so that the motion would work in the correct way for the steam engine to work properly. Exhaust steam would vent out into the air. A steam engine would need to be topped up with water regularly as this is lost quickly when turned into exhaust steam. The opening and closing of valves created the “choo-choo” sounds you might be familiar with. Steam is created at very high pressure and this in turn powers the momentum of the locomotive. That’s because the cross-head (that’s powered by steam) is connected to a drive rod which in turn is connected to coupling rods that drive the wheels on the track. The high-pressure steam that is created like this comes from a boiler. These are similar to the boilers you have in your home today, but aren’t completely the same. These boilers were either fire-tube boilers or water-tube boilers. Fire-tube boilers were more popular in the beginning. In a water tube boiler, water runs through a number of tubes that are placed in the fire. This heats the water and creates a steam output, as well as an output of hot gases which are sent elsewhere. So that’s generally how steam engines work. There are a lot of different variations, and the technology used in a locomotive differs slightly to that of a motor car or factory steam engine, but the principles remain the same, Obviously, you would need a much bigger steam engine with much more fuel to power a locomotive than a standard car, but they follow similar ideas.	1,139	ENGLISH	1
In the seventeenth century, tobacco was fiercely debated from England to Istanbul. Muslim scholars from Bornu and Baghirmi participated in this debate and maintained that smoking was forbidden by divine law, long after their counterparts in the heartlands of Islam allowed it. The question addressed here is why and how the adamant rejection of tobacco in central sudanic Africa was formulated. The study is based on a number of Arabic manuscripts from the region and focuses on a treatise, written around 1700, by Muḥammad al-Wālī b. Sulaymān. It is argued that he was as much inspired by the popular opinion about tobacco in his home-environment as by the writings of scholars from the Middle East. In folktales, tobacco was literally demonised, and the rejection of “pagan” smokers helped to mark new social boundaries. The dominant position regarding smoking was the result of an exchange between islamic learning and popular culture in the region.	<urn:uuid:a816a9e4-5280-4b67-87eb-b445e9aaa1d1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brill.com/abstract/journals/iafr/3/2/article-p227_6.xml?rskey=QxwBcL&result=2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00120.warc.gz	en	0.982918	200	3.3125	3	[ -0.28111061453819275, 0.8975684642791748, -0.14822547137737274, -0.15588241815567017, -0.0024104155600070953, 0.03847820311784744, 0.08775202929973602, 0.09864671528339386, -0.18840067088603973, 0.5426481366157532, -0.5701176524162292, -0.4611147344112396, -0.16312575340270996, 0.026197925...	1	In the seventeenth century, tobacco was fiercely debated from England to Istanbul. Muslim scholars from Bornu and Baghirmi participated in this debate and maintained that smoking was forbidden by divine law, long after their counterparts in the heartlands of Islam allowed it. The question addressed here is why and how the adamant rejection of tobacco in central sudanic Africa was formulated. The study is based on a number of Arabic manuscripts from the region and focuses on a treatise, written around 1700, by Muḥammad al-Wālī b. Sulaymān. It is argued that he was as much inspired by the popular opinion about tobacco in his home-environment as by the writings of scholars from the Middle East. In folktales, tobacco was literally demonised, and the rejection of “pagan” smokers helped to mark new social boundaries. The dominant position regarding smoking was the result of an exchange between islamic learning and popular culture in the region.	198	ENGLISH	1
In December, 1929 the Congress session was held at Lahore under the President ship of Jawaharlal Nehru. The Congress declared the attainment of complete Independence as its aim and decided to launch a Civil Disobedience movement under the leadership of Gandhiji. It was decided to celebrate 26 January as the Independence Day all over the country. The Civil Disobedience movement had involved millions of people. But when it started there were only 78 followers along with Gandhiji. It was known as the Dandi March. He broke the law by making salt. All the important leaders including Gandhiji were arrested. By the beginning of 1931, 90000 persons were in jail and 67 papers had been banned. At Peshawar, Indian soldiers refused to open fire on the demonstrators, when ordered to do so. In Sholapur martial law had to be imposed to suppress the mass upsurge. In Chitlagong, the revolutionaries captured the armoury. In March 1931, the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed. The most significant contribution of this session at Karachi was a resolution it passed on Fundamental Rights and Economic Policy. The Civil Disobedience movement was revived on Gandhiji’s return from the Round Table Conference in London, when the new Viceroy Lord Willington, declined to grant even an interview to Gandhiji. By April 1933, about 120,000 persons had been arrested. In May, 1934 the Civil Disobedience movement was called off.	<urn:uuid:5459e447-c5f0-4e02-8d83-37b38ffdbf82>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.preservearticles.com/history/lahore-congress-and-the-civil-disobedience-movement/6753	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00031.warc.gz	en	0.980695	306	3.796875	4	[ -0.38328075408935547, 0.5730730891227722, 0.019330641254782677, -0.07365007698535919, -0.7121533155441284, 0.16431111097335815, 0.3561244308948517, 0.17339305579662323, -0.2825426459312439, 0.1586482673883438, 0.6034492254257202, -0.10696423798799515, 0.32504144310951233, 0.270041614770889...	8	In December, 1929 the Congress session was held at Lahore under the President ship of Jawaharlal Nehru. The Congress declared the attainment of complete Independence as its aim and decided to launch a Civil Disobedience movement under the leadership of Gandhiji. It was decided to celebrate 26 January as the Independence Day all over the country. The Civil Disobedience movement had involved millions of people. But when it started there were only 78 followers along with Gandhiji. It was known as the Dandi March. He broke the law by making salt. All the important leaders including Gandhiji were arrested. By the beginning of 1931, 90000 persons were in jail and 67 papers had been banned. At Peshawar, Indian soldiers refused to open fire on the demonstrators, when ordered to do so. In Sholapur martial law had to be imposed to suppress the mass upsurge. In Chitlagong, the revolutionaries captured the armoury. In March 1931, the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed. The most significant contribution of this session at Karachi was a resolution it passed on Fundamental Rights and Economic Policy. The Civil Disobedience movement was revived on Gandhiji’s return from the Round Table Conference in London, when the new Viceroy Lord Willington, declined to grant even an interview to Gandhiji. By April 1933, about 120,000 persons had been arrested. In May, 1934 the Civil Disobedience movement was called off.	339	ENGLISH	1
Mill Spring, Missouri facts for kids \|Mill Spring, Missouri\| Location of Mill Spring, Missouri \|• Total\|\|0.44 sq mi (1.14 km2)\| \|• Land\|\|0.44 sq mi (1.14 km2)\| \|• Water\|\|0 sq mi (0 km2)\| \|Elevation\|\|436 ft (133 m)\| \|• Estimate (2012)\|\|184\| \|• Density\|\|429.5/sq mi (165.8/km2)\| \|Time zone\|\|Central (CST) (UTC-6)\| \|• Summer (DST)\|\|CDT (UTC-5)\| \|GNIS feature ID\|\|0722359\| Mill Spring was laid out in 1871. The community took its name from a nearby spring of the same name which once powered lumber mills. A post office called Mill Spring has been in operation since 1874. Mill Spring is located at(37.063306, -90.681616). According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 0.44 square miles (1.14 km2), all of it land. As of the census of 2010, there were 189 people, 81 households, and 46 families residing in the village. The population density was 429.5 inhabitants per square mile (165.8/km2). There were 106 housing units at an average density of 240.9 per square mile (93.0/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 96.8% White, 1.1% African American, 0.5% from other races, and 1.6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.5% of the population. There were 81 households of which 25.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.3% were married couples living together, 13.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 43.2% were non-families. 30.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 3.02. The median age in the village was 37.8 years. 21.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 9.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26% were from 25 to 44; 27% were from 45 to 64; and 15.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 51.9% male and 48.1% female. As of the census of 2000, there were 219 people, 81 households, and 55 families residing in the village. The population density was 1,041.8 people per square mile (402.6/km²). There were 104 housing units at an average density of 494.7 per square mile (191.2/km²). The racial makeup of the village was 96.35% White, 0.46% Native American, 0.91% Pacific Islander, and 2.28% from two or more races. There were 81 households out of which 30.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.7% were married couples living together, 13.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.9% were non-families. 24.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 16.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.70 and the average family size was 3.13. In the village, the population was spread out with 28.8% under the age of 18, 8.7% from 18 to 24, 24.2% from 25 to 44, 17.8% from 45 to 64, and 20.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 104.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.5 males. The median income for a household in the village was $22,750, and the median income for a family was $26,389. Males had a median income of $18,125 versus $14,063 for females. The per capita income for the village was $9,723. About 13.5% of families and 22.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 25.0% of those under the age of eighteen and 20.0% of those sixty five or over. Mill Spring, Missouri Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.	<urn:uuid:f4dbe9cf-01b0-4890-aaa7-44c424f4ae7f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kids.kiddle.co/Mill_Spring,_Missouri	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00223.warc.gz	en	0.982765	1,007	3.296875	3	[ 0.36648738384246826, 0.12213633954524994, 0.23183941841125488, -0.19720199704170227, 0.09545712172985077, -0.38724708557128906, -0.3114932179450989, 0.17814314365386963, -0.2932513356208801, 0.02374929189682007, 0.27610838413238525, -0.5161314010620117, -0.022155089303851128, 0.01536535192...	2	Mill Spring, Missouri facts for kids \|Mill Spring, Missouri\| Location of Mill Spring, Missouri \|• Total\|\|0.44 sq mi (1.14 km2)\| \|• Land\|\|0.44 sq mi (1.14 km2)\| \|• Water\|\|0 sq mi (0 km2)\| \|Elevation\|\|436 ft (133 m)\| \|• Estimate (2012)\|\|184\| \|• Density\|\|429.5/sq mi (165.8/km2)\| \|Time zone\|\|Central (CST) (UTC-6)\| \|• Summer (DST)\|\|CDT (UTC-5)\| \|GNIS feature ID\|\|0722359\| Mill Spring was laid out in 1871. The community took its name from a nearby spring of the same name which once powered lumber mills. A post office called Mill Spring has been in operation since 1874. Mill Spring is located at(37.063306, -90.681616). According to the United States Census Bureau, the village has a total area of 0.44 square miles (1.14 km2), all of it land. As of the census of 2010, there were 189 people, 81 households, and 46 families residing in the village. The population density was 429.5 inhabitants per square mile (165.8/km2). There were 106 housing units at an average density of 240.9 per square mile (93.0/km2). The racial makeup of the village was 96.8% White, 1.1% African American, 0.5% from other races, and 1.6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.5% of the population. There were 81 households of which 25.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.3% were married couples living together, 13.6% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.9% had a male householder with no wife present, and 43.2% were non-families. 30.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 13.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 3.02. The median age in the village was 37.8 years. 21.7% of residents were under the age of 18; 9.9% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 26% were from 25 to 44; 27% were from 45 to 64; and 15.3% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the village was 51.9% male and 48.1% female. As of the census of 2000, there were 219 people, 81 households, and 55 families residing in the village. The population density was 1,041.8 people per square mile (402.6/km²). There were 104 housing units at an average density of 494.7 per square mile (191.2/km²). The racial makeup of the village was 96.35% White, 0.46% Native American, 0.91% Pacific Islander, and 2.28% from two or more races. There were 81 households out of which 30.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 45.7% were married couples living together, 13.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 30.9% were non-families. 24.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 16.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.70 and the average family size was 3.13. In the village, the population was spread out with 28.8% under the age of 18, 8.7% from 18 to 24, 24.2% from 25 to 44, 17.8% from 45 to 64, and 20.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females there were 104.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 97.5 males. The median income for a household in the village was $22,750, and the median income for a family was $26,389. Males had a median income of $18,125 versus $14,063 for females. The per capita income for the village was $9,723. About 13.5% of families and 22.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 25.0% of those under the age of eighteen and 20.0% of those sixty five or over. Mill Spring, Missouri Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.	1,223	ENGLISH	1
Vitebsk is the second most ancient Belarusian settlement after Polotsk. Since the founding of Vitebsk in 974 year it's been more than a thousand years. During this time the city was under the leadership of the Kievan Rus, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russian Empire. Now, it's a beautiful tourist city in Belarus. The hallmark of Vitebsk in the history of existence has become, that the inhabitants of each time trying to gain independence from the then governing States. A symbol such zeal for freedom in modern Vitebsk city hall became. Today, this architectural monument is the main landmark of the city. The history of hall begins with 1597, when the king of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund III Vasa gave the city Magdeburg law. At that time, such a right could not get a settlement in Europe, as it allowed the citizens themselves to regulate the life of the city. In this regard the town hall as a symbol of the freedom in the middle ages, it was possible to build only in cities where the holders of this right. After gifts from the ruler, construction began and soon near Shorskogo castle was built a wooden building, which became the prototype of the town hall. But it lasted very long. In 1623, after the uprising of residents of Vitebsk was deprived of the Magdeburg law and the city hall destroyed. It took another 20 years and in 1644 the settlement was returned this right for services of local residents in the war against Muscovy, a prototype of the Russian Empire. In the same year in the square erected a building with two floors, which had a high roof and a watchtower in the shape of a plate. On it were placed a dome with a spire. The first floor of the building was built of brick, and above all that it was built of wood. The facades on both sides adjoined courtyard Seating. As shown by the restoration works which were carried out in the 20th century, the floor of the courtyard and the first floor was paved with cobblestones. This hall was painted in 1644 in the famous drawing of the city of Vitebsk. In the period from 1708 to 1752 the town hall three times burned, but its residents again restored. Later, when the city became part of the Russian Empire in 1772, the Magdeburg law lost its significance, and the town hall allowed to use for the requirements of Vitebsk. During this time there were city Council, and the Bank along with the court. Also here in different years were fire lookout tower and a police station. Only in 1775 the town hall was completely rebuilt and brought before the citizens in such terms that we know it today. Now the building was entirely of brick. Was built four-storey tower, which towered above the Central facade. There have been changes in the overall design. Was added to the complex profile, pilasters and cornices in the style of Baroque with the addition of classicism. This made the town hall a luxury in every sense of the word and gave it a kind of solemnity in the face of the city. Later, this attraction is newly rebuilt. In 1833, on top of the tower a clock was installed, and in 1911 he finished third floor. During the war years on the square in front of city hall produced for the execution of partisans and underground fighters. This place is a memorial. Restoration work, which was carried out in the 20th century, has opened up many historical exhibits. Have been found vintage collectable glassware, gun-Saltovka, documents from the police Department dated 1806-1846 years and a lot of other things. Since 1997, the Central facade is decorated with two-meter bronze arms of the city of Vitebsk, which was established in honor of the anniversary of 400 years. Today in the town hall has a Museum in Vitebsk region, which has many exhibits telling the history of the settlement. Is a landmark in the historic centre of the city. The town hall is the number one tourists in the list of places in the first place is worth a visit in Vitebsk.	<urn:uuid:ab94c15e-6bdb-48d7-a2c7-d782a3f645e0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.belkraj.by/landmarks/town-hall-vitebsk	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00411.warc.gz	en	0.981573	874	3.28125	3	[ 0.07269053161144257, -0.07860088348388672, 0.2168726921081543, -0.1326644867658615, -0.2466488629579544, -0.19132938981056213, 0.019199734553694725, 0.2111646980047226, -0.15836963057518005, -0.07172413170337677, -0.033998847007751465, -0.4359632730484009, 0.0802832767367363, 0.05007330328...	1	Vitebsk is the second most ancient Belarusian settlement after Polotsk. Since the founding of Vitebsk in 974 year it's been more than a thousand years. During this time the city was under the leadership of the Kievan Rus, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Russian Empire. Now, it's a beautiful tourist city in Belarus. The hallmark of Vitebsk in the history of existence has become, that the inhabitants of each time trying to gain independence from the then governing States. A symbol such zeal for freedom in modern Vitebsk city hall became. Today, this architectural monument is the main landmark of the city. The history of hall begins with 1597, when the king of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Sigismund III Vasa gave the city Magdeburg law. At that time, such a right could not get a settlement in Europe, as it allowed the citizens themselves to regulate the life of the city. In this regard the town hall as a symbol of the freedom in the middle ages, it was possible to build only in cities where the holders of this right. After gifts from the ruler, construction began and soon near Shorskogo castle was built a wooden building, which became the prototype of the town hall. But it lasted very long. In 1623, after the uprising of residents of Vitebsk was deprived of the Magdeburg law and the city hall destroyed. It took another 20 years and in 1644 the settlement was returned this right for services of local residents in the war against Muscovy, a prototype of the Russian Empire. In the same year in the square erected a building with two floors, which had a high roof and a watchtower in the shape of a plate. On it were placed a dome with a spire. The first floor of the building was built of brick, and above all that it was built of wood. The facades on both sides adjoined courtyard Seating. As shown by the restoration works which were carried out in the 20th century, the floor of the courtyard and the first floor was paved with cobblestones. This hall was painted in 1644 in the famous drawing of the city of Vitebsk. In the period from 1708 to 1752 the town hall three times burned, but its residents again restored. Later, when the city became part of the Russian Empire in 1772, the Magdeburg law lost its significance, and the town hall allowed to use for the requirements of Vitebsk. During this time there were city Council, and the Bank along with the court. Also here in different years were fire lookout tower and a police station. Only in 1775 the town hall was completely rebuilt and brought before the citizens in such terms that we know it today. Now the building was entirely of brick. Was built four-storey tower, which towered above the Central facade. There have been changes in the overall design. Was added to the complex profile, pilasters and cornices in the style of Baroque with the addition of classicism. This made the town hall a luxury in every sense of the word and gave it a kind of solemnity in the face of the city. Later, this attraction is newly rebuilt. In 1833, on top of the tower a clock was installed, and in 1911 he finished third floor. During the war years on the square in front of city hall produced for the execution of partisans and underground fighters. This place is a memorial. Restoration work, which was carried out in the 20th century, has opened up many historical exhibits. Have been found vintage collectable glassware, gun-Saltovka, documents from the police Department dated 1806-1846 years and a lot of other things. Since 1997, the Central facade is decorated with two-meter bronze arms of the city of Vitebsk, which was established in honor of the anniversary of 400 years. Today in the town hall has a Museum in Vitebsk region, which has many exhibits telling the history of the settlement. Is a landmark in the historic centre of the city. The town hall is the number one tourists in the list of places in the first place is worth a visit in Vitebsk.	917	ENGLISH	1
Physics is the science of motion and its laws, but also of sound, and light, and discussion of matter and energy. The modern science of physics grew out of many Medieval disciplines, ranging from philosophy, or speculative thought, to music theory, engineering, and optics — the study of light and vision, including mirrors, lenses, rainbows, shadows and the process of seeing. Experiments in flight and projection of objects in space (such as cannons, catapults and gliders) are also considered part of physics. Achievements in Islamic Spain include new ideas produced by studies of physical science that were then published in books, and also translations of works from other Muslim lands, that were transferred to Europe and beyond. They include applications of physics to practical life in areas such as use of energy and hydraulic technologies. Achievements in the physical sciences began at the court of Córdoba during the 9th and 10th centuries CE, where artists and scholars, inventors and writers could find patronage and interest in their ideas. Books from the eastern Muslim lands, especially Baghdad, were eagerly collected in Andalusian libraries of half a million volumes. Among the works brought there were al-Khwarizmi’s mathematical writings. Like most other scholars of the time, al-Khwarizmi experimented with many ideas, such as calculating the thickness of earth’s atmosphere, and problems with optics, such as magnification. Works on sound and music theory were well known and put to practical use in building complex musical instruments. Ibn al-Haytham (died ca. 1040 CE), known in Latin translation as Alhazen, was a scholar in Cairo whose work was widely translated into Latin during the 12th century CE and is still studied by historians of science today. Ibn al-Haytham described his experiments and investigations about light and vision in an innovative work called The Book of Optics. He analyzed the structure of the human eye and described how it sees. He overturned theories held since Aristotle and Ptolemy that either the eye sent out rays that allowed objects to be seen, or objects sent some force toward the eye. Ibn al-Haytham demonstrated how light enters the eye through the pupil. Using mathematical formulas, he described how light falling on the eye is refracted through its lens, allowing the eye to sense forms of light and color, and the mind to perceive and order the images. Other optical experiments and investigations included projecting the sun’s image on a wall through a small opening, which is the camera obscura similar to early photographic cameras of later centuries. (The light-sensitive film to capture the image was a much later invention.) He investigated mirror theory, described spherical and parabolic mirrors, calculated how light is refracted (bent), and how light passing through a lens is broken into the color spectrum — the rainbow. His investigation of glass and water lenses led to the creation of mathematical formulas that allowed advancements in refining the shape of lenses. European scholars studied these ideas, which led to lenses for telescopes, magnifying lenses, and eyeglasses. Most surprisingly, his mathematical discussions of the way the eye sees led to the development of perspective drawing, a major aid to realistic painting, but also a great advancement in accurate illustration for scientific and technical books. Combined with the invention of printing, perspective drawing allowed accurate transmission of ideas for machines, architecture and other fields. Ibn Al-Haytham influenced important scientists such as Witelo, Kepler, and Roger Bacon, making Alhazen the most quoted physicist of the Medieval period. Although the achievements of Ibn al-Haytham, like those of other Muslim scientists, have been neglected, a 17th century engraving in a scientific book shows Galileo, inventor of the telescope and astronomer, dressed as an Arab and posing opposite him as a tribute to his contribution. Other applications of physics were being used and developed in Al-Andalus. In hydraulic technology, machines to move water were built on models like those of al-Jazari, who invented the crank-connecting rod system. This was very important to the development of technology, because it involves a way of transforming rotation into linear motion, like the mechanism that moves your bicycle. The same principle is used in car engines. Al-Jazari’s manuscript is full of innovations, such as valves and pistons, one of the first mechanical clocks driven by water and weights, and a combination lock. Andalusian Muslim engineers continued to produce and perfect mechanical clocks, and this knowledge was transmitted to Europe through Latin translations of their books on mechanics. Many of these books have since been lost or destroyed. Another practical and experimental scientist who worked in Al-Andalus was as Abbas ibn Firnas (810–887 CE), who came to Córdoba from Baghdad to teach music theory at the court of Abd al-Rahman III. Ibn Firnas worked in many fields, including chemistry, physics, astronomy, and as a poet. He designed a water clock, he worked to improve the way glass was made, and is said to have worked on eyeglasses to help those with poor vision. He devised a way to cut very hard quartz, or rock crystal, and made a mechanical model to show the motions of planets and stars. In 875 CE, Ibn Firnas did something that made him famous, but almost ended his career. He constructed a glider, and launched himself into the air. The flight was successful, and was viewed by a crowd of invited guests. As an experimental vehicle, however, the design was not perfected, and it had no tail to help with landing, a fact which he later noted when observing birds. He injured his back upon landing. Historian Philip Hitti wrote, “Ibn Firnas was the first man in history to make a scientific attempt at flying.” A crater on the map of the moon is named Ibn Firnas to honor his achievement as one of the first people to fly. Europeans benefited greatly from the knowledge and research of Muslims in physics. One piece of evidence of this is that many these books were translated into Latin in Spain. Another is that these books were taught in European universities and quoted by scientists as they developed their own work. Finally, they were among the first books printed after Gutenberg invented the printing press in 1453 CE by, and were re-printed many times. These ideas laid the foundation for the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries CE. Even though much of this Muslim legacy was forgotten, historians of science are restoring its rightful place today.	<urn:uuid:de13010d-fd45-4096-b935-55175c916b66>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.islamicspain.tv/the-science-and-culture-of-islamic-spain/25-subjects-of-science-and-culture/physics-and-optics/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00531.warc.gz	en	0.980323	1,357	3.828125	4	[ -0.2755081057548523, 0.40914350748062134, 0.22875013947486877, 0.11289329826831818, -0.22803236544132233, 0.12811782956123352, 0.05641694366931915, 0.04686523973941803, 0.13587018847465515, 0.00903591513633728, 0.14385005831718445, -0.3296365737915039, -0.14331848919391632, 0.3429787755012...	13	Physics is the science of motion and its laws, but also of sound, and light, and discussion of matter and energy. The modern science of physics grew out of many Medieval disciplines, ranging from philosophy, or speculative thought, to music theory, engineering, and optics — the study of light and vision, including mirrors, lenses, rainbows, shadows and the process of seeing. Experiments in flight and projection of objects in space (such as cannons, catapults and gliders) are also considered part of physics. Achievements in Islamic Spain include new ideas produced by studies of physical science that were then published in books, and also translations of works from other Muslim lands, that were transferred to Europe and beyond. They include applications of physics to practical life in areas such as use of energy and hydraulic technologies. Achievements in the physical sciences began at the court of Córdoba during the 9th and 10th centuries CE, where artists and scholars, inventors and writers could find patronage and interest in their ideas. Books from the eastern Muslim lands, especially Baghdad, were eagerly collected in Andalusian libraries of half a million volumes. Among the works brought there were al-Khwarizmi’s mathematical writings. Like most other scholars of the time, al-Khwarizmi experimented with many ideas, such as calculating the thickness of earth’s atmosphere, and problems with optics, such as magnification. Works on sound and music theory were well known and put to practical use in building complex musical instruments. Ibn al-Haytham (died ca. 1040 CE), known in Latin translation as Alhazen, was a scholar in Cairo whose work was widely translated into Latin during the 12th century CE and is still studied by historians of science today. Ibn al-Haytham described his experiments and investigations about light and vision in an innovative work called The Book of Optics. He analyzed the structure of the human eye and described how it sees. He overturned theories held since Aristotle and Ptolemy that either the eye sent out rays that allowed objects to be seen, or objects sent some force toward the eye. Ibn al-Haytham demonstrated how light enters the eye through the pupil. Using mathematical formulas, he described how light falling on the eye is refracted through its lens, allowing the eye to sense forms of light and color, and the mind to perceive and order the images. Other optical experiments and investigations included projecting the sun’s image on a wall through a small opening, which is the camera obscura similar to early photographic cameras of later centuries. (The light-sensitive film to capture the image was a much later invention.) He investigated mirror theory, described spherical and parabolic mirrors, calculated how light is refracted (bent), and how light passing through a lens is broken into the color spectrum — the rainbow. His investigation of glass and water lenses led to the creation of mathematical formulas that allowed advancements in refining the shape of lenses. European scholars studied these ideas, which led to lenses for telescopes, magnifying lenses, and eyeglasses. Most surprisingly, his mathematical discussions of the way the eye sees led to the development of perspective drawing, a major aid to realistic painting, but also a great advancement in accurate illustration for scientific and technical books. Combined with the invention of printing, perspective drawing allowed accurate transmission of ideas for machines, architecture and other fields. Ibn Al-Haytham influenced important scientists such as Witelo, Kepler, and Roger Bacon, making Alhazen the most quoted physicist of the Medieval period. Although the achievements of Ibn al-Haytham, like those of other Muslim scientists, have been neglected, a 17th century engraving in a scientific book shows Galileo, inventor of the telescope and astronomer, dressed as an Arab and posing opposite him as a tribute to his contribution. Other applications of physics were being used and developed in Al-Andalus. In hydraulic technology, machines to move water were built on models like those of al-Jazari, who invented the crank-connecting rod system. This was very important to the development of technology, because it involves a way of transforming rotation into linear motion, like the mechanism that moves your bicycle. The same principle is used in car engines. Al-Jazari’s manuscript is full of innovations, such as valves and pistons, one of the first mechanical clocks driven by water and weights, and a combination lock. Andalusian Muslim engineers continued to produce and perfect mechanical clocks, and this knowledge was transmitted to Europe through Latin translations of their books on mechanics. Many of these books have since been lost or destroyed. Another practical and experimental scientist who worked in Al-Andalus was as Abbas ibn Firnas (810–887 CE), who came to Córdoba from Baghdad to teach music theory at the court of Abd al-Rahman III. Ibn Firnas worked in many fields, including chemistry, physics, astronomy, and as a poet. He designed a water clock, he worked to improve the way glass was made, and is said to have worked on eyeglasses to help those with poor vision. He devised a way to cut very hard quartz, or rock crystal, and made a mechanical model to show the motions of planets and stars. In 875 CE, Ibn Firnas did something that made him famous, but almost ended his career. He constructed a glider, and launched himself into the air. The flight was successful, and was viewed by a crowd of invited guests. As an experimental vehicle, however, the design was not perfected, and it had no tail to help with landing, a fact which he later noted when observing birds. He injured his back upon landing. Historian Philip Hitti wrote, “Ibn Firnas was the first man in history to make a scientific attempt at flying.” A crater on the map of the moon is named Ibn Firnas to honor his achievement as one of the first people to fly. Europeans benefited greatly from the knowledge and research of Muslims in physics. One piece of evidence of this is that many these books were translated into Latin in Spain. Another is that these books were taught in European universities and quoted by scientists as they developed their own work. Finally, they were among the first books printed after Gutenberg invented the printing press in 1453 CE by, and were re-printed many times. These ideas laid the foundation for the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries CE. Even though much of this Muslim legacy was forgotten, historians of science are restoring its rightful place today.	1,350	ENGLISH	1

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