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From ingenious engineer Isambard Brunel to its brush with World War Two, here are some key facts about the ever-changing terminus.
When was Paddington Station built?
Like Crossrail today, Paddington suffered a few false starts before it finally opened on June 4, 1838.
Its first incarnation was as temporary terminal for Great Western Railway (GWR), which engineer Brunel intended to be the best railway in the country.
The first GWR service from London to Taplow, near Maidenhead, ran from Paddington in that year.
The main staton became the site of the goods depot once it was opened.
Brunel was not satisfied with that though – he wanted a grand terminal dedicated to GWR, a plan that was approved in 1853.
The first service from the new station departed on 16 January 1854, though the roof had not been finished at this point and there were no arrivals.
It was formally opened on 29 May, and the older temporary station was demolished the following year.
Towards the end of the 19th century Paddington became an important milk depot, with over 3,000 churns handled at the station every day by the turn of the century.
Other goods such as meat, fish, horses and flowers were also transported through Paddington, while passenger traffic continued to improve as well.
A development in the station's history was the move away from steam traffic from the late 1950s.
The history of Paddington was not all rosy.
On October 5, 1999, a Thames Train stopping service from Paddington to Bedwyn passed a red signal and collided with a Great Western express travelling in the opposite direction.
The drivers of both trains were killed, along with 29 passengers, 400 others were injured.
Who was designer Isambard Kingdom Brunel?
The English engineer (1806-1859) is considered a giant of 19th century engineering and one of the greatest figures of the Industrial Revolution.
Brunel built dockyards, the Great Western Railway, a series of steamships and numerous bridges and tunnels, revolutionising public transport.
He achieved many engineering firsts, such as helping built the first ever tunnel under a navigable tunnel and developing SS Great Britain, the largest ship ever built when it was created in 1843.
In 1982, a bronze statue of Brunel was erected on the station concourse to pay tribute to his mammoth achievements.
Was it damaged during WW2?
Paddington was unique in that it suffered no damage at all during World War One.
Alongisde Victoria and Charing Cross, Paddington was also used for military movement during the war, and a 24-hour buffet was available at the station.
It was less lucky in World War Two, when it came under attack several times.
On 17 April 1941, the departure side of the station was hit by a parachute mine, while on 22 March 1944, the roof between platforms 6 and 7 was destroyed by two 500-pound (230 kg) flying bombs.
No casualties were recorded.
Source: Read Full Article | <urn:uuid:6067b498-06ea-4b05-9848-69598fdf08bf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fashionmodelsecret.com/world-news/when-was-paddington-station-built-who-was-designer-isambard-brunel-and-was-it-damaged-during-ww2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00173.warc.gz | en | 0.984586 | 650 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.6289381980... | 1 | From ingenious engineer Isambard Brunel to its brush with World War Two, here are some key facts about the ever-changing terminus.
When was Paddington Station built?
Like Crossrail today, Paddington suffered a few false starts before it finally opened on June 4, 1838.
Its first incarnation was as temporary terminal for Great Western Railway (GWR), which engineer Brunel intended to be the best railway in the country.
The first GWR service from London to Taplow, near Maidenhead, ran from Paddington in that year.
The main staton became the site of the goods depot once it was opened.
Brunel was not satisfied with that though – he wanted a grand terminal dedicated to GWR, a plan that was approved in 1853.
The first service from the new station departed on 16 January 1854, though the roof had not been finished at this point and there were no arrivals.
It was formally opened on 29 May, and the older temporary station was demolished the following year.
Towards the end of the 19th century Paddington became an important milk depot, with over 3,000 churns handled at the station every day by the turn of the century.
Other goods such as meat, fish, horses and flowers were also transported through Paddington, while passenger traffic continued to improve as well.
A development in the station's history was the move away from steam traffic from the late 1950s.
The history of Paddington was not all rosy.
On October 5, 1999, a Thames Train stopping service from Paddington to Bedwyn passed a red signal and collided with a Great Western express travelling in the opposite direction.
The drivers of both trains were killed, along with 29 passengers, 400 others were injured.
Who was designer Isambard Kingdom Brunel?
The English engineer (1806-1859) is considered a giant of 19th century engineering and one of the greatest figures of the Industrial Revolution.
Brunel built dockyards, the Great Western Railway, a series of steamships and numerous bridges and tunnels, revolutionising public transport.
He achieved many engineering firsts, such as helping built the first ever tunnel under a navigable tunnel and developing SS Great Britain, the largest ship ever built when it was created in 1843.
In 1982, a bronze statue of Brunel was erected on the station concourse to pay tribute to his mammoth achievements.
Was it damaged during WW2?
Paddington was unique in that it suffered no damage at all during World War One.
Alongisde Victoria and Charing Cross, Paddington was also used for military movement during the war, and a 24-hour buffet was available at the station.
It was less lucky in World War Two, when it came under attack several times.
On 17 April 1941, the departure side of the station was hit by a parachute mine, while on 22 March 1944, the roof between platforms 6 and 7 was destroyed by two 500-pound (230 kg) flying bombs.
No casualties were recorded.
Source: Read Full Article | 674 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alongside the Women’s Land Army, The Women’s Timber Corps was equal in contribution to the success of World War Two, but still its legacy remains mostly untold. Emily Ashworth looks at the vital forestry work thousands of women undertook.
It is sometimes hard to believe the sacrifice and dedication of the thousands of women who took on farming and forestry work during World War Two.
Their days were long, the work mostly done by hand, but with nothing other than defiance to do right by the country, women took to the land to join one of the most unknown branches of the women’s forces, The Women’s Timber Corps (WTC).
With home-produced timber in dire need and required urgently for railway sleepers, telegraph poles, aircraft construction and transport packaging, the Ministry of Supply (Home-Grown Timber Department) introduced the WTC in England in 1942 as an extension of the Women’s Land Army (WLA).
By the end of the war, the WTC had well more than 10,000 members; their ‘Lumberjill’ nickname borne from the nature of the work.
Girls were recruited by the Forestry Commission from the age of 17, but some who joined up were said to be as young as 14; the need for bodies so crucial that age, career and experience was deemed completely unnecessary.
The girls wore a similar uniform to the WLA, except the WTC replaced the WLA felt hat for a beret and wore the WTC badge.
Thousands of women were trained in specialist camps post-1942, establishing themselves as a highly skilled workforce producing hundreds of thousands of tonnes of timber during the war.
But although it took the WTC time and a great deal of effort to demonstrate how crucial their efforts really were, innumerable women spoke of the positive change it had on the rest of their lives.
Irene Snow, a former Lumberjill from Devon, says: “I really enjoyed my time in the WTC because it gave me a great sense of freedom and a feeling I could do anything after that.”
Initially, the Government called on conscientious objectors and British prisoners to try and sustain timber production and, as women were introduced into the corps, they were met with a harsh reception.
The WTC thrived, however, working in bleak environments and through winter blizzards, with each member striving to prove themselves.
Eventually, women who were employed in measuring timber were put in charge of wages and timber production, says Jo Foat, author of an upcoming book about the Lumberjills, to be released in 2019.
She says: “With mathematics at the heart of timber measuring, many were promoted to senior roles as supervisors and forewomen and often put in charge of the men.
“The camaraderie and joy of the girls was heightened because they achieved success against the odds.
“The isolation and hard work, with inadequate training, clothing, food and living conditions, took great toll on their health and wellbeing.”
Working as a Lumberjill was arduous and sometimes dangerous, with many suffering serious injuries.
But out of pride and in support of each other, the WTC managed to keep Britain’s timber production in full flow and acquired vital skills to carry out their duties professionally.
Jessie Mclean, a former Scottish WTC member, says the felling was competitive between pairs and ‘took long and patient practice’.
She says: “We were always motivated to try harder. We considered ourselves far better than the few men working nearby.”
With members hailing from across the country, much like the WLA, most were without knowledge prior to their induction, but found themselves mastering specialist forestry tasks, such as assessing the amount of timber in a tree, measuring the amount of timber felled, surveying new woodlands and identifying trees for felling.
Many, however, look back on their time in service with fondness and found gratitude in doing their job successfully, despite former ridicule.
Molly Patterson, a former WTC member from Argyll, says: “When I look back, I think those years I spent in the WTC were probably some of the happiest days of my life.
“We just got on with things the best we could and all pulled together to help the war effort. As a group of girls, we all got on so very well and became good friends. I am happy to be able to say I did my bit.”
Although their contributions are becoming more widely known, for too many years has their sacrifice been underplayed.
Audrey Broad, a measurer based in Sussex, says: “It was only years later I began to realise we were not appreciated for what we had done. It was a long time afterwards that I began to think we should have got some recognition. We didn’t get any money. We weren’t even allowed to keep our uniforms; I thought that was dreadful.”
Disbanded in 1946, the only sign of acknowledgement was when each member was awarded a personal letter signed by Queen Elizabeth.
It was not until 2000 that former members of the WTC were allowed to take part in the annual Remembrance Sunday parade in London and, in 2007, Defra announced that surviving members of the WTC could wear a new badge to commemorate their service.
Jo says: “These women are among the most courageous women I have ever met, with a great sense of adventure which has stayed with them into their 90s.
“They deserve to be remembered on an equal footing to the men for their valuable contribution to the war. It is time to celebrate women in history as role models for future generations.”
Despite the years that have now accumulated since taking on and accomplishing the momentous feat laid before them, women of the WTC quietly struggled through, ending their time in service feeling nothing but delight at what they had achieved.
Edna Holland, a Lumberjill from Yorkshire, says: ‘We were cutting a tree down into pit props and we would see it through from start to finish.
“In a way, there was a satisfaction in what we did because we knew how it important it was for the war. I felt really proud of our contribution.” | <urn:uuid:132879c1-fce0-4453-a050-f57e32d7ac30> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.fginsight.com/vip/vip/backbone-of-britain-the-forgotten-women-of-the-timber-corps-70154 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00219.warc.gz | en | 0.989095 | 1,308 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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0.2015351355075836... | 2 | Alongside the Women’s Land Army, The Women’s Timber Corps was equal in contribution to the success of World War Two, but still its legacy remains mostly untold. Emily Ashworth looks at the vital forestry work thousands of women undertook.
It is sometimes hard to believe the sacrifice and dedication of the thousands of women who took on farming and forestry work during World War Two.
Their days were long, the work mostly done by hand, but with nothing other than defiance to do right by the country, women took to the land to join one of the most unknown branches of the women’s forces, The Women’s Timber Corps (WTC).
With home-produced timber in dire need and required urgently for railway sleepers, telegraph poles, aircraft construction and transport packaging, the Ministry of Supply (Home-Grown Timber Department) introduced the WTC in England in 1942 as an extension of the Women’s Land Army (WLA).
By the end of the war, the WTC had well more than 10,000 members; their ‘Lumberjill’ nickname borne from the nature of the work.
Girls were recruited by the Forestry Commission from the age of 17, but some who joined up were said to be as young as 14; the need for bodies so crucial that age, career and experience was deemed completely unnecessary.
The girls wore a similar uniform to the WLA, except the WTC replaced the WLA felt hat for a beret and wore the WTC badge.
Thousands of women were trained in specialist camps post-1942, establishing themselves as a highly skilled workforce producing hundreds of thousands of tonnes of timber during the war.
But although it took the WTC time and a great deal of effort to demonstrate how crucial their efforts really were, innumerable women spoke of the positive change it had on the rest of their lives.
Irene Snow, a former Lumberjill from Devon, says: “I really enjoyed my time in the WTC because it gave me a great sense of freedom and a feeling I could do anything after that.”
Initially, the Government called on conscientious objectors and British prisoners to try and sustain timber production and, as women were introduced into the corps, they were met with a harsh reception.
The WTC thrived, however, working in bleak environments and through winter blizzards, with each member striving to prove themselves.
Eventually, women who were employed in measuring timber were put in charge of wages and timber production, says Jo Foat, author of an upcoming book about the Lumberjills, to be released in 2019.
She says: “With mathematics at the heart of timber measuring, many were promoted to senior roles as supervisors and forewomen and often put in charge of the men.
“The camaraderie and joy of the girls was heightened because they achieved success against the odds.
“The isolation and hard work, with inadequate training, clothing, food and living conditions, took great toll on their health and wellbeing.”
Working as a Lumberjill was arduous and sometimes dangerous, with many suffering serious injuries.
But out of pride and in support of each other, the WTC managed to keep Britain’s timber production in full flow and acquired vital skills to carry out their duties professionally.
Jessie Mclean, a former Scottish WTC member, says the felling was competitive between pairs and ‘took long and patient practice’.
She says: “We were always motivated to try harder. We considered ourselves far better than the few men working nearby.”
With members hailing from across the country, much like the WLA, most were without knowledge prior to their induction, but found themselves mastering specialist forestry tasks, such as assessing the amount of timber in a tree, measuring the amount of timber felled, surveying new woodlands and identifying trees for felling.
Many, however, look back on their time in service with fondness and found gratitude in doing their job successfully, despite former ridicule.
Molly Patterson, a former WTC member from Argyll, says: “When I look back, I think those years I spent in the WTC were probably some of the happiest days of my life.
“We just got on with things the best we could and all pulled together to help the war effort. As a group of girls, we all got on so very well and became good friends. I am happy to be able to say I did my bit.”
Although their contributions are becoming more widely known, for too many years has their sacrifice been underplayed.
Audrey Broad, a measurer based in Sussex, says: “It was only years later I began to realise we were not appreciated for what we had done. It was a long time afterwards that I began to think we should have got some recognition. We didn’t get any money. We weren’t even allowed to keep our uniforms; I thought that was dreadful.”
Disbanded in 1946, the only sign of acknowledgement was when each member was awarded a personal letter signed by Queen Elizabeth.
It was not until 2000 that former members of the WTC were allowed to take part in the annual Remembrance Sunday parade in London and, in 2007, Defra announced that surviving members of the WTC could wear a new badge to commemorate their service.
Jo says: “These women are among the most courageous women I have ever met, with a great sense of adventure which has stayed with them into their 90s.
“They deserve to be remembered on an equal footing to the men for their valuable contribution to the war. It is time to celebrate women in history as role models for future generations.”
Despite the years that have now accumulated since taking on and accomplishing the momentous feat laid before them, women of the WTC quietly struggled through, ending their time in service feeling nothing but delight at what they had achieved.
Edna Holland, a Lumberjill from Yorkshire, says: ‘We were cutting a tree down into pit props and we would see it through from start to finish.
“In a way, there was a satisfaction in what we did because we knew how it important it was for the war. I felt really proud of our contribution.” | 1,274 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The most horrendous conditions in human life have been created by other humans. We maim, torture, and humiliate individuals to penalize them for their actions with callous indifference to their suffering, or in some cases, with the intent to cause as much pain as possible.
The purpose of punishment is arguable: some believe human beings punish criminals to reduce crime through deterrence or maybe to rehabilitate offenders. Some think it's to rid criminals from society in efforts to protect the public, but undoubtedly there have been punishments intended to cause pain to the condemned.
There are cases, both ancient and modern, of men and women burned, drowned, and torn apart all with the intention of punishing them for their real and, in some cases, suspected crimes in the most painful manner.
Many today think removing a person's skin from their body is a medieval European form of punishment and torture due to popular culture depictions, most notably in Game of Thrones, but it was rarely ever used in medieval Europe. According to medieval historian Dr. Larissa Tracy, there is only one verifiable case of flaying between the 11th Century to the 16th Century: a Venetian commander Marcoantonio Bragadin was flayed by the Ottoman Turks after surrendering at the siege of Cyprus in 1571 CE.
Flaying was most prevalent in the Assyrian Empire from the 14th Century BCE until 610 BCE. The Assyrians were known for their military strength. By the 9th Century BCE, Assyria dominated northern Mesopotamia. After defeating their enemies in combat, the Assyrians punished anyone who opposed them by destroying their cities and flaying the nobility. King Ashurnasirpal recorded his victory over one city that resisted his conquest:
I flayed as many nobles as had rebelled against me [and] draped their skins over the pile [of corpses]; some I spread out within the pile, some I erected on stakes upon the pile … I flayed many right through my land [and] draped their skins over the walls.
Flaying was not only used to punish those who opposed the Assyrians but also to instill fear in anyone who considered to do the same.
Originally attributed to the ancient Persians, this alleged form of punishment was used on only the worst criminals. Presented as a common form of Persian execution in Plutarch’s Parallel Lives, scaphism, also known as the boats, firstly required the victim to be laid flat in a boat. Another boat with holes to allow the victim’s head, hands, and feet to protrude was then laid over. The executioners forced the victim to drink a mixture of honey and milk, and covered the victim’s exposed body parts with that same drink. The victim was left in the boats, and nature took its course. With nowhere else to go, the victim was forced to excrete where they lie, flies swarmed the victim, and they were left until they were completely devoured.
Plutarch specifically mentioned the execution of Mithridates, a soldier who killed the brother of Persian King Artaxerxes in the 5th Century BCE. Supposedly, Mithridates finally died after 17 days of torture.
As brutal as this method may be, it is questionable whether or not it ever existed. Mithridates’s execution is the only instance of it. The first mention of this execution was from a Greek physician to the Persian court, Ctesias, who supposedly saw Mithridates’s execution firsthand. His account, however, has been lost, furthermore, both ancient historians who have referenced him or his work claim and modern historians argue to whether his work is reliable. Plutarch’s own history of Artaxerxes and scaphism was written 400 years after the event took place, and uses Ctesias’s History as his source.
The Vestal Virgins were the priestesses to Vesta the goddess of home and hearth and held one of the most important religious roles in Rome. They acted as religious symbols of Rome as well as representations of the city and its citizenry. As such, Vestal Virgins were expected to make a lifetime commitment to the role, and the rules that come with it. The Vestals had to remain abstinent from sex their entire lives; they were expected to remain a symbol of purity, for as long as they were to remain both pure and unharmed, so will the city they signify.
The role was not taken lightly, for if any Vestal Virgin were to break her oath, she was executed as a sacrifice. Because of the symbolic and sacred aspect to the Vestals, if one broke her vow of celibacy, many perceived her as a former purity now tainted. No one wanted to be responsible for her death, and become tainted themselves, so the solution was to bury the Vestal alive and allow nature to kill her.
The Vestal was paraded around the city until she was brought to a small chamber by the Colline gate. Given only a lamp and a small amount of food, she was sealed in and left to die.
In Roman law, different forms of murder entailed different forms of punishment depending upon the severity of the murder. Parricide, killing one’s own parent or parents, sought a crueler form of punishment than other forms of homicide. When a person was convicted of the crime, they were condemned to Poena Cullei. This form of capital punishment required the condemned was whipped, before putting a wolf-skin bag over their head, and made to wear wooden-sole clogs. They were then tied in an ox-leather sack with a dog, a rooster, a viper, and a monkey, taken to a river or sea by black oxen, and thrown in the water to drown.
Poena Cullei was rarely used as a form of punishment. Roman biographer Suetonius wrote only those who confessed to patricide were actually sentenced to Poena Cullei. In 118 CE Emperor Hadrian allowed Poena Cullei to be substituted by “being thrown to wild beasts”, but only a century later the practice was considered obsolete. | <urn:uuid:b0a75965-8dd8-4cc4-b4ac-0bb6c57a94d1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ranker.com/list/fates-worse-than-termination/christopher-myers?ref=collections&l=2596326&collectionId=1684 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00372.warc.gz | en | 0.985807 | 1,281 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.3340581953525543,... | 2 | The most horrendous conditions in human life have been created by other humans. We maim, torture, and humiliate individuals to penalize them for their actions with callous indifference to their suffering, or in some cases, with the intent to cause as much pain as possible.
The purpose of punishment is arguable: some believe human beings punish criminals to reduce crime through deterrence or maybe to rehabilitate offenders. Some think it's to rid criminals from society in efforts to protect the public, but undoubtedly there have been punishments intended to cause pain to the condemned.
There are cases, both ancient and modern, of men and women burned, drowned, and torn apart all with the intention of punishing them for their real and, in some cases, suspected crimes in the most painful manner.
Many today think removing a person's skin from their body is a medieval European form of punishment and torture due to popular culture depictions, most notably in Game of Thrones, but it was rarely ever used in medieval Europe. According to medieval historian Dr. Larissa Tracy, there is only one verifiable case of flaying between the 11th Century to the 16th Century: a Venetian commander Marcoantonio Bragadin was flayed by the Ottoman Turks after surrendering at the siege of Cyprus in 1571 CE.
Flaying was most prevalent in the Assyrian Empire from the 14th Century BCE until 610 BCE. The Assyrians were known for their military strength. By the 9th Century BCE, Assyria dominated northern Mesopotamia. After defeating their enemies in combat, the Assyrians punished anyone who opposed them by destroying their cities and flaying the nobility. King Ashurnasirpal recorded his victory over one city that resisted his conquest:
I flayed as many nobles as had rebelled against me [and] draped their skins over the pile [of corpses]; some I spread out within the pile, some I erected on stakes upon the pile … I flayed many right through my land [and] draped their skins over the walls.
Flaying was not only used to punish those who opposed the Assyrians but also to instill fear in anyone who considered to do the same.
Originally attributed to the ancient Persians, this alleged form of punishment was used on only the worst criminals. Presented as a common form of Persian execution in Plutarch’s Parallel Lives, scaphism, also known as the boats, firstly required the victim to be laid flat in a boat. Another boat with holes to allow the victim’s head, hands, and feet to protrude was then laid over. The executioners forced the victim to drink a mixture of honey and milk, and covered the victim’s exposed body parts with that same drink. The victim was left in the boats, and nature took its course. With nowhere else to go, the victim was forced to excrete where they lie, flies swarmed the victim, and they were left until they were completely devoured.
Plutarch specifically mentioned the execution of Mithridates, a soldier who killed the brother of Persian King Artaxerxes in the 5th Century BCE. Supposedly, Mithridates finally died after 17 days of torture.
As brutal as this method may be, it is questionable whether or not it ever existed. Mithridates’s execution is the only instance of it. The first mention of this execution was from a Greek physician to the Persian court, Ctesias, who supposedly saw Mithridates’s execution firsthand. His account, however, has been lost, furthermore, both ancient historians who have referenced him or his work claim and modern historians argue to whether his work is reliable. Plutarch’s own history of Artaxerxes and scaphism was written 400 years after the event took place, and uses Ctesias’s History as his source.
The Vestal Virgins were the priestesses to Vesta the goddess of home and hearth and held one of the most important religious roles in Rome. They acted as religious symbols of Rome as well as representations of the city and its citizenry. As such, Vestal Virgins were expected to make a lifetime commitment to the role, and the rules that come with it. The Vestals had to remain abstinent from sex their entire lives; they were expected to remain a symbol of purity, for as long as they were to remain both pure and unharmed, so will the city they signify.
The role was not taken lightly, for if any Vestal Virgin were to break her oath, she was executed as a sacrifice. Because of the symbolic and sacred aspect to the Vestals, if one broke her vow of celibacy, many perceived her as a former purity now tainted. No one wanted to be responsible for her death, and become tainted themselves, so the solution was to bury the Vestal alive and allow nature to kill her.
The Vestal was paraded around the city until she was brought to a small chamber by the Colline gate. Given only a lamp and a small amount of food, she was sealed in and left to die.
In Roman law, different forms of murder entailed different forms of punishment depending upon the severity of the murder. Parricide, killing one’s own parent or parents, sought a crueler form of punishment than other forms of homicide. When a person was convicted of the crime, they were condemned to Poena Cullei. This form of capital punishment required the condemned was whipped, before putting a wolf-skin bag over their head, and made to wear wooden-sole clogs. They were then tied in an ox-leather sack with a dog, a rooster, a viper, and a monkey, taken to a river or sea by black oxen, and thrown in the water to drown.
Poena Cullei was rarely used as a form of punishment. Roman biographer Suetonius wrote only those who confessed to patricide were actually sentenced to Poena Cullei. In 118 CE Emperor Hadrian allowed Poena Cullei to be substituted by “being thrown to wild beasts”, but only a century later the practice was considered obsolete. | 1,269 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This spot makes the location where two brothers: Adam and Andrew Poe defeated a group of Native Americans and their Chief: Chief Big Foot. It was a very intense battle between the tribe and the “Indian Spies” as the brothers were called. It was at this spot along the Ohio River that the Chief finally threw himself in the river after defeat, and the brothers kept on with their goal which they believed was keeping the towns of the Ohio River Valley safe.
There had been a lot of conflict between those the settlers of the area of the Ohio River valley and the Native Americans in the area. There was a constant back and forth of destroying property and taking the lives of those on the opposing side. This led to the need for there to be people from the community that knew how to handle themselves during physical conflict that would keep a watch for whenever there would be Indians that would plan to attack certain towns. Two of these ‘Indian Spies’ were brothers Adam and Andrew Poe. They were responsible for keeping a watch on local Indian tribes for the possibility that they would bring danger to the towns.
Both brothers knew their way in combat, having served in both The American Revolutionary War as well as the War of 1812. This sense of combat readiness came in handy when they came into an altercation with an Indian Chief and a small group of Indians. The Indian Chief was known as Big Foot. Sometime close to 1780, it is believed that the group of Indians had killed a man that was living in a cabin in the countryside between Fort Pitt and what would now be considered to be Wheeling. The Poe brothers then went on the search for the group and found them along the Ohio river. Confrontation broke out, and the Poe brothers came out victorious.
There is a lot of speculation as to the way that the fight went on because there were not a lot of records of the occurrence kept on either side. Therefore, a lot of the details of the fight may have become exaggerated over time. Over time the altercation has come to become a bit of a tall tale among those within the area. However, the marker was placed in the location that the fight was believed to have taken place nonetheless.
This may have been just as small encounter, but it was representative of a lot of what was going on at this point in time between the Native Americans, and those that were beginning to settle the land in that area. The Ohio River Valley between present day Pittsburgh and Wheeling was notorious for the amount of altercations that took place between the people and the native tribes, so the story of the Poe brothers and Chief Big Foot was not unlikely. | <urn:uuid:b302e849-7d1b-4587-aad1-28ff67587518> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/63002 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00373.warc.gz | en | 0.993147 | 539 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.22541038691... | 2 | This spot makes the location where two brothers: Adam and Andrew Poe defeated a group of Native Americans and their Chief: Chief Big Foot. It was a very intense battle between the tribe and the “Indian Spies” as the brothers were called. It was at this spot along the Ohio River that the Chief finally threw himself in the river after defeat, and the brothers kept on with their goal which they believed was keeping the towns of the Ohio River Valley safe.
There had been a lot of conflict between those the settlers of the area of the Ohio River valley and the Native Americans in the area. There was a constant back and forth of destroying property and taking the lives of those on the opposing side. This led to the need for there to be people from the community that knew how to handle themselves during physical conflict that would keep a watch for whenever there would be Indians that would plan to attack certain towns. Two of these ‘Indian Spies’ were brothers Adam and Andrew Poe. They were responsible for keeping a watch on local Indian tribes for the possibility that they would bring danger to the towns.
Both brothers knew their way in combat, having served in both The American Revolutionary War as well as the War of 1812. This sense of combat readiness came in handy when they came into an altercation with an Indian Chief and a small group of Indians. The Indian Chief was known as Big Foot. Sometime close to 1780, it is believed that the group of Indians had killed a man that was living in a cabin in the countryside between Fort Pitt and what would now be considered to be Wheeling. The Poe brothers then went on the search for the group and found them along the Ohio river. Confrontation broke out, and the Poe brothers came out victorious.
There is a lot of speculation as to the way that the fight went on because there were not a lot of records of the occurrence kept on either side. Therefore, a lot of the details of the fight may have become exaggerated over time. Over time the altercation has come to become a bit of a tall tale among those within the area. However, the marker was placed in the location that the fight was believed to have taken place nonetheless.
This may have been just as small encounter, but it was representative of a lot of what was going on at this point in time between the Native Americans, and those that were beginning to settle the land in that area. The Ohio River Valley between present day Pittsburgh and Wheeling was notorious for the amount of altercations that took place between the people and the native tribes, so the story of the Poe brothers and Chief Big Foot was not unlikely. | 537 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Treaty of Addis Ababa, signed 23 October 1896, formally ended the First Italo-Ethiopian War on terms mostly favorable to Ethiopia. This treaty superseded a secret agreement between Ethiopia and Italy negotiated days after the decisive Battle of Adwa in March of the same year, in which Ethiopian forces commanded by Menelik II defeated the Italians. The most important concession the Italians made was the abrogation of the Treaty of Wuchale and recognizing Ethiopia as an independent country.
Following the conclusion of this treaty and before the end of the next calendar year, the United Kingdom and France, which had colonial possessions bordering Ethiopia, also concluded treaties with Ethiopia which treated her as an equal. The treaty with France was signed in late January 1897, while the treaty with the United Kingdom was signed 14 May 1897.
In the Italian text of the Treaty of Wuchale, Ethiopia was obliged to conduct all foreign affairs through Italy, which effectively made Ethiopia an Italian protectorate, while the Amharic version merely gave Ethiopia the option of communicating with third powers through the Italian government. Learning of this divergence from the Amharic text, Emperor Menelik believed he had been deceived by the Italians; this had led to the war between the two countries. Moreover, the Italians had been carefully encroaching on Ethiopian territory over the months between the signing of that treaty in 1889 and when hostilities began in 1895.
On the other hand, his victory at Adwa resulted with Menelik being in possession of 3,000 Italian soldiers, as well as a large victorious army facing the demoralized remnants of the Italian military in Eritrea, the latter fearing they would be driven into the sea at any moment. Further, when news of the defeat reached Italy, Prime Minister Francesco Crispi was forced to resign. Ethiopian Emperor Menelik was negotiating from a position of strength.
The initial Italian offer, presented by Major Tomasso Salsa 11 March, offered Menelik Italy's abrogation of the Treaty of Wuchale and a new treaty of peace and friendship, but in return he remain "firm in his aim of not accepting the protectorate of any other power." Menelik had gone to war to maintain his Empire's independence, not to exchange one master for another; according to Harold Marcus, Menelik was so enraged at this offer that he demanded the return of their secret truce, saying he would hold Major Salsa hostage until then.
It was not until 23 August that the Italians finally agreed to the unconditional abrogation of the Treaty of Wuchale, and recognition of the sovereign independence of Ethiopia. Once the Italians had conceded on this point, negotiations proceeded quickly. The Italian prisoners-of-war, who had enjoyed "reasonably benign captivity" (Marcus' words), would be repatriated, and Italy pay an indemnity of 10,000,000 Italian liras for their upkeep. Most surprisingly, the Italians would retain most, if not all, of the territories beyond the Mareb-Belessa and May/Muni rivers they had taken; According Abyssinian Monarchists' Menelik gave away a sizable portion of Tigray which had been treated as part of the Ethiopian empire since time immemorial. | <urn:uuid:140ea2d4-f79f-4ea0-ae4a-9c86e0894dff> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://popflock.com/learn?s=Treaty_of_Addis_Ababa | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00323.warc.gz | en | 0.980102 | 660 | 4.28125 | 4 | [
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0.2997985482215... | 1 | The Treaty of Addis Ababa, signed 23 October 1896, formally ended the First Italo-Ethiopian War on terms mostly favorable to Ethiopia. This treaty superseded a secret agreement between Ethiopia and Italy negotiated days after the decisive Battle of Adwa in March of the same year, in which Ethiopian forces commanded by Menelik II defeated the Italians. The most important concession the Italians made was the abrogation of the Treaty of Wuchale and recognizing Ethiopia as an independent country.
Following the conclusion of this treaty and before the end of the next calendar year, the United Kingdom and France, which had colonial possessions bordering Ethiopia, also concluded treaties with Ethiopia which treated her as an equal. The treaty with France was signed in late January 1897, while the treaty with the United Kingdom was signed 14 May 1897.
In the Italian text of the Treaty of Wuchale, Ethiopia was obliged to conduct all foreign affairs through Italy, which effectively made Ethiopia an Italian protectorate, while the Amharic version merely gave Ethiopia the option of communicating with third powers through the Italian government. Learning of this divergence from the Amharic text, Emperor Menelik believed he had been deceived by the Italians; this had led to the war between the two countries. Moreover, the Italians had been carefully encroaching on Ethiopian territory over the months between the signing of that treaty in 1889 and when hostilities began in 1895.
On the other hand, his victory at Adwa resulted with Menelik being in possession of 3,000 Italian soldiers, as well as a large victorious army facing the demoralized remnants of the Italian military in Eritrea, the latter fearing they would be driven into the sea at any moment. Further, when news of the defeat reached Italy, Prime Minister Francesco Crispi was forced to resign. Ethiopian Emperor Menelik was negotiating from a position of strength.
The initial Italian offer, presented by Major Tomasso Salsa 11 March, offered Menelik Italy's abrogation of the Treaty of Wuchale and a new treaty of peace and friendship, but in return he remain "firm in his aim of not accepting the protectorate of any other power." Menelik had gone to war to maintain his Empire's independence, not to exchange one master for another; according to Harold Marcus, Menelik was so enraged at this offer that he demanded the return of their secret truce, saying he would hold Major Salsa hostage until then.
It was not until 23 August that the Italians finally agreed to the unconditional abrogation of the Treaty of Wuchale, and recognition of the sovereign independence of Ethiopia. Once the Italians had conceded on this point, negotiations proceeded quickly. The Italian prisoners-of-war, who had enjoyed "reasonably benign captivity" (Marcus' words), would be repatriated, and Italy pay an indemnity of 10,000,000 Italian liras for their upkeep. Most surprisingly, the Italians would retain most, if not all, of the territories beyond the Mareb-Belessa and May/Muni rivers they had taken; According Abyssinian Monarchists' Menelik gave away a sizable portion of Tigray which had been treated as part of the Ethiopian empire since time immemorial. | 697 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Continuing series on the signers of the Declaration of Independence
Stephen Hopkins was a cousin to Benedict Arnold and was born March 7, 1707, in Scituate, Rhode Island. Schools were scarce in the area, but Stephen had access to his parent’s and grandparents’ libraries. He was a voracious reader and largely taught himself. His father William was a farmer, his mother Ruth a Quaker – Quakers were under some amount of persecution at the time. His mother’s influence told in his life, as Stephen adopted the plain black dress of the Quakers, and subscribed to many of their beliefs.
At age nineteen, he married Sarah Scott, daughter of a neighboring farmer. It is recorded that she was “a kindly, industrious, and frugal woman, a good mother and an affectionate wife.”
Stephen lived simply, and for many of his initial adult years, he farmed. His father gave him seventy acres of land, and his grandfather an additional ninety acres. Eventually, as he gained the respect of his peers, he was elected town clerk, and then elected to the assembly for the colony of Rhode Island. His influence in these duties led to his appointment as speaker of that body, and then a justice of the colony supreme court.
1742 saw Stephen selling his farm, and moving to town. In Providence, he became a merchant and part-owner of an ironworks.
In 1765, he attracted attention for his pamphlet The Rights of Colonies Examined that was critical of Parliament and the Crown. It has been referred to as “the most remarkable document that was issued during the period preceding the War of the Revolution,” and secured his place among the leaders of those advocating revolution.
Stephen became more and more convinced of the evils of slavery, and in 1773, freed all his slaves. He then introduced to the assembly a bill outlawing slavery, but it did not pass.
He contracted cerebral palsy and had difficulty writing – a contrast to his earlier precise, neat penmanship. In 1774, he was elected to the Continental Congress for Rhode Island, and in 1776, signed the Declaration after supporting it all the way through. He had to hold his right hand with his left to steady it, to sign the document. Reportedly, he said, “My hand trembles, but my heart does not.”
Following the signing, Stephen was forced to resign and move back to Rhode Island by failing health. He still exerted some influence, helping to form the new Continental Navy – but also sponsored the unfortunate appointment of his brother as naval commander in chief.
Mr. Hopkins lived to the 13th of July, 1785, when he closed his long, and honorable and useful life, at the advanced age of 78. His last illness was long, but to the period of his dissolution, he retained the full possession of his faculties. A vast assemblage of persons, consisting of judges of the courts, the president, professors and students of the college, together with the citizens of the town, and inhabitants of the state, followed the remains of this eminent man to his resting place in the grave. | <urn:uuid:94ea4a71-c81e-4a9e-a349-f312de2993ce> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historicalnovelsrus.com/2019/12/09/why-was-stephen-hopkins-important/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00307.warc.gz | en | 0.992427 | 657 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.18054184... | 13 | Continuing series on the signers of the Declaration of Independence
Stephen Hopkins was a cousin to Benedict Arnold and was born March 7, 1707, in Scituate, Rhode Island. Schools were scarce in the area, but Stephen had access to his parent’s and grandparents’ libraries. He was a voracious reader and largely taught himself. His father William was a farmer, his mother Ruth a Quaker – Quakers were under some amount of persecution at the time. His mother’s influence told in his life, as Stephen adopted the plain black dress of the Quakers, and subscribed to many of their beliefs.
At age nineteen, he married Sarah Scott, daughter of a neighboring farmer. It is recorded that she was “a kindly, industrious, and frugal woman, a good mother and an affectionate wife.”
Stephen lived simply, and for many of his initial adult years, he farmed. His father gave him seventy acres of land, and his grandfather an additional ninety acres. Eventually, as he gained the respect of his peers, he was elected town clerk, and then elected to the assembly for the colony of Rhode Island. His influence in these duties led to his appointment as speaker of that body, and then a justice of the colony supreme court.
1742 saw Stephen selling his farm, and moving to town. In Providence, he became a merchant and part-owner of an ironworks.
In 1765, he attracted attention for his pamphlet The Rights of Colonies Examined that was critical of Parliament and the Crown. It has been referred to as “the most remarkable document that was issued during the period preceding the War of the Revolution,” and secured his place among the leaders of those advocating revolution.
Stephen became more and more convinced of the evils of slavery, and in 1773, freed all his slaves. He then introduced to the assembly a bill outlawing slavery, but it did not pass.
He contracted cerebral palsy and had difficulty writing – a contrast to his earlier precise, neat penmanship. In 1774, he was elected to the Continental Congress for Rhode Island, and in 1776, signed the Declaration after supporting it all the way through. He had to hold his right hand with his left to steady it, to sign the document. Reportedly, he said, “My hand trembles, but my heart does not.”
Following the signing, Stephen was forced to resign and move back to Rhode Island by failing health. He still exerted some influence, helping to form the new Continental Navy – but also sponsored the unfortunate appointment of his brother as naval commander in chief.
Mr. Hopkins lived to the 13th of July, 1785, when he closed his long, and honorable and useful life, at the advanced age of 78. His last illness was long, but to the period of his dissolution, he retained the full possession of his faculties. A vast assemblage of persons, consisting of judges of the courts, the president, professors and students of the college, together with the citizens of the town, and inhabitants of the state, followed the remains of this eminent man to his resting place in the grave. | 659 | ENGLISH | 1 |
- Search The Registry
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*Lenard D. Moore was born on this date in 1958. He is an African American writer, educator and poet. From Jacksonville, North Carolina, Lenard Duane Moore has written more than 20 forms of poetry, drama, essays, and literary criticism, and has been writing and publishing haiku for more than two decades. In 2008, Moore became the first […]learn more
The word Negro is discussed on this dates Registry. This brief article and its references is written to add to the history of this word.
Negro means “black” in both Spanish and Portuguese languages, being derived from the Latin word niger of the same meaning. The term “negro”, literally the Spanish and Portuguese to refer to Black Africans and people with that heritage used “black.” From the 18th century to the mid-20th century, “negro” (later capitalized) was considered the correct and proper term for African Americans. It fell out of favor by the 1970s in the United States.learn more
Jupiter Hammonm a Black poet and the first published black writer in America, was born on this date in 1711.
Hammon served several generations of the Lloyd family on Long Island, New York. He had been a slave his entire life, allowed to attend school, and his formal education influenced his development as a poet. Like his masters, Hammon was a devout Christian, and was influenced by the religious revivals taking place in 18th century New England.learn more
The birth of Ignatius Sancho, a Black writer, in 1729 is celebrated on this date.
He was born on a slave ship crossing the Atlantic Ocean from the West African nation of Guinea. After the ship reached the Caribbean port of Cartagena, in what is now Colombia, his mother died and his father committed suicide.learn more
The birth of Lucy Terry, Black abolitionist, poet, and skilled orator, in 1730 is celebrated on this date. Although she was not a lawyer, she argued a case before the U.S. Supreme Court and won.
Terry was born in Africa, enslaved and stolen from there as an infant, and sold to Ebenezer Wells of Deerfield, MA. She was baptized at 19 in June 1735, during the Great Awakening, and at the age of 20, she was “admitted to the fellowship of the church.” In 1756, Terry married Abijah Prince, a prosperous free black man who purchased her freedom.learn more
*On this date in 1745, we remember the birth of Olaudah Equiano, an African slave, and author.learn more
*Phillis Wheatley was born on this date 1753. She was a Black slave and writer.
Born in Senegambia, Africa she was sold into slavery at the age of 7 and transported to North America. The Wheatley family of Boston, who taught her to read and write, and encouraged her poetry when they saw her talent, purchased her. Her publication of her Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral (1773) brought her fame both in England and the American colonies; figures such as George Washington praised her work.learn more
*Francis Scott Key was born on this date in 1779. He was a white-American slave owner, lawyer, author, and poet. He is most noted for writing the lyrics for a poem which eventually became the United States’ national anthem, “The Star-Spangled Banner”. The third verse of his poem had not been included in public singing of America’s national anthem. Key was born to Ann Phoebe Penn Dagworthy […]learn more
*The birth of Austin Steward in 1793 is celebrated on this date. He was a Black slave, businessman, administrator and biographer of his life as a slave in America.learn more
*The birth of George Moses Horton in 1797 is celebrated on this date. He was a Black poet, and publisher.learn more
*The birth of Alexander Pushkin in 1799 is celebrated on this date. He was a Black Russian poet and the great-grandson of Abraham Hannibal, an African general and friend of Peter the Great.learn more
Alexandre Dumas was born on this date in 1802. He was a Black French man who was one of the more prolific writers in the 19th century theater world.learn more
*Angelina Emily Grimké was born on this date in 1805. She was a white-American political activist, women’s rights advocate, and supporter of the women’s suffrage movement. She and her sister Sarah Moore Grimké became abolitionists. While raised in Charleston, South Carolina, Angelina and her sister spent their entire adult lives in the North. Between 1835, Angelina Grimke greatest fame worked with William Lloyd Garrison who published a letter of […]learn more
Alexis de Tocqueville was born this date in 1805. He was a White French journalist and abolitionist writer.
He was born in Paris to Herve-Bonaventure Clerel de Tocqueville and Louise Le Peletier de Rosanbo. His older brothers were named Hippolyte and Edouard. Tocqueville came from an aristocratic background. He had a private tutor, the abbe Lesueur, until high school, and then attended high school and college in Metz. He studied law in Paris and worked as a substitute judge in Versailles before coming to America in 1831, when he was 25 years old.learn more
*Solomon Northup was born on this date in 1807. He was a Black musician, abolitionist and author. His father Mintus was a freedman who had been a slave in his early life in service to the Northup family. Born in Rhode Island, he was taken with the Northup’s when they moved to Hoosick, New York, […]learn more | <urn:uuid:408fac40-bcc8-4e44-8e4a-7fbe24b835da> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://aaregistry.org/history-stories/?subject=49 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00164.warc.gz | en | 0.983438 | 1,273 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.4141083359... | 1 | - Search The Registry
- Teacher’s Forum
- Youth Programs
- About Us
- Creating Support
- My Account
*Lenard D. Moore was born on this date in 1958. He is an African American writer, educator and poet. From Jacksonville, North Carolina, Lenard Duane Moore has written more than 20 forms of poetry, drama, essays, and literary criticism, and has been writing and publishing haiku for more than two decades. In 2008, Moore became the first […]learn more
The word Negro is discussed on this dates Registry. This brief article and its references is written to add to the history of this word.
Negro means “black” in both Spanish and Portuguese languages, being derived from the Latin word niger of the same meaning. The term “negro”, literally the Spanish and Portuguese to refer to Black Africans and people with that heritage used “black.” From the 18th century to the mid-20th century, “negro” (later capitalized) was considered the correct and proper term for African Americans. It fell out of favor by the 1970s in the United States.learn more
Jupiter Hammonm a Black poet and the first published black writer in America, was born on this date in 1711.
Hammon served several generations of the Lloyd family on Long Island, New York. He had been a slave his entire life, allowed to attend school, and his formal education influenced his development as a poet. Like his masters, Hammon was a devout Christian, and was influenced by the religious revivals taking place in 18th century New England.learn more
The birth of Ignatius Sancho, a Black writer, in 1729 is celebrated on this date.
He was born on a slave ship crossing the Atlantic Ocean from the West African nation of Guinea. After the ship reached the Caribbean port of Cartagena, in what is now Colombia, his mother died and his father committed suicide.learn more
The birth of Lucy Terry, Black abolitionist, poet, and skilled orator, in 1730 is celebrated on this date. Although she was not a lawyer, she argued a case before the U.S. Supreme Court and won.
Terry was born in Africa, enslaved and stolen from there as an infant, and sold to Ebenezer Wells of Deerfield, MA. She was baptized at 19 in June 1735, during the Great Awakening, and at the age of 20, she was “admitted to the fellowship of the church.” In 1756, Terry married Abijah Prince, a prosperous free black man who purchased her freedom.learn more
*On this date in 1745, we remember the birth of Olaudah Equiano, an African slave, and author.learn more
*Phillis Wheatley was born on this date 1753. She was a Black slave and writer.
Born in Senegambia, Africa she was sold into slavery at the age of 7 and transported to North America. The Wheatley family of Boston, who taught her to read and write, and encouraged her poetry when they saw her talent, purchased her. Her publication of her Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral (1773) brought her fame both in England and the American colonies; figures such as George Washington praised her work.learn more
*Francis Scott Key was born on this date in 1779. He was a white-American slave owner, lawyer, author, and poet. He is most noted for writing the lyrics for a poem which eventually became the United States’ national anthem, “The Star-Spangled Banner”. The third verse of his poem had not been included in public singing of America’s national anthem. Key was born to Ann Phoebe Penn Dagworthy […]learn more
*The birth of Austin Steward in 1793 is celebrated on this date. He was a Black slave, businessman, administrator and biographer of his life as a slave in America.learn more
*The birth of George Moses Horton in 1797 is celebrated on this date. He was a Black poet, and publisher.learn more
*The birth of Alexander Pushkin in 1799 is celebrated on this date. He was a Black Russian poet and the great-grandson of Abraham Hannibal, an African general and friend of Peter the Great.learn more
Alexandre Dumas was born on this date in 1802. He was a Black French man who was one of the more prolific writers in the 19th century theater world.learn more
*Angelina Emily Grimké was born on this date in 1805. She was a white-American political activist, women’s rights advocate, and supporter of the women’s suffrage movement. She and her sister Sarah Moore Grimké became abolitionists. While raised in Charleston, South Carolina, Angelina and her sister spent their entire adult lives in the North. Between 1835, Angelina Grimke greatest fame worked with William Lloyd Garrison who published a letter of […]learn more
Alexis de Tocqueville was born this date in 1805. He was a White French journalist and abolitionist writer.
He was born in Paris to Herve-Bonaventure Clerel de Tocqueville and Louise Le Peletier de Rosanbo. His older brothers were named Hippolyte and Edouard. Tocqueville came from an aristocratic background. He had a private tutor, the abbe Lesueur, until high school, and then attended high school and college in Metz. He studied law in Paris and worked as a substitute judge in Versailles before coming to America in 1831, when he was 25 years old.learn more
*Solomon Northup was born on this date in 1807. He was a Black musician, abolitionist and author. His father Mintus was a freedman who had been a slave in his early life in service to the Northup family. Born in Rhode Island, he was taken with the Northup’s when they moved to Hoosick, New York, […]learn more | 1,304 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Shakespeare depicts Feste as a well-drawn, sensible, shrewd, adaptable character. His character is utilized in Twelfth Night to assess the actions and feelings of the others by keeping himself at a range from the other characters and not becoming emotionally associated with any of the plots at the beginning of the play. Feste discreetly communicates his messages and ideas through his tunes to the audience about the other characters in the play.
He exposes in his tunes that Orsino is “roaming” after the wrong love in his pursuit of Olivia.
Feste somewhat ends up being the narrator of the play by discussing actions that occur within the play and foreshadowing occasions. When Feste first participates in the play he has been missing from Olivia’s court a very long time and must now return into her favour. He does not want to listen to what Maria states to him and using his fast wit manages to answer her. Feste demonstrates his fast wit and ability to juggle words efficiently when he states: Let her hang me; he that is well awaited this world requires to fear no colours.
This remark exposes that Feste does not fear Maria’s threats and also reveals his intelligence and his philosophical side for he would rather be hanged than be in a war, “needs fear no colours”. Shakespeare depicts him as a sensible man although the Elizabethan audience might consider him a coward and unpatriotic for not wishing to protect and protect his nation. Feste brings the preconception of stupidity, which previous fools in literature have actually caused upon all fools however Shakespeare created Feste as a smart fool who would alter the audience’s understanding of the role of fools.
Shakespeare displays Feste’s ability at handling words as an example of the distinctions in between Feste and other fools as typically fools are thought about to be ignorant buffoons who exist to amuse using jokes and handling objects to produce amusement. However, Feste shows his insight about the people surrounding him rather while likewise providing his ideas about which ruinous condition he would rather be in, “lots of a great hanging prevents a bad marriage”.
Here he hints that a bad marriage might happen which death is better than to be dissatisfied in life. Feste is not faithful to his girlfriend like Malvolio is to Olivia and Viola is to Orsino for he wanders through the various courts constantly looking for favour and money. In Orsino’s court he sings of love and how it can eliminate, “I am slain by a fair cruel maid” male’s recklessness and guy’s sly nature while in Olivia’s court he sings to Sir Toby and Sir Andrew he sings more joyful and careless songs however still assessing the characters’ actions.
When he sings the kind of tune Sir Toby selected he includes on to it when he sees they like it and makes the tune pertinent to what is occurring and sings about what he has actually viewed as an outsider viewing the scenes that are taking place. Even when he utilizes music he acts in his capability as the fool for your home and is secretly phrasing the guidance he would offer to particular other characters in the play should he be permitted to tell them. This illustrates his perceptiveness and ability to adjust to any circumstance no matter what he is expected to do.
Feste’s perceptiveness is used as a gadget to bear in mind what has actually happened in Twelfth Night without becoming too associated with the play and not seeing the bigger viewpoint. Sir Andrew is exposed as even more ignorant than Sir Toby has currently represented him as Feste uses his abilities at juggling words to make up brand-new words, which seem real and genuine to Sir Andrew. Feste utilizes his function as the fool to poke fun at Sir Andrew and sets him up for further humiliation in the future because Sir Andrew shops the words Feste utilizes in his memory and later uses them in any context to attempt and persuade everybody of his intelligence.
As Twelfth Night is a play everything about foolery and based upon the Feast of Fools it is fitting that Feste ought to tease the lesser characters of the play, which somehow make the audience make fun of them too. Feste is the centre of amusement and joviality in every situation, providing the entertainment for the others and he does this in many ways. Sir Toby takes pleasure in Feste teasing Sir Andrew and Feste understands this so he does it to please Sir Toby and Sir Andrew being the individual he is does not realise this and pays Feste also.
Feste demonstrates his shrewd in handling to get cash out of two people for various reasons. In Act 4 Feste exposes he is ready to enter into the play and take an active role. The others have fooled Malvolio agrees to dress up as Sir Topas, a curate. He completely enjoys his new role as he is making Malvolio madder and without Malvolio in the way he is more crucial to his girlfriend, Olivia. In his role as Sir Topas he is more enticing to Sir Toby as Sir Toby dislikes Malvolio for his puritan-like methods.
Feste’s disguise convinces Malvolio that Feste is a genuine curate and Feste undermines his own character hesitating to participate and always being himself he is now pretending to be something he is not although he is adapting to this new role he is placing on a various face, which he has never done prior to. Feste reveals one of his flaws through his camouflage when he does not understand where is a safe location to stop teasing Malvolio and handling words. In this method he discusses the leading with his function and requires someone to keep him in check however has nobody to do this for him.
Feste’s last song appears to be an ideal ending to Twelfth Night. While this tune consists of many ridiculous words and expressions created to make people laugh, it does have a major side to it that suggest that love and marriage are not the only things in life which there is not constantly a happy ending. The song goes through the life process from a “little tiny kid” and reverts all the way back around once again to when the “world started”. It appears to be about Feste’s life in particular and his choice to end up being a fool.
He is stating that becoming a fool was his only method to survive because he might not have prospered any other way. Shakespeare uses Feste as somebody to show and a way to end the play fittingly. In Twelfth Night, the fools are the ones that control the comedy and humour in the play. They help in the make believe game and mess around with characters who “avert reality or rather realize a dream”. This makes Feste a pivotal character in Twelfth Night as without him numerous other things might have occurred and a lot less humour and jokes would have happened. | <urn:uuid:1bf371e5-f380-4e71-8214-3b02085da66d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://whisperseer.com/a-consideration-of-the-role-of-feste-in-twelfth-night | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00020.warc.gz | en | 0.981332 | 1,431 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.100340656... | 1 | Shakespeare depicts Feste as a well-drawn, sensible, shrewd, adaptable character. His character is utilized in Twelfth Night to assess the actions and feelings of the others by keeping himself at a range from the other characters and not becoming emotionally associated with any of the plots at the beginning of the play. Feste discreetly communicates his messages and ideas through his tunes to the audience about the other characters in the play.
He exposes in his tunes that Orsino is “roaming” after the wrong love in his pursuit of Olivia.
Feste somewhat ends up being the narrator of the play by discussing actions that occur within the play and foreshadowing occasions. When Feste first participates in the play he has been missing from Olivia’s court a very long time and must now return into her favour. He does not want to listen to what Maria states to him and using his fast wit manages to answer her. Feste demonstrates his fast wit and ability to juggle words efficiently when he states: Let her hang me; he that is well awaited this world requires to fear no colours.
This remark exposes that Feste does not fear Maria’s threats and also reveals his intelligence and his philosophical side for he would rather be hanged than be in a war, “needs fear no colours”. Shakespeare depicts him as a sensible man although the Elizabethan audience might consider him a coward and unpatriotic for not wishing to protect and protect his nation. Feste brings the preconception of stupidity, which previous fools in literature have actually caused upon all fools however Shakespeare created Feste as a smart fool who would alter the audience’s understanding of the role of fools.
Shakespeare displays Feste’s ability at handling words as an example of the distinctions in between Feste and other fools as typically fools are thought about to be ignorant buffoons who exist to amuse using jokes and handling objects to produce amusement. However, Feste shows his insight about the people surrounding him rather while likewise providing his ideas about which ruinous condition he would rather be in, “lots of a great hanging prevents a bad marriage”.
Here he hints that a bad marriage might happen which death is better than to be dissatisfied in life. Feste is not faithful to his girlfriend like Malvolio is to Olivia and Viola is to Orsino for he wanders through the various courts constantly looking for favour and money. In Orsino’s court he sings of love and how it can eliminate, “I am slain by a fair cruel maid” male’s recklessness and guy’s sly nature while in Olivia’s court he sings to Sir Toby and Sir Andrew he sings more joyful and careless songs however still assessing the characters’ actions.
When he sings the kind of tune Sir Toby selected he includes on to it when he sees they like it and makes the tune pertinent to what is occurring and sings about what he has actually viewed as an outsider viewing the scenes that are taking place. Even when he utilizes music he acts in his capability as the fool for your home and is secretly phrasing the guidance he would offer to particular other characters in the play should he be permitted to tell them. This illustrates his perceptiveness and ability to adjust to any circumstance no matter what he is expected to do.
Feste’s perceptiveness is used as a gadget to bear in mind what has actually happened in Twelfth Night without becoming too associated with the play and not seeing the bigger viewpoint. Sir Andrew is exposed as even more ignorant than Sir Toby has currently represented him as Feste uses his abilities at juggling words to make up brand-new words, which seem real and genuine to Sir Andrew. Feste utilizes his function as the fool to poke fun at Sir Andrew and sets him up for further humiliation in the future because Sir Andrew shops the words Feste utilizes in his memory and later uses them in any context to attempt and persuade everybody of his intelligence.
As Twelfth Night is a play everything about foolery and based upon the Feast of Fools it is fitting that Feste ought to tease the lesser characters of the play, which somehow make the audience make fun of them too. Feste is the centre of amusement and joviality in every situation, providing the entertainment for the others and he does this in many ways. Sir Toby takes pleasure in Feste teasing Sir Andrew and Feste understands this so he does it to please Sir Toby and Sir Andrew being the individual he is does not realise this and pays Feste also.
Feste demonstrates his shrewd in handling to get cash out of two people for various reasons. In Act 4 Feste exposes he is ready to enter into the play and take an active role. The others have fooled Malvolio agrees to dress up as Sir Topas, a curate. He completely enjoys his new role as he is making Malvolio madder and without Malvolio in the way he is more crucial to his girlfriend, Olivia. In his role as Sir Topas he is more enticing to Sir Toby as Sir Toby dislikes Malvolio for his puritan-like methods.
Feste’s disguise convinces Malvolio that Feste is a genuine curate and Feste undermines his own character hesitating to participate and always being himself he is now pretending to be something he is not although he is adapting to this new role he is placing on a various face, which he has never done prior to. Feste reveals one of his flaws through his camouflage when he does not understand where is a safe location to stop teasing Malvolio and handling words. In this method he discusses the leading with his function and requires someone to keep him in check however has nobody to do this for him.
Feste’s last song appears to be an ideal ending to Twelfth Night. While this tune consists of many ridiculous words and expressions created to make people laugh, it does have a major side to it that suggest that love and marriage are not the only things in life which there is not constantly a happy ending. The song goes through the life process from a “little tiny kid” and reverts all the way back around once again to when the “world started”. It appears to be about Feste’s life in particular and his choice to end up being a fool.
He is stating that becoming a fool was his only method to survive because he might not have prospered any other way. Shakespeare uses Feste as somebody to show and a way to end the play fittingly. In Twelfth Night, the fools are the ones that control the comedy and humour in the play. They help in the make believe game and mess around with characters who “avert reality or rather realize a dream”. This makes Feste a pivotal character in Twelfth Night as without him numerous other things might have occurred and a lot less humour and jokes would have happened. | 1,379 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Slavery in the American South
By William Rculard
Throughout history, individuals have always wanted power, but in order to seize it, they must first know how to. Some obtained it through talking (Martin Luther King Jr.), while others through strengh, building huge armies and destroying their enemies. In the American south slavery, things were different, indeed, landowners enslaved other human being, claiming their inferiority based on skin colour and different culture.
To better understand the Africain American cult, it would be interesting to discuss what the slavery in the south was about, but precisly how it made the African American Culture evolve.
Slavery always existed, although it was for different reasons, not basd on race or ehnicit, itstill consisted of stealing away smebodys freedom. In the Amerian Soth, it ws a racially bsed slavery
In the mid to late 17th century, a rpid increase in the number of African Slaves, caused a majority of southerners to creae a slave system in order to controle the slaves. Causing positive results to the southerners, it evolved rapidly. Some of the slaves have been slaves in colnies since 1919, although some had an ambiguous status.
By 1660s, southern colonies creating slave and shared codes defined slaves as chattel, or a piece of property. Slavery was set for life (unless emancipatd) and child whos mother was a slave was one as well. Emancipatin depended on time periods and colonies since they might not have enough slaves if done to much. To protect temeselvs, it was made illegal to teach to read and write to a slave, first of all because they were cosidered inferior intellectually since their country is not civilized, but most of ll because if a slave knew how to read, he might be able to read the declaration of independence, thus getting ideas, power and the act. Slaves were given no legal rights, althouh it was illegal to kill a slave.
Consequently, Planter Aristocracy emerged because of the way people lived and considered themeselvs, some considered themeselvs superrior, specially to collored men. A Southern way of life thus emerged, having as characteristics a minority of large plantation owners (planters elite) who were verry powerfull and controlled economy and politics. They had an opulent lyfestyle (mansion, luxury goods), were educated, had done military training, and ejoyed all sort of leisure. They belived in Southern gentility and their wealth and lifestyle was based on Slave-labor. As for the truth, only a few owned slaves and even less were true planters. The Southern culture was then headed by this planter elite.
In order to understand slavery, it is neccessary to first understand the worldview of slave and slave owners. First of all, most southerners viewed slavery as the basis of all great civilizations, such ase ancient greece and Rome, and Africains as racially inferior and suited to labor. They thought of themeselvs as paternal (my negroes, my people.) The Southern male was a patriarchal figure of whome the child and his mother owed absolute respect. The slave would be living in the sama cabin since the slave and his owner worked on the field. Nevertheless, most suscribed to the same cultural values.
According to the slave system, slaves were stupid, childlike (which is silly since its actually positive), lazy, prone to lying and stealing, promiscuous/animal like, dependent on whites and capable of violence and wickedness (like every person on earth, although some refuse to do it). At the same time, they believed they had to shape the slave, make him obediant and willing to work, had to break in a new slave, according to them, beating and breaking the slave would make him submissive and dependent. The slaves were taught that they were inferior and dependent on whites, one of the process was infantilization boy, uncle, girl, auntie. This process was to make inferior, skip adulthood since its independence, and create a child to mother/father relationship. This was considered as psychological conflict because the slaves were always told they were bad, childlike…, and since they had no way of proving the opposite, it destroyed them. Nevertheless, the slave owners backed up the process of enculturation with rewards and punishments because just beating was not productive, | <urn:uuid:ff1117cc-6377-464a-8691-fbae3c0a6813> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://pennsylvaniaangerclass.com/slavery-a-better-understanding/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00444.warc.gz | en | 0.982465 | 928 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.10138982... | 2 | Slavery in the American South
By William Rculard
Throughout history, individuals have always wanted power, but in order to seize it, they must first know how to. Some obtained it through talking (Martin Luther King Jr.), while others through strengh, building huge armies and destroying their enemies. In the American south slavery, things were different, indeed, landowners enslaved other human being, claiming their inferiority based on skin colour and different culture.
To better understand the Africain American cult, it would be interesting to discuss what the slavery in the south was about, but precisly how it made the African American Culture evolve.
Slavery always existed, although it was for different reasons, not basd on race or ehnicit, itstill consisted of stealing away smebodys freedom. In the Amerian Soth, it ws a racially bsed slavery
In the mid to late 17th century, a rpid increase in the number of African Slaves, caused a majority of southerners to creae a slave system in order to controle the slaves. Causing positive results to the southerners, it evolved rapidly. Some of the slaves have been slaves in colnies since 1919, although some had an ambiguous status.
By 1660s, southern colonies creating slave and shared codes defined slaves as chattel, or a piece of property. Slavery was set for life (unless emancipatd) and child whos mother was a slave was one as well. Emancipatin depended on time periods and colonies since they might not have enough slaves if done to much. To protect temeselvs, it was made illegal to teach to read and write to a slave, first of all because they were cosidered inferior intellectually since their country is not civilized, but most of ll because if a slave knew how to read, he might be able to read the declaration of independence, thus getting ideas, power and the act. Slaves were given no legal rights, althouh it was illegal to kill a slave.
Consequently, Planter Aristocracy emerged because of the way people lived and considered themeselvs, some considered themeselvs superrior, specially to collored men. A Southern way of life thus emerged, having as characteristics a minority of large plantation owners (planters elite) who were verry powerfull and controlled economy and politics. They had an opulent lyfestyle (mansion, luxury goods), were educated, had done military training, and ejoyed all sort of leisure. They belived in Southern gentility and their wealth and lifestyle was based on Slave-labor. As for the truth, only a few owned slaves and even less were true planters. The Southern culture was then headed by this planter elite.
In order to understand slavery, it is neccessary to first understand the worldview of slave and slave owners. First of all, most southerners viewed slavery as the basis of all great civilizations, such ase ancient greece and Rome, and Africains as racially inferior and suited to labor. They thought of themeselvs as paternal (my negroes, my people.) The Southern male was a patriarchal figure of whome the child and his mother owed absolute respect. The slave would be living in the sama cabin since the slave and his owner worked on the field. Nevertheless, most suscribed to the same cultural values.
According to the slave system, slaves were stupid, childlike (which is silly since its actually positive), lazy, prone to lying and stealing, promiscuous/animal like, dependent on whites and capable of violence and wickedness (like every person on earth, although some refuse to do it). At the same time, they believed they had to shape the slave, make him obediant and willing to work, had to break in a new slave, according to them, beating and breaking the slave would make him submissive and dependent. The slaves were taught that they were inferior and dependent on whites, one of the process was infantilization boy, uncle, girl, auntie. This process was to make inferior, skip adulthood since its independence, and create a child to mother/father relationship. This was considered as psychological conflict because the slaves were always told they were bad, childlike…, and since they had no way of proving the opposite, it destroyed them. Nevertheless, the slave owners backed up the process of enculturation with rewards and punishments because just beating was not productive, | 923 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A study of the life and presidency of john adams
Jefferson would write the first draft, which was approved on July 4. His cabinet proved difficult to control, and many foreign policy problems arose.
John quincy adams
He also did not have the full support of Congress. Listen to a recorded reading of this page: Your browser does not support the audio element. Four delegates were chosen by the Massachusetts legislature, including Adams, who agreed to attend, despite an emotional plea from his friend Jonathan Sewall not to. He then lost to Jefferson in the presidential election. Contempt and horror," and detailed "pictures of disgrace, or baseness and of Ruin" resulting from any debauchery. Despite his hostility toward the British government, in Adams agreed to defend the British soldiers who had fired on a Boston crowd in what became known as the Boston Massacre. In May, Congress passed a resolution stating that measures should be taken to provide for the "happiness and safety" of the people. He was a member of both Continental Congresses and he signed the Declaration of Independence. Adams was the first president to live in the White House. He retained a lively interest in public affairs, particularly when they involved the rising career of his son, John Quincy Adams — , who would also become president. Two other sons, Thomas Boylston and Charles, followed shortly thereafter. This day was also the 50th anniversary of the approval of the Declaration of Independence! John Adams was born and raised in Braintree now in Quincy , Massachusetts.
With a young and growing family, he feared for his legal practice. Adams's early education included incidents of truancya dislike for his master, and a desire to become a farmer.
Inhe was placed on the ballot for America's first presidential election.
John adams biography
The French Revolution —99 and fighting between England and France caused many Americans to take the sides of both those countries. His detractors called him "His Rotundity" because he was short and heavy. The alliance had been made over two years before. The only two men who could not be removed from America between and without fundamentally changing its history, scholar Richard Ryerson argues, were George Washington and John Adams. Legal and Publishing Career Adams launched his legal career in Boston in Contempt and horror," and detailed "pictures of disgrace, or baseness and of Ruin" resulting from any debauchery. Two other sons, Thomas Boylston and Charles, followed shortly thereafter. The presidency Once back in Boston, Adams began the final stage of his political career. Adams was originally optimistic and greatly enjoyed the city, but soon became disappointed. As Benjamin Rush reported, he was acknowledged "to be the first man in the House. On another committee Adams drew up a model treaty that encouraged Congress to enter into commercial alliances business deals , but not political alliances, with European nations. In a letter sent in June, he insisted that any fluctuation of the dollar value without an exception for French merchants was unacceptable and requested that Adams write to Congress asking it to "retrace its steps. His father was a deacon in the Congregational Church , a farmer, a cordwainer , and a lieutenant in the militia. Adams himself applauded the destruction of the tea, calling it the "grandest Event" in the history of the colonial protest movement, and writing in his diary that the dutied tea's destruction was an "absolutely and indispensably" necessary action. The Sedition Act made it a criminal offense to print false, malicious, or scandalous statements which criticized the government or government officials.
Lee was eventually recalled. The French Revolution —99 and fighting between England and France caused many Americans to take the sides of both those countries. During his presidency, Adams' main accomplishment was keeping the United States out of war with France. Adams often praised his father and recalled their close relationship.
He argued both sides of issues using each of his pen names.
The defeat of the British at Saratoga was expected to help induce France to agree to an alliance. Facts Matter. Later in the year, he drafted the first set of regulations to govern the provisional navy. Young John, who had no interest in a ministerial career, taught in a Latin school in Worcester, Massachusetts, to earn the tuition fees to study law, and from tohe studied law with a prominent local lawyer in Worcester.
A study of the life and presidency of john adams
She still encouraged her husband in his task, writing: "You cannot be, I know, nor do I wish to see you an inactive Spectator, but if the Sword be drawn I bid adieu to all domestick felicity, and look forward to that Country where there is neither wars nor rumors of War in a firm belief that thro the mercy of its King we shall both rejoice there together. Not only were several jurors closely tied through business arrangements to the British army, but five ultimately became Loyalist exiles. Adams himself applauded the destruction of the tea, calling it the "grandest Event" in the history of the colonial protest movement, and writing in his diary that the dutied tea's destruction was an "absolutely and indispensably" necessary action. He increased his usefulness by mastering the French language. During his presidency, Adams' main accomplishment was keeping the United States out of war with France. Adams remained in Europe following the war. Adams was unhappy in this post; he felt that he lacked the authority to accomplish much. Much to his joy, Adams lived to see his son, John Quincy Adams, follow in his footsteps. Adams became the first President to live in the White House. Lee was eventually recalled. Five children followed in the next eight years, although one, Susanna, died in infancy. The Model Treaty authorized a commercial agreement with France but contained no provisions for formal recognition or military assistance. Having finished second to George Washington in the first U. Adams was the first president to live in the White House. These were needed, Adams wrote, to contain the British armies in the port cities and contend with the powerful British Navy.
based on 5 review | <urn:uuid:41c46758-560e-4b9b-858b-d1327d7ed33e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://xopugoxonuhiha.whatshanesaid.com/a-study-of-the-life-and-presidency-of-john-adams184022247kf.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00380.warc.gz | en | 0.98197 | 1,250 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.2345044314861... | 1 | A study of the life and presidency of john adams
Jefferson would write the first draft, which was approved on July 4. His cabinet proved difficult to control, and many foreign policy problems arose.
John quincy adams
He also did not have the full support of Congress. Listen to a recorded reading of this page: Your browser does not support the audio element. Four delegates were chosen by the Massachusetts legislature, including Adams, who agreed to attend, despite an emotional plea from his friend Jonathan Sewall not to. He then lost to Jefferson in the presidential election. Contempt and horror," and detailed "pictures of disgrace, or baseness and of Ruin" resulting from any debauchery. Despite his hostility toward the British government, in Adams agreed to defend the British soldiers who had fired on a Boston crowd in what became known as the Boston Massacre. In May, Congress passed a resolution stating that measures should be taken to provide for the "happiness and safety" of the people. He was a member of both Continental Congresses and he signed the Declaration of Independence. Adams was the first president to live in the White House. He retained a lively interest in public affairs, particularly when they involved the rising career of his son, John Quincy Adams — , who would also become president. Two other sons, Thomas Boylston and Charles, followed shortly thereafter. This day was also the 50th anniversary of the approval of the Declaration of Independence! John Adams was born and raised in Braintree now in Quincy , Massachusetts.
With a young and growing family, he feared for his legal practice. Adams's early education included incidents of truancya dislike for his master, and a desire to become a farmer.
Inhe was placed on the ballot for America's first presidential election.
John adams biography
The French Revolution —99 and fighting between England and France caused many Americans to take the sides of both those countries. His detractors called him "His Rotundity" because he was short and heavy. The alliance had been made over two years before. The only two men who could not be removed from America between and without fundamentally changing its history, scholar Richard Ryerson argues, were George Washington and John Adams. Legal and Publishing Career Adams launched his legal career in Boston in Contempt and horror," and detailed "pictures of disgrace, or baseness and of Ruin" resulting from any debauchery. Two other sons, Thomas Boylston and Charles, followed shortly thereafter. The presidency Once back in Boston, Adams began the final stage of his political career. Adams was originally optimistic and greatly enjoyed the city, but soon became disappointed. As Benjamin Rush reported, he was acknowledged "to be the first man in the House. On another committee Adams drew up a model treaty that encouraged Congress to enter into commercial alliances business deals , but not political alliances, with European nations. In a letter sent in June, he insisted that any fluctuation of the dollar value without an exception for French merchants was unacceptable and requested that Adams write to Congress asking it to "retrace its steps. His father was a deacon in the Congregational Church , a farmer, a cordwainer , and a lieutenant in the militia. Adams himself applauded the destruction of the tea, calling it the "grandest Event" in the history of the colonial protest movement, and writing in his diary that the dutied tea's destruction was an "absolutely and indispensably" necessary action. The Sedition Act made it a criminal offense to print false, malicious, or scandalous statements which criticized the government or government officials.
Lee was eventually recalled. The French Revolution —99 and fighting between England and France caused many Americans to take the sides of both those countries. During his presidency, Adams' main accomplishment was keeping the United States out of war with France. Adams often praised his father and recalled their close relationship.
He argued both sides of issues using each of his pen names.
The defeat of the British at Saratoga was expected to help induce France to agree to an alliance. Facts Matter. Later in the year, he drafted the first set of regulations to govern the provisional navy. Young John, who had no interest in a ministerial career, taught in a Latin school in Worcester, Massachusetts, to earn the tuition fees to study law, and from tohe studied law with a prominent local lawyer in Worcester.
A study of the life and presidency of john adams
She still encouraged her husband in his task, writing: "You cannot be, I know, nor do I wish to see you an inactive Spectator, but if the Sword be drawn I bid adieu to all domestick felicity, and look forward to that Country where there is neither wars nor rumors of War in a firm belief that thro the mercy of its King we shall both rejoice there together. Not only were several jurors closely tied through business arrangements to the British army, but five ultimately became Loyalist exiles. Adams himself applauded the destruction of the tea, calling it the "grandest Event" in the history of the colonial protest movement, and writing in his diary that the dutied tea's destruction was an "absolutely and indispensably" necessary action. He increased his usefulness by mastering the French language. During his presidency, Adams' main accomplishment was keeping the United States out of war with France. Adams remained in Europe following the war. Adams was unhappy in this post; he felt that he lacked the authority to accomplish much. Much to his joy, Adams lived to see his son, John Quincy Adams, follow in his footsteps. Adams became the first President to live in the White House. Lee was eventually recalled. Five children followed in the next eight years, although one, Susanna, died in infancy. The Model Treaty authorized a commercial agreement with France but contained no provisions for formal recognition or military assistance. Having finished second to George Washington in the first U. Adams was the first president to live in the White House. These were needed, Adams wrote, to contain the British armies in the port cities and contend with the powerful British Navy.
based on 5 review | 1,250 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Renaissance means rebirth, it was named such because it was a time where the European civilizations (especially the Italians) looked at all the great things the Romans and Greeks had achieved artistically and architecturally.
Introduction: in the mid- 14 century the countries in Europe had gone through a very difficulttime because of the black death. In 15 centuria changes started in Italy, because Italy was very different from the rest of Europe.
Divided Italy: Italy was made up of small states. Some city-states were governed by the people, others by a powerful lord.
The growing wealth of Italy: Italy was very well geogrphically placed to act as the commercial centre of Europe. This made Europe to grow inwealth.
Noble Patrons and Rulers: In some cities merchants became so important they took over their city. They employed the best artists they cold and let this men do what they wanted and art began to change and develop.
The Classical Period: The Greeks work together in towns and they created Works of art. Then the Romans ruled all Europe and started to build impressive public buildings all overEurope. These buildings survive into the 15 century. Italians started to take interest and their ideas on art and architecture were influenced by art and architecture from the Classical Period.
The fall of Constantinople: In 1453 Constantinople was captured by the Turks. Greek scholars, lived in Constantinople and carried on the tradición and learning of the Greek and Roman civilizations. Italiansscholars began to the interest in these. They were so interest that they started to look for other ancient manuscripts. These Works encouraged people to think again about long-accepted ideas and beliefs.
The power of the popes: The pope was the head of the catholic church. They sent. Much of their time increasing their own and their families´ weath. This was important for art and society in twoways:
1)People started to respect the pope less and so the popes became less powerful.
2)Some popes were so ambitious that they employed all the best artists to beautify the city of Rome.
For Europeans, religion and the church were the most importantthings in their lives. However, there were often disputes whithin the church about the best way to serve and worship god. This disputes became so bitter that the church split into to groups: Protestants and Catholics. We call this split The Reformation.
The catholic church in crisis
God and the church were the most important things in the Europeans lives. The Pope was the head of the church, and theEmperor was the protector of church. The ruler defended the people from criminals and enemies. People had to pay taxes to the Pope, the Elector or the Emperor. Everything seemed to be fine. But in 1520, people started criticising the church. Problems with the church did not happened everywhere.
Problems of the church:
-Popes were not concéntrate on boeing good churchmens.
-Bishops and Abbotsbehaved like normal princes instead of churchmen.
-The clergy were not interested in wealth.
-The clergy were not well trained.
-Many clergy got married even tour this broke the law.
-The clergy were not well respected.
The people criticising the church were called reformers, because they wanted to reform the church. For example:
1)John Wyclif translated the bible intoEnglish from latin, but as this was forbidden, he was condemned.
2)Jan Hus also preached the bible into his own language and not in latin, but he was burned.
Some reformers thought that the church could reform itself.
Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation
In about 1500, Europe was catholic. Martin Luther and his followers led protest against the catholic church in the early 1500s. Luther...
Leer documento completo
Regístrate para leer el documento completo. | <urn:uuid:6d758d7a-2109-4dc2-b673-a27eae04c3b8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.buenastareas.com/ensayos/Ensayo-Sobre-La-Violencia-En-El/6847881.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00190.warc.gz | en | 0.984062 | 815 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.2485241591... | 1 | Renaissance means rebirth, it was named such because it was a time where the European civilizations (especially the Italians) looked at all the great things the Romans and Greeks had achieved artistically and architecturally.
Introduction: in the mid- 14 century the countries in Europe had gone through a very difficulttime because of the black death. In 15 centuria changes started in Italy, because Italy was very different from the rest of Europe.
Divided Italy: Italy was made up of small states. Some city-states were governed by the people, others by a powerful lord.
The growing wealth of Italy: Italy was very well geogrphically placed to act as the commercial centre of Europe. This made Europe to grow inwealth.
Noble Patrons and Rulers: In some cities merchants became so important they took over their city. They employed the best artists they cold and let this men do what they wanted and art began to change and develop.
The Classical Period: The Greeks work together in towns and they created Works of art. Then the Romans ruled all Europe and started to build impressive public buildings all overEurope. These buildings survive into the 15 century. Italians started to take interest and their ideas on art and architecture were influenced by art and architecture from the Classical Period.
The fall of Constantinople: In 1453 Constantinople was captured by the Turks. Greek scholars, lived in Constantinople and carried on the tradición and learning of the Greek and Roman civilizations. Italiansscholars began to the interest in these. They were so interest that they started to look for other ancient manuscripts. These Works encouraged people to think again about long-accepted ideas and beliefs.
The power of the popes: The pope was the head of the catholic church. They sent. Much of their time increasing their own and their families´ weath. This was important for art and society in twoways:
1)People started to respect the pope less and so the popes became less powerful.
2)Some popes were so ambitious that they employed all the best artists to beautify the city of Rome.
For Europeans, religion and the church were the most importantthings in their lives. However, there were often disputes whithin the church about the best way to serve and worship god. This disputes became so bitter that the church split into to groups: Protestants and Catholics. We call this split The Reformation.
The catholic church in crisis
God and the church were the most important things in the Europeans lives. The Pope was the head of the church, and theEmperor was the protector of church. The ruler defended the people from criminals and enemies. People had to pay taxes to the Pope, the Elector or the Emperor. Everything seemed to be fine. But in 1520, people started criticising the church. Problems with the church did not happened everywhere.
Problems of the church:
-Popes were not concéntrate on boeing good churchmens.
-Bishops and Abbotsbehaved like normal princes instead of churchmen.
-The clergy were not interested in wealth.
-The clergy were not well trained.
-Many clergy got married even tour this broke the law.
-The clergy were not well respected.
The people criticising the church were called reformers, because they wanted to reform the church. For example:
1)John Wyclif translated the bible intoEnglish from latin, but as this was forbidden, he was condemned.
2)Jan Hus also preached the bible into his own language and not in latin, but he was burned.
Some reformers thought that the church could reform itself.
Martin Luther and the Protestant Reformation
In about 1500, Europe was catholic. Martin Luther and his followers led protest against the catholic church in the early 1500s. Luther...
Leer documento completo
Regístrate para leer el documento completo. | 794 | ENGLISH | 1 |
From Christmas cake to gift giving, Britain's Christmas traditions have origins that will surprise you
Feasting, drunkenness and gift-giving are Christmas practices with roots that go back centuries. Overindulgence and over-spending were not invented in our lifetime, as we might imagine, and Christmas traditions over the last few hundred years have seen the waxing and waning of the type of behaviour so readily maligned today.
The early Christian church assimilated pagan midwinter celebrations into its Feast of the Nativity. The 12 days of Christmas, running from Dec 25 until Epiphany, the Twelfth Night being on Jan 6, were a church-endorsed holiday during which people decorated their houses with evergreens, feasted with their neighbours, gave charity to the poor and exchanged presents.
The giving of gifts on Christmas Day itself is a fairly modern phenomenon. Traditionally, they were given in the New Year and took the form of money or produce – apples, eggs or a fat capon (a castrated cockerel specially fattened for the table). Queen Elizabeth I was famously fond of receiving gifts at Christmas and set tariffs that specified the amount state officials were obliged to give – an Archbishop, for example, had to fork out a hefty £40 (around £16,500 today) to treat her. She also received personal, material presents, such as the satin nightgown given to her by Sir Frances Walsingham in 1579.
One particular event that became associated with Christmas in London in the 17th and 18th centuries, and which was a source for gifts and trinkets as well as drinking and gaming, was the Frost Fair. When the Thames froze, which it did nine times between 1660 and 1715, merchants set up stalls and tents on its surface and created: “A Whole Street of Booths... inhabited by Traders of all sorts…as those who deal in Earthen Wares, Brass, Copper, Tinn, and Iron, Toys and Trifles, and beside these Printers, Bakers, Cooks, Butchers, Barbers, Coffee-men and others.”
Thousands of Londoners flocked to shop on the ice and many made it safely back to shore with a personalised token of their visit. Printers dragged their presses onto the ice to print people’s names on commemorative cards and silver spoons were sold during an early fair with handles inscribed: “This was bought at the faire kept upon the Midle of ye Thames against ye Temple in the great frost on the 29 of January 1683/4”. Clearly the shoppers wanted mementoes of the oddity of their icy experience, which has never been repeated since London Bridge was rebuilt in 1831 – the old bridge with its smaller arches had interrupted the tidal patterns of the river which allowed the ice to form.
Christmas in the 1700s was a more sedate event than in the preceding centuries, although games were still played, neighbours still entertained – sometimes, as now, unwillingly – and presents were exchanged. The custom of giving a ‘Christmas box’ – a sum of money – to tradesmen and servants became commonplace, as did paying small amounts to the needy. Some undertook these obligations perfectly cheerfully – the Norfolk clergyman James Woodforde noting in 1788 that he paid sixpence each to 56 “poor people” in his parish, entertained some to dinner, and those who were too lame to come in person had their dinners sent to them. But other were more resentful of the mounting cost. In 1710 Jonathan Swift wrote: “I shall be undone here with Christmas boxes. The rogues of the coffeehouse have rasied their tax, every one giving a crown, and I gave mine in shame, besides a great many half crowns to great men’s porters etc.”
Another Christmas custom that had huge currency in the late 18th and early 19th centuries was the celebration of Twelfth Night. This was rooted in a medieval tradition that involved disguises and subverting the household hierarchy, with a ‘Lord of Misrule’ selected from amongst the company to lead the party. In its later incarnation the new leader was selected by the division of the Twelfth Night Cake – whoever found a dried bean in their slice was in charge of the festivities. In London, confectioners made elaborate cakes with sugar icing and gilt decoration and displayed them in their brightly lit shop windows for passersby to admire. The crush of people around the displays, tempted by the cakes, also proved tempting to pickpockets. On Jan 6, 1794 a Walter William Salts had his watch stolen by a thief who used the confusion of “a great crowd of people [outside] a large confectioner’s shop” to engineer the theft.
The transformation of the Twelfth Night cake into a Christmas cake was a trick of the Victorians, who are usually credited with the invention of Christmas as we know it. They certainly popularised and occasionally created many of today’s traditions –and one that really came of age as a distinct phenomenon in the late 1800s was Christmas shopping. The birth of the big department stores and their advertising innovations – lavish window displays, Santa grottoes, frenetic slogans like that coined by Harry Selfridge, “Only xx shopping days till Christmas” – saw Christmas shopping become something that was discussed, planned for and occasionally dreaded.
Stores produced catalogues and divided presents into easy gift-giving categories – Heal’s did a particularly nice line in “indescribably lovely” presents for the adoring to give to the adored, but it was children who were really promoted as the focus of the Christmas festivities. Giving presents to children at Christmas wasn’t new – the barrister John Baker recorded on Dec 22, 1773 that friends had sent “a parcel of playthings for the children”, but Britain’s industrialisation and the import of toys from Germany meant the market was flooded was possibilities.
Every decade since has seen concerns about the increasing commercialisation of Christmas, but as long as gift-giving is an entrenched festive custom, then Christmas shopping (though “very exhausting” as observed by a housewife in 1930) is unavoidable. | <urn:uuid:01e408f5-879f-424b-ac05-7b89f4528ffb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/united-kingdom/articles/the-surprising-origins-of-british-christmas-traditions/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00148.warc.gz | en | 0.98276 | 1,305 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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-0.194197803735... | 1 | From Christmas cake to gift giving, Britain's Christmas traditions have origins that will surprise you
Feasting, drunkenness and gift-giving are Christmas practices with roots that go back centuries. Overindulgence and over-spending were not invented in our lifetime, as we might imagine, and Christmas traditions over the last few hundred years have seen the waxing and waning of the type of behaviour so readily maligned today.
The early Christian church assimilated pagan midwinter celebrations into its Feast of the Nativity. The 12 days of Christmas, running from Dec 25 until Epiphany, the Twelfth Night being on Jan 6, were a church-endorsed holiday during which people decorated their houses with evergreens, feasted with their neighbours, gave charity to the poor and exchanged presents.
The giving of gifts on Christmas Day itself is a fairly modern phenomenon. Traditionally, they were given in the New Year and took the form of money or produce – apples, eggs or a fat capon (a castrated cockerel specially fattened for the table). Queen Elizabeth I was famously fond of receiving gifts at Christmas and set tariffs that specified the amount state officials were obliged to give – an Archbishop, for example, had to fork out a hefty £40 (around £16,500 today) to treat her. She also received personal, material presents, such as the satin nightgown given to her by Sir Frances Walsingham in 1579.
One particular event that became associated with Christmas in London in the 17th and 18th centuries, and which was a source for gifts and trinkets as well as drinking and gaming, was the Frost Fair. When the Thames froze, which it did nine times between 1660 and 1715, merchants set up stalls and tents on its surface and created: “A Whole Street of Booths... inhabited by Traders of all sorts…as those who deal in Earthen Wares, Brass, Copper, Tinn, and Iron, Toys and Trifles, and beside these Printers, Bakers, Cooks, Butchers, Barbers, Coffee-men and others.”
Thousands of Londoners flocked to shop on the ice and many made it safely back to shore with a personalised token of their visit. Printers dragged their presses onto the ice to print people’s names on commemorative cards and silver spoons were sold during an early fair with handles inscribed: “This was bought at the faire kept upon the Midle of ye Thames against ye Temple in the great frost on the 29 of January 1683/4”. Clearly the shoppers wanted mementoes of the oddity of their icy experience, which has never been repeated since London Bridge was rebuilt in 1831 – the old bridge with its smaller arches had interrupted the tidal patterns of the river which allowed the ice to form.
Christmas in the 1700s was a more sedate event than in the preceding centuries, although games were still played, neighbours still entertained – sometimes, as now, unwillingly – and presents were exchanged. The custom of giving a ‘Christmas box’ – a sum of money – to tradesmen and servants became commonplace, as did paying small amounts to the needy. Some undertook these obligations perfectly cheerfully – the Norfolk clergyman James Woodforde noting in 1788 that he paid sixpence each to 56 “poor people” in his parish, entertained some to dinner, and those who were too lame to come in person had their dinners sent to them. But other were more resentful of the mounting cost. In 1710 Jonathan Swift wrote: “I shall be undone here with Christmas boxes. The rogues of the coffeehouse have rasied their tax, every one giving a crown, and I gave mine in shame, besides a great many half crowns to great men’s porters etc.”
Another Christmas custom that had huge currency in the late 18th and early 19th centuries was the celebration of Twelfth Night. This was rooted in a medieval tradition that involved disguises and subverting the household hierarchy, with a ‘Lord of Misrule’ selected from amongst the company to lead the party. In its later incarnation the new leader was selected by the division of the Twelfth Night Cake – whoever found a dried bean in their slice was in charge of the festivities. In London, confectioners made elaborate cakes with sugar icing and gilt decoration and displayed them in their brightly lit shop windows for passersby to admire. The crush of people around the displays, tempted by the cakes, also proved tempting to pickpockets. On Jan 6, 1794 a Walter William Salts had his watch stolen by a thief who used the confusion of “a great crowd of people [outside] a large confectioner’s shop” to engineer the theft.
The transformation of the Twelfth Night cake into a Christmas cake was a trick of the Victorians, who are usually credited with the invention of Christmas as we know it. They certainly popularised and occasionally created many of today’s traditions –and one that really came of age as a distinct phenomenon in the late 1800s was Christmas shopping. The birth of the big department stores and their advertising innovations – lavish window displays, Santa grottoes, frenetic slogans like that coined by Harry Selfridge, “Only xx shopping days till Christmas” – saw Christmas shopping become something that was discussed, planned for and occasionally dreaded.
Stores produced catalogues and divided presents into easy gift-giving categories – Heal’s did a particularly nice line in “indescribably lovely” presents for the adoring to give to the adored, but it was children who were really promoted as the focus of the Christmas festivities. Giving presents to children at Christmas wasn’t new – the barrister John Baker recorded on Dec 22, 1773 that friends had sent “a parcel of playthings for the children”, but Britain’s industrialisation and the import of toys from Germany meant the market was flooded was possibilities.
Every decade since has seen concerns about the increasing commercialisation of Christmas, but as long as gift-giving is an entrenched festive custom, then Christmas shopping (though “very exhausting” as observed by a housewife in 1930) is unavoidable. | 1,317 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Appalachia is a region in the central and southern Appalachian Mountains, which partly consist of Tennessee, Virginia, North Carolina and West Virginia, Georgia and South
Carolina. The people of Appalachia are resilient people that have adapted to the harshness of the mountain life. Throughout the years, they have kept much of their customs, folklore, and history alive by passing down their knowledge generation to generation. One mystery, that remains unresolved, is the forgotten heritage of the
Melungeon people who live amongst the people of Appalachia.
There is no evidence of exactly where the Melungeon people came from and when they arrived. There have been historians, storywriters, and scholars who have tried to discover their exact origin. No one can agree on where the Melungeon heritage came from. The most common belief is they are of Portuguese descent. There are records that report they are tri-racial group, a mixture of White, Negro and Indian descent. Other records, report them as descendants of Mediterranean countries or from Turks and
Moors. DNA testing was used to try to determine the lineage of the Melungeons. This resulted in more questions. Test showed that the majority of the DNA was from “White” descent, which was considered “European” with smaller make up from other nationalities. Because of the decline in “pure”, blood lines, due to marriages and other nationalities mixing, it has become near impossible to discover the true heritage of the
Newman’s Ridge in Hancock county Tennessee is home to the vast majority of the
Melungeons. They were not all born and raised on Newman’s ridge. Many migrated from Southwest Virginia, Kentucky, and North Carolina. East Tennessee was part of
North Carolina prior to becoming State of Franklin, later to become Tennessee. Some say the Melungeons were here before the White settlers came to the area. Others say they settled about the same time the White man settled. This theory is due to the land grants documented in about 1795. When the Melungeons settled Newman’s
Ridge, they spoke as well as other white men. If they came from other countries, later
DNA tests report them of other ethnic decent, where they part of the pilgrims landing at
Plymouth in 1620. Did Sir Walter Drake abandon them around 1585? Some suggest they are descendants the lost civilization of Roanoke Island. These questions may remain as much of a mystery as the Melungeons themselves. In 1846, several Melungeons cast votes during an election and were arrested for illegal voting, because some did not consider them white. In 1834, the
Tennessee Constitution did not allow voting from any other nationality other than white.
The Melungeons thought of themselves as white, they claimed to Portuguese or of other descent than black. They wanted acceptance as a people and not discriminated against. During the Civil War the Melungeons fought right along with the white men. Most fought with the Union, while some fought with the Confederacy. During the war, there were many crimes committed by soldiers on both sides. When the war was over, people accused the Melungeons of the war crimes without evidence. Many of them were veterans and were shunned by the white people. In 1924, Virginia passed the Virginia
Racial Integrity Act. This act declared people’s nationality as either white or black. The
Melungeons were treated as if they were less human than whites and were subject to be enslaved at any time by slave owners. Many of them sold their property to escape the discrimination and moved west to settle where they would be safe from slavery.
They began to destroy family records and any other documents that indicated they were anything other than white. The dark skinned Melungeons were declared as
Negro and were treated as such.
When the census takers came… | <urn:uuid:6e1789a1-f263-4316-bda5-61a6ae91b575> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Freedom-Industires-524132.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00359.warc.gz | en | 0.980941 | 798 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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0.0954807475... | 1 | Appalachia is a region in the central and southern Appalachian Mountains, which partly consist of Tennessee, Virginia, North Carolina and West Virginia, Georgia and South
Carolina. The people of Appalachia are resilient people that have adapted to the harshness of the mountain life. Throughout the years, they have kept much of their customs, folklore, and history alive by passing down their knowledge generation to generation. One mystery, that remains unresolved, is the forgotten heritage of the
Melungeon people who live amongst the people of Appalachia.
There is no evidence of exactly where the Melungeon people came from and when they arrived. There have been historians, storywriters, and scholars who have tried to discover their exact origin. No one can agree on where the Melungeon heritage came from. The most common belief is they are of Portuguese descent. There are records that report they are tri-racial group, a mixture of White, Negro and Indian descent. Other records, report them as descendants of Mediterranean countries or from Turks and
Moors. DNA testing was used to try to determine the lineage of the Melungeons. This resulted in more questions. Test showed that the majority of the DNA was from “White” descent, which was considered “European” with smaller make up from other nationalities. Because of the decline in “pure”, blood lines, due to marriages and other nationalities mixing, it has become near impossible to discover the true heritage of the
Newman’s Ridge in Hancock county Tennessee is home to the vast majority of the
Melungeons. They were not all born and raised on Newman’s ridge. Many migrated from Southwest Virginia, Kentucky, and North Carolina. East Tennessee was part of
North Carolina prior to becoming State of Franklin, later to become Tennessee. Some say the Melungeons were here before the White settlers came to the area. Others say they settled about the same time the White man settled. This theory is due to the land grants documented in about 1795. When the Melungeons settled Newman’s
Ridge, they spoke as well as other white men. If they came from other countries, later
DNA tests report them of other ethnic decent, where they part of the pilgrims landing at
Plymouth in 1620. Did Sir Walter Drake abandon them around 1585? Some suggest they are descendants the lost civilization of Roanoke Island. These questions may remain as much of a mystery as the Melungeons themselves. In 1846, several Melungeons cast votes during an election and were arrested for illegal voting, because some did not consider them white. In 1834, the
Tennessee Constitution did not allow voting from any other nationality other than white.
The Melungeons thought of themselves as white, they claimed to Portuguese or of other descent than black. They wanted acceptance as a people and not discriminated against. During the Civil War the Melungeons fought right along with the white men. Most fought with the Union, while some fought with the Confederacy. During the war, there were many crimes committed by soldiers on both sides. When the war was over, people accused the Melungeons of the war crimes without evidence. Many of them were veterans and were shunned by the white people. In 1924, Virginia passed the Virginia
Racial Integrity Act. This act declared people’s nationality as either white or black. The
Melungeons were treated as if they were less human than whites and were subject to be enslaved at any time by slave owners. Many of them sold their property to escape the discrimination and moved west to settle where they would be safe from slavery.
They began to destroy family records and any other documents that indicated they were anything other than white. The dark skinned Melungeons were declared as
Negro and were treated as such.
When the census takers came… | 787 | ENGLISH | 1 |
« 이전계속 »
attack upon St. Kitts by the French army and navy; and the French fleet was even then cruising close at hand to leeward, between St. Kitts and Nevis.
The original intention of de Grasse and de Bouille had been to capture Barbados, the most important of the Eastern Antilles still remaining to the British; but the heavy tradewinds, which in those days made a winter passage to windward so long and dreary a beat, twice drove them back to port. "The whole French fleet," wrote Hood, "appeared off Santa Lucia on the 17th of last month, endeavouring to get to windward, and having carried away many topmasts and yards in struggling against very squally weather, returned to Fort Royal Bay on the 23d, and on the 28th came out again with forty transports, manoeuvring as before." On the 2d of January it disappeared from Santa Lucia, and, after a short stay again at Martinique, proceeded on the 5th to St. Kitts, anchoring in Basse Terre Roads on the 11th. The British garrison retired to Brimstone Hill, a fortified position at the north-west of the island, while the inhabitants surrendered the government to the French, pledging themselves to neutrality. The adjacent island of Nevis capitulated on the same terms on the 20th.
On the 14th of January, an express sent by General Shirley, governor of St. Kitts, had informed Hood at Barbados that a great fleet approaching had been seen from the heights of Nevis on the 10th. Hood at once put to sea, though short of bread and flour, which could not be had, and with the material of his ships in wretched condition. "When the President 1 joins," he wrote the Admiralty, "I shall be twenty-two strong, with which I beg you will assure their Lordships I will seek and give battle to the Count de Grasse, be his numbers as they may." On the way a ship reached him with word that the French fleet had invested St. Kitts. On the
1 Probably Prudent, 64. There was no President in the fleet.
21st he anchored at Antigua for repairs and supplies, indispensable for keeping the sea in the operations which he contemplated, the duration of which could not be foreseen. About a thousand troops also were embarked, which, with the marines that could be spared from the squadron, would give a landing force of twenty-four hundred men.
St. Kitts being less than fifty miles from Antigua, Hood doubtless now got accurate information of the enemy's dispositions, and could form a definite, well-matured plan. This seems to have been carefully imparted to all his captains, as was the practice of Nelson, who was the pupil of Hood, if of any one. "At 9.15 A.m. the Admiral made the signal for all flag-officers," says the log of the Canada; "and at 4 P.m. the Admirals and Commodore made the signals for all captains of their divisions." At 5 P.m. of the same day, January 23d, the fleet weighed and stood over for Nevis, round the southern point of which Basse Terre must be approached; for, the channel between Nevis and St. Kitts being impracticable for ships of the line, the two islands were virtually one, and, their common axis lying north-west and south-east, the trade-wind is fair only when coming from the south.
Basse Terre, where de Grasse then was, is about fifteen miles from the south point of Nevis. The roadstead lies east and west, and the French fleet, then twenty-four of the line and two fifties, were anchored without attention to order, three or four deep; the eastern ships so placed that an enemy coming from the southward could reach them with the prevailing trade-wind, against which the western ships could not beat up quickly to their support. This being so, we are told that Hood, starting shortly before sunset with a fair, and probably fresh wind, from a point only sixty miles distant, hoped to come upon the French by surprise at early daybreak, to attack the weather ships, and from them to sail along the hostile order so far as might seem expedient. His column, thus passing in its entirety close to a certain exposed fraction of the enemy, the latter would be cut up in detail by the concentration upon it. The British then, wearing to the southward, would haul their wind, tack, and again stand up to the assault, if the enemy continued to await it.
This reasonable expectation, and skilful conception, was thwarted by a collision, during the night, between a frigate, the Nymphe, 36, and the leading ship of the line, the Alfred, 74. The repairs to the latter delayed the fleet, the approach of which was discovered by daylight. De Grasse therefore put to sea. He imagined Hood's purpose was to throw succours into Brimstone Hill; and moreover the position of the enemy now was between him and four ships of the line momentarily expected from Martinique, one of which joined him on the same day. The French were all under way by sunset, standing to the southward under easy sail, towards the British, who had rounded the south point of Nevis at 1 P.m. Towards dark, Hood went about and stood also to the southward, seemingly in retreat.
During the following night the British tacked several times, to keep their position to windward. At daylight of January 25th, the two fleets were to the westward of Nevis; the British near the island, the French abreast, but several miles to leeward. Foiled in his first spring by an unexpected accident, Hood had not relinquished his enterprise, and now proposed to seize the anchorage quitted by the French, so establishing himself there, — as he had proposed to Graves to do in the Chesapeake, — that he could not be dislodged. For such a defensive position St. Kitts offered special advantages. The anchorage was a narrow ledge, dropping precipitately to very deep water; and it was possible so to place the ships that the enemy could not easily anchor near them.
At 5.30 A.m. of the 25th Hood made the signal to form line of battle on the starboard tack, at one cable interval.1 It is mentioned in the log of the Canada, 74, Captain Cornwallis, that that ship brought-to in her station, fourth from the rear, at 7 o'clock. By 10 o'clock the line was formed, and the ships hove-to in it. At 10.45 the signal was made to fill [to go ahead], the van ships to carry the same sail as the Admiral, — topsails and foresails, — followed, just before noon, by the order to prepare to anchor, with springs on the cables. The French, who were steering south, on the port tack, while the British were hove-to, went about as soon as the latter filled, and stood towards them in bow and quarter line.2
At noon the British fleet was running along close under the high land of Nevis; so close that the Solebay, 28, one of the frigates inshore of the line, grounded and was wrecked. No signals were needed, except to correct irregularities in the order, for the captains knew what they were to do. The French were approaching steadily, but inevitably dropping astern with reference to the point of the enemy's line for which they were heading. At 2 P.m. de Grasse's flagship, the Ville de Paris, fired several shot at the British rear, which alone she could reach, while his left wing was nearing the Barfleur, Hood's flagship, and the vessels astern of her, the centre of the column, which opened their fire at 2.30. Hood,
1 The times and general movements are put together from Hood's Journal and the Log of the Canada, published by the Navy Records Society. "Letters of Lord Hood," pp. 64, 86.
2 When ships were in order of battle, or column, close to the wind, if they all tacked at the same time they would still be ranged on the same line but steering at an angle to it, on the opposite tack. This formation was called bow and quarter line, because each vessel had a comrade off its bow — to one side and ahead — and one off its quarter — to one side but astern. The advantage of this, if heading towards the enemy, was that by tacking again together they would be at once again in column, or line ahead, the customary order of battle. | <urn:uuid:28e60be7-5399-4d22-bcd9-607fe6ae9b7b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://books.google.co.kr/books?id=lCowAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA200&focus=viewport&vq=flotilla&dq=editions:LCCN13021458&lr=&hl=ko&output=html_text | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00193.warc.gz | en | 0.985064 | 1,852 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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attack upon St. Kitts by the French army and navy; and the French fleet was even then cruising close at hand to leeward, between St. Kitts and Nevis.
The original intention of de Grasse and de Bouille had been to capture Barbados, the most important of the Eastern Antilles still remaining to the British; but the heavy tradewinds, which in those days made a winter passage to windward so long and dreary a beat, twice drove them back to port. "The whole French fleet," wrote Hood, "appeared off Santa Lucia on the 17th of last month, endeavouring to get to windward, and having carried away many topmasts and yards in struggling against very squally weather, returned to Fort Royal Bay on the 23d, and on the 28th came out again with forty transports, manoeuvring as before." On the 2d of January it disappeared from Santa Lucia, and, after a short stay again at Martinique, proceeded on the 5th to St. Kitts, anchoring in Basse Terre Roads on the 11th. The British garrison retired to Brimstone Hill, a fortified position at the north-west of the island, while the inhabitants surrendered the government to the French, pledging themselves to neutrality. The adjacent island of Nevis capitulated on the same terms on the 20th.
On the 14th of January, an express sent by General Shirley, governor of St. Kitts, had informed Hood at Barbados that a great fleet approaching had been seen from the heights of Nevis on the 10th. Hood at once put to sea, though short of bread and flour, which could not be had, and with the material of his ships in wretched condition. "When the President 1 joins," he wrote the Admiralty, "I shall be twenty-two strong, with which I beg you will assure their Lordships I will seek and give battle to the Count de Grasse, be his numbers as they may." On the way a ship reached him with word that the French fleet had invested St. Kitts. On the
1 Probably Prudent, 64. There was no President in the fleet.
21st he anchored at Antigua for repairs and supplies, indispensable for keeping the sea in the operations which he contemplated, the duration of which could not be foreseen. About a thousand troops also were embarked, which, with the marines that could be spared from the squadron, would give a landing force of twenty-four hundred men.
St. Kitts being less than fifty miles from Antigua, Hood doubtless now got accurate information of the enemy's dispositions, and could form a definite, well-matured plan. This seems to have been carefully imparted to all his captains, as was the practice of Nelson, who was the pupil of Hood, if of any one. "At 9.15 A.m. the Admiral made the signal for all flag-officers," says the log of the Canada; "and at 4 P.m. the Admirals and Commodore made the signals for all captains of their divisions." At 5 P.m. of the same day, January 23d, the fleet weighed and stood over for Nevis, round the southern point of which Basse Terre must be approached; for, the channel between Nevis and St. Kitts being impracticable for ships of the line, the two islands were virtually one, and, their common axis lying north-west and south-east, the trade-wind is fair only when coming from the south.
Basse Terre, where de Grasse then was, is about fifteen miles from the south point of Nevis. The roadstead lies east and west, and the French fleet, then twenty-four of the line and two fifties, were anchored without attention to order, three or four deep; the eastern ships so placed that an enemy coming from the southward could reach them with the prevailing trade-wind, against which the western ships could not beat up quickly to their support. This being so, we are told that Hood, starting shortly before sunset with a fair, and probably fresh wind, from a point only sixty miles distant, hoped to come upon the French by surprise at early daybreak, to attack the weather ships, and from them to sail along the hostile order so far as might seem expedient. His column, thus passing in its entirety close to a certain exposed fraction of the enemy, the latter would be cut up in detail by the concentration upon it. The British then, wearing to the southward, would haul their wind, tack, and again stand up to the assault, if the enemy continued to await it.
This reasonable expectation, and skilful conception, was thwarted by a collision, during the night, between a frigate, the Nymphe, 36, and the leading ship of the line, the Alfred, 74. The repairs to the latter delayed the fleet, the approach of which was discovered by daylight. De Grasse therefore put to sea. He imagined Hood's purpose was to throw succours into Brimstone Hill; and moreover the position of the enemy now was between him and four ships of the line momentarily expected from Martinique, one of which joined him on the same day. The French were all under way by sunset, standing to the southward under easy sail, towards the British, who had rounded the south point of Nevis at 1 P.m. Towards dark, Hood went about and stood also to the southward, seemingly in retreat.
During the following night the British tacked several times, to keep their position to windward. At daylight of January 25th, the two fleets were to the westward of Nevis; the British near the island, the French abreast, but several miles to leeward. Foiled in his first spring by an unexpected accident, Hood had not relinquished his enterprise, and now proposed to seize the anchorage quitted by the French, so establishing himself there, — as he had proposed to Graves to do in the Chesapeake, — that he could not be dislodged. For such a defensive position St. Kitts offered special advantages. The anchorage was a narrow ledge, dropping precipitately to very deep water; and it was possible so to place the ships that the enemy could not easily anchor near them.
At 5.30 A.m. of the 25th Hood made the signal to form line of battle on the starboard tack, at one cable interval.1 It is mentioned in the log of the Canada, 74, Captain Cornwallis, that that ship brought-to in her station, fourth from the rear, at 7 o'clock. By 10 o'clock the line was formed, and the ships hove-to in it. At 10.45 the signal was made to fill [to go ahead], the van ships to carry the same sail as the Admiral, — topsails and foresails, — followed, just before noon, by the order to prepare to anchor, with springs on the cables. The French, who were steering south, on the port tack, while the British were hove-to, went about as soon as the latter filled, and stood towards them in bow and quarter line.2
At noon the British fleet was running along close under the high land of Nevis; so close that the Solebay, 28, one of the frigates inshore of the line, grounded and was wrecked. No signals were needed, except to correct irregularities in the order, for the captains knew what they were to do. The French were approaching steadily, but inevitably dropping astern with reference to the point of the enemy's line for which they were heading. At 2 P.m. de Grasse's flagship, the Ville de Paris, fired several shot at the British rear, which alone she could reach, while his left wing was nearing the Barfleur, Hood's flagship, and the vessels astern of her, the centre of the column, which opened their fire at 2.30. Hood,
1 The times and general movements are put together from Hood's Journal and the Log of the Canada, published by the Navy Records Society. "Letters of Lord Hood," pp. 64, 86.
2 When ships were in order of battle, or column, close to the wind, if they all tacked at the same time they would still be ranged on the same line but steering at an angle to it, on the opposite tack. This formation was called bow and quarter line, because each vessel had a comrade off its bow — to one side and ahead — and one off its quarter — to one side but astern. The advantage of this, if heading towards the enemy, was that by tacking again together they would be at once again in column, or line ahead, the customary order of battle. | 1,869 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Controlling the Message: Accounts of Vincent the Martyr
If force didn’t end martyrdom, how about disinformation? Could changing texts control martyrs? In his struggles against the Donatists, Augustine discovered that martyrdom can be a powerful force against the social order, and thus he and others were ready for the age of martyrs to end. The church was victorious and thus had no more need of martyrs; it could simply celebrate those who already had died heroically for the faith. However, as we have seen throughout this book, the power of the martyrs lay not only in their deaths but also in the accounts by which people remembered their sacrifice. The texts, with their strong messages, were profoundly influential-we have seen how the texts shaped ideas as disparate as anti-Semitism and motherhood. As the church became organized and at peace, what would happen if a martyr’s passion seemed to contradict the message of the church? Just as now, those in charge recognized the need to control important texts, and the accounts of the martyrs were no exception. Passions were often rewritten to be sure the message of the text conformed to contemporary values. | <urn:uuid:6ab2e066-25a6-4e8d-bf9a-fffed599ab33> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780203493724/chapters/10.4324/9780203493724-17 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00245.warc.gz | en | 0.989499 | 239 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.0655951... | 1 | Controlling the Message: Accounts of Vincent the Martyr
If force didn’t end martyrdom, how about disinformation? Could changing texts control martyrs? In his struggles against the Donatists, Augustine discovered that martyrdom can be a powerful force against the social order, and thus he and others were ready for the age of martyrs to end. The church was victorious and thus had no more need of martyrs; it could simply celebrate those who already had died heroically for the faith. However, as we have seen throughout this book, the power of the martyrs lay not only in their deaths but also in the accounts by which people remembered their sacrifice. The texts, with their strong messages, were profoundly influential-we have seen how the texts shaped ideas as disparate as anti-Semitism and motherhood. As the church became organized and at peace, what would happen if a martyr’s passion seemed to contradict the message of the church? Just as now, those in charge recognized the need to control important texts, and the accounts of the martyrs were no exception. Passions were often rewritten to be sure the message of the text conformed to contemporary values. | 234 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sunday, January 12th, 2020
A Great Viking King
Harald “Bluetooth” Gormsson was a late 10th century king of Denmark and parts of Norway. Although we know little of his early life due to lack of sources, we do know that he was the son of King Gorm the Old of Denmark and that his reign began after the death of his father in c.958. Harald inherited the lands we consider to be modern day Denmark, with these territories actually having been consolidated much earlier, in the late 8th century. Harald’s position as King of Norway (which doesn’t correspond geographically to the modern kingdom) was established after his vassal king in the region, Harald Greycloak, was suspiciously killed by one of Harald’s allies in Denmark. Harald’s reign as King of Norway didn’t last long though, as his tenuous control is believed to have ended just a few years later at some point during 970s. His reign of Denmark stayed strong through this however, lasting until c.986. Sources seem to suggest that he was forcibly removed before his death by his son and successor Sweyn (Sven) Forkbeard. Sweyn would go on to become the first Danish king to make major inroads in the British Isles, even becoming the first Viking to be crowned King of England in 1013. Despite being overshadowed somewhat by the success of his son, Harald is still recognised as one of Denmark’s most important kings. Perhaps the most important thing he did was… convert to Christianity, and that will be explored below.
Conversion to Christianity
One of the most notable aspects of Harald’s reign was his conversion to the Christian church and the subsequent growth of the religion in Scandinavia. The actual facts surrounding Harald’s personal conversion are disputed, this is because the accounts of the events are themselves contradictory. There does seem to be consensus amongst most sources that his baptism was performed by a priest called Poppa or Poppo. The cleric is supposed to have performed a miracle in which he held red-hot metal without being burned and that this miracle also persuaded Sweyn to either become baptised too or keep him in the faith, with some claiming that Sweyn was baptised before Harald. After converting, Harald built a church in Denmark at some point during the 960s and although he would have encouraged conversion and proselytization, the religion did not really take hold in the region until after his death. Despite the fact that the Christianisation of the whole of Scandinavia took a long time, Harald can be seen as the greatest reason for the beginning of the process.
The Jelling Stones
The Jelling Stones are two of the most famous and important runestones having been found in Scandinavia and the best known to come from Denmark. The two stones were raised by Harald Bluetooth and his father Gorm the Old respectively. The older one raised by Gorm honours the life of his wife Thyra, whilst the the newer one raised by Harald, although still paying tribute to his family, is most well known for its claim that Harald converted the people and kingdom of Denmark to Christianity. Even though we know this is not entirely true, it does show the importance that Harald placed upon his new-found Christian identity as well as the religion’s importance when it came to the political situation of Europe in the Early Middle Ages, leading to Harald to stress its importance on his Jelling Stone.
Viking Ring Fortresses
Viking Ring Fortresses, also known as trelleborgs, are types of fortification used in the Viking Age and particularly associated with Harald Bluetooth, who built many during his time as King of Denmark. Trelleborgs are circular in shape and contain 4 gates connected by roads pointing in each of the compass directions. To date, a total of seven trelleborgs have been found in Denmark and Southern Sweden, all of which date during a particular period between the late 10th and early 11th centuries. The majority of the forts were built during the reign of Harald Bluetooth as part of his process of fortifying Denmark against the Saxons to the South. Today, many of the trelleborgs have been reconstructed and are now open to the public, with the fortresses currently applying for recognition as UNESCO World Heritage sites.
The Fyrkat Witch
One of the trelleborgs built by Harald is Fyrkat, located near Hobro in Denmark. It contained sixteen identical long-houses arranged in four identical squares, some of which have been reconstructed. Perhaps what is most interesting about this particular trelleborg however, are the archaeological digs that have occurred there, most notably that of the grave of a woman who has come to be known as the Fyrkat Witch due to the unusual grave goods found with her body that have lead to the belief that she was a sorceress, or völva, as the Viking’s would have said. Along with different animal bones, seeds, pieces of jewellery and articles clothing that were found in the grave, the most fascinating find was that of an iron staff, which is now believed to be a staff used for divination. Divination and sorcery were certainly practised during the Viking era, and staffs, much like the one found at the Fyrkat trelleborg, have become synonymous with the people who took part in these supernatural arts.
You can also read more about Harold’s son, who would go onto conquer England, in this magazine article.
Written by Harry Cornford
More Magazine Articles
Subscribe to our newsletter
Keep up to date with Histories of the Unexpected | <urn:uuid:91af5d43-7655-46a2-895a-fb9bb55a4c06> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historiesoftheunexpected.com/magazine/harald-bluetooth-the-jelling-stones-and-the-fyrkat-ring-fortress/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00087.warc.gz | en | 0.987325 | 1,189 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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A Great Viking King
Harald “Bluetooth” Gormsson was a late 10th century king of Denmark and parts of Norway. Although we know little of his early life due to lack of sources, we do know that he was the son of King Gorm the Old of Denmark and that his reign began after the death of his father in c.958. Harald inherited the lands we consider to be modern day Denmark, with these territories actually having been consolidated much earlier, in the late 8th century. Harald’s position as King of Norway (which doesn’t correspond geographically to the modern kingdom) was established after his vassal king in the region, Harald Greycloak, was suspiciously killed by one of Harald’s allies in Denmark. Harald’s reign as King of Norway didn’t last long though, as his tenuous control is believed to have ended just a few years later at some point during 970s. His reign of Denmark stayed strong through this however, lasting until c.986. Sources seem to suggest that he was forcibly removed before his death by his son and successor Sweyn (Sven) Forkbeard. Sweyn would go on to become the first Danish king to make major inroads in the British Isles, even becoming the first Viking to be crowned King of England in 1013. Despite being overshadowed somewhat by the success of his son, Harald is still recognised as one of Denmark’s most important kings. Perhaps the most important thing he did was… convert to Christianity, and that will be explored below.
Conversion to Christianity
One of the most notable aspects of Harald’s reign was his conversion to the Christian church and the subsequent growth of the religion in Scandinavia. The actual facts surrounding Harald’s personal conversion are disputed, this is because the accounts of the events are themselves contradictory. There does seem to be consensus amongst most sources that his baptism was performed by a priest called Poppa or Poppo. The cleric is supposed to have performed a miracle in which he held red-hot metal without being burned and that this miracle also persuaded Sweyn to either become baptised too or keep him in the faith, with some claiming that Sweyn was baptised before Harald. After converting, Harald built a church in Denmark at some point during the 960s and although he would have encouraged conversion and proselytization, the religion did not really take hold in the region until after his death. Despite the fact that the Christianisation of the whole of Scandinavia took a long time, Harald can be seen as the greatest reason for the beginning of the process.
The Jelling Stones
The Jelling Stones are two of the most famous and important runestones having been found in Scandinavia and the best known to come from Denmark. The two stones were raised by Harald Bluetooth and his father Gorm the Old respectively. The older one raised by Gorm honours the life of his wife Thyra, whilst the the newer one raised by Harald, although still paying tribute to his family, is most well known for its claim that Harald converted the people and kingdom of Denmark to Christianity. Even though we know this is not entirely true, it does show the importance that Harald placed upon his new-found Christian identity as well as the religion’s importance when it came to the political situation of Europe in the Early Middle Ages, leading to Harald to stress its importance on his Jelling Stone.
Viking Ring Fortresses
Viking Ring Fortresses, also known as trelleborgs, are types of fortification used in the Viking Age and particularly associated with Harald Bluetooth, who built many during his time as King of Denmark. Trelleborgs are circular in shape and contain 4 gates connected by roads pointing in each of the compass directions. To date, a total of seven trelleborgs have been found in Denmark and Southern Sweden, all of which date during a particular period between the late 10th and early 11th centuries. The majority of the forts were built during the reign of Harald Bluetooth as part of his process of fortifying Denmark against the Saxons to the South. Today, many of the trelleborgs have been reconstructed and are now open to the public, with the fortresses currently applying for recognition as UNESCO World Heritage sites.
The Fyrkat Witch
One of the trelleborgs built by Harald is Fyrkat, located near Hobro in Denmark. It contained sixteen identical long-houses arranged in four identical squares, some of which have been reconstructed. Perhaps what is most interesting about this particular trelleborg however, are the archaeological digs that have occurred there, most notably that of the grave of a woman who has come to be known as the Fyrkat Witch due to the unusual grave goods found with her body that have lead to the belief that she was a sorceress, or völva, as the Viking’s would have said. Along with different animal bones, seeds, pieces of jewellery and articles clothing that were found in the grave, the most fascinating find was that of an iron staff, which is now believed to be a staff used for divination. Divination and sorcery were certainly practised during the Viking era, and staffs, much like the one found at the Fyrkat trelleborg, have become synonymous with the people who took part in these supernatural arts.
You can also read more about Harold’s son, who would go onto conquer England, in this magazine article.
Written by Harry Cornford
More Magazine Articles
Subscribe to our newsletter
Keep up to date with Histories of the Unexpected | 1,186 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The British in colonial India were obsessed with rank and status. The divide between the British and Indians was pronounced, but so too were the differences between classes of white people. A strict pecking order influenced every aspect of colonial life. It decided which club, if any, you could join, and which set you belonged to. An official ‘Warrant of Precedence’ determined where you sat at dinner parties, and outrage was caused if someone of slightly lower social standing was allotted a place above his or her superiors at the table. The observance of this kind of excruciating social snobbery lasted well into the twentieth century, and, ironically, what were thought of as standard rules of British etiquette, were preserved in India long after they had vanished at home.
In India, as elsewhere, fashion and clothing were important ways of expressing status and underlining social divisions. When they first began to extend their power in South Asia, it was acceptable, even encouraged, for British men to adopt Indian dress and lifestyles. The nabobs, the British merchant-adventurers associated with the East India Company, dressed in loose Indian clothes, ate local foods, smoked hookahs, and took Indian wives and mistresses.
From the mid-nineteenth century, this began to change. Following the 1857 Indian Mutiny, alternatively known as India’s First War of Independence, the British stressed that their right to rule lay in their racial superiority. They therefore emphasised their difference from the Indians, and jettisoned Indian friends, mistresses and local lifestyles. The figure of the ‘sahib’ replaced the Indianised nabob. The sahib was a stiff upper lipped, British gentleman, ideally an official in the Indian Civil Service, who wore British style clothes – suits, hunting outfits and, later, the ubiquitous white flannels of British men in India.
British women began to join their menfolk in India around this time, and the inventory of clothing they had to wear is horrifying. Even in the heat of the north Indian plains or the steam bath of monsoon Bengal, they were required to adhere to British Victorian standards of dress, as well as wearing clothes that protected them from pestilence and the taint of India. They wore acres of fabric, often heavy flannel, and were swaddled in corsets, wool cholera belts and stockings. Indeed, British women in India didn’t give up wearing stockings until they were forced to do so by shortages during the Second World War.
If British clothing served to separate the British from the Indians, it also served to divide the British from themselves. White elites in India wore clothes from ‘Home’. In the first half of the twentieth century, fashionable white women in India kept up with trends in London, and they looked down on poorer whites who were seen to be sporting out-of-date styles. Whether it was people, clothes, or food, everything linked with home was considered better.
Less affluent whites, including many domiciled Anglo-Indians – that is white families who lived in India generation after generation – often wore clothes made by darzi wallahs – local tailors. This was considered a clear sign of lower status. In EDEN GARDENS, girls from the ‘Fishing Fleet,’ the well-to-do young British women who went out to India during the cold season in the hope of finding a husband, ridicule Maisy, a poor, Indian-born white girl, because she wears a dress made by a darzi who has copied an old fashioned style.
Many mixed-race families of Indian and white ancestry wore British clothes to stress their affinity with the colonial rulers, and to mark their superiority over Indians. These people, who were known by the derogatory term, ‘Eurasian,’ until comparatively recently, bought locally made clothes, indistinguishable from those bought by poor whites. The constant efforts of mixed race people to aspire to white status, and the concern of poor whites not to fall down the social hierarchy and be lumped together with ‘Eurasians,’ was complicated by the fact they often wore the same outward signs of status. Their clothing blurred racial and status lines, and, in the eyes of those people who were newly arrived from Home, both poor whites and ‘Eurasians’ looked cheap and comically old fashioned.
The sola topi, the sun helmet, is one of the most enduring symbols of British rule in India. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century it became a part of the uniform of British men in the subcontinent. It is a large helmet made from the pith of the sola plant, and is lightweight and supposed to provide protection against sunstroke. For everyday use, a topi coved in khaki fabric was essential, and white topis were also worn, especially for more formal events. During the hot weather, topis were worn from sunup to sundown. In the 1930s, however, the topi began to fall out of fashion, and the love affair was over in the 1940s. This was partly because it was such a potent symbol of colonial rule at a time when the British were encountering severe pressure from Indian nationalists, partly because it was adopted by mixed race men, and therefore lost its association with high rank and authentic ‘Britishness,’ and partly because the taking of salt tablets by troops in Burma during the war showed that the topi was not necessary in the fight again sunstroke.
Interestingly, after the First World War, the followers of Gandhi also began to wear their own very potent icon of Indian nationalism; a cap made of khadi. This rough, homespun cloth was itself a symbol of the campaign for Indian independence, and its production was a response to the British, whose own cotton manufacturing and unfair export practices had decimated the Indian textile industry.
As someone who struggles with the heat of India and has a fair skinned person’s aversion to the sun, I cannot imagine how British people at the height of the British Raj in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries coped with the restrictions of their clothing. They adopted some Indian habits that must have helped – habits like bathing, hair washing, and the frequent changing of clothes, which were novelties at home. Even so, it is a measure of how important clothes were to the maintenance of colonial hierarchy, and the perpetuation of British prestige, that image and style always triumphed over comfort and practicality.
Enjoyed this? Why not try…
Image credit: Two British ladies in early 20th century India, Images of Empire/Universal Images Group via Getty Images | <urn:uuid:fae1f05b-5fa1-4fc0-b496-b9b5978a9b16> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.virago.co.uk/bookends-news/2016/04/25/cholera-belts-and-stockings-the-cultivation-of-difference-in-british-india/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00064.warc.gz | en | 0.980527 | 1,377 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.272173941135406... | 5 | The British in colonial India were obsessed with rank and status. The divide between the British and Indians was pronounced, but so too were the differences between classes of white people. A strict pecking order influenced every aspect of colonial life. It decided which club, if any, you could join, and which set you belonged to. An official ‘Warrant of Precedence’ determined where you sat at dinner parties, and outrage was caused if someone of slightly lower social standing was allotted a place above his or her superiors at the table. The observance of this kind of excruciating social snobbery lasted well into the twentieth century, and, ironically, what were thought of as standard rules of British etiquette, were preserved in India long after they had vanished at home.
In India, as elsewhere, fashion and clothing were important ways of expressing status and underlining social divisions. When they first began to extend their power in South Asia, it was acceptable, even encouraged, for British men to adopt Indian dress and lifestyles. The nabobs, the British merchant-adventurers associated with the East India Company, dressed in loose Indian clothes, ate local foods, smoked hookahs, and took Indian wives and mistresses.
From the mid-nineteenth century, this began to change. Following the 1857 Indian Mutiny, alternatively known as India’s First War of Independence, the British stressed that their right to rule lay in their racial superiority. They therefore emphasised their difference from the Indians, and jettisoned Indian friends, mistresses and local lifestyles. The figure of the ‘sahib’ replaced the Indianised nabob. The sahib was a stiff upper lipped, British gentleman, ideally an official in the Indian Civil Service, who wore British style clothes – suits, hunting outfits and, later, the ubiquitous white flannels of British men in India.
British women began to join their menfolk in India around this time, and the inventory of clothing they had to wear is horrifying. Even in the heat of the north Indian plains or the steam bath of monsoon Bengal, they were required to adhere to British Victorian standards of dress, as well as wearing clothes that protected them from pestilence and the taint of India. They wore acres of fabric, often heavy flannel, and were swaddled in corsets, wool cholera belts and stockings. Indeed, British women in India didn’t give up wearing stockings until they were forced to do so by shortages during the Second World War.
If British clothing served to separate the British from the Indians, it also served to divide the British from themselves. White elites in India wore clothes from ‘Home’. In the first half of the twentieth century, fashionable white women in India kept up with trends in London, and they looked down on poorer whites who were seen to be sporting out-of-date styles. Whether it was people, clothes, or food, everything linked with home was considered better.
Less affluent whites, including many domiciled Anglo-Indians – that is white families who lived in India generation after generation – often wore clothes made by darzi wallahs – local tailors. This was considered a clear sign of lower status. In EDEN GARDENS, girls from the ‘Fishing Fleet,’ the well-to-do young British women who went out to India during the cold season in the hope of finding a husband, ridicule Maisy, a poor, Indian-born white girl, because she wears a dress made by a darzi who has copied an old fashioned style.
Many mixed-race families of Indian and white ancestry wore British clothes to stress their affinity with the colonial rulers, and to mark their superiority over Indians. These people, who were known by the derogatory term, ‘Eurasian,’ until comparatively recently, bought locally made clothes, indistinguishable from those bought by poor whites. The constant efforts of mixed race people to aspire to white status, and the concern of poor whites not to fall down the social hierarchy and be lumped together with ‘Eurasians,’ was complicated by the fact they often wore the same outward signs of status. Their clothing blurred racial and status lines, and, in the eyes of those people who were newly arrived from Home, both poor whites and ‘Eurasians’ looked cheap and comically old fashioned.
The sola topi, the sun helmet, is one of the most enduring symbols of British rule in India. In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century it became a part of the uniform of British men in the subcontinent. It is a large helmet made from the pith of the sola plant, and is lightweight and supposed to provide protection against sunstroke. For everyday use, a topi coved in khaki fabric was essential, and white topis were also worn, especially for more formal events. During the hot weather, topis were worn from sunup to sundown. In the 1930s, however, the topi began to fall out of fashion, and the love affair was over in the 1940s. This was partly because it was such a potent symbol of colonial rule at a time when the British were encountering severe pressure from Indian nationalists, partly because it was adopted by mixed race men, and therefore lost its association with high rank and authentic ‘Britishness,’ and partly because the taking of salt tablets by troops in Burma during the war showed that the topi was not necessary in the fight again sunstroke.
Interestingly, after the First World War, the followers of Gandhi also began to wear their own very potent icon of Indian nationalism; a cap made of khadi. This rough, homespun cloth was itself a symbol of the campaign for Indian independence, and its production was a response to the British, whose own cotton manufacturing and unfair export practices had decimated the Indian textile industry.
As someone who struggles with the heat of India and has a fair skinned person’s aversion to the sun, I cannot imagine how British people at the height of the British Raj in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries coped with the restrictions of their clothing. They adopted some Indian habits that must have helped – habits like bathing, hair washing, and the frequent changing of clothes, which were novelties at home. Even so, it is a measure of how important clothes were to the maintenance of colonial hierarchy, and the perpetuation of British prestige, that image and style always triumphed over comfort and practicality.
Enjoyed this? Why not try…
Image credit: Two British ladies in early 20th century India, Images of Empire/Universal Images Group via Getty Images | 1,346 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On this day in 1961, five days after being inaugurated as the nation’s 35th president, John F. Kennedy became the first chief executive to hold a live televised news conference. An estimated 65 million people viewed the historic event.
Kennedy chose the venue of the spacious State Department auditorium to answer reporters’ questions. He began the 37-minute session by announcing the new administration’s decision to postpone nuclear test ban negotiations in Geneva with the Soviet Union until March. He also announced that the United States was increasing food aid to the famine-stricken Congo. And he revealed that the Soviets had released two survivors from the crew of a U.S. RB-47 aircraft who had been held since July 1, 1960.
Then, in an unscripted session, Kennedy took 32 questions from reporters, who stood to be recognized, addressing a variety of issues, including U.S. relations with Cuba, voting rights and food aid to impoverished Americans.
Pierre Salinger, Kennedy’s press secretary, noted in an oral history interview at the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum that, at that time, “there were only three or four newspapers in the entire United States that carried a full transcript of a presidential news conference. Therefore, what people read was a distillation. … We thought that they should have the opportunity to see it in full.”
By the time of his death in November 1963, Kennedy had held 64 full-scale news conferences, an average of one every 16 days. A 1961 poll showed 90 percent of those interviewed watched at least one of his first three news conferences. On average, an estimated 18 million viewers watched the sessions, which were usually held in the midafternoon.
A reporter noted that “there has been some apprehension about the instantaneous broadcast of presidential news conferences such as this one, the contention being that an inadvertent statement no longer correctable, as in the old days, could possibly cause some grave consequences. Do you feel there is any risk, or could you give us some thought on that subject?”
Kennedy replied: “Well, it was my understanding that the statements made by the, by President [Dwight] Eisenhower, were on the record. There may have been a clarification that could have been issued afterwards but it still would have demonstrated, it still would have been on the record as a clarification, so that I don't think that the interests of our country are — it seems to me they're as well protected under this system as they were under the system followed by President Eisenhower. And this system has the advantage of providing more direct communication.”
In a 1962 televised interview, Kennedy said, “Even though we wish they didn’t write it, and even though we disapprove, there isn’t any doubt that we could not do the job at all in a free society without a very, very active press.” | <urn:uuid:bf22cb5e-dd87-496e-81ae-143d91fabb27> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.politico.com/story/2018/01/25/jfk-holds-first-televised-news-conference-jan-25-1961-355093 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00102.warc.gz | en | 0.984397 | 604 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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... | 8 | On this day in 1961, five days after being inaugurated as the nation’s 35th president, John F. Kennedy became the first chief executive to hold a live televised news conference. An estimated 65 million people viewed the historic event.
Kennedy chose the venue of the spacious State Department auditorium to answer reporters’ questions. He began the 37-minute session by announcing the new administration’s decision to postpone nuclear test ban negotiations in Geneva with the Soviet Union until March. He also announced that the United States was increasing food aid to the famine-stricken Congo. And he revealed that the Soviets had released two survivors from the crew of a U.S. RB-47 aircraft who had been held since July 1, 1960.
Then, in an unscripted session, Kennedy took 32 questions from reporters, who stood to be recognized, addressing a variety of issues, including U.S. relations with Cuba, voting rights and food aid to impoverished Americans.
Pierre Salinger, Kennedy’s press secretary, noted in an oral history interview at the John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum that, at that time, “there were only three or four newspapers in the entire United States that carried a full transcript of a presidential news conference. Therefore, what people read was a distillation. … We thought that they should have the opportunity to see it in full.”
By the time of his death in November 1963, Kennedy had held 64 full-scale news conferences, an average of one every 16 days. A 1961 poll showed 90 percent of those interviewed watched at least one of his first three news conferences. On average, an estimated 18 million viewers watched the sessions, which were usually held in the midafternoon.
A reporter noted that “there has been some apprehension about the instantaneous broadcast of presidential news conferences such as this one, the contention being that an inadvertent statement no longer correctable, as in the old days, could possibly cause some grave consequences. Do you feel there is any risk, or could you give us some thought on that subject?”
Kennedy replied: “Well, it was my understanding that the statements made by the, by President [Dwight] Eisenhower, were on the record. There may have been a clarification that could have been issued afterwards but it still would have demonstrated, it still would have been on the record as a clarification, so that I don't think that the interests of our country are — it seems to me they're as well protected under this system as they were under the system followed by President Eisenhower. And this system has the advantage of providing more direct communication.”
In a 1962 televised interview, Kennedy said, “Even though we wish they didn’t write it, and even though we disapprove, there isn’t any doubt that we could not do the job at all in a free society without a very, very active press.” | 612 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Story at a glance
- Parents are often reluctant to discuss race with their kids, but they learn about it through their daily experiences.
- About one-third of early childhood to fifth grade teachers report that a student in their classroom has heard a negative comment about their identity at least once this school year.
- “The only way we can improve attitude is through honest discussion,” says one expert.
More than 60 percent of teachers say they are comfortable talking to their students about countries of origin, race and ethnicity, according to a new report by Sesame Workshop. But the same report says only 10 percent of parents talk often with their children about their race or ethnicity.
Why are parents so reluctant?
Parents might like to believe their child's race or ethnicity is not important to who they are. The report found that when parents were asked to describe their own child's identity, most parents mentioned their personality, but only two percent of parents mentioned their child's race and ethnicity.
Parents might also think their children don't notice differences at a young age. The report says less than 50 percent of parents think that their children are very aware of their race and ethnicity. And parents talk to their children about race and ethnicity more often as they get older.
But children do notice. About one-third of early childhood to fifth grade teachers report that a student in their classroom has heard a negative comment about their identity at least once this school year, according to the report. Most of the time, it was about their race, ethnicity or gender.
Christia Spears Brown, a professor and associate chair of development and social psychology at the University of Kentucky, worked on the report. “Young kids do notice skin tone, they do notice race groups,” Brown told the Hechinger Report. “We also live in a segregated society…We know kids notice that and if parents don’t help them have an explanation that navigates the bias, kids will just absorb it as it’s just real meaningful difference.”
So how should parents talk to their children?
Parents’ race informs how often they talk to their children about race and ethnicity, the report found. Twenty-two percent of black parents discuss race often with their children, compared to six percent of white parents. One suggestion Brown and other authors of the report gave the Hechinger Report was to tailor your message based on the child’s identity.
Other suggestions include starting early and organically, focusing on media literacy and embracing the uncomfortable moments. Be prepared to talk to children about race and ethnicity at any time and anywhere — even the grocery checkout line.
“The only way we can improve attitude is through honest discussion,” Brown told the Hechinger Report. “I don’t want to teach kids it’s a taboo topic, so I need to not be taboo in the grocery store.” | <urn:uuid:3768815c-c1cc-4a8e-9320-09cb620ae34d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thehill.com/changing-america/enrichment/education/470633-kids-are-learning-about-race-from-an-early-age-just-not | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00549.warc.gz | en | 0.980663 | 601 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.3086704611778259... | 3 | Story at a glance
- Parents are often reluctant to discuss race with their kids, but they learn about it through their daily experiences.
- About one-third of early childhood to fifth grade teachers report that a student in their classroom has heard a negative comment about their identity at least once this school year.
- “The only way we can improve attitude is through honest discussion,” says one expert.
More than 60 percent of teachers say they are comfortable talking to their students about countries of origin, race and ethnicity, according to a new report by Sesame Workshop. But the same report says only 10 percent of parents talk often with their children about their race or ethnicity.
Why are parents so reluctant?
Parents might like to believe their child's race or ethnicity is not important to who they are. The report found that when parents were asked to describe their own child's identity, most parents mentioned their personality, but only two percent of parents mentioned their child's race and ethnicity.
Parents might also think their children don't notice differences at a young age. The report says less than 50 percent of parents think that their children are very aware of their race and ethnicity. And parents talk to their children about race and ethnicity more often as they get older.
But children do notice. About one-third of early childhood to fifth grade teachers report that a student in their classroom has heard a negative comment about their identity at least once this school year, according to the report. Most of the time, it was about their race, ethnicity or gender.
Christia Spears Brown, a professor and associate chair of development and social psychology at the University of Kentucky, worked on the report. “Young kids do notice skin tone, they do notice race groups,” Brown told the Hechinger Report. “We also live in a segregated society…We know kids notice that and if parents don’t help them have an explanation that navigates the bias, kids will just absorb it as it’s just real meaningful difference.”
So how should parents talk to their children?
Parents’ race informs how often they talk to their children about race and ethnicity, the report found. Twenty-two percent of black parents discuss race often with their children, compared to six percent of white parents. One suggestion Brown and other authors of the report gave the Hechinger Report was to tailor your message based on the child’s identity.
Other suggestions include starting early and organically, focusing on media literacy and embracing the uncomfortable moments. Be prepared to talk to children about race and ethnicity at any time and anywhere — even the grocery checkout line.
“The only way we can improve attitude is through honest discussion,” Brown told the Hechinger Report. “I don’t want to teach kids it’s a taboo topic, so I need to not be taboo in the grocery store.” | 565 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dadaism and Surrealism were art eras during which traditional ideas about art were challenged. However, the artwork artists generated during these movements was still considered representational art. You could see what the art was and what materials were used. Many artists used random objects and recyclables. When abstract expressionism followed, it challenged traditional methods and techniques of art-making. The artists descibed as abstract expressionists seemed to be more free, and the art they created wasn’t always representational. In fact, many abstract paintings looked nothing like their titles.
One of the better known types of abstract painting is a method that uses the whole body to paint. Introduce your preschooler to abstract art with this activity that will have her splatter, drip, and drizzle to create a complex painting. This activity is the perfect way to engage your kinesthetic learner and spark her interest in art history! | <urn:uuid:c6733ea6-9abb-4fe5-bdad-fa4d1011a7c5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nz.education.com/activity/article/abstract-expressionism-for-kids/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00500.warc.gz | en | 0.982532 | 186 | 4.25 | 4 | [
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0.3065820634... | 5 | Dadaism and Surrealism were art eras during which traditional ideas about art were challenged. However, the artwork artists generated during these movements was still considered representational art. You could see what the art was and what materials were used. Many artists used random objects and recyclables. When abstract expressionism followed, it challenged traditional methods and techniques of art-making. The artists descibed as abstract expressionists seemed to be more free, and the art they created wasn’t always representational. In fact, many abstract paintings looked nothing like their titles.
One of the better known types of abstract painting is a method that uses the whole body to paint. Introduce your preschooler to abstract art with this activity that will have her splatter, drip, and drizzle to create a complex painting. This activity is the perfect way to engage your kinesthetic learner and spark her interest in art history! | 181 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This lesson is a continuation of Colorful Flowers-How Des the Stem Work-Part I. Click here to navigate to that lesson.
I pass out the recording sheets to the students and I say to them, Today we are going to revisit our flower investigation. Who can tell the class what this investigation is all about (I want the students to go through the steps and verbalize exactly what it is that we were doing with this experiment. After we have reviewed what the investigation included, we moved to the big "reveal".
I wanted the reveal to be exciting, so I had the students close their eyes and put cover them with their hands while I put the vases out. We are not set for the reveal.
We count together...one...two...three. The students are excited as they open their eyes and see their flowers. See video. Some of them have collected a great deal of color. Others have not as much. There is one that is very surprising. The flowers in the green food coloring did not turn green. Instead these flowers are yellow.
I say to the students, Now, I want you to make an observation about how the flowers changed and record it on your recording sheet. Remember to use your crayons to show how the water and flowers look now. Your sheet should show exactly how your investigation looks.
The students begin working and I circulate around the room to observe their work, reminding them to include details about their flowers. See Work Sample. I ask questions to probe students' thinking such as:
The students are still very excited about the results of the investigation. I invite them to do a gallery walk so they look at the other flowers that were in different colors. After everyone has had a chance to look at the flowers, we return to our seats and begin discussion. I ask the students a few questions.
(I made sure to touch on the water as many students predicted their would be a change to the water)
I then asked some questions that were specific to the results of our experiment. You will need to adjust these questions based on the outcomes you had in your experiment.
Here is a video of some of our discussion. As you can see, I am pushing the students to really think about the "why" of the results of this experiment. I want them to be able to use their scientific knowledge as rationale for the experiments results. At this age, I want them to start taking risks, and share their "whys". I want them to know that it is okay to think outside of the box and to make connections in their learning. Prompting and supporting my students in this way provided important scaffolding for future scientific thinking.
The students bring up other items to discuss. They wonder if a flower put in black would have black petals or if the different colors that make up black would show through in different spots on the flower.
Now it is time for us to have the students connect this lesson to stem of a plant and its function. I say to the students, You thought that the water in the container went up the green part of the plant that we call the stem. So the stem was sucking up the water and taking it up to the plant. Can you think of something that you use that the stem is like (the students did not get this and needed further prompting). When you go to a restaurant and get a glass of soda, what do you often use to drink it with (Yes, your mouth, but you always use that. What do they give you to drink with?) That's right, a straw. How is the stem of our plant like a straw? That's right. It sucks up liquid and takes it to other parts of the plant. Do you think that the stem takes anything besides liquid to the stem?
Tomorrow, we are going to learn more about the stem of a plant. It does some very important things. I want you to remember what we learned today about the stem and be ready to use this information during our lesson tomorrow. | <urn:uuid:7ee8a54d-0c19-4c77-8bdf-512ed5516fca> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://betterlesson.com/lesson/640491/colorful-flowers-part-2-how-does-the-stem-work?from=master_teacher_curriculum | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00064.warc.gz | en | 0.981361 | 823 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.19321975111961365,... | 1 | This lesson is a continuation of Colorful Flowers-How Des the Stem Work-Part I. Click here to navigate to that lesson.
I pass out the recording sheets to the students and I say to them, Today we are going to revisit our flower investigation. Who can tell the class what this investigation is all about (I want the students to go through the steps and verbalize exactly what it is that we were doing with this experiment. After we have reviewed what the investigation included, we moved to the big "reveal".
I wanted the reveal to be exciting, so I had the students close their eyes and put cover them with their hands while I put the vases out. We are not set for the reveal.
We count together...one...two...three. The students are excited as they open their eyes and see their flowers. See video. Some of them have collected a great deal of color. Others have not as much. There is one that is very surprising. The flowers in the green food coloring did not turn green. Instead these flowers are yellow.
I say to the students, Now, I want you to make an observation about how the flowers changed and record it on your recording sheet. Remember to use your crayons to show how the water and flowers look now. Your sheet should show exactly how your investigation looks.
The students begin working and I circulate around the room to observe their work, reminding them to include details about their flowers. See Work Sample. I ask questions to probe students' thinking such as:
The students are still very excited about the results of the investigation. I invite them to do a gallery walk so they look at the other flowers that were in different colors. After everyone has had a chance to look at the flowers, we return to our seats and begin discussion. I ask the students a few questions.
(I made sure to touch on the water as many students predicted their would be a change to the water)
I then asked some questions that were specific to the results of our experiment. You will need to adjust these questions based on the outcomes you had in your experiment.
Here is a video of some of our discussion. As you can see, I am pushing the students to really think about the "why" of the results of this experiment. I want them to be able to use their scientific knowledge as rationale for the experiments results. At this age, I want them to start taking risks, and share their "whys". I want them to know that it is okay to think outside of the box and to make connections in their learning. Prompting and supporting my students in this way provided important scaffolding for future scientific thinking.
The students bring up other items to discuss. They wonder if a flower put in black would have black petals or if the different colors that make up black would show through in different spots on the flower.
Now it is time for us to have the students connect this lesson to stem of a plant and its function. I say to the students, You thought that the water in the container went up the green part of the plant that we call the stem. So the stem was sucking up the water and taking it up to the plant. Can you think of something that you use that the stem is like (the students did not get this and needed further prompting). When you go to a restaurant and get a glass of soda, what do you often use to drink it with (Yes, your mouth, but you always use that. What do they give you to drink with?) That's right, a straw. How is the stem of our plant like a straw? That's right. It sucks up liquid and takes it to other parts of the plant. Do you think that the stem takes anything besides liquid to the stem?
Tomorrow, we are going to learn more about the stem of a plant. It does some very important things. I want you to remember what we learned today about the stem and be ready to use this information during our lesson tomorrow. | 807 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Melville Island is a small peninsula in Nova Scotia, Canada, located in the Northwest Arm of Halifax Harbour, west of Deadman's Island. It is part of the Halifax Regional Municipality. The land is rocky, with thin, acidic soil, but supports a limited woodland habitat.
The site was discovered by Europeans in the 17th century, though it was likely earlier explored by aboriginals. It was initially used for storehouses before being purchased by the British, who built a prisoner-of-war camp to hold captives from the Napoleonic Wars and later the War of 1812. The burial ground for prisoners was on the adjacent Deadman's Island.
Later, Melville Island was used as a receiving depot for black refugees escaping slavery in the United States, then as a quarantine hospital for immigrants arriving from Europe (particularly Ireland). It briefly served as a recruitment centre for the British Foreign Legion during the Crimean War, and was then sold to the British for use as a military prison. In 1907 the land was granted to the Canadian government, which used it to detain German and Austro-Hungarian nationals during the First World War. During the Second World War, prisoners were sent to McNabs Island instead, and ammunition depots were kept on Melville Island.
The peninsula now houses the clubhouse and marina of the Armdale Yacht Club. Melville Island has been the subject of a number of cultural works, most of which concern its use as a prison.
Melville Island is part of the Halifax Regional Municipality, on the southeast coast of Nova Scotia. The peninsula lies on the eastern boundary of Melville Cove in the Northwest Arm, an inlet between the Halifax Peninsula and Mainland Halifax. It has a total area of approximately 2,000 square metres (22,000 sq ft). Melville Island is 200 metres (660 ft) west of Deadman's Island, and southeast of Regatta Point. The peninsula lies on a fracture zone trending northwest–southeast, and is located at the border between the Halifax Slate Formation and a granite-based formation. There is evidence of glacial scouring in the area. The surrounding seabed ranges from gravel to muddy gravel, and the shore is rocky.
The water surrounding Melville Island is salty and ranges from 15 °C (59 °F) in summer to partially or completely frozen in winter. The water is polluted by sewage discharges from Halifax and is considered heavily contaminated. Water colour ranges from olive brown to greenish black, with little current. The water depth around Melville Island is 4.5 to 10.5 metres (15 to 34 ft).
The peninsula features thin and acidic soil, and hosts plants like witherod, Indian pear, Labrador tea, wintergreen, and blueberry shrubs. It is a woodland area, with birch, tamarack, maple, oak, beech, and white pine trees. Given the development of the land by the Armdale Yacht Club, plant growth is now largely limited to the hill on which the main clubhouse sits; most of the peninsula was paved in 1971. Fish caught from Melville Island include cod and mackerel. Local birds include grebes, loons, and alcids.
There is no weather monitoring station on Melville Island (the closest is the Halifax dockyards); however, as with most of the surrounding area, Melville has a humid continental climate heavily influenced by the water temperature in Halifax Harbour. Average air temperatures range from −4.4 °C (24.1 °F) in January to 18.9 °C (66.0 °F) in August. It receives about 1,500 mm (59 in) of precipitation per year, and may receive snow from October through April. Though the area is fairly sheltered, it is subject to damage from hurricanes and other storms, notably Hurricane Juan in 2003.
Though the Halifax area was settled by aboriginals, particularly the Mi'kmaq people, as early as 7000 BC, there is no archaeological evidence of native habitation on Melville Island prior to the arrival of the Europeans. The first Europeans to reach the land were likely French traders and missionaries in the 17th century. Halifax was founded by the British in 1749. The first documented use of Melville Island was by Robert Cowie and John Aubony, who obtained a Crown grant in 1752 to allow them to build a storehouse. After Cowie's death in 1781, John Butler Kelly purchased what was then known as Cowie's Island and quickly resold it in 1784 to James Kavanagh, the head of a prosperous family fishery, for £65. Kavanagh used the land, known as Kavanagh's Island according to the then-prevalent tradition of place naming, to dry and store fish that he would then sell from his Halifax store.
After the 1793 beheading of Louis XVI sparked a war between Britain and France (see the French Revolutionary Wars), Nova Scotia Governor John Wentworth rented Kavanagh's Island to house 600 French prisoners that had been captured on St. Pierre and Miquelon. The commander of the Halifax garrison, Brigadier General James Ogilvie, objected to the plan, and instead housed the prisoners at Cornwallis Barracks in Halifax. Several prisoners were able to escape from the makeshift prison, and the rest were sent to Guernsey in June 1794.
In August 1794, a French ship captured in St. Domingo arrived in Halifax. A plan to house these prisoners in Halifax met with opposition from the citizenry because of a fear of "fever"; indeed, surgeon John Halliburton suggested that if the plan was carried out, "the popular would burn down [the housing] with the sick prisoners inside". Halliburton rented Kavanagh's Island, likely on the suggestion of Governor John Wentworth, and by June 1795 had sent 70 sick and wounded prisoners to its makeshift prison hospital. The other prisoners were kept on the prison ship La Felix. Sixteen soldiers of the Royal Nova Scotia Regiment acted as guards for the hospital beginning in 1796. Because of overcrowding aboard La Felix, some of its prisoners were allowed to live in Halifax, where some created such a disturbance that they were sent to Kavanagh's Island to be imprisoned. In 1801, the Treaty of Amiens resulted in most of the prisoners being returned to France, and the site was abandoned.
The site was formally leased for prisoner housing in 1803 after fifteen French fishermen, three surgeons, and 188 seamen were brought to Halifax as prisoners during the Napoleonic Wars. Though many of these prisoners were later sent to England or Bermuda, one of the surgeons (Antoine Noel) was hired to care for the prisoners, while at least sixteen other prisoners were able to escape. Melville was purchased for £1000 in 1804 (£68,634 as of 2010) by Robert Murray, appointed by the British Admiralty as prison agent; he was replaced shortly thereafter by John MacKellar. At the time, the facility had a maximum capacity of 200 prisoners. The makeshift prison was noted for discipline problems.
The land was officially renamed Melville Island in late 1804 or early 1805 in honour of Henry Dundas, Viscount Melville (who at the time had just been appointed First Lord of the Admiralty). A wooden barracks-style military prison was constructed to house common prisoners, the cornerstone of which was laid in 1808 and is today preserved as a monument, while a multi-storey building was designed to hold officers. As no exchange system was established with the French, the prison quickly became overcrowded. Some Spanish prisoners were also housed in the prison at this time.
Upon their arrival on Melville, prisoners had their name and other details recorded in an entry book. Inmates were given yellow clothing that clearly identified them as prisoners of war, and were supplied with provisions of beef, bread, potatoes and salt from a local contractor "reputed to own most of the livestock in the region". Some officers were allowed to send trade goods to Halifax, or even work in the city as domestic servants or handymen. There were also prisoner-run shops and a "small town fair" on Melville Island, frequented by British officers and residents of Halifax. Other prisoner pursuits included prison lotteries, model shipbuilding, beer-brewing, fishing, and making molasses candy. Some prisoners were known to have pets or keep chickens.
In late 1805, a group of officers broke parole and escaped; this led the garrison captain to restrict the purchase of prisoner-made goods as a means of punishment and enforcing discipline. More serious punishments included flogging or being confined to a barred hole in the prison cellar, known as the "Black Hole", with only bread and water. One of the prisoners, Pierre Poulin, stabbed another to death in April 1805, and was tried and hanged for murder in Halifax. The prisoners also maintained their own Grand Council (Grand Conseil) with which to impose discipline, though with a different focus than the British: anyone who disclosed a planned escape attempt to the guards was subject to being stoned to death (though historian Brian Cuthbertson disputes the likelihood of this claim). Escapes and attempts were frequent, and attempted escapees were regarded "with high esteem" by the other prisoners. Before 1812, approximately 130 prisoners, including 25 officers, escaped, of whom only 11 were recaptured despite advertised rewards in local newspapers. Many others were either sent to prisons in England or the West Indies, or were released after pledging allegiance to the British Crown. Approximately 1535 French prisoners were incarcerated at Melville between 1803 and 1813, and an unknown number were held during Napoleon's Hundred Days. Sixty-six Frenchmen are known to have died in the prison, ten of whom were prisoners from the Hundred Days. Nine Spanish prisoners also died during this period.
The War of 1812 brought an influx of American prisoners to Melville Island; up to 1800 at a time were housed in its barracks or on a nearby 350-person prison ship Magnet. Most of the French prisoners were released or paroled to make room for the Americans, who were seen as more of a risk. David Stickney was the first recorded American prisoner, arriving on 4 July 1812. Early in the war, many Americans were exchanged for British prisoners in Boston or Salem, Massachusetts, in an arrangement known as a "cartel"; 1981 of the captives taken before October 1812 were thus exchanged, while another seventeen, accused of killing a Canadian farmer and raping his wife, were sent to England and imprisoned. African-American captives were never considered for exchange, and were instead commonly released under the 1807 Abolition Act.
By the end of 1812, maps of the peninsula showed a marked increase in buildings: a two-story common prison, a small hospital, officers' quarters, a gunner's house, a turnkey store, fuel sheds, the agent's office and guard house, a bell house, nine sentry boxes, and four oceanside outhouses. Despite this, the facility was severely overcrowded, a problem compounded by attempts at segregating the remaining French prisoners and the few African-Americans from the majority white American population. 2078 prisoners were recorded by the end of 1812, including 1412 privateers and 572 merchant seamen. More than 3000 arrived over the next two years, including nearly 1000 soldiers captured in the Niagara area.
Accounts of prison life vary: Cuthbertson says that the prisoners were "reportedly well treated" but prisoner complaints suggested they were "wretched indeed". Because of the crowded conditions, "the authorities did everything they could to keep the prisoners quiet," including lying to them. Captured privateers were sent to England in large numbers "to harass and distress that description of prisoners". All letters sent to and by prisoners were read. Residents of the Melville prison barracks were lice-infested and slept in tier-hung hammocks (first three, and later four tiers), and their activities were more restricted than those of earlier French prisoners. A strict cleaning regimen was observed in an attempt to promote sanitary conditions, and prisoners could be sent to solitary confinement for uncleanliness. Rations were considered "robust": prisoners were given 0.45 kilograms (1 lb) each of bread and beef and a gill (0.1421 litres) of peas daily.
In October 1812, John Mitchell was appointed as an "American agent" to oversee the treatment of the American prisoners at Melville and to arrange prisoner exchanges. He gave the Americans coffee, sugar, potatoes, tobacco, newspapers, and soap, and also provided money for other purchases. Mitchell was responsible for buying clothing, but lacked the funds to meet demand: in late 1813, almost 1000 of the prisoners were shoeless, and many more had no jackets. Staff at the prison hospital attributed a tuberculosis outbreak to "want of comfortable clothing". Though Mitchell visited Melville Island regularly, he was primarily concerned with speaking to the officers, not the common prisoners. Mitchell was removed in October 1814 in retaliation for the treatment of the British prisoner agent, Thomas Barclay, by the United States government.
Despite the conditions in the prison, the Americans continued the French tradition of establishing shops within the prison. Goods sold included cigars and smuggled rum. Gambling was a popular pastime, particularly backgammon and other dice games, as well as dancing, singing, and storytelling. One prisoner was able to counterfeit Spanish coins, which found their way into the Halifax economy. On Sundays, church services were conducted and visitors were allowed, though many visiting Haligonians were United Empire Loyalists who came "to gratify their eyes ... with sight of what they called 'rebels' ".
The 320 American survivors of the capture of USS Chesapeake in 1813 were interned on Melville Island and their ship, renamed HMS Chesapeake, was used to ferry prisoners from Melville to England's Dartmoor Prison. Many officers were paroled to Halifax, but some began a riot at a performance of a patriotic song about Chesapeake's defeat. Parole restrictions were tightened: beginning in 1814, paroled officers were required to attend a monthly muster on Melville Island, and those who violated their parole were confined to the prison. After foiled escape plots in 1813 and 1814, fears of a mass escape led to increased security and a 600-prisoner transport to England. Around this time, Lieutenant William Miller, who had been in charge of the prisoners, was replaced by Captain J. Crochet; Miller had been noted for his rudeness, including one occasion when he told the prisoners to "die and be damned, as there is one hundred and fifty acres of land to bury you in, God damn you." He had also been accused of cruelty by American newspapers, though some prisoners defended him and the veracity of the media claims is questionable.
By the decommissioning, over 10,000 French, Spanish and American prisoners had been held at the prison. The majority were Americans: there were 8,148 recorded US prisoners, 3,542 of whom were privateers from the 92 such ships brought to Halifax.
Of the American prisoners held on Melville Island during the war, 195 died, mostly from fevers and pneumonia – a death rate of two per cent. Prisoners at Melville Island had a lower death rate than most British soldiers serving at frontier posts in North American and the prison's conditions were better than many those endured by British prisoners in POW camps in the United States. Most of the French and American dead were buried on nearby Deadman's Island. James Brooke suggests a burial rate of one per week. The war ended in December 1814, but news of this did not reach Melville until March 1815, during which time about fifty prisoners died. The prisoners were released to "quit Halifax at their own expense", though some were able to find berths on trade ships. All but 120 had left by mid-April; most of those remaining were hospital patients, who were sent to the Naval Hospital in Halifax in early May. Melville Island was decommissioned in May 1815, and its goods, including 1,170 hammocks, were sold at auction in Halifax.
After the decommissioning of the military prison, Melville Island was used as a receiving depot for some of the black refugees, the estimated 1600–2000 escaped slaves who arrived in Halifax between 1815 and 1818. In April 1815, seventy-six refugees were moved to Melville from the Halifax Poor House, many ill with smallpox. The refugees were given blankets, "colourful" clothing (often the uniforms of captured or demobilized soldiers), and children's shoes. Rations included pork or beef, potatoes, rice, cornmeal, molasses, spruce beer (to prevent scurvy), and sometimes coffee. To discourage men from leaving their families at the depot as they worked in Halifax, rations were only given to heads of families. Thomas Jeffery was granted a salary of £1500 (£86,655 as of 2010) for administering the depot. Eighty-two refugees died during the smallpox outbreak, and 500 were vaccinated to prevent the further spread of the disease. An increasing number passed through Melville Island on their way to Canadian settlements: between 727 and 798 are recorded from April to July 1815. Most of these found work in Halifax or moved to land grants, but some returned the following winter "when in distress". At least 107 of these refugees died on Melville Island. The province's lieutenant-governor ordered that the refugees be moved to Preston or Halifax in May 1816, and put the land up for lease to "a person of unexceptionable character", but no lease is recorded during this period. The hospital was officially closed in June 1816.
Beginning in 1818, Melville Island was used as a quarantine hospital for ill immigrants arriving in Nova Scotia. The hospital was operational for short periods in 1818, 1831, and 1846. By 1829, ten buildings were left on Melville Island, all "in a state of neglect and decay". In 1831, three doctors (Matthias Hoffman, Samuel Head and John Stirling) were paid £30 each (£2125 as of 2010) to care for patients at the quarantine hospital; a nurse later arrived as Matron, bringing with her two teenaged children. In 1847, over 1200 Irish immigrants fleeing the Irish Potato Famine were ordered quarantined on Melville Island by the Board of Health; of these, 203 were held in the "fever hospital", and 30 died. Typhus victims were also held at Melville, during which time the medical staff were not allowed to leave for fear of spreading the infection.
In 1855, Nova Scotia politician Joseph Howe developed a plan to use Melville Island as a recruitment and training centre for American soldiers to fight for the British in the Crimean War. US neutrality laws prevented Americans from participating in overseas wars, so recruiters sent to the US advertised for men to work on the Nova Scotia Railway, and faced arrest if their true purpose was discovered. Upon arrival in Halifax, the men were sent to Melville Island for enlistment and basic training. The first group of 66 men arrived on 6 April 1855, but all refused to join the British Foreign Legion. However, by the end of May there were 71 newly recruited soldiers on the peninsula, and up to 158 total had enlisted. American discontent with the project forced its abandonment in June; the Melville Island depot closed, and the recruits were sent first to Halifax and then to England. Overall the recruitment project enlisted between 500 and 700 men, mostly German and Irish nationals.
After the recruitment project ended, the Admiralty sold the land to the British army for £2800 (£204,081 as of 2010) for use as a military prison. The first 70 prisoners arrived in 1856. At this time, flogging was gradually being phased out as a punishment for military members, who were instead imprisoned under the Mutiny Act of 1844; the purchase of Melville Island allowed these prisoners to be removed from the overcrowded Halifax Citadel. A 22-man military guard supervised the prisoners, who were subjected to hard labour: the chief warder imported 500 tonnes (492 long tons; 551 short tons) of granite from Purcell's Cove for them to break. Punishments included solitary confinement or "shot drill", where an inmate was made to carry 11-kilogram (24 lb) cannonballs from one end of the yard to the other. A new 34-cell prison building was constructed in 1884 to alleviate overcrowding. There were some escape attempts during this period, the most violent of which involved the stone hammers used to break stone being repurposed as projectiles and weapons.
British officers from the Halifax garrison conducted inspections of the prison four times per year, and maintenance was carried out either by the prisoners themselves or by soldiers from the Halifax garrison. The prison also housed a schoolroom and chapel, both staffed by army personnel. A new stone prison was built before 1905 next to the older wooden barracks, as well as housing for warders and their families. The new building alleviated reported problems with lack of lighting and ventilation in the previous structure. In December of that year, the Canadian Permanent Force took over wardenship of the prison, at which time there were three remaining prisoners. The land was granted to the Canadian Government as the British left Nova Scotia in 1907. The name was changed in 1909 from "military prison" to "detention barracks", reflecting a shift in attitude towards incarcerated military personnel: inmates were known as detainees, not prisoners, and after their discharge from the military they maintained no permanent criminal record.
When the First World War began in 1914, Canadian police were given the ability to detain German and Austro-Hungarian nationals, and incarcerate any who refused to agree not to support their homelands in the war. In September, the Spanish ship Monserrat carrying a large number (about 80) of men en route to Germany to report for military service was intercepted by HMS Glory, which brought the ship to Halifax Harbour. Once there, the Germans aboard were taken to Melville Island with a garrison guard, interrogated, and imprisoned under the supervision of the detention barracks staff. Over the next several months, more German nationals were brought to Melville, detained either by British ships or by Canadian police forces. Escape attempts began in October, and a procedure to count prisoners twice daily was instituted in an attempt to prevent them. The anglophone guards often could not communicate with the prisoners or even pronounce their names, resorting to nicknames and complicating efforts in prisoner management. Repairs were made to the prison buildings after several inmates escaped by sawing a hole through the floor of the wooden barracks.
Initially there was no system in place to allow prisoners to send letters; censorship arrangements were made through the Dominion Police in Ottawa, and the American Consul was designated a representative for prisoner welfare. As the war progressed, groups of detainees were transferred to and from other prisons according to their behaviour or level of risk and the number of inmates per institution. After the 1917 Halifax Explosion, prisoners were transferred to the 800-man Amherst Internment Camp at Amherst, Nova Scotia. One of the prisoners transferred may have been Leon Trotsky, although this is disputed.
On 10 April 1935, a fire completely destroyed the old wooden prison barracks, so when the Second World War began in 1939, the remaining prisoners and guards were sent to McNab's Island. Melville Island was used first to confine deserters from the army, then from 1941 as a temporary storage facility for Canadian Army ammunition depots. When VE Day caused riots in downtown Halifax, there were rumours of a plan to break into the depots and deploy hand grenades; a trooper squad was sent to guard against this possibility, but no "invasion" occurred.
After the end of the Second World War, military activities on Melville ended; the land was initially awarded to the Naval Sailors Association, a decision that prompted some disagreement among members of Parliament. Haligonians pushed for the area to be repurposed for recreation, partially due to anxieties about its use as a storage facility for potentially toxic chemicals. In 1947, the Canadian Army leased Melville Island to the Armdale Yacht Club for C$1 per year. The club demolished some of the buildings, renovated and expanded others, widened the road, and filled in a new embankment for boating. Further renovations were done in 1952 and the 1960s, adding verandahs to the two clubhouses (one of which dates to 1808 and was used as a warden's house) and remodelling their interiors. Though the club's lease was initially year-to-year, in 1956 it began a 99-year lease from the Department of National Defence. The club dredged Melville Cove, added a "marine railway", and created a large marina, at which dozens of boats are now docked.
During certain periods, Melville Island was a social destination for Halifax residents. Haligonians visited the "town fair" run by French inmates during the Napoleonic period. The peninsula was called a "great resort of the ladies of Halifax" by an 1855 newspaper. However, from the beginning of the First World War to 1947, visitors to Melville were restricted. Though it was re-opened with the arrival of the Armdale Yacht Club, the area's history was largely forgotten until the 2000 establishment of Deadman's Island Park on the adjacent peninsula. Since then, the site has become a tourist attraction, though its historicity is limited by the land's current use as a marina. A model made from beef and pork bones by French prisoners and a cell key to Melville Island are preserved at the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic in Halifax.
The peninsula has also been the subject of artistic and literary treatments. A number of writings by Melville prisoners have been preserved, including a diary by François-Lambert Bourneuf and an account credited to Benjamin Waterhouse (though historians are unsure of its true authorship). Politician Joseph Howe wrote a poem describing its use as a military prison (See Poem). The site's history has been the subject of a book by Brian Cuthbertson, and another by Iris Shea and Heather Watts. The prison is the subject of a painting held by the UK National Trust and a Nova Scotian folk song, among other cultural works. | <urn:uuid:a44af32c-27f2-4011-90de-def32f1dad24> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wikiredia.info/wiki/Melville_Island_(Nova_Scotia) | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00309.warc.gz | en | 0.981589 | 5,472 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.620410561561... | 1 | Melville Island is a small peninsula in Nova Scotia, Canada, located in the Northwest Arm of Halifax Harbour, west of Deadman's Island. It is part of the Halifax Regional Municipality. The land is rocky, with thin, acidic soil, but supports a limited woodland habitat.
The site was discovered by Europeans in the 17th century, though it was likely earlier explored by aboriginals. It was initially used for storehouses before being purchased by the British, who built a prisoner-of-war camp to hold captives from the Napoleonic Wars and later the War of 1812. The burial ground for prisoners was on the adjacent Deadman's Island.
Later, Melville Island was used as a receiving depot for black refugees escaping slavery in the United States, then as a quarantine hospital for immigrants arriving from Europe (particularly Ireland). It briefly served as a recruitment centre for the British Foreign Legion during the Crimean War, and was then sold to the British for use as a military prison. In 1907 the land was granted to the Canadian government, which used it to detain German and Austro-Hungarian nationals during the First World War. During the Second World War, prisoners were sent to McNabs Island instead, and ammunition depots were kept on Melville Island.
The peninsula now houses the clubhouse and marina of the Armdale Yacht Club. Melville Island has been the subject of a number of cultural works, most of which concern its use as a prison.
Melville Island is part of the Halifax Regional Municipality, on the southeast coast of Nova Scotia. The peninsula lies on the eastern boundary of Melville Cove in the Northwest Arm, an inlet between the Halifax Peninsula and Mainland Halifax. It has a total area of approximately 2,000 square metres (22,000 sq ft). Melville Island is 200 metres (660 ft) west of Deadman's Island, and southeast of Regatta Point. The peninsula lies on a fracture zone trending northwest–southeast, and is located at the border between the Halifax Slate Formation and a granite-based formation. There is evidence of glacial scouring in the area. The surrounding seabed ranges from gravel to muddy gravel, and the shore is rocky.
The water surrounding Melville Island is salty and ranges from 15 °C (59 °F) in summer to partially or completely frozen in winter. The water is polluted by sewage discharges from Halifax and is considered heavily contaminated. Water colour ranges from olive brown to greenish black, with little current. The water depth around Melville Island is 4.5 to 10.5 metres (15 to 34 ft).
The peninsula features thin and acidic soil, and hosts plants like witherod, Indian pear, Labrador tea, wintergreen, and blueberry shrubs. It is a woodland area, with birch, tamarack, maple, oak, beech, and white pine trees. Given the development of the land by the Armdale Yacht Club, plant growth is now largely limited to the hill on which the main clubhouse sits; most of the peninsula was paved in 1971. Fish caught from Melville Island include cod and mackerel. Local birds include grebes, loons, and alcids.
There is no weather monitoring station on Melville Island (the closest is the Halifax dockyards); however, as with most of the surrounding area, Melville has a humid continental climate heavily influenced by the water temperature in Halifax Harbour. Average air temperatures range from −4.4 °C (24.1 °F) in January to 18.9 °C (66.0 °F) in August. It receives about 1,500 mm (59 in) of precipitation per year, and may receive snow from October through April. Though the area is fairly sheltered, it is subject to damage from hurricanes and other storms, notably Hurricane Juan in 2003.
Though the Halifax area was settled by aboriginals, particularly the Mi'kmaq people, as early as 7000 BC, there is no archaeological evidence of native habitation on Melville Island prior to the arrival of the Europeans. The first Europeans to reach the land were likely French traders and missionaries in the 17th century. Halifax was founded by the British in 1749. The first documented use of Melville Island was by Robert Cowie and John Aubony, who obtained a Crown grant in 1752 to allow them to build a storehouse. After Cowie's death in 1781, John Butler Kelly purchased what was then known as Cowie's Island and quickly resold it in 1784 to James Kavanagh, the head of a prosperous family fishery, for £65. Kavanagh used the land, known as Kavanagh's Island according to the then-prevalent tradition of place naming, to dry and store fish that he would then sell from his Halifax store.
After the 1793 beheading of Louis XVI sparked a war between Britain and France (see the French Revolutionary Wars), Nova Scotia Governor John Wentworth rented Kavanagh's Island to house 600 French prisoners that had been captured on St. Pierre and Miquelon. The commander of the Halifax garrison, Brigadier General James Ogilvie, objected to the plan, and instead housed the prisoners at Cornwallis Barracks in Halifax. Several prisoners were able to escape from the makeshift prison, and the rest were sent to Guernsey in June 1794.
In August 1794, a French ship captured in St. Domingo arrived in Halifax. A plan to house these prisoners in Halifax met with opposition from the citizenry because of a fear of "fever"; indeed, surgeon John Halliburton suggested that if the plan was carried out, "the popular would burn down [the housing] with the sick prisoners inside". Halliburton rented Kavanagh's Island, likely on the suggestion of Governor John Wentworth, and by June 1795 had sent 70 sick and wounded prisoners to its makeshift prison hospital. The other prisoners were kept on the prison ship La Felix. Sixteen soldiers of the Royal Nova Scotia Regiment acted as guards for the hospital beginning in 1796. Because of overcrowding aboard La Felix, some of its prisoners were allowed to live in Halifax, where some created such a disturbance that they were sent to Kavanagh's Island to be imprisoned. In 1801, the Treaty of Amiens resulted in most of the prisoners being returned to France, and the site was abandoned.
The site was formally leased for prisoner housing in 1803 after fifteen French fishermen, three surgeons, and 188 seamen were brought to Halifax as prisoners during the Napoleonic Wars. Though many of these prisoners were later sent to England or Bermuda, one of the surgeons (Antoine Noel) was hired to care for the prisoners, while at least sixteen other prisoners were able to escape. Melville was purchased for £1000 in 1804 (£68,634 as of 2010) by Robert Murray, appointed by the British Admiralty as prison agent; he was replaced shortly thereafter by John MacKellar. At the time, the facility had a maximum capacity of 200 prisoners. The makeshift prison was noted for discipline problems.
The land was officially renamed Melville Island in late 1804 or early 1805 in honour of Henry Dundas, Viscount Melville (who at the time had just been appointed First Lord of the Admiralty). A wooden barracks-style military prison was constructed to house common prisoners, the cornerstone of which was laid in 1808 and is today preserved as a monument, while a multi-storey building was designed to hold officers. As no exchange system was established with the French, the prison quickly became overcrowded. Some Spanish prisoners were also housed in the prison at this time.
Upon their arrival on Melville, prisoners had their name and other details recorded in an entry book. Inmates were given yellow clothing that clearly identified them as prisoners of war, and were supplied with provisions of beef, bread, potatoes and salt from a local contractor "reputed to own most of the livestock in the region". Some officers were allowed to send trade goods to Halifax, or even work in the city as domestic servants or handymen. There were also prisoner-run shops and a "small town fair" on Melville Island, frequented by British officers and residents of Halifax. Other prisoner pursuits included prison lotteries, model shipbuilding, beer-brewing, fishing, and making molasses candy. Some prisoners were known to have pets or keep chickens.
In late 1805, a group of officers broke parole and escaped; this led the garrison captain to restrict the purchase of prisoner-made goods as a means of punishment and enforcing discipline. More serious punishments included flogging or being confined to a barred hole in the prison cellar, known as the "Black Hole", with only bread and water. One of the prisoners, Pierre Poulin, stabbed another to death in April 1805, and was tried and hanged for murder in Halifax. The prisoners also maintained their own Grand Council (Grand Conseil) with which to impose discipline, though with a different focus than the British: anyone who disclosed a planned escape attempt to the guards was subject to being stoned to death (though historian Brian Cuthbertson disputes the likelihood of this claim). Escapes and attempts were frequent, and attempted escapees were regarded "with high esteem" by the other prisoners. Before 1812, approximately 130 prisoners, including 25 officers, escaped, of whom only 11 were recaptured despite advertised rewards in local newspapers. Many others were either sent to prisons in England or the West Indies, or were released after pledging allegiance to the British Crown. Approximately 1535 French prisoners were incarcerated at Melville between 1803 and 1813, and an unknown number were held during Napoleon's Hundred Days. Sixty-six Frenchmen are known to have died in the prison, ten of whom were prisoners from the Hundred Days. Nine Spanish prisoners also died during this period.
The War of 1812 brought an influx of American prisoners to Melville Island; up to 1800 at a time were housed in its barracks or on a nearby 350-person prison ship Magnet. Most of the French prisoners were released or paroled to make room for the Americans, who were seen as more of a risk. David Stickney was the first recorded American prisoner, arriving on 4 July 1812. Early in the war, many Americans were exchanged for British prisoners in Boston or Salem, Massachusetts, in an arrangement known as a "cartel"; 1981 of the captives taken before October 1812 were thus exchanged, while another seventeen, accused of killing a Canadian farmer and raping his wife, were sent to England and imprisoned. African-American captives were never considered for exchange, and were instead commonly released under the 1807 Abolition Act.
By the end of 1812, maps of the peninsula showed a marked increase in buildings: a two-story common prison, a small hospital, officers' quarters, a gunner's house, a turnkey store, fuel sheds, the agent's office and guard house, a bell house, nine sentry boxes, and four oceanside outhouses. Despite this, the facility was severely overcrowded, a problem compounded by attempts at segregating the remaining French prisoners and the few African-Americans from the majority white American population. 2078 prisoners were recorded by the end of 1812, including 1412 privateers and 572 merchant seamen. More than 3000 arrived over the next two years, including nearly 1000 soldiers captured in the Niagara area.
Accounts of prison life vary: Cuthbertson says that the prisoners were "reportedly well treated" but prisoner complaints suggested they were "wretched indeed". Because of the crowded conditions, "the authorities did everything they could to keep the prisoners quiet," including lying to them. Captured privateers were sent to England in large numbers "to harass and distress that description of prisoners". All letters sent to and by prisoners were read. Residents of the Melville prison barracks were lice-infested and slept in tier-hung hammocks (first three, and later four tiers), and their activities were more restricted than those of earlier French prisoners. A strict cleaning regimen was observed in an attempt to promote sanitary conditions, and prisoners could be sent to solitary confinement for uncleanliness. Rations were considered "robust": prisoners were given 0.45 kilograms (1 lb) each of bread and beef and a gill (0.1421 litres) of peas daily.
In October 1812, John Mitchell was appointed as an "American agent" to oversee the treatment of the American prisoners at Melville and to arrange prisoner exchanges. He gave the Americans coffee, sugar, potatoes, tobacco, newspapers, and soap, and also provided money for other purchases. Mitchell was responsible for buying clothing, but lacked the funds to meet demand: in late 1813, almost 1000 of the prisoners were shoeless, and many more had no jackets. Staff at the prison hospital attributed a tuberculosis outbreak to "want of comfortable clothing". Though Mitchell visited Melville Island regularly, he was primarily concerned with speaking to the officers, not the common prisoners. Mitchell was removed in October 1814 in retaliation for the treatment of the British prisoner agent, Thomas Barclay, by the United States government.
Despite the conditions in the prison, the Americans continued the French tradition of establishing shops within the prison. Goods sold included cigars and smuggled rum. Gambling was a popular pastime, particularly backgammon and other dice games, as well as dancing, singing, and storytelling. One prisoner was able to counterfeit Spanish coins, which found their way into the Halifax economy. On Sundays, church services were conducted and visitors were allowed, though many visiting Haligonians were United Empire Loyalists who came "to gratify their eyes ... with sight of what they called 'rebels' ".
The 320 American survivors of the capture of USS Chesapeake in 1813 were interned on Melville Island and their ship, renamed HMS Chesapeake, was used to ferry prisoners from Melville to England's Dartmoor Prison. Many officers were paroled to Halifax, but some began a riot at a performance of a patriotic song about Chesapeake's defeat. Parole restrictions were tightened: beginning in 1814, paroled officers were required to attend a monthly muster on Melville Island, and those who violated their parole were confined to the prison. After foiled escape plots in 1813 and 1814, fears of a mass escape led to increased security and a 600-prisoner transport to England. Around this time, Lieutenant William Miller, who had been in charge of the prisoners, was replaced by Captain J. Crochet; Miller had been noted for his rudeness, including one occasion when he told the prisoners to "die and be damned, as there is one hundred and fifty acres of land to bury you in, God damn you." He had also been accused of cruelty by American newspapers, though some prisoners defended him and the veracity of the media claims is questionable.
By the decommissioning, over 10,000 French, Spanish and American prisoners had been held at the prison. The majority were Americans: there were 8,148 recorded US prisoners, 3,542 of whom were privateers from the 92 such ships brought to Halifax.
Of the American prisoners held on Melville Island during the war, 195 died, mostly from fevers and pneumonia – a death rate of two per cent. Prisoners at Melville Island had a lower death rate than most British soldiers serving at frontier posts in North American and the prison's conditions were better than many those endured by British prisoners in POW camps in the United States. Most of the French and American dead were buried on nearby Deadman's Island. James Brooke suggests a burial rate of one per week. The war ended in December 1814, but news of this did not reach Melville until March 1815, during which time about fifty prisoners died. The prisoners were released to "quit Halifax at their own expense", though some were able to find berths on trade ships. All but 120 had left by mid-April; most of those remaining were hospital patients, who were sent to the Naval Hospital in Halifax in early May. Melville Island was decommissioned in May 1815, and its goods, including 1,170 hammocks, were sold at auction in Halifax.
After the decommissioning of the military prison, Melville Island was used as a receiving depot for some of the black refugees, the estimated 1600–2000 escaped slaves who arrived in Halifax between 1815 and 1818. In April 1815, seventy-six refugees were moved to Melville from the Halifax Poor House, many ill with smallpox. The refugees were given blankets, "colourful" clothing (often the uniforms of captured or demobilized soldiers), and children's shoes. Rations included pork or beef, potatoes, rice, cornmeal, molasses, spruce beer (to prevent scurvy), and sometimes coffee. To discourage men from leaving their families at the depot as they worked in Halifax, rations were only given to heads of families. Thomas Jeffery was granted a salary of £1500 (£86,655 as of 2010) for administering the depot. Eighty-two refugees died during the smallpox outbreak, and 500 were vaccinated to prevent the further spread of the disease. An increasing number passed through Melville Island on their way to Canadian settlements: between 727 and 798 are recorded from April to July 1815. Most of these found work in Halifax or moved to land grants, but some returned the following winter "when in distress". At least 107 of these refugees died on Melville Island. The province's lieutenant-governor ordered that the refugees be moved to Preston or Halifax in May 1816, and put the land up for lease to "a person of unexceptionable character", but no lease is recorded during this period. The hospital was officially closed in June 1816.
Beginning in 1818, Melville Island was used as a quarantine hospital for ill immigrants arriving in Nova Scotia. The hospital was operational for short periods in 1818, 1831, and 1846. By 1829, ten buildings were left on Melville Island, all "in a state of neglect and decay". In 1831, three doctors (Matthias Hoffman, Samuel Head and John Stirling) were paid £30 each (£2125 as of 2010) to care for patients at the quarantine hospital; a nurse later arrived as Matron, bringing with her two teenaged children. In 1847, over 1200 Irish immigrants fleeing the Irish Potato Famine were ordered quarantined on Melville Island by the Board of Health; of these, 203 were held in the "fever hospital", and 30 died. Typhus victims were also held at Melville, during which time the medical staff were not allowed to leave for fear of spreading the infection.
In 1855, Nova Scotia politician Joseph Howe developed a plan to use Melville Island as a recruitment and training centre for American soldiers to fight for the British in the Crimean War. US neutrality laws prevented Americans from participating in overseas wars, so recruiters sent to the US advertised for men to work on the Nova Scotia Railway, and faced arrest if their true purpose was discovered. Upon arrival in Halifax, the men were sent to Melville Island for enlistment and basic training. The first group of 66 men arrived on 6 April 1855, but all refused to join the British Foreign Legion. However, by the end of May there were 71 newly recruited soldiers on the peninsula, and up to 158 total had enlisted. American discontent with the project forced its abandonment in June; the Melville Island depot closed, and the recruits were sent first to Halifax and then to England. Overall the recruitment project enlisted between 500 and 700 men, mostly German and Irish nationals.
After the recruitment project ended, the Admiralty sold the land to the British army for £2800 (£204,081 as of 2010) for use as a military prison. The first 70 prisoners arrived in 1856. At this time, flogging was gradually being phased out as a punishment for military members, who were instead imprisoned under the Mutiny Act of 1844; the purchase of Melville Island allowed these prisoners to be removed from the overcrowded Halifax Citadel. A 22-man military guard supervised the prisoners, who were subjected to hard labour: the chief warder imported 500 tonnes (492 long tons; 551 short tons) of granite from Purcell's Cove for them to break. Punishments included solitary confinement or "shot drill", where an inmate was made to carry 11-kilogram (24 lb) cannonballs from one end of the yard to the other. A new 34-cell prison building was constructed in 1884 to alleviate overcrowding. There were some escape attempts during this period, the most violent of which involved the stone hammers used to break stone being repurposed as projectiles and weapons.
British officers from the Halifax garrison conducted inspections of the prison four times per year, and maintenance was carried out either by the prisoners themselves or by soldiers from the Halifax garrison. The prison also housed a schoolroom and chapel, both staffed by army personnel. A new stone prison was built before 1905 next to the older wooden barracks, as well as housing for warders and their families. The new building alleviated reported problems with lack of lighting and ventilation in the previous structure. In December of that year, the Canadian Permanent Force took over wardenship of the prison, at which time there were three remaining prisoners. The land was granted to the Canadian Government as the British left Nova Scotia in 1907. The name was changed in 1909 from "military prison" to "detention barracks", reflecting a shift in attitude towards incarcerated military personnel: inmates were known as detainees, not prisoners, and after their discharge from the military they maintained no permanent criminal record.
When the First World War began in 1914, Canadian police were given the ability to detain German and Austro-Hungarian nationals, and incarcerate any who refused to agree not to support their homelands in the war. In September, the Spanish ship Monserrat carrying a large number (about 80) of men en route to Germany to report for military service was intercepted by HMS Glory, which brought the ship to Halifax Harbour. Once there, the Germans aboard were taken to Melville Island with a garrison guard, interrogated, and imprisoned under the supervision of the detention barracks staff. Over the next several months, more German nationals were brought to Melville, detained either by British ships or by Canadian police forces. Escape attempts began in October, and a procedure to count prisoners twice daily was instituted in an attempt to prevent them. The anglophone guards often could not communicate with the prisoners or even pronounce their names, resorting to nicknames and complicating efforts in prisoner management. Repairs were made to the prison buildings after several inmates escaped by sawing a hole through the floor of the wooden barracks.
Initially there was no system in place to allow prisoners to send letters; censorship arrangements were made through the Dominion Police in Ottawa, and the American Consul was designated a representative for prisoner welfare. As the war progressed, groups of detainees were transferred to and from other prisons according to their behaviour or level of risk and the number of inmates per institution. After the 1917 Halifax Explosion, prisoners were transferred to the 800-man Amherst Internment Camp at Amherst, Nova Scotia. One of the prisoners transferred may have been Leon Trotsky, although this is disputed.
On 10 April 1935, a fire completely destroyed the old wooden prison barracks, so when the Second World War began in 1939, the remaining prisoners and guards were sent to McNab's Island. Melville Island was used first to confine deserters from the army, then from 1941 as a temporary storage facility for Canadian Army ammunition depots. When VE Day caused riots in downtown Halifax, there were rumours of a plan to break into the depots and deploy hand grenades; a trooper squad was sent to guard against this possibility, but no "invasion" occurred.
After the end of the Second World War, military activities on Melville ended; the land was initially awarded to the Naval Sailors Association, a decision that prompted some disagreement among members of Parliament. Haligonians pushed for the area to be repurposed for recreation, partially due to anxieties about its use as a storage facility for potentially toxic chemicals. In 1947, the Canadian Army leased Melville Island to the Armdale Yacht Club for C$1 per year. The club demolished some of the buildings, renovated and expanded others, widened the road, and filled in a new embankment for boating. Further renovations were done in 1952 and the 1960s, adding verandahs to the two clubhouses (one of which dates to 1808 and was used as a warden's house) and remodelling their interiors. Though the club's lease was initially year-to-year, in 1956 it began a 99-year lease from the Department of National Defence. The club dredged Melville Cove, added a "marine railway", and created a large marina, at which dozens of boats are now docked.
During certain periods, Melville Island was a social destination for Halifax residents. Haligonians visited the "town fair" run by French inmates during the Napoleonic period. The peninsula was called a "great resort of the ladies of Halifax" by an 1855 newspaper. However, from the beginning of the First World War to 1947, visitors to Melville were restricted. Though it was re-opened with the arrival of the Armdale Yacht Club, the area's history was largely forgotten until the 2000 establishment of Deadman's Island Park on the adjacent peninsula. Since then, the site has become a tourist attraction, though its historicity is limited by the land's current use as a marina. A model made from beef and pork bones by French prisoners and a cell key to Melville Island are preserved at the Maritime Museum of the Atlantic in Halifax.
The peninsula has also been the subject of artistic and literary treatments. A number of writings by Melville prisoners have been preserved, including a diary by François-Lambert Bourneuf and an account credited to Benjamin Waterhouse (though historians are unsure of its true authorship). Politician Joseph Howe wrote a poem describing its use as a military prison (See Poem). The site's history has been the subject of a book by Brian Cuthbertson, and another by Iris Shea and Heather Watts. The prison is the subject of a painting held by the UK National Trust and a Nova Scotian folk song, among other cultural works. | 5,885 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Currently, in Literacy essential class, we’re learning about Ancient Civilization; as in history while learning literature as well. The historical contents that we’re focusing on are The First Civilizations, Ancient Egypt and African societies, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome and Roman Empire and World Religions. The literacy skills that we are going to get out of this unit are:
- Citing textual evidence from informative text
- Writing and responding about informative texts
- Independent research project on an aspect of culture from an ancient civilization
- Rhetorical arrangement and language of informative texts
- Mini-grammar lessons using unit texts
- Vocabulary Decoding and Discovery
For the past weeks of this unit, we have been doing a Greek Mythology Layered Project as our final product. One of the project was to write a research report on one of the 12 Greek Olympian gods and goddesses. I have randomly assigned to research on Apollo, the god of light and music. In the report, we are assigned to write 7-paragraph informational report on the god that we are assigned.
Here is the report that I wrote for the god, Apollo.
Apollo is one of the most complex and important gods in Greek mythology, and is the god of many things, including: music, art oracles, archery, medicine, sun, plague, light and knowledge. He is the son of Zeus and the Tita Leto, and was born in Greek island of Delos along with his older twin sister Artemis – goddess of the hunt. Apollo is a wise god and his myths describe him as a cheerful and light-hearted individual. Since Apollo was a musical talent filled with poetic words; as poems are often set to music, he was considered as the god of Music and Poetry.
The lyre which is perhaps his most well-known symbol signifying that he is the god of music. Another role Apollo had in Greek myth was to bring the sun to earth each day. According to the Greek myth, each morning Apollo rides a golden flaming chariot across the sky bringing daylight to the world. In the evening his twin, Artemis, rides her own chariot across the sky bringing darkness. He also considered as the god of healing and medicine, either through himself or through his son Asclepius. He could also bring disease and plague with his arrows; the god that can cause disease is also able to prevent it. In addition to that, Apollo taught men the art of medicine, so he is often referred to as “The Healer.” Predominantly, Apollo is alternately referred to as the God of Light and the God of Truth and because of his truthfulness and integrity, he was granted the gift of prophecy and oracles, meaning that he could look into the future but it wasn’t always a guarantee.
Apollo has his father and mother Zeus, the king of Gods and the Titaness Leto on the Greek island of Delos, conceived during Zeus’s marriage to Hera; his twin sister Artimis and his half sister Eilityia, Eris, Hebe, and Perseophone, but that is not half of Apollo’s family. He also has his half brothers, Ares, Dinoysus, Hephaestus, Hercules, and Herme. Apollo only has three cousins as well Arion, Desopena, and Trition. He also had paternal grandparents Cronus and Rhea along with his two wonderful great-grandparents Ouranos and Gaea. Apollo was not lucky in love. His first love was Daphne, and Eros, the god of sexual attraction caused problem with this relationship. Eros shot a golden love arrow into Apollo’s heart, and an anti-love one into Daphne’s. Apollo passionately chased after Daphne but she was scared so she prayed to her father, Peneus, the river god, for help; he turned her into a laurel tree. Apollo was truly still loved her, so he the made the laurel a sacred tree. Apollo also has a love affair for Cassandra, who he promised to give her the power of prophecy if she would comply with his desires. She accepted the proposal, received the gift, and then refused Apollo her favours and so Apollo took revenge on her by decreed that nobody would believe her. People believed that she was a madwoman. Apollo fell in love with another beautiful young woman who became pregnant with his child. Apollo assigned a white raven to spy on Cornonis, and the raven reported back that she was cheating on him. Apollo has Coronis killed and later regretted this act, but he luckily snatched the unborn child from her naming him Asclepius, who later became the god of healing and medicine. Apollo also suffered when he fell in love with a man, Hyacinth, son of the Kind of Sparta. Greek man of this time period had open gay relationships; one day they had a discus throwing match, and Apollo accidently killed Hyacinth in such tragedy. Apollo did not marry anybody, but Apollo was a bisexual person. He slept with a lot of men just for the pleasure of it but he did have four kids, Asclepius, Troilus, Aristaeus, Orpheus, even though he wasn’t married.
Apollo’s mother, Leto, was the goddess of motherhood. She seduced Zeus and became pregnant with twins, but Hera was furious over the affair and made sure that Leto was unable to find a shelter to give birth. Hera even kept her own daughter, Eileithyia, from helping Leto give birth, as she was the goddess of childbirth. Zeus felt terrible for the pain and suffering Leto was going through; out of pity for Leto, Zeus turned her into a quail so she could safely give birth to their children. Leto searched all over Greece until she found a small island known as Delos. Hera was unable to stop Leto from settling on the island as it was being blown by the wind and moved by the waves. Leto suffered for nine days and nine nights with terrible labor pains. On the tenth day, she went to a small lake and leaned up against a palm tree. She gave birth alone ot Artemis who would become the Greek goddess of the hunt. But Artemis immediately took on a new role and assisted her mother in the birth of her brother Apollo. He was fed on nectar and ambrosia and quickly grew to manhood.
There are only a few descriptions of Apollo in literature that we can form an imagination to give us a good idea of what he looked like. In artistic representations of the god, he is always depicted as the ideal of kouros, which mean a young, athletic and a physically handsome man with golden hair and beardless; with a crown of laurel wreath of his head. There are many symbols associated with Apollo, including his silver bow and arrows represent the myth where he defeated the monster Phython. Apollo is also the god of plagues and is known for shooting plague arrows at the enemy during the Trojan war. The lyre which is perhaps his most well-known symbol signifying that he is the god of music. In the ancient myths the god Hermes gifted Apollo the lyre in exchange for the rod of health. Apollo’s lyre has the power to cause things like stones to become musical instruments.
The raven is a symbol of Apollo’s anger. At one time the raven was a white bird but after delivering bad news to the god he turned all ravens black. The bird had the bad news of having to let Apollo know his lover Coronis was being unfaithful. The rays of light that radiate from his head along with the wreath he wears are both meant to symbolize that he is the god of the sun. Lastly, the branch of laurels was actually something Apollo wore as a sign of his love for the demigod Daphne.
There was a temple built in Apollo’s honor, it was often filled with people who were hoping to beg Apollo to use his gifts, particularly to help foretell their futures. But some said there were two reasons why people came to Apollo’s temple, to consult with his oracle, and to be purified after commiting a crime. Apollo’s sanctuary was where the Oracle Delphi dwelt. Oracle of Delphi is his assistant who help with the prophetic side of his nature, who could foretell the future. This temple was known to be the center of the entire world. It was a spot where Apollo offered advice and wisdom to those who seek through the oracle. The importance of this temple in the ancient world was as a place of guaranteed peace, where leaders from all over the known world – representatives of the Greek city-states, Cretans, Macedonians and even Persians – could come together, even if they were warring elsewhere, to celebrate the Pythian Games (one of the four Panhellenic Games of Ancient Greece), to make offerings and consult the Oracle.
There is a myth teeling Apollo became known as the god of music. It begins by describing a Python who lived on Mount Parnassus, he is lethal, killing anyone who crossed him. Four days, after Apollo born, he was strong and able. He had been given a silver bow with golden arrows for the blacksmith Hephaestus. Apollo wanted to seek revenge on Python for every he had done to the Greeks, including chasing his mother while she was pregnant. Apollo went to the Phython’s cave and shot an arrow at the Python and it pierced him in the forehead. The Python screamed in pain so loudly that all Greece heard it, but he couldn’t save himself but succumbed to his jury. Apollo celebrated his victory by playing a song using his lyre for everyone to hear. The song was so perfect that it earned him the title of god of music.
Although Apollo was Zeus’s favorite son, and next to Zeus, the most important god, he personally has some lack of emotional depth. Apollo is not aware that anything besides thought can give life meaning. He need to live in the moment, feel sensations, explore his feeling, and have outer experiences like Dionysus. It would be easy to do this through music and dance, as Apollo has already achieved his expertise. He must learn to follow his heart, and move beyond the boundaries of his thinking world. After all, Apollo is still one of the powerful 12 Olympian gods. Follow by his forename, Phoebus, means “bright” or “pure” and connects him to his grandmother, the Titan Phoebe. He served many roles in mythology such as bringing the sun to each new day, predicting the future, and he was also the god of music, and healing. Like all gods, he certainly led a colorful existence. | <urn:uuid:8633c70e-fb91-4ac5-b5cb-f3acc897c0d6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://soliday.ligeracademyblog.org/category/my-liger-learning/essential-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00001.warc.gz | en | 0.98817 | 2,253 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.503883838653564... | 5 | Currently, in Literacy essential class, we’re learning about Ancient Civilization; as in history while learning literature as well. The historical contents that we’re focusing on are The First Civilizations, Ancient Egypt and African societies, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome and Roman Empire and World Religions. The literacy skills that we are going to get out of this unit are:
- Citing textual evidence from informative text
- Writing and responding about informative texts
- Independent research project on an aspect of culture from an ancient civilization
- Rhetorical arrangement and language of informative texts
- Mini-grammar lessons using unit texts
- Vocabulary Decoding and Discovery
For the past weeks of this unit, we have been doing a Greek Mythology Layered Project as our final product. One of the project was to write a research report on one of the 12 Greek Olympian gods and goddesses. I have randomly assigned to research on Apollo, the god of light and music. In the report, we are assigned to write 7-paragraph informational report on the god that we are assigned.
Here is the report that I wrote for the god, Apollo.
Apollo is one of the most complex and important gods in Greek mythology, and is the god of many things, including: music, art oracles, archery, medicine, sun, plague, light and knowledge. He is the son of Zeus and the Tita Leto, and was born in Greek island of Delos along with his older twin sister Artemis – goddess of the hunt. Apollo is a wise god and his myths describe him as a cheerful and light-hearted individual. Since Apollo was a musical talent filled with poetic words; as poems are often set to music, he was considered as the god of Music and Poetry.
The lyre which is perhaps his most well-known symbol signifying that he is the god of music. Another role Apollo had in Greek myth was to bring the sun to earth each day. According to the Greek myth, each morning Apollo rides a golden flaming chariot across the sky bringing daylight to the world. In the evening his twin, Artemis, rides her own chariot across the sky bringing darkness. He also considered as the god of healing and medicine, either through himself or through his son Asclepius. He could also bring disease and plague with his arrows; the god that can cause disease is also able to prevent it. In addition to that, Apollo taught men the art of medicine, so he is often referred to as “The Healer.” Predominantly, Apollo is alternately referred to as the God of Light and the God of Truth and because of his truthfulness and integrity, he was granted the gift of prophecy and oracles, meaning that he could look into the future but it wasn’t always a guarantee.
Apollo has his father and mother Zeus, the king of Gods and the Titaness Leto on the Greek island of Delos, conceived during Zeus’s marriage to Hera; his twin sister Artimis and his half sister Eilityia, Eris, Hebe, and Perseophone, but that is not half of Apollo’s family. He also has his half brothers, Ares, Dinoysus, Hephaestus, Hercules, and Herme. Apollo only has three cousins as well Arion, Desopena, and Trition. He also had paternal grandparents Cronus and Rhea along with his two wonderful great-grandparents Ouranos and Gaea. Apollo was not lucky in love. His first love was Daphne, and Eros, the god of sexual attraction caused problem with this relationship. Eros shot a golden love arrow into Apollo’s heart, and an anti-love one into Daphne’s. Apollo passionately chased after Daphne but she was scared so she prayed to her father, Peneus, the river god, for help; he turned her into a laurel tree. Apollo was truly still loved her, so he the made the laurel a sacred tree. Apollo also has a love affair for Cassandra, who he promised to give her the power of prophecy if she would comply with his desires. She accepted the proposal, received the gift, and then refused Apollo her favours and so Apollo took revenge on her by decreed that nobody would believe her. People believed that she was a madwoman. Apollo fell in love with another beautiful young woman who became pregnant with his child. Apollo assigned a white raven to spy on Cornonis, and the raven reported back that she was cheating on him. Apollo has Coronis killed and later regretted this act, but he luckily snatched the unborn child from her naming him Asclepius, who later became the god of healing and medicine. Apollo also suffered when he fell in love with a man, Hyacinth, son of the Kind of Sparta. Greek man of this time period had open gay relationships; one day they had a discus throwing match, and Apollo accidently killed Hyacinth in such tragedy. Apollo did not marry anybody, but Apollo was a bisexual person. He slept with a lot of men just for the pleasure of it but he did have four kids, Asclepius, Troilus, Aristaeus, Orpheus, even though he wasn’t married.
Apollo’s mother, Leto, was the goddess of motherhood. She seduced Zeus and became pregnant with twins, but Hera was furious over the affair and made sure that Leto was unable to find a shelter to give birth. Hera even kept her own daughter, Eileithyia, from helping Leto give birth, as she was the goddess of childbirth. Zeus felt terrible for the pain and suffering Leto was going through; out of pity for Leto, Zeus turned her into a quail so she could safely give birth to their children. Leto searched all over Greece until she found a small island known as Delos. Hera was unable to stop Leto from settling on the island as it was being blown by the wind and moved by the waves. Leto suffered for nine days and nine nights with terrible labor pains. On the tenth day, she went to a small lake and leaned up against a palm tree. She gave birth alone ot Artemis who would become the Greek goddess of the hunt. But Artemis immediately took on a new role and assisted her mother in the birth of her brother Apollo. He was fed on nectar and ambrosia and quickly grew to manhood.
There are only a few descriptions of Apollo in literature that we can form an imagination to give us a good idea of what he looked like. In artistic representations of the god, he is always depicted as the ideal of kouros, which mean a young, athletic and a physically handsome man with golden hair and beardless; with a crown of laurel wreath of his head. There are many symbols associated with Apollo, including his silver bow and arrows represent the myth where he defeated the monster Phython. Apollo is also the god of plagues and is known for shooting plague arrows at the enemy during the Trojan war. The lyre which is perhaps his most well-known symbol signifying that he is the god of music. In the ancient myths the god Hermes gifted Apollo the lyre in exchange for the rod of health. Apollo’s lyre has the power to cause things like stones to become musical instruments.
The raven is a symbol of Apollo’s anger. At one time the raven was a white bird but after delivering bad news to the god he turned all ravens black. The bird had the bad news of having to let Apollo know his lover Coronis was being unfaithful. The rays of light that radiate from his head along with the wreath he wears are both meant to symbolize that he is the god of the sun. Lastly, the branch of laurels was actually something Apollo wore as a sign of his love for the demigod Daphne.
There was a temple built in Apollo’s honor, it was often filled with people who were hoping to beg Apollo to use his gifts, particularly to help foretell their futures. But some said there were two reasons why people came to Apollo’s temple, to consult with his oracle, and to be purified after commiting a crime. Apollo’s sanctuary was where the Oracle Delphi dwelt. Oracle of Delphi is his assistant who help with the prophetic side of his nature, who could foretell the future. This temple was known to be the center of the entire world. It was a spot where Apollo offered advice and wisdom to those who seek through the oracle. The importance of this temple in the ancient world was as a place of guaranteed peace, where leaders from all over the known world – representatives of the Greek city-states, Cretans, Macedonians and even Persians – could come together, even if they were warring elsewhere, to celebrate the Pythian Games (one of the four Panhellenic Games of Ancient Greece), to make offerings and consult the Oracle.
There is a myth teeling Apollo became known as the god of music. It begins by describing a Python who lived on Mount Parnassus, he is lethal, killing anyone who crossed him. Four days, after Apollo born, he was strong and able. He had been given a silver bow with golden arrows for the blacksmith Hephaestus. Apollo wanted to seek revenge on Python for every he had done to the Greeks, including chasing his mother while she was pregnant. Apollo went to the Phython’s cave and shot an arrow at the Python and it pierced him in the forehead. The Python screamed in pain so loudly that all Greece heard it, but he couldn’t save himself but succumbed to his jury. Apollo celebrated his victory by playing a song using his lyre for everyone to hear. The song was so perfect that it earned him the title of god of music.
Although Apollo was Zeus’s favorite son, and next to Zeus, the most important god, he personally has some lack of emotional depth. Apollo is not aware that anything besides thought can give life meaning. He need to live in the moment, feel sensations, explore his feeling, and have outer experiences like Dionysus. It would be easy to do this through music and dance, as Apollo has already achieved his expertise. He must learn to follow his heart, and move beyond the boundaries of his thinking world. After all, Apollo is still one of the powerful 12 Olympian gods. Follow by his forename, Phoebus, means “bright” or “pure” and connects him to his grandmother, the Titan Phoebe. He served many roles in mythology such as bringing the sun to each new day, predicting the future, and he was also the god of music, and healing. Like all gods, he certainly led a colorful existence. | 2,215 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Grade 9s Show Off Experiments at Science Fair
Grade 9 scientists took over Gudewill Gym on December 5 for the annual Science Fair.
"All of our Grade 9 students are doing a science fair project for the first time. We have a total of 63 students with 63 projects presenting right now," explained Ms. Anne-Marie Simard, Math and Science teacher.
The projects the students came up with revolve around experimentation and innovation on a range of topics. The young scientists inquired, became knowledgeable and communicated their findings.
"We have projects from growing plants with different fertilizers, to testing how fast different pills dissolve in different PH solutions. Students have built windmills trying different sizes of blades, to see which ones generate the most electricity. So, a lot of different types of projects," said Simard.
Many students use school resources like the labs to put together their project, while some looked at outside sources such as the labs at the University of Victoria and to local professionals to bounce ideas off of.
"It was good to push themselves and discover more about their projects, and getting a good science experiment out of it," said Simard.
Nikolas Krusekopf used the labs at GNS for his experiment. He focused on finding a cheap and effective way to filter out bacteria from water. He looked at using pinewood as an example of gymnosperm plants. "I was looking at two things: the overall effectiveness of the filter and if you increase the amounts of nanoparticle—which I used as a representation of bacteria—will the effectiveness change?" he said.
In the end, Krusekopf explained that his hypothesis was supported. Choosing a topic for his experiment, Krusekopf went with something that would be useful for him, as he likes to go hiking in the backcountry.
"I know people have gotten into situations where they run out of water and they don't have a filter," he said. "Something like this can be used to filter water that you can use to cook and drink. I was also looking at remote First Nation reserves, this would be effective since water quality is a big issue there."
Briana Flores looked at electricity for her project, which was called "From Heat to Electricity." The purpose of her project was to give lost energy a second use.
"We don't notice, but a lot of energy is being lost in machines or the back of our refrigerator or the back of your computer," she said. "What I'm doing is I'm trying to take advantage of all that heat and convert it to electricity."
She used candles and dry ice to try and answer the questions she had about converting energy to electricity.
Flores said at first she thought it was the heat that was converting to electricity, but what creates a voltage difference is the difference between hot and cold.
The students started working on their projects at the beginning of September. The Science Fair was a wrap up of what they had done and communicated all they had learned to various judges throughout the day. There were nearly 30 judges including staff, professors, community members and more.
The top two projects will move onto the Vancouver Island Regional Science Fair at the University of Victoria on April 5-6.
The Grade 9 Science Fair was part of a school-wide STEM Exhibition. Along with various activities throughout the day, students heard presentations including Science World and a presentation from University of Victoria professor Leah May Ver on natural disasters. | <urn:uuid:2dfcf81d-a790-4fda-b297-97e26baa72fe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mygns.ca/explore-gns/news/news-post/~post/grade-9s-show-off-experiments-at-science-fair-20191206 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00020.warc.gz | en | 0.985029 | 715 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.06834886968... | 1 | Grade 9s Show Off Experiments at Science Fair
Grade 9 scientists took over Gudewill Gym on December 5 for the annual Science Fair.
"All of our Grade 9 students are doing a science fair project for the first time. We have a total of 63 students with 63 projects presenting right now," explained Ms. Anne-Marie Simard, Math and Science teacher.
The projects the students came up with revolve around experimentation and innovation on a range of topics. The young scientists inquired, became knowledgeable and communicated their findings.
"We have projects from growing plants with different fertilizers, to testing how fast different pills dissolve in different PH solutions. Students have built windmills trying different sizes of blades, to see which ones generate the most electricity. So, a lot of different types of projects," said Simard.
Many students use school resources like the labs to put together their project, while some looked at outside sources such as the labs at the University of Victoria and to local professionals to bounce ideas off of.
"It was good to push themselves and discover more about their projects, and getting a good science experiment out of it," said Simard.
Nikolas Krusekopf used the labs at GNS for his experiment. He focused on finding a cheap and effective way to filter out bacteria from water. He looked at using pinewood as an example of gymnosperm plants. "I was looking at two things: the overall effectiveness of the filter and if you increase the amounts of nanoparticle—which I used as a representation of bacteria—will the effectiveness change?" he said.
In the end, Krusekopf explained that his hypothesis was supported. Choosing a topic for his experiment, Krusekopf went with something that would be useful for him, as he likes to go hiking in the backcountry.
"I know people have gotten into situations where they run out of water and they don't have a filter," he said. "Something like this can be used to filter water that you can use to cook and drink. I was also looking at remote First Nation reserves, this would be effective since water quality is a big issue there."
Briana Flores looked at electricity for her project, which was called "From Heat to Electricity." The purpose of her project was to give lost energy a second use.
"We don't notice, but a lot of energy is being lost in machines or the back of our refrigerator or the back of your computer," she said. "What I'm doing is I'm trying to take advantage of all that heat and convert it to electricity."
She used candles and dry ice to try and answer the questions she had about converting energy to electricity.
Flores said at first she thought it was the heat that was converting to electricity, but what creates a voltage difference is the difference between hot and cold.
The students started working on their projects at the beginning of September. The Science Fair was a wrap up of what they had done and communicated all they had learned to various judges throughout the day. There were nearly 30 judges including staff, professors, community members and more.
The top two projects will move onto the Vancouver Island Regional Science Fair at the University of Victoria on April 5-6.
The Grade 9 Science Fair was part of a school-wide STEM Exhibition. Along with various activities throughout the day, students heard presentations including Science World and a presentation from University of Victoria professor Leah May Ver on natural disasters. | 702 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Was Jesus actually born in September?
Question: "Was Jesus actually born in September?"
Answer: The time of year that Jesus was born is a matter of some debate, but the exact timing of Jesus’ birth is nothing to be dogmatic about, given the Bible’s lack of detail on the subject. Of course, the traditional date of celebrating Jesus’ birth is December 25, but the Bible nowhere points to His being born in mid-winter. One alternative theory is that Jesus was born sometime in September.
Those who propose that Jesus was born in September make their case using the following points: first, at the time of Jesus’ birth, there were shepherds in the fields watching their flocks (Luke 2:8). According to some sources, shepherds were not normally in the fields during December, due to the cold and wet conditions in Judea during that time of year. Therefore, Luke’s account suggests that Jesus may have been born in late summer or early fall (i.e., in September). The problem with this argument is that the average low temperature in Bethlehem in December is in the low-to-mid-forties—the same as Jacksonville, Florida.
Second, the idea of a September birth of Jesus includes a consideration of the census affecting Mary and Joseph (Luke 2:1–4). Some argue that Roman censuses would not have been taken in winter, as cold temperatures and poor road conditions would have made participation in a census difficult. However, others point out that Roman officials were not all that concerned with the burdens they placed on the citizenry. It was either obey Caesar or else; ease and convenience did not factor into the law-making process.
Third, and most significant, the theory that Jesus was born in September depends on the timing of John the Baptist’s birth. These biblical facts lay the groundwork: John’s father, a priest named Zechariah, was taking his turn to serve in the temple when the angel Gabriel appeared to him and announced that Elizabeth, Zechariah’s wife, would conceive a son (Luke 1:8–13). After Zechariah returned home, his wife conceived, just as the angel had said (Luke 1:23–24). Gabriel then visited Mary to announce the miraculous conception of Jesus, and this visit came in the sixth month of Elizabeth’s pregnancy (Luke 1:26, 36). Another important detail: Zechariah “belonged to the priestly division of Abijah” (Luke 1:5).
Using the above information, the calculations are made thus: the priests in the Abijah division served from June 13—19. Assuming that Elizabeth conceived shortly after Gabriel’s announcement to Zechariah, her sixth month—the month that Gabriel visits Mary—would be December or January. Assuming that Mary conceives shortly after Gabriel’s announcement to her, Jesus would have been born nine months later, i.e., August or September.
There is still one problem with using those calculations to arrive at a September birth of Jesus. We just aren’t sure exactly when the Abijah division of priests served. The priestly divisions were created by David and instituted during Solomon’s reign (1 Chronicles 24:7–18), but the Babylonian exile required a “reset” of the divisions and their rotation (Ezra 2). Zechariah’s division could have served in mid-June, but other sources calculate Abijah’s course to have ended on October 9 of that same year. An October conception of John would place Jesus’ birth in December or January.
In the final analysis, no one knows in what month Jesus was born. It could have been December. It could have been September or some other month. Usually, supporters of the September date are reacting against the fact that December 25 was an ancient pagan holiday. But it should be noted that the Christian observance of December 25 has nothing to do with paganism today. If anything, Christian practice has “redeemed” the date from paganism and given it a new meaning full of praise to our Savior.
Recommended Resource: The Case for Christmas by Lee Strobel
More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free!
Was Jesus born on December 25th?
What year was Jesus Christ born?
Should Christians celebrate Christmas?
Why was Jesus born in a manger?
What is the origin of Christmas?
Questions about Christmas
Was Jesus actually born in September? | <urn:uuid:e5aa7fb0-0f79-4747-af8a-0af003a41e28> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.gotquestions.org/was-Jesus-born-in-September.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00472.warc.gz | en | 0.980505 | 952 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.082386650... | 1 | Was Jesus actually born in September?
Question: "Was Jesus actually born in September?"
Answer: The time of year that Jesus was born is a matter of some debate, but the exact timing of Jesus’ birth is nothing to be dogmatic about, given the Bible’s lack of detail on the subject. Of course, the traditional date of celebrating Jesus’ birth is December 25, but the Bible nowhere points to His being born in mid-winter. One alternative theory is that Jesus was born sometime in September.
Those who propose that Jesus was born in September make their case using the following points: first, at the time of Jesus’ birth, there were shepherds in the fields watching their flocks (Luke 2:8). According to some sources, shepherds were not normally in the fields during December, due to the cold and wet conditions in Judea during that time of year. Therefore, Luke’s account suggests that Jesus may have been born in late summer or early fall (i.e., in September). The problem with this argument is that the average low temperature in Bethlehem in December is in the low-to-mid-forties—the same as Jacksonville, Florida.
Second, the idea of a September birth of Jesus includes a consideration of the census affecting Mary and Joseph (Luke 2:1–4). Some argue that Roman censuses would not have been taken in winter, as cold temperatures and poor road conditions would have made participation in a census difficult. However, others point out that Roman officials were not all that concerned with the burdens they placed on the citizenry. It was either obey Caesar or else; ease and convenience did not factor into the law-making process.
Third, and most significant, the theory that Jesus was born in September depends on the timing of John the Baptist’s birth. These biblical facts lay the groundwork: John’s father, a priest named Zechariah, was taking his turn to serve in the temple when the angel Gabriel appeared to him and announced that Elizabeth, Zechariah’s wife, would conceive a son (Luke 1:8–13). After Zechariah returned home, his wife conceived, just as the angel had said (Luke 1:23–24). Gabriel then visited Mary to announce the miraculous conception of Jesus, and this visit came in the sixth month of Elizabeth’s pregnancy (Luke 1:26, 36). Another important detail: Zechariah “belonged to the priestly division of Abijah” (Luke 1:5).
Using the above information, the calculations are made thus: the priests in the Abijah division served from June 13—19. Assuming that Elizabeth conceived shortly after Gabriel’s announcement to Zechariah, her sixth month—the month that Gabriel visits Mary—would be December or January. Assuming that Mary conceives shortly after Gabriel’s announcement to her, Jesus would have been born nine months later, i.e., August or September.
There is still one problem with using those calculations to arrive at a September birth of Jesus. We just aren’t sure exactly when the Abijah division of priests served. The priestly divisions were created by David and instituted during Solomon’s reign (1 Chronicles 24:7–18), but the Babylonian exile required a “reset” of the divisions and their rotation (Ezra 2). Zechariah’s division could have served in mid-June, but other sources calculate Abijah’s course to have ended on October 9 of that same year. An October conception of John would place Jesus’ birth in December or January.
In the final analysis, no one knows in what month Jesus was born. It could have been December. It could have been September or some other month. Usually, supporters of the September date are reacting against the fact that December 25 was an ancient pagan holiday. But it should be noted that the Christian observance of December 25 has nothing to do with paganism today. If anything, Christian practice has “redeemed” the date from paganism and given it a new meaning full of praise to our Savior.
Recommended Resource: The Case for Christmas by Lee Strobel
More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free!
Was Jesus born on December 25th?
What year was Jesus Christ born?
Should Christians celebrate Christmas?
Why was Jesus born in a manger?
What is the origin of Christmas?
Questions about Christmas
Was Jesus actually born in September? | 924 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Mesopotamia is one of the oldest civilizations recorded in history which most of the earliest innovations that are still seen at the present time. The region was called as an oasis between two rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, which can be the same region noted in the Book of Genesis as the location of Paradise. The region, unlike its neighbours, experiences several natural calamities which made people back then believe that they cannot understand the environment around them. They region was filled with natural calamities such as heavy floods, torrential rains and sandstorms. However, the region enabled trade and military to flourish since the Tigris and Euphrates enabled neighbours and potential threats to use the channel for whatever purpose they deem. In this region, three civilizations were recorded to have contributed to the innovations they have presented to the world. These are the Akkadians, the Sumerians and the Babylonians.
Aside from the fact that each of the three civilizations is located in the Mesopotamian region, there are other common traits and features in which they all share. However, there are still slight differences in these common cultures. The first common trait they all share is their polytheistic notion of religion. For each civilization, they all worshipped numerous things from the sun to the stars and to different gods they have made up to represent an event. They also have a complex and well-established temples and priest to organize and facilitate temple offerings and even some state affairs. For the Sumerians, they worshipped all kinds of Gods and noted that there is a super god. Sumerians also believed in the fertility symbol, which can be seen in similar religions such as those of the Jews and the Shiva Lingam in India. Sumerians also believed that plans for their temples and other infrastructure were done by their numerous gods. For the Akkadians, they believe that the universe is divided into two, the shame or “Heaven” and the ersetum or “earth.” Like the Sumerians, they believed that the universe is dominated by several divine beings. However, they believed that each city as their own designated god such as Ishtar who ruled over Akkad. Old Babylonians had the same format in religion as that of the Sumerians but what differs with the Babylonian version is the fact that it mostly concentrated on cults, prayers and ethical behaviour. They believe that the afterlife is not real, which explains the gap between gods and men. The epic of Gilgamesh embodies this gap since the hero of the epic seeks to become immortal, which will not come into fruition . Religion also plays in the political culture of each three regions as warlords, governors and even priests used their position to show to their constituents that they are being led by God’s representatives.
Another common trait all three nations have shared is the sense of law and order, which can be seen in some of the traditions they have managed to pass up to the present time. The first is the style of recording which paved the way to writing. The Sumerian style was known as the cuneiform and served as the foundation for the Akkadian and Babylonian form of writing. Writing also became a way for Priests to record transactions, donations and even spending. The cuneiform also enabled trade to become easier as recording of each deal can be done in faster . For the Akkadian script, they have tried to write a different language that separated them with the Sumerian style. But since the Akkadians did not have a recorded data as to their literature style, only a few evidences support this claim. The Babylonian style was more developed from the Semitic form and it was able to develop literature that has more sense than its counterparts .
In addition to this, writing has also enabled all three civilizations to create a form of order in the political and trading matters noted in tablets. Written laws were done, and they are usually double sided. No one was above the law in theory. It was a basic principle and respected by all since these laws were directed by their gods. Codification of law affected political ideas and idealism since it held power in them. The Babylonians, through Hammurabi’s Code, cemented this concept of order since it ruled in the idea of “an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth”. Trading enabled the three civilizations to distribute their commodities, from peasants to technologies. Technology wise, it was the Sumerians and the Babylonians who have done revolutionary breakthroughs as compared to the Akkadians as it was the Sumerians who have discovered the wheel, time and even weights and scales; while the Babylonians first introduced the concept of money .
Cunningham, Lawrence and John Reich. Culture and values: a survey of the humanities. Boston: Cengage Learning, 2009. Print.
Lambert, Wilfred. Babylonian wisdom literature. London: Eisenbrauns, 1996. Print.
Rahner, Karl. Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group , 1975. Print.
The Western Tradition: Mesopotamia. Dir. WGBH Boston. Perf. Eugen Weber. 1989. Video. | <urn:uuid:3c49ac1b-06b7-48b0-b60c-08c1a1daaabc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wowessays.com/free-samples/free-research-paper-on-commonalities-and-differences-between-the-akkadians-sumerians-and-the-old-babylonians/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00273.warc.gz | en | 0.980767 | 1,082 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.033390235155... | 2 | The Mesopotamia is one of the oldest civilizations recorded in history which most of the earliest innovations that are still seen at the present time. The region was called as an oasis between two rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, which can be the same region noted in the Book of Genesis as the location of Paradise. The region, unlike its neighbours, experiences several natural calamities which made people back then believe that they cannot understand the environment around them. They region was filled with natural calamities such as heavy floods, torrential rains and sandstorms. However, the region enabled trade and military to flourish since the Tigris and Euphrates enabled neighbours and potential threats to use the channel for whatever purpose they deem. In this region, three civilizations were recorded to have contributed to the innovations they have presented to the world. These are the Akkadians, the Sumerians and the Babylonians.
Aside from the fact that each of the three civilizations is located in the Mesopotamian region, there are other common traits and features in which they all share. However, there are still slight differences in these common cultures. The first common trait they all share is their polytheistic notion of religion. For each civilization, they all worshipped numerous things from the sun to the stars and to different gods they have made up to represent an event. They also have a complex and well-established temples and priest to organize and facilitate temple offerings and even some state affairs. For the Sumerians, they worshipped all kinds of Gods and noted that there is a super god. Sumerians also believed in the fertility symbol, which can be seen in similar religions such as those of the Jews and the Shiva Lingam in India. Sumerians also believed that plans for their temples and other infrastructure were done by their numerous gods. For the Akkadians, they believe that the universe is divided into two, the shame or “Heaven” and the ersetum or “earth.” Like the Sumerians, they believed that the universe is dominated by several divine beings. However, they believed that each city as their own designated god such as Ishtar who ruled over Akkad. Old Babylonians had the same format in religion as that of the Sumerians but what differs with the Babylonian version is the fact that it mostly concentrated on cults, prayers and ethical behaviour. They believe that the afterlife is not real, which explains the gap between gods and men. The epic of Gilgamesh embodies this gap since the hero of the epic seeks to become immortal, which will not come into fruition . Religion also plays in the political culture of each three regions as warlords, governors and even priests used their position to show to their constituents that they are being led by God’s representatives.
Another common trait all three nations have shared is the sense of law and order, which can be seen in some of the traditions they have managed to pass up to the present time. The first is the style of recording which paved the way to writing. The Sumerian style was known as the cuneiform and served as the foundation for the Akkadian and Babylonian form of writing. Writing also became a way for Priests to record transactions, donations and even spending. The cuneiform also enabled trade to become easier as recording of each deal can be done in faster . For the Akkadian script, they have tried to write a different language that separated them with the Sumerian style. But since the Akkadians did not have a recorded data as to their literature style, only a few evidences support this claim. The Babylonian style was more developed from the Semitic form and it was able to develop literature that has more sense than its counterparts .
In addition to this, writing has also enabled all three civilizations to create a form of order in the political and trading matters noted in tablets. Written laws were done, and they are usually double sided. No one was above the law in theory. It was a basic principle and respected by all since these laws were directed by their gods. Codification of law affected political ideas and idealism since it held power in them. The Babylonians, through Hammurabi’s Code, cemented this concept of order since it ruled in the idea of “an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth”. Trading enabled the three civilizations to distribute their commodities, from peasants to technologies. Technology wise, it was the Sumerians and the Babylonians who have done revolutionary breakthroughs as compared to the Akkadians as it was the Sumerians who have discovered the wheel, time and even weights and scales; while the Babylonians first introduced the concept of money .
Cunningham, Lawrence and John Reich. Culture and values: a survey of the humanities. Boston: Cengage Learning, 2009. Print.
Lambert, Wilfred. Babylonian wisdom literature. London: Eisenbrauns, 1996. Print.
Rahner, Karl. Encyclopedia of theology: a concise Sacramentum mundi. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group , 1975. Print.
The Western Tradition: Mesopotamia. Dir. WGBH Boston. Perf. Eugen Weber. 1989. Video. | 1,084 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By: Basil M. Russo, ISDA President
Since pitcher Cy Young first shouted out these two words to begin a baseball game in 1905, this iconic American phrase has been used by every home plate umpire to start every baseball game for the past 114 years.
Baseball, which began in our country well before the Civil War, has been an important part of America’s social fabric for the better part of 200 years. Baseball’s popularity became so immense in our country that it was commonly referred to as America’s favorite pastime.
As unusual as it may sound, the game of baseball would ultimately play a very important and critical role in the evolution and acceptance of Italian immigrants and their children into American culture and society.
About 4 and a half million Italian immigrants arrived in our country between 1880 and 1920. The vast majority of them were from the impoverished regions of Southern Italy.
Because of their religion, dark complexion and inability to speak English, they were regarded as unwanted foreigners and were treated harshly and often violently by the White Anglo Saxon Protestants who ran the country.
The immigrants were forced to live in poverty in isolated neighborhoods, were forced to accept the most dangerous and lowest paying jobs, and were subjected to abuse, ridicule and violence.
Here are but a few of the tragic events that depict how terribly Italian immigrants were treated. The largest mass lynching in American history occurred in 1891 when 11 Italian immigrants were beaten, shot and hanged in New Orleans.
Other lynchings followed. In 1921, the WASP establishment in America sent a clear message to all Italian immigrants when they orchestrated the executions of Sacco and Vanzetti in Boston, and thereafter Italian immigrants continued to be ostracized and humiliated by being treated as enemy aliens during WWII.
So how did the game of baseball help Italian immigrants overcome bias, prejudice and hardship to become accepted in America? Italian-American baseball players, especially those who became stars, were the first important group of Italians to obtain celebrity status in America.
Beginning in the 1920s, 21-year-old Tony Lazzeri became a star playing on what many experts believe to be the best baseball team ever. This Yankee team, known as Murderers’ Row, included Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig. But it was the young Lazarri who was considered the team’s leader. This was the first time people throughout America saw an Italian-American celebrity as someone they admired.
But the most important Italian-American baseball player ever, and without doubt the best known Italian-American celebrity, was the great Joe DiMaggio. Joltin’ Joe, also known as the Yankee Clipper, played for the New York Yankees for 13 years. During his outstanding career, he won 9 World Series championships, was a 13-time All-star, won three Most Valuable Player awards, won two batting titles, won two home run titles, and set what many experts consider to be the greatest sports record of all time when he established his 56-game hitting streak in 1941.
During the streak, DiMaggio had a .408 batting average, hit 15 home runs and batted in 55 runs. He was the talk of the entire country, as everyone rooted for him to continue the streak from game to game. Americans became obsessed with DiMaggio. Joe became a national hero, and that was wonderful for Italian Americans. Joe conducted himself as a gentlemen and role model not only on the field but off the field as well. Joe DiMaggio created a very positive image for Italian Americans with all other Americans.
Lazzeri, DiMaggio and other great Italian-American baseball players such as Yogi Bera, Phil Rizzuto, Tommy LaSorda, Craig Biggio and Mike Piazza all helped to erase the ugly biases and prejudices other Americans harbored toward Italian Americans.
League Park, Cleveland, July 16, 1941 – Joe DiMaggio slides under tag of Tribe catcher Gene Desautels to give Yankees a 2-0 lead in first inning. Just moments earlier DiMaggio singled off southpaw Al Milnar to extend his hitting streak to a record 56 games in New York's 10-2 win pic.twitter.com/5yFS3BkNLU
— Old-Time Baseball Photos (@OTBaseballPhoto) May 7, 2019
In addition to changing the way other people felt about Italian Americans, baseball also helped change the way Italian Americans felt about themselves.
The fact that some Italian American ballplayers could attain celebrity status gave Italian immigrants, and their children, both a sense of pride and a feeling of hope. Pride that some of their own people could attain positions of respect in America and hope that they and their children would also be able to fulfill their dreams in America.
Ultimately, baseball — perhaps more than any other American cultural institution — helped Italian immigrants and their children overcome bias, prejudice and hardship to become fully assimilated in their new homeland. | <urn:uuid:781f0eca-d69d-4a32-bbc7-9ba660c22e94> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.orderisda.org/culture/sports/how-joltin-joe-dimaggio-reshaped-italians-stature-in-america/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00550.warc.gz | en | 0.984211 | 1,025 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.43379580974578... | 4 | By: Basil M. Russo, ISDA President
Since pitcher Cy Young first shouted out these two words to begin a baseball game in 1905, this iconic American phrase has been used by every home plate umpire to start every baseball game for the past 114 years.
Baseball, which began in our country well before the Civil War, has been an important part of America’s social fabric for the better part of 200 years. Baseball’s popularity became so immense in our country that it was commonly referred to as America’s favorite pastime.
As unusual as it may sound, the game of baseball would ultimately play a very important and critical role in the evolution and acceptance of Italian immigrants and their children into American culture and society.
About 4 and a half million Italian immigrants arrived in our country between 1880 and 1920. The vast majority of them were from the impoverished regions of Southern Italy.
Because of their religion, dark complexion and inability to speak English, they were regarded as unwanted foreigners and were treated harshly and often violently by the White Anglo Saxon Protestants who ran the country.
The immigrants were forced to live in poverty in isolated neighborhoods, were forced to accept the most dangerous and lowest paying jobs, and were subjected to abuse, ridicule and violence.
Here are but a few of the tragic events that depict how terribly Italian immigrants were treated. The largest mass lynching in American history occurred in 1891 when 11 Italian immigrants were beaten, shot and hanged in New Orleans.
Other lynchings followed. In 1921, the WASP establishment in America sent a clear message to all Italian immigrants when they orchestrated the executions of Sacco and Vanzetti in Boston, and thereafter Italian immigrants continued to be ostracized and humiliated by being treated as enemy aliens during WWII.
So how did the game of baseball help Italian immigrants overcome bias, prejudice and hardship to become accepted in America? Italian-American baseball players, especially those who became stars, were the first important group of Italians to obtain celebrity status in America.
Beginning in the 1920s, 21-year-old Tony Lazzeri became a star playing on what many experts believe to be the best baseball team ever. This Yankee team, known as Murderers’ Row, included Babe Ruth and Lou Gehrig. But it was the young Lazarri who was considered the team’s leader. This was the first time people throughout America saw an Italian-American celebrity as someone they admired.
But the most important Italian-American baseball player ever, and without doubt the best known Italian-American celebrity, was the great Joe DiMaggio. Joltin’ Joe, also known as the Yankee Clipper, played for the New York Yankees for 13 years. During his outstanding career, he won 9 World Series championships, was a 13-time All-star, won three Most Valuable Player awards, won two batting titles, won two home run titles, and set what many experts consider to be the greatest sports record of all time when he established his 56-game hitting streak in 1941.
During the streak, DiMaggio had a .408 batting average, hit 15 home runs and batted in 55 runs. He was the talk of the entire country, as everyone rooted for him to continue the streak from game to game. Americans became obsessed with DiMaggio. Joe became a national hero, and that was wonderful for Italian Americans. Joe conducted himself as a gentlemen and role model not only on the field but off the field as well. Joe DiMaggio created a very positive image for Italian Americans with all other Americans.
Lazzeri, DiMaggio and other great Italian-American baseball players such as Yogi Bera, Phil Rizzuto, Tommy LaSorda, Craig Biggio and Mike Piazza all helped to erase the ugly biases and prejudices other Americans harbored toward Italian Americans.
League Park, Cleveland, July 16, 1941 – Joe DiMaggio slides under tag of Tribe catcher Gene Desautels to give Yankees a 2-0 lead in first inning. Just moments earlier DiMaggio singled off southpaw Al Milnar to extend his hitting streak to a record 56 games in New York's 10-2 win pic.twitter.com/5yFS3BkNLU
— Old-Time Baseball Photos (@OTBaseballPhoto) May 7, 2019
In addition to changing the way other people felt about Italian Americans, baseball also helped change the way Italian Americans felt about themselves.
The fact that some Italian American ballplayers could attain celebrity status gave Italian immigrants, and their children, both a sense of pride and a feeling of hope. Pride that some of their own people could attain positions of respect in America and hope that they and their children would also be able to fulfill their dreams in America.
Ultimately, baseball — perhaps more than any other American cultural institution — helped Italian immigrants and their children overcome bias, prejudice and hardship to become fully assimilated in their new homeland. | 1,050 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Creative writing activities 1st grade
Creative writing activities 1st grade
What would be different? Think about what makes it so hard to forget. After writing, be sure to ask your students to discuss their responses. Are you looking for more great ideas for back to school writing activities for your 1st graders? Write about one person who has made a difference in your life. What would happen if you found gold in your backyard? If you were a principal and you had to hire some new teachers for your school, what qualities would you look for in a teacher? What is your favorite hobby? Write about a time that you went to an amusement park or fair. After reading William Steig's Amos and Boris, students were prompted to write a story with an unlikely friendship between two animal characters. I woke up and found a dinosaur in my back yard. See transcript ] Transcript: Jay and Taylor were at Hawaii.
What is the most special gift that you have ever received? Now, in 1st grade, your students get to experience the exciting next chapter—writing!
Writing activity for kindergarten
Why did you choose these clothes to wear today? Prepare for the interview by writing some questions that will help you learn useful and interesting information about your guest. Write about one person who has made a difference in your life. Describe this pet. Which country would you most like to visit the most? Write about your brothers and sisters. Create an imaginary country and describe its rivers, mountains, exports, customs, holidays, money, climate, history, and politics. Which is your favorite season and why? Describe what it would be like if you lived on the moon. What traditions do you and your family share during this holiday? What is most important to you in a friend: loyalty, generosity, honesty? Have you ever had to apologize for something you did?
Have you ever had to apologize for something you did? Describe a time that you were hurt or a time you were in the hospital. Write about what you do on the weekends. Creating and publishing a back to school themed classbook together can help build their confidence and show them how rewarding sharing their stories can be—and it leaves you and your students with a treasured keepsake of one of the most important years of their youth.
The best things about a computer is You can easily turn this activity into a simple but poignant year-long project by asking them to write a short journal entry every time they complete an item on their list. You have been chosen to create a movie based on your favorite book.
What if all the streets were rivers? Describe where the nicknames came from and what they mean to you.
Then, towards the end of the year, ask them to write about all the things they accomplished. On my Africa safari, I suddenly came upon some poachers with a gun and they were about to shoot a Do you own anything that is so special that you would never sell it for any price?
Being in a different class with a new teacher and new peers can be a little intimidating, and certainly will take some getting used to.
First grade writing mini lessons
What would happen if you found gold in your backyard? Describe your favorite T. What would it be like to have a pet dinosaur? What If Spelling is correct for most words that can be phonetically sounded out. What do you think is the "perfect" age to be? What is one of the funniest things that has ever happened to you? Your friend wants to come to your house. Dear Teacher, I couldn't do my homework last night because Describe a visit to the dentist. If you don't have any, what kind of pet would you like to have? Show kids their writing about their first day of the first grade and have them complete the same writing prompt, but about their last day of school. If you had a robot, how would the robot help you with your daily life? I opened my closet door, walked in, and suddenly I was in
based on 102 review | <urn:uuid:51dd3ae5-2bd2-4dc4-a2b8-36322194931b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sexedixivyxol.usainteriordesigners.com/creative-writing-activities-1st-grade238852397pe.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00438.warc.gz | en | 0.981958 | 828 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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Creative writing activities 1st grade
What would be different? Think about what makes it so hard to forget. After writing, be sure to ask your students to discuss their responses. Are you looking for more great ideas for back to school writing activities for your 1st graders? Write about one person who has made a difference in your life. What would happen if you found gold in your backyard? If you were a principal and you had to hire some new teachers for your school, what qualities would you look for in a teacher? What is your favorite hobby? Write about a time that you went to an amusement park or fair. After reading William Steig's Amos and Boris, students were prompted to write a story with an unlikely friendship between two animal characters. I woke up and found a dinosaur in my back yard. See transcript ] Transcript: Jay and Taylor were at Hawaii.
What is the most special gift that you have ever received? Now, in 1st grade, your students get to experience the exciting next chapter—writing!
Writing activity for kindergarten
Why did you choose these clothes to wear today? Prepare for the interview by writing some questions that will help you learn useful and interesting information about your guest. Write about one person who has made a difference in your life. Describe this pet. Which country would you most like to visit the most? Write about your brothers and sisters. Create an imaginary country and describe its rivers, mountains, exports, customs, holidays, money, climate, history, and politics. Which is your favorite season and why? Describe what it would be like if you lived on the moon. What traditions do you and your family share during this holiday? What is most important to you in a friend: loyalty, generosity, honesty? Have you ever had to apologize for something you did?
Have you ever had to apologize for something you did? Describe a time that you were hurt or a time you were in the hospital. Write about what you do on the weekends. Creating and publishing a back to school themed classbook together can help build their confidence and show them how rewarding sharing their stories can be—and it leaves you and your students with a treasured keepsake of one of the most important years of their youth.
The best things about a computer is You can easily turn this activity into a simple but poignant year-long project by asking them to write a short journal entry every time they complete an item on their list. You have been chosen to create a movie based on your favorite book.
What if all the streets were rivers? Describe where the nicknames came from and what they mean to you.
Then, towards the end of the year, ask them to write about all the things they accomplished. On my Africa safari, I suddenly came upon some poachers with a gun and they were about to shoot a Do you own anything that is so special that you would never sell it for any price?
Being in a different class with a new teacher and new peers can be a little intimidating, and certainly will take some getting used to.
First grade writing mini lessons
What would happen if you found gold in your backyard? Describe your favorite T. What would it be like to have a pet dinosaur? What If Spelling is correct for most words that can be phonetically sounded out. What do you think is the "perfect" age to be? What is one of the funniest things that has ever happened to you? Your friend wants to come to your house. Dear Teacher, I couldn't do my homework last night because Describe a visit to the dentist. If you don't have any, what kind of pet would you like to have? Show kids their writing about their first day of the first grade and have them complete the same writing prompt, but about their last day of school. If you had a robot, how would the robot help you with your daily life? I opened my closet door, walked in, and suddenly I was in
based on 102 review | 817 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Battle of Leipzig on 6 October 1813
The battle fought at Leipzig in Saxony on 6 October 1813, which is also called the “Battle of the Nations”, is one of the largest in world history. In this battle, Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated by the unified armies of Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Sweden, who comprised the anti-Napoleon Sixth Coalition, which also included Great Britain, Spain, and Portugal. The victory at Leipzig led to Napoleon losing his last allies and put before him a Europe united against him. The canvas was painted by Vladimir Moshkov at a time when memories of this grandiose battle were still fresh. Upon examining this painting by the recent graduate of the Academy, the Academic Council awarded him the title of Academician. | <urn:uuid:80799dd7-9f31-4ba1-b8e1-395a21f9dde2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://rusmuseumvrm.ru/data/collections/painting/18_19/moshkov_v_i_srazhenie_pod_leypcigom_6_oktyabrya_1813_goda_1815_zh_5484/index.php?lang=en | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00433.warc.gz | en | 0.988638 | 166 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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The battle fought at Leipzig in Saxony on 6 October 1813, which is also called the “Battle of the Nations”, is one of the largest in world history. In this battle, Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated by the unified armies of Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Sweden, who comprised the anti-Napoleon Sixth Coalition, which also included Great Britain, Spain, and Portugal. The victory at Leipzig led to Napoleon losing his last allies and put before him a Europe united against him. The canvas was painted by Vladimir Moshkov at a time when memories of this grandiose battle were still fresh. Upon examining this painting by the recent graduate of the Academy, the Academic Council awarded him the title of Academician. | 165 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Status Least Concern
Size 180 - 210 cm
Gestation 7 months
Dumeril’s ground boas mainly prey on mammals such as rodents, lemurs and tenrecs. They also prey on birds, including domestic poultry. These snakes are ambush predators, which means they wait for their prey to come close before moving to attack. Dumeril's ground boas are constrictors, which means they kill their prey by constricting it.
Dumeril’s ground boas are found in the south and southwest of Madagascar. They are found in a range of open and forest habitats, including dry forests, savannah and forests created by the planting of introduced tree species, as well as around villages. Dumeril’s ground boas are ground dwelling snakes.
These boas are viviparous, which means they give birth to live young rather than laying eggs. Between 6 and 13 young are born in a litter.
There are no known major threats to this species, although they are killed by local people because they are regarded as bad luck, and are also thought to prey on people’s chickens. Dumeril’s ground boas seem to be able to live in areas which have been disturbed by humans. It is included on Appendix I of CITES, which means that international trade in the live snakes or any of their body parts is illegal.
Adult Dumeril’s boas are cathemeral, which means that they may be active at any time of the day or night, but the young snakes are mainly nocturnal.
Lovely spacious park and all the staff we have met have been friendly and helpful. It was nice to visit on a less busy day today with a chance to see some of the more timid animals. The tropical house was very peaceful and the deer came out of hiding. Birds… Read full reviewChris, 26th September 2018 | <urn:uuid:6b4b29bb-52c6-419b-b7ed-a230d62243b0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.marwell.org.uk/zoo/explore/animals/25/dumerils-ground-boa | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00295.warc.gz | en | 0.984316 | 398 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.6093924641609192,... | 1 | Status Least Concern
Size 180 - 210 cm
Gestation 7 months
Dumeril’s ground boas mainly prey on mammals such as rodents, lemurs and tenrecs. They also prey on birds, including domestic poultry. These snakes are ambush predators, which means they wait for their prey to come close before moving to attack. Dumeril's ground boas are constrictors, which means they kill their prey by constricting it.
Dumeril’s ground boas are found in the south and southwest of Madagascar. They are found in a range of open and forest habitats, including dry forests, savannah and forests created by the planting of introduced tree species, as well as around villages. Dumeril’s ground boas are ground dwelling snakes.
These boas are viviparous, which means they give birth to live young rather than laying eggs. Between 6 and 13 young are born in a litter.
There are no known major threats to this species, although they are killed by local people because they are regarded as bad luck, and are also thought to prey on people’s chickens. Dumeril’s ground boas seem to be able to live in areas which have been disturbed by humans. It is included on Appendix I of CITES, which means that international trade in the live snakes or any of their body parts is illegal.
Adult Dumeril’s boas are cathemeral, which means that they may be active at any time of the day or night, but the young snakes are mainly nocturnal.
Lovely spacious park and all the staff we have met have been friendly and helpful. It was nice to visit on a less busy day today with a chance to see some of the more timid animals. The tropical house was very peaceful and the deer came out of hiding. Birds… Read full reviewChris, 26th September 2018 | 393 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Agriculture & Aztec Heritage
Our VIDA project introduces modern, sustainable farming practices in the Totonac region of Central Mexico where the most common crop (and the most important) historically grown by the people of Central Mexico was maize, also known as corn or mealies. Archaeologists believe that wild maize was domesticated first in Mexico about 6,000 years ago and spread to the rest of the world from there. Maize was the staple grain of the Aztec empire and critical for their survival. When there were floods or droughts that affected the maize crop it was a disaster.
The Aztecs needed to keep their world in order and in balance to try to avoid such disasters. They did practical things such as terracing their fields to provide more usable land and to preserve water, bringing in fresh water from afar with aqueducts. People also often created their own gardens to grow fruits and vegetables for their families, much like the VIDA gardens which make fresh produce available to the family, put more nutrition in family meals, and, by growing the program from the family kitchen outwards to the market, ensures that the Totonacos continue to benefit from their harvest and labor. | <urn:uuid:153b8c1e-fa41-4211-b777-17528f620b0c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://humanitarian.himalayaninstitute.org/2013/01/17/vida-notes/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00160.warc.gz | en | 0.981697 | 245 | 4.09375 | 4 | [
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Our VIDA project introduces modern, sustainable farming practices in the Totonac region of Central Mexico where the most common crop (and the most important) historically grown by the people of Central Mexico was maize, also known as corn or mealies. Archaeologists believe that wild maize was domesticated first in Mexico about 6,000 years ago and spread to the rest of the world from there. Maize was the staple grain of the Aztec empire and critical for their survival. When there were floods or droughts that affected the maize crop it was a disaster.
The Aztecs needed to keep their world in order and in balance to try to avoid such disasters. They did practical things such as terracing their fields to provide more usable land and to preserve water, bringing in fresh water from afar with aqueducts. People also often created their own gardens to grow fruits and vegetables for their families, much like the VIDA gardens which make fresh produce available to the family, put more nutrition in family meals, and, by growing the program from the family kitchen outwards to the market, ensures that the Totonacos continue to benefit from their harvest and labor. | 244 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There was a variety of people involved in the women’s rights movement, but the ones who were most well known were Susan B. Anthony, Lucy Stone, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, Carrie Chapman Catt and last but not least Alice Paul. Lucretia Mott was a leading social reformer. Lucretia was born on January 3, 1793, in Massachusetts. By 1821, Mott strongly disagreed with slavery, and never bought products that had to do with slavery. Doing this it prompted her husband, he was always there for her and supported everything she did. He also got out of the cotton trade in 1830. She was a supporter of William Garrison, because of his Anti-slavery society.Lucretia Mott and her husband gathered with the Anti-Slavery Convention in 1840. After this, this led to her coming together with Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and since then she was known as a women’s right and published her influential Discourse on Woman (1850). While she was in the women’s suffrage movement, she also mentioned herself as being a housewife. She died on November 11, 1880, Pennsylvania. Carrie Catt was born on January 9, 1859, and died on March 9, 1947. She was one of the leaders who lead the women’s rights movement. She was a leader for more than 25 years. Carrie grew up in Ripon Wis. She graduated from Iowa state college in 1880. Carrie elected Susan B. Anthony as president for the NAWSA. 1n the 1920s Catt enfolded the peace movement, opening the assistance of eleven national women’s organization. For the cure of War (1925) to completion of the united states and its participation in the world’s foundation for peace. In the wake of World War II, Carrie used he influence to have accomplished women’s peace. Alice Paul was born in 1885 and died on 197. She was an American suffragist and women’s rights activist. Alice Pau1 was initially a member of National American Woman Suffrage Association, but her more “radical” methodology got her kicked out. She then led a successful campaign for women’s suffrage along with Lucy Burns that resulted in the passage of the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1920, which allows females to vote. She and her colleagues tied themselves to the white house fences and protested all day every day- this protesting got her and numerous other women arrested. The horrifying events that occurred during their jail time were crucial for the public awareness they sought. | <urn:uuid:3acfae70-8996-4218-a13a-6005f14afb8f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://result.vg/there-was-a-variety-of-people-involved-in-the/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00435.warc.gz | en | 0.990206 | 543 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.03508736565709114,... | 5 | There was a variety of people involved in the women’s rights movement, but the ones who were most well known were Susan B. Anthony, Lucy Stone, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Lucretia Mott, Carrie Chapman Catt and last but not least Alice Paul. Lucretia Mott was a leading social reformer. Lucretia was born on January 3, 1793, in Massachusetts. By 1821, Mott strongly disagreed with slavery, and never bought products that had to do with slavery. Doing this it prompted her husband, he was always there for her and supported everything she did. He also got out of the cotton trade in 1830. She was a supporter of William Garrison, because of his Anti-slavery society.Lucretia Mott and her husband gathered with the Anti-Slavery Convention in 1840. After this, this led to her coming together with Elizabeth Cady Stanton, and since then she was known as a women’s right and published her influential Discourse on Woman (1850). While she was in the women’s suffrage movement, she also mentioned herself as being a housewife. She died on November 11, 1880, Pennsylvania. Carrie Catt was born on January 9, 1859, and died on March 9, 1947. She was one of the leaders who lead the women’s rights movement. She was a leader for more than 25 years. Carrie grew up in Ripon Wis. She graduated from Iowa state college in 1880. Carrie elected Susan B. Anthony as president for the NAWSA. 1n the 1920s Catt enfolded the peace movement, opening the assistance of eleven national women’s organization. For the cure of War (1925) to completion of the united states and its participation in the world’s foundation for peace. In the wake of World War II, Carrie used he influence to have accomplished women’s peace. Alice Paul was born in 1885 and died on 197. She was an American suffragist and women’s rights activist. Alice Pau1 was initially a member of National American Woman Suffrage Association, but her more “radical” methodology got her kicked out. She then led a successful campaign for women’s suffrage along with Lucy Burns that resulted in the passage of the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution in 1920, which allows females to vote. She and her colleagues tied themselves to the white house fences and protested all day every day- this protesting got her and numerous other women arrested. The horrifying events that occurred during their jail time were crucial for the public awareness they sought. | 578 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Elizabeth STEWART: Birth: ABT 1528.
Note: N19516 !James V (1512-42), king of Scotland (1513-42), son of King James IV and Margaret Tudor, born in Linlithgow. He was 17 months old when his father was killed. His mother acted as regent until her marriage in 1514 to Archibald, 6th Earl of Angus. In that year John Stewart, duke of Albany, became James's protector. In 1525, during the continued struggle for control of the country, James was taken prisoner by his stepfather. Three years later the king escaped and assumed control of Scotland. He instituted judicial reforms and took measures to protect the peasantry, by whom he was much admired. His uncle, Henry VIII, king of England, tried to induce James to repudiate the authority of the Roman Catholic church, but James refused, and relations between the two countries became strained. War broke out in 1542, and in November the Scottish force was routed at Solway Moss in northern England. Within a month James died. He left one legitimate child, Mary, Queen of Scots, who was six days old at his death. "James V," Microsoftr Encartar Encyclopedia 99.
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0.310875594615... | 1 | Elizabeth STEWART: Birth: ABT 1528.
Note: N19516 !James V (1512-42), king of Scotland (1513-42), son of King James IV and Margaret Tudor, born in Linlithgow. He was 17 months old when his father was killed. His mother acted as regent until her marriage in 1514 to Archibald, 6th Earl of Angus. In that year John Stewart, duke of Albany, became James's protector. In 1525, during the continued struggle for control of the country, James was taken prisoner by his stepfather. Three years later the king escaped and assumed control of Scotland. He instituted judicial reforms and took measures to protect the peasantry, by whom he was much admired. His uncle, Henry VIII, king of England, tried to induce James to repudiate the authority of the Roman Catholic church, but James refused, and relations between the two countries became strained. War broke out in 1542, and in November the Scottish force was routed at Solway Moss in northern England. Within a month James died. He left one legitimate child, Mary, Queen of Scots, who was six days old at his death. "James V," Microsoftr Encartar Encyclopedia 99.
RootsWeb.com is NOT responsible for the content of the GEDCOMs uploaded through the WorldConnect Program. The creator of each GEDCOM is solely responsible for its content. | 322 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How the war ended The Ides of March
On 15 February 44, Caesar’s dictatorship and other powers were extended for life. A month later he was stabbed to death by a group of senators that included men who had served him for years, as well as pardoned Pompeians. Before discussing why the conspirators acted in this way, we must consider the difficult question of Caesar’s own long-term aims-a subject of continuing scholarly debate and little agreement. It has often been stated that the Roman Republic failed and was replaced by the rule of emperors because the system, designed to regulate the public affairs of a city-state, could not cope with the changed circumstances of governing a world empire. There is some truth in this as we have seen, for during the last years of the Republic it became increasingly difficult to accommodate and regulate the competition between a few overwhelmingly powerful individuals. At the same time the Senate failed to acknowledge the emergence of a professional army or to do anything to provide for discharged soldiers who were no longer men of property, encouraging them to a closer bond with generals who offered them more. Yet, even under the empire, the institutions of Rome were to a great extent those of a citystate, but the emperors imposed more control of the system and encouraged the integration of first Italy and then the provinces. Institutions developed to support a permanent army, kept loyal to the emperor alone. Senators still held most of the senior positions in imperial government, although usually with authority delegated from the emperor, but the number of people, both citizen and non-citizen, benefiting from the regime was greatly increased. The empire, or Principate as it is more often known, gave Rome and the provinces a remarkable level of stability, broken only twice by civil war in the first two centuries of its existence, in comparison to the period from 133 BC to 31 BC. | <urn:uuid:62c1af45-9334-4f4f-b7a5-ac17cc19eb89> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780203494615/chapters/10.4324/9780203494615-14 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00354.warc.gz | en | 0.984457 | 381 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.5677594542503... | 1 | How the war ended The Ides of March
On 15 February 44, Caesar’s dictatorship and other powers were extended for life. A month later he was stabbed to death by a group of senators that included men who had served him for years, as well as pardoned Pompeians. Before discussing why the conspirators acted in this way, we must consider the difficult question of Caesar’s own long-term aims-a subject of continuing scholarly debate and little agreement. It has often been stated that the Roman Republic failed and was replaced by the rule of emperors because the system, designed to regulate the public affairs of a city-state, could not cope with the changed circumstances of governing a world empire. There is some truth in this as we have seen, for during the last years of the Republic it became increasingly difficult to accommodate and regulate the competition between a few overwhelmingly powerful individuals. At the same time the Senate failed to acknowledge the emergence of a professional army or to do anything to provide for discharged soldiers who were no longer men of property, encouraging them to a closer bond with generals who offered them more. Yet, even under the empire, the institutions of Rome were to a great extent those of a citystate, but the emperors imposed more control of the system and encouraged the integration of first Italy and then the provinces. Institutions developed to support a permanent army, kept loyal to the emperor alone. Senators still held most of the senior positions in imperial government, although usually with authority delegated from the emperor, but the number of people, both citizen and non-citizen, benefiting from the regime was greatly increased. The empire, or Principate as it is more often known, gave Rome and the provinces a remarkable level of stability, broken only twice by civil war in the first two centuries of its existence, in comparison to the period from 133 BC to 31 BC. | 382 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Claudio Monteverdi was an Italian Renaissance composer and a significant developer of new genre — ‘operas’. Working extensively in the tradition of early Renaissance polyphony and concurrently employing the basso continuo technique, an important feature of the Baroque period, he also became a bridge between these two distinctive eras of music history. Born in the middle of the sixteenth century in the Lombardy region of Italy, he studied music with Marc’Antonio Ingegneri, the maestro at the local cathedral. He started writing both religious and secular music early in his life, publishing his first work at the age of 15. Around the age of 22, he started his career as a string player at the Court of Mantua, being appointed to the position of the maestro di capella at the age of 35. Later, he moved to Venice, where he was appointed to the same post at the St. Mark’s. Remaining there till his death, he wrote much religious as well as secular music, also introducing secular elements into church music. 'La favola d'Orfeo', one of his first operas, is being regularly performed till now.
- Claudio Giovanni Antonio Monteverdi was born in 1567 in Cremona, Lombardy, Italy. Although his exact date of his birth is not known, the records at the church of SS Nazaro e Celso, Cremona states that he was baptized on 15 May 1567 as Claudio Zuan Antonio.At the time of his birth, Cremona was under the administration of Milan. But because Milan was assigned to Spain under the 1513 Treaty of Noyon he was technically born a Spanish citizen. However, he always considered himself an Italian.His father, Baldassare Monteverdi, was a barber surgeon and an apothecary while his mother, Maddalena Monteverdi née Zignani, was the daughter of a goldsmith. Claudio was the eldest of his parents’ six children, having three brothers and two sisters. His next brother, Giulio Cesare, also became a renowned musician.Claudio lost his mother when he was eight or nine years old. By then, Baldassare Monteverdi had made a modest move up the social ladder. In 1576 or 1577, he took a second wife, Giovanna Gadio, fathering three more children with her. But she too died early.His father next married Francesca Como; but this marriage was childless. In spite of having to adjust to two step mothers, Claudio remained emotionally close to his father, feeling empathy for his father’s repeated losses. It would one day have effect on many of his compositions.Apart from being an efficient apothecary, his father must have also been musical. At least, he was capable of appreciating the musical talent of his two eldest sons, both of whom began their training in music as choir boys at the local cathedral. However, there is no record about this.At some point of his boyhood, Claudio began to study music with Marc’Antonio Ingegneri, at that time the maestro di cappella of the Cremona Cathedral. However, there is no proof of this except Claudio’s own admission in his early publications.Ingegneri was a composer of international repute and a master of the musica reservata vocal style. Under his tutelage, Claudio not only learned to sing, but also developed mastery over violin and other instruments belonging to viol family.Ingegneri also grounded in his pupil the techniques of Renaissance polyphonic writing. Claudio Monteverdi’s first opus, published in 1582 from Vienna, provided clear indication of this. Entitled ‘Sacrae cantiunculae’, it was followed by ‘Madrigali spirituali’, printed in 1583 from Brescia. In both these publications, he claimed to be Ingegneri’s student.Continue Reading BelowRecommended Lists:
Recommended Lists:At Mantua
- Claudio Monteverdi began his career in music early in his life. At the time of publication of ‘Sacrae cantiunculae’, he was barely 15 years old. Thereafter, he continued writing and by the time he was 20, he had number of works, both religious and secular, in print.In 1587, in order to secure the patronage of Marco Verita, the Count of Verona, Monteverdi dedicated his ‘First Book of Madrigals’ to him; but it failed to achieve its objective. In the same year, he played ‘viola da braccio’ for Giacomo Ricardi, the President of the Senate of Milan.In 1589, he left Cremona to become a string player in the Court of Duke Vincenzo I Gonzaga of Mantua. At that time, the Duke was trying to establish his court as a center for music, appointing noted musicians from across Europe as his court musicians.It was an ideal place to learn and young Monteverdi greatly benefitted from such association, observing and later participating in the theatrical activities in the court. He was especially influenced by the Flemish musician Giaches de Wert, the maestro di capella at the court.In 1590, he had his ‘Second Book of Madrigals’ published from Venice. He dedicated the work to Giacomo Ricardi of Milan, perhaps indicating he was still looking for permanent position. But soon after that, the situation became more stable.By early 1590s, Monteverdi was able to establish his position at Mantua. When in 1592, he had ‘Third Book of Madrigals’ published, he dedicated the work to the Duke Vincenzo I Gonzaga. Thereafter for the next eleven years, he published very little. However, he continued to compose.One reason for the lull in his publication could be that he was embittered to be passed over for the post of Maestro di capella in 1596. But there was no doubt that the Duke held him in high esteem; asking Monteverdi to accompany him on his visits abroad.In 1595, Monteverdi accompanied the Duke on his military campaigns to Hungary. Once again in 1599, he was a part of the Duke’s entourage to Flanders, where he became acquainted with the French school of contemporary music. Later in 1600, he possibly accompanied the Duke on his trip to Florence.Maestro di capella
- In 1601, Benedetto Pallavicino, who had succeeded Giaches de Wert in 1596 as the maestro di capella, thus embittering Monteverdi, died. In 1602, 35 year old Monteverdi was appointed in his place. On finally achieving his goal, he once more started publishing his worksContinue Reading BelowIn 1603 and 1605, he published two more madrigals, both of which contained masterpieces. Although he still followed the meaning of the verse he often used intense and prolonged dissonance, which invited criticism from the more conservative musicians, chiefly Giovanni Maria Artusi, who attacked him in a series of pamphlets.Although initially Monteverdi was reluctant to reply he later made an important statement on the nature of his work. In it, he said that he was merely following a tradition that had been developing over a period of fifty years, which sought to create a union between words and music.The debate had a positive effect on his popularity, establishing him as a composer even outside northern Italy. Very soon, he became famous for his exquisite miniature works.In 1606, Francesco, who would succeed Duke Vincenzo in 1612, commissioned him to write an opera to a libretto by Alessandro Striggio, for the Carnival season of 1607. Entitled, 'La favola d'Orfeo', the opera was performed in February and March 1607, establishing him as a composer of large-scale music.Also in 1607, he wrote his second opera, ‘L'Arianna’, to a libretto of Ottavio Rinuccini for Francesco’s wedding to Margherita of Savoy, to be held in 1608. Concurrently, he wrote a ballet, 'Il ballo delle ingrate' and composed the music for an intermezzo to a play.The hard work affected his health and in 1608, he returned to Cremona, asking for an honorable dismissal. Increasingly poor remunerations were another reason for it. When his request was turned down and his remuneration was raised, he unwillingly returned to Mantua.Once in Mantua, he started looking for alternative position; but unhappy that he was, he did not remain unproductive. However, his works during this period reflected his deep depression. Among his works during this period, most significant was ‘Vesperis in Festis Beata Mariae Vergine’ (1610)In Venice
- After the death of Duke Vincenzo on 18 February 1612, Monteverdi was dismissed by his successor Duke Francesco, partly because of court intrigues and partly because of cost-cutting. Thereafter, he returned to Cremona, almost penniless, looking for alternative position. His brother, also a musician at the court, returned with him.When in 1613, Giulio Cesare Martineng, the maestro at San Marco in Venice, passed away, Claudio Monteverdi auditioned for his post, submitting music for a Mass. He received appointment as maestro di capella at San Marco in August 1613 and immediately moved to Venice.Continue Reading BelowAlthough Monteverdi was not a church musician, he took up his duties seriously, completely revitalizing music at the basilica, which had been declining since 1609. He held regular choral services and hired best musicians. Among them were would-be famous composers like Francesco Cavalli and Alessandro Grandi.He also wrote a lot of church music, which included among other pieces, two Masses, two Magnificats, a litany, dozens of psalm settings. In 1640, he published some of them in ‘Selva morale e spirituale’ while the rest were published posthumously in 1650. Concurrently, he also continued to write secular music.Claudio Monteverdi published his ‘Sixth Book of Madrigals’ in 1614. It would be followed by two more books on Madrigals, to be published in 1619 and 1638 respectively. Meanwhile, he also renewed his contact with the Court at Mantua, writing a ballet ‘Tirsi e Clori’, for Ferdinand of Mantua in 1616.He also tried to write a few operas for the Court at Mantua, abandoning them in the midway. Instead, he concentrated on creating a practical philosophy of music, which found expression in his 1624 dramatic cantata, ‘Il combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda’ and 1627 comic opera, whose score is now lost.Taking Holy Order
- In 1630, plague broke out in Venice, leaving Monteverdi without commission. Sometime now, he decided to take the Holy Order, being admitted to the tonsure in 1631. In November, as the epidemic was declared over, he wrote a grand mass for the thanksgiving service at San Marco.In 1632, he was ordained a deacon. In the same year, he published his second set of Scherzi musicali, the first set being published in 1607, when he was maestro at Mantua.Continuing to write both religious and secular music, he published a ballet entitled ‘Volgendo il ciel’ in 1637 and ‘Eighth Book of Madrigals’ in 1638. He was then 70 year old and his musical career was thought to be over by now. But it did not.Opera Writer
- In 1637, Venice saw the opening of his first opera. Already experienced in production of operas, it is natural that Monteverdi would be involved with from the very beginning. ‘L’Arianna’, written in 1607, was revived and performed.Throughout his life, he is believed to have written 18 operas and at least four of them in early 1640s. However, among the four, only two survive to this day.'Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria’, one of the surviving operas, was written for the carnival season of 1639-1640. Taken from the second half of Homer's Odyssey, the libretto was written by Giacomo Badoaro. Today, it is considered as one of the first modern operas.The other surviving opera, entitled ‘L'incoronazione di Poppea’, was written for 1643 carnival. Written to the libretto by Giovanni Francesco Busenello, it was one of the first operas to use historical events, describing how Emperor Nero’s mistress, Poppaea, became the crowned princess.Major Works
- Today, Claudio Monteverdi is remembered as one of the important developers of opera music. 'La favola d'Orfeo', first performed in 1607, is probably his most popular work in this genre. It is also one of the earliest surviving operas, which is still being regularly performed.Personal Life & Legacy
- In 1599, Monteverdi married Claudia de Cattaneo, a singer at the Court of Duke Vincenzo I Gonzaga of Mantua. They had three children; two sons named Francesco and Massimiliano and a daughter, Leonora, who died soon after her birth. Claudia also died in September 1607, leaving him devastated.Claudia Monteverdi died on 29 November 1643, at the age of 76, in Venice. He was buried at Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, also in Venice.His unpublished religious works were posthumously published in 1650. In the following year, unpublished lighter pieces such as canzonettas, which he seemed to have written throughout his life, were published as ‘Ninth Book of Madrigals’.
How To CiteArticle Title- Claudio Monteverdi BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/claudio-monteverdi-430.phpLast Updated- July 13, 2017
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0.37670835852... | 1 | Claudio Monteverdi was an Italian Renaissance composer and a significant developer of new genre — ‘operas’. Working extensively in the tradition of early Renaissance polyphony and concurrently employing the basso continuo technique, an important feature of the Baroque period, he also became a bridge between these two distinctive eras of music history. Born in the middle of the sixteenth century in the Lombardy region of Italy, he studied music with Marc’Antonio Ingegneri, the maestro at the local cathedral. He started writing both religious and secular music early in his life, publishing his first work at the age of 15. Around the age of 22, he started his career as a string player at the Court of Mantua, being appointed to the position of the maestro di capella at the age of 35. Later, he moved to Venice, where he was appointed to the same post at the St. Mark’s. Remaining there till his death, he wrote much religious as well as secular music, also introducing secular elements into church music. 'La favola d'Orfeo', one of his first operas, is being regularly performed till now.
- Claudio Giovanni Antonio Monteverdi was born in 1567 in Cremona, Lombardy, Italy. Although his exact date of his birth is not known, the records at the church of SS Nazaro e Celso, Cremona states that he was baptized on 15 May 1567 as Claudio Zuan Antonio.At the time of his birth, Cremona was under the administration of Milan. But because Milan was assigned to Spain under the 1513 Treaty of Noyon he was technically born a Spanish citizen. However, he always considered himself an Italian.His father, Baldassare Monteverdi, was a barber surgeon and an apothecary while his mother, Maddalena Monteverdi née Zignani, was the daughter of a goldsmith. Claudio was the eldest of his parents’ six children, having three brothers and two sisters. His next brother, Giulio Cesare, also became a renowned musician.Claudio lost his mother when he was eight or nine years old. By then, Baldassare Monteverdi had made a modest move up the social ladder. In 1576 or 1577, he took a second wife, Giovanna Gadio, fathering three more children with her. But she too died early.His father next married Francesca Como; but this marriage was childless. In spite of having to adjust to two step mothers, Claudio remained emotionally close to his father, feeling empathy for his father’s repeated losses. It would one day have effect on many of his compositions.Apart from being an efficient apothecary, his father must have also been musical. At least, he was capable of appreciating the musical talent of his two eldest sons, both of whom began their training in music as choir boys at the local cathedral. However, there is no record about this.At some point of his boyhood, Claudio began to study music with Marc’Antonio Ingegneri, at that time the maestro di cappella of the Cremona Cathedral. However, there is no proof of this except Claudio’s own admission in his early publications.Ingegneri was a composer of international repute and a master of the musica reservata vocal style. Under his tutelage, Claudio not only learned to sing, but also developed mastery over violin and other instruments belonging to viol family.Ingegneri also grounded in his pupil the techniques of Renaissance polyphonic writing. Claudio Monteverdi’s first opus, published in 1582 from Vienna, provided clear indication of this. Entitled ‘Sacrae cantiunculae’, it was followed by ‘Madrigali spirituali’, printed in 1583 from Brescia. In both these publications, he claimed to be Ingegneri’s student.Continue Reading BelowRecommended Lists:
Recommended Lists:At Mantua
- Claudio Monteverdi began his career in music early in his life. At the time of publication of ‘Sacrae cantiunculae’, he was barely 15 years old. Thereafter, he continued writing and by the time he was 20, he had number of works, both religious and secular, in print.In 1587, in order to secure the patronage of Marco Verita, the Count of Verona, Monteverdi dedicated his ‘First Book of Madrigals’ to him; but it failed to achieve its objective. In the same year, he played ‘viola da braccio’ for Giacomo Ricardi, the President of the Senate of Milan.In 1589, he left Cremona to become a string player in the Court of Duke Vincenzo I Gonzaga of Mantua. At that time, the Duke was trying to establish his court as a center for music, appointing noted musicians from across Europe as his court musicians.It was an ideal place to learn and young Monteverdi greatly benefitted from such association, observing and later participating in the theatrical activities in the court. He was especially influenced by the Flemish musician Giaches de Wert, the maestro di capella at the court.In 1590, he had his ‘Second Book of Madrigals’ published from Venice. He dedicated the work to Giacomo Ricardi of Milan, perhaps indicating he was still looking for permanent position. But soon after that, the situation became more stable.By early 1590s, Monteverdi was able to establish his position at Mantua. When in 1592, he had ‘Third Book of Madrigals’ published, he dedicated the work to the Duke Vincenzo I Gonzaga. Thereafter for the next eleven years, he published very little. However, he continued to compose.One reason for the lull in his publication could be that he was embittered to be passed over for the post of Maestro di capella in 1596. But there was no doubt that the Duke held him in high esteem; asking Monteverdi to accompany him on his visits abroad.In 1595, Monteverdi accompanied the Duke on his military campaigns to Hungary. Once again in 1599, he was a part of the Duke’s entourage to Flanders, where he became acquainted with the French school of contemporary music. Later in 1600, he possibly accompanied the Duke on his trip to Florence.Maestro di capella
- In 1601, Benedetto Pallavicino, who had succeeded Giaches de Wert in 1596 as the maestro di capella, thus embittering Monteverdi, died. In 1602, 35 year old Monteverdi was appointed in his place. On finally achieving his goal, he once more started publishing his worksContinue Reading BelowIn 1603 and 1605, he published two more madrigals, both of which contained masterpieces. Although he still followed the meaning of the verse he often used intense and prolonged dissonance, which invited criticism from the more conservative musicians, chiefly Giovanni Maria Artusi, who attacked him in a series of pamphlets.Although initially Monteverdi was reluctant to reply he later made an important statement on the nature of his work. In it, he said that he was merely following a tradition that had been developing over a period of fifty years, which sought to create a union between words and music.The debate had a positive effect on his popularity, establishing him as a composer even outside northern Italy. Very soon, he became famous for his exquisite miniature works.In 1606, Francesco, who would succeed Duke Vincenzo in 1612, commissioned him to write an opera to a libretto by Alessandro Striggio, for the Carnival season of 1607. Entitled, 'La favola d'Orfeo', the opera was performed in February and March 1607, establishing him as a composer of large-scale music.Also in 1607, he wrote his second opera, ‘L'Arianna’, to a libretto of Ottavio Rinuccini for Francesco’s wedding to Margherita of Savoy, to be held in 1608. Concurrently, he wrote a ballet, 'Il ballo delle ingrate' and composed the music for an intermezzo to a play.The hard work affected his health and in 1608, he returned to Cremona, asking for an honorable dismissal. Increasingly poor remunerations were another reason for it. When his request was turned down and his remuneration was raised, he unwillingly returned to Mantua.Once in Mantua, he started looking for alternative position; but unhappy that he was, he did not remain unproductive. However, his works during this period reflected his deep depression. Among his works during this period, most significant was ‘Vesperis in Festis Beata Mariae Vergine’ (1610)In Venice
- After the death of Duke Vincenzo on 18 February 1612, Monteverdi was dismissed by his successor Duke Francesco, partly because of court intrigues and partly because of cost-cutting. Thereafter, he returned to Cremona, almost penniless, looking for alternative position. His brother, also a musician at the court, returned with him.When in 1613, Giulio Cesare Martineng, the maestro at San Marco in Venice, passed away, Claudio Monteverdi auditioned for his post, submitting music for a Mass. He received appointment as maestro di capella at San Marco in August 1613 and immediately moved to Venice.Continue Reading BelowAlthough Monteverdi was not a church musician, he took up his duties seriously, completely revitalizing music at the basilica, which had been declining since 1609. He held regular choral services and hired best musicians. Among them were would-be famous composers like Francesco Cavalli and Alessandro Grandi.He also wrote a lot of church music, which included among other pieces, two Masses, two Magnificats, a litany, dozens of psalm settings. In 1640, he published some of them in ‘Selva morale e spirituale’ while the rest were published posthumously in 1650. Concurrently, he also continued to write secular music.Claudio Monteverdi published his ‘Sixth Book of Madrigals’ in 1614. It would be followed by two more books on Madrigals, to be published in 1619 and 1638 respectively. Meanwhile, he also renewed his contact with the Court at Mantua, writing a ballet ‘Tirsi e Clori’, for Ferdinand of Mantua in 1616.He also tried to write a few operas for the Court at Mantua, abandoning them in the midway. Instead, he concentrated on creating a practical philosophy of music, which found expression in his 1624 dramatic cantata, ‘Il combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda’ and 1627 comic opera, whose score is now lost.Taking Holy Order
- In 1630, plague broke out in Venice, leaving Monteverdi without commission. Sometime now, he decided to take the Holy Order, being admitted to the tonsure in 1631. In November, as the epidemic was declared over, he wrote a grand mass for the thanksgiving service at San Marco.In 1632, he was ordained a deacon. In the same year, he published his second set of Scherzi musicali, the first set being published in 1607, when he was maestro at Mantua.Continuing to write both religious and secular music, he published a ballet entitled ‘Volgendo il ciel’ in 1637 and ‘Eighth Book of Madrigals’ in 1638. He was then 70 year old and his musical career was thought to be over by now. But it did not.Opera Writer
- In 1637, Venice saw the opening of his first opera. Already experienced in production of operas, it is natural that Monteverdi would be involved with from the very beginning. ‘L’Arianna’, written in 1607, was revived and performed.Throughout his life, he is believed to have written 18 operas and at least four of them in early 1640s. However, among the four, only two survive to this day.'Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria’, one of the surviving operas, was written for the carnival season of 1639-1640. Taken from the second half of Homer's Odyssey, the libretto was written by Giacomo Badoaro. Today, it is considered as one of the first modern operas.The other surviving opera, entitled ‘L'incoronazione di Poppea’, was written for 1643 carnival. Written to the libretto by Giovanni Francesco Busenello, it was one of the first operas to use historical events, describing how Emperor Nero’s mistress, Poppaea, became the crowned princess.Major Works
- Today, Claudio Monteverdi is remembered as one of the important developers of opera music. 'La favola d'Orfeo', first performed in 1607, is probably his most popular work in this genre. It is also one of the earliest surviving operas, which is still being regularly performed.Personal Life & Legacy
- In 1599, Monteverdi married Claudia de Cattaneo, a singer at the Court of Duke Vincenzo I Gonzaga of Mantua. They had three children; two sons named Francesco and Massimiliano and a daughter, Leonora, who died soon after her birth. Claudia also died in September 1607, leaving him devastated.Claudia Monteverdi died on 29 November 1643, at the age of 76, in Venice. He was buried at Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari, also in Venice.His unpublished religious works were posthumously published in 1650. In the following year, unpublished lighter pieces such as canzonettas, which he seemed to have written throughout his life, were published as ‘Ninth Book of Madrigals’.
How To CiteArticle Title- Claudio Monteverdi BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/claudio-monteverdi-430.phpLast Updated- July 13, 2017
People Also Viewed | 3,162 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Remembering the Fallen: on this day in 1917, Second Lieutenant David Moore Riddell, of 16th Battalion, The Kings (Liverpool Regiment), died in consequence of wounds received over a year earlier on the Western Front. He had been an engineering student before the Great War, and was the youngest of four siblings. He was wounded in the Capture of Trones Wood, which was fought from the 8th to the 14th of July in 1916, between the British 4th Army and the German 2nd Army, during the Battle of the Somme. The 16th Battalion was formed in December of 1914 at Hoylake, Merseyside, and was a Service battalion until April of 1915 when it became a Reserve battalion.
The British made eight attacks on the enemy, the first seven of which failed due to strong enemy machine gun fire from points along the railway through the wood, which were difficult to capture, and only 14% of British battalions were attacking each day. It was recorded that artillery support was poorly co-ordinated, and very little ground was won. The British were considered to have mainly succeeded, despite poor planning and co-ordination, because the German defensive positions had been overrun and much of the German artillery previously in the area had been destroyed, otherwise the attack was considered to have been potentially disastrous. The British were able to take the wood, suffering nearly 4,000 casualties most of which were injured rather than killed. At the end of this battle all the trees in the wood had been toppled, an eyewitness stating that all that could be seen were tree trunks, barbed wire and human remains. The area was later used for accommodation, and the various battalions’ headquarters were set up there.
Second Lieutenant Riddell was sent home, the hope being that he would eventually recover, but fourteen months after the battle he died from the consequences of his injuries. He is buried in the Belfast City Cemetery. David, From Antrim in Northern Ireland, was 25 years old. | <urn:uuid:b3dcb315-7b0c-41b1-ab2e-8565ceda586c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.britisharmedforcesthebest.com/single-post/2017/09/23/Second-Lieutenant-David-Moore-Riddell-16th-Battalion-The-Kings-Liverpool-Regiment | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00513.warc.gz | en | 0.996166 | 407 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.440175... | 2 | Remembering the Fallen: on this day in 1917, Second Lieutenant David Moore Riddell, of 16th Battalion, The Kings (Liverpool Regiment), died in consequence of wounds received over a year earlier on the Western Front. He had been an engineering student before the Great War, and was the youngest of four siblings. He was wounded in the Capture of Trones Wood, which was fought from the 8th to the 14th of July in 1916, between the British 4th Army and the German 2nd Army, during the Battle of the Somme. The 16th Battalion was formed in December of 1914 at Hoylake, Merseyside, and was a Service battalion until April of 1915 when it became a Reserve battalion.
The British made eight attacks on the enemy, the first seven of which failed due to strong enemy machine gun fire from points along the railway through the wood, which were difficult to capture, and only 14% of British battalions were attacking each day. It was recorded that artillery support was poorly co-ordinated, and very little ground was won. The British were considered to have mainly succeeded, despite poor planning and co-ordination, because the German defensive positions had been overrun and much of the German artillery previously in the area had been destroyed, otherwise the attack was considered to have been potentially disastrous. The British were able to take the wood, suffering nearly 4,000 casualties most of which were injured rather than killed. At the end of this battle all the trees in the wood had been toppled, an eyewitness stating that all that could be seen were tree trunks, barbed wire and human remains. The area was later used for accommodation, and the various battalions’ headquarters were set up there.
Second Lieutenant Riddell was sent home, the hope being that he would eventually recover, but fourteen months after the battle he died from the consequences of his injuries. He is buried in the Belfast City Cemetery. David, From Antrim in Northern Ireland, was 25 years old. | 437 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why do babies kick so much in the womb? Pregnant women have been asking themselves that question for ages. Recent research suggests one possible explanation.
A November 2018 study published in Scientific Reports suggests that these kicks in the womb might allow a baby to map out his or her body and eventually explore nearby surroundings later on. For the study, researchers measured the brainwaves of 19 newborns while they were asleep. Researchers found that these infants had quite fast brainwaves when they kicked their limbs during a period of their slumber called rapid eye movement sleep.
While these new babies in question were obviously already out of the womb, researchers pointed out that these particular kind of brainwaves were at the largest size for premature babies (who were technically supposed to still be in the womb at that time).
“Spontaneous movement and consequent feedback from the environment during the early developmental period are known to be necessary for proper brain mapping in animals such as rats,” said study author Lorenzo Fabrizi, PhD, in a press release. “Here we showed that this may be true in humans, too.”
Though these special types of brainwaves typically stop happening for babies after they are a few weeks old, they may have a lasting impact on how the tiny human develops a sense of his or her body, researchers say.
“We think the findings have implications for providing the optimal hospital environment for infants born early, so that they receive appropriate sensory input. For example, it is already routine for infants to be ‘nested’ in their cots — this allows them to ‘feel’ a surface when their limbs kick, as if they were still inside the womb,” said fellow author Kimberley Whitehead. “As the movements we observed occur during sleep, our results support other studies which indicate that sleep should be protected in newborns, for example by minimizing the disturbance associated with necessary medical procedures.”
Turns out all that pain from the kicking was worth it after all! | <urn:uuid:5663f93b-3bb1-4407-b500-6d64355ad17e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.womansworld.com/posts/family/why-babies-kick-in-the-womb-168681 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00296.warc.gz | en | 0.980368 | 413 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.4605383872985... | 14 | Why do babies kick so much in the womb? Pregnant women have been asking themselves that question for ages. Recent research suggests one possible explanation.
A November 2018 study published in Scientific Reports suggests that these kicks in the womb might allow a baby to map out his or her body and eventually explore nearby surroundings later on. For the study, researchers measured the brainwaves of 19 newborns while they were asleep. Researchers found that these infants had quite fast brainwaves when they kicked their limbs during a period of their slumber called rapid eye movement sleep.
While these new babies in question were obviously already out of the womb, researchers pointed out that these particular kind of brainwaves were at the largest size for premature babies (who were technically supposed to still be in the womb at that time).
“Spontaneous movement and consequent feedback from the environment during the early developmental period are known to be necessary for proper brain mapping in animals such as rats,” said study author Lorenzo Fabrizi, PhD, in a press release. “Here we showed that this may be true in humans, too.”
Though these special types of brainwaves typically stop happening for babies after they are a few weeks old, they may have a lasting impact on how the tiny human develops a sense of his or her body, researchers say.
“We think the findings have implications for providing the optimal hospital environment for infants born early, so that they receive appropriate sensory input. For example, it is already routine for infants to be ‘nested’ in their cots — this allows them to ‘feel’ a surface when their limbs kick, as if they were still inside the womb,” said fellow author Kimberley Whitehead. “As the movements we observed occur during sleep, our results support other studies which indicate that sleep should be protected in newborns, for example by minimizing the disturbance associated with necessary medical procedures.”
Turns out all that pain from the kicking was worth it after all! | 394 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Walcheren Campaign was an unsuccessful British expedition to the Netherlands in 1809 intended to open another front in the Austrian Empire's struggle with France during the War of the Fifth Coalition. Around 40,000 soldiers, 15,000 horses together with field artillery and two siege trains crossed the North Sea and landed at Walcheren on 30July. This was the largest British expedition of that year, larger than the army serving in the Peninsular War in Portugal. The Walcheren Campaign involved little fighting, but heavy losses from the sickness popularly dubbed "Walcheren Fever". Although more than 4,000 British troops died during the expedition, only 106 died in combat; the survivors withdrew on 9December.
In July 1809, the British decided to seal the mouth of the Scheldt to prevent the port of Antwerp being used as a base against them. The primary aim of the campaign was to destroy the French fleet thought to be in Flushing whilst providing a diversion for the hard-pressed Austrians. However, the Battle of Wagram had already occurred before the start of the campaign and the Austrians had effectively already lost the war.
John Pitt, 2nd Earl of Chatham commanded the army, whilst Sir Richard Strachan commanded the navy, the full expeditionary force of 37 ships, the greatest which had ever left England, leaving The Downs on 28 July. Commanders included Hugh Downman, Edward Codrington, Amelius Beauclerk, William Charles Fahie, George Cockburn and George Dundas.
As a first move, the British seized the swampy island of Walcheren at the mouth of river Scheldt, as well as South Beveland island, both in the present-day Netherlands. The British troops soon began to suffer from malaria; within a month of seizing the island, they had over 8,000 fever cases. The medical provisions for the expedition proved inadequate despite reports that an occupying French force had lost 80% of its numbers a few years earlier, also due to disease. Once it had been decided to garrison Walcheren Island in September 1809, Pitt was replaced by Lieutenant-general Eyre Coote who in October was replaced by Lieutenant-general George Don.
At the time of the initial landings, the French forces were characterized by a divided command over a motley crew of units manned by soldiers of many nationalities spanning French-occupied Europe. There were a few French units among those present considered to be of inferior quality as they were manned by the physically infirm and dregs of the training depots. However, on 10 August 1809, as reinforcements began flowing into the invasion zone, Napoleon approved the appointment of Marshal Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, the Prince of Ponte Corvo, who had recently been stripped of his command after disobeying orders at the Battle of Wagram as overall commander of the invasion zone. Dismissed from Napoleon's Grande Armée, Bernadotte returned to Paris and was sent to defend the Netherlands by the council of ministers. His arrival gave the French a much-needed unity of command and he brought with him a genius for organization and training. Bernadotte led the reinforced and reorganized French forces competently and although the British had captured Flushing on the day of his arrival to the war zone after a ferocious bombardment, and the surrounding towns on 15 August, he had already ordered the French fleet to Antwerp and heavily reinforced the city. The French numbers were such that the main objective for the British, Antwerp, was now out of reach. The expedition was called off in early September. Around 12,000 troops stayed on Walcheren, but by October only 5,500 remained fit for duty.
In all, the British government spent almost £8 million on the campaign. Along with the 4,000 men that had died during the campaign, almost 12,000 were still ill by February 1810 and many others remained permanently weakened. Those sent to the Peninsular War to join Wellington's army caused a permanent doubling of the sick lists there.
A fleet of around 40 vessels, including sixteen 74 gun warships of the third rate, participated under the overall command of Rear Admiral James Bissett. A number of smaller vessels including customs-house and excise cutters were also involved, as was a packet ship. The City of London, Loyal Greenwich, and Royal Harbour River Fencibles also contributed men to the expedition.
The 1st battalion of the Irish Legion (raised by the French for an invasion of Ireland that never happened) was stationed in Flushing during the assault and received its baptism of fire there. It fought a rear guard action for several days but the battalion was almost completely captured. The Legion's brass band followed by the Irish battalion led the surrendered French garrison out of the town. However, a small party of Irishmen escaped and went into hiding with the battalion's cherished imperial eagle, and after a few days they crossed the Scheldt River and escaped. Commandant Lawless was presented to Napoleon and he together with Captain O'Reilly received the Légion d'honneur in gratitude. | <urn:uuid:6ca47710-db1d-4136-8232-9a5de0de6887> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://popflock.com/learn?s=Walcheren_Campaign | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00322.warc.gz | en | 0.984231 | 1,052 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.3630388975143... | 1 | The Walcheren Campaign was an unsuccessful British expedition to the Netherlands in 1809 intended to open another front in the Austrian Empire's struggle with France during the War of the Fifth Coalition. Around 40,000 soldiers, 15,000 horses together with field artillery and two siege trains crossed the North Sea and landed at Walcheren on 30July. This was the largest British expedition of that year, larger than the army serving in the Peninsular War in Portugal. The Walcheren Campaign involved little fighting, but heavy losses from the sickness popularly dubbed "Walcheren Fever". Although more than 4,000 British troops died during the expedition, only 106 died in combat; the survivors withdrew on 9December.
In July 1809, the British decided to seal the mouth of the Scheldt to prevent the port of Antwerp being used as a base against them. The primary aim of the campaign was to destroy the French fleet thought to be in Flushing whilst providing a diversion for the hard-pressed Austrians. However, the Battle of Wagram had already occurred before the start of the campaign and the Austrians had effectively already lost the war.
John Pitt, 2nd Earl of Chatham commanded the army, whilst Sir Richard Strachan commanded the navy, the full expeditionary force of 37 ships, the greatest which had ever left England, leaving The Downs on 28 July. Commanders included Hugh Downman, Edward Codrington, Amelius Beauclerk, William Charles Fahie, George Cockburn and George Dundas.
As a first move, the British seized the swampy island of Walcheren at the mouth of river Scheldt, as well as South Beveland island, both in the present-day Netherlands. The British troops soon began to suffer from malaria; within a month of seizing the island, they had over 8,000 fever cases. The medical provisions for the expedition proved inadequate despite reports that an occupying French force had lost 80% of its numbers a few years earlier, also due to disease. Once it had been decided to garrison Walcheren Island in September 1809, Pitt was replaced by Lieutenant-general Eyre Coote who in October was replaced by Lieutenant-general George Don.
At the time of the initial landings, the French forces were characterized by a divided command over a motley crew of units manned by soldiers of many nationalities spanning French-occupied Europe. There were a few French units among those present considered to be of inferior quality as they were manned by the physically infirm and dregs of the training depots. However, on 10 August 1809, as reinforcements began flowing into the invasion zone, Napoleon approved the appointment of Marshal Jean-Baptiste Bernadotte, the Prince of Ponte Corvo, who had recently been stripped of his command after disobeying orders at the Battle of Wagram as overall commander of the invasion zone. Dismissed from Napoleon's Grande Armée, Bernadotte returned to Paris and was sent to defend the Netherlands by the council of ministers. His arrival gave the French a much-needed unity of command and he brought with him a genius for organization and training. Bernadotte led the reinforced and reorganized French forces competently and although the British had captured Flushing on the day of his arrival to the war zone after a ferocious bombardment, and the surrounding towns on 15 August, he had already ordered the French fleet to Antwerp and heavily reinforced the city. The French numbers were such that the main objective for the British, Antwerp, was now out of reach. The expedition was called off in early September. Around 12,000 troops stayed on Walcheren, but by October only 5,500 remained fit for duty.
In all, the British government spent almost £8 million on the campaign. Along with the 4,000 men that had died during the campaign, almost 12,000 were still ill by February 1810 and many others remained permanently weakened. Those sent to the Peninsular War to join Wellington's army caused a permanent doubling of the sick lists there.
A fleet of around 40 vessels, including sixteen 74 gun warships of the third rate, participated under the overall command of Rear Admiral James Bissett. A number of smaller vessels including customs-house and excise cutters were also involved, as was a packet ship. The City of London, Loyal Greenwich, and Royal Harbour River Fencibles also contributed men to the expedition.
The 1st battalion of the Irish Legion (raised by the French for an invasion of Ireland that never happened) was stationed in Flushing during the assault and received its baptism of fire there. It fought a rear guard action for several days but the battalion was almost completely captured. The Legion's brass band followed by the Irish battalion led the surrendered French garrison out of the town. However, a small party of Irishmen escaped and went into hiding with the battalion's cherished imperial eagle, and after a few days they crossed the Scheldt River and escaped. Commandant Lawless was presented to Napoleon and he together with Captain O'Reilly received the Légion d'honneur in gratitude. | 1,106 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the article on The Historicity of the Patriarchs, Abraham's birthdate was set at , and in the article on The Primeval Point of Origin, estimates for the birthdates of his ancestors were given, back to Adam being born in . (See Table 1.) Significant parallels between the secular history and the stories of the first two generations in the Torah were identified. This article examines the historicity of successive generations, especially Enoch, Noah, Ham, & Peleg.
The Talmud has Enoch (generation #7 in Table 1) as the one who introduced writing & mathematics.1 The Sumerians seem to have invented such practices in the , so what would have happened in Enoch's time? Eusebius said that Enoch was Babylonian,2:b9:ch17 and Table 1 has him being born in , and thus 70 years old at the outset of the 1st Babylonian Dynasty (). So he would have witnessed the resurrection of Sumerian knowledge by the Babylonians. But in what sense was he the one to "introduce" writing & mathematics? The Torah says that Enoch walked with God,3 who could have been just an Egyptian pharaoh. If so, the pharaoh in would have been Amenemhat III, the most significant ruler of the 12th Dynasty. And the oldest mathematical documents in Egypt have been dated to his reign.4 So it sounds like Enoch the Babylonian introduced Sumerian mathematics to the Egyptians.
And what about the "introduction" of writing? The development of the Proto-Sinaitic script, upon which Paleo-Hebrew was based, also seems to have occurred in roughly the same period, being variously dated to the 11th or 12th Egyptian Dynasties.5,6,7,8,9:129-156 The dating isn't specific enough to definitely put it in Enoch's tenure, and the script wasn't Babylonian — it was a shorthand for Egyptian hieroglyphics.10:23 Still it's possible that its invention was inspired by Babylonian influences during this period, and could have even been devised by a Babylonian, just as the Japanese katakana script was developed by foreigners as a shorthand for Chinese pictographs. So if "writing" means Proto-Sinaitic, it was introduced to the Egyptians in roughly the same period as mathematics, and this is where Enoch appears on the timeline.
Enoch's father was Jared, in whose time the "Watchers" first appeared, as angels sent to Earth to instruct the children.11:4:15 Since Enoch was one of those children, and since Enoch was the one who took writing & mathematics to Egypt, which he got from the Babylonians, the "Watchers" who taught him would have been Babylonians. A later passage on one of the sons of Arpachshad says that "the Watchers observed the omens of the sun and moon and stars in all the signs of heaven."11:8:3 This also points to Babylonians, who were preserving the Sumerian study of astronomy. Thus the term "Watcher" might have meant "Star Gazer," while it sounds like they were more astrologers than astronomers.
Next, Africanus relayed the Greek flood myth,2:b10:ch10:pg262 which many scholars consider to have been inspired by the story of Noah (#10). Interestingly, the Greek version gives the date of (i.e., 1020 years before the First Olympiad in ), which puts it in Noah's time (born in per Table 1). Africanus went on to say that after the flood, they went without a king for 189 years. If "The Flood" occurred when Noah was a mature man, it would have been , when he would have been 43 years old. If so, the 189 years without a king would have been . And that was precisely the period in which the Hyksos dominated the Nile delta. So it sounds like the Greeks didn't consider the Hyksos to be kings, taking the whole period as an interlude, as did the Egyptians.
Note that there is no archaeological evidence of a flood of "biblical" proportions in this timeframe. It's possible that there was "a" flood in Noah's time, which might have been worth mentioning (see below), while subsequent redaction assimilated flood myths from other cultures, getting Noah to preside over "the" flood. For example, there are substantial similarities between Noah and a character named Utnapishtim in the Epic of Gilgamesh,12 fragments of which have been dated to , while linguistic analysis suggests that it was composed even earlier than that.13:13 The flood that inspired the Epic would have been earlier still, perhaps around ,14:19 meaning that it couldn't have been the same as the flood in Noah's time (). The most recent flood on a more "biblical" scale would have been the flooding of the Black Sea .15 This was before the invention of writing, so the story could have only been preserved orally, if at all. Others have called attention to an even earlier, though more global phenomenon, even if it wasn't a floor per se — fossils of marine organisms, especially shellfish such as clams and other molluscs, and sometimes fish, can be found in relatively high elevations in many places around the world, including Egypt and Libya,16:303-306 Lebanon,17:412-415 and in the mountains and hills of Armenia,18:70 Syria,18:89,96 Israel,18:249,267 Egypt,18:292 and Jordan.18:299,304 The ancient observer would have taken this as evidence of a global flood, which would have gotten an obligatory mention in any story of origins.
As concerns the flood in Noah's time, most scholars looking for historicity assume that the flood would have been a river overflowing; others have studied tsunamis. Recent research has identified another possibility — there is evidence of a meteoric airburst over the Dead Sea in the Middle Bronze Age, around .19 The explosion knocked down mud-brick walls up to 10 km away, and with just half the energy of the airburst over Tunguska, Siberia in (which knocked down trees over 30 km away). The flash was bright enough to instantly vitrify clay, as if it had been fired in a kiln for hours. Surely anybody nearby looking directly at the airburst would have been blinded. The shock wave in the air also would have created a wave in the Dead Sea that would have crashed ashore and flooded the surrounding farms with salt water. This might explain why the land was barren through the Late Bronze Age, and wasn't cultivated again until early in the Iron Age — salt water is toxic to wheat & barley. Thus "The Flood" could have been simply a wave of biblical proportions in the Dead Sea. It might be significant that the oldest copy of a flood story has been dated to .20 With that as the terminus ante quem, an airburst in is still a legitimate candidate for the original event, or at least one of them. It's also possible that there were existing flood myths, but the event in was so momentous that it just had to be committed to writing, at which time the existing myths were fused.
The authors of the airburst research note significant parallels with the peculiar story of Sodom & Gomorrah in Genesis 19, such as the blinding light, people becoming entombed in salt (such as Lot's wife), and fire raining down from above, which would have been the meteor shower after the airburst. In the Torah, the destruction of Sodom & Gomorrah occurred on Abraham's watch, and the radiocarbon date of for the airburst would seem to confirm of the Masoretic chronology, in which Abraham was born in . In the present thesis, Abraham couldn't have been born much before , which was already much too late for him to have witnessed the event. was closer to the time of Noah, born in , suggesting that Noah's Flood was part of the destruction of Sodom & Gomorrah. The Akkadian account of the event describes both fire from above and a wave — just not from the open ocean,21:115 which is how an unusually large wave in the Dead Sea would have been described. Destruction by both fire & flood was also mentioned by Philo, Josephus, and others in the ,22:48,23:70-71 though they accepted the conventional chronology, in which the fire & flood were not coupled. Still, the Torah itself strongly implies that Sodom & Gomorrah were subjected to a flood in addition to fire from above in that the inhabitants sought safety in the hills, which is how one gets away from a flood, but not how one gets away from a flaming meteor shower and flash fires all around, where going for a swim would be a better idea.
If an airburst was responsible for both the destruction of Sodom & Gomorrah and Noah's Flood, we have to wonder why later redactors would have split the single event into two different stories, with the flood occurring in Noah's time, and the rain of fire in Abraham's. Perhaps the date of the airburst () was well known, but when the Deuteronomists established the conventional chronology, the airburst fell in Abraham's tenure, and they had to make that work. They could easily add the destruction of Sodom & Gomorrah to Abraham's story, there being no conflicting information about those cities already, since they were uninhabited in Abraham's time. And in Noah's story, without the details of the airburst, the scribes had more poetic license, allowing them to incorporate deluge lore from other sources, broadening their appeal. So as redaction goes, this would have been an easy job.
Figure 1. Hammurabi receiving the laws (symbolized by a measuring rod and tape) from the seated Shamash, the Babylonian god of justice.
After the flood, Shelah (#13) was the cousin of Nimrod, who was said to have been the first "mighty man" on Earth, beginning as the lord of Babel (i.e., Babylon), and then expanding his domain to Nineveh.24 The only Babylonian ruler coming close to fitting that description was Hammurabi (i.e., Ham the Amorite). (See Figure 1.) So at first blush it looks like Nimrod was Hammurabi. But the timing could be more comfortable. A recent analysis of astronomical records from Babylon has fixed Hammurabi's rule in the period of .25:255 If Nimrod was the same age as Shelah, he was born in , which was 27 years after the death of Hammurabi in . It's easier to see Nimrod's grandfather Ham in the timeframe of Hammurabi. If those two were the same person, and if we fuse their stories, Ham the Amorite (#11), brother of Shem (#11) and son of Noah (#10), was able to greatly expand his domain in the aftermath of an airburst and its accompanying inland flood, which sounds like a better fit all of the way around.
We can also note that after The Flood, the records of the Patriarchs, and the Babylonian political records, started preserving realistic ages for the key personnel. Such a radical change in the approach to record-keeping, occurring in two bodies of literature, which probably emanated from the same region, in more or less the same period, strongly suggests that it was the same change, thus synchronizing the two literary sources. The reason for the change would have been that the mighty man Ham the Amorite (Hammurabi) had spread the use of writing & mathematics over a large enough territory that creative time-keeping was no longer practical. Perhaps this was when Adam's birthdate was shifted back to , thus honoring the Sumerian tradition of the beginning of time[keeping] as well as the Amorite tradition of Adam & Eve being the first couple. The fusion of these traditions would have legitimized Hammurabi's right to rule the two dominant ethnic groups in Mesopotamia at the time. It would have required assigning super-human lifespans to the antediluvian Patriarchs, but that itself would have been consistent with Babylonian traditions.
Note that if Ham was Hammurabi, who rose to power in , he had to have been at least in his mid-twenties at the time, meaning that he had to have been born not much before and not much after , making him 26 years old when he assumed power in , and 68 years old when he died in . His younger brother Shem would have been born later, which in Table 1 is set to . Then the birthdates between Enosh & Shem in Table 1 were simply interpolated, which worked out to 32.5 years per generation, which is realistic, and close to the average of 31.4 years per generation for Arpachshad through Nahor.
Hammurabi might also show up in the Torah as Amraphel, king of Shinar (i.e., Babylonia) during the rebellion against Chedorlaomer.26:299,27,28 This is difficult for the conventional chronology, which can't have Ham capturing Lot, who arrived ten generations later. But the identification of Amraphel with Nimrod appears several times in the Talmud.29:53a,30:G14 And like most other feats attributed to Nimrod, the actions of Amraphel are a better fit for Ham's time. For Amraphel to be the subordinate of the king of Elam puts the Battle of Siddim before the Amorite conquest of Mesopotamia, which would have been before the Flood. For Sodom & Gomorrah to be looted also puts the events before the Flood, if both cities were destroyed by it. Before the Flood, Ham would have been a young man, and Nimrod wouldn't have been born yet, so Ham[murabi]-Amraphel would have been the king of Babylon participating in the Battle of Siddim.26:299 His senior confederate Chedorlaomer was mentioned in inscriptions from Hammurabi's time,31:600 and independently identified as Kudur-Mabuk,26:135 who ruled Elam . Another confederate, Arioch of Ellasar, was also a contemporary of Hammurabi,32:3-4 while Tidal king of Goiim is thought to have been Tudhaliya, the Hittite king somewhere in the range of .33 These identifications have all been challenged, but we should note that they were all made before the dates converged on precisely the same period, meaning that the literary correlations were later confirmed by the archaeological dating. If so, some of the biblical blanks here can be filled in with secular history. Hammurabi would go on to conquer Mesopotamia, so his participation in the Jordan Valley campaign wasn't a crushing defeat for him, and it might not have been a defeat at all. The Torah states that Chedorlaomer was killed after the looting of Sodom & Gomorrah, but it doesn't say that his confederates were slain also, and it would have, if such had been the case, suggesting that Amraphel survived. If we're actually talking about Hammurabi, it should be noted that in his ascendancy, he developed a reputation for allying himself with other forces while it was to his advantage, and then later turning on them. So we could easily see Hammurabi allied with Chedorlaomer until after the Battle of Siddim, and Hammurabi emerging as the sole ruler of lower Mesopotamia after the demise of Chedorlaomer.
The story of the rebellion against Chedorlaomer mentions Lot & Abraham, but that's an anachronism, which would have been the work of the same redactor who wrote Lot into the story of the destruction of Sodom & Gomorrah a little later, though this chapter would have been a lot easier. As the story goes, Abraham had been granted everything from the Suez Canal to the Euphrates River, but he only took exception to foreign kings looting cities in the center of his domain when they kidnapped his nephew Lot, whereupon he marshaled 318 troops and pursued the looters into Syria, ultimately recovering Lot and the loot. This portrays Abraham as a rather weak-willed administrator of the Covenant, atypical of central figures in inspired literature. Another possibility is that Genesis 14 tells of an actual Transjordan campaign in , shortly before the airburst in described in Genesis 19. These were important enough that they had to be left on the timeline where they actually occurred. But when the Deuteronomists developed the conventional chronology, they shifted Abraham back to that period, and if they were to say that Abraham was in power in , they needed for him to do something about foreign rulers campaigning in the heart of his territory. So they added an anecdote about Lot getting kidnapped and Abraham rescuing him. Perhaps Abraham did pursue looters into Syria in his own time (), but if so, the details important for establishing historicity there were lost when the story was reworked to be the aftermath of the Battle of Siddim in .
The more precise dates of for Hammurabi's rule reveal correlations with events elsewhere in the Middle East. Most significantly, in there was a major migration of Canaanites into Egypt, paving the way for the Hyksos conquest a little later.34 So just when Hammurabi was expanding north to Nineveh, the Hyksos were expanding south to Egypt. And the reverse happened when the 1st Babylonian Dynasty collapsed in ,25 since this was precisely when the Hyksos were expelled from Egypt to Jerusalem. So it looks like the adjacent hegemonies were coupled. The data are insufficient to tell whether it was a push and/or a pull — either Hammurabi's expansion pressured the Assyrians across to Syria, which pushed the Hyksos down to Egypt, and/or the Hyksos were sucked into a power vacuum in Egypt as its 13th Dynasty crumbled, creating a vacuum behind them in Canaan, Syria, & Assyria, making it easy for the Babylonians to expand north. Regardless, both migrations left echoes in Genesis. As already mentioned, Hammurabi's conquests were described (under the name of Nimrod), but we also hear of the fall of the 1st Babylonian Dynasty in the comment about Peleg (#15), "for in his days the earth was divided."35 Born in , he would have been 64 years old (i.e., "during the last of his days"36) when Mesopotamia was divided between the Kassites and the Assyrians after the fall of Babylon.
It might be significant that Genesis 5 lists 13 people in generations 1~10, but only gives personal details on 2 of them: Enoch (#7) and Noah (#10). Then, Genesis 10 describes generations 11~15, and though it mentions 66 people in all, it gives personal details on only two of them — Ham the Amorite (#11, under the name of Nimrod) and Peleg (#15). Was there something special about Enoch, Noah, Ham, and Peleg? These were the people present at the rise, the peak, and then at the fall of the 1st Babylonian Dynasty, which would be noted, if anything was.
The Talmud has Nimrod as the builder of the Tower of Babel.37:89a,38:94b,29:53a,39:53b It's possible that this was something that Nimrod actually did himself — not something Hammurabi did and that was attributed to Nimrod. If so, Nimrod was Hammurabi's successor. Ctesias () relayed a similar story of Ninus, the eponymous founder of Nineveh, whose successor Ninyas built a large temple near Babylon.2:240 So Noah, Ham, & Nimrod show up in Greek lore as Ninus & Ninyas, and the Tower was built by Hammurabi's successor, . The Tower itself would have served as a temple and as an astronomical observatory, which the Babylonians considered coupled. A renewed interest in astronomy at this time would be easy to understand, if it was just 40 years after the most harmful meteoric airburst in human history.
The paragraph in the Torah devoted to the Tower of Babel makes an interesting study, in and of itself.40 It starts by saying that people came to Babylon from the East, when the whole earth had one language and the same words. That sounds like Bactrians spreading the use of Indo-Aryan from India to Anatolia, which would have been 300 years earlier, in . Sumerian lore from the attests to the solidarity of people who all spoke the same language,41:134-155 as does this passage in the Torah. Then the paragraph concludes with their language being obfuscated, and the people being dispersed. If the Tower of Babel was built by Hammurabi's successor, it would have been in . But the secular records have Babylon persisting for another ~150 years, finally falling in , and that's when the Babylonians were dispersed. It's possible that this passage is actually a synopsis of 450 years of Babylonian history, from the influx of Indo-Aryans in , to their dispersion in , with the Tower being built by Hammurabi's successor, 2/3 of the way through that period.
If the dispersion of the builders of the Tower of Babel in Genesis 11 refers to the same event as the fall of the 1st Babylonian Dynasty in , and so does the comment about the world being divided in Peleg's time,35,36 we have three different perspectives on the same period — when the dynasty collapsed, the territory was divided between the Assyrians & Kassites, and the Babylonians themselves were dispersed. A fourth piece is supplied by genealogical records from Britain (both Saxon & Celtic), Ireland, Norway, Denmark, & Iceland.42:67 All of these have Noah as the founding ancestor, and are the same for the first five generations (Noah through Eber), but then they diverge in Peleg's generation. So Peleg's brothers fled to N/W Europe when the 1st Babylonian Dynasty collapsed. The Indians & Chinese also have the legend of Noah & his 3 sons,43:291 suggesting that when the Babylonians were dispersed, they went in every direction.
Despite the accomplishments of Hammurabi, western history has honored his brother Shem (#11) by naming the Semitic race & its languages after him. Shem probably spoke Babylonian, which was a dialect of Akkadian, which itself was attested in writing much earlier (). So the indigenous population, and their languages, had been around for at least 1300 years before Shem. Then came the Flood, after which Hammurabi restored order on a large scale, with one of the effects being that the people and their languages were named after his brother Shem. Why weren't the Hamites remembered as the founders of the clan? Perhaps it's just that Abraham was descended from Shem, so he got that side of the story. The Talmud,44:32b and several of the Midrashim,45:46:7,45:56:10,46:25:6,47:4:8 have Shem as the lord of Jerusalem, which is consistent with Noah granting him Canaan in the Torah.48 It sounds like Shem was a provincial governor during Hammurabi's rule. Perhaps this is why Diodorus thought that one person ruled both Mesopotamia & Canaan during this time.49:bk2:2 If Ninus was Noah, his son Ham the Amorite ruled Babylon & Nineveh, while his son Shem was lord of Jerusalem, and Diodorus didn't see the difference. But this doesn't mean that it was one big happy family. Genesis 9:20-27 implicitly renounced Ham for leaving Noah exposed (perhaps an allegory for political treachery on Ham's part), and explicitly blessed Shem. Josephus stepped further away from Ham, not even acknowledging a seat of power in Babylon during this period, and maintaining that the Patriarchs were the Hyksos,50:b1:§14 calling all attention to the western branch of the family. The Septuagint stepped further still, condemning Ham (under the name of Nimrod) as an outright adversary of the pharaoh (i.e., "a mighty hunter against the Lord"). Rashi put it that Nimrod intended to provoke the Lord.51 It sounds like the original author(s) took a dim view of Hammurabi's clan. Perhaps this was the Egyptian view, and Shem's descendants in Canaan wanted the pharaoh to know that they were on his side. So in their version of the story, Ham was no hero — his conquest of Mesopotamia was barely mentioned, and not even under his name.52:118 Then, future generations inheriting the Torah from Shem's branch would name the Semitic tribes & languages after him.
Next we should consider a couple of points that do not contribute to the historicity of Genesis 1-11.
First, recent radiocarbon, ice core, and tree-ring studies have converged on a date for the eruption of the volcano at Santorini.53,54,55 Curiously, it works out to , ± just a few years (thanks mainly to the tree-ring data), which sits right in the middle of the period in which the Hyksos dominated the Nile delta, and the Babylonians dominated Mesopotamia (). This leaves little reason to believe that the volcano initiated, or terminated, that period. The sound from the eruption would have been heard throughout the Mediterranean, and the tsunami impacted everything in the Aegean, including Crete, the S/E coast of mainland Greece, and the west coast of Anatolia. It also reached Egypt & Canaan, though the force of the wave was diminished by distance, as well as by refraction in the passage between Crete, Karpathos, & Rhodes. The volcanic ash was spread over a wide area, blocking the Sun and producing a "volcanic winter" all over the world. Hardest hit was the Minoan culture, and though it didn't vanish right away, it was sent abruptly into its twilight. The reduction in the Minoan influence allowed the Mycenaean Greeks to expand. But it wasn't until 80 years later, in , that the Hyksos lost control of the delta, and the Babylonians were overrun by Kassites, so the correlation there is loose at best.
Second, some scholars believe that Shem's great grandson Eber (#14) was the ancestor of the Hebrew clan,56:bk14:ch3 though the Habirus were attested 100 years earlier in northern Syria,57:200 and who weren't a clan. So this could have been postdiction from a much later period, perhaps motivated by the desire of the Hebrews to lose the derogatory connotations of Habiru (i.e., Bedouin). The present thesis demonstrates that there is no continuity between Habirus & Hebrews — the ancestors of the modern Jews picked up that name when Moses was camped on the East Bank, preaching to Transjordan Bedouins because he was denied admittance into the Promised Land. Thereafter, the name stuck, thanks to Moses' enemies in the region. But that doesn't make Eber their ancestor.
So not all of the lore matches up with history. But the most salient events left their marks on the Torah. The founding of Babylon by people from the East, when the whole world spoke one language, would have been in the time of Seth (#2). The rise of the 1st Babylonian Dynasty was echoed in the story of Enoch (#7). The most significant Babylonian ruler was Ham the Amorite (#11). And the fall of the Dynasty was noted in the comment about Peleg (#15). This isn't cherry-picking — the only people about whom anything at all was said were the people present at the founding, rise, peak, and end of the Dynasty. In other words, the most salient events in Babylonia match up with the only salient people in the Torah for this period. Some of the most important events in Egyptian history were also preserved in Jewish lore, including the deification of Mentuhotep II, and the adoption of Sumerian mathematics by Amenemhat III.
The next big step in Egyptian history might also be echoed in Jewish lore. In , the pharaoh Ahmose I expelled the Hyksos, establishing what is now known as the New Kingdom of Egypt. In the present thesis, this lines up with the birth of Serug (#17). The Torah says nothing of generations 12~18, but the Book of Jubilees describes in detail the sacrileges that began at that time.11:11:2-12 So all of a sudden, the Patriarchs go from being saints, to being sinners of the worst kind. If this happened precisely when Egyptians reasserted themselves, the sacrileges might have been the forced worship of Egyptian gods.
Then Nahor (#18) comes along at the right time, to have been mentioned in the records kept by Thutmose III ().58:292,52:54
Next comes Terah (#19), though we hear surprisingly little about him. He was the father of Abraham (#20) by a woman in Ur, and the father of Sarah by a woman in Harran, who the present thesis identifies as the wife of King Shuttarna II. Much later, Ezekiel might have been referring to the parents of Abraham & Sarah when he told the people of Jerusalem that their father was an Amorite and their mother was a Hittite.59 If Hammurabi was an Amorite, so was Shem, from whom Abraham was directly descended, so there's the paternal line. The maternal line starts with Sarah's mother, the queen of Mitanni. To have been a Hittite, Shuttarna II would have entered into a marital alliance with the daughter of King Tudhaliya I. His son Mattiwaza also married a Hittite princess (i.e., the daughter of Suppiluliuma I), so this is easy to see.
Figure 2. Pastoral nomads in the Pamir Mountains, whose lifestyle probably hasn't changed much since the time of Adam & Eve. The woman's name is Heva, an ever-popular girl's name in their culture. The dog's name is Addie, popular for pets. Photo credit Sohrab Zia, courtesy BBC.
All in all, leaving Abraham's birth at , and then assigning realistic ages to the fathers in his ancestry, results in Adam being born around , where his story matches up on a number of points with the situation in Bactria in the . Then the only notable people in the Torah between Adam & Abraham come along at times that match up with the most salient events in the secular records. This includes the bidirectional migration out of Bactria, the deification of Mentuhotep II, and the rise & fall of the 1st Babylonian Dynasty, including the introduction of Babylonian writing & mathematics to the Egyptians. A couple of parallels would be just a coincidence, but there are a lot of parallels here, and all on the most important points. Enough to say for sure that Genesis 1-11 is historical, and if so, in the manner described herein? That remains to be decided — the sources are not specific enough to rule out other possibilities. Still, the present article details one set of possibilities robust enough for further consideration. | <urn:uuid:513d56c1-e85f-4d86-bfbd-63db68a69a2d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://qdl.scs-inc.us/2ndParty/Pages/18628.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00527.warc.gz | en | 0.98058 | 6,642 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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-0.0024270291... | 1 | In the article on The Historicity of the Patriarchs, Abraham's birthdate was set at , and in the article on The Primeval Point of Origin, estimates for the birthdates of his ancestors were given, back to Adam being born in . (See Table 1.) Significant parallels between the secular history and the stories of the first two generations in the Torah were identified. This article examines the historicity of successive generations, especially Enoch, Noah, Ham, & Peleg.
The Talmud has Enoch (generation #7 in Table 1) as the one who introduced writing & mathematics.1 The Sumerians seem to have invented such practices in the , so what would have happened in Enoch's time? Eusebius said that Enoch was Babylonian,2:b9:ch17 and Table 1 has him being born in , and thus 70 years old at the outset of the 1st Babylonian Dynasty (). So he would have witnessed the resurrection of Sumerian knowledge by the Babylonians. But in what sense was he the one to "introduce" writing & mathematics? The Torah says that Enoch walked with God,3 who could have been just an Egyptian pharaoh. If so, the pharaoh in would have been Amenemhat III, the most significant ruler of the 12th Dynasty. And the oldest mathematical documents in Egypt have been dated to his reign.4 So it sounds like Enoch the Babylonian introduced Sumerian mathematics to the Egyptians.
And what about the "introduction" of writing? The development of the Proto-Sinaitic script, upon which Paleo-Hebrew was based, also seems to have occurred in roughly the same period, being variously dated to the 11th or 12th Egyptian Dynasties.5,6,7,8,9:129-156 The dating isn't specific enough to definitely put it in Enoch's tenure, and the script wasn't Babylonian — it was a shorthand for Egyptian hieroglyphics.10:23 Still it's possible that its invention was inspired by Babylonian influences during this period, and could have even been devised by a Babylonian, just as the Japanese katakana script was developed by foreigners as a shorthand for Chinese pictographs. So if "writing" means Proto-Sinaitic, it was introduced to the Egyptians in roughly the same period as mathematics, and this is where Enoch appears on the timeline.
Enoch's father was Jared, in whose time the "Watchers" first appeared, as angels sent to Earth to instruct the children.11:4:15 Since Enoch was one of those children, and since Enoch was the one who took writing & mathematics to Egypt, which he got from the Babylonians, the "Watchers" who taught him would have been Babylonians. A later passage on one of the sons of Arpachshad says that "the Watchers observed the omens of the sun and moon and stars in all the signs of heaven."11:8:3 This also points to Babylonians, who were preserving the Sumerian study of astronomy. Thus the term "Watcher" might have meant "Star Gazer," while it sounds like they were more astrologers than astronomers.
Next, Africanus relayed the Greek flood myth,2:b10:ch10:pg262 which many scholars consider to have been inspired by the story of Noah (#10). Interestingly, the Greek version gives the date of (i.e., 1020 years before the First Olympiad in ), which puts it in Noah's time (born in per Table 1). Africanus went on to say that after the flood, they went without a king for 189 years. If "The Flood" occurred when Noah was a mature man, it would have been , when he would have been 43 years old. If so, the 189 years without a king would have been . And that was precisely the period in which the Hyksos dominated the Nile delta. So it sounds like the Greeks didn't consider the Hyksos to be kings, taking the whole period as an interlude, as did the Egyptians.
Note that there is no archaeological evidence of a flood of "biblical" proportions in this timeframe. It's possible that there was "a" flood in Noah's time, which might have been worth mentioning (see below), while subsequent redaction assimilated flood myths from other cultures, getting Noah to preside over "the" flood. For example, there are substantial similarities between Noah and a character named Utnapishtim in the Epic of Gilgamesh,12 fragments of which have been dated to , while linguistic analysis suggests that it was composed even earlier than that.13:13 The flood that inspired the Epic would have been earlier still, perhaps around ,14:19 meaning that it couldn't have been the same as the flood in Noah's time (). The most recent flood on a more "biblical" scale would have been the flooding of the Black Sea .15 This was before the invention of writing, so the story could have only been preserved orally, if at all. Others have called attention to an even earlier, though more global phenomenon, even if it wasn't a floor per se — fossils of marine organisms, especially shellfish such as clams and other molluscs, and sometimes fish, can be found in relatively high elevations in many places around the world, including Egypt and Libya,16:303-306 Lebanon,17:412-415 and in the mountains and hills of Armenia,18:70 Syria,18:89,96 Israel,18:249,267 Egypt,18:292 and Jordan.18:299,304 The ancient observer would have taken this as evidence of a global flood, which would have gotten an obligatory mention in any story of origins.
As concerns the flood in Noah's time, most scholars looking for historicity assume that the flood would have been a river overflowing; others have studied tsunamis. Recent research has identified another possibility — there is evidence of a meteoric airburst over the Dead Sea in the Middle Bronze Age, around .19 The explosion knocked down mud-brick walls up to 10 km away, and with just half the energy of the airburst over Tunguska, Siberia in (which knocked down trees over 30 km away). The flash was bright enough to instantly vitrify clay, as if it had been fired in a kiln for hours. Surely anybody nearby looking directly at the airburst would have been blinded. The shock wave in the air also would have created a wave in the Dead Sea that would have crashed ashore and flooded the surrounding farms with salt water. This might explain why the land was barren through the Late Bronze Age, and wasn't cultivated again until early in the Iron Age — salt water is toxic to wheat & barley. Thus "The Flood" could have been simply a wave of biblical proportions in the Dead Sea. It might be significant that the oldest copy of a flood story has been dated to .20 With that as the terminus ante quem, an airburst in is still a legitimate candidate for the original event, or at least one of them. It's also possible that there were existing flood myths, but the event in was so momentous that it just had to be committed to writing, at which time the existing myths were fused.
The authors of the airburst research note significant parallels with the peculiar story of Sodom & Gomorrah in Genesis 19, such as the blinding light, people becoming entombed in salt (such as Lot's wife), and fire raining down from above, which would have been the meteor shower after the airburst. In the Torah, the destruction of Sodom & Gomorrah occurred on Abraham's watch, and the radiocarbon date of for the airburst would seem to confirm of the Masoretic chronology, in which Abraham was born in . In the present thesis, Abraham couldn't have been born much before , which was already much too late for him to have witnessed the event. was closer to the time of Noah, born in , suggesting that Noah's Flood was part of the destruction of Sodom & Gomorrah. The Akkadian account of the event describes both fire from above and a wave — just not from the open ocean,21:115 which is how an unusually large wave in the Dead Sea would have been described. Destruction by both fire & flood was also mentioned by Philo, Josephus, and others in the ,22:48,23:70-71 though they accepted the conventional chronology, in which the fire & flood were not coupled. Still, the Torah itself strongly implies that Sodom & Gomorrah were subjected to a flood in addition to fire from above in that the inhabitants sought safety in the hills, which is how one gets away from a flood, but not how one gets away from a flaming meteor shower and flash fires all around, where going for a swim would be a better idea.
If an airburst was responsible for both the destruction of Sodom & Gomorrah and Noah's Flood, we have to wonder why later redactors would have split the single event into two different stories, with the flood occurring in Noah's time, and the rain of fire in Abraham's. Perhaps the date of the airburst () was well known, but when the Deuteronomists established the conventional chronology, the airburst fell in Abraham's tenure, and they had to make that work. They could easily add the destruction of Sodom & Gomorrah to Abraham's story, there being no conflicting information about those cities already, since they were uninhabited in Abraham's time. And in Noah's story, without the details of the airburst, the scribes had more poetic license, allowing them to incorporate deluge lore from other sources, broadening their appeal. So as redaction goes, this would have been an easy job.
Figure 1. Hammurabi receiving the laws (symbolized by a measuring rod and tape) from the seated Shamash, the Babylonian god of justice.
After the flood, Shelah (#13) was the cousin of Nimrod, who was said to have been the first "mighty man" on Earth, beginning as the lord of Babel (i.e., Babylon), and then expanding his domain to Nineveh.24 The only Babylonian ruler coming close to fitting that description was Hammurabi (i.e., Ham the Amorite). (See Figure 1.) So at first blush it looks like Nimrod was Hammurabi. But the timing could be more comfortable. A recent analysis of astronomical records from Babylon has fixed Hammurabi's rule in the period of .25:255 If Nimrod was the same age as Shelah, he was born in , which was 27 years after the death of Hammurabi in . It's easier to see Nimrod's grandfather Ham in the timeframe of Hammurabi. If those two were the same person, and if we fuse their stories, Ham the Amorite (#11), brother of Shem (#11) and son of Noah (#10), was able to greatly expand his domain in the aftermath of an airburst and its accompanying inland flood, which sounds like a better fit all of the way around.
We can also note that after The Flood, the records of the Patriarchs, and the Babylonian political records, started preserving realistic ages for the key personnel. Such a radical change in the approach to record-keeping, occurring in two bodies of literature, which probably emanated from the same region, in more or less the same period, strongly suggests that it was the same change, thus synchronizing the two literary sources. The reason for the change would have been that the mighty man Ham the Amorite (Hammurabi) had spread the use of writing & mathematics over a large enough territory that creative time-keeping was no longer practical. Perhaps this was when Adam's birthdate was shifted back to , thus honoring the Sumerian tradition of the beginning of time[keeping] as well as the Amorite tradition of Adam & Eve being the first couple. The fusion of these traditions would have legitimized Hammurabi's right to rule the two dominant ethnic groups in Mesopotamia at the time. It would have required assigning super-human lifespans to the antediluvian Patriarchs, but that itself would have been consistent with Babylonian traditions.
Note that if Ham was Hammurabi, who rose to power in , he had to have been at least in his mid-twenties at the time, meaning that he had to have been born not much before and not much after , making him 26 years old when he assumed power in , and 68 years old when he died in . His younger brother Shem would have been born later, which in Table 1 is set to . Then the birthdates between Enosh & Shem in Table 1 were simply interpolated, which worked out to 32.5 years per generation, which is realistic, and close to the average of 31.4 years per generation for Arpachshad through Nahor.
Hammurabi might also show up in the Torah as Amraphel, king of Shinar (i.e., Babylonia) during the rebellion against Chedorlaomer.26:299,27,28 This is difficult for the conventional chronology, which can't have Ham capturing Lot, who arrived ten generations later. But the identification of Amraphel with Nimrod appears several times in the Talmud.29:53a,30:G14 And like most other feats attributed to Nimrod, the actions of Amraphel are a better fit for Ham's time. For Amraphel to be the subordinate of the king of Elam puts the Battle of Siddim before the Amorite conquest of Mesopotamia, which would have been before the Flood. For Sodom & Gomorrah to be looted also puts the events before the Flood, if both cities were destroyed by it. Before the Flood, Ham would have been a young man, and Nimrod wouldn't have been born yet, so Ham[murabi]-Amraphel would have been the king of Babylon participating in the Battle of Siddim.26:299 His senior confederate Chedorlaomer was mentioned in inscriptions from Hammurabi's time,31:600 and independently identified as Kudur-Mabuk,26:135 who ruled Elam . Another confederate, Arioch of Ellasar, was also a contemporary of Hammurabi,32:3-4 while Tidal king of Goiim is thought to have been Tudhaliya, the Hittite king somewhere in the range of .33 These identifications have all been challenged, but we should note that they were all made before the dates converged on precisely the same period, meaning that the literary correlations were later confirmed by the archaeological dating. If so, some of the biblical blanks here can be filled in with secular history. Hammurabi would go on to conquer Mesopotamia, so his participation in the Jordan Valley campaign wasn't a crushing defeat for him, and it might not have been a defeat at all. The Torah states that Chedorlaomer was killed after the looting of Sodom & Gomorrah, but it doesn't say that his confederates were slain also, and it would have, if such had been the case, suggesting that Amraphel survived. If we're actually talking about Hammurabi, it should be noted that in his ascendancy, he developed a reputation for allying himself with other forces while it was to his advantage, and then later turning on them. So we could easily see Hammurabi allied with Chedorlaomer until after the Battle of Siddim, and Hammurabi emerging as the sole ruler of lower Mesopotamia after the demise of Chedorlaomer.
The story of the rebellion against Chedorlaomer mentions Lot & Abraham, but that's an anachronism, which would have been the work of the same redactor who wrote Lot into the story of the destruction of Sodom & Gomorrah a little later, though this chapter would have been a lot easier. As the story goes, Abraham had been granted everything from the Suez Canal to the Euphrates River, but he only took exception to foreign kings looting cities in the center of his domain when they kidnapped his nephew Lot, whereupon he marshaled 318 troops and pursued the looters into Syria, ultimately recovering Lot and the loot. This portrays Abraham as a rather weak-willed administrator of the Covenant, atypical of central figures in inspired literature. Another possibility is that Genesis 14 tells of an actual Transjordan campaign in , shortly before the airburst in described in Genesis 19. These were important enough that they had to be left on the timeline where they actually occurred. But when the Deuteronomists developed the conventional chronology, they shifted Abraham back to that period, and if they were to say that Abraham was in power in , they needed for him to do something about foreign rulers campaigning in the heart of his territory. So they added an anecdote about Lot getting kidnapped and Abraham rescuing him. Perhaps Abraham did pursue looters into Syria in his own time (), but if so, the details important for establishing historicity there were lost when the story was reworked to be the aftermath of the Battle of Siddim in .
The more precise dates of for Hammurabi's rule reveal correlations with events elsewhere in the Middle East. Most significantly, in there was a major migration of Canaanites into Egypt, paving the way for the Hyksos conquest a little later.34 So just when Hammurabi was expanding north to Nineveh, the Hyksos were expanding south to Egypt. And the reverse happened when the 1st Babylonian Dynasty collapsed in ,25 since this was precisely when the Hyksos were expelled from Egypt to Jerusalem. So it looks like the adjacent hegemonies were coupled. The data are insufficient to tell whether it was a push and/or a pull — either Hammurabi's expansion pressured the Assyrians across to Syria, which pushed the Hyksos down to Egypt, and/or the Hyksos were sucked into a power vacuum in Egypt as its 13th Dynasty crumbled, creating a vacuum behind them in Canaan, Syria, & Assyria, making it easy for the Babylonians to expand north. Regardless, both migrations left echoes in Genesis. As already mentioned, Hammurabi's conquests were described (under the name of Nimrod), but we also hear of the fall of the 1st Babylonian Dynasty in the comment about Peleg (#15), "for in his days the earth was divided."35 Born in , he would have been 64 years old (i.e., "during the last of his days"36) when Mesopotamia was divided between the Kassites and the Assyrians after the fall of Babylon.
It might be significant that Genesis 5 lists 13 people in generations 1~10, but only gives personal details on 2 of them: Enoch (#7) and Noah (#10). Then, Genesis 10 describes generations 11~15, and though it mentions 66 people in all, it gives personal details on only two of them — Ham the Amorite (#11, under the name of Nimrod) and Peleg (#15). Was there something special about Enoch, Noah, Ham, and Peleg? These were the people present at the rise, the peak, and then at the fall of the 1st Babylonian Dynasty, which would be noted, if anything was.
The Talmud has Nimrod as the builder of the Tower of Babel.37:89a,38:94b,29:53a,39:53b It's possible that this was something that Nimrod actually did himself — not something Hammurabi did and that was attributed to Nimrod. If so, Nimrod was Hammurabi's successor. Ctesias () relayed a similar story of Ninus, the eponymous founder of Nineveh, whose successor Ninyas built a large temple near Babylon.2:240 So Noah, Ham, & Nimrod show up in Greek lore as Ninus & Ninyas, and the Tower was built by Hammurabi's successor, . The Tower itself would have served as a temple and as an astronomical observatory, which the Babylonians considered coupled. A renewed interest in astronomy at this time would be easy to understand, if it was just 40 years after the most harmful meteoric airburst in human history.
The paragraph in the Torah devoted to the Tower of Babel makes an interesting study, in and of itself.40 It starts by saying that people came to Babylon from the East, when the whole earth had one language and the same words. That sounds like Bactrians spreading the use of Indo-Aryan from India to Anatolia, which would have been 300 years earlier, in . Sumerian lore from the attests to the solidarity of people who all spoke the same language,41:134-155 as does this passage in the Torah. Then the paragraph concludes with their language being obfuscated, and the people being dispersed. If the Tower of Babel was built by Hammurabi's successor, it would have been in . But the secular records have Babylon persisting for another ~150 years, finally falling in , and that's when the Babylonians were dispersed. It's possible that this passage is actually a synopsis of 450 years of Babylonian history, from the influx of Indo-Aryans in , to their dispersion in , with the Tower being built by Hammurabi's successor, 2/3 of the way through that period.
If the dispersion of the builders of the Tower of Babel in Genesis 11 refers to the same event as the fall of the 1st Babylonian Dynasty in , and so does the comment about the world being divided in Peleg's time,35,36 we have three different perspectives on the same period — when the dynasty collapsed, the territory was divided between the Assyrians & Kassites, and the Babylonians themselves were dispersed. A fourth piece is supplied by genealogical records from Britain (both Saxon & Celtic), Ireland, Norway, Denmark, & Iceland.42:67 All of these have Noah as the founding ancestor, and are the same for the first five generations (Noah through Eber), but then they diverge in Peleg's generation. So Peleg's brothers fled to N/W Europe when the 1st Babylonian Dynasty collapsed. The Indians & Chinese also have the legend of Noah & his 3 sons,43:291 suggesting that when the Babylonians were dispersed, they went in every direction.
Despite the accomplishments of Hammurabi, western history has honored his brother Shem (#11) by naming the Semitic race & its languages after him. Shem probably spoke Babylonian, which was a dialect of Akkadian, which itself was attested in writing much earlier (). So the indigenous population, and their languages, had been around for at least 1300 years before Shem. Then came the Flood, after which Hammurabi restored order on a large scale, with one of the effects being that the people and their languages were named after his brother Shem. Why weren't the Hamites remembered as the founders of the clan? Perhaps it's just that Abraham was descended from Shem, so he got that side of the story. The Talmud,44:32b and several of the Midrashim,45:46:7,45:56:10,46:25:6,47:4:8 have Shem as the lord of Jerusalem, which is consistent with Noah granting him Canaan in the Torah.48 It sounds like Shem was a provincial governor during Hammurabi's rule. Perhaps this is why Diodorus thought that one person ruled both Mesopotamia & Canaan during this time.49:bk2:2 If Ninus was Noah, his son Ham the Amorite ruled Babylon & Nineveh, while his son Shem was lord of Jerusalem, and Diodorus didn't see the difference. But this doesn't mean that it was one big happy family. Genesis 9:20-27 implicitly renounced Ham for leaving Noah exposed (perhaps an allegory for political treachery on Ham's part), and explicitly blessed Shem. Josephus stepped further away from Ham, not even acknowledging a seat of power in Babylon during this period, and maintaining that the Patriarchs were the Hyksos,50:b1:§14 calling all attention to the western branch of the family. The Septuagint stepped further still, condemning Ham (under the name of Nimrod) as an outright adversary of the pharaoh (i.e., "a mighty hunter against the Lord"). Rashi put it that Nimrod intended to provoke the Lord.51 It sounds like the original author(s) took a dim view of Hammurabi's clan. Perhaps this was the Egyptian view, and Shem's descendants in Canaan wanted the pharaoh to know that they were on his side. So in their version of the story, Ham was no hero — his conquest of Mesopotamia was barely mentioned, and not even under his name.52:118 Then, future generations inheriting the Torah from Shem's branch would name the Semitic tribes & languages after him.
Next we should consider a couple of points that do not contribute to the historicity of Genesis 1-11.
First, recent radiocarbon, ice core, and tree-ring studies have converged on a date for the eruption of the volcano at Santorini.53,54,55 Curiously, it works out to , ± just a few years (thanks mainly to the tree-ring data), which sits right in the middle of the period in which the Hyksos dominated the Nile delta, and the Babylonians dominated Mesopotamia (). This leaves little reason to believe that the volcano initiated, or terminated, that period. The sound from the eruption would have been heard throughout the Mediterranean, and the tsunami impacted everything in the Aegean, including Crete, the S/E coast of mainland Greece, and the west coast of Anatolia. It also reached Egypt & Canaan, though the force of the wave was diminished by distance, as well as by refraction in the passage between Crete, Karpathos, & Rhodes. The volcanic ash was spread over a wide area, blocking the Sun and producing a "volcanic winter" all over the world. Hardest hit was the Minoan culture, and though it didn't vanish right away, it was sent abruptly into its twilight. The reduction in the Minoan influence allowed the Mycenaean Greeks to expand. But it wasn't until 80 years later, in , that the Hyksos lost control of the delta, and the Babylonians were overrun by Kassites, so the correlation there is loose at best.
Second, some scholars believe that Shem's great grandson Eber (#14) was the ancestor of the Hebrew clan,56:bk14:ch3 though the Habirus were attested 100 years earlier in northern Syria,57:200 and who weren't a clan. So this could have been postdiction from a much later period, perhaps motivated by the desire of the Hebrews to lose the derogatory connotations of Habiru (i.e., Bedouin). The present thesis demonstrates that there is no continuity between Habirus & Hebrews — the ancestors of the modern Jews picked up that name when Moses was camped on the East Bank, preaching to Transjordan Bedouins because he was denied admittance into the Promised Land. Thereafter, the name stuck, thanks to Moses' enemies in the region. But that doesn't make Eber their ancestor.
So not all of the lore matches up with history. But the most salient events left their marks on the Torah. The founding of Babylon by people from the East, when the whole world spoke one language, would have been in the time of Seth (#2). The rise of the 1st Babylonian Dynasty was echoed in the story of Enoch (#7). The most significant Babylonian ruler was Ham the Amorite (#11). And the fall of the Dynasty was noted in the comment about Peleg (#15). This isn't cherry-picking — the only people about whom anything at all was said were the people present at the founding, rise, peak, and end of the Dynasty. In other words, the most salient events in Babylonia match up with the only salient people in the Torah for this period. Some of the most important events in Egyptian history were also preserved in Jewish lore, including the deification of Mentuhotep II, and the adoption of Sumerian mathematics by Amenemhat III.
The next big step in Egyptian history might also be echoed in Jewish lore. In , the pharaoh Ahmose I expelled the Hyksos, establishing what is now known as the New Kingdom of Egypt. In the present thesis, this lines up with the birth of Serug (#17). The Torah says nothing of generations 12~18, but the Book of Jubilees describes in detail the sacrileges that began at that time.11:11:2-12 So all of a sudden, the Patriarchs go from being saints, to being sinners of the worst kind. If this happened precisely when Egyptians reasserted themselves, the sacrileges might have been the forced worship of Egyptian gods.
Then Nahor (#18) comes along at the right time, to have been mentioned in the records kept by Thutmose III ().58:292,52:54
Next comes Terah (#19), though we hear surprisingly little about him. He was the father of Abraham (#20) by a woman in Ur, and the father of Sarah by a woman in Harran, who the present thesis identifies as the wife of King Shuttarna II. Much later, Ezekiel might have been referring to the parents of Abraham & Sarah when he told the people of Jerusalem that their father was an Amorite and their mother was a Hittite.59 If Hammurabi was an Amorite, so was Shem, from whom Abraham was directly descended, so there's the paternal line. The maternal line starts with Sarah's mother, the queen of Mitanni. To have been a Hittite, Shuttarna II would have entered into a marital alliance with the daughter of King Tudhaliya I. His son Mattiwaza also married a Hittite princess (i.e., the daughter of Suppiluliuma I), so this is easy to see.
Figure 2. Pastoral nomads in the Pamir Mountains, whose lifestyle probably hasn't changed much since the time of Adam & Eve. The woman's name is Heva, an ever-popular girl's name in their culture. The dog's name is Addie, popular for pets. Photo credit Sohrab Zia, courtesy BBC.
All in all, leaving Abraham's birth at , and then assigning realistic ages to the fathers in his ancestry, results in Adam being born around , where his story matches up on a number of points with the situation in Bactria in the . Then the only notable people in the Torah between Adam & Abraham come along at times that match up with the most salient events in the secular records. This includes the bidirectional migration out of Bactria, the deification of Mentuhotep II, and the rise & fall of the 1st Babylonian Dynasty, including the introduction of Babylonian writing & mathematics to the Egyptians. A couple of parallels would be just a coincidence, but there are a lot of parallels here, and all on the most important points. Enough to say for sure that Genesis 1-11 is historical, and if so, in the manner described herein? That remains to be decided — the sources are not specific enough to rule out other possibilities. Still, the present article details one set of possibilities robust enough for further consideration. | 6,876 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sardar Patel created a strong state without dictatorial leanings.
The Statue of Unity celebrates Sardar Patel’s contribution in nation building.
Today his life is being limited to the last three years of his life but Patel was much more than that. He was a man of many shades. He remained loyal to both Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Congress party till the end. He tried his best to reconcile Gandhian ideal with the realities of post-independent India where he had to deal with warring political interests and royalties who never wanted to be part of the Indian republic.
Sardar Patel was one of the pillars of the Congress in the freedom struggle. He played an instrumental role in building the Congress party. Sardar Patel not only stoically carried out the instruction of Gandhi but also often stepped aside when Mahatma wanted.
It is for this reason that more than twice Patel could not become the president of the Congress because Gandhi preferred another candidate. Sardar Patel was also instrumental in mobilising funds for the Congress during the colonial struggle. He was neither left-leaning like Nehru and Bose nor a revolutionary and neither communal in his approach when it came to communities. His politics was rooted in the practicality of life. He accepted the social importance of village life, the power of capital, the importance of state violence against adversary and relevance of Gandhian principle at the same time. He was clear and sometimes inconsistent at the same time.
But it was true of almost all leaders as their political views were evolving with changing circumstances.
Sardar Patel’s Bardoli satyagraha was a feat in itself. He not only built the Congress from grassroots in Gujarat but also ensured that Gandhian view strictly imposed on the party which was an umbrella organisation for the majority of people fighting against British colonialism. He neglected his family. He had difference of opinion with both Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru.
He also differed with Gandhi on a number of issues but never allowed it to become an issue. He never left the Congress nor allowed the differences to become a hurdle in penultimate objective; freedom and integration of India into a union of states.
Unfortunately, Sardar Patel’s legacy is being tied to a big if. Patel never saw himself as a victim. Despite difference of opinion and open spat with Nehru, he never challenged his leadership. Patel was not a fallen hero. He remained a Congressman till the end. Many forget that he even banned RSS and went hammer and tong against them. It is a great injustice to call Sardar Patel a leader who had shades of right. He had none.
Today political parties are trying to milk contribution of founding fathers of the republic. The achievements are being limited to the current political narrative. These legacy is being milked for electoral ends. It becomes easier for other political parties as Congress over a period of time turned into a conglomeration of families. The top accommodates Gandhis and rest come thereafter.
It is because of this neglect, Sardar Patel, Bose and Ambedkar are out for the taking today.
It is important to remember that Sardar Patel was the Congress inner circle. He was never an outsider to any decision. He rallied with Gandhi even when others had doubt on Gandhi’s capacity to lead the struggle. Patel’s commitment to the Congress was complete.
He never left the party nor contested any wish of Gandhi nor challenged Nehru once he became the Prime Minister. Bose and Ambedkar had a strained relationship with the Congress. Bose had to start his new outfit as Gandhi ensured that could not continue as the president of the Congress and Ambedkar could never forgive Gandhi for the compromise he made which came to be known as Poona Pact.
Gandhi did not allow castes falling under the Schedule Caste category to be taken out of Hinduism.
The three leaders which BJP wants to adopt had a substantial relationship with the Congress. Only Bose and Ambedkar charted a different course. Sardar Patel never did so.
Patel’s contributions remain many. Without his support, it would have been impossible for Nehru to function in the initial years. It would be impossible for Gandhi to implement his vision on the Congress Party. It would have been very difficult for the party to raise funds for the Congress. Patel was an assurance to the new industry as Nehru was leaning towards left.
Lastly, despite being the first home minister, Patel never created a state with totalitarian powers. He created a strong state without dictatorial leanings. His politics was rooted in the practicality of life that made a difference to both the pre-colonial Congress and modern India.
(Disclaimer: The opinions expressed above are the personal views of the author and do not reflect the views of ZMCL) | <urn:uuid:795d5796-2925-464a-9aec-c4423a27d879> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wionews.com/opinions/sardar-patel-the-man-of-many-shades-174714 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00232.warc.gz | en | 0.981033 | 1,000 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.91248106956481... | 1 | Sardar Patel created a strong state without dictatorial leanings.
The Statue of Unity celebrates Sardar Patel’s contribution in nation building.
Today his life is being limited to the last three years of his life but Patel was much more than that. He was a man of many shades. He remained loyal to both Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Congress party till the end. He tried his best to reconcile Gandhian ideal with the realities of post-independent India where he had to deal with warring political interests and royalties who never wanted to be part of the Indian republic.
Sardar Patel was one of the pillars of the Congress in the freedom struggle. He played an instrumental role in building the Congress party. Sardar Patel not only stoically carried out the instruction of Gandhi but also often stepped aside when Mahatma wanted.
It is for this reason that more than twice Patel could not become the president of the Congress because Gandhi preferred another candidate. Sardar Patel was also instrumental in mobilising funds for the Congress during the colonial struggle. He was neither left-leaning like Nehru and Bose nor a revolutionary and neither communal in his approach when it came to communities. His politics was rooted in the practicality of life. He accepted the social importance of village life, the power of capital, the importance of state violence against adversary and relevance of Gandhian principle at the same time. He was clear and sometimes inconsistent at the same time.
But it was true of almost all leaders as their political views were evolving with changing circumstances.
Sardar Patel’s Bardoli satyagraha was a feat in itself. He not only built the Congress from grassroots in Gujarat but also ensured that Gandhian view strictly imposed on the party which was an umbrella organisation for the majority of people fighting against British colonialism. He neglected his family. He had difference of opinion with both Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose and Jawaharlal Nehru.
He also differed with Gandhi on a number of issues but never allowed it to become an issue. He never left the Congress nor allowed the differences to become a hurdle in penultimate objective; freedom and integration of India into a union of states.
Unfortunately, Sardar Patel’s legacy is being tied to a big if. Patel never saw himself as a victim. Despite difference of opinion and open spat with Nehru, he never challenged his leadership. Patel was not a fallen hero. He remained a Congressman till the end. Many forget that he even banned RSS and went hammer and tong against them. It is a great injustice to call Sardar Patel a leader who had shades of right. He had none.
Today political parties are trying to milk contribution of founding fathers of the republic. The achievements are being limited to the current political narrative. These legacy is being milked for electoral ends. It becomes easier for other political parties as Congress over a period of time turned into a conglomeration of families. The top accommodates Gandhis and rest come thereafter.
It is because of this neglect, Sardar Patel, Bose and Ambedkar are out for the taking today.
It is important to remember that Sardar Patel was the Congress inner circle. He was never an outsider to any decision. He rallied with Gandhi even when others had doubt on Gandhi’s capacity to lead the struggle. Patel’s commitment to the Congress was complete.
He never left the party nor contested any wish of Gandhi nor challenged Nehru once he became the Prime Minister. Bose and Ambedkar had a strained relationship with the Congress. Bose had to start his new outfit as Gandhi ensured that could not continue as the president of the Congress and Ambedkar could never forgive Gandhi for the compromise he made which came to be known as Poona Pact.
Gandhi did not allow castes falling under the Schedule Caste category to be taken out of Hinduism.
The three leaders which BJP wants to adopt had a substantial relationship with the Congress. Only Bose and Ambedkar charted a different course. Sardar Patel never did so.
Patel’s contributions remain many. Without his support, it would have been impossible for Nehru to function in the initial years. It would be impossible for Gandhi to implement his vision on the Congress Party. It would have been very difficult for the party to raise funds for the Congress. Patel was an assurance to the new industry as Nehru was leaning towards left.
Lastly, despite being the first home minister, Patel never created a state with totalitarian powers. He created a strong state without dictatorial leanings. His politics was rooted in the practicality of life that made a difference to both the pre-colonial Congress and modern India.
(Disclaimer: The opinions expressed above are the personal views of the author and do not reflect the views of ZMCL) | 974 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Who Was Benito Mussolini?
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini, who went by the nickname “Il Duce” (“the Leader”), was an Italian dictator who created the Fascist Party in 1919 and eventually held all the power in Italy as the country’s prime minister from 1922 until 1943. An ardent socialist as a youth, Mussolini followed in his father's political footsteps but was expelled by the party for his support of World War I. As dictator during World War II, he overextended his forces and was eventually killed by his own people in Mezzegra, Italy.
Family and Early Life
Mussolini was born on July 29, 1883, in Italy. His father, Alessandro, was a blacksmith and an impassioned socialist who spent much of his time on politics and much of his money on his mistress. His mother, Rosa (Maltoni), was a devout Catholic teacher who provided the family with some stability and income.
The eldest of three children, Mussolini showed much intelligence as a youth but was boisterous and disobedient. His father instilled in him a passion for socialist politics and defiance against authority. Though he was expelled from several schools for bullying and defying school authorities, he eventually obtained a teaching certificate in 1901 and, for a brief time, worked as a schoolmaster.
In 1902, Mussolini moved to Switzerland to promote socialism. He quickly gained a reputation for his magnetism and remarkable rhetorical talents. While engaging in political demonstrations, he caught the attention of Swiss authorities and was eventually expelled from the country.
Mussolini returned to Italy in 1904 and continued promoting a socialist agenda. He was briefly imprisoned and, upon release, became editor of the organization's newspaper, Avanti (meaning "Forward"), which gave him a larger megaphone and expanded his influence.
While Mussolini initially condemned Italy's entry into World War I, he soon saw the war as an opportunity for his country to become a great power. His change in attitude broke ties with fellow socialists, and he was expelled from the organization.
In 1915, Mussolini joined the Italian army and fought on the front lines, reaching the rank of corporal before being wounded and discharged from the military.
Fascist Party Founder
On March 23, 1919, Mussolini founded the Fascist Party, which organized several right-wing groups into a single force. The fascist movement proclaimed opposition to social class discrimination and supported nationalist sentiments. Mussolini hoped to raise Italy to levels of its great Roman past.
Mussolini’s Rise to Power
Mussolini criticized the Italian government for weakness at the Treaty of Versailles. Capitalizing on public discontent following World War I, he organized a paramilitary unit known as the "Black Shirts," who terrorized political opponents and helped increase Fascist influence.
As Italy slipped into political chaos, Mussolini declared that only he could restore order and was given the authority in 1922 as prime minister. He gradually dismantled all democratic institutions. By 1925, he had made himself dictator, taking the title "Il Duce" ("the Leader").
To his credit, Mussolini carried out an extensive public works program and reduced unemployment, making him very popular with the people.
Invasion of Ethiopia
In 1935, determined to show the strength of his regime, Benito Mussolini invaded Ethiopia. The ill-equipped Ethiopians were no match for Italy's modern tanks and airplanes, and the capital, Addis Ababa, was quickly captured. Mussolini incorporated Ethiopia into the new Italian Empire.
World War II and Adolf Hitler
Impressed with Italy's early military successes, German dictator Adolf Hitler sought to establish a relationship with Mussolini. Flattered by Hitler's overtures, Mussolini interpreted the recent diplomatic and military victories as proof of his genius. In 1939, Mussolini sent support to Fascists in Spain during the Spanish Civil War, hoping to expand his influence.
That same year, Italy and Germany signed a military alliance known as the "Pact of Steel." With Italy's resources stretched to capacity, many Italians believed Mussolini’s alliance with Germany would provide time to regroup. Influenced by Hitler, Mussolini instituted discrimination policies against the Jews in Italy. In 1940, Italy invaded Greece with some initial success.
Hitler's invasion of Poland and declaration of war with Britain and France forced Italy into war, however, and exposed weaknesses in its military. Greece and North Africa soon fell, and only German military intervention in early 1941 saved Mussolini from a military coup.
At the Casablanca Conference in 1942, Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt devised a plan to take Italy out of the war and force Germany to move its troops to the Eastern Front against the Soviet Union. Allied forces secured a beachhead in Sicily and began marching up the Italian peninsula.
With pressure mounting, Mussolini was forced to resign on July 25, 1943, and was arrested; German commandos later rescued him. Mussolini then moved his government to northern Italy, hoping to regain his influence. On June 4, 1944, Rome was liberated by Allied forces, who marched on to take control of Italy.
Mussolini and his mistress, Claretta Petacci, were executed on April 28, 1945, in Mezzegra (near Dongo), Italy, and their bodies were hung on display in a Milan plaza. Following the liberation of Rome by Allied forces, the pair had attempted to escape to Switzerland but were captured by the Italian underground on April 27, 1945.
The Italian masses greeted Mussolini's death without regret. Mussolini had promised his people Roman glory, but his megalomania had overcome his common sense, bringing them only war and misery.
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0.578153371810... | 14 | Who Was Benito Mussolini?
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini, who went by the nickname “Il Duce” (“the Leader”), was an Italian dictator who created the Fascist Party in 1919 and eventually held all the power in Italy as the country’s prime minister from 1922 until 1943. An ardent socialist as a youth, Mussolini followed in his father's political footsteps but was expelled by the party for his support of World War I. As dictator during World War II, he overextended his forces and was eventually killed by his own people in Mezzegra, Italy.
Family and Early Life
Mussolini was born on July 29, 1883, in Italy. His father, Alessandro, was a blacksmith and an impassioned socialist who spent much of his time on politics and much of his money on his mistress. His mother, Rosa (Maltoni), was a devout Catholic teacher who provided the family with some stability and income.
The eldest of three children, Mussolini showed much intelligence as a youth but was boisterous and disobedient. His father instilled in him a passion for socialist politics and defiance against authority. Though he was expelled from several schools for bullying and defying school authorities, he eventually obtained a teaching certificate in 1901 and, for a brief time, worked as a schoolmaster.
In 1902, Mussolini moved to Switzerland to promote socialism. He quickly gained a reputation for his magnetism and remarkable rhetorical talents. While engaging in political demonstrations, he caught the attention of Swiss authorities and was eventually expelled from the country.
Mussolini returned to Italy in 1904 and continued promoting a socialist agenda. He was briefly imprisoned and, upon release, became editor of the organization's newspaper, Avanti (meaning "Forward"), which gave him a larger megaphone and expanded his influence.
While Mussolini initially condemned Italy's entry into World War I, he soon saw the war as an opportunity for his country to become a great power. His change in attitude broke ties with fellow socialists, and he was expelled from the organization.
In 1915, Mussolini joined the Italian army and fought on the front lines, reaching the rank of corporal before being wounded and discharged from the military.
Fascist Party Founder
On March 23, 1919, Mussolini founded the Fascist Party, which organized several right-wing groups into a single force. The fascist movement proclaimed opposition to social class discrimination and supported nationalist sentiments. Mussolini hoped to raise Italy to levels of its great Roman past.
Mussolini’s Rise to Power
Mussolini criticized the Italian government for weakness at the Treaty of Versailles. Capitalizing on public discontent following World War I, he organized a paramilitary unit known as the "Black Shirts," who terrorized political opponents and helped increase Fascist influence.
As Italy slipped into political chaos, Mussolini declared that only he could restore order and was given the authority in 1922 as prime minister. He gradually dismantled all democratic institutions. By 1925, he had made himself dictator, taking the title "Il Duce" ("the Leader").
To his credit, Mussolini carried out an extensive public works program and reduced unemployment, making him very popular with the people.
Invasion of Ethiopia
In 1935, determined to show the strength of his regime, Benito Mussolini invaded Ethiopia. The ill-equipped Ethiopians were no match for Italy's modern tanks and airplanes, and the capital, Addis Ababa, was quickly captured. Mussolini incorporated Ethiopia into the new Italian Empire.
World War II and Adolf Hitler
Impressed with Italy's early military successes, German dictator Adolf Hitler sought to establish a relationship with Mussolini. Flattered by Hitler's overtures, Mussolini interpreted the recent diplomatic and military victories as proof of his genius. In 1939, Mussolini sent support to Fascists in Spain during the Spanish Civil War, hoping to expand his influence.
That same year, Italy and Germany signed a military alliance known as the "Pact of Steel." With Italy's resources stretched to capacity, many Italians believed Mussolini’s alliance with Germany would provide time to regroup. Influenced by Hitler, Mussolini instituted discrimination policies against the Jews in Italy. In 1940, Italy invaded Greece with some initial success.
Hitler's invasion of Poland and declaration of war with Britain and France forced Italy into war, however, and exposed weaknesses in its military. Greece and North Africa soon fell, and only German military intervention in early 1941 saved Mussolini from a military coup.
At the Casablanca Conference in 1942, Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt devised a plan to take Italy out of the war and force Germany to move its troops to the Eastern Front against the Soviet Union. Allied forces secured a beachhead in Sicily and began marching up the Italian peninsula.
With pressure mounting, Mussolini was forced to resign on July 25, 1943, and was arrested; German commandos later rescued him. Mussolini then moved his government to northern Italy, hoping to regain his influence. On June 4, 1944, Rome was liberated by Allied forces, who marched on to take control of Italy.
Mussolini and his mistress, Claretta Petacci, were executed on April 28, 1945, in Mezzegra (near Dongo), Italy, and their bodies were hung on display in a Milan plaza. Following the liberation of Rome by Allied forces, the pair had attempted to escape to Switzerland but were captured by the Italian underground on April 27, 1945.
The Italian masses greeted Mussolini's death without regret. Mussolini had promised his people Roman glory, but his megalomania had overcome his common sense, bringing them only war and misery.
We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us! | 1,259 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Being a healthy eater requires you to become both educated and smart about what healthy eating actually is. Being food smart isn’t about learning to calculate grams or fat, or is it about studying labels and counting calories.
Healthy eating is all about balanced and moderate eating, consisting of healthy meals at least three times per day. Healthy eaters eat many different types of foods, not limiting themselves to one specific food type or food group. Eating healthy requires quite a bit of leeway. You might eat too much or not enough, consume foods that are sometimes more or less nutritious.
However, you should always fuel your body and your brain regularly with enough food to keep both your mind and body strong and alert.
A healthy eater is a good problem solver. Healthy eaters have learned to take care of themselves and their eating with sound judgement and making wise decisions. Healthy eaters are always aware of what they eat, and know the effect that it will have on their bodies.
When someone is unable to take control of their eating, they are also likely to get out of control with other aspects of life as well. They could end up spending too much, talking too much, even going to bed later and later.
You should always remember that restricting food in any way is always a bad thing. Healthy eating is a way of life, something that you can do to enhance your body or your lifestyle. If you’ve thought about making your life better, healthy eating is just the place to start. You’ll make life easier for yourself, those around you, and even your family. | <urn:uuid:4ab2d73b-69bd-4771-a4c7-7feeea8bb1fc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://boxandbike.com.au/nutrition-tip/becoming-a-healthy-eater/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00345.warc.gz | en | 0.983518 | 327 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.092327557... | 1 | Being a healthy eater requires you to become both educated and smart about what healthy eating actually is. Being food smart isn’t about learning to calculate grams or fat, or is it about studying labels and counting calories.
Healthy eating is all about balanced and moderate eating, consisting of healthy meals at least three times per day. Healthy eaters eat many different types of foods, not limiting themselves to one specific food type or food group. Eating healthy requires quite a bit of leeway. You might eat too much or not enough, consume foods that are sometimes more or less nutritious.
However, you should always fuel your body and your brain regularly with enough food to keep both your mind and body strong and alert.
A healthy eater is a good problem solver. Healthy eaters have learned to take care of themselves and their eating with sound judgement and making wise decisions. Healthy eaters are always aware of what they eat, and know the effect that it will have on their bodies.
When someone is unable to take control of their eating, they are also likely to get out of control with other aspects of life as well. They could end up spending too much, talking too much, even going to bed later and later.
You should always remember that restricting food in any way is always a bad thing. Healthy eating is a way of life, something that you can do to enhance your body or your lifestyle. If you’ve thought about making your life better, healthy eating is just the place to start. You’ll make life easier for yourself, those around you, and even your family. | 314 | ENGLISH | 1 |
FIFTEENTH TEXAS CAVALRY
FIFTEENTH TEXAS CAVALRY. In January 1862 George H. Sweet, a newspaperman from San Antonio, began organizing a cavalry regiment. Sweet, who had been born in Ulster County, New York, had served earlier in the war as a private in Hood's Texas Brigade in Virginia. Having secured a commission and authority to organize his own regiment, Sweet returned to Texas and formed ten companies from Bexar, Wise, Dallas, Johnson, Tarrant, Limestone, Denton, Red River, Van Zandt, and Johnson counties.
Sweet had little trouble raising his regiment, which was composed of "middle-aged men and boys," according to one member, and each had to supply his own horse and equipment. They practiced their cavalry drill on courthouse squares and prairies around the Lone Star State and, armed with Bowie knives and armament of every kind, presented a most unmilitary appearance. Finally, on March 10, 1862, the Fifteenth Texas Cavalry was mustered into service at McKinney in Collin County.
Initially, the regiment marched through Clarksville and into Arkansas. On May 20, 1862, the regiment was reorganized in response to the new Confederate Conscription Act. Essentially, the act specified men between the ages of eighteen and thirty-five must serve in the military unless they held certain jobs or were responsible for twenty slaves. In essence, the act eliminated men who had voluntarily enlisted and put men in the ranks who did not want to fight. The act did not add any men to the regiment, but around 100 were discharged due to being too young or too old. In addition, one of the provisions of the act allowed the enlisted men to elect their own officers, and the composition of the regiment changed dramatically. Colonel Sweet was reelected colonel, while Maj. George B. Pickett of Wise County was promoted to lieutenant colonel, and William Cathey of Company K was promoted to major.
On July 8, 1862, the regiment fought their first battle, near Batesville, Arkansas. The regiment lost eight killed and seven wounded. In Colonel Sweet's report, he singled out Capt. Valerius P. Sanders of Company A for "signal coolness and bravery." On July 24, 1862, the regiment was dismounted, and their horses were sent home. For the rest of the war, the Fifteenth was to serve the Confederacy as infantry.
In the late fall of 1862, the regiment was sent to garrison the post of Arkansas, then an unfinished fort being built by slave labor on the Arkansas River. The Fifteenth Texas Cavalry was brigaded together with the Tenth Texas Infantry, and the Seventeenth, and Eighteenth Texas Cavalry regiments, dismounted, and Colonel Sweet was assigned temporarily to command the brigade.
The area was terribly unhealthy, and at least 100 men in the regiment died. Many others had to be discharged from the service. One officer, Robert M. Collins of Company B, stated he came close to "cashing in his checks" and was quartered near the graveyard, which he stated was being used regularly and services held around the clock in order to inter the large number of young men who had died. Many soldiers in the Fifteenth died before ever seeing or even firing at a Yankee.
On January 10, 1863, about 40,000 Federal troops under the command of Maj. Gen. John McClernand attacked the fort. Two days of furious fighting ensued, until the Confederates capitulated on January 11. The garrison of 4,791 officers and men surrendered, mostly Texans, and were sent on transports up the Mississippi River to prison. In the Fifteenth Texas Cavalry, twenty-seven officers and 436 enlisted men were captured. Exact casualties are unknown, but the regimental assistant surgeon, Nathan Wyncoope, was mortally wounded while tending to the sick and wounded in his charge.
Officers were sent to Camp Chase, Ohio, and the enlisted men were sent to Camp Douglas in Chicago. Arriving with few amenities and fewer blankets, many soldiers who had become sick from exposure on the way upriver, died from pneumonia and other causes. In about two months' time, over 700 of the Texans died, about 100 from the Fifteenth Texas Cavalry.
Finally, on April 3, 1863, the enlisted men were sent for exchange to City Point, Virginia, and received on April 10. Officers were sent to Fort Delaware on April 29 and received on May 4. Due to their various ailments, many men had to be discharged, and some died in various hospitals around Richmond, Williamsburg, and Petersburg. The enlisted men suffered worse than the officers, and upon their exchange, many officers found themselves to be supernumeraries. About two-thirds of the officers of the regiment were sent back to the Trans-Mississippi Department. The Sixth and Tenth Texas Infantry and the Fifteenth Texas Cavalry were combined into one regiment. Maj. Valerius P. Sanders of the Fifteenth was one of the field officers in this new consolidated regiment. The Seventeenth, Eighteenth, Twenty-fourth, and Twenty-fifth Texas Cavalry regiments, also captured at Arkansas Post, were also consolidated into one regiment, and both new regiments were placed in a new brigade under the command of Brig. Gen. James Deshler.
It was rumored that no officers in Lee's army wanted the Texans, so they were sent to Braxton Bragg's Army of Tennessee. Pat Cleburne, a divisional commander in that army, needed replacements and decided the Texans were "a fine body of men out of which good soldiers are made" and welcomed the Texans. He was rewarded for his trust, as the Texans proved to be one of the best brigades in the army. The Texans were sent initially to Wartrace, where they were retrained as infantry, all under the watchful eye of the Irish major-general.
On the evening of September 18, 1863, Deshler's brigade splashed across Crawfish Springs, and the bloody battle of Chickamauga began. For two days, the battle raged, and Deshler's men were assigned to hold a position. Hold it they did, even though Deshler was killed, and the Texans suffered severely under artillery and small-arms fire. The next day, the Texans advanced, and assisted in driving the blue-clad army into siege at Chattanooga. The Fifteenth fought well in their initial battle after their exchange. Five men were killed, sixteen were wounded, and fourteen were captured or missing.
On November 24–25, 1863, the regiment won new glory at Missionary Ridge and Tunnel Hill, where the regiment lost one man killed, seven wounded, and two missing at Missionary Ridge, including Maj. V. P. Sanders, whose right arm was wounded severely and had to be amputated. The regiment was also acknowledged on November 27, 1863, at Ringgold Gap, where the Texans threw back the victorious Federals. The Fifteenth lost four wounded and one man captured in that action. The Texans, then under the command of Hiram B. Granbury, won the thanks of the Confederate Congress. Granbury won his general's star and command of the brigade that would thereafter bear his name.
Beginning in May 1864 the Fifteenth Texas Cavalry served in Granbury's Brigade, Cleburne's Division, Hardee's Corps, Army of Tennessee, and opposed Sherman's three armies converging on Atlanta. Fighting daily at places such as Resaca, Pickett's Mill, Dallas, Kennesaw Mountain, Peachtree Creek, Leggett's Hill, and the siege works around Atlanta, the Fifteenth lost four killed, nine mortally wounded, fifty-eight less seriously wounded, and three captured.
After the fall of Atlanta, the Confederates fell back to Palmetto, Georgia, before commencing a move into Tennessee. On November 30, 1864, the Army of Tennessee, including Granbury's Texas Brigade, charged the Federal works at Franklin, Tennessee. In five hours of furious fighting, the Confederates lost over 6,000 men. Granbury was killed, and his brigade decimated. Of the 1,100 men who went into the fight, only about 450 answered roll call the next morning. In the Fifteenth Texas Cavalry, 7 were killed, including Capt. Matthew M. Houston, commanding the regiment; 10 wounded; and 13 were missing.
The brigade was all but finished at the battle of Nashville on December 14–15, 1864. The Texans defended their assigned position well but had to retreat on the. The last major Confederate offensive of the war was over.
On April 28, 1865, the Confederate Army under the command of Gen. Joseph E. Johnston surrendered at Greensboro, North Carolina. The Fifteenth Texas Cavalry numbered only forty-three: three officers, eight non-commissioned officers, two teamsters, and thirty enlisted men. Out of the 1,200 men who had served in the regiment at one time or another, only forty-three, or 3.5 percent, were at the surrender.
Of course, many of the men were not at the surrender at Arkansas Post, as they were on detached duty, escaped capture, or were on sick leave. Among this number was Col. George H. Sweet, who commanded Camp Ford, a prisoner of war camp near Tyler, Texas. Following the war, Sweet traveled in Mexico and operated several different publications, including the Texas New Yorker, designed to promote northern investment and immigration to Texas. Sweet moved to Galveston in 1878 and published the Galveston Journal. He later returned back to New York. His widow, Lizzie, obtained a pension from the state of Texas in 1899 and stated, "[I] have not heard from him for 12 years."
Sweet's disappearance occurred many years before the last of his old soldiers passed away. With the passing of Alonzo L. Steele, formerly of Company F, on December 6, 1936, in Baytown, Harris County, it is believed the last of the old veterans of the Fifteenth Texas Cavalry had "crossed the river, to rest 'neath the shade of the trees."
Robert M. Collins, Chapters from the Unwritten History of the War Between the States (St. Louis: Nixon-Jones, 1893; rpt., Dayton, Ohio: Morningside Bookshop, 1982). Compiled Service Records of Confederate Soldiers Who Served in Organizations from the State of Texas, National Archives and Records Service, Washington. Robert Underwood Johnson and Clarence Clough Buel, Battles and Leaders of the Civil War (4 vols., New York: Yoseloff, 1956).
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The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Handbook of Texas Online, Tim Bell, "FIFTEENTH TEXAS CAVALRY," accessed January 22, 2020, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/qkf08.
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0.037219539284706... | 1 | FIFTEENTH TEXAS CAVALRY
FIFTEENTH TEXAS CAVALRY. In January 1862 George H. Sweet, a newspaperman from San Antonio, began organizing a cavalry regiment. Sweet, who had been born in Ulster County, New York, had served earlier in the war as a private in Hood's Texas Brigade in Virginia. Having secured a commission and authority to organize his own regiment, Sweet returned to Texas and formed ten companies from Bexar, Wise, Dallas, Johnson, Tarrant, Limestone, Denton, Red River, Van Zandt, and Johnson counties.
Sweet had little trouble raising his regiment, which was composed of "middle-aged men and boys," according to one member, and each had to supply his own horse and equipment. They practiced their cavalry drill on courthouse squares and prairies around the Lone Star State and, armed with Bowie knives and armament of every kind, presented a most unmilitary appearance. Finally, on March 10, 1862, the Fifteenth Texas Cavalry was mustered into service at McKinney in Collin County.
Initially, the regiment marched through Clarksville and into Arkansas. On May 20, 1862, the regiment was reorganized in response to the new Confederate Conscription Act. Essentially, the act specified men between the ages of eighteen and thirty-five must serve in the military unless they held certain jobs or were responsible for twenty slaves. In essence, the act eliminated men who had voluntarily enlisted and put men in the ranks who did not want to fight. The act did not add any men to the regiment, but around 100 were discharged due to being too young or too old. In addition, one of the provisions of the act allowed the enlisted men to elect their own officers, and the composition of the regiment changed dramatically. Colonel Sweet was reelected colonel, while Maj. George B. Pickett of Wise County was promoted to lieutenant colonel, and William Cathey of Company K was promoted to major.
On July 8, 1862, the regiment fought their first battle, near Batesville, Arkansas. The regiment lost eight killed and seven wounded. In Colonel Sweet's report, he singled out Capt. Valerius P. Sanders of Company A for "signal coolness and bravery." On July 24, 1862, the regiment was dismounted, and their horses were sent home. For the rest of the war, the Fifteenth was to serve the Confederacy as infantry.
In the late fall of 1862, the regiment was sent to garrison the post of Arkansas, then an unfinished fort being built by slave labor on the Arkansas River. The Fifteenth Texas Cavalry was brigaded together with the Tenth Texas Infantry, and the Seventeenth, and Eighteenth Texas Cavalry regiments, dismounted, and Colonel Sweet was assigned temporarily to command the brigade.
The area was terribly unhealthy, and at least 100 men in the regiment died. Many others had to be discharged from the service. One officer, Robert M. Collins of Company B, stated he came close to "cashing in his checks" and was quartered near the graveyard, which he stated was being used regularly and services held around the clock in order to inter the large number of young men who had died. Many soldiers in the Fifteenth died before ever seeing or even firing at a Yankee.
On January 10, 1863, about 40,000 Federal troops under the command of Maj. Gen. John McClernand attacked the fort. Two days of furious fighting ensued, until the Confederates capitulated on January 11. The garrison of 4,791 officers and men surrendered, mostly Texans, and were sent on transports up the Mississippi River to prison. In the Fifteenth Texas Cavalry, twenty-seven officers and 436 enlisted men were captured. Exact casualties are unknown, but the regimental assistant surgeon, Nathan Wyncoope, was mortally wounded while tending to the sick and wounded in his charge.
Officers were sent to Camp Chase, Ohio, and the enlisted men were sent to Camp Douglas in Chicago. Arriving with few amenities and fewer blankets, many soldiers who had become sick from exposure on the way upriver, died from pneumonia and other causes. In about two months' time, over 700 of the Texans died, about 100 from the Fifteenth Texas Cavalry.
Finally, on April 3, 1863, the enlisted men were sent for exchange to City Point, Virginia, and received on April 10. Officers were sent to Fort Delaware on April 29 and received on May 4. Due to their various ailments, many men had to be discharged, and some died in various hospitals around Richmond, Williamsburg, and Petersburg. The enlisted men suffered worse than the officers, and upon their exchange, many officers found themselves to be supernumeraries. About two-thirds of the officers of the regiment were sent back to the Trans-Mississippi Department. The Sixth and Tenth Texas Infantry and the Fifteenth Texas Cavalry were combined into one regiment. Maj. Valerius P. Sanders of the Fifteenth was one of the field officers in this new consolidated regiment. The Seventeenth, Eighteenth, Twenty-fourth, and Twenty-fifth Texas Cavalry regiments, also captured at Arkansas Post, were also consolidated into one regiment, and both new regiments were placed in a new brigade under the command of Brig. Gen. James Deshler.
It was rumored that no officers in Lee's army wanted the Texans, so they were sent to Braxton Bragg's Army of Tennessee. Pat Cleburne, a divisional commander in that army, needed replacements and decided the Texans were "a fine body of men out of which good soldiers are made" and welcomed the Texans. He was rewarded for his trust, as the Texans proved to be one of the best brigades in the army. The Texans were sent initially to Wartrace, where they were retrained as infantry, all under the watchful eye of the Irish major-general.
On the evening of September 18, 1863, Deshler's brigade splashed across Crawfish Springs, and the bloody battle of Chickamauga began. For two days, the battle raged, and Deshler's men were assigned to hold a position. Hold it they did, even though Deshler was killed, and the Texans suffered severely under artillery and small-arms fire. The next day, the Texans advanced, and assisted in driving the blue-clad army into siege at Chattanooga. The Fifteenth fought well in their initial battle after their exchange. Five men were killed, sixteen were wounded, and fourteen were captured or missing.
On November 24–25, 1863, the regiment won new glory at Missionary Ridge and Tunnel Hill, where the regiment lost one man killed, seven wounded, and two missing at Missionary Ridge, including Maj. V. P. Sanders, whose right arm was wounded severely and had to be amputated. The regiment was also acknowledged on November 27, 1863, at Ringgold Gap, where the Texans threw back the victorious Federals. The Fifteenth lost four wounded and one man captured in that action. The Texans, then under the command of Hiram B. Granbury, won the thanks of the Confederate Congress. Granbury won his general's star and command of the brigade that would thereafter bear his name.
Beginning in May 1864 the Fifteenth Texas Cavalry served in Granbury's Brigade, Cleburne's Division, Hardee's Corps, Army of Tennessee, and opposed Sherman's three armies converging on Atlanta. Fighting daily at places such as Resaca, Pickett's Mill, Dallas, Kennesaw Mountain, Peachtree Creek, Leggett's Hill, and the siege works around Atlanta, the Fifteenth lost four killed, nine mortally wounded, fifty-eight less seriously wounded, and three captured.
After the fall of Atlanta, the Confederates fell back to Palmetto, Georgia, before commencing a move into Tennessee. On November 30, 1864, the Army of Tennessee, including Granbury's Texas Brigade, charged the Federal works at Franklin, Tennessee. In five hours of furious fighting, the Confederates lost over 6,000 men. Granbury was killed, and his brigade decimated. Of the 1,100 men who went into the fight, only about 450 answered roll call the next morning. In the Fifteenth Texas Cavalry, 7 were killed, including Capt. Matthew M. Houston, commanding the regiment; 10 wounded; and 13 were missing.
The brigade was all but finished at the battle of Nashville on December 14–15, 1864. The Texans defended their assigned position well but had to retreat on the. The last major Confederate offensive of the war was over.
On April 28, 1865, the Confederate Army under the command of Gen. Joseph E. Johnston surrendered at Greensboro, North Carolina. The Fifteenth Texas Cavalry numbered only forty-three: three officers, eight non-commissioned officers, two teamsters, and thirty enlisted men. Out of the 1,200 men who had served in the regiment at one time or another, only forty-three, or 3.5 percent, were at the surrender.
Of course, many of the men were not at the surrender at Arkansas Post, as they were on detached duty, escaped capture, or were on sick leave. Among this number was Col. George H. Sweet, who commanded Camp Ford, a prisoner of war camp near Tyler, Texas. Following the war, Sweet traveled in Mexico and operated several different publications, including the Texas New Yorker, designed to promote northern investment and immigration to Texas. Sweet moved to Galveston in 1878 and published the Galveston Journal. He later returned back to New York. His widow, Lizzie, obtained a pension from the state of Texas in 1899 and stated, "[I] have not heard from him for 12 years."
Sweet's disappearance occurred many years before the last of his old soldiers passed away. With the passing of Alonzo L. Steele, formerly of Company F, on December 6, 1936, in Baytown, Harris County, it is believed the last of the old veterans of the Fifteenth Texas Cavalry had "crossed the river, to rest 'neath the shade of the trees."
Robert M. Collins, Chapters from the Unwritten History of the War Between the States (St. Louis: Nixon-Jones, 1893; rpt., Dayton, Ohio: Morningside Bookshop, 1982). Compiled Service Records of Confederate Soldiers Who Served in Organizations from the State of Texas, National Archives and Records Service, Washington. Robert Underwood Johnson and Clarence Clough Buel, Battles and Leaders of the Civil War (4 vols., New York: Yoseloff, 1956).
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The following, adapted from the Chicago Manual of Style, 15th edition, is the preferred citation for this article.Handbook of Texas Online, Tim Bell, "FIFTEENTH TEXAS CAVALRY," accessed January 22, 2020, http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/qkf08.
Uploaded on April 6, 2011. Published by the Texas State Historical Association. | 2,585 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How Far Can Dogs Hear?
Dogs can hear up to 4 times farther than humans can. This means that if you hear a sound from 20 feet away, a dog can hear the same sound produced at the same volume 80 feet away. Humans can hear a sound as far as 50 to 100 feet away while dogs can hear as far as a quarter-mile or more.
Dogs not only can hear farther, but they can also hear better than humans. Generally, a human's hearing range is 20 Hz to 20 kHz whereas a dog's hearing range is from 67 Hz to 45 kHz. A dog whistle is specifically designed to produce sounds that are higher than 20 kHz which is why humans can't hear a dog whistle being blown while dogs are sensitive to it.
A dog's hearing is primed for hunting and avoiding danger. Their ears have 18 specialized muscles that aid them in their hearing by tilting and rotating for more accuracy. Their ears are also shaped to receive sounds more efficiently like how humans would cup their hands to hear better. | <urn:uuid:edda34ac-7921-4edc-91c1-c9dddb73cab2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://dogsaremyuniverse.com/how-far-can-dogs-hear/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00249.warc.gz | en | 0.980067 | 210 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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Dogs can hear up to 4 times farther than humans can. This means that if you hear a sound from 20 feet away, a dog can hear the same sound produced at the same volume 80 feet away. Humans can hear a sound as far as 50 to 100 feet away while dogs can hear as far as a quarter-mile or more.
Dogs not only can hear farther, but they can also hear better than humans. Generally, a human's hearing range is 20 Hz to 20 kHz whereas a dog's hearing range is from 67 Hz to 45 kHz. A dog whistle is specifically designed to produce sounds that are higher than 20 kHz which is why humans can't hear a dog whistle being blown while dogs are sensitive to it.
A dog's hearing is primed for hunting and avoiding danger. Their ears have 18 specialized muscles that aid them in their hearing by tilting and rotating for more accuracy. Their ears are also shaped to receive sounds more efficiently like how humans would cup their hands to hear better. | 229 | ENGLISH | 1 |
I had heard a lot of things about Jim Thorpe. After all, some people argue that Jim Thorpe was the greatest athlete of the 20th century. But after reading this picture book biography, I learned that Thorpe’s accomplishments meant much more than being a great sports star.
From the day he was born, Jim Thorpe’s parents knew he was special. When he was born in 1887 in the Indian Territory that would become the state of Oklahoma, his mother gave him another name: “Wa-tho-huck,” which means “Bright Path.” I like how Bruchac ties the title and the story into Thorpe finding the right path, and how nobody knew just how far that path would take him.
Jim’s athletic skills were evident early on, as he played outdoors and hunted with his father and twin brother. Like most twins, Jim and his brother were close, even though they were not exactly the same. When they raced or wrestled, Jim was always a little ahead of Charlie. But when the boys were sent to Indian boarding school,his brother Charlie always seemed a little ahead of Jim. The story of the brothers encouraging each other is a wonderful example to reinforce to young readers that everyone has their strengths, but we need to encourage each other not to give up in those areas that are a challenge.
Not only does Bruchac highlight Jim Thorpe’s path, but he also tells the story of the unfair treatment of Native Americans at that time. Indian boarding schools did not provide the same education offered to whites. Indian children were educated only to be maids or laborers and schools were designed to cut them off from everything that made them Indians.
Jim moved from school to school and overcame many family tragedies. His brother died of pneumonia from the terrible conditions in the schools, his mother died of an illness, and his father died of a snakebite while working in the fields. Overcoming obstacles and perseverance is the main theme of this inspirational tale. The story is not only an inspiration, but also a testament to what his generation had to go through.
Nelson’s illustrations illuminate Jim’s path and I think the textures in each one are pretty unique. At the end of the book is an author’s note where Bruchac further describes the success that Thorpe gained, and a timeline of important dates in Jim Thorpe’s legacy.
Author: Joseph Bruchac
Illustrator: S.D. Nelson
Publisher: Lee & Low Books, Aug. 2008
Reading Level: Ages 4-8 | <urn:uuid:a64c53b7-7331-429a-981c-cb5db97be372> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mediv.dp.ua/jim-thorpes-bright-path-by-joseph-bruchac.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00005.warc.gz | en | 0.988295 | 541 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.0867956... | 1 | I had heard a lot of things about Jim Thorpe. After all, some people argue that Jim Thorpe was the greatest athlete of the 20th century. But after reading this picture book biography, I learned that Thorpe’s accomplishments meant much more than being a great sports star.
From the day he was born, Jim Thorpe’s parents knew he was special. When he was born in 1887 in the Indian Territory that would become the state of Oklahoma, his mother gave him another name: “Wa-tho-huck,” which means “Bright Path.” I like how Bruchac ties the title and the story into Thorpe finding the right path, and how nobody knew just how far that path would take him.
Jim’s athletic skills were evident early on, as he played outdoors and hunted with his father and twin brother. Like most twins, Jim and his brother were close, even though they were not exactly the same. When they raced or wrestled, Jim was always a little ahead of Charlie. But when the boys were sent to Indian boarding school,his brother Charlie always seemed a little ahead of Jim. The story of the brothers encouraging each other is a wonderful example to reinforce to young readers that everyone has their strengths, but we need to encourage each other not to give up in those areas that are a challenge.
Not only does Bruchac highlight Jim Thorpe’s path, but he also tells the story of the unfair treatment of Native Americans at that time. Indian boarding schools did not provide the same education offered to whites. Indian children were educated only to be maids or laborers and schools were designed to cut them off from everything that made them Indians.
Jim moved from school to school and overcame many family tragedies. His brother died of pneumonia from the terrible conditions in the schools, his mother died of an illness, and his father died of a snakebite while working in the fields. Overcoming obstacles and perseverance is the main theme of this inspirational tale. The story is not only an inspiration, but also a testament to what his generation had to go through.
Nelson’s illustrations illuminate Jim’s path and I think the textures in each one are pretty unique. At the end of the book is an author’s note where Bruchac further describes the success that Thorpe gained, and a timeline of important dates in Jim Thorpe’s legacy.
Author: Joseph Bruchac
Illustrator: S.D. Nelson
Publisher: Lee & Low Books, Aug. 2008
Reading Level: Ages 4-8 | 520 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A new study has found that the HPV vaccination has led to major reductions in the number of young women who have the infection, which can cause cervical cancer.
Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) 16 and 18 infections, which cause the majority of cervical cancer cases, decreased by 86% in women aged 16 to 21 who were eligible for the vaccination as adolescents between 2010 and 2016.
The surveillance data from England was published today (Monday 18 June 2018) in the Journal of Infectious Diseases. Overall, declines were seen across 5 high-risk HPV types, which together cause around 90% of cervical cancer cases, as well as low-risk HPV types.
The results suggest that the HPV vaccination programme will bring about large reductions in cervical cancer in the future. Cervical cancer is currently the most common cancer in women under 35, killing around 850 women a year. | <urn:uuid:dd022dfc-c6ce-42bb-adc8-ae0c5bde5184> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thecareforum.org/news/hpv-vaccine-reduces-cancer-causing-infection-86-per-cent/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00470.warc.gz | en | 0.98018 | 177 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.08519677817821... | 11 | A new study has found that the HPV vaccination has led to major reductions in the number of young women who have the infection, which can cause cervical cancer.
Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) 16 and 18 infections, which cause the majority of cervical cancer cases, decreased by 86% in women aged 16 to 21 who were eligible for the vaccination as adolescents between 2010 and 2016.
The surveillance data from England was published today (Monday 18 June 2018) in the Journal of Infectious Diseases. Overall, declines were seen across 5 high-risk HPV types, which together cause around 90% of cervical cancer cases, as well as low-risk HPV types.
The results suggest that the HPV vaccination programme will bring about large reductions in cervical cancer in the future. Cervical cancer is currently the most common cancer in women under 35, killing around 850 women a year. | 204 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Describe Anne Frank as the main protagonist of 'The Diary of a Young Girl'.
Anne Frank was a thirteen-year-old girl who recorded her thoughts and experiences while hiding from the Nazis during World War II in a diary, which was published by her father after her death. Her tone when she describes herself and her life is fairly playful and humorous, although she is able to be serious and understand the gravity of her situation. Her writing style is personal, honest, and direct. Anne writes because she feels unable to confide in her peers or family; she struggles with the criticism she receives from adults when her family is in hiding, and she is unsure how to reconcile her identity as both Dutch and Jewish in the context of World War II. Anne is lonely, and within the context of her social isolation, her critical family, and the increasingly dire situation they hide from, she struggles with her identity and development into adulthood. Towards the end of the text, Anne realizes that she has matured during her time in the annex, and become more emotionally mature and independent. Shortly before her family was found by the Nazis, Anne had begun considering the nature of war and anti-Semitism from a philosophical perspective, and her role in a world that seemed to be rapidly changing. Anne Frank died in Auschwitz in 1945, only weeks before the camp was liberated by allied soldiers. Her father, Otto Frank, was the only survivor in his family, and he chose to publish Anne's diary in 1947.
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0.39332571625... | 1 | Describe Anne Frank as the main protagonist of 'The Diary of a Young Girl'.
Anne Frank was a thirteen-year-old girl who recorded her thoughts and experiences while hiding from the Nazis during World War II in a diary, which was published by her father after her death. Her tone when she describes herself and her life is fairly playful and humorous, although she is able to be serious and understand the gravity of her situation. Her writing style is personal, honest, and direct. Anne writes because she feels unable to confide in her peers or family; she struggles with the criticism she receives from adults when her family is in hiding, and she is unsure how to reconcile her identity as both Dutch and Jewish in the context of World War II. Anne is lonely, and within the context of her social isolation, her critical family, and the increasingly dire situation they hide from, she struggles with her identity and development into adulthood. Towards the end of the text, Anne realizes that she has matured during her time in the annex, and become more emotionally mature and independent. Shortly before her family was found by the Nazis, Anne had begun considering the nature of war and anti-Semitism from a philosophical perspective, and her role in a world that seemed to be rapidly changing. Anne Frank died in Auschwitz in 1945, only weeks before the camp was liberated by allied soldiers. Her father, Otto Frank, was the only survivor in his family, and he chose to publish Anne's diary in 1947.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 309 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In aboriginal and early historic times the Kickapoo were seminomadic and this remains true for the conservative Mexican group today. Aboriginally, the Kickapoo summer villages were semipermanent, being associated with nearby agricultural fields. After crops were planted, a few residents, usually elderly, remained to care for them while most of the population set out on communal hunts. In winter, the village residents broke into smaller band units and established temporary hunting camps. The semipermanent villages were associated with an area for dancing and games and a burial place. The houses ( wiikiaapi ) were constructed of elm bark or rush mats placed over a vertical framework of saplings. They were usually rectangular in shape with a covered, but open-sided extension on the front. The domed winter houses were oval in shape and covered with the same mats. The mats were readily transportable so that new camps could be constructed with ease.
Bark is no longer available, but the same construction techniques for both summer and winter houses are utilized in the Mexican village of Nacimiento today. A few of the traditional houses are still constructed by members of the Oklahoma Kickapoo, although this is rare and even rarer in Kansas. In Mexico, compounds are small and arranged in a close communal pattern. A typical compound consists of at least one wiikiaapi, a cook house, a menstrual hut ( nianotegaani ), and perhaps some facility for storage. Women build and own the houses, and several related women and their nuclear Families often share a compound. There may also be a Mexicanstyle house in the compound. In Oklahoma, settlement is more dispersed as the reservation land was allotted in 1894 and many of the Kickapoo people have since lost any right to land ownership. In Kansas, the pattern is generally that common to a rurally fixed reservation that is agriculturally oriented. | <urn:uuid:ee64b071-4db9-4401-b035-e0a19ba6b308> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.everyculture.com/North-America/Kickapoo-Settlements.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00380.warc.gz | en | 0.981732 | 385 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.080030858516... | 2 | In aboriginal and early historic times the Kickapoo were seminomadic and this remains true for the conservative Mexican group today. Aboriginally, the Kickapoo summer villages were semipermanent, being associated with nearby agricultural fields. After crops were planted, a few residents, usually elderly, remained to care for them while most of the population set out on communal hunts. In winter, the village residents broke into smaller band units and established temporary hunting camps. The semipermanent villages were associated with an area for dancing and games and a burial place. The houses ( wiikiaapi ) were constructed of elm bark or rush mats placed over a vertical framework of saplings. They were usually rectangular in shape with a covered, but open-sided extension on the front. The domed winter houses were oval in shape and covered with the same mats. The mats were readily transportable so that new camps could be constructed with ease.
Bark is no longer available, but the same construction techniques for both summer and winter houses are utilized in the Mexican village of Nacimiento today. A few of the traditional houses are still constructed by members of the Oklahoma Kickapoo, although this is rare and even rarer in Kansas. In Mexico, compounds are small and arranged in a close communal pattern. A typical compound consists of at least one wiikiaapi, a cook house, a menstrual hut ( nianotegaani ), and perhaps some facility for storage. Women build and own the houses, and several related women and their nuclear Families often share a compound. There may also be a Mexicanstyle house in the compound. In Oklahoma, settlement is more dispersed as the reservation land was allotted in 1894 and many of the Kickapoo people have since lost any right to land ownership. In Kansas, the pattern is generally that common to a rurally fixed reservation that is agriculturally oriented. | 385 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In every society, at any given point of time, there is a tendency for people to form groups and develop their group identities. Ancient India was no different. Like most other societies, classes arose in ancient India on the basis of vocation of people. Not linked to birth at the beginning, they provided a social hierarchy, depending upon the importance a job for the society.
The class system in ancient India was very different from the caste system seen today, even though the latter arose from the former. Its major characteristic was its linkage with vocation and not with birth or family, as is the case in modern world. But it was not just vocation, it was also duties that were closely linked with it.
The ancient Indian society had innovated a unique class system based on vocation and profession, and attached a great amount of importance with reference to one's duties and values, giving them an importance equivalent to religion.
This system, also known as the 'VARNA' system of social division, divided the society on the basis of one's vocation and profession. Each of the four groups was prescribed duties and values comparable with modern professional. These duties were considered one's 'DHARMA' - the term used equivalently for religion in India, literally meaning duties.
The first class called 'Brahmins' consisted of scholars, saints and teachers, and was considered the highest class in society. Supposed to be the conscience of the society, and the reservoirs and preservers of social knowledge, skills, wisdom and values, Brahmins lead a very austere life, avoided vices like violence, greed, addiction, and glamour.
They did not enjoy political power or wealth, yet, were granted the highest respect in society. Even the King was supposed to respect them, and killing a Brahmin was considered a sin.
The next class was known as 'Kshatriyas'- consisting of warriors, King, the nobles and the soldiers. They were supposed to men of honor, follow a warrior's code of conduct, be respectful to the Brahmins and fight for the protection of weak. They enjoyed political power and use violence when ever required. Thus the duties of this class were different.
The third class was that of 'Vaishyas'- the businessmen and traders, who were expected to generate wealth and be rich. Their goal of life was to accumulate wealth and become rich. In a way they were like modern capitalists, but they were also supposed to respect Brahmins as well as pay their taxes to the King. In a way they were considered custodians of the society's wealth.
The last class was called 'Shudras'- the employees, servants and workers. They were expected to perform the duty assigned with loyalty and honesty. As ordinary laymen, the expectations were also lower from them, and they had more freedom in selecting their life-style.
This class system adopted by the Indians in ancient times is a reflection to the level of their development as well as the need for greater specialization towards work. One’s vocation was considered very important, and everyone was supposed to fulfill his or her duties honestly and sincerely. In fact, the word ‘Dharma’ equivalent to religions of the Western world, literally meant ‘duty’. The concept was that one’s duty depended on one’s station in life, and would be different from time to time and person to person. So, the duties of a daughter were different than those of a mother. Similarly, the duties of a student were different than those of a teacher. Duties also varied with vocation. Thus, while other classes were expected to refrain from indulging in violence, the soldier class, i.e.. kshatriyas were expected to be masters of warfare and be always ready to use violence for the benefit of society.
This ancient class system later got distorted in to ‘caste’ system, when it came to be inherited by birth and hence connected with descent. Today it has all but faded, but its bitter memories still remain and remind us that groupism of any sort within the society is a dangerous phenomenon, and should never be allowed to take strong roots.
I moved to Chennai almost four years ago and wrote this article based on my experience then. Now, I think I understand this city relatively better than I used to in my first year here.
The term warrior is associated with a brave or experienced soldier, warrior king or fighter. Warriors fought battles of conquest for self or for Kings, Emperors, or influential members in the high dynasty.
One of the best events a woman cannot forget in her life is to marry the person whom she truly loves. It is not a joke when a couple seriously prepares and organize their wedding day so as not to forget the happiest day of their life.. | <urn:uuid:692d2a4d-1b30-4f78-b9a0-6c4c455a39d1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://travelandculture.expertscolumn.com/class-system-ancient-india | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00019.warc.gz | en | 0.985476 | 995 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.1602304130792... | 1 | In every society, at any given point of time, there is a tendency for people to form groups and develop their group identities. Ancient India was no different. Like most other societies, classes arose in ancient India on the basis of vocation of people. Not linked to birth at the beginning, they provided a social hierarchy, depending upon the importance a job for the society.
The class system in ancient India was very different from the caste system seen today, even though the latter arose from the former. Its major characteristic was its linkage with vocation and not with birth or family, as is the case in modern world. But it was not just vocation, it was also duties that were closely linked with it.
The ancient Indian society had innovated a unique class system based on vocation and profession, and attached a great amount of importance with reference to one's duties and values, giving them an importance equivalent to religion.
This system, also known as the 'VARNA' system of social division, divided the society on the basis of one's vocation and profession. Each of the four groups was prescribed duties and values comparable with modern professional. These duties were considered one's 'DHARMA' - the term used equivalently for religion in India, literally meaning duties.
The first class called 'Brahmins' consisted of scholars, saints and teachers, and was considered the highest class in society. Supposed to be the conscience of the society, and the reservoirs and preservers of social knowledge, skills, wisdom and values, Brahmins lead a very austere life, avoided vices like violence, greed, addiction, and glamour.
They did not enjoy political power or wealth, yet, were granted the highest respect in society. Even the King was supposed to respect them, and killing a Brahmin was considered a sin.
The next class was known as 'Kshatriyas'- consisting of warriors, King, the nobles and the soldiers. They were supposed to men of honor, follow a warrior's code of conduct, be respectful to the Brahmins and fight for the protection of weak. They enjoyed political power and use violence when ever required. Thus the duties of this class were different.
The third class was that of 'Vaishyas'- the businessmen and traders, who were expected to generate wealth and be rich. Their goal of life was to accumulate wealth and become rich. In a way they were like modern capitalists, but they were also supposed to respect Brahmins as well as pay their taxes to the King. In a way they were considered custodians of the society's wealth.
The last class was called 'Shudras'- the employees, servants and workers. They were expected to perform the duty assigned with loyalty and honesty. As ordinary laymen, the expectations were also lower from them, and they had more freedom in selecting their life-style.
This class system adopted by the Indians in ancient times is a reflection to the level of their development as well as the need for greater specialization towards work. One’s vocation was considered very important, and everyone was supposed to fulfill his or her duties honestly and sincerely. In fact, the word ‘Dharma’ equivalent to religions of the Western world, literally meant ‘duty’. The concept was that one’s duty depended on one’s station in life, and would be different from time to time and person to person. So, the duties of a daughter were different than those of a mother. Similarly, the duties of a student were different than those of a teacher. Duties also varied with vocation. Thus, while other classes were expected to refrain from indulging in violence, the soldier class, i.e.. kshatriyas were expected to be masters of warfare and be always ready to use violence for the benefit of society.
This ancient class system later got distorted in to ‘caste’ system, when it came to be inherited by birth and hence connected with descent. Today it has all but faded, but its bitter memories still remain and remind us that groupism of any sort within the society is a dangerous phenomenon, and should never be allowed to take strong roots.
I moved to Chennai almost four years ago and wrote this article based on my experience then. Now, I think I understand this city relatively better than I used to in my first year here.
The term warrior is associated with a brave or experienced soldier, warrior king or fighter. Warriors fought battles of conquest for self or for Kings, Emperors, or influential members in the high dynasty.
One of the best events a woman cannot forget in her life is to marry the person whom she truly loves. It is not a joke when a couple seriously prepares and organize their wedding day so as not to forget the happiest day of their life.. | 963 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Emotions Run High in Proctor Family In the beginning of Act II of Arthur Miller’s play, The Crucible, the story presents an interaction in between John Proctor and his spouse, Elizabeth. The interaction in between the couple stresses that their relationship is anything however normal than that of a couple. The primary reason for their awkward relationship comes from Johns roaming desire.
John Proctor has clashing emotions towards Elizabeth due to the fact that both of them are attempting to avoid the huge fact that he devoted adultery.
The contrasting feelings exist when John Proctor tries to avoid fights with his better half, the small talk between them where John constantly tries to please Elizabeth, and the lack of shared agreement between them. Throughout the scene, John Proctor attempted really difficult in order to avoid run-ins with his partner. In a patriarchal society of the 1600’s, it would be very typical for a woman to be subservient towards her hubby.
In the Proctor household, it is no different given that Elizabeth silently concerns her partner’s authority due to the fact that she “fear(s) to anger him” although she has all the take advantage of she requires in an argument by merely mentioning the fact that he cheated on her (Miller 53). However, John displays the complete opposite habits of what is anticipated of a male in a patriarchal society. First of all, when John gets back and tastes the soup his partner prepared, he is “not quite delighted” with it for it was not experienced well (Miller 49).
After adding more salt himself, John notices that Elizabeth is intently enjoying him taste the soup. Rather of being a typical partner back in the 1600s by criticizing such a little error about how his food is seasoned, he compliments on how good-tasting the soup is while understanding that it was the item of his handy-work. By holding his tongue, he avoids a confrontation in between him and his partner over a really small issue of not putting enough salt in the soup.
Furthermore, John seems not to be the normal male in his society when he, “as gently as he can” requests for some cider (Miller 51). It is clear that this is not what his regular habits would be because, as Elizabeth is fetching him his cider, she feels “a sense of reprimand … for having forgot” (Miller 51). Because Elizabeth felt as if she did something to wrong her partner, she expects that John will make a huge fuss over the problem. However, John delicately brushes off her error by just changing the subject to him tending to the fields.
His cautious behavior towards Elizabeth makes him adopt the tone of a husband that has done something to immensely displease his partner and is trying not to anger her. Clearly, it reveals that John has conflicting emotions towards his better half since he wants to serve as a normal other half back in the 1600s, but he keeps in mind the heinous crime he committed and tries to prevent conflict and the possibility of the 2 of them discussing his error. John Proctor’s entire discussion with Elizabeth is primarily stating things to please her in an attempt to make-up for his affair.
For example, while eating his meal he makes consistent remarks about their farm being very big and the factor for getting home so late was due to the fact that he was busy “planting far out to the forest edge” (Miller 49). In this obvious effort to please Elizabeth, John hints at the fact that he has actually worked very hard on their farm. By meaning this, he intends to reveal Elizabeth that he is working for the greater good of the family which he is not spending time with Abigail.
Additionally, John wishes to make certain that Elizabeth sees all his effort when he recommends that on “Sunday … (they’ll) stroll the farm to together” (Miller 51). The above passage plainly shows how much John is attempting to please Elizabeth because he openly stated that they would go check out the farm on Sunday which is expected to be devoted to a day of prayer where nobody is supposed to do any work and if an individual skips church service, they would get in problem.
Second of all, John attempts to please Elizabeth with product wealth when he breaks the awkward silence between them by explicitly stating that “if the crop is good I’ll purchase George Jacob’s heifer. How would that please you?” (Miller 50). By asking Elizabeth her viewpoint on what she considers his choice to buy a heifer shows an irregular relationship in between a couple back in the 1600s since the male generally does not ask for their spouse’s opinion on their choices and that John is also trying hard to please his better half.
The normal male attitude toward females voicing their viewpoints on things is likewise present in John’s demeanor when he takes off at the small idea that Elizabeth “has lost all faith in him” due to the fact that he “failed slightly” at the thought of harming Abigail’s track record (Miller 54). The continuous fight in John’s behavior to act as the male of your home along with the caring hubby act he is having a hard time to set up in order to offset his mistake is an example of the conflicting emotions he is experiencing while handling his wife. | <urn:uuid:8ded263f-5ce5-44cd-9107-3c0804ab6915> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://whisperseer.com/the-crucible-troubles-in-the-proctor-household | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00489.warc.gz | en | 0.984999 | 1,103 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.06855784356594086,... | 1 | Emotions Run High in Proctor Family In the beginning of Act II of Arthur Miller’s play, The Crucible, the story presents an interaction in between John Proctor and his spouse, Elizabeth. The interaction in between the couple stresses that their relationship is anything however normal than that of a couple. The primary reason for their awkward relationship comes from Johns roaming desire.
John Proctor has clashing emotions towards Elizabeth due to the fact that both of them are attempting to avoid the huge fact that he devoted adultery.
The contrasting feelings exist when John Proctor tries to avoid fights with his better half, the small talk between them where John constantly tries to please Elizabeth, and the lack of shared agreement between them. Throughout the scene, John Proctor attempted really difficult in order to avoid run-ins with his partner. In a patriarchal society of the 1600’s, it would be very typical for a woman to be subservient towards her hubby.
In the Proctor household, it is no different given that Elizabeth silently concerns her partner’s authority due to the fact that she “fear(s) to anger him” although she has all the take advantage of she requires in an argument by merely mentioning the fact that he cheated on her (Miller 53). However, John displays the complete opposite habits of what is anticipated of a male in a patriarchal society. First of all, when John gets back and tastes the soup his partner prepared, he is “not quite delighted” with it for it was not experienced well (Miller 49).
After adding more salt himself, John notices that Elizabeth is intently enjoying him taste the soup. Rather of being a typical partner back in the 1600s by criticizing such a little error about how his food is seasoned, he compliments on how good-tasting the soup is while understanding that it was the item of his handy-work. By holding his tongue, he avoids a confrontation in between him and his partner over a really small issue of not putting enough salt in the soup.
Furthermore, John seems not to be the normal male in his society when he, “as gently as he can” requests for some cider (Miller 51). It is clear that this is not what his regular habits would be because, as Elizabeth is fetching him his cider, she feels “a sense of reprimand … for having forgot” (Miller 51). Because Elizabeth felt as if she did something to wrong her partner, she expects that John will make a huge fuss over the problem. However, John delicately brushes off her error by just changing the subject to him tending to the fields.
His cautious behavior towards Elizabeth makes him adopt the tone of a husband that has done something to immensely displease his partner and is trying not to anger her. Clearly, it reveals that John has conflicting emotions towards his better half since he wants to serve as a normal other half back in the 1600s, but he keeps in mind the heinous crime he committed and tries to prevent conflict and the possibility of the 2 of them discussing his error. John Proctor’s entire discussion with Elizabeth is primarily stating things to please her in an attempt to make-up for his affair.
For example, while eating his meal he makes consistent remarks about their farm being very big and the factor for getting home so late was due to the fact that he was busy “planting far out to the forest edge” (Miller 49). In this obvious effort to please Elizabeth, John hints at the fact that he has actually worked very hard on their farm. By meaning this, he intends to reveal Elizabeth that he is working for the greater good of the family which he is not spending time with Abigail.
Additionally, John wishes to make certain that Elizabeth sees all his effort when he recommends that on “Sunday … (they’ll) stroll the farm to together” (Miller 51). The above passage plainly shows how much John is attempting to please Elizabeth because he openly stated that they would go check out the farm on Sunday which is expected to be devoted to a day of prayer where nobody is supposed to do any work and if an individual skips church service, they would get in problem.
Second of all, John attempts to please Elizabeth with product wealth when he breaks the awkward silence between them by explicitly stating that “if the crop is good I’ll purchase George Jacob’s heifer. How would that please you?” (Miller 50). By asking Elizabeth her viewpoint on what she considers his choice to buy a heifer shows an irregular relationship in between a couple back in the 1600s since the male generally does not ask for their spouse’s opinion on their choices and that John is also trying hard to please his better half.
The normal male attitude toward females voicing their viewpoints on things is likewise present in John’s demeanor when he takes off at the small idea that Elizabeth “has lost all faith in him” due to the fact that he “failed slightly” at the thought of harming Abigail’s track record (Miller 54). The continuous fight in John’s behavior to act as the male of your home along with the caring hubby act he is having a hard time to set up in order to offset his mistake is an example of the conflicting emotions he is experiencing while handling his wife. | 1,080 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Throughout U.S. history the United States has encountered many stressful and life taking hardships, and all for what? For the world to continue growing, for each individual to feel safe and to be created equal. History is a word that we look upon and think of famous people who changed our way of living, who went beyond what they were capable of in order to be remembered. People like George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, John Hancock, all these men did great things. Yet we still forget to remember those who went through terrible hardships in order to survive back in those days. I’m talking about indentured servants; these particular individuals lived lives we couldn’t even imagine. The hardships they went through are unforgettable, yet they are also relevant to our history.
To get a better glimpse into an indentured servant’s everyday life imagine you have a job that doesn’t pay you anything for your labor. A job that transports you to a multiple of places where all you can do is work, for no money, and food that is rotten, unbearable life styles, being packed densely while being transported across the ocean. On a ship where the water is black and warm food is served only three times a week, indentured servants were pretty much manipulated into thinking they would be taken care of. Labor was hard and living conditions were generally harsh for indentured servants. Many servants had difficulty adjusting to the climate and native diseases of southeast Virginia, and many servants did not live to receive their freedom. In the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, many colonists arrived as indentured servants who would serve a term of hardworking labor before receiving their freedom. Men, women, and sometimes children signed a contract with a "master" to serve a term of 4 to 7 years. In exchange for their service, indentured servants received their passage paid from England, and food, clothing and shelter once they arrived in the colony. When the contract had expired, the servant was paid "freedom dues" and allowed to leave the plantation. Freedom dues usually consisted of corn, tools and clothing freedom back then meant a lot to anyone who was a human being it meant that you could live your own life without anyone’s say so. So being an indentured servant meant being one step closer to freedom.
The year 1756 a letter was written by a disobedient girl named Elizabeth Sprigs who was working as an indentured servant in order to finance her passage from England she was banished from her family’s sight and wrote a letter to her father begging him to send her clothing in order to survive. Living in the Chesapeake building spacious mansions needed a lot of people’s labor in order to finish the job so most small farmers were tenants, renting the land from larger landowners. Elizabeth needed more than clothing though she was pretty much naked when working she had no shoes nor stalking to wear, she didn’t even have a bed to sleep in all she could do was wrap herself in a blanket where she would rest her body in order to survive a hard day’s work in order to wake up in the morning only so she could do the same routine until her debt was paid off. Elizabeth Sprigs wasn’t the only indentured servant who lived this horrible life indentured servants ranged in millions. About 70% of migrants from England who came between 1630-1660 were indentured servants. These people’s lives consisted of nothing but work in the worst possible conditions and most unfair treatment you can imagine. Being an indentured servant meant sacrificing your well being in order to be free again, there really was no escaping this hurtful unlawful labor. Female indentured servants were often raped without legal recourse. Master’s often whipped and beat their indentured servants if you tried to run away from this your master would make you regret your decision by making you pay for your mistake for example the consequences for such behavior were along the lines of tripling the time the indentured servant must serve before they can be let go. Every two weeks at sea the indentured servant passengers received an allowance of bread. One man and his wife, having eaten their bread in eight days, staggered before the captain and begged him to throw them overboard, for they would otherwise starve before the next bread day. The captain laughed in their faces, while the ship's mate, even more of a brute, gave them a bag of sand and told them to eat that. The couple did die before the next ration of bread, but the captain charged the other passengers for the bread the two would have eaten if they had survived. This mistreatment was not only encountered upon adults, children also were indentured servants, and whole families were separated when being sold to different purchasers, especially when they have not paid any part of their passage money. If and when a husband or wife died on their journey at sea the survivor of the two must pay for both terms before being free again. One way or another indentured servants paid the debt to society, even if that meant dying in doing so. If both parents had died at sea then their children remained indentured servants until they were twenty one years of age when one has served their time period they were rewarded with a new suit of clothes sometimes the man would be entitled to clothing and a horse. For the women they would receive clothing and a cow, so much for their hardworking labor. Richard Frethorne who was an indentured servant in Virginia wrote a letter to his mother and father preaching to them the deaths and diseases which he gazed upon just three months after living in Jamestown colony. Their plantation was weak every hour they would stop just to gaze upon who was going to die next, the diseases were taking lives constantly. Sadly there was no comfort, no cure for this hardship. Indentured servants didn’t know what they had gotten themselves into before agreeing to sell themselves as slave. Pretty much treated like slaves in order for them to become free again, the lives they encountered with were sincerely unforgettable and permanently damaged their self control to where all they wanted was death itself. Rather than be treated like an animal they only wished to end their sentence by ending their life. There was no happy ending for most indentured servants. These people lives are relevant to our history in order to understand how things were settled back then, how debt was paid off and how certain sacrifices were made in order to be considered free. | <urn:uuid:5b04a7ba-b576-40c8-86cf-6f9fd8ff9d4d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/Indentured-Servants-200691.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00501.warc.gz | en | 0.989615 | 1,305 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.00021401839... | 2 | Throughout U.S. history the United States has encountered many stressful and life taking hardships, and all for what? For the world to continue growing, for each individual to feel safe and to be created equal. History is a word that we look upon and think of famous people who changed our way of living, who went beyond what they were capable of in order to be remembered. People like George Washington, Abraham Lincoln, John Hancock, all these men did great things. Yet we still forget to remember those who went through terrible hardships in order to survive back in those days. I’m talking about indentured servants; these particular individuals lived lives we couldn’t even imagine. The hardships they went through are unforgettable, yet they are also relevant to our history.
To get a better glimpse into an indentured servant’s everyday life imagine you have a job that doesn’t pay you anything for your labor. A job that transports you to a multiple of places where all you can do is work, for no money, and food that is rotten, unbearable life styles, being packed densely while being transported across the ocean. On a ship where the water is black and warm food is served only three times a week, indentured servants were pretty much manipulated into thinking they would be taken care of. Labor was hard and living conditions were generally harsh for indentured servants. Many servants had difficulty adjusting to the climate and native diseases of southeast Virginia, and many servants did not live to receive their freedom. In the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, many colonists arrived as indentured servants who would serve a term of hardworking labor before receiving their freedom. Men, women, and sometimes children signed a contract with a "master" to serve a term of 4 to 7 years. In exchange for their service, indentured servants received their passage paid from England, and food, clothing and shelter once they arrived in the colony. When the contract had expired, the servant was paid "freedom dues" and allowed to leave the plantation. Freedom dues usually consisted of corn, tools and clothing freedom back then meant a lot to anyone who was a human being it meant that you could live your own life without anyone’s say so. So being an indentured servant meant being one step closer to freedom.
The year 1756 a letter was written by a disobedient girl named Elizabeth Sprigs who was working as an indentured servant in order to finance her passage from England she was banished from her family’s sight and wrote a letter to her father begging him to send her clothing in order to survive. Living in the Chesapeake building spacious mansions needed a lot of people’s labor in order to finish the job so most small farmers were tenants, renting the land from larger landowners. Elizabeth needed more than clothing though she was pretty much naked when working she had no shoes nor stalking to wear, she didn’t even have a bed to sleep in all she could do was wrap herself in a blanket where she would rest her body in order to survive a hard day’s work in order to wake up in the morning only so she could do the same routine until her debt was paid off. Elizabeth Sprigs wasn’t the only indentured servant who lived this horrible life indentured servants ranged in millions. About 70% of migrants from England who came between 1630-1660 were indentured servants. These people’s lives consisted of nothing but work in the worst possible conditions and most unfair treatment you can imagine. Being an indentured servant meant sacrificing your well being in order to be free again, there really was no escaping this hurtful unlawful labor. Female indentured servants were often raped without legal recourse. Master’s often whipped and beat their indentured servants if you tried to run away from this your master would make you regret your decision by making you pay for your mistake for example the consequences for such behavior were along the lines of tripling the time the indentured servant must serve before they can be let go. Every two weeks at sea the indentured servant passengers received an allowance of bread. One man and his wife, having eaten their bread in eight days, staggered before the captain and begged him to throw them overboard, for they would otherwise starve before the next bread day. The captain laughed in their faces, while the ship's mate, even more of a brute, gave them a bag of sand and told them to eat that. The couple did die before the next ration of bread, but the captain charged the other passengers for the bread the two would have eaten if they had survived. This mistreatment was not only encountered upon adults, children also were indentured servants, and whole families were separated when being sold to different purchasers, especially when they have not paid any part of their passage money. If and when a husband or wife died on their journey at sea the survivor of the two must pay for both terms before being free again. One way or another indentured servants paid the debt to society, even if that meant dying in doing so. If both parents had died at sea then their children remained indentured servants until they were twenty one years of age when one has served their time period they were rewarded with a new suit of clothes sometimes the man would be entitled to clothing and a horse. For the women they would receive clothing and a cow, so much for their hardworking labor. Richard Frethorne who was an indentured servant in Virginia wrote a letter to his mother and father preaching to them the deaths and diseases which he gazed upon just three months after living in Jamestown colony. Their plantation was weak every hour they would stop just to gaze upon who was going to die next, the diseases were taking lives constantly. Sadly there was no comfort, no cure for this hardship. Indentured servants didn’t know what they had gotten themselves into before agreeing to sell themselves as slave. Pretty much treated like slaves in order for them to become free again, the lives they encountered with were sincerely unforgettable and permanently damaged their self control to where all they wanted was death itself. Rather than be treated like an animal they only wished to end their sentence by ending their life. There was no happy ending for most indentured servants. These people lives are relevant to our history in order to understand how things were settled back then, how debt was paid off and how certain sacrifices were made in order to be considered free. | 1,295 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Tactics in Vietnam were an important factor in the victory of the Vietcong over the U.S. There were fundamental differences in their fighting methods, which the Vietcong were able to take full advantage of. The Vietcong used Guerrilla warfare, this meant that they used their knowledge of the area they were fighting in to hinder the U.S. The U.S army had been used to conventional warfare, in the form of bouts of fighting. Guerrilla warfare meant that they had to be constantly alert and Booby traps meant that many soldiers died and witnessed horrific deaths. This was naturally unnerving for the soldiers concerned, particularly so because many of the soldiers were young and inexperienced.
The technology of the U.S was far superior to that of the Vietcong and yet it was ultimately ineffectual. One weapon, which the U.S thought would be important, was Bombs. At first the U.S bombed specific targets. When they realized that had little effect, they began blanket bombing, this was known as ‘Operation Rolling Thunder’. Massive amounts of explosives were dropped on Vietnam, three times as much explosives was dropped than on Germany and Japan put together during World War 2. However, the Vietcong countered this with anti-aircraft guns, surface to air missiles, aid from soviet planes, and a network of tunnels. The U.S believed these to be simply to take cover from the bombing, in-fact they were also effectively used to ambush the U.S. Bombing had very little effect on the Vietcong it simply increased their determination, they in fact used it to their advantage by re-using unexploded bombs or shrapnel.
The main tactic employed by the U.S was known as ‘search and destroy’. This meant hunting down and killing Vietcong. The Vietcong used a similar tactic called ‘find and kill’, although this was conceptually the same as ‘search and destroy’ it was much more successful. One reason for this was that the U.S soldiers wore uniforms and were easier to pick out. Another reason was that the U.S soldiers had to contend with Vietcong mines and booby traps. These included what was known as a Punji trap, which was a deep hole filled with spikes covered with poison of faeces. Another was the ‘Bouncing Betty’ which was a mine under the soil with three prongs that when steed on would explode. It was extremely disconcerting for soldiers to know that their next step could be their last. This caused a whole host of mental problems for the U.S soldiers. Booby traps accounted for %11 of deaths and %17 of wounds in the war.
The U.S used ‘pacification’, to win the hearts and minds of the South Vietnamese. This meant that help was given to the villages. Schools and hospitals were built. This policy was a success; many South Vietnamese remained in support of the Americans and were immune to the persuasive talk of communist infiltrators. However those who were already convinced as to the virtues of communism would not be swayed. The Vietcong... | <urn:uuid:7117ed40-52c0-414e-8f37-6a27cea1ba37> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/viet-nam-1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00432.warc.gz | en | 0.993518 | 645 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.24630329012870789... | 1 | Tactics in Vietnam were an important factor in the victory of the Vietcong over the U.S. There were fundamental differences in their fighting methods, which the Vietcong were able to take full advantage of. The Vietcong used Guerrilla warfare, this meant that they used their knowledge of the area they were fighting in to hinder the U.S. The U.S army had been used to conventional warfare, in the form of bouts of fighting. Guerrilla warfare meant that they had to be constantly alert and Booby traps meant that many soldiers died and witnessed horrific deaths. This was naturally unnerving for the soldiers concerned, particularly so because many of the soldiers were young and inexperienced.
The technology of the U.S was far superior to that of the Vietcong and yet it was ultimately ineffectual. One weapon, which the U.S thought would be important, was Bombs. At first the U.S bombed specific targets. When they realized that had little effect, they began blanket bombing, this was known as ‘Operation Rolling Thunder’. Massive amounts of explosives were dropped on Vietnam, three times as much explosives was dropped than on Germany and Japan put together during World War 2. However, the Vietcong countered this with anti-aircraft guns, surface to air missiles, aid from soviet planes, and a network of tunnels. The U.S believed these to be simply to take cover from the bombing, in-fact they were also effectively used to ambush the U.S. Bombing had very little effect on the Vietcong it simply increased their determination, they in fact used it to their advantage by re-using unexploded bombs or shrapnel.
The main tactic employed by the U.S was known as ‘search and destroy’. This meant hunting down and killing Vietcong. The Vietcong used a similar tactic called ‘find and kill’, although this was conceptually the same as ‘search and destroy’ it was much more successful. One reason for this was that the U.S soldiers wore uniforms and were easier to pick out. Another reason was that the U.S soldiers had to contend with Vietcong mines and booby traps. These included what was known as a Punji trap, which was a deep hole filled with spikes covered with poison of faeces. Another was the ‘Bouncing Betty’ which was a mine under the soil with three prongs that when steed on would explode. It was extremely disconcerting for soldiers to know that their next step could be their last. This caused a whole host of mental problems for the U.S soldiers. Booby traps accounted for %11 of deaths and %17 of wounds in the war.
The U.S used ‘pacification’, to win the hearts and minds of the South Vietnamese. This meant that help was given to the villages. Schools and hospitals were built. This policy was a success; many South Vietnamese remained in support of the Americans and were immune to the persuasive talk of communist infiltrators. However those who were already convinced as to the virtues of communism would not be swayed. The Vietcong... | 628 | ENGLISH | 1 |
According to the Ancients Greeks, wisdom is the excellent knowledge of something. The word philosopher was first used in the 6th century B. C. to declare the man who had zeal for learning. All this need for the analysis of everyday life by philosophers helped to formulate the philosophical phrases.
Here are some of the most known Greek phrases:
- One day, the philosopher Diogenes was asking for charity from a statue. When his students saw him and asked him why he did this, he replied: “I practice not to be disappointed with people’s anesthesia”.
- A bald person was fooling Diogenes. The philosopher told him:” I do not repay you your bad words but I’d like to say a “well done” to your hairs” because they were exempt of a bad head”.
- A father asked from Aristippus (student of Socrates) to become teacher for his son. The philosopher demanded a payday of 500 drachmas. The father considered excessive the amount and said that with so much money he could buy an animal. Then, Aristippus answered: “Buy it and then you will have two animals in your house”.
- Aristeides and Themistocles were political opponents. Once, they were sent as ambassadors in another city- state. The philosopher as they were walking, told him: “Do you want to leave our hatred on the borders of our homeland? And if you judge it’s necessary, we will continue when we come back”.
- Someone asked Socrates if he is an Athenian. “I’m not neither Athenian nor a Greek. I am a citizen of the World”, he said.
- A rich citizen scoffed at Socrates for his inconspicuous origin. The philosopher gave him the following answer: “If I have to be ashamed of my ancestors, then your glorious ancestors must feel ashamed for you, their unworthy descendant”.
- “Be as you wish to seem”.
- Antisthenes advised his fellow citizens to vote for the donkeys to be called horses. When they told him that this was totally unnatural and unreasonable, he observed: “don’t the generals be proclaimed with your vote without having any education?”
- Aristotle learned from someone that some people talked badly about him when he’s not present. The philosopher answered: “I don’t care at all. When I’m absent, I also accept to whip me”.
- Once they asked Aristotle: “what those who are lying are winning” and the philosopher answered: “not to believe them even if they say the truth”.
- “Love is composed of single soul inhabiting two bodies”.
- “You will never do anything in this world without courage. It is the greatest quality of the mind next to honor”.
- “Happiness depends upon to ourselves”.
- “At the touch of love everyone becomes a poet”.
- “One of the penalties for refusing to participate in politics is that you end up being governed by your inferiors”.
King Philip of Macedonia
- The king’s advisers were demanding from him to banish a man who badmouthed him. Philip answered them: “You want me to banish him and send him to blame me somewhere else?”
- Once, Philip was arguing with his wife. At that moment, the envoy from Corinth came in and Philip asked him about the peace between the Greeks. The Corinthian answered him: “You’re very interested in the unity of the Greeks when I see that you don’t have unity inside your home”. | <urn:uuid:63599f90-b3da-483f-8189-bd658b64da4c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://arcastravel.com/index.php/2017/09/28/quotes-and-stories-from-greek-philosophers-in-ancient-greece/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=quotes-and-stories-from-greek-philosophers-in-ancient-greece | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00361.warc.gz | en | 0.9817 | 800 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.216475680470... | 4 | According to the Ancients Greeks, wisdom is the excellent knowledge of something. The word philosopher was first used in the 6th century B. C. to declare the man who had zeal for learning. All this need for the analysis of everyday life by philosophers helped to formulate the philosophical phrases.
Here are some of the most known Greek phrases:
- One day, the philosopher Diogenes was asking for charity from a statue. When his students saw him and asked him why he did this, he replied: “I practice not to be disappointed with people’s anesthesia”.
- A bald person was fooling Diogenes. The philosopher told him:” I do not repay you your bad words but I’d like to say a “well done” to your hairs” because they were exempt of a bad head”.
- A father asked from Aristippus (student of Socrates) to become teacher for his son. The philosopher demanded a payday of 500 drachmas. The father considered excessive the amount and said that with so much money he could buy an animal. Then, Aristippus answered: “Buy it and then you will have two animals in your house”.
- Aristeides and Themistocles were political opponents. Once, they were sent as ambassadors in another city- state. The philosopher as they were walking, told him: “Do you want to leave our hatred on the borders of our homeland? And if you judge it’s necessary, we will continue when we come back”.
- Someone asked Socrates if he is an Athenian. “I’m not neither Athenian nor a Greek. I am a citizen of the World”, he said.
- A rich citizen scoffed at Socrates for his inconspicuous origin. The philosopher gave him the following answer: “If I have to be ashamed of my ancestors, then your glorious ancestors must feel ashamed for you, their unworthy descendant”.
- “Be as you wish to seem”.
- Antisthenes advised his fellow citizens to vote for the donkeys to be called horses. When they told him that this was totally unnatural and unreasonable, he observed: “don’t the generals be proclaimed with your vote without having any education?”
- Aristotle learned from someone that some people talked badly about him when he’s not present. The philosopher answered: “I don’t care at all. When I’m absent, I also accept to whip me”.
- Once they asked Aristotle: “what those who are lying are winning” and the philosopher answered: “not to believe them even if they say the truth”.
- “Love is composed of single soul inhabiting two bodies”.
- “You will never do anything in this world without courage. It is the greatest quality of the mind next to honor”.
- “Happiness depends upon to ourselves”.
- “At the touch of love everyone becomes a poet”.
- “One of the penalties for refusing to participate in politics is that you end up being governed by your inferiors”.
King Philip of Macedonia
- The king’s advisers were demanding from him to banish a man who badmouthed him. Philip answered them: “You want me to banish him and send him to blame me somewhere else?”
- Once, Philip was arguing with his wife. At that moment, the envoy from Corinth came in and Philip asked him about the peace between the Greeks. The Corinthian answered him: “You’re very interested in the unity of the Greeks when I see that you don’t have unity inside your home”. | 728 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Biography Childhood and early education: His maternal grandfather was a Dutch rabbiwhile his paternal line had supplied Trier's rabbis sincea role taken by his grandfather Meier Halevi Marx.
Youth[ edit ] Rousseau was born in Genevawhich was at the time a city-state and a Protestant associate of the Swiss Confederacy. SinceGeneva had been a Huguenot republic and the seat of Calvinism. Five generations before Rousseau, his ancestor Didier, a bookseller who may have published Protestant tracts, had escaped persecution from French Catholics by fleeing to Geneva inwhere he became a wine merchant.
Rousseau was proud that his family, of the moyen order or middle-classhad voting rights in the city. The citizens were a minority of the population when compared to the immigrants, referred to as "inhabitants", whose descendants were called "natives" and continued to lack suffrage.
In fact, rather than being run by vote of the "citizens", the city was ruled by a small number of wealthy families that made up the "Council of Two Hundred"; these delegated their power to a twenty-five member executive group from among them called the "Little Council".
There was much political debate within Geneva, extending down to the tradespeople. Much discussion was over the idea of the sovereignty of the people, of which the ruling class oligarchy was making a mockery.
Ina democratic reformer named Pierre Fatio protested this situation, saying "a sovereign that never performs an act of sovereignty is an imaginary being".
Jean-Jacques Rousseau's father, Isaacwas not in the city at this time, but Jean-Jacques's grandfather supported Fatio and was penalized for it.
Isaac followed his grandfather, father and brothers into the business, except for a short stint teaching dance as a dance master. After local officials stepped in, it was Isaac who was punished, as Geneva was concerned with maintaining its ties to foreign powers.
She was raised by her uncle Samuel Bernard, a Calvinist preacher. He cared for Suzanne after her father Jacques who had run into trouble with the legal and religious authorities for fornication and having a mistress died in his early thirties. Vincent Sarrasin, whom she fancied despite his continuing marriage.
After a hearing, she was ordered by the Genevan Consistory to never interact with him again. Isaac's sister had married Suzanne's brother eight years earlier, after she had become pregnant and they had been chastised by the Consistory. The child died at birth. Later, the young Rousseau was told a romantic fairy-tale about the situation by the adults in his family—a tale where young love was denied by a disapproving patriarch but that prevailed by sibling loyalty that, in the story, resulted in love conquering all and two marriages uniting the families on the same day.
Rousseau never learnt the truth. When Rousseau was five, his father sold the house that the family had received from his mother's relatives. While the idea was that his sons would inherit the principal when grown up and he would live off the interest in the meantime, in the end the father took most of the substantial proceeds.
Every night, after supper, we read some part of a small collection of romances [adventure stories], which had been my mother's.
My father's design was only to improve me in reading, and he thought these entertaining works were calculated to give me a fondness for it; but we soon found ourselves so interested in the adventures they contained, that we alternately read whole nights together and could not bear to give over until at the conclusion of a volume.
|Belonging to a Group - Science NetLinks||How to Write a Summary of an Article?|
|A “Coming Out” of Identities||Most Syrians agree that national unity and a common sense of identity are necessary to rebuild the country after six and a half years of war, but both seem distant in a country divided along ethnic-sectarian lines. Many do not plan to return.|
|James Wood · On Not Going Home · LRB 20 February||Purpose To explore the basic human need to belong to or choose certain groups and to examine some of the stated and unstated purposes of those groups. Context In this lesson, students will look at group behaviors, dynamics, and purpose.|
|Belonging Words | Words About Not Belonging | Belonging Synonym||I could go further, and suggest that in the well-known passage: How should we really understand its use in this quotation?|
|Belonging Essay | Free Essays - pfmlures.com||How to Write a Summary of an Article? The picture book The Lost Thing by Shaun Tan explores the things initial failure to belong, which is then overcome.|
Sometimes, in the morning, on hearing the swallows at our window, my father, quite ashamed of this weakness, would cry, "Come, come, let us go to bed; I am more a child than thou art. Of these, his favorite was Plutarch 's Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romanswhich he would read to his father while he made watches.
Rousseau saw Plutarch's work as another kind of novel—the noble actions of heroes—and he would act out the deeds of the characters he was reading about.
Throughout his life, he would recall one scene where, after the volunteer militia had finished its manoeuvres, they began to dance around a fountain and most of the people from neighboring buildings came out to join them, including him and his father.
Rousseau would always see militias as the embodiment of popular spirit in opposition to the armies of the rulers, whom he saw as disgraceful mercenaries. To avoid certain defeat in the courts, he moved away to Nyon in the territory of Bern, taking Rousseau's aunt Suzanne with him.
He remarried, and from that point Jean-Jacques saw little of him. Here, the boys picked up the elements of mathematics and drawing. Rousseau, who was always deeply moved by religious services, for a time even dreamed of becoming a Protestant minister.
At age 13, Rousseau was apprenticed first to a notary and then to an engraver who beat him. At 15, he ran away from Geneva on 14 March after returning to the city and finding the city gates locked due to the curfew. She was a noblewoman of Protestant background who was separated from her husband.
As professional lay proselytizer, she was paid by the King of Piedmont to help bring Protestants to Catholicism. They sent the boy to Turinthe capital of Savoy which included Piedmont, in what is now Italyto complete his conversion. This resulted in his having to give up his Genevan citizenship, although he would later revert to Calvinism in order to regain it.
In converting to Catholicism, both De Warens and Rousseau were likely reacting to Calvinism's insistence on the total depravity of man. Finding himself on his own, since his father and uncle had more or less disowned him, the teenage Rousseau supported himself for a time as a servant, secretary, and tutor, wandering in Italy Piedmont and Savoy and France.
During this time, he lived on and off with De Warens, whom he idolized and called his "maman". Flattered by his devotion, De Warens tried to get him started in a profession, and arranged formal music lessons for him. At one point, he briefly attended a seminary with the idea of becoming a priest.
Early adulthood[ edit ] When Rousseau reached 20, De Warens took him as her lover, while intimate also with the steward of her house.The concept of belonging deals with not only acceptance but also with dejection and alienation. This concept can influence our belonging to a relationship or place by our background and culture.
Sebastian Junger is the #1 New York Times bestselling author of Tribe, War, The Perfect Storm, Fire, and A Death in pfmlures.comer with Tim Hetherington, he directed the Academy Award-nominated film Restrepo, which won the Grand Jury Prize at pfmlures.com is a contributing editor to Vanity Fair and has been awarded a National Magazine Award and an SAIS Novartis Prize for journalism.
To explore the basic human need to belong to or choose certain groups and to examine some of the stated and unstated purposes of those groups.
In this lesson, students will look at group behaviors, dynamics, and purpose. As part of this process, students will acquire the basic skills to survey. Oedipus The King Is A Greek Tragedy - Oedipus the King is a Greek tragedy written by Sophocles around five-hundred BC.
The play is set in the royal house of Thebes and is about how King Oedipus, who is portrayed as a reasonable and respected ruler by the citizens of Thebes, is trying to find out the answers to the murder of the previous King, Laius. Goldsmiths, University of London is in South East London.
We offer undergraduate and postgraduate degrees as well as teacher training (PGCE), Study Abroad and short courses. Published: Mon, 5 Dec The aim of this essay is going to critically analysis why performance management is necessary in an organization.
In order to answer this question, the author will briefly discuss what is management control, and how the employees response to it, this is to provide a backdrop of the historical problem of the tension between management and the workforce. | <urn:uuid:5f3d28b1-4552-4482-be14-797284310553> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kudusopymu.pfmlures.com/belonging-and-alienation-essay-1558xj.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00551.warc.gz | en | 0.983761 | 2,004 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.55550503730... | 1 | Biography Childhood and early education: His maternal grandfather was a Dutch rabbiwhile his paternal line had supplied Trier's rabbis sincea role taken by his grandfather Meier Halevi Marx.
Youth[ edit ] Rousseau was born in Genevawhich was at the time a city-state and a Protestant associate of the Swiss Confederacy. SinceGeneva had been a Huguenot republic and the seat of Calvinism. Five generations before Rousseau, his ancestor Didier, a bookseller who may have published Protestant tracts, had escaped persecution from French Catholics by fleeing to Geneva inwhere he became a wine merchant.
Rousseau was proud that his family, of the moyen order or middle-classhad voting rights in the city. The citizens were a minority of the population when compared to the immigrants, referred to as "inhabitants", whose descendants were called "natives" and continued to lack suffrage.
In fact, rather than being run by vote of the "citizens", the city was ruled by a small number of wealthy families that made up the "Council of Two Hundred"; these delegated their power to a twenty-five member executive group from among them called the "Little Council".
There was much political debate within Geneva, extending down to the tradespeople. Much discussion was over the idea of the sovereignty of the people, of which the ruling class oligarchy was making a mockery.
Ina democratic reformer named Pierre Fatio protested this situation, saying "a sovereign that never performs an act of sovereignty is an imaginary being".
Jean-Jacques Rousseau's father, Isaacwas not in the city at this time, but Jean-Jacques's grandfather supported Fatio and was penalized for it.
Isaac followed his grandfather, father and brothers into the business, except for a short stint teaching dance as a dance master. After local officials stepped in, it was Isaac who was punished, as Geneva was concerned with maintaining its ties to foreign powers.
She was raised by her uncle Samuel Bernard, a Calvinist preacher. He cared for Suzanne after her father Jacques who had run into trouble with the legal and religious authorities for fornication and having a mistress died in his early thirties. Vincent Sarrasin, whom she fancied despite his continuing marriage.
After a hearing, she was ordered by the Genevan Consistory to never interact with him again. Isaac's sister had married Suzanne's brother eight years earlier, after she had become pregnant and they had been chastised by the Consistory. The child died at birth. Later, the young Rousseau was told a romantic fairy-tale about the situation by the adults in his family—a tale where young love was denied by a disapproving patriarch but that prevailed by sibling loyalty that, in the story, resulted in love conquering all and two marriages uniting the families on the same day.
Rousseau never learnt the truth. When Rousseau was five, his father sold the house that the family had received from his mother's relatives. While the idea was that his sons would inherit the principal when grown up and he would live off the interest in the meantime, in the end the father took most of the substantial proceeds.
Every night, after supper, we read some part of a small collection of romances [adventure stories], which had been my mother's.
My father's design was only to improve me in reading, and he thought these entertaining works were calculated to give me a fondness for it; but we soon found ourselves so interested in the adventures they contained, that we alternately read whole nights together and could not bear to give over until at the conclusion of a volume.
|Belonging to a Group - Science NetLinks||How to Write a Summary of an Article?|
|A “Coming Out” of Identities||Most Syrians agree that national unity and a common sense of identity are necessary to rebuild the country after six and a half years of war, but both seem distant in a country divided along ethnic-sectarian lines. Many do not plan to return.|
|James Wood · On Not Going Home · LRB 20 February||Purpose To explore the basic human need to belong to or choose certain groups and to examine some of the stated and unstated purposes of those groups. Context In this lesson, students will look at group behaviors, dynamics, and purpose.|
|Belonging Words | Words About Not Belonging | Belonging Synonym||I could go further, and suggest that in the well-known passage: How should we really understand its use in this quotation?|
|Belonging Essay | Free Essays - pfmlures.com||How to Write a Summary of an Article? The picture book The Lost Thing by Shaun Tan explores the things initial failure to belong, which is then overcome.|
Sometimes, in the morning, on hearing the swallows at our window, my father, quite ashamed of this weakness, would cry, "Come, come, let us go to bed; I am more a child than thou art. Of these, his favorite was Plutarch 's Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romanswhich he would read to his father while he made watches.
Rousseau saw Plutarch's work as another kind of novel—the noble actions of heroes—and he would act out the deeds of the characters he was reading about.
Throughout his life, he would recall one scene where, after the volunteer militia had finished its manoeuvres, they began to dance around a fountain and most of the people from neighboring buildings came out to join them, including him and his father.
Rousseau would always see militias as the embodiment of popular spirit in opposition to the armies of the rulers, whom he saw as disgraceful mercenaries. To avoid certain defeat in the courts, he moved away to Nyon in the territory of Bern, taking Rousseau's aunt Suzanne with him.
He remarried, and from that point Jean-Jacques saw little of him. Here, the boys picked up the elements of mathematics and drawing. Rousseau, who was always deeply moved by religious services, for a time even dreamed of becoming a Protestant minister.
At age 13, Rousseau was apprenticed first to a notary and then to an engraver who beat him. At 15, he ran away from Geneva on 14 March after returning to the city and finding the city gates locked due to the curfew. She was a noblewoman of Protestant background who was separated from her husband.
As professional lay proselytizer, she was paid by the King of Piedmont to help bring Protestants to Catholicism. They sent the boy to Turinthe capital of Savoy which included Piedmont, in what is now Italyto complete his conversion. This resulted in his having to give up his Genevan citizenship, although he would later revert to Calvinism in order to regain it.
In converting to Catholicism, both De Warens and Rousseau were likely reacting to Calvinism's insistence on the total depravity of man. Finding himself on his own, since his father and uncle had more or less disowned him, the teenage Rousseau supported himself for a time as a servant, secretary, and tutor, wandering in Italy Piedmont and Savoy and France.
During this time, he lived on and off with De Warens, whom he idolized and called his "maman". Flattered by his devotion, De Warens tried to get him started in a profession, and arranged formal music lessons for him. At one point, he briefly attended a seminary with the idea of becoming a priest.
Early adulthood[ edit ] When Rousseau reached 20, De Warens took him as her lover, while intimate also with the steward of her house.The concept of belonging deals with not only acceptance but also with dejection and alienation. This concept can influence our belonging to a relationship or place by our background and culture.
Sebastian Junger is the #1 New York Times bestselling author of Tribe, War, The Perfect Storm, Fire, and A Death in pfmlures.comer with Tim Hetherington, he directed the Academy Award-nominated film Restrepo, which won the Grand Jury Prize at pfmlures.com is a contributing editor to Vanity Fair and has been awarded a National Magazine Award and an SAIS Novartis Prize for journalism.
To explore the basic human need to belong to or choose certain groups and to examine some of the stated and unstated purposes of those groups.
In this lesson, students will look at group behaviors, dynamics, and purpose. As part of this process, students will acquire the basic skills to survey. Oedipus The King Is A Greek Tragedy - Oedipus the King is a Greek tragedy written by Sophocles around five-hundred BC.
The play is set in the royal house of Thebes and is about how King Oedipus, who is portrayed as a reasonable and respected ruler by the citizens of Thebes, is trying to find out the answers to the murder of the previous King, Laius. Goldsmiths, University of London is in South East London.
We offer undergraduate and postgraduate degrees as well as teacher training (PGCE), Study Abroad and short courses. Published: Mon, 5 Dec The aim of this essay is going to critically analysis why performance management is necessary in an organization.
In order to answer this question, the author will briefly discuss what is management control, and how the employees response to it, this is to provide a backdrop of the historical problem of the tension between management and the workforce. | 1,959 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work!
Leo XIII, , original name Vincenzo Gioacchino Pecci, (born March 2, 1810, Carpineto Romano, Papal States—died July 20, 1903, Rome), head of the Roman Catholic Church (1878–1903) who brought a new spirit to the papacy, manifested in more conciliatory positions toward civil governments, by care taken that the church not be opposed to scientific progress and by an awareness of the pastoral and social needs of the times.
Vincenzo Gioacchino Pecci was the sixth child of a family of the lower nobility. After his early education in Viterbo and Rome, he completed his studies at the Accademia dei Nobili Ecclesiastici (Academy of Noble Ecclesiastics) in Rome. In 1837 he was ordained a priest and entered the diplomatic service of the Papal States. His superiors immediately appreciated his qualities: flexibility and lucidity and great energy, despite his delicate health. Thus promotions came quickly; he was made delegate (the equivalent of provincial governor) of Benevento in 1838 and was transferred in 1841 to the more important delegation of Perugia. In January 1843 he was appointed nuncio (a papal legate of the highest rank, permanently attached to a civil government) to Brussels and shortly after was consecrated an archbishop.
Pecci’s stay in Belgium, lasting only three years, was an important stage in the life of the future pope. He discovered how Catholics in a modern constitutional government could profit from the parliamentary system and from freedom of the press. But the Belgian nunciature halted the young prelate’s career, which had begun so auspiciously. Pecci showed initiative and independence in several delicate situations, but he was severely criticized at the time, and King Leopold I, considering him less docile than his predecessor, soon demanded his recall.
He was then named, early in 1846, bishop of Perugia, a small diocese to which he was confined for 32 years, despite his having been made a cardinal in 1853. He suffered from this obscurity and made many attempts to win Rome’s favour, but in vain: his harsh judgment of the opposition in the Papal States to the Roman Revolution of 1848 and his concern to avoid useless conflicts with the Italian authorities after the annexation of Umbria in 1860 made Rome suspect him—quite wrongly—of liberal sympathies and of tepidity with respect to temporal powers.
A weaker personality would undoubtedly have been dulled and embittered by this prolonged period of disfavour, but for Pecci these years of retreat were extremely fertile. He zealously applied himself to the systematic reorganization of his diocese and to the spiritual and intellectual improvement of his clergy. He also had available a great deal of leisure time in which to read and meditate. He occupied himself with the renewal of Christian philosophy and studied particularly the writings of St. Thomas Aquinas, the 13th-century Scholastic philosopher, to whom he had been introduced by his brother Giuseppe, a Jesuit seminary professor. He was also led to reconsider the problem of the relations between the church and modern society and became increasingly convinced of the mistake committed by ecclesiastical authorities in taking a fearful, negative attitude toward the aspirations of the times. The fruits of this silent maturation were revealed to his surprised contemporaries in his pastoral letters of 1877 and 1878, which attracted attention even beyond Italy’s borders. He also received notice when, in 1877, he was named camerlengo, the office of chief administrator of the church in the event that the pope dies.
At the death of Pius IX in February 1878, Pecci’s name was mentioned frequently among those of the principal papabili, those considered possible successors to the papacy. His candidacy was strongly supported by most of the non-Italian cardinals, who were impressed by the self-control and energy with which he acquitted his duties as camerlengo and who noted that one who had been away for so long from Rome would be less compromised by the decisions of the preceding pope. Cardinal Pecci was elected on Feb. 20, 1878, on the third ballot. He announced that he would take the name Leo in memory of Leo XII, whom he had always admired for his interest in education, for his conciliatory attitude toward temporal governments, and for his desire to create links with Christians who had separated from the Roman Catholic Church. The age of the new pope and his delicate health caused speculation that his pontificate would be brief. But, in fact, he directed the church for a quarter of a century.
The pontificate of Leo XIII’s predecessor, Pius IX, had been long and controversial. From shortly after the beginning of his reign, Pius IX had been a strong, conservative authoritarian, both in his governing of the church and in his opposition to the new Italian government that annexed the Papal States. Although the pontificate of Leo XIII had a new spirit, the new pope was as intractable as his predecessor on the principle of the temporal sovereignty of the pope and continued to consider the traditional doctrine of the Christian state as an ideal. He reacted as strongly as had Pius IX against Freemasonry (a secret society that both popes viewed as opposed to Christianity) and secular liberalism. In church administration he continued to accentuate the centralization of authority in the papacy rather than in the national churches and reinforced the power of the nuncios. In addition, Leo XIII followed Pius IX in encouraging the devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus and to Mary. He renewed the condemnations of Rationalism—the theory that reason is the primary source of knowledge and of spiritual truth—and pursued with fresh vigour the reestablishment of the philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas. In 1899 he condemned Americanism, the ill-defined movement to reconcile Catholicism and American culture.
In other respects, however, there is no doubt that Leo XIII’s pontificate was characterized by a new spirit. In his relations with civil governments, Leo XIII showed his preference for diplomacy. He achieved many incontestable successes through diplomacy, although his ability in this area was definitely less than is customarily asserted. The true greatness of Leo XIII was precisely that, in spite of his taste for politics, he was not exclusively a political pope. He was also an intellectual sympathetic to scientific progress and to the need for the Roman Catholic Church to demonstrate itself open to such progress, and he always remained a pastor who was concerned for the church’s internal life and for the spreading of its message throughout the world.
This concern toward renewing the dialogue between the church and the world was manifested especially in his many encyclical letters giving instructions to Catholics throughout the world. In 1893 the encyclical Providentissimus Deus (“The Most Provident God”), now outdated but originally a pioneering work, defined in fairly broad-minded manner the principles on which Catholics should interpret the Bible. In several instructions he recommended that church and state live together in peace within the framework of modern society. The encyclical Rerum Novarum (“Of New Things”) in 1891, though rather cautious in its approach, showed that the papacy had taken cognizance of the problems of the working class. He attempted to support the organization of the Catholic laity and was concerned about renewed dialogue with non-Catholics, as is demonstrated in the interest he showed in the attempt to create a link between the Anglican Church and Rome and in his respect for the traditions of the Eastern churches.
During the last years of Leo XIII’s pontificate, until his death in 1903, there was a hardening of church policy and a more reserved attitude toward Christian democracy. Nevertheless, Leo XIII succeeded in gaining great prestige for the papacy, as was shown by the increase in countries having diplomatic relations with the Vatican, even non-Christian countries. He was a man gifted with a superior intelligence, an energetic temperament, a keen awareness of his personal worth, and a discriminating sense for public relations. Although his pontificate did not bring about many immediate changes in the relationship of the Roman Catholic Church to society, it did initiate many new attitudes that began to mature in succeeding decades.Roger-François-Marie Aubert
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Roman Catholicism: Leo XIIILeo XIII (reigned 1878–1903) was no less conservative in his ultramontanism and his theological inclinations than his predecessor, and on issues of church doctrine and discipline his administration was a strict one. It was during his reign that the movement known as Modernism,…
history of Europe: Political patternsUnder a new pope, Leo XIII, the Roman Catholic church moved more formally to accommodate to modern politics. The encyclical
Rerum Novarum(“Of New Things,” 1891) urged Catholics to accept political institutions such as parliaments and universal suffrage; it proclaimed sympathy for working people against the excesses of capitalism,…
German Empire: The breach with the National LiberalsPope Leo XIII, more conciliatory than his predecessor Pius IX, made Bismarck’s task easy. He induced the recalcitrant archbishops of Posen (Poznań) and Cologne to resign, although both were created cardinals for their defense of the faith and called to Rome to serve in the Vatican.… | <urn:uuid:b2d14a33-6631-4a08-a602-6bd992227ee9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Leo-XIII | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00232.warc.gz | en | 0.983308 | 2,014 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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Leo XIII, , original name Vincenzo Gioacchino Pecci, (born March 2, 1810, Carpineto Romano, Papal States—died July 20, 1903, Rome), head of the Roman Catholic Church (1878–1903) who brought a new spirit to the papacy, manifested in more conciliatory positions toward civil governments, by care taken that the church not be opposed to scientific progress and by an awareness of the pastoral and social needs of the times.
Vincenzo Gioacchino Pecci was the sixth child of a family of the lower nobility. After his early education in Viterbo and Rome, he completed his studies at the Accademia dei Nobili Ecclesiastici (Academy of Noble Ecclesiastics) in Rome. In 1837 he was ordained a priest and entered the diplomatic service of the Papal States. His superiors immediately appreciated his qualities: flexibility and lucidity and great energy, despite his delicate health. Thus promotions came quickly; he was made delegate (the equivalent of provincial governor) of Benevento in 1838 and was transferred in 1841 to the more important delegation of Perugia. In January 1843 he was appointed nuncio (a papal legate of the highest rank, permanently attached to a civil government) to Brussels and shortly after was consecrated an archbishop.
Pecci’s stay in Belgium, lasting only three years, was an important stage in the life of the future pope. He discovered how Catholics in a modern constitutional government could profit from the parliamentary system and from freedom of the press. But the Belgian nunciature halted the young prelate’s career, which had begun so auspiciously. Pecci showed initiative and independence in several delicate situations, but he was severely criticized at the time, and King Leopold I, considering him less docile than his predecessor, soon demanded his recall.
He was then named, early in 1846, bishop of Perugia, a small diocese to which he was confined for 32 years, despite his having been made a cardinal in 1853. He suffered from this obscurity and made many attempts to win Rome’s favour, but in vain: his harsh judgment of the opposition in the Papal States to the Roman Revolution of 1848 and his concern to avoid useless conflicts with the Italian authorities after the annexation of Umbria in 1860 made Rome suspect him—quite wrongly—of liberal sympathies and of tepidity with respect to temporal powers.
A weaker personality would undoubtedly have been dulled and embittered by this prolonged period of disfavour, but for Pecci these years of retreat were extremely fertile. He zealously applied himself to the systematic reorganization of his diocese and to the spiritual and intellectual improvement of his clergy. He also had available a great deal of leisure time in which to read and meditate. He occupied himself with the renewal of Christian philosophy and studied particularly the writings of St. Thomas Aquinas, the 13th-century Scholastic philosopher, to whom he had been introduced by his brother Giuseppe, a Jesuit seminary professor. He was also led to reconsider the problem of the relations between the church and modern society and became increasingly convinced of the mistake committed by ecclesiastical authorities in taking a fearful, negative attitude toward the aspirations of the times. The fruits of this silent maturation were revealed to his surprised contemporaries in his pastoral letters of 1877 and 1878, which attracted attention even beyond Italy’s borders. He also received notice when, in 1877, he was named camerlengo, the office of chief administrator of the church in the event that the pope dies.
At the death of Pius IX in February 1878, Pecci’s name was mentioned frequently among those of the principal papabili, those considered possible successors to the papacy. His candidacy was strongly supported by most of the non-Italian cardinals, who were impressed by the self-control and energy with which he acquitted his duties as camerlengo and who noted that one who had been away for so long from Rome would be less compromised by the decisions of the preceding pope. Cardinal Pecci was elected on Feb. 20, 1878, on the third ballot. He announced that he would take the name Leo in memory of Leo XII, whom he had always admired for his interest in education, for his conciliatory attitude toward temporal governments, and for his desire to create links with Christians who had separated from the Roman Catholic Church. The age of the new pope and his delicate health caused speculation that his pontificate would be brief. But, in fact, he directed the church for a quarter of a century.
The pontificate of Leo XIII’s predecessor, Pius IX, had been long and controversial. From shortly after the beginning of his reign, Pius IX had been a strong, conservative authoritarian, both in his governing of the church and in his opposition to the new Italian government that annexed the Papal States. Although the pontificate of Leo XIII had a new spirit, the new pope was as intractable as his predecessor on the principle of the temporal sovereignty of the pope and continued to consider the traditional doctrine of the Christian state as an ideal. He reacted as strongly as had Pius IX against Freemasonry (a secret society that both popes viewed as opposed to Christianity) and secular liberalism. In church administration he continued to accentuate the centralization of authority in the papacy rather than in the national churches and reinforced the power of the nuncios. In addition, Leo XIII followed Pius IX in encouraging the devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus and to Mary. He renewed the condemnations of Rationalism—the theory that reason is the primary source of knowledge and of spiritual truth—and pursued with fresh vigour the reestablishment of the philosophy of St. Thomas Aquinas. In 1899 he condemned Americanism, the ill-defined movement to reconcile Catholicism and American culture.
In other respects, however, there is no doubt that Leo XIII’s pontificate was characterized by a new spirit. In his relations with civil governments, Leo XIII showed his preference for diplomacy. He achieved many incontestable successes through diplomacy, although his ability in this area was definitely less than is customarily asserted. The true greatness of Leo XIII was precisely that, in spite of his taste for politics, he was not exclusively a political pope. He was also an intellectual sympathetic to scientific progress and to the need for the Roman Catholic Church to demonstrate itself open to such progress, and he always remained a pastor who was concerned for the church’s internal life and for the spreading of its message throughout the world.
This concern toward renewing the dialogue between the church and the world was manifested especially in his many encyclical letters giving instructions to Catholics throughout the world. In 1893 the encyclical Providentissimus Deus (“The Most Provident God”), now outdated but originally a pioneering work, defined in fairly broad-minded manner the principles on which Catholics should interpret the Bible. In several instructions he recommended that church and state live together in peace within the framework of modern society. The encyclical Rerum Novarum (“Of New Things”) in 1891, though rather cautious in its approach, showed that the papacy had taken cognizance of the problems of the working class. He attempted to support the organization of the Catholic laity and was concerned about renewed dialogue with non-Catholics, as is demonstrated in the interest he showed in the attempt to create a link between the Anglican Church and Rome and in his respect for the traditions of the Eastern churches.
During the last years of Leo XIII’s pontificate, until his death in 1903, there was a hardening of church policy and a more reserved attitude toward Christian democracy. Nevertheless, Leo XIII succeeded in gaining great prestige for the papacy, as was shown by the increase in countries having diplomatic relations with the Vatican, even non-Christian countries. He was a man gifted with a superior intelligence, an energetic temperament, a keen awareness of his personal worth, and a discriminating sense for public relations. Although his pontificate did not bring about many immediate changes in the relationship of the Roman Catholic Church to society, it did initiate many new attitudes that began to mature in succeeding decades.Roger-François-Marie Aubert
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Roman Catholicism: Leo XIIILeo XIII (reigned 1878–1903) was no less conservative in his ultramontanism and his theological inclinations than his predecessor, and on issues of church doctrine and discipline his administration was a strict one. It was during his reign that the movement known as Modernism,…
history of Europe: Political patternsUnder a new pope, Leo XIII, the Roman Catholic church moved more formally to accommodate to modern politics. The encyclical
Rerum Novarum(“Of New Things,” 1891) urged Catholics to accept political institutions such as parliaments and universal suffrage; it proclaimed sympathy for working people against the excesses of capitalism,…
German Empire: The breach with the National LiberalsPope Leo XIII, more conciliatory than his predecessor Pius IX, made Bismarck’s task easy. He induced the recalcitrant archbishops of Posen (Poznań) and Cologne to resign, although both were created cardinals for their defense of the faith and called to Rome to serve in the Vatican.… | 2,044 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Leander J. Shaw Jr.
On this day in history, September 6, 1930, Leander Jerry Shaw, Jr., an American jurist who served as the first african American Chief Justice of the Florida Supreme Court from 1990 to 1992.
Born in Salem, Virginia, Shaw went to Lylburn Downing School in Lexington, Virginia. He graduated from West Virginia State University in 1952 before serving in the United States Army during the Korean War. In 1957, Shaw received his law degree from Howard University School of Law and in 1957 moved to Tallahassee, Florida and was a law professor at Florida A&M University. He was admitted to the Florida bar in 1960 and practiced law in Jacksonville, Florida.
When Leander Shaw took the Florida Bar exam in 1960, he was not allowed to stay or eat at the whites-only hotel in Miami where the exam was administered. Three decades later, Shaw became the first black chief justice of the Florida Supreme Court.
Shaw served on the Florida State Attorney staff in 1969, and in 1972, Shaw was appointed to the Florida Industrial Relations Commission. From 1979 to 1983, Shaw served on the Florida District Courts of Appeal. Shaw served on the Florida Supreme Court from 1983 until 2003 and was Chief Justice of that court from 1990 to 1992. He also served as judge in residence at Washington and Lee University School of Law in Lexington, Virginia. Shaw died on December 14, 2015 in Tallahassee, Florida at the age of 85.
Shaw, whose career included working as a public defender, prosecutor, and appeals-court judge before serving on the Supreme Court, died at age 85. A statement from the Supreme Court said Shaw had suffered from a lengthy illness. | <urn:uuid:45b78c73-7a82-49ba-9dcb-fc6aa2a53350> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.caribbeannationalweekly.com/caribbean-breaking-news-featured/day-history1st-leander-shaw-jr-died/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00070.warc.gz | en | 0.982266 | 349 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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On this day in history, September 6, 1930, Leander Jerry Shaw, Jr., an American jurist who served as the first african American Chief Justice of the Florida Supreme Court from 1990 to 1992.
Born in Salem, Virginia, Shaw went to Lylburn Downing School in Lexington, Virginia. He graduated from West Virginia State University in 1952 before serving in the United States Army during the Korean War. In 1957, Shaw received his law degree from Howard University School of Law and in 1957 moved to Tallahassee, Florida and was a law professor at Florida A&M University. He was admitted to the Florida bar in 1960 and practiced law in Jacksonville, Florida.
When Leander Shaw took the Florida Bar exam in 1960, he was not allowed to stay or eat at the whites-only hotel in Miami where the exam was administered. Three decades later, Shaw became the first black chief justice of the Florida Supreme Court.
Shaw served on the Florida State Attorney staff in 1969, and in 1972, Shaw was appointed to the Florida Industrial Relations Commission. From 1979 to 1983, Shaw served on the Florida District Courts of Appeal. Shaw served on the Florida Supreme Court from 1983 until 2003 and was Chief Justice of that court from 1990 to 1992. He also served as judge in residence at Washington and Lee University School of Law in Lexington, Virginia. Shaw died on December 14, 2015 in Tallahassee, Florida at the age of 85.
Shaw, whose career included working as a public defender, prosecutor, and appeals-court judge before serving on the Supreme Court, died at age 85. A statement from the Supreme Court said Shaw had suffered from a lengthy illness. | 413 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pirate ships were dirty - there's no way around it. The life of a pirate was fraught with danger and disease, but the pirates themselves did find ways to clean themselves and their surroundings - at times.
Maintaining hygienic practices on a pirate ship was an uphill battle. Lack of access to clean water, combined with confined living spaces, led to the rapid spread of disease. Harsh elements and inadequate nutrition further contributed to generally poor health. Baths, laundry, and oral hygiene were at a minimum, even with a somewhat surprising amount of medical resources.
Life on a pirate ship wasn't for the faint of heart - or for those with a sharp sense of smell. Here are some of the gritty details of what life was like on a pirate ship.
Pirates are not known for their stellar dental health, and with good reason. If pirates did anything at all to care for their teeth, it included chewing on a stick made of wood.
Chew sticks date back to the ancient world and were a common means of cleaning one's teeth well into the 18th century. Finding access to new chew sticks while at sea wouldn't have been easy, however. In that case, pirates simply went without any sort of oral care.
One thing pirates did have regular access to was water. But bathing didn't involve freshwater; that was saved for cooking. When it came time for pirates to clean themselves, they most likely jumped into the ocean.
That said, it wasn't common to take a bath - especially since leaving the ship was dangerous, and salt water can irritate the skin. Pirates were also said to be fearful of sea monsters.
During the burgeoning whaling industry of the 18th century, pirates and privateers were known to attack whaling ships for the resources they contained.
Whales have been hunted and used for millenia. As early as the 10th century, commercial whalers on the Azores islands processed whale blubber for a variety of purposes. Oil, lubricant, and soap were all derived from whale blubber, something pirates may have seized or made themselves on board.
Pirate ships didn't have toilets. Instead, they had "heads," which were basically holes cut into planks that emptied into the water. Royal navy ships had heads for common sailors up front with facilities for officers further back. It's unlikely pirates made such a distinction.
The plank and hole were usually located at the bow, or head, of the ship, and the name stuck. The term is still used to describe toilets on ships, among other places, today.
During a storm, sailors and pirates might use a pot instead of the plank and throw the contents over the side when the weather was more agreeable. | <urn:uuid:0fedd7ce-c047-40a6-9476-c7bb3d0e94d8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ranker.com/list/what-was-pirate-hygiene-like/melissa-sartore | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00105.warc.gz | en | 0.98837 | 564 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.093757510185241... | 2 | Pirate ships were dirty - there's no way around it. The life of a pirate was fraught with danger and disease, but the pirates themselves did find ways to clean themselves and their surroundings - at times.
Maintaining hygienic practices on a pirate ship was an uphill battle. Lack of access to clean water, combined with confined living spaces, led to the rapid spread of disease. Harsh elements and inadequate nutrition further contributed to generally poor health. Baths, laundry, and oral hygiene were at a minimum, even with a somewhat surprising amount of medical resources.
Life on a pirate ship wasn't for the faint of heart - or for those with a sharp sense of smell. Here are some of the gritty details of what life was like on a pirate ship.
Pirates are not known for their stellar dental health, and with good reason. If pirates did anything at all to care for their teeth, it included chewing on a stick made of wood.
Chew sticks date back to the ancient world and were a common means of cleaning one's teeth well into the 18th century. Finding access to new chew sticks while at sea wouldn't have been easy, however. In that case, pirates simply went without any sort of oral care.
One thing pirates did have regular access to was water. But bathing didn't involve freshwater; that was saved for cooking. When it came time for pirates to clean themselves, they most likely jumped into the ocean.
That said, it wasn't common to take a bath - especially since leaving the ship was dangerous, and salt water can irritate the skin. Pirates were also said to be fearful of sea monsters.
During the burgeoning whaling industry of the 18th century, pirates and privateers were known to attack whaling ships for the resources they contained.
Whales have been hunted and used for millenia. As early as the 10th century, commercial whalers on the Azores islands processed whale blubber for a variety of purposes. Oil, lubricant, and soap were all derived from whale blubber, something pirates may have seized or made themselves on board.
Pirate ships didn't have toilets. Instead, they had "heads," which were basically holes cut into planks that emptied into the water. Royal navy ships had heads for common sailors up front with facilities for officers further back. It's unlikely pirates made such a distinction.
The plank and hole were usually located at the bow, or head, of the ship, and the name stuck. The term is still used to describe toilets on ships, among other places, today.
During a storm, sailors and pirates might use a pot instead of the plank and throw the contents over the side when the weather was more agreeable. | 553 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Unwan (or Unwin) (died 27 January 1029 in Bremen) was the Archbishop of Hamburg- Bremen from 1013 until his death.
Unwan was granted his see on the agreement that his inheritance would go to the diocese on his death. Throughout his tenure, he was in conflict with the equally ambitious Bernard II, Duke of Saxony, as was his successor, Adalbert. In 1020, however, he allied with Empress Cunigunda to persuade the Emperor Henry II to reconcile with Bernard. Around 1019, Canute the Great, Conrad II, and Unwan arranged a peace in the north of Germany and a pact against the Slavs.
Unwan and Benno, Bishop of Oldenburg, began anew the Christianisation of the Obodrites of Wagria following decades of mild rebellion. The work of the archbishop was largely successful, save for the violent uprising precipitated by Benno's ecclesiastical land claims. In 1021, the Obodrites accepted the overlordship of the archdiocese as opposed to the Duke of Saxony and agreed to pay tithes. Adam of Bremen records that Unwan was the first German bishop to abolish the practice of observing the rules of both monasticism and canonry. | <urn:uuid:3b927c7e-fa1d-4f3c-a497-24d5e8f2f55b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://findwords.info/term/unwan | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00475.warc.gz | en | 0.98583 | 264 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.399556368... | 1 | Unwan (or Unwin) (died 27 January 1029 in Bremen) was the Archbishop of Hamburg- Bremen from 1013 until his death.
Unwan was granted his see on the agreement that his inheritance would go to the diocese on his death. Throughout his tenure, he was in conflict with the equally ambitious Bernard II, Duke of Saxony, as was his successor, Adalbert. In 1020, however, he allied with Empress Cunigunda to persuade the Emperor Henry II to reconcile with Bernard. Around 1019, Canute the Great, Conrad II, and Unwan arranged a peace in the north of Germany and a pact against the Slavs.
Unwan and Benno, Bishop of Oldenburg, began anew the Christianisation of the Obodrites of Wagria following decades of mild rebellion. The work of the archbishop was largely successful, save for the violent uprising precipitated by Benno's ecclesiastical land claims. In 1021, the Obodrites accepted the overlordship of the archdiocese as opposed to the Duke of Saxony and agreed to pay tithes. Adam of Bremen records that Unwan was the first German bishop to abolish the practice of observing the rules of both monasticism and canonry. | 280 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Containing The Interval Of Two Hundred And Twenty Years.
From The Death Of Isaac To The Exodus Out Of Egypt.
How Moses Made War With The Ethiopians.
1. MOSES, therefore, when he was born, and brought up in the foregoing manner, and came to the age of maturity, made his virtue manifest to the Egyptians; and showed that he was born for the bringing them down, and raising the Israelites.
And the occasion he laid hold of was this: - The Ethiopians, who are next neighbors to the Egyptians, made an inroad into their country, which they seized upon, and carried off the effects of the Egyptians, who, in their rage, fought against them, and revenged the affronts they had received from them; but being overcome in battle, some of them were slain, and the rest ran away in a shameful manner, and by that means saved themselves; whereupon the Ethiopians followed after them in the pursuit, and thinking that it would be a mark of cowardice if they did not subdue all Egypt, they went on to subdue the rest with greater vehemence; and when they had tasted the sweets of the country, they never left off the prosecution of the war: and as the nearest parts had not courage enough at first to fight with them, they proceeded as far as Memphis, and the sea itself, while not one of the cities was able to oppose them.
The Egyptians, under this sad oppression, betook themselves to their oracles and prophecies; and when God had given them this counsel, to make use of Moses the Hebrew, and take his assistance, the king commanded his daughter to produce him, that he might be the general (22) of their army. Upon which, when she had made him swear he would do him no harm, she delivered him to the king, and supposed his assistance would be of great advantage to them. She withal reproached the priest, who, when they had before admonished the Egyptians to kill him, was not ashamed now to own their want of his help.
2. So Moses, at the persuasion both of Thermuthis and the king himself, cheerfully undertook the business: and the sacred scribes of both nations were glad; those of the Egyptians, that they should at once overcome their enemies by his valor, and that by the same piece of management Moses would be slain; but those of the Hebrews, that they should escape from the Egyptians, because Moses was to be their general.
But Moses prevented the enemies, and took and led his army before those enemies were apprised of his attacking them; for he did not march by the river, but by land, where he gave a wonderful demonstration of his sagacity; for when the ground was difficult to be passed over, because of the multitude of serpents, (which it produces in vast numbers, and, indeed, is singular in some of those productions, which other countries do not breed, and yet such as are worse than others in power and mischief, and an unusual fierceness of sight, some of which ascend out of the ground unseen, and also fly in the air, and so come upon men at unawares, and do them a mischief,) Moses invented a wonderful stratagem to preserve the army safe, and without hurt; for he made baskets, like unto arks, of sedge, and filled them with ibes, (23) and carried them along with them; which animal is the greatest enemy to serpents imaginable, for they fly from them when they come near them; and as they fly they are caught and devoured by them, as if it were done by the harts; but the ibes are tame creatures, and only enemies to the serpentine kind: but about these ibes I say no more at present, since the Greeks themselves are not unacquainted with this sort of bird.
As soon, therefore, as Moses was come to the land which was the breeder of these serpents, he let loose the ibes, and by their means repelled the serpentine kind, and used them for his assistants before the army came upon that ground. When he had therefore proceeded thus on his journey, he came upon the Ethiopians before they expected him; and, joining battle with them, he beat them, and deprived them of the hopes they had of success against the Egyptians, and went on in overthrowing their cities, and indeed made a great slaughter of these Ethiopians. Now when the Egyptian army had once tasted of this prosperous success, by the means of Moses, they did not slacken their diligence, insomuch that the Ethiopians were in danger of being reduced to slavery, and all sorts of destruction; and at length they retired to Saba, which was a royal city of Ethiopia, which Cambyses afterwards named Mero, after the name of his own sister.
The place was to be besieged with very great difficulty, since it was both encompassed by the Nile quite round, and the other rivers, Astapus and Astaboras, made it a very difficult thing for such as attempted to pass over them; for the city was situate in a retired place, and was inhabited after the manner of an island, being encompassed with a strong wall, and having the rivers to guard them from their enemies, and having great ramparts between the wall and the rivers, insomuch, that when the waters come with the greatest violence, it can never be drowned; which ramparts make it next to impossible for even such as are gotten over the rivers to take the city.
However, while Moses was uneasy at the army's lying idle, (for the enemies durst not come to a battle,) this accident happened: - Tharbis was the daughter of the king of the Ethiopians: she happened to see Moses as he led the army near the walls, and fought with great courage; and admiring the subtlety of his undertakings, and believing him to be the author of the Egyptians' success, when they had before despaired of recovering their liberty, and to be the occasion of the great danger the Ethiopians were in, when they had before boasted of their great achievements, she fell deeply in love with him; and upon the prevalency of that passion, sent to him the most faithful of all her servants to discourse with him about their marriage.
He thereupon accepted the offer, on condition she would procure the delivering up of the city; and gave her the assurance of an oath to take her to his wife; and that when he had once taken possession of the city, he would not break his oath to her. No sooner was the agreement made, but it took effect immediately; and when Moses had cut off the Ethiopians, he gave thanks to God, and consummated his marriage, and led the Egyptians back to their own land.
(22) This history of Moses, as general of the Egyptians against the Ethiopians, is wholly omitted in our Bibles; but is thus by Irenaeus, from Josephus, and that soon after his own age:
"Josephus says, that when Moses was nourished in the palace, he was appointed general of the army against the Ethiopians, and conquered them, when he married that king's daughter; because, out of her affection for him, she delivered the city up to him."
See the Fragments of Irenaeus. ap. edit. Grab. p. 472. Nor perhaps did St. Stephen refer to any thing else when he said of Moses, before he was sent by God to the Israelites, that he was not only learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, but was also mighty in words and in deeds, Acts 7:22.
(23) Pliny speaks of these birds called Ibes; and says,
"The Egyptians invoked them against the serpents,"
Hist. Nat. B. X. Ch. 28. Strabo speaks of this island Meroe, and these rivers Astapus and Astaboras, B. XVI. p. 771, 786; and B XVII. p. 321. | <urn:uuid:222a2b1f-0dcf-47a8-b5ab-6481c025bde9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.christianwalks.org/ancient_writings/AntiquitiesJews/ajb02c10.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00271.warc.gz | en | 0.990705 | 1,689 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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From The Death Of Isaac To The Exodus Out Of Egypt.
How Moses Made War With The Ethiopians.
1. MOSES, therefore, when he was born, and brought up in the foregoing manner, and came to the age of maturity, made his virtue manifest to the Egyptians; and showed that he was born for the bringing them down, and raising the Israelites.
And the occasion he laid hold of was this: - The Ethiopians, who are next neighbors to the Egyptians, made an inroad into their country, which they seized upon, and carried off the effects of the Egyptians, who, in their rage, fought against them, and revenged the affronts they had received from them; but being overcome in battle, some of them were slain, and the rest ran away in a shameful manner, and by that means saved themselves; whereupon the Ethiopians followed after them in the pursuit, and thinking that it would be a mark of cowardice if they did not subdue all Egypt, they went on to subdue the rest with greater vehemence; and when they had tasted the sweets of the country, they never left off the prosecution of the war: and as the nearest parts had not courage enough at first to fight with them, they proceeded as far as Memphis, and the sea itself, while not one of the cities was able to oppose them.
The Egyptians, under this sad oppression, betook themselves to their oracles and prophecies; and when God had given them this counsel, to make use of Moses the Hebrew, and take his assistance, the king commanded his daughter to produce him, that he might be the general (22) of their army. Upon which, when she had made him swear he would do him no harm, she delivered him to the king, and supposed his assistance would be of great advantage to them. She withal reproached the priest, who, when they had before admonished the Egyptians to kill him, was not ashamed now to own their want of his help.
2. So Moses, at the persuasion both of Thermuthis and the king himself, cheerfully undertook the business: and the sacred scribes of both nations were glad; those of the Egyptians, that they should at once overcome their enemies by his valor, and that by the same piece of management Moses would be slain; but those of the Hebrews, that they should escape from the Egyptians, because Moses was to be their general.
But Moses prevented the enemies, and took and led his army before those enemies were apprised of his attacking them; for he did not march by the river, but by land, where he gave a wonderful demonstration of his sagacity; for when the ground was difficult to be passed over, because of the multitude of serpents, (which it produces in vast numbers, and, indeed, is singular in some of those productions, which other countries do not breed, and yet such as are worse than others in power and mischief, and an unusual fierceness of sight, some of which ascend out of the ground unseen, and also fly in the air, and so come upon men at unawares, and do them a mischief,) Moses invented a wonderful stratagem to preserve the army safe, and without hurt; for he made baskets, like unto arks, of sedge, and filled them with ibes, (23) and carried them along with them; which animal is the greatest enemy to serpents imaginable, for they fly from them when they come near them; and as they fly they are caught and devoured by them, as if it were done by the harts; but the ibes are tame creatures, and only enemies to the serpentine kind: but about these ibes I say no more at present, since the Greeks themselves are not unacquainted with this sort of bird.
As soon, therefore, as Moses was come to the land which was the breeder of these serpents, he let loose the ibes, and by their means repelled the serpentine kind, and used them for his assistants before the army came upon that ground. When he had therefore proceeded thus on his journey, he came upon the Ethiopians before they expected him; and, joining battle with them, he beat them, and deprived them of the hopes they had of success against the Egyptians, and went on in overthrowing their cities, and indeed made a great slaughter of these Ethiopians. Now when the Egyptian army had once tasted of this prosperous success, by the means of Moses, they did not slacken their diligence, insomuch that the Ethiopians were in danger of being reduced to slavery, and all sorts of destruction; and at length they retired to Saba, which was a royal city of Ethiopia, which Cambyses afterwards named Mero, after the name of his own sister.
The place was to be besieged with very great difficulty, since it was both encompassed by the Nile quite round, and the other rivers, Astapus and Astaboras, made it a very difficult thing for such as attempted to pass over them; for the city was situate in a retired place, and was inhabited after the manner of an island, being encompassed with a strong wall, and having the rivers to guard them from their enemies, and having great ramparts between the wall and the rivers, insomuch, that when the waters come with the greatest violence, it can never be drowned; which ramparts make it next to impossible for even such as are gotten over the rivers to take the city.
However, while Moses was uneasy at the army's lying idle, (for the enemies durst not come to a battle,) this accident happened: - Tharbis was the daughter of the king of the Ethiopians: she happened to see Moses as he led the army near the walls, and fought with great courage; and admiring the subtlety of his undertakings, and believing him to be the author of the Egyptians' success, when they had before despaired of recovering their liberty, and to be the occasion of the great danger the Ethiopians were in, when they had before boasted of their great achievements, she fell deeply in love with him; and upon the prevalency of that passion, sent to him the most faithful of all her servants to discourse with him about their marriage.
He thereupon accepted the offer, on condition she would procure the delivering up of the city; and gave her the assurance of an oath to take her to his wife; and that when he had once taken possession of the city, he would not break his oath to her. No sooner was the agreement made, but it took effect immediately; and when Moses had cut off the Ethiopians, he gave thanks to God, and consummated his marriage, and led the Egyptians back to their own land.
(22) This history of Moses, as general of the Egyptians against the Ethiopians, is wholly omitted in our Bibles; but is thus by Irenaeus, from Josephus, and that soon after his own age:
"Josephus says, that when Moses was nourished in the palace, he was appointed general of the army against the Ethiopians, and conquered them, when he married that king's daughter; because, out of her affection for him, she delivered the city up to him."
See the Fragments of Irenaeus. ap. edit. Grab. p. 472. Nor perhaps did St. Stephen refer to any thing else when he said of Moses, before he was sent by God to the Israelites, that he was not only learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians, but was also mighty in words and in deeds, Acts 7:22.
(23) Pliny speaks of these birds called Ibes; and says,
"The Egyptians invoked them against the serpents,"
Hist. Nat. B. X. Ch. 28. Strabo speaks of this island Meroe, and these rivers Astapus and Astaboras, B. XVI. p. 771, 786; and B XVII. p. 321. | 1,699 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Nativity Note Cards
by Rosemarie Adcock
“Now in those days a decree went out from Caesar Augustus, that a census be taken of all the inhabited earth. And everyone was on his way to register for the census, each to his own city. Joseph also went up from Galilee, from the city of Nazareth, to Judea, to the city of David which is called Bethlehem, because he was of the house and family of David, in order to register along with Mary, who was engaged to him, and was with child. While they were there, the days were completed for her to give birth. And she gave birth to her firstborn son; and she wrapped Him in cloths, and laid Him in a manger, because there was no room for them in the inn.” Luke 2:1-7
In this depiction of the birth of Jesus Christ we see the Holy Family surrounded by all sorts of animals one might find in a barn. The infant Jesus touches the extended finger of Joseph reminiscent of God extending His finger to Adam in the Sistine Chapel depiction of the Creation. The donkey is depicted as a symbol of Jesus one day entering Jerusalem on a foal of a donkey. The white horse is a depiction of His eventual return as it is described in the Book of Revelation. Joseph and Mary are painted in royal robes as the parents of a King, though in reality they were extremely poor. Jesus having been born into poverty was another illustration of how the Apostle Paul described Him:
“...Although He existed in the form of God, He did not regard equality with God a thing to be grasped, but emptied Himself, taking the form of a bond-servant, and being made in the likeness of men." | <urn:uuid:0d2c8e5a-e0fd-45dd-a5cd-6b1f8b1b74e6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://chapelgalleries.com/collections/giclees/products/the-nativity-note-cards | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00518.warc.gz | en | 0.988897 | 360 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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by Rosemarie Adcock
“Now in those days a decree went out from Caesar Augustus, that a census be taken of all the inhabited earth. And everyone was on his way to register for the census, each to his own city. Joseph also went up from Galilee, from the city of Nazareth, to Judea, to the city of David which is called Bethlehem, because he was of the house and family of David, in order to register along with Mary, who was engaged to him, and was with child. While they were there, the days were completed for her to give birth. And she gave birth to her firstborn son; and she wrapped Him in cloths, and laid Him in a manger, because there was no room for them in the inn.” Luke 2:1-7
In this depiction of the birth of Jesus Christ we see the Holy Family surrounded by all sorts of animals one might find in a barn. The infant Jesus touches the extended finger of Joseph reminiscent of God extending His finger to Adam in the Sistine Chapel depiction of the Creation. The donkey is depicted as a symbol of Jesus one day entering Jerusalem on a foal of a donkey. The white horse is a depiction of His eventual return as it is described in the Book of Revelation. Joseph and Mary are painted in royal robes as the parents of a King, though in reality they were extremely poor. Jesus having been born into poverty was another illustration of how the Apostle Paul described Him:
“...Although He existed in the form of God, He did not regard equality with God a thing to be grasped, but emptied Himself, taking the form of a bond-servant, and being made in the likeness of men." | 360 | ENGLISH | 1 |
William Pitt the Younger was born on May 28, 1759, in Kent, England. The younger Pitt was the fourth of five children born to William Pitt the Elder and his wife Lady Hester Grenville. William was always the favorite son of Pitt the Elder. His father was appointed Earl of Chatham in 1766. As a result this, William’s political status later in life was affected by his father’s previous position.
Pitt was a fragile, sickly child, and inherited gout. Gout is a form of arthritis that causes sudden, severe attacks of pain, redness and tenderness in joints. Because of his multiple illness’, he was homeschooled. By the age of seven, William was advanced in all his subjects, and already fluent in Latin. William had in extraordinary understanding of all subjects taught to him, and was willing to learn anything new.
Pitt’s father observed how his son had excelled, and decided the time had come for young William to have a chance to go even farther with his studies. Therefore in 1773, at the age of fourteen, William Pitt the Younger was set to attend school in Pembroke Hall at Cambridge University. He graduated with a Master’s degree, without examination, in 1776.
In 1773, during his first year at school Pitt suffered an attack of gout and a bottle of port a day as the cure. Port is the most toxic of all wines and the prescribed remedy probably exacerbated the problem. Pitt was only fourteen years old but he continued to drink throughout his life. While he was at university Pitt became friends with high members of society which also allowed him to excel in his political career. During his studies Pitt would attend parliament meetings. Pitt apparently was preparing himself for a role in parliament. On one occasion he was introduced to Charles James Fox: ultimately, the two became sworn political enemies.
On May 11, 1778, the Earl of Chatham died leaving his son an income of less than £3,000 a year. As a result of this he ran into debt and stayed that way until his death. He also stood as candidate for Cambridge University in the 1780 General Election and came last in the poll out of five candidates. Pitt began asking patrons for a seat in parliament and in November 1780 he was offered Appleby, England’s through a man who was a university friend of Pitt. In January 1781, at the age of 21, Pitt took his seat in the House of Commons. In February 1781, Pitt attached himself to Shelburne's group since this was his father's political following.
In parliament Pitt was called on by MPs to speak with no warning and no chance to prepare, he stood up and demonstrated his ability. Pitt had a rich voice and was an effective speaker. He was rarely sensitive but was a very impressive speaker who used an extensive vocabulary. He spoke rarely until 1783 when he became Prime Minister. Pitt was influenced by Shelburne and was never a democrat. He also had powerful friends from which their friendships were acquired at Cambridge.
On December 19, Pitt accepted the position... | <urn:uuid:c3a949a5-a8e0-4476-bf43-c9edf46b9570> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/research-paper-william-pitt-the-more-youthful | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00530.warc.gz | en | 0.995488 | 644 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.2529978156089... | 1 | William Pitt the Younger was born on May 28, 1759, in Kent, England. The younger Pitt was the fourth of five children born to William Pitt the Elder and his wife Lady Hester Grenville. William was always the favorite son of Pitt the Elder. His father was appointed Earl of Chatham in 1766. As a result this, William’s political status later in life was affected by his father’s previous position.
Pitt was a fragile, sickly child, and inherited gout. Gout is a form of arthritis that causes sudden, severe attacks of pain, redness and tenderness in joints. Because of his multiple illness’, he was homeschooled. By the age of seven, William was advanced in all his subjects, and already fluent in Latin. William had in extraordinary understanding of all subjects taught to him, and was willing to learn anything new.
Pitt’s father observed how his son had excelled, and decided the time had come for young William to have a chance to go even farther with his studies. Therefore in 1773, at the age of fourteen, William Pitt the Younger was set to attend school in Pembroke Hall at Cambridge University. He graduated with a Master’s degree, without examination, in 1776.
In 1773, during his first year at school Pitt suffered an attack of gout and a bottle of port a day as the cure. Port is the most toxic of all wines and the prescribed remedy probably exacerbated the problem. Pitt was only fourteen years old but he continued to drink throughout his life. While he was at university Pitt became friends with high members of society which also allowed him to excel in his political career. During his studies Pitt would attend parliament meetings. Pitt apparently was preparing himself for a role in parliament. On one occasion he was introduced to Charles James Fox: ultimately, the two became sworn political enemies.
On May 11, 1778, the Earl of Chatham died leaving his son an income of less than £3,000 a year. As a result of this he ran into debt and stayed that way until his death. He also stood as candidate for Cambridge University in the 1780 General Election and came last in the poll out of five candidates. Pitt began asking patrons for a seat in parliament and in November 1780 he was offered Appleby, England’s through a man who was a university friend of Pitt. In January 1781, at the age of 21, Pitt took his seat in the House of Commons. In February 1781, Pitt attached himself to Shelburne's group since this was his father's political following.
In parliament Pitt was called on by MPs to speak with no warning and no chance to prepare, he stood up and demonstrated his ability. Pitt had a rich voice and was an effective speaker. He was rarely sensitive but was a very impressive speaker who used an extensive vocabulary. He spoke rarely until 1783 when he became Prime Minister. Pitt was influenced by Shelburne and was never a democrat. He also had powerful friends from which their friendships were acquired at Cambridge.
On December 19, Pitt accepted the position... | 671 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Year 5 - Sushi Making
Wednesday 11th December 2019
As part of the Year 5 topic on Japan the children designed and made their own Sushi. Once made they were able to eat it, the children were surprised as to how much they enjoyed it!
Year 3 - Cresswell Crags
Thursday 19th September 2019
We visited Creswell Crags, which is one of Britain’s most important Ice Age archaeological and geological sites. We learned about why people from this period resided in caves, how they choose which caves to live in and how they attempted to keep them safe from predators.
Our guide Oj taught us how people in the Stone Age would have looked for clues, such as prints on the ground, feathers and poo, to avoid dangerous predators and to hunt.
As we approached the cave (Mother Grundy’s parlour) we discussed that this cave being on the sunny side of the gorge would have encouraged Stone Age people to live here, as it would have kept them warmer. Also, we learned that they lit the fire outside their cave to warn off predators as well as to keep warm.
We got to handle tools that people in the Stone Age would have used, such as flint, antler and bone. Also, we learned about what they would have worn.
We learned that Stone Age people enjoyed creating music using simple instruments and their bodies. We created a piece of music to represent a thunderstorm. We played loudly, quietly, quickly and slowly and it sounded like a thunderstorm! Oj demonstrated how sounds would echo in in the gorge by tapping claves together. We really could hear the echo!
We looked around the museum and discussed how the artefacts on show had been discovered by archaeologists. There were lots of different artefacts on show from weapons, animal bones and even poo!
Next, we build shelters using materials that people from this period would have had available to them, including wood, leather, animal fur and animal intestines (to tie the wood together). They would have used these shelters to keep warm and to protect themselves. | <urn:uuid:3504bf5f-e337-4aee-b70f-620710b567ed> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cropwellbishopschool.co.uk/page/?title=KS2+News&pid=60 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00507.warc.gz | en | 0.985906 | 434 | 3.859375 | 4 | [
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0.565638720... | 4 | Year 5 - Sushi Making
Wednesday 11th December 2019
As part of the Year 5 topic on Japan the children designed and made their own Sushi. Once made they were able to eat it, the children were surprised as to how much they enjoyed it!
Year 3 - Cresswell Crags
Thursday 19th September 2019
We visited Creswell Crags, which is one of Britain’s most important Ice Age archaeological and geological sites. We learned about why people from this period resided in caves, how they choose which caves to live in and how they attempted to keep them safe from predators.
Our guide Oj taught us how people in the Stone Age would have looked for clues, such as prints on the ground, feathers and poo, to avoid dangerous predators and to hunt.
As we approached the cave (Mother Grundy’s parlour) we discussed that this cave being on the sunny side of the gorge would have encouraged Stone Age people to live here, as it would have kept them warmer. Also, we learned that they lit the fire outside their cave to warn off predators as well as to keep warm.
We got to handle tools that people in the Stone Age would have used, such as flint, antler and bone. Also, we learned about what they would have worn.
We learned that Stone Age people enjoyed creating music using simple instruments and their bodies. We created a piece of music to represent a thunderstorm. We played loudly, quietly, quickly and slowly and it sounded like a thunderstorm! Oj demonstrated how sounds would echo in in the gorge by tapping claves together. We really could hear the echo!
We looked around the museum and discussed how the artefacts on show had been discovered by archaeologists. There were lots of different artefacts on show from weapons, animal bones and even poo!
Next, we build shelters using materials that people from this period would have had available to them, including wood, leather, animal fur and animal intestines (to tie the wood together). They would have used these shelters to keep warm and to protect themselves. | 435 | ENGLISH | 1 |
About the Book
Through his personality, ingenuity and ability, he initiated a resistance movement which ultimately secured the nation's freedom and independence. Yet, Wallace was reviled, opposed and eventually betrayed by the nobility in his own day to re-surface in the epic poetry of the fifteenth century as a champion and liberator. Eventually, his legend overtook the historical reality, a process which has continued for centuries as manifested in modern media and film. A team of leading historians and critics from both Scotland and England investigate what is known of the medieval warrior's career from contemporary sources, most of which, unusually for a national hero, were created by his enemies. His reputation, from the time of his horrendous execution to the present, is examined to ascertain what the figure of Wallace meant to different generations of Scots. Too dangerous perhaps for his own era, he became the supreme Scottish hero of all time; the archetypal Scot who would teach kings and nobles where their duty lay, and who would live free or freely die for the liberty of his nation. | <urn:uuid:473cbb3b-43de-4ed6-8eed-3b31af17d7b3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://birlinn.co.uk/product/the-wallace-book/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00520.warc.gz | en | 0.988905 | 211 | 3.625 | 4 | [
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0.08253907412290573,
-0.1443305760622... | 8 | About the Book
Through his personality, ingenuity and ability, he initiated a resistance movement which ultimately secured the nation's freedom and independence. Yet, Wallace was reviled, opposed and eventually betrayed by the nobility in his own day to re-surface in the epic poetry of the fifteenth century as a champion and liberator. Eventually, his legend overtook the historical reality, a process which has continued for centuries as manifested in modern media and film. A team of leading historians and critics from both Scotland and England investigate what is known of the medieval warrior's career from contemporary sources, most of which, unusually for a national hero, were created by his enemies. His reputation, from the time of his horrendous execution to the present, is examined to ascertain what the figure of Wallace meant to different generations of Scots. Too dangerous perhaps for his own era, he became the supreme Scottish hero of all time; the archetypal Scot who would teach kings and nobles where their duty lay, and who would live free or freely die for the liberty of his nation. | 216 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Terms of the Powerlessness of Edna
Human beings are bound by the rules of society and have to lead their lives in accordance with those rules. The novel “The Awakening” by Kate Chopin brings forth the struggle of a married woman who is caught between her own desires and rules of the society. The protagonist of the novel is a married woman, Edna Pontellier who finds happiness in an extramarital affair. Edna falls for a bachelor, Robert. Robert also loves Edna but hesitates to express his love and ultimately decides to leave her so that they are able to forget each other. But Edna is unable to forget Robert and his thoughts make it impossible for her to live happily with her husband. So she starts to lead an independent life by removing herself from the world of her husband. When she again meets Robert, she tells me that now she is an independent woman and ready to lead her life with him. But when her friend and her doctor advice her to think about her obligations towards her family and children she realizes her selfishness and her powerlessness.
Edna feels her powerlessness when she is confronted by the fact that she cannot pursue her love for Robert and her obligation towards her children at the same time. Her affair with Robert has aided her in her awakening; she starts to accept her desires which defy the rules of the society. Her awakening results into an understanding of her true self but this understanding makes her to disregard the role of a mother and wife. The new role, as Robert’s lover, which Edna wishes to adopt in her life is so overpowering that she ignores her children. Her love for Robert is so strong that she is prepared to give up her family to unite with him. She openly expresses her desires and is least concerned about other’s thoughts, this is evident from her reply to Robert when he points out that her behavior will termed as unwomanly. “I suppose this is what you would call unwomanly; but I have got into the habit of expressing myself. It doesn’t matter to me, and you may think me unwomanly if you like.” (Chopin 106). Although Edna tries to convince Robert that they can lead their life together, Robert is unable to rebel against the rules of the society. And when Edna realizes that she has failed to liberate herself from the restrictions placed upon a woman by the society, she feels lonely.
She is disturbed by the thoughts of her children whom she neglected for fulfilling her own desires. “The children appeared before her like antagonists who had overcome her; who had overpowered and sought to drag her into soul’s slavery for the rest of her days. (Chopin 115). At the same time she is overwhelmed by the feeling that Robert was unable to understand her. Her awakening, which helped her in understanding her feelings and her desires, was now making her to suffer. She felt powerless before her desires and the limitations of the society. The rigidity of the society in which she was living in, made it impossible for her to fulfill her desires. Instead of living her life according to the expectations of society, she chooses to end her life and free herself from the restraints of the society. She ends her struggle by drowning herself in the sea.
Chopin, Kate. The Awakening. Courier Dover Publications.1993. | <urn:uuid:0baa205b-7e43-4ff5-8a4c-d31176b5d0d1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://summarystory.com/the-awakening/terms-of-the-powerlessness-of-edna/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00556.warc.gz | en | 0.984786 | 692 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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Human beings are bound by the rules of society and have to lead their lives in accordance with those rules. The novel “The Awakening” by Kate Chopin brings forth the struggle of a married woman who is caught between her own desires and rules of the society. The protagonist of the novel is a married woman, Edna Pontellier who finds happiness in an extramarital affair. Edna falls for a bachelor, Robert. Robert also loves Edna but hesitates to express his love and ultimately decides to leave her so that they are able to forget each other. But Edna is unable to forget Robert and his thoughts make it impossible for her to live happily with her husband. So she starts to lead an independent life by removing herself from the world of her husband. When she again meets Robert, she tells me that now she is an independent woman and ready to lead her life with him. But when her friend and her doctor advice her to think about her obligations towards her family and children she realizes her selfishness and her powerlessness.
Edna feels her powerlessness when she is confronted by the fact that she cannot pursue her love for Robert and her obligation towards her children at the same time. Her affair with Robert has aided her in her awakening; she starts to accept her desires which defy the rules of the society. Her awakening results into an understanding of her true self but this understanding makes her to disregard the role of a mother and wife. The new role, as Robert’s lover, which Edna wishes to adopt in her life is so overpowering that she ignores her children. Her love for Robert is so strong that she is prepared to give up her family to unite with him. She openly expresses her desires and is least concerned about other’s thoughts, this is evident from her reply to Robert when he points out that her behavior will termed as unwomanly. “I suppose this is what you would call unwomanly; but I have got into the habit of expressing myself. It doesn’t matter to me, and you may think me unwomanly if you like.” (Chopin 106). Although Edna tries to convince Robert that they can lead their life together, Robert is unable to rebel against the rules of the society. And when Edna realizes that she has failed to liberate herself from the restrictions placed upon a woman by the society, she feels lonely.
She is disturbed by the thoughts of her children whom she neglected for fulfilling her own desires. “The children appeared before her like antagonists who had overcome her; who had overpowered and sought to drag her into soul’s slavery for the rest of her days. (Chopin 115). At the same time she is overwhelmed by the feeling that Robert was unable to understand her. Her awakening, which helped her in understanding her feelings and her desires, was now making her to suffer. She felt powerless before her desires and the limitations of the society. The rigidity of the society in which she was living in, made it impossible for her to fulfill her desires. Instead of living her life according to the expectations of society, she chooses to end her life and free herself from the restraints of the society. She ends her struggle by drowning herself in the sea.
Chopin, Kate. The Awakening. Courier Dover Publications.1993. | 686 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On June 28th 1975, as a response to anti-government demonstrations, India imposed the toughest press censorship since Independence.
On June 21st 1975, the then President of India, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed declared a state of emergency upon the request of then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. The Emergency, as it is called, lasting until March 21st 1977, was marked by a “rule by decree” and suspension of civil rights of citizens, including holding elections. This period of 21 months has often been referred to as the India’s darkest hour.
There were many questionable and controversial events which led to the declaration of emergency. It all began with Indira Gandhi being blamed of using unfair means to win the 1971 elections. Jayprakash Narayan, a political leader was in complete opposition to Indira Gandhi’s government and hence was seeking to direct people against the central Government. The Congress eventually lost in Gujarat and also faced an all part no confidence motion in Parliament.
On June 12th 1975, the Allahabd High Court, upon an allegation by Jai Narain (who had been defeated in parliamentary elections by Gandhi) found Mrs. Gandhi guilty of misusing government machinery for her election campaign. The court declared Mrs. Gandhi’s election baseless and expelled her from the Lok Sabha. She was also further banned from contesting in elections for the following six years. The court had also accused her for bribing voters, misusing government property and using electricity from the state’s electricity department. Meanwhile, there was deluge of strikes across the country by trade unions and student groups, led by J.P Narayan, Raj Narain and Moraji Desai among others. Protests were carried out near the Parliament and the Prime Minister’s residence. Raj Narain was persistent in his claim that Gandhi had used fraudulent means to win the election and four years later the Allahabad High Court, passed a decision against Gandhi. This would soon prove to be one of the biggest reasons for Indira Gandhi declaring Emergency in the future.
The Indian government alleged threats to national security, since India had just then concluded a war with Pakistan. The economy of the country was in a poor shape due to the recent war and drought and 1973 oil crisis. The government said that the strikes and protests had done serious damage to the government and the economy. The declaration of Emergency led to great turmoil across the country and many loyal Congress supporters deserted Mrs. Gandhi, who had by then assumed the role of a tyrant. Democracy, in Indira Gandhi’s own words, was “brought to a grinding halt” and she advised the President to continue the Emergency over every six months, until she was ready to hold elections in 1977.
The twenty one months of emergency saw mass arrests. Leaders like Atal Bihari Vajpayee, L.K Advani, Charan Singh, Moraji Desai and J.P Narayan among others were put in jail. Elections for Parliament and state governments were stalled and Gandhi and her parliamentary majority re-wrote the laws of the nation since her party had the required mandate to do so. She also went ahead and declared President’s rule in states likes Gujarat and Tamil Nadu where non-Congress parties were in power. Indira Gandhi’s son, Sanjay Gandhi seemed particularly perturbed by the challenge of over population plaguing the country and ordered a mass sterilization program, primarily vasectomies, in which even unwilling men were not spared.
The Emergency also saw the imposition of a censorship of the press. The press was used as a tool in the hands of the government and news was used as per the convenience of the government to serve their motives. An absolute mockery had been made of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Editors of some newspapers in Delhi pretended to be campaigners against the Emergency, but were nothing more then mere puppets in the hands of the government.
The Emergency was finally called off on March 21st 1977 and in the Lok Sabha elections which followed saw Indira Gandhi and son Sanjay Gadhi lose their Lok Sabha seats. The Janata Party gained a massive majority and Moraji Desai went on to become the first non-Congress Prime Minister of India.
The Emergency has found a place for itself in popular culture and features in books like Midnight’s Children by Booker prize winning author Salman Rushdie, A Fine Balance by Rohinton Mistry and India: A Wounded Civilization by V.S Naipaul among others. Films which have touched upon the Emergency have been Kissa Kursee Ka by Amrit Nahata, Hirak Rajar Deshe by Satyajit Ray, Aandhi and Maachis by Gulzar and Nasbandi by I.S Johar.
Also on this day:
1921 - P.V. Narasimha Rao is born.
1928 - Famous painter Baburao Sadvelkar is born. | <urn:uuid:64971374-a75d-4f9e-a6a8-05116ae3bdc6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.mapsofindia.com/on-this-day/june-28th-1975-india-imposes-the-toughest-press-censorship-since-independence | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00475.warc.gz | en | 0.982136 | 1,016 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.22456458210... | 3 | On June 28th 1975, as a response to anti-government demonstrations, India imposed the toughest press censorship since Independence.
On June 21st 1975, the then President of India, Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed declared a state of emergency upon the request of then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi. The Emergency, as it is called, lasting until March 21st 1977, was marked by a “rule by decree” and suspension of civil rights of citizens, including holding elections. This period of 21 months has often been referred to as the India’s darkest hour.
There were many questionable and controversial events which led to the declaration of emergency. It all began with Indira Gandhi being blamed of using unfair means to win the 1971 elections. Jayprakash Narayan, a political leader was in complete opposition to Indira Gandhi’s government and hence was seeking to direct people against the central Government. The Congress eventually lost in Gujarat and also faced an all part no confidence motion in Parliament.
On June 12th 1975, the Allahabd High Court, upon an allegation by Jai Narain (who had been defeated in parliamentary elections by Gandhi) found Mrs. Gandhi guilty of misusing government machinery for her election campaign. The court declared Mrs. Gandhi’s election baseless and expelled her from the Lok Sabha. She was also further banned from contesting in elections for the following six years. The court had also accused her for bribing voters, misusing government property and using electricity from the state’s electricity department. Meanwhile, there was deluge of strikes across the country by trade unions and student groups, led by J.P Narayan, Raj Narain and Moraji Desai among others. Protests were carried out near the Parliament and the Prime Minister’s residence. Raj Narain was persistent in his claim that Gandhi had used fraudulent means to win the election and four years later the Allahabad High Court, passed a decision against Gandhi. This would soon prove to be one of the biggest reasons for Indira Gandhi declaring Emergency in the future.
The Indian government alleged threats to national security, since India had just then concluded a war with Pakistan. The economy of the country was in a poor shape due to the recent war and drought and 1973 oil crisis. The government said that the strikes and protests had done serious damage to the government and the economy. The declaration of Emergency led to great turmoil across the country and many loyal Congress supporters deserted Mrs. Gandhi, who had by then assumed the role of a tyrant. Democracy, in Indira Gandhi’s own words, was “brought to a grinding halt” and she advised the President to continue the Emergency over every six months, until she was ready to hold elections in 1977.
The twenty one months of emergency saw mass arrests. Leaders like Atal Bihari Vajpayee, L.K Advani, Charan Singh, Moraji Desai and J.P Narayan among others were put in jail. Elections for Parliament and state governments were stalled and Gandhi and her parliamentary majority re-wrote the laws of the nation since her party had the required mandate to do so. She also went ahead and declared President’s rule in states likes Gujarat and Tamil Nadu where non-Congress parties were in power. Indira Gandhi’s son, Sanjay Gandhi seemed particularly perturbed by the challenge of over population plaguing the country and ordered a mass sterilization program, primarily vasectomies, in which even unwilling men were not spared.
The Emergency also saw the imposition of a censorship of the press. The press was used as a tool in the hands of the government and news was used as per the convenience of the government to serve their motives. An absolute mockery had been made of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. Editors of some newspapers in Delhi pretended to be campaigners against the Emergency, but were nothing more then mere puppets in the hands of the government.
The Emergency was finally called off on March 21st 1977 and in the Lok Sabha elections which followed saw Indira Gandhi and son Sanjay Gadhi lose their Lok Sabha seats. The Janata Party gained a massive majority and Moraji Desai went on to become the first non-Congress Prime Minister of India.
The Emergency has found a place for itself in popular culture and features in books like Midnight’s Children by Booker prize winning author Salman Rushdie, A Fine Balance by Rohinton Mistry and India: A Wounded Civilization by V.S Naipaul among others. Films which have touched upon the Emergency have been Kissa Kursee Ka by Amrit Nahata, Hirak Rajar Deshe by Satyajit Ray, Aandhi and Maachis by Gulzar and Nasbandi by I.S Johar.
Also on this day:
1921 - P.V. Narasimha Rao is born.
1928 - Famous painter Baburao Sadvelkar is born. | 1,028 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What are termed modern practices of history writing began with the colonial perception of India history. Every type of historical investigation that has followed since then has had to build on, or reverse, or negate what the colonial historians said of the past.
This history writing occurred as colonial rule took root in the Indian sub-continent onwards of the 18th century. What European scholars sought to do was search for histories of India. However, nothing they studied, no period that they covered, could help them find a very European notion of what a history should be like. This view was influenced by the European Enlightenment. A view that looked at linear and very rigid definitions of history.
In this view, the Indian sub-continent was seen as only the bearer of Hindu and Sanskritic civilisation. The number of chronicles by Persian and Turkish writers were by and large ignored. What did it matter that this constituted entire centuries of Indian history. The fact that it didn’t meet what the European Indologists were looking for was enough for it to not be considered history.
As historian Romila Thapar states, “Hindu and sanskritic elements were highlighted as the contribution of India to World history, and the presence of other religious and linguistic culture such as Buddhism, Jainism or even Islam as it evolved in India, were barely recognised in terms of constructing Indian civilisation.”
Societies were problematically thought by the British to either possess a sense of history or lack it. The European historians thought of India as two-dimensional and lacking in history. ‘Ahistorical’ was the term given to a society like India’s.
Not only did India lack history, according to the colonial thought process, but it was explained that time in India was cyclical. In reality, Indian society had evidence of both linear and cyclical time but the European Indologists chose only to recognise Indian notion of time as cyclical. This was done in order to correspond to constructing and exoticising Indian civilisation. India with a mystical past was supposed to be different from the British. For how could there possibly be any sameness between a European “us” and an Indian “them”? To let the difference be, entirely new versions of history were created and it is this version of history that history writers of today seek to challenge or negate.
110 total views, 1 views today | <urn:uuid:61dd3715-7476-4e0b-a981-b4b0cc20fc64> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mapsofindia.com/my-india/history/colonial-readings-of-the-past | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00252.warc.gz | en | 0.982365 | 489 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.4379754662513... | 1 | What are termed modern practices of history writing began with the colonial perception of India history. Every type of historical investigation that has followed since then has had to build on, or reverse, or negate what the colonial historians said of the past.
This history writing occurred as colonial rule took root in the Indian sub-continent onwards of the 18th century. What European scholars sought to do was search for histories of India. However, nothing they studied, no period that they covered, could help them find a very European notion of what a history should be like. This view was influenced by the European Enlightenment. A view that looked at linear and very rigid definitions of history.
In this view, the Indian sub-continent was seen as only the bearer of Hindu and Sanskritic civilisation. The number of chronicles by Persian and Turkish writers were by and large ignored. What did it matter that this constituted entire centuries of Indian history. The fact that it didn’t meet what the European Indologists were looking for was enough for it to not be considered history.
As historian Romila Thapar states, “Hindu and sanskritic elements were highlighted as the contribution of India to World history, and the presence of other religious and linguistic culture such as Buddhism, Jainism or even Islam as it evolved in India, were barely recognised in terms of constructing Indian civilisation.”
Societies were problematically thought by the British to either possess a sense of history or lack it. The European historians thought of India as two-dimensional and lacking in history. ‘Ahistorical’ was the term given to a society like India’s.
Not only did India lack history, according to the colonial thought process, but it was explained that time in India was cyclical. In reality, Indian society had evidence of both linear and cyclical time but the European Indologists chose only to recognise Indian notion of time as cyclical. This was done in order to correspond to constructing and exoticising Indian civilisation. India with a mystical past was supposed to be different from the British. For how could there possibly be any sameness between a European “us” and an Indian “them”? To let the difference be, entirely new versions of history were created and it is this version of history that history writers of today seek to challenge or negate.
110 total views, 1 views today | 475 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A history of India's independence
A colonization in many countries leads to any human problems. There was no exception for India which had to be struggle to obtain an independence. On December 1961, Nehru ordered Indian troops marched into Goa to liberate it from Portuguese who had powerfully ruled the territory since 1510. Over 3500 Portuguese soldiers were overrun by over 30.000 troops in a brisk operation. Due to this circumstance, some countries addressed a stark critic to India and stated that India had lost the morality.
On the other hand, some others pointed out that the military adventure in Goa was totally becoming an expostulation from the increasing Chinese border incursions. After the invasion, Nehru took a place immediately in the election campaign who was able to strike a patriotic cord on restoring Goa to Motherland. His win, then, in the general election brought him back in power for a third successive term. With his power, finally, Nehru and his defense minister had taken steps to reclaim from the Chinese some territory by setting up forward posts. | <urn:uuid:6ea0ecdb-9ace-4351-ad11-1959b30ecf9a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essayforum.com/writing/history-india-independence-71000/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00272.warc.gz | en | 0.98422 | 212 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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0.5281583666801... | 3 | A history of India's independence
A colonization in many countries leads to any human problems. There was no exception for India which had to be struggle to obtain an independence. On December 1961, Nehru ordered Indian troops marched into Goa to liberate it from Portuguese who had powerfully ruled the territory since 1510. Over 3500 Portuguese soldiers were overrun by over 30.000 troops in a brisk operation. Due to this circumstance, some countries addressed a stark critic to India and stated that India had lost the morality.
On the other hand, some others pointed out that the military adventure in Goa was totally becoming an expostulation from the increasing Chinese border incursions. After the invasion, Nehru took a place immediately in the election campaign who was able to strike a patriotic cord on restoring Goa to Motherland. His win, then, in the general election brought him back in power for a third successive term. With his power, finally, Nehru and his defense minister had taken steps to reclaim from the Chinese some territory by setting up forward posts. | 224 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Orpheus, also called Orpheus with the Awkward Foot, was sculpted by Charles H. Niehaus in 1916 for the 100th anniversary of The Star-Spangled Banner. This song, which became the national anthem in 1931, was written by Francis Scott Key, an American laywer, author, and poet, during the War of 1812. He was inspired after witnessing the events of the Battle of Baltimore from inside a British ship. This sculpture was placed within the Fort McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine and moved to its current location in 1962.
Orpheus is located within the Fort McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine in Baltimore, Maryland. The statue itself, made entirely of bronze, is approximately 24 feet tall, and it rest on a marble base. Including the base, the monument stands at about 40 feet. Orpheus is depicted naked, as most Greek statues were, while playing a five-stringed tortoise-shell lyre. Though Orpheus, known in Greek mythology for his virtuosity in music and poetry, is the muse for this sculpture, it does not represent anything relating to him or Greek mythology. The statue was erected as a symbolic commemoration of the Battle of Baltimore in the War of 1812. More specifically, it represents the composition of the Star-Spangled Banner, which would go on to become America’s national anthem in 1931.
The War of 1812 took place between the June 1812 and February 1815. It was a war between the United States and Great Britain, caused by Britain’s attempts to restrict oversea trade and America’s desire for more North American territory. The Battle of Baltimore, also known as the Battle of North Point, was fought near the end of the war, in 1814 on September 12-15. It was a battle of both land and sea, with the Americans fighting to keep the British from taking Baltimore and Fort McHenry. Two American men, lawyer Francis Scott Key and British Prisoner Exchange Agent Colonel John Stuart Skinner, boarded the British Ship HMS Tonnant to negotiate the release of American prisoners. However, the battle began while they were on board, and they became detained on the ship. They were prisoners for the entire night. In the morning, Key was still able to see an American flag flying in the distance, signaling that his country had been victorious. It was because of this that, once they were released, Key wrote a poem called “Defence of Fort McHenry,” which he later set to the tune of British drinking song “To Anacreon in Heaven.” It was published on September 20, 1814, and it spread like wildfire across the country, though it became known nationwide as “The Star-Spangled Banner.”
In 1914, the government wished to commemorate Key’s victory song in some way. They chose to offer $75,000 to create a sculpture, which would be chosen through a nationwide contest held by the Fine Arts Commission. The competition began on May 28, 1916. Out of thirty-four entries, Charles H. Niehaus’ design, titled Orpheus with the Awkward Foot, was selected. Niehaus, born in the U.S., had studied art in Munich, Germany, as well as Rome, Italy. He returned to America in 1885 and gained a reputation nationally for his work on the doors of the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., and the Astor Memorial doors of Trinity Church in New York City. Though the contest was finished in 1916, the dedication was delayed until after World War I. The sculpture was officially dedicated on June 14, or Flag Day, of 1922. President Warren J. Harding was in attendance, and his speech is famous for being the first live radio broadcast that reached coast to coast.
The sculpture was originally placed right in the entrance to Fort McHenry, surrounded by a circular road. Later, it was given its own field within the Fort McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine. The statue was moved there in 1962, and the time capsule containing historical and patriotic documents was unveiled. Small trees have been planted in proximity to its current location to honor heroes of the war, such as George Washington. | <urn:uuid:c7c154cd-e07f-47e3-92d7-faa64a0ee905> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theclio.com/entry/68878 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00439.warc.gz | en | 0.989323 | 867 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.16326600313... | 2 | Orpheus, also called Orpheus with the Awkward Foot, was sculpted by Charles H. Niehaus in 1916 for the 100th anniversary of The Star-Spangled Banner. This song, which became the national anthem in 1931, was written by Francis Scott Key, an American laywer, author, and poet, during the War of 1812. He was inspired after witnessing the events of the Battle of Baltimore from inside a British ship. This sculpture was placed within the Fort McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine and moved to its current location in 1962.
Orpheus is located within the Fort McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine in Baltimore, Maryland. The statue itself, made entirely of bronze, is approximately 24 feet tall, and it rest on a marble base. Including the base, the monument stands at about 40 feet. Orpheus is depicted naked, as most Greek statues were, while playing a five-stringed tortoise-shell lyre. Though Orpheus, known in Greek mythology for his virtuosity in music and poetry, is the muse for this sculpture, it does not represent anything relating to him or Greek mythology. The statue was erected as a symbolic commemoration of the Battle of Baltimore in the War of 1812. More specifically, it represents the composition of the Star-Spangled Banner, which would go on to become America’s national anthem in 1931.
The War of 1812 took place between the June 1812 and February 1815. It was a war between the United States and Great Britain, caused by Britain’s attempts to restrict oversea trade and America’s desire for more North American territory. The Battle of Baltimore, also known as the Battle of North Point, was fought near the end of the war, in 1814 on September 12-15. It was a battle of both land and sea, with the Americans fighting to keep the British from taking Baltimore and Fort McHenry. Two American men, lawyer Francis Scott Key and British Prisoner Exchange Agent Colonel John Stuart Skinner, boarded the British Ship HMS Tonnant to negotiate the release of American prisoners. However, the battle began while they were on board, and they became detained on the ship. They were prisoners for the entire night. In the morning, Key was still able to see an American flag flying in the distance, signaling that his country had been victorious. It was because of this that, once they were released, Key wrote a poem called “Defence of Fort McHenry,” which he later set to the tune of British drinking song “To Anacreon in Heaven.” It was published on September 20, 1814, and it spread like wildfire across the country, though it became known nationwide as “The Star-Spangled Banner.”
In 1914, the government wished to commemorate Key’s victory song in some way. They chose to offer $75,000 to create a sculpture, which would be chosen through a nationwide contest held by the Fine Arts Commission. The competition began on May 28, 1916. Out of thirty-four entries, Charles H. Niehaus’ design, titled Orpheus with the Awkward Foot, was selected. Niehaus, born in the U.S., had studied art in Munich, Germany, as well as Rome, Italy. He returned to America in 1885 and gained a reputation nationally for his work on the doors of the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C., and the Astor Memorial doors of Trinity Church in New York City. Though the contest was finished in 1916, the dedication was delayed until after World War I. The sculpture was officially dedicated on June 14, or Flag Day, of 1922. President Warren J. Harding was in attendance, and his speech is famous for being the first live radio broadcast that reached coast to coast.
The sculpture was originally placed right in the entrance to Fort McHenry, surrounded by a circular road. Later, it was given its own field within the Fort McHenry National Monument and Historic Shrine. The statue was moved there in 1962, and the time capsule containing historical and patriotic documents was unveiled. Small trees have been planted in proximity to its current location to honor heroes of the war, such as George Washington. | 925 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hazel Ying Lee: First Female Chinese American Military Pilot
Hazel Ying Lee broke barriers by becoming the first female Chinese-American pilot to fly for the military during World War II.
Women were not permitted by the U.S. military to fly overseas missions, but they assumed responsibility for the work in the continental United States. This freed men to be available for flying duty in both the European and Pacific theaters.
Ying Lee was a member of what became known as the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASPs). Initially, the main responsibility of the women was delivering planes to needed locations. Later, they began flying some transport planes to move men to the coasts to board ships to go overseas. Eventually, a select few—including Hazel Ying Lee—were trained for towing targets to give gunners added firing practice. And in 1944, Hazel Lee and a few others were selected to fly “pursuit” planes so that military pilots could practice flying defensively.
About Hazel Ying Lee
Hazel Ying Lee (1912-1944) was born in Portland, Oregon, to parents who emigrated from China. Her father ran a store in Portland. Her mother occasionally helped with the business, but her primary occupation was taking care of their eight children.
Hazel and her siblings attended local schools. After high school graduation, she took a job as an elevator operator in a department store, one of the few jobs open to Chinese women at that time. The following summer when she was 19, she and a friend attended an air show where they ran into a friend who was giving rides in his airplane. Both Hazel and the friend accepted the invitation, and after that, Hazel was hooked. She wanted to become a flier.
She resolved to save some of the money she earned as an elevator operator so that she could take flying lessons that were being offered in Portland by the Chinese Benevolent Society.
Chinese Concern Over Mainland
Perhaps one of the reasons the Benevolent Society sponsored flying lessons was because mainland China was under attack by Japan. In 1931, the Japanese military invaded and occupied Manchuria. From there, the Japanese fought their way to Jehol, a northern province in China. Because of these incursions by the Japanese, many Chinese-Americans returned to China to offer assistance.
After Hazel received her pilot’s license, she, too, decided she wanted to help. She saw value in being an example to young Chinese girls that women don’t have to be limited in what they do, but she also hoped the Chinese Air Force would let her fly.
She soon learned the Chinese military accepted no women as pilots, but she was given a desk job in Canton, China. Occasionally, she was used to fly commercial freight flights. (Her future husband, also from Portland, served for several years with the Chinese Air Force.)
As the Sino-Japanese fighting worsened, citizens in the eastern sections of the country were in grave danger. In 1937, the Japanese Army invaded the city of Nanking, brutally murdering several hundred thousand civilians, and sexually assaulting 20-80,000 women. Canton was also bombed.
Canton, where Ying Lee, worked was also bombed. Hazel helped friends and acquaintances with what they needed to reach safety in Hong Kong, then she, too, departed from China.
From Hong Kong, Ying Lee traveled to Washington, D.C. Her language proficiency and knowledge of the ongoing fighting made her well-qualified for a government job buying war materials that were then sent on to China.
U.S. War Readiness
Even before Pearl Harbor, the United States was readying for the possibility of war. The military knew they did not have enough pilots for a war on two fronts. Training qualified enlisted men was part of a solution, but Army Air Force Commander Henry Arnold was still worried.
When civilian pilot Jacqueline Cochran set up a meeting with him to discuss adding women to flight corps, Arnold resisted. Cochran pointed out that even if he wouldn’t let them fly overseas, women could be used on the homefront, freeing men to be sent overseas.
Despite his hesitation, Arnold came around to understanding it was a necessary step.
Women Flight Corps
Arnold empowered Cochran to assemble the unit. Women between the ages of 21-24 could apply for service if they had a high school diploma and a flying license.
One thousand eight hundred thirty women were accepted into the program. A little over a thousand of them earned their wings.
As Cochran encouraged women to sign up, she was unable to convince the military to include them in their ranks. The women—like the 6888th Central Postal Battalion in World War II and the telephone operators used in World War I—were considered civilians. They would not be eligible for any military benefits during or after their service. They were also required to cover their own expenses, paying for room and board as well as their own uniforms.
Stateside, the military needed pilots to fly newly-built airplanes (more and more were coming off the assembly lines) from factories to U.S. military bases or to ports where they were loaded on to ships to go overseas. At that time, the unit was known as Women’s Flying Training Detachment (WFTD).
As the war continued and the women gained responsibility, the organization changed its name. In 1943, the organization became known as the WASPs (Women Airforce Service Pilots).
Ying Lee’s Experience
Though all women came in with the required pilot’s license, additional training was still needed. An all-women’s flight school was established at Avenger Field, in Sweetwater, Texas. After 6 months of training for military flying, the women were ready for assignment.
After her training, Hazel Ying Lee was assigned to the Third Ferrying Group, based in Romulus, Michigan, where many new aircraft were being made. From Romulus, the women delivered the planes to ports on both the West and East coasts. The planes were then loaded onto transport ships for the longer trip overseas.
The trips weren’t easy. Many of the
planes had open cockpits meaning that the women were often quite cold on their assignments. In addition, planes in the 1940s did not fly as quickly as they do today, and few flew at night. Lights were covered or dimmed throughout the country in case of a mainland attack. The women frequently were required to stop overnight.
Hazel is described by other WASPs as fun to have on the long transport journeys. She had a good sense of humor and loved telling stories. She also cooked, introducing American women to something that most had never had—Chinese food.
Fellow WASP Sylvia Dahmes Clayton is quoted in an article posted on the website of the National Constitution Center: “Hazel provided me with an opportunity to learn about a different culture at a time when I did not know anything else. She expanded my world and my outlook on life.” [The National Constitution Center article]
Crash Landing in Kansas
Even within the continental U.S. flying was far from safe. The planes leaving the factories were untested until the women took them up, and the safety mechanisms of the day cannot begin to compare with today.
Hazel Lee wrote of one of her adventures for an issue of the WASP newspaper, The Avenger (6-28-1943). Flying over Kansas, she began to have engine trouble so she looked for a place to bring down the plane. Farmland stretched below her. She cut her engine and glided down into a field. As she fiddled around in the cockpit trying to see what might have gone wrong, a farmer carrying a pitchfork ran toward the plane, yelling at her.
When she began to get out of the cockpit, he was even more alarmed. He determined that the Japanese had landed in his very own field! Hazel pointed to her uniform and the markings on the plane, trying to help him understand she was American.
As he neared her and stopped yelling, he finally said, “Are you a China gal or Japanese gal?” She answered, “China gal,” and this began to calm him down.
He eventually agreed to take her back to his farmhouse so she could phone the base and let them know where she was and that she would n
eed help removing the plane from the field.
Time Out for a Wedding
Hazel Ying Lee and another Portland resident had fallen in love. While she was flying with the WASPs, her “intended” was still fighting the Axis as a pilot for the Chinese Army.
When Major Lin Jeung Louie had leave, he returned to the U.S. to see Hazel. They must have determined that there was no need to wait to marry. In October of 1943, the couple married at the Marble Collegiate Church on Fifth Avenue and 29th Street in New York City.
Because the marriage of two pilots was no ordinary story—and likely because it was a happy story—their wedding made news in many newspapers across the country.
In 1944, Hazel Ying Lee was selected for “Pursuit School.” Only 134 women out of the thousand women in the program had the prior flying experience they needed that would permit them to enter this program. These women were trained on faster, high-powered fighters such as the P-63 Kingcobra, P-51 Mustang, P-39 Airacobra. (Lee’s favorite was the Mustang.)
Flying pursuit was an important assignment as it permitted male pilots to practice flying defensively as they were being chased. It would have been a high-risk flying assignment.
In November 1944, Hazel Lee and several other women picked up P-63 Kingcobra planes in Michigan to deliver elsewhere. Hazel was to fly to Great Falls, Montana, with her plane. There, male pilots would retrieve the planes and take them to Alaska where Soviet pilots collected them to fly back to the Soviet Union as part of the Lend-Lease program between the two countries.
Thanksgiving week, a storm halted flights into Montana. Ying Lee, along with a few other pilots were holding on the ground in Fargo, North Dakota. On Thanksgiving morning, the storm lifted. Air controllers began calling in the planes that had been en route.
Hazel flew in and was cleared to land but something went wrong. Whether the controller told her to abort or whether something on the ground alarmed her, Ying Lee turned her nose up knowing she would have to go around again for another landing.
As she pulled up, she and another fighter plane collided. Both pilots managed to bring down their planes, but both planes were engulfed in fire. Rescue teams came in and pulled both pilots to safety. Ying Lee died of her burns three days later. She was 33.
Because WASPS were classified as civilians, she received no veterans benefits, death insurance, or military honors.
More Bad News for the Lee Family
In Portland, the family news was doubly sad. Three days after her parents learned of Hazel’s death, they were notified that their son Victor, who was in the U.S. Tank Corps in Europe, had also been killed.
Like other families of that day, the Lees purchased burial plots as part of their planning for the future. They chose a beautiful location at Portland’s River View Cemetery with a scenic view of the Willamette River.
As they prepared to bury two of their beloved children, the cemetery administrators informed them that the land they owned was now restricted to “whites only.” Hazel and Victor would need to be buried elsewhere.
The family did not take kindly to the news. Their children gave their lives for an American cause, and that was no way to treat the family. The administrators held their ground for a time, but soon they realized that sentiment as against them. The family permitted to use the intended land.
Since the time the organization was formed, Jacqueline Cochran and others fought for WASPs to be given full military status, but this effort took decades.
Finally, in 1977, the members of WASP were designated as veterans, and in 2010, President Barack Obama presented a Presidential Medal of Honor to the Women Airforce Service Pilots, saying: “Every American should be grateful for their service.” He noted that the women courageously answered their country’s call in a time of need. They also blazed a trail for the brave women who have given and continue to give so much in service to this nation.
The following year, 2011, Hazel Ying Lee was inducted into the Pioneer Hall of Fame.
Her life demonstrated that Chinese women need not be passive. They, like other women around the world, could compete and succeeded in a male-dominated field.
But for Hazel Ying Lee, it was always all about the flying.
View sources »
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Gideon Sundback’s Invention of the Zipper
Gideon Sundback is credited with inventing the first zipper, but he was not the first to patent the device. Sundback, however, created the first zipper... »
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Phineas Banning is known as the “Father of the Los Angeles Harbor.” He deserves that title and more.... »
A Dalmatian in the Civil War
A handsome dalmatian followed Quartermaster General Rufus Ingalls wherever he went at Army headquarters at City Point, Virginia. General Ingalls (1818-1893) returned from a short... » | <urn:uuid:a74dc7dd-b39c-4c8b-95a7-3edcbbfaf786> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://americacomesalive.com/2019/04/01/haze-ying-lee-first-female-chinese-american-military-pilot/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00150.warc.gz | en | 0.985598 | 2,881 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.4726098179... | 1 | Hazel Ying Lee: First Female Chinese American Military Pilot
Hazel Ying Lee broke barriers by becoming the first female Chinese-American pilot to fly for the military during World War II.
Women were not permitted by the U.S. military to fly overseas missions, but they assumed responsibility for the work in the continental United States. This freed men to be available for flying duty in both the European and Pacific theaters.
Ying Lee was a member of what became known as the Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASPs). Initially, the main responsibility of the women was delivering planes to needed locations. Later, they began flying some transport planes to move men to the coasts to board ships to go overseas. Eventually, a select few—including Hazel Ying Lee—were trained for towing targets to give gunners added firing practice. And in 1944, Hazel Lee and a few others were selected to fly “pursuit” planes so that military pilots could practice flying defensively.
About Hazel Ying Lee
Hazel Ying Lee (1912-1944) was born in Portland, Oregon, to parents who emigrated from China. Her father ran a store in Portland. Her mother occasionally helped with the business, but her primary occupation was taking care of their eight children.
Hazel and her siblings attended local schools. After high school graduation, she took a job as an elevator operator in a department store, one of the few jobs open to Chinese women at that time. The following summer when she was 19, she and a friend attended an air show where they ran into a friend who was giving rides in his airplane. Both Hazel and the friend accepted the invitation, and after that, Hazel was hooked. She wanted to become a flier.
She resolved to save some of the money she earned as an elevator operator so that she could take flying lessons that were being offered in Portland by the Chinese Benevolent Society.
Chinese Concern Over Mainland
Perhaps one of the reasons the Benevolent Society sponsored flying lessons was because mainland China was under attack by Japan. In 1931, the Japanese military invaded and occupied Manchuria. From there, the Japanese fought their way to Jehol, a northern province in China. Because of these incursions by the Japanese, many Chinese-Americans returned to China to offer assistance.
After Hazel received her pilot’s license, she, too, decided she wanted to help. She saw value in being an example to young Chinese girls that women don’t have to be limited in what they do, but she also hoped the Chinese Air Force would let her fly.
She soon learned the Chinese military accepted no women as pilots, but she was given a desk job in Canton, China. Occasionally, she was used to fly commercial freight flights. (Her future husband, also from Portland, served for several years with the Chinese Air Force.)
As the Sino-Japanese fighting worsened, citizens in the eastern sections of the country were in grave danger. In 1937, the Japanese Army invaded the city of Nanking, brutally murdering several hundred thousand civilians, and sexually assaulting 20-80,000 women. Canton was also bombed.
Canton, where Ying Lee, worked was also bombed. Hazel helped friends and acquaintances with what they needed to reach safety in Hong Kong, then she, too, departed from China.
From Hong Kong, Ying Lee traveled to Washington, D.C. Her language proficiency and knowledge of the ongoing fighting made her well-qualified for a government job buying war materials that were then sent on to China.
U.S. War Readiness
Even before Pearl Harbor, the United States was readying for the possibility of war. The military knew they did not have enough pilots for a war on two fronts. Training qualified enlisted men was part of a solution, but Army Air Force Commander Henry Arnold was still worried.
When civilian pilot Jacqueline Cochran set up a meeting with him to discuss adding women to flight corps, Arnold resisted. Cochran pointed out that even if he wouldn’t let them fly overseas, women could be used on the homefront, freeing men to be sent overseas.
Despite his hesitation, Arnold came around to understanding it was a necessary step.
Women Flight Corps
Arnold empowered Cochran to assemble the unit. Women between the ages of 21-24 could apply for service if they had a high school diploma and a flying license.
One thousand eight hundred thirty women were accepted into the program. A little over a thousand of them earned their wings.
As Cochran encouraged women to sign up, she was unable to convince the military to include them in their ranks. The women—like the 6888th Central Postal Battalion in World War II and the telephone operators used in World War I—were considered civilians. They would not be eligible for any military benefits during or after their service. They were also required to cover their own expenses, paying for room and board as well as their own uniforms.
Stateside, the military needed pilots to fly newly-built airplanes (more and more were coming off the assembly lines) from factories to U.S. military bases or to ports where they were loaded on to ships to go overseas. At that time, the unit was known as Women’s Flying Training Detachment (WFTD).
As the war continued and the women gained responsibility, the organization changed its name. In 1943, the organization became known as the WASPs (Women Airforce Service Pilots).
Ying Lee’s Experience
Though all women came in with the required pilot’s license, additional training was still needed. An all-women’s flight school was established at Avenger Field, in Sweetwater, Texas. After 6 months of training for military flying, the women were ready for assignment.
After her training, Hazel Ying Lee was assigned to the Third Ferrying Group, based in Romulus, Michigan, where many new aircraft were being made. From Romulus, the women delivered the planes to ports on both the West and East coasts. The planes were then loaded onto transport ships for the longer trip overseas.
The trips weren’t easy. Many of the
planes had open cockpits meaning that the women were often quite cold on their assignments. In addition, planes in the 1940s did not fly as quickly as they do today, and few flew at night. Lights were covered or dimmed throughout the country in case of a mainland attack. The women frequently were required to stop overnight.
Hazel is described by other WASPs as fun to have on the long transport journeys. She had a good sense of humor and loved telling stories. She also cooked, introducing American women to something that most had never had—Chinese food.
Fellow WASP Sylvia Dahmes Clayton is quoted in an article posted on the website of the National Constitution Center: “Hazel provided me with an opportunity to learn about a different culture at a time when I did not know anything else. She expanded my world and my outlook on life.” [The National Constitution Center article]
Crash Landing in Kansas
Even within the continental U.S. flying was far from safe. The planes leaving the factories were untested until the women took them up, and the safety mechanisms of the day cannot begin to compare with today.
Hazel Lee wrote of one of her adventures for an issue of the WASP newspaper, The Avenger (6-28-1943). Flying over Kansas, she began to have engine trouble so she looked for a place to bring down the plane. Farmland stretched below her. She cut her engine and glided down into a field. As she fiddled around in the cockpit trying to see what might have gone wrong, a farmer carrying a pitchfork ran toward the plane, yelling at her.
When she began to get out of the cockpit, he was even more alarmed. He determined that the Japanese had landed in his very own field! Hazel pointed to her uniform and the markings on the plane, trying to help him understand she was American.
As he neared her and stopped yelling, he finally said, “Are you a China gal or Japanese gal?” She answered, “China gal,” and this began to calm him down.
He eventually agreed to take her back to his farmhouse so she could phone the base and let them know where she was and that she would n
eed help removing the plane from the field.
Time Out for a Wedding
Hazel Ying Lee and another Portland resident had fallen in love. While she was flying with the WASPs, her “intended” was still fighting the Axis as a pilot for the Chinese Army.
When Major Lin Jeung Louie had leave, he returned to the U.S. to see Hazel. They must have determined that there was no need to wait to marry. In October of 1943, the couple married at the Marble Collegiate Church on Fifth Avenue and 29th Street in New York City.
Because the marriage of two pilots was no ordinary story—and likely because it was a happy story—their wedding made news in many newspapers across the country.
In 1944, Hazel Ying Lee was selected for “Pursuit School.” Only 134 women out of the thousand women in the program had the prior flying experience they needed that would permit them to enter this program. These women were trained on faster, high-powered fighters such as the P-63 Kingcobra, P-51 Mustang, P-39 Airacobra. (Lee’s favorite was the Mustang.)
Flying pursuit was an important assignment as it permitted male pilots to practice flying defensively as they were being chased. It would have been a high-risk flying assignment.
In November 1944, Hazel Lee and several other women picked up P-63 Kingcobra planes in Michigan to deliver elsewhere. Hazel was to fly to Great Falls, Montana, with her plane. There, male pilots would retrieve the planes and take them to Alaska where Soviet pilots collected them to fly back to the Soviet Union as part of the Lend-Lease program between the two countries.
Thanksgiving week, a storm halted flights into Montana. Ying Lee, along with a few other pilots were holding on the ground in Fargo, North Dakota. On Thanksgiving morning, the storm lifted. Air controllers began calling in the planes that had been en route.
Hazel flew in and was cleared to land but something went wrong. Whether the controller told her to abort or whether something on the ground alarmed her, Ying Lee turned her nose up knowing she would have to go around again for another landing.
As she pulled up, she and another fighter plane collided. Both pilots managed to bring down their planes, but both planes were engulfed in fire. Rescue teams came in and pulled both pilots to safety. Ying Lee died of her burns three days later. She was 33.
Because WASPS were classified as civilians, she received no veterans benefits, death insurance, or military honors.
More Bad News for the Lee Family
In Portland, the family news was doubly sad. Three days after her parents learned of Hazel’s death, they were notified that their son Victor, who was in the U.S. Tank Corps in Europe, had also been killed.
Like other families of that day, the Lees purchased burial plots as part of their planning for the future. They chose a beautiful location at Portland’s River View Cemetery with a scenic view of the Willamette River.
As they prepared to bury two of their beloved children, the cemetery administrators informed them that the land they owned was now restricted to “whites only.” Hazel and Victor would need to be buried elsewhere.
The family did not take kindly to the news. Their children gave their lives for an American cause, and that was no way to treat the family. The administrators held their ground for a time, but soon they realized that sentiment as against them. The family permitted to use the intended land.
Since the time the organization was formed, Jacqueline Cochran and others fought for WASPs to be given full military status, but this effort took decades.
Finally, in 1977, the members of WASP were designated as veterans, and in 2010, President Barack Obama presented a Presidential Medal of Honor to the Women Airforce Service Pilots, saying: “Every American should be grateful for their service.” He noted that the women courageously answered their country’s call in a time of need. They also blazed a trail for the brave women who have given and continue to give so much in service to this nation.
The following year, 2011, Hazel Ying Lee was inducted into the Pioneer Hall of Fame.
Her life demonstrated that Chinese women need not be passive. They, like other women around the world, could compete and succeeded in a male-dominated field.
But for Hazel Ying Lee, it was always all about the flying.
View sources »
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Gideon Sundback is credited with inventing the first zipper, but he was not the first to patent the device. Sundback, however, created the first zipper... »
Phineas Banning, Father of the L.A. Harbor
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A Dalmatian in the Civil War
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Visitor 1547732512 posted an answer
1 year, 8 days ago
The Partition of Africa began in earnest with the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, and was the cause of most of Africa’s borders today. This conference was called by German Chancellor Bismarck to settle how European countries would claim colonial land in Africa and to avoid a war among European nations over African territory. All the major European States were invited to the conference. Germany, France, Great Britain, Netherlands, Belgium, Portugal, and Spain were all considered to have a future role in the imperial partition of Africa. The United States was invited because of its interest in Liberia but did not attend because it had no desire to build a colonial empire in Africa. Also invited were Austria-Hungary, Sweden-Norway, Denmark, Italy, Turkey, and Russia who all were considered minor players in the quest for colonizing Africa, though Italy would claim some colonial possessions in Northeast Africa. Most notably there were no Africans present at this conference, nor were any Europeans present to ensure that native Africans had any say in the proceedings.
The task of this conference was to ensure that each European country that claimed possession over a part of Africa must bring civilization, in the form of Christianity, and trade to each region that it would occupy. Also a country's claim of a territory was valid only if it informed the other European powers and established some occupying force on the ground. This occupying force was often a few military outposts on the coast and interior waterways with little to no actual settlement. Specific lands were obtained by having African indigenous rulers sign an “x” to a general agreement for protection by a European power. Often these rulers had no idea what they were signing since most could not read, write, or understand European languages.
The conference only dealt with territories yet to be acquired in Africa. This meant that the interior of Africa, about which little was known, was the land area available. Most coastal land had already been claimed by various European countries, as had much of Southern Africa and Africa north of the Sahara. Few Europeans had set foot into the interior of sub-Saharan Africa prior to this conference. Following the Berlin Conference there was still little exploration into the interior of Africa beyond gaining initial treaties. Most Europeans continued to stay on the coastal regions while a few missionaries followed rivers inland to find Christian converts. By 1900, though, more Europeans moved into the African interior to extract raw materials such as rubber, palm oil, gold, copper, and diamonds. These natural resources made Africa a vital resource for the European economy.
Although most of these African colonies were controlled by nations, the Berlin Conference allowed King Leopold II of Belgium to become the sole owner of the vast area that is today the Democratic Republic of the Congo in central Africa. This area was given to Leopold by the other European powers with the intent that this be an area of Free Trade for all Europeans in Africa. Leopold agreed to this stipulation as well as bringing Christian missionaries to the interior of this area, but in practice he kept out most other European traders as he granted concessions to various corporations to exploit the region's resources. In 1908 it was revealed that under King Leopold’s instructions native people of the Congo were forced to farm wild rubber as a form of tax payment to the colonial government. Those who were unable to reach their rubber quota often had a hand or foot chopped off, or were killed by Leopold's agents. Once news of these abuses of power were brought to the public light, King Leopold was stripped of his colony and the vast Congo region was ruled by the Belgium government until it became independent in 1960.
By 1914, 90% of Africa had been divided between seven European countries with only Liberia and Ethiopia remaining independent nations. Many of the boundaries drawn up by Europeans at the Berlin Conference still endure today with little regard to natural landmarks or historic ethnic or political boundaries established by the Africans themselves. The disregard of these boundaries, most of which were retained after independence, often continues to generate conflict in Africa today.
African nations began to emerge from colonial rule first with Ghana which gained its independence in 1957. By 2000 virtually all of the former colonies had gained independence.
Post Your Own Answer | <urn:uuid:237a5114-a326-4344-a23a-22a3af6ed625> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.patsweplus.com/questions/1547732447/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00248.warc.gz | en | 0.98397 | 871 | 4.28125 | 4 | [
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1 year, 8 days ago
The Partition of Africa began in earnest with the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885, and was the cause of most of Africa’s borders today. This conference was called by German Chancellor Bismarck to settle how European countries would claim colonial land in Africa and to avoid a war among European nations over African territory. All the major European States were invited to the conference. Germany, France, Great Britain, Netherlands, Belgium, Portugal, and Spain were all considered to have a future role in the imperial partition of Africa. The United States was invited because of its interest in Liberia but did not attend because it had no desire to build a colonial empire in Africa. Also invited were Austria-Hungary, Sweden-Norway, Denmark, Italy, Turkey, and Russia who all were considered minor players in the quest for colonizing Africa, though Italy would claim some colonial possessions in Northeast Africa. Most notably there were no Africans present at this conference, nor were any Europeans present to ensure that native Africans had any say in the proceedings.
The task of this conference was to ensure that each European country that claimed possession over a part of Africa must bring civilization, in the form of Christianity, and trade to each region that it would occupy. Also a country's claim of a territory was valid only if it informed the other European powers and established some occupying force on the ground. This occupying force was often a few military outposts on the coast and interior waterways with little to no actual settlement. Specific lands were obtained by having African indigenous rulers sign an “x” to a general agreement for protection by a European power. Often these rulers had no idea what they were signing since most could not read, write, or understand European languages.
The conference only dealt with territories yet to be acquired in Africa. This meant that the interior of Africa, about which little was known, was the land area available. Most coastal land had already been claimed by various European countries, as had much of Southern Africa and Africa north of the Sahara. Few Europeans had set foot into the interior of sub-Saharan Africa prior to this conference. Following the Berlin Conference there was still little exploration into the interior of Africa beyond gaining initial treaties. Most Europeans continued to stay on the coastal regions while a few missionaries followed rivers inland to find Christian converts. By 1900, though, more Europeans moved into the African interior to extract raw materials such as rubber, palm oil, gold, copper, and diamonds. These natural resources made Africa a vital resource for the European economy.
Although most of these African colonies were controlled by nations, the Berlin Conference allowed King Leopold II of Belgium to become the sole owner of the vast area that is today the Democratic Republic of the Congo in central Africa. This area was given to Leopold by the other European powers with the intent that this be an area of Free Trade for all Europeans in Africa. Leopold agreed to this stipulation as well as bringing Christian missionaries to the interior of this area, but in practice he kept out most other European traders as he granted concessions to various corporations to exploit the region's resources. In 1908 it was revealed that under King Leopold’s instructions native people of the Congo were forced to farm wild rubber as a form of tax payment to the colonial government. Those who were unable to reach their rubber quota often had a hand or foot chopped off, or were killed by Leopold's agents. Once news of these abuses of power were brought to the public light, King Leopold was stripped of his colony and the vast Congo region was ruled by the Belgium government until it became independent in 1960.
By 1914, 90% of Africa had been divided between seven European countries with only Liberia and Ethiopia remaining independent nations. Many of the boundaries drawn up by Europeans at the Berlin Conference still endure today with little regard to natural landmarks or historic ethnic or political boundaries established by the Africans themselves. The disregard of these boundaries, most of which were retained after independence, often continues to generate conflict in Africa today.
African nations began to emerge from colonial rule first with Ghana which gained its independence in 1957. By 2000 virtually all of the former colonies had gained independence.
Post Your Own Answer | 896 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Prof. Judy Bouvier
To Lucasta, Going to the Wars
Richard Lovelace is the author of this poem. There is a conflict between the love and honor in this poem and the author choose honor. This doesn’t mean that he doesn’t love his lover but he is more faithful toward his duty. This poem is about the love of honor being more powerful than the speakers love for Lucasta. The author starts the poem stating that his love is caring and loving. He doesn’t want his love to think of him being thoughtless and uncaring. He think his love is pure, serene, someone to whom he thinks of as a sanctuary. Then he quickly write that he is rushing to battle, to war and conflict which is very different from the calm soothing sanctuary of his love. He explains how he is passionate about going to wars. He starts comparing his madness of love to his madness of love for battle. He puts more faith in his weapons than in his love now. He clearly states his war tools are important for him at this moment. In the end he concludes that his love couldn’t love him unless he put honor, duty, righteousness above his own personal feelings. He is saying he would not be worthy of her love more the persons he/she loves if he did not believe in sacrifice for the greater god. The speaker said that the lady should love an honorable man. The speaker appears a good lover but call to duty as more important for him. The whole poem is about the speaker explaining his beloved to present the situation.
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | <urn:uuid:9b450fc2-2e4b-4d4e-aaa3-17185d85b575> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/To-Lucasta-Going-To-The-Wars-63770662.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00527.warc.gz | en | 0.986773 | 332 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.41686737537384033... | 2 | Prof. Judy Bouvier
To Lucasta, Going to the Wars
Richard Lovelace is the author of this poem. There is a conflict between the love and honor in this poem and the author choose honor. This doesn’t mean that he doesn’t love his lover but he is more faithful toward his duty. This poem is about the love of honor being more powerful than the speakers love for Lucasta. The author starts the poem stating that his love is caring and loving. He doesn’t want his love to think of him being thoughtless and uncaring. He think his love is pure, serene, someone to whom he thinks of as a sanctuary. Then he quickly write that he is rushing to battle, to war and conflict which is very different from the calm soothing sanctuary of his love. He explains how he is passionate about going to wars. He starts comparing his madness of love to his madness of love for battle. He puts more faith in his weapons than in his love now. He clearly states his war tools are important for him at this moment. In the end he concludes that his love couldn’t love him unless he put honor, duty, righteousness above his own personal feelings. He is saying he would not be worthy of her love more the persons he/she loves if he did not believe in sacrifice for the greater god. The speaker said that the lady should love an honorable man. The speaker appears a good lover but call to duty as more important for him. The whole poem is about the speaker explaining his beloved to present the situation.
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | 321 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Free-living small-scale cultures that remain prefer their traditional way of life.
He–Mene Mox Mox (born c. 1855, died August 1935) was a Nez Perce warrior who fought in the Nez Perce War of 1877. In his old age, he decided to give the war a Native American perspective. From their meeting in 1907 till his death in 1935, Hemene talked annually to Lucullus Virgil McWhorter, who wrote a book for him, Yellow Wolf: His Own Story. He is notable as one of the few members of the defeated Nez Perce to talk openly to strangers and tell their story to the world.
Others of his tribe said he was making a fool of himself for talking to a white man, saying that the children of the tribe would tell the story. In spite of that, he continued to work with McWhorter. In telling the native's side he said, "I am telling my story that all may know the war we did not want. War is made to take something that is not your own." He was concerned that the next generation of Native Americans would continue to suffer under white oppression, and wrote to help them. He said, "the young generation behind me, for them I tell the story. It is for them! I want the next generation of whites to know and treat the Indian as themselves." | <urn:uuid:67a33e18-d7a7-4fab-92e2-769bfbef6c2b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.artdoxa.com/users/IanMacLeod/favorites/large?page=5 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00024.warc.gz | en | 0.993707 | 286 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.3695462... | 1 | Free-living small-scale cultures that remain prefer their traditional way of life.
He–Mene Mox Mox (born c. 1855, died August 1935) was a Nez Perce warrior who fought in the Nez Perce War of 1877. In his old age, he decided to give the war a Native American perspective. From their meeting in 1907 till his death in 1935, Hemene talked annually to Lucullus Virgil McWhorter, who wrote a book for him, Yellow Wolf: His Own Story. He is notable as one of the few members of the defeated Nez Perce to talk openly to strangers and tell their story to the world.
Others of his tribe said he was making a fool of himself for talking to a white man, saying that the children of the tribe would tell the story. In spite of that, he continued to work with McWhorter. In telling the native's side he said, "I am telling my story that all may know the war we did not want. War is made to take something that is not your own." He was concerned that the next generation of Native Americans would continue to suffer under white oppression, and wrote to help them. He said, "the young generation behind me, for them I tell the story. It is for them! I want the next generation of whites to know and treat the Indian as themselves." | 303 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Let’s start at the beginning; in this case, the beginning of modern literature. Widely regarded as the greatest Spanish-language writer of all time, Miguel de Cervantes pioneered the modern novel with his masterpiece Don Quixote, published in 1605. The story tells the tale of a disenchanted Spanish nobleman who sets off to revive chivalry and bring justice to the world. While the novel is now considered one of the greatest of all times, Cervantes enjoyed little popularity during his lifetime and was even imprisoned at one point for bankruptcy.
A founding member of Spain’s Generation of 27 – an avant-garde movement from the mid-1920s – Federico García Lorca is one of the country’s most celebrated playwrights and poets of all time. In his early life, he wrote about flamenco, gypsies and rural life, with Andalusian culture occupying an important part in his work throughout his life. Famously, the author was killed by fascist nationalist forces when he was just 38, and his body has never been recovered.
This contemporary journalist and author is best known for his series of novels following the adventures of Captain Alatriste, a 17th-century soldier in the Spanish Golden Age. The author is said to have found the inspiration for his novels in his disappointment at the lack of literary coverage of the time. His historical works of fiction appeal to a wide audience and he has been recognised internationally for his work.
Another member of the Generation of 27, Rafael Alberti started off as a painter before abandoning his studies and turning to poetry. His first compilation of poems, Marinero en tierra (Sailor on Land) received the National Prize for Spanish Literature and he gained recognition in the literary circles of Madrid. Later in life he declared himself a Marxist, and throughout the Civil War he was politically active and went into exile until the death of Franco.
Awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1956, Juan Ramón Jiménez is one of Spain’s most acclaimed poets and one of the most prolific, too. His early life was marked by a stint at a sanitarium following his father’s death, and his experiences with the nurses there are depicted in his first writings. Throughout the rest of his career, colour and music, which he related to feelings of love or lust, were prominent themes in his writing. He was attracted to the notion of ‘pure poetry’ – poetry without a message, but written for its lyrical nature.
One of the first female authors to gain national recognition, Rosalía de Castro was born to a wealthy family in Galicia but had a troubled life marked by family crisis and illness. She is most admired for her bold and unexpected move to the Galician language in her writing, as well as her depictions of the harsh living conditions of the poor. It is said that a feeling of saudade transpires in her work, a Portuguese word that has no direct translation but describes a sense of nostalgic yearning and sadness.
One of the most successful contemporary authors of his time, Carlos Ruiz Zafón has been translated into more than 40 different languages and published in more than 45 countries worldwide. His most famous work is La Sombra del Viento (The Shadow of the Wind), published in 2001 and set in a fictional Barcelona. It follows the adventures of Daniel Sempere on his quest to track down a mysterious destroyer of books. Since then he has written a prequel to the novel, El Juego del Angél (The Angel’s Game), and is set to add four more novels to the series.
Born in San Sebastian in 1872, Pío Baroja was a novelist and founding member of the Generation of 1898 – a group of authors and poets who wrote during the time of the American War, when Spain lost many of its most important colonies on the American continent. Despite training as a physician, he eventually dedicated himself to his true passion and published his first novel in 1900. His most acclaimed work is a trilogy called La Lucha Por la Vida (The Struggle for Life), which depicts the life of the working classes in Madrid’s slums.
A member of the Spanish Royal Academy, Ana María Matute was the third woman to receive the Cervantes Prize for literature. Born shortly before the outbreak of the Civil War, the events that unfolded throughout her childhood had a profound impact on her writing, lending a pessimistic edge, and she went on to be considered one of the most influential authors of the posguerra, or post-war period.
Considered for the Nobel Prize of Literature on numerous occasions, Miguel Delibes was best known for his heartfelt depictions of rural Spain and the life and daily struggles of the common man. In his free time, he loved to hunt and his knowledge of the wildlife and vegetation of Spain shines through in his novels. The highest point in his career came in the 1960s when he published Viejas historias de Castilla la Vieja (1964) (Old tales of Old Castile), and the autobiographical Las Ratas (1962) (The Rats). Famously modest, he avoided the limelight whenever possible and, following the death of his wife, lived an isolated life until his death in 2010. | <urn:uuid:ca936a4b-1af2-4efc-a930-e1a44e20441b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://theculturetrip.com/europe/spain/articles/an-introduction-to-spanish-literature-in-10-writers/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00290.warc.gz | en | 0.985211 | 1,102 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.2577572464942932,... | 5 | Let’s start at the beginning; in this case, the beginning of modern literature. Widely regarded as the greatest Spanish-language writer of all time, Miguel de Cervantes pioneered the modern novel with his masterpiece Don Quixote, published in 1605. The story tells the tale of a disenchanted Spanish nobleman who sets off to revive chivalry and bring justice to the world. While the novel is now considered one of the greatest of all times, Cervantes enjoyed little popularity during his lifetime and was even imprisoned at one point for bankruptcy.
A founding member of Spain’s Generation of 27 – an avant-garde movement from the mid-1920s – Federico García Lorca is one of the country’s most celebrated playwrights and poets of all time. In his early life, he wrote about flamenco, gypsies and rural life, with Andalusian culture occupying an important part in his work throughout his life. Famously, the author was killed by fascist nationalist forces when he was just 38, and his body has never been recovered.
This contemporary journalist and author is best known for his series of novels following the adventures of Captain Alatriste, a 17th-century soldier in the Spanish Golden Age. The author is said to have found the inspiration for his novels in his disappointment at the lack of literary coverage of the time. His historical works of fiction appeal to a wide audience and he has been recognised internationally for his work.
Another member of the Generation of 27, Rafael Alberti started off as a painter before abandoning his studies and turning to poetry. His first compilation of poems, Marinero en tierra (Sailor on Land) received the National Prize for Spanish Literature and he gained recognition in the literary circles of Madrid. Later in life he declared himself a Marxist, and throughout the Civil War he was politically active and went into exile until the death of Franco.
Awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1956, Juan Ramón Jiménez is one of Spain’s most acclaimed poets and one of the most prolific, too. His early life was marked by a stint at a sanitarium following his father’s death, and his experiences with the nurses there are depicted in his first writings. Throughout the rest of his career, colour and music, which he related to feelings of love or lust, were prominent themes in his writing. He was attracted to the notion of ‘pure poetry’ – poetry without a message, but written for its lyrical nature.
One of the first female authors to gain national recognition, Rosalía de Castro was born to a wealthy family in Galicia but had a troubled life marked by family crisis and illness. She is most admired for her bold and unexpected move to the Galician language in her writing, as well as her depictions of the harsh living conditions of the poor. It is said that a feeling of saudade transpires in her work, a Portuguese word that has no direct translation but describes a sense of nostalgic yearning and sadness.
One of the most successful contemporary authors of his time, Carlos Ruiz Zafón has been translated into more than 40 different languages and published in more than 45 countries worldwide. His most famous work is La Sombra del Viento (The Shadow of the Wind), published in 2001 and set in a fictional Barcelona. It follows the adventures of Daniel Sempere on his quest to track down a mysterious destroyer of books. Since then he has written a prequel to the novel, El Juego del Angél (The Angel’s Game), and is set to add four more novels to the series.
Born in San Sebastian in 1872, Pío Baroja was a novelist and founding member of the Generation of 1898 – a group of authors and poets who wrote during the time of the American War, when Spain lost many of its most important colonies on the American continent. Despite training as a physician, he eventually dedicated himself to his true passion and published his first novel in 1900. His most acclaimed work is a trilogy called La Lucha Por la Vida (The Struggle for Life), which depicts the life of the working classes in Madrid’s slums.
A member of the Spanish Royal Academy, Ana María Matute was the third woman to receive the Cervantes Prize for literature. Born shortly before the outbreak of the Civil War, the events that unfolded throughout her childhood had a profound impact on her writing, lending a pessimistic edge, and she went on to be considered one of the most influential authors of the posguerra, or post-war period.
Considered for the Nobel Prize of Literature on numerous occasions, Miguel Delibes was best known for his heartfelt depictions of rural Spain and the life and daily struggles of the common man. In his free time, he loved to hunt and his knowledge of the wildlife and vegetation of Spain shines through in his novels. The highest point in his career came in the 1960s when he published Viejas historias de Castilla la Vieja (1964) (Old tales of Old Castile), and the autobiographical Las Ratas (1962) (The Rats). Famously modest, he avoided the limelight whenever possible and, following the death of his wife, lived an isolated life until his death in 2010. | 1,116 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Largest body of fresh water in Hawke’s Bay, and 14th-largest lake in New Zealand. Lake Waikaremoana, 66 km by road north-west of Wairoa, is relatively young. It was formed about 2,200 years ago when a massive landslip blocked a gorge on the Waikaretāheke River. The gorge gradually filled with water, creating a lake up to 248 metres deep. The lake was lowered by 5 metres when hydroelectric power stations were built on waterways below between 1926 and 1948.
Lake within a lake
Lake Waikareiti has six islands within its waters. The largest island, Rāhui, has its own lake. Lakes within lakes are uncommon in New Zealand. Lake Waikareiti is free of pollution and introduced plants, and its water is renowned for its clarity.
The lake is surrounded by bush-clad hills and mountain ranges crossed by many streams and rivers. The smaller Lake Waikareiti is north-east of Waikaremoana.
Lake Waikaremoana is sacred to Ngāi Tūhoe, Ngāti Ruapani and Ngāti Kahungunu tribes. Tūhoe and Ngāti Ruapani were early settlers in the district. All three tribal groups fought battles with one another to secure access to the lake, while also forging connections through marriage and war alliances. Ngāti Kahungunu’s claim on Lake Waikaremoana is derived from marriages between the children of the eponymous ancestors Kahungunu and Ruapani.
In Māori tradition, Lake Waikaremoana was formed during an epic domestic struggle. A chief, Māhū, asked his daughter Haumapuhia to fetch some water from a sacred well. When she refused he went himself, but was very slow. When Haumapuhia went to find her father, he was still angry and tried to drown her in the well. The gods of the land heard her cries for help and turned her into a taniwha (water monster). She carved out the lake bed during her struggle for freedom.
A skirmish between government forces and members of the Pai Mārire (Hauhau) faith took place near Lake Waikaremoana in 1866. Resistance leader Te Kooti spent much time around the lake, which was an ideal spot to hide out and launch raids from. Military redoubts were established in the early 1870s but Te Kooti had moved on by then. Permanent settlements on the lake disappeared after this, though Māori continued to live around Tuai.
The government purchased land around the lake in the 1920s. The lake itself was not included, but the government went on to claim possession. Ownership of the lake was contested in the courts from 1918 to 1947, when 354 Māori owners were finally awarded title to the lake. In 1971 the lake was leased in perpetuity to the Crown as a key part of Te Urewera National Park. In 2014, as part of Ngāi Tūhoe’s Treaty of Waitangi settlement, the park was disestablished and administration of the area passed to Te Urewera Board.
Settlement on the shores of Lake Whakamarino, south of Lake Waikaremoana, with a 2013 district population of 219. Tuai is named after a Ngāti Ruapani ancestor whose pā was on the site of the Tuai power station. This opened in 1929 as part of the Waikaremoana power scheme, and the modern-day settlement grew up around it. Originally a tent town housed workers building the station; these were later replaced by permanent houses for station employees. Lake Whakamarino is an artificial lake created as part of the power scheme works.
Tuai, and the other power stations in the system at Kaitawa and Pipipāua, have been operated remotely from the Tokaanu power station at Lake Taupō since the early 2000s. The Waikaremoana power scheme is no longer a significant employer in Tuai. | <urn:uuid:2f9c6fdd-4602-4981-836f-780a94b4b2f8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://admin.teara.govt.nz/mi/hawkes-bay-places/page-12 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00167.warc.gz | en | 0.983508 | 858 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.5453804731... | 19 | Largest body of fresh water in Hawke’s Bay, and 14th-largest lake in New Zealand. Lake Waikaremoana, 66 km by road north-west of Wairoa, is relatively young. It was formed about 2,200 years ago when a massive landslip blocked a gorge on the Waikaretāheke River. The gorge gradually filled with water, creating a lake up to 248 metres deep. The lake was lowered by 5 metres when hydroelectric power stations were built on waterways below between 1926 and 1948.
Lake within a lake
Lake Waikareiti has six islands within its waters. The largest island, Rāhui, has its own lake. Lakes within lakes are uncommon in New Zealand. Lake Waikareiti is free of pollution and introduced plants, and its water is renowned for its clarity.
The lake is surrounded by bush-clad hills and mountain ranges crossed by many streams and rivers. The smaller Lake Waikareiti is north-east of Waikaremoana.
Lake Waikaremoana is sacred to Ngāi Tūhoe, Ngāti Ruapani and Ngāti Kahungunu tribes. Tūhoe and Ngāti Ruapani were early settlers in the district. All three tribal groups fought battles with one another to secure access to the lake, while also forging connections through marriage and war alliances. Ngāti Kahungunu’s claim on Lake Waikaremoana is derived from marriages between the children of the eponymous ancestors Kahungunu and Ruapani.
In Māori tradition, Lake Waikaremoana was formed during an epic domestic struggle. A chief, Māhū, asked his daughter Haumapuhia to fetch some water from a sacred well. When she refused he went himself, but was very slow. When Haumapuhia went to find her father, he was still angry and tried to drown her in the well. The gods of the land heard her cries for help and turned her into a taniwha (water monster). She carved out the lake bed during her struggle for freedom.
A skirmish between government forces and members of the Pai Mārire (Hauhau) faith took place near Lake Waikaremoana in 1866. Resistance leader Te Kooti spent much time around the lake, which was an ideal spot to hide out and launch raids from. Military redoubts were established in the early 1870s but Te Kooti had moved on by then. Permanent settlements on the lake disappeared after this, though Māori continued to live around Tuai.
The government purchased land around the lake in the 1920s. The lake itself was not included, but the government went on to claim possession. Ownership of the lake was contested in the courts from 1918 to 1947, when 354 Māori owners were finally awarded title to the lake. In 1971 the lake was leased in perpetuity to the Crown as a key part of Te Urewera National Park. In 2014, as part of Ngāi Tūhoe’s Treaty of Waitangi settlement, the park was disestablished and administration of the area passed to Te Urewera Board.
Settlement on the shores of Lake Whakamarino, south of Lake Waikaremoana, with a 2013 district population of 219. Tuai is named after a Ngāti Ruapani ancestor whose pā was on the site of the Tuai power station. This opened in 1929 as part of the Waikaremoana power scheme, and the modern-day settlement grew up around it. Originally a tent town housed workers building the station; these were later replaced by permanent houses for station employees. Lake Whakamarino is an artificial lake created as part of the power scheme works.
Tuai, and the other power stations in the system at Kaitawa and Pipipāua, have been operated remotely from the Tokaanu power station at Lake Taupō since the early 2000s. The Waikaremoana power scheme is no longer a significant employer in Tuai. | 900 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Furious Mars was the Roman god of rage, passion, destruction, and war. As a foundational deity, Mars had a mythology that was intimately intertwined with the Roman city-state. Mars ruled early Rome as a part of the Archaic Triad, a masculine ruling triumvirate that also included Jupiter and Quirinus (the deified Romulus). The early Romans revered Mars as a great raging god, whose fury inspired the savagery of warfare and produced the stunning accomplishments of the Roman arms. As Rome transitioned from city-state to empire and overtly embraced Greek cultural values, Mars lost his preeminent position in the Roman pantheon to Minerva, the goddess of tactical and strategic warfare.
Mars’ importance to the Roman people was embedded in the mythic history of Rome and the origins of the Roman state. According to Roman mythology, Mars raped the innocent Rhea Silvia and sired Romulus and Remus, twins who would go on to establish the fabled city.
Mars was largely based on the Greek god Ares, the Greek god of war, and shared much of his mythology. The two deities differed in at least one respect, however—while Ares was a source of destructive conflicts that tore apart communities, Mars was a wellspring of productive conflicts that brought lasting peace.
Though the meaning of the name “Mars” remains somewhat elusive, the name itself was clearly adapted from the names of a pair of Italian deities. One was a proto-Italic deity called Mavors, a deity of which little is known. The other, more immediate influence was the Etruscan deity Meris, a god who was often depicted as an infant and may have been an Etruscan counterpart to the Greek Heracles (or Roman Hercules).
Mars was known by many epithets, each representing one of his many personas. As Mars Gradivus, or “Marching Mars,” the deity was revered for his a presence on the battlefield. Generals and soldiers alike swore oaths to Mars Gradivus, promising to fight furiously in his name. As Mars Quirinus, or “Mars of the Quirites", he was celebrated as a bringer of peace through war and a defender of the common man. He was also Mars Pater and Mars Pater Victor, or “Mars the Father” and “Mars the Father the Victorious,” titles that denoted his high standing in Roman religion and among the Roman people.
Romans also called him Mars Ultor, meaning “Mars the Avenger”. This title grew in popularity after the Octavian’s victories over Caesar’s assassins at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BCE. This was but one way in which the gods were used for political ends. Finally, Mars was Mars Augustus, meaning something like “Mars who is Awesome." This qualifier was later used by the Roman emperors to describe their own awesome omnipotence.
Mars controlled war and the passions that fueled it. He was represented both as a fully mature male with a beard and curly hair, and as a youth with smooth cheeks. He was shown often in the nude, perhaps a sign of the raw, unadorned forces he was thought to inspire. When clothed, he wore a military cloak, plumed helm, and cuirass. This last item was often adorned with the gorgoneion, a medusa head that was thought to ward off evil. His weapon was the spear, which would be wrapped in a laurel to symbolize peace. This symbolism spoke to Mars’s status as the god who brought peace through war.
Mars was the son of Jupiter and Juno, the king and queen of the Roman deities. Mars’ full siblings included Bellona, a goddess of war, Vulcan, god of metalworking and the forge, and Juventus, a goddess of youth. Mars had many half-siblings as well thanks to his father’s indiscretions. These half-siblings included Mercury, messenger god of commerce and communication, Proserpina, Ceres’ child famously abducted by Pluto, and Minerva, goddess of wisdom and defender of the Roman state.
A figure of primal masculinity, Mars was desired by many. His consorts included Bellona and Nerio, both goddesses of war associated with important cults in early Rome. He famously carried on a long and illegitimate affair with Venus, the goddess of love and sexual desire. In a separate tradition, Mars married Anna Perenna, the goddess of time and the changing of years. They proved to be a fiery couple. Mars’ passion could also be violent, as when he raped the Vestal Virgin, Rhea Silvia, a figure of incredible importance in the founding of Rome.
Mars’ children through these affairs were many. With the lovely Venus, Mars produced children associated with a range of emotional and psychological states. He had Timor and Metus, gods of fear and abject terror. He also had Concordia, the twin sister of Timor, who embodied the characteristics of harmony, peace, and fellowship. Mars also had a group of children known as the Cupids, winged creatures who symbolized and controlled various aspects of love and erotic desire.
Mars was also the father of Romulus and Remus, who were conceived through his rape of Rhea Silvia. His fathership of the twin founders of Rome made Mars the progenitor of the Roman people.
Birth and Origins
Although Mars was generally considered to be the son of both Jupiter and Juno, another version of his mythology cast him as the offspring of Juno alone. According to the story (told by Ovid in the Fasti), Juno resented the fact that Jupiter had given birth to Minerva without the need of a mother. Minerva had been conceived by Jupiter and the Titan Metis, but when Jupiter swallowed the pregnant Metis, a fully grown Minerva burst forth from his forehead. Seeking vengeance against Jupiter, Juno traveled to the realm of Flora, a goddess of flowers, spring, and fertility. There, Juno laid bare her grievances and implored the goddess for help:
‘My grief,’ quoth she, ‘is not to be assuaged with words. If Jupiter has become a father without the use of a wife, and unites both titles in his single person, why should I despair of becoming a mother without a husband, and of bringing forth without contact with a man, always supposing that I am chaste? I will try all the drugs in the wide world, and I will explore the seas and the depths of Tartarus.’1
Flora acquiesced, giving Juno a special flower that made female creatures pregnant without the need of a male. Juno tested it on a barren heifer, which immediately birthed a calf. Convinced of its power, she then used the flower on herself and conceived Mars.
A recurring topic in the mythology of Mars was the affair he carried on with Venus. Though Vulcan and Venus had an unhappy marriage, Vulcan still took any affair Venus might have as a great offense. When Mercury saw Venus making love with Mars in Vulcan’s marriage bed, he quickly informed the cuckolded god. Though Vulcan was enraged, he did not act immediately. He waited patiently, and plotted his revenge. In his workshop, Vulcan crafted a net of material so fine that it could not be seen with the naked eye. He then laid the trap by placing the net over his bed. When Mars and Venus next made love, they became ensnared in the net and could not move. Vulcan then assembled the gods to witness the scene, and together they mocked the naked lovers.
Another well-known (and similar) story also featured Mars in an ill-fated love affair. The story (coming again from Ovid’s Fasti) began with Mars falling in love with Minerva, the goddess of both wisdom and the Roman state, who steadfastly maintained her virginity. Not one to be put off by a virgin’s wishes, Mars pursued the goddess anyway—to no avail. Minerva rebuked his advances, sending Mars to seek the help of Anna Perenna, a goddess of time. While Anna Perenna outwardly agreed to help Mars win the affections of Minerva, she secretly plotted to make the comely god of war her own. Putting her plan into motion, Anna disguised herself as Minerva and offered her hand in marriage to Mars, who eagerly accepted. After the marriage had been formalized, Anna revealed herself to Mars, who was very displeased. Not only had he lost Minerva, but he had also been duped into an unwanted marriage.
Mars and the Founding of Rome
According to mytho-historical accounts of the founding of Rome, Mars was the father of the twins Romulus and Remus. While this story had countless variations, its core always remained the same. After Aeneas and his band of refugees arrived on Italian shores, he established a community that eventually came to be known as the kingdom of Alba Longa. One of the kings of Alba Longa was Numitor, a wise and just monarch. His reign was cut short, however, when he was overthrown by his wicked brother Amulius. Hoping to sever the royal line of Numitor, Amulius forced his brother’s daughter, the lovely and virtuous Rhea Silvia, to become a Vestal Virgin; this position carried with it a vow of abstinence.
Whether through outright lust or the desire to perpetuate the lineage of Numitor, Mars visited Rhea Silvia when she was sleeping and raped her. Sound asleep, Rhea Silvia dreamed that she planted seeds that grew into two trees. With time, these trees grew large enough to cover the entire world. When she awoke, Rhea Silvia discovered that she was pregnant with twins, who would come to be known as Remus and Romulus. Fearing that the twins might challenge his claim to Alba Longa, Amulius ordered that they be executed immediately. When the executioner set about the task, he took pity on the twins and sent them down the Tiber River in a basket. The twins eventually came to rest at a spot that would become Rome and were nursed back to health by a she-wolf.
Mars and the Roman State Religion
Mars was a fixture of Roman religion and a key figure in the Roman pantheon. In the early days of the Roman state, Mars was regarded as a kind of second in command to Jupiter and occupied a formal spot in the Archaic Triad (of Mars, Jupiter, and Quirinus), which was thought to oversee Roman prosperity. In time, Mars’ position in the ruling triumvirate was supplanted by Minerva, who embodied a much different aspect of war. Where Mars inspired manly courage and bloodlust in battle, Minerva inspired the tactical and strategic thought necessary to conquer powerful Mediterranean powers such as Carthage, Macedonia, and Epirus. All of these powers fell to Rome in the early centuries BCE.
Mars was accorded the respect owed to a deity of his high office. Festivals were held to honor him in March and October, which marked, respectively, the beginning and end of the campaigning season. He was honored especially in March (a month named for him) with a host of festivals, including Mars’ dies natales (‘birthday’) on March 1, the Equirria of March 14, the Mamuralia of March 15, the Agonium Martiale of March 17, and the Tubilustrium of March 23. In this last festival, departing armies were ritualistically cleansed for their upcoming battles. Mars was feted at all military occasions and victory celebrations. Spoils of war were also presented to him during celebratory military processions that wound their way through the streets of Rome.
The Romans would typically offer rams and bulls to Mars as sacrifices, or hostiae. On special occasions, Mars was honored with suovetaurilia—a triple offering of sacrificial pig, ram, and bull. He was also known to receive horse sacrifices, and was the only Roman deity to be so honored.
Mars has survived in the popular lexicon thanks to the various cultural elements that bear his name. The Romans bestowed his name upon the fourth planet from the sun—Mars. The great red planet aptly symbolized the god’s fiery passion. Mars was also the source of the name March, which in Latin was known as Martius. For many centuries, March was the first month of the Roman lunar year. This ended, however, with the calendrical reforms of the second century BCE, when it became the third month of the year (a position which it still holds).
While Mars’ Greek counterpart Ares has been prominently featured in popular media, Mars has largely remained unrepresented.
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0.24111022055... | 4 | Furious Mars was the Roman god of rage, passion, destruction, and war. As a foundational deity, Mars had a mythology that was intimately intertwined with the Roman city-state. Mars ruled early Rome as a part of the Archaic Triad, a masculine ruling triumvirate that also included Jupiter and Quirinus (the deified Romulus). The early Romans revered Mars as a great raging god, whose fury inspired the savagery of warfare and produced the stunning accomplishments of the Roman arms. As Rome transitioned from city-state to empire and overtly embraced Greek cultural values, Mars lost his preeminent position in the Roman pantheon to Minerva, the goddess of tactical and strategic warfare.
Mars’ importance to the Roman people was embedded in the mythic history of Rome and the origins of the Roman state. According to Roman mythology, Mars raped the innocent Rhea Silvia and sired Romulus and Remus, twins who would go on to establish the fabled city.
Mars was largely based on the Greek god Ares, the Greek god of war, and shared much of his mythology. The two deities differed in at least one respect, however—while Ares was a source of destructive conflicts that tore apart communities, Mars was a wellspring of productive conflicts that brought lasting peace.
Though the meaning of the name “Mars” remains somewhat elusive, the name itself was clearly adapted from the names of a pair of Italian deities. One was a proto-Italic deity called Mavors, a deity of which little is known. The other, more immediate influence was the Etruscan deity Meris, a god who was often depicted as an infant and may have been an Etruscan counterpart to the Greek Heracles (or Roman Hercules).
Mars was known by many epithets, each representing one of his many personas. As Mars Gradivus, or “Marching Mars,” the deity was revered for his a presence on the battlefield. Generals and soldiers alike swore oaths to Mars Gradivus, promising to fight furiously in his name. As Mars Quirinus, or “Mars of the Quirites", he was celebrated as a bringer of peace through war and a defender of the common man. He was also Mars Pater and Mars Pater Victor, or “Mars the Father” and “Mars the Father the Victorious,” titles that denoted his high standing in Roman religion and among the Roman people.
Romans also called him Mars Ultor, meaning “Mars the Avenger”. This title grew in popularity after the Octavian’s victories over Caesar’s assassins at the Battle of Philippi in 42 BCE. This was but one way in which the gods were used for political ends. Finally, Mars was Mars Augustus, meaning something like “Mars who is Awesome." This qualifier was later used by the Roman emperors to describe their own awesome omnipotence.
Mars controlled war and the passions that fueled it. He was represented both as a fully mature male with a beard and curly hair, and as a youth with smooth cheeks. He was shown often in the nude, perhaps a sign of the raw, unadorned forces he was thought to inspire. When clothed, he wore a military cloak, plumed helm, and cuirass. This last item was often adorned with the gorgoneion, a medusa head that was thought to ward off evil. His weapon was the spear, which would be wrapped in a laurel to symbolize peace. This symbolism spoke to Mars’s status as the god who brought peace through war.
Mars was the son of Jupiter and Juno, the king and queen of the Roman deities. Mars’ full siblings included Bellona, a goddess of war, Vulcan, god of metalworking and the forge, and Juventus, a goddess of youth. Mars had many half-siblings as well thanks to his father’s indiscretions. These half-siblings included Mercury, messenger god of commerce and communication, Proserpina, Ceres’ child famously abducted by Pluto, and Minerva, goddess of wisdom and defender of the Roman state.
A figure of primal masculinity, Mars was desired by many. His consorts included Bellona and Nerio, both goddesses of war associated with important cults in early Rome. He famously carried on a long and illegitimate affair with Venus, the goddess of love and sexual desire. In a separate tradition, Mars married Anna Perenna, the goddess of time and the changing of years. They proved to be a fiery couple. Mars’ passion could also be violent, as when he raped the Vestal Virgin, Rhea Silvia, a figure of incredible importance in the founding of Rome.
Mars’ children through these affairs were many. With the lovely Venus, Mars produced children associated with a range of emotional and psychological states. He had Timor and Metus, gods of fear and abject terror. He also had Concordia, the twin sister of Timor, who embodied the characteristics of harmony, peace, and fellowship. Mars also had a group of children known as the Cupids, winged creatures who symbolized and controlled various aspects of love and erotic desire.
Mars was also the father of Romulus and Remus, who were conceived through his rape of Rhea Silvia. His fathership of the twin founders of Rome made Mars the progenitor of the Roman people.
Birth and Origins
Although Mars was generally considered to be the son of both Jupiter and Juno, another version of his mythology cast him as the offspring of Juno alone. According to the story (told by Ovid in the Fasti), Juno resented the fact that Jupiter had given birth to Minerva without the need of a mother. Minerva had been conceived by Jupiter and the Titan Metis, but when Jupiter swallowed the pregnant Metis, a fully grown Minerva burst forth from his forehead. Seeking vengeance against Jupiter, Juno traveled to the realm of Flora, a goddess of flowers, spring, and fertility. There, Juno laid bare her grievances and implored the goddess for help:
‘My grief,’ quoth she, ‘is not to be assuaged with words. If Jupiter has become a father without the use of a wife, and unites both titles in his single person, why should I despair of becoming a mother without a husband, and of bringing forth without contact with a man, always supposing that I am chaste? I will try all the drugs in the wide world, and I will explore the seas and the depths of Tartarus.’1
Flora acquiesced, giving Juno a special flower that made female creatures pregnant without the need of a male. Juno tested it on a barren heifer, which immediately birthed a calf. Convinced of its power, she then used the flower on herself and conceived Mars.
A recurring topic in the mythology of Mars was the affair he carried on with Venus. Though Vulcan and Venus had an unhappy marriage, Vulcan still took any affair Venus might have as a great offense. When Mercury saw Venus making love with Mars in Vulcan’s marriage bed, he quickly informed the cuckolded god. Though Vulcan was enraged, he did not act immediately. He waited patiently, and plotted his revenge. In his workshop, Vulcan crafted a net of material so fine that it could not be seen with the naked eye. He then laid the trap by placing the net over his bed. When Mars and Venus next made love, they became ensnared in the net and could not move. Vulcan then assembled the gods to witness the scene, and together they mocked the naked lovers.
Another well-known (and similar) story also featured Mars in an ill-fated love affair. The story (coming again from Ovid’s Fasti) began with Mars falling in love with Minerva, the goddess of both wisdom and the Roman state, who steadfastly maintained her virginity. Not one to be put off by a virgin’s wishes, Mars pursued the goddess anyway—to no avail. Minerva rebuked his advances, sending Mars to seek the help of Anna Perenna, a goddess of time. While Anna Perenna outwardly agreed to help Mars win the affections of Minerva, she secretly plotted to make the comely god of war her own. Putting her plan into motion, Anna disguised herself as Minerva and offered her hand in marriage to Mars, who eagerly accepted. After the marriage had been formalized, Anna revealed herself to Mars, who was very displeased. Not only had he lost Minerva, but he had also been duped into an unwanted marriage.
Mars and the Founding of Rome
According to mytho-historical accounts of the founding of Rome, Mars was the father of the twins Romulus and Remus. While this story had countless variations, its core always remained the same. After Aeneas and his band of refugees arrived on Italian shores, he established a community that eventually came to be known as the kingdom of Alba Longa. One of the kings of Alba Longa was Numitor, a wise and just monarch. His reign was cut short, however, when he was overthrown by his wicked brother Amulius. Hoping to sever the royal line of Numitor, Amulius forced his brother’s daughter, the lovely and virtuous Rhea Silvia, to become a Vestal Virgin; this position carried with it a vow of abstinence.
Whether through outright lust or the desire to perpetuate the lineage of Numitor, Mars visited Rhea Silvia when she was sleeping and raped her. Sound asleep, Rhea Silvia dreamed that she planted seeds that grew into two trees. With time, these trees grew large enough to cover the entire world. When she awoke, Rhea Silvia discovered that she was pregnant with twins, who would come to be known as Remus and Romulus. Fearing that the twins might challenge his claim to Alba Longa, Amulius ordered that they be executed immediately. When the executioner set about the task, he took pity on the twins and sent them down the Tiber River in a basket. The twins eventually came to rest at a spot that would become Rome and were nursed back to health by a she-wolf.
Mars and the Roman State Religion
Mars was a fixture of Roman religion and a key figure in the Roman pantheon. In the early days of the Roman state, Mars was regarded as a kind of second in command to Jupiter and occupied a formal spot in the Archaic Triad (of Mars, Jupiter, and Quirinus), which was thought to oversee Roman prosperity. In time, Mars’ position in the ruling triumvirate was supplanted by Minerva, who embodied a much different aspect of war. Where Mars inspired manly courage and bloodlust in battle, Minerva inspired the tactical and strategic thought necessary to conquer powerful Mediterranean powers such as Carthage, Macedonia, and Epirus. All of these powers fell to Rome in the early centuries BCE.
Mars was accorded the respect owed to a deity of his high office. Festivals were held to honor him in March and October, which marked, respectively, the beginning and end of the campaigning season. He was honored especially in March (a month named for him) with a host of festivals, including Mars’ dies natales (‘birthday’) on March 1, the Equirria of March 14, the Mamuralia of March 15, the Agonium Martiale of March 17, and the Tubilustrium of March 23. In this last festival, departing armies were ritualistically cleansed for their upcoming battles. Mars was feted at all military occasions and victory celebrations. Spoils of war were also presented to him during celebratory military processions that wound their way through the streets of Rome.
The Romans would typically offer rams and bulls to Mars as sacrifices, or hostiae. On special occasions, Mars was honored with suovetaurilia—a triple offering of sacrificial pig, ram, and bull. He was also known to receive horse sacrifices, and was the only Roman deity to be so honored.
Mars has survived in the popular lexicon thanks to the various cultural elements that bear his name. The Romans bestowed his name upon the fourth planet from the sun—Mars. The great red planet aptly symbolized the god’s fiery passion. Mars was also the source of the name March, which in Latin was known as Martius. For many centuries, March was the first month of the Roman lunar year. This ended, however, with the calendrical reforms of the second century BCE, when it became the third month of the year (a position which it still holds).
While Mars’ Greek counterpart Ares has been prominently featured in popular media, Mars has largely remained unrepresented.
Ovid, Fasti, translated by James Frazer, Book V: 229-261. ↩ | 2,677 | ENGLISH | 1 |
I Don 't Get It Essay
“I don’t know what to do.”
“This is too hard.”
These are all common phrases students in classrooms all across America are saying. One way teachers can help combat this is by teaching resiliency skills. Resiliency skills are those that help students to overcome difficult situations and take responsibility for them (Phillips, 2001). When teachers teach resiliency skills in their classroom, students will perform higher in their academics (Dwyer, 2013). It is important for teachers to implement these skills into their lessons, because many students are not taught these skills at home. It is our job to give students these memorable experiences so they can learn how to overcome struggles they are sure to have in their lives.
The ten resiliency skills addressed in Turning Them Around are all great traits for students to learn to become successful in school and in their futures. I don’t think there is one that is particularly better than others; they are all individually important. After looking at all of them, they are each important in their own way to help students succeed. One way I could incorporate these into my classroom is by teaching one or two skills a month. If I really focused on these one at a time and used some of the activities presented in the book, along with relating stories from my own life and others they may know, the students could really make these skills a habit in their own lives. I think just spending one day teaching each would not be… | <urn:uuid:bb6c033c-4cac-4711-9d39-d4aa8d1292b3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cram.com/essay/I-Don-t-Get-It/FKELUA5KUY3Q | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00474.warc.gz | en | 0.982009 | 315 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.404621064662... | 1 | I Don 't Get It Essay
“I don’t know what to do.”
“This is too hard.”
These are all common phrases students in classrooms all across America are saying. One way teachers can help combat this is by teaching resiliency skills. Resiliency skills are those that help students to overcome difficult situations and take responsibility for them (Phillips, 2001). When teachers teach resiliency skills in their classroom, students will perform higher in their academics (Dwyer, 2013). It is important for teachers to implement these skills into their lessons, because many students are not taught these skills at home. It is our job to give students these memorable experiences so they can learn how to overcome struggles they are sure to have in their lives.
The ten resiliency skills addressed in Turning Them Around are all great traits for students to learn to become successful in school and in their futures. I don’t think there is one that is particularly better than others; they are all individually important. After looking at all of them, they are each important in their own way to help students succeed. One way I could incorporate these into my classroom is by teaching one or two skills a month. If I really focused on these one at a time and used some of the activities presented in the book, along with relating stories from my own life and others they may know, the students could really make these skills a habit in their own lives. I think just spending one day teaching each would not be… | 307 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Model cut-out sheets, Scale 1:9
It is estimated that in Germany knights’ tournaments began in August 1127. The first tournament is said to have been fought between two dukes during the siege of Würzburg. Tournaments spread further afield and also became popular themes for poets and painters. The Church, however, disapproved of such contests and even refused to allow a Christian burial to participants killed in tournaments.
There were various types of martial contests. The Joust was a contest where two knights tried to knock the opponent off his horse using lances. There were two types of blows used. With a blow beneath the chin, the knight was numbed by the impact and fell to the ground. The blow to the shield knocked the knight off his saddle due to the force of the blow. When the opponent was lying on the ground he was not allowed to be trodden on by the horse.
The Bohort was a less dangerous contest with many participants. The name meant something like “bumping into” or “impact” and described an important feature of the contest. The knight was armed with shield and spear and wore no armour. Sometimes no weapons were used during the fight in order to demonstrate the skilfulness of the knights. The victor was the one who knocked the most other knights off their horses.
The actual tournament (from the Latin word “tornus” meaning “revolving disc”) was a hard contest, whereby the emphasis lay on practising for war. That is why the knights were equipped as if they were really going into battle, but they used blunt weapons. Right at the beginning, the time and place, number of knights and the ransom for prisoners were agreed upon. Any knight was allowed to participate. The participants were divided into two teams, who then lined up in a wedge-shape. The teams rode towards each other as a closed group. During a tournament there were also jousts or contests between small groups. A tournament could last for several days.
There were often men injured or even killed during a tournament. This was one of the reasons why the Church disapproved of these contests. Whoever was captured by the opponent during a tournament had to buy himself free according to his rank. For this reason, some knights became rich through the contests, but others became impoverished. The victor was the knight who proved to be the bravest and had distinguished himself. Mostly the victor only won symbolical prizes like hunting falcons or dogs, but he was sure to have won great admiration.
A tournament wasn’t only popular with the contestants, but also attracted a large audience. It was mainly “see and be seen”, and tournaments were even used for looking for a wife. Such contests were carried out as far as the 16th century. However, the actual tournament gradually disappeared, but more jousts or bohorts were carried out. By that time these contests had practically become exercises of skill, and not only knights but also ordinary citizens were allowed to participate. Even today, such contests entertain spectators during Medieval Markets.
Author: Przemyslaw Tabernacki
Titel page, 7 model sheets, 1 side instruction with sketches multicolored printing, 21 x 29,7 cm.
Model L 25 x B 12 x H 32 cm.
Difficulty class: difficult
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It is estimated that in Germany knights’ tournaments began in August 1127. The first tournament is said to have been fought between two dukes during the siege of Würzburg. Tournaments spread further afield and also became popular themes for poets and painters. The Church, however, disapproved of such contests and even refused to allow a Christian burial to participants killed in tournaments.
There were various types of martial contests. The Joust was a contest where two knights tried to knock the opponent off his horse using lances. There were two types of blows used. With a blow beneath the chin, the knight was numbed by the impact and fell to the ground. The blow to the shield knocked the knight off his saddle due to the force of the blow. When the opponent was lying on the ground he was not allowed to be trodden on by the horse.
The Bohort was a less dangerous contest with many participants. The name meant something like “bumping into” or “impact” and described an important feature of the contest. The knight was armed with shield and spear and wore no armour. Sometimes no weapons were used during the fight in order to demonstrate the skilfulness of the knights. The victor was the one who knocked the most other knights off their horses.
The actual tournament (from the Latin word “tornus” meaning “revolving disc”) was a hard contest, whereby the emphasis lay on practising for war. That is why the knights were equipped as if they were really going into battle, but they used blunt weapons. Right at the beginning, the time and place, number of knights and the ransom for prisoners were agreed upon. Any knight was allowed to participate. The participants were divided into two teams, who then lined up in a wedge-shape. The teams rode towards each other as a closed group. During a tournament there were also jousts or contests between small groups. A tournament could last for several days.
There were often men injured or even killed during a tournament. This was one of the reasons why the Church disapproved of these contests. Whoever was captured by the opponent during a tournament had to buy himself free according to his rank. For this reason, some knights became rich through the contests, but others became impoverished. The victor was the knight who proved to be the bravest and had distinguished himself. Mostly the victor only won symbolical prizes like hunting falcons or dogs, but he was sure to have won great admiration.
A tournament wasn’t only popular with the contestants, but also attracted a large audience. It was mainly “see and be seen”, and tournaments were even used for looking for a wife. Such contests were carried out as far as the 16th century. However, the actual tournament gradually disappeared, but more jousts or bohorts were carried out. By that time these contests had practically become exercises of skill, and not only knights but also ordinary citizens were allowed to participate. Even today, such contests entertain spectators during Medieval Markets.
Author: Przemyslaw Tabernacki
Titel page, 7 model sheets, 1 side instruction with sketches multicolored printing, 21 x 29,7 cm.
Model L 25 x B 12 x H 32 cm.
Difficulty class: difficult
Published by: Schreiber / Aue Verlag | 700 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Heribert Illig is a German Historian and publisher who proposed that a medieval Roman Emperor, Otto II, Pope Sylvester II and quite possibly Byzantium Emperor Constantine VII were all involved in an early conspiracy theory to advance the European calendar 300 years overnight.
This idea was originally made public in either 1990 or 1690 – depending on the correct truth.
According to Illig, both Otto and Sylvester were keen to participate in the landmark year of AD 1000 but were several hundred years too early to do so. To overcome this anomaly, they rewrote future history and invented heroic figures such as Charlemagne. While attending an archaeological conference held in Munich, Germany in 1986, Illig was just one member of an audience listening to the President of the Monumenta Germaine Histoica, Horst Fuhrmann, as he detailed claims that the Roman Catholic Church forged documents during the Middle Ages and actually insisted that these were hundreds of years old and embraced by medieval citizens.
Illig was suitably impressed by this lecture and began to investigate for himself. He started with the question of why the church would sanction or allow fake documentation well in advance of historical events. Illig examined other proven false documents and discovered what he regarded as ‘divine chronological distortions’. As a result of this, he began to take a closer look at the Gregorian Calender. Illig concluded that the calender was also inconsistent.
The Gregorian Calender was first introduced in 1582 and was the brainchild of Pope Gregory XIII. Up until then the old Julian Calender was the form of choice. Gregory introduced his updated calender to counter the apparent ten day discrepancy that the Julian Calender had caused. The year according to the Julian Calender was a shade under 11 minutes too long. Illig come to the conclusion that Gregory’s assumption that 1257 years had passed between both calenders was incorrect. By his calculations, the true figure was 1627 years.
This alone would not constitute proof that Illig was correct in his assessment. He had to try to find additional proof that could be much more definitive. He looked for, and found, unexplained gaps in historical events. Constantinople was founded in 558 and, like many other cities around the world, began as a small settlement that grew and grew as time and populace dictated. According to Illig, construction was completed in 908 AD. Did the humble beginnings of modern day Istanbul really take 350 years to complete? Or was the original construction done in a fraction of that time and the remainder was added on at a later date? A curious fact about Constantinople was that it was once the capital city of both the Roman and Byzantium Empires.
Not much in the way of archaeological evidence exists from these dates in history. At least none that can be accurately carbon dated to the periods in question. Developments in fields such as architecture, ceramics and agriculture haven’t had any reported or recorded advancements during this time either. Believers in this hypothesis suggest a reason that the whole period is known as the Dark Ages is for the very fact that it doesn’t exist at all. By the same token though, recorded history outside of Europe and known astronomical events do seem to contradict Illig’s findings.
Did a trio of influential leaders put their heads together in the dim and distant past to advance three centuries in a single calendar day? | <urn:uuid:06e3660f-479b-4e0f-982a-5cd85d71ee02> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historicmysteries.com/phantom-time-theory/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00095.warc.gz | en | 0.982197 | 699 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.4312472641468... | 1 | Heribert Illig is a German Historian and publisher who proposed that a medieval Roman Emperor, Otto II, Pope Sylvester II and quite possibly Byzantium Emperor Constantine VII were all involved in an early conspiracy theory to advance the European calendar 300 years overnight.
This idea was originally made public in either 1990 or 1690 – depending on the correct truth.
According to Illig, both Otto and Sylvester were keen to participate in the landmark year of AD 1000 but were several hundred years too early to do so. To overcome this anomaly, they rewrote future history and invented heroic figures such as Charlemagne. While attending an archaeological conference held in Munich, Germany in 1986, Illig was just one member of an audience listening to the President of the Monumenta Germaine Histoica, Horst Fuhrmann, as he detailed claims that the Roman Catholic Church forged documents during the Middle Ages and actually insisted that these were hundreds of years old and embraced by medieval citizens.
Illig was suitably impressed by this lecture and began to investigate for himself. He started with the question of why the church would sanction or allow fake documentation well in advance of historical events. Illig examined other proven false documents and discovered what he regarded as ‘divine chronological distortions’. As a result of this, he began to take a closer look at the Gregorian Calender. Illig concluded that the calender was also inconsistent.
The Gregorian Calender was first introduced in 1582 and was the brainchild of Pope Gregory XIII. Up until then the old Julian Calender was the form of choice. Gregory introduced his updated calender to counter the apparent ten day discrepancy that the Julian Calender had caused. The year according to the Julian Calender was a shade under 11 minutes too long. Illig come to the conclusion that Gregory’s assumption that 1257 years had passed between both calenders was incorrect. By his calculations, the true figure was 1627 years.
This alone would not constitute proof that Illig was correct in his assessment. He had to try to find additional proof that could be much more definitive. He looked for, and found, unexplained gaps in historical events. Constantinople was founded in 558 and, like many other cities around the world, began as a small settlement that grew and grew as time and populace dictated. According to Illig, construction was completed in 908 AD. Did the humble beginnings of modern day Istanbul really take 350 years to complete? Or was the original construction done in a fraction of that time and the remainder was added on at a later date? A curious fact about Constantinople was that it was once the capital city of both the Roman and Byzantium Empires.
Not much in the way of archaeological evidence exists from these dates in history. At least none that can be accurately carbon dated to the periods in question. Developments in fields such as architecture, ceramics and agriculture haven’t had any reported or recorded advancements during this time either. Believers in this hypothesis suggest a reason that the whole period is known as the Dark Ages is for the very fact that it doesn’t exist at all. By the same token though, recorded history outside of Europe and known astronomical events do seem to contradict Illig’s findings.
Did a trio of influential leaders put their heads together in the dim and distant past to advance three centuries in a single calendar day? | 718 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The building of the Tamiami Trail across the Everglades in the 1920’s was one of the most disruptive events in the history of the Everglades ecosystem. Completed in 1928 across the Everglades it was considered a feat of engineering at the time and completed a continues road link between Tampa and Miami. Originally designated as US 94 it eventually became an extension of US 41 from Tampa to Miami.
Marjory Stoneman Douglas’ epic The Everglades: River of Grass published in 1947 began to inform the public as to ecological damage done by human-made projects including Tamiami Trail and Tamiami Canal which runs alongside the road. The road and canal worked as an effective barrier to block the flow of water from Lake Okeechobee south to Florida Bay, cutting the ecosystem in two and impacting animal and plant species detrimentally.
In 1970, an effort to build the world’s largest airport right off the highway was killed thanks to the effort of environmentalists- the jetport probably would have been the death knell for the Everglades ecosystem, but few changes were made to reverse the damage made by the highway itself to the environment for several more decades.
The ecological damage done by the highway has forced many recent projects – in the 1990’s culverts were built to allow some flow of water under the highway and through the canal. Then in the 2000’s discussion of an “Everglades Skyway,” an elevated bridge over about 9 miles that would have moved more water into the Shark River and Taylor Slough’s.
A compromise worked out to build a one mile bridge which was completed in 2013 and a 2.6 mile bridge which is currently under construction. The budget for these projects has been a rare bipartisan victory in a hyper-partisan political era, with leaders of both parties agreeing that restoration of the water flow is vital to south Florida’s survival.
Another road was built across the Everglades from the Gulf Coast to southeast Florida – in the late 1960’s Alligator Alley was constructed. Originally a two-lane toll road, the highway was among the most dangerous in the United States. When Alligator Alley was built as State Road 84 the highway was strongly opposed by leaders in Miami and Tampa. But it was strongly advocated by Collier County residents who felt it would stimulate growth and Broward County, by then Florida’s second most populated. Broward lacked a direct link to the west coast.
Around the same time a decision was made to extend I-75 south from Tampa to Miami. The state had at the time considered building a west coast Turnpike to link the sprawling areas of southwest Florida with the central part of the state. With federal funds now on offer, I-75 was built down to Naples, but the idea of upgrading Tamiami Trail to interstate standards ran into several hurdles. First was the Tamiami Trail itself, already creating ecological damage – an expressway running near Everglades National Park and through what would be designated as the Big Cypress National Wildlife Refugee would be problematic. An even bigger concern was the narrow shoulders and left exits of SR 836 in Miami which would need to be upgraded to interstate standards to carry I-75.
With Broward County booming and Alligator Alley a death trap, the decision was made to route I-75 that way, connecting with I-595 which was to be built into Fort Lauderdale. I-75 would then dip south toward Miami – this is the route it takes today. However, it wasn’t until 1992 Alligator Alley was fully upgraded for four lanes and made part of I-75. | <urn:uuid:4cbb2167-9674-429e-bc73-7e6930a9ea67> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thefloridasqueeze.com/2020/01/05/plowing-tamiami-trail-and-alligator-alley-through-the-everglades/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00201.warc.gz | en | 0.982966 | 749 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.4321896731853... | 12 | The building of the Tamiami Trail across the Everglades in the 1920’s was one of the most disruptive events in the history of the Everglades ecosystem. Completed in 1928 across the Everglades it was considered a feat of engineering at the time and completed a continues road link between Tampa and Miami. Originally designated as US 94 it eventually became an extension of US 41 from Tampa to Miami.
Marjory Stoneman Douglas’ epic The Everglades: River of Grass published in 1947 began to inform the public as to ecological damage done by human-made projects including Tamiami Trail and Tamiami Canal which runs alongside the road. The road and canal worked as an effective barrier to block the flow of water from Lake Okeechobee south to Florida Bay, cutting the ecosystem in two and impacting animal and plant species detrimentally.
In 1970, an effort to build the world’s largest airport right off the highway was killed thanks to the effort of environmentalists- the jetport probably would have been the death knell for the Everglades ecosystem, but few changes were made to reverse the damage made by the highway itself to the environment for several more decades.
The ecological damage done by the highway has forced many recent projects – in the 1990’s culverts were built to allow some flow of water under the highway and through the canal. Then in the 2000’s discussion of an “Everglades Skyway,” an elevated bridge over about 9 miles that would have moved more water into the Shark River and Taylor Slough’s.
A compromise worked out to build a one mile bridge which was completed in 2013 and a 2.6 mile bridge which is currently under construction. The budget for these projects has been a rare bipartisan victory in a hyper-partisan political era, with leaders of both parties agreeing that restoration of the water flow is vital to south Florida’s survival.
Another road was built across the Everglades from the Gulf Coast to southeast Florida – in the late 1960’s Alligator Alley was constructed. Originally a two-lane toll road, the highway was among the most dangerous in the United States. When Alligator Alley was built as State Road 84 the highway was strongly opposed by leaders in Miami and Tampa. But it was strongly advocated by Collier County residents who felt it would stimulate growth and Broward County, by then Florida’s second most populated. Broward lacked a direct link to the west coast.
Around the same time a decision was made to extend I-75 south from Tampa to Miami. The state had at the time considered building a west coast Turnpike to link the sprawling areas of southwest Florida with the central part of the state. With federal funds now on offer, I-75 was built down to Naples, but the idea of upgrading Tamiami Trail to interstate standards ran into several hurdles. First was the Tamiami Trail itself, already creating ecological damage – an expressway running near Everglades National Park and through what would be designated as the Big Cypress National Wildlife Refugee would be problematic. An even bigger concern was the narrow shoulders and left exits of SR 836 in Miami which would need to be upgraded to interstate standards to carry I-75.
With Broward County booming and Alligator Alley a death trap, the decision was made to route I-75 that way, connecting with I-595 which was to be built into Fort Lauderdale. I-75 would then dip south toward Miami – this is the route it takes today. However, it wasn’t until 1992 Alligator Alley was fully upgraded for four lanes and made part of I-75. | 771 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Study drawings have been used by most famous painters from past and present as a means to ensuring a high level of quality in the final composition - be it in oils, watercolours or even sculpture. Time spent at this stage would save so much more later on, just as with any planning stage. Many required a precision within their work which was only possible by using the right process, from start to finish. Max Ernst differs in this regard, though. Yes, he was a highly skilled draughtsman, of that there can be no doubt, but this was an artist who positively wanted to avoid precision and clarity within his work. He wanted each final painting to have an element of chance about it, something that could not be created identically again. His surrealist content was deliberately unclear in its symbolism, leaving academics to consider a variety of explanations for each addition. As such, he did not require drawings to achieve consistency between artworks and his own ideas. Instead, he used them for other purposes.
Frottage is the most famous invention of Max Ernst, one of several artistic techniques that he created during his career. Many were taken up by other artists in later generations. Frottage involved the artist rubbing loosely with a crayon or pencil over the main surface of the piece, normally a canvas. Underneath he would be holding items such as leaves or other textured objects and their imprint would then appear, magically, on the working area. In this regard, they can be seen as drawings or traces, though would normally become part of a larger oil painting and would then be regarded as part of that artwork, rather than included here within the purely drawn pieces that you find below. Ernst also produced whole series of illustrations for various printed publications and this is perhaps how he is most famous in terms of his talents as a draughtsman - they also provide an additional string to the considerable bow of his ouevre.
In terms of his illustrations for published books, many were for authored work by Paul Éluard. These included Répétitions, Les malheurs des immortels and Au défaut du silence. Others were for novels in the late 1920s / early 1930s such as La femme 100 têtes and Une Semaine de Bonté. The artist himself would eventually write his own books and, naturally, provide all of the illustrative work for those too. As late as the 1970s, right at the end of his career, Max Ernst started to produce lithographs and etchings too. He never really stopped experimenting and achieved an impressive level of quality across a large number of different mediums. Nature and the animal world featured prominently within his work, but most choices would be related to the passage of literature around which his designs were spread. | <urn:uuid:c8062909-757d-42c0-9629-8e9b7ffe2d71> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.maxernst.org/drawings/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00071.warc.gz | en | 0.989061 | 571 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.216561406850... | 2 | Study drawings have been used by most famous painters from past and present as a means to ensuring a high level of quality in the final composition - be it in oils, watercolours or even sculpture. Time spent at this stage would save so much more later on, just as with any planning stage. Many required a precision within their work which was only possible by using the right process, from start to finish. Max Ernst differs in this regard, though. Yes, he was a highly skilled draughtsman, of that there can be no doubt, but this was an artist who positively wanted to avoid precision and clarity within his work. He wanted each final painting to have an element of chance about it, something that could not be created identically again. His surrealist content was deliberately unclear in its symbolism, leaving academics to consider a variety of explanations for each addition. As such, he did not require drawings to achieve consistency between artworks and his own ideas. Instead, he used them for other purposes.
Frottage is the most famous invention of Max Ernst, one of several artistic techniques that he created during his career. Many were taken up by other artists in later generations. Frottage involved the artist rubbing loosely with a crayon or pencil over the main surface of the piece, normally a canvas. Underneath he would be holding items such as leaves or other textured objects and their imprint would then appear, magically, on the working area. In this regard, they can be seen as drawings or traces, though would normally become part of a larger oil painting and would then be regarded as part of that artwork, rather than included here within the purely drawn pieces that you find below. Ernst also produced whole series of illustrations for various printed publications and this is perhaps how he is most famous in terms of his talents as a draughtsman - they also provide an additional string to the considerable bow of his ouevre.
In terms of his illustrations for published books, many were for authored work by Paul Éluard. These included Répétitions, Les malheurs des immortels and Au défaut du silence. Others were for novels in the late 1920s / early 1930s such as La femme 100 têtes and Une Semaine de Bonté. The artist himself would eventually write his own books and, naturally, provide all of the illustrative work for those too. As late as the 1970s, right at the end of his career, Max Ernst started to produce lithographs and etchings too. He never really stopped experimenting and achieved an impressive level of quality across a large number of different mediums. Nature and the animal world featured prominently within his work, but most choices would be related to the passage of literature around which his designs were spread. | 574 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The State of Aloha
For close to 200 years, Christianity has been the religion of the Hawaiian people. But how did it happen? How could an entire people — deeply traditional and devoted to its own indigenous religion and pantheon of deities — convert so easily to this foreign faith?
Kamehameha the Great never converted. He worshiped Hawaiian gods for his entire life. The gods were good to him — particularly Kukailimoku, the god associated with warfare.
It resulted in the unification of the islands and the establishment of the Hawaiian nation. During his reign, Kamehameha made it a point to keep the national religion strong.
The religious advisers, or kahuna, were respected, revered and, in some cases, feared. Kamehameha sought their counsel. Along with the religion were sets of regulations known as kapu that regulated many aspects of Hawaiian life, particularly eating restrictions.
Kamehameha selected two men to succeed him. The actual kingdom was left to his son, Liholiho. But he entrusted the religion to Kekuaokalani, a chief of lower rank and cousin to Liholiho.
After the king died in May of 1819 in Kailua-Kona, the nation went into mourning. Queen Ka’ahumanu, Kamehameha’s wife, who is believed to have been eager to rid the restrictions for good, started to violate the eating restrictions.
She and her allies ate food that was forbidden to women: coconut, bananas and pork. On top of this, she ate with men — another violation of the kapu.
Liholiho saw what had happened. Far from Kailua at Kawaihae, he conferred with his cousin. Kekuaokalani reminded the new king that he must care for the government, while the god is his priority. They would rule the kingdom together.
Eventually, Ka’ahumanu sent for the new king. Liholiho promised his cousin that he would uphold the law. Instead of leading a rebellion against Ka’ahumanu, Liholiho was coronated as Kamehameha II alongside Ka’ahumanu as a co-ruler.
For months, the queen and others ate freely. Disgusted by this, Liholiho returned to his cousin at Kawaihae. He saw Kekuaokalani living piously, meditatively and in prayer. This inspired the king anew and together they worked to reinstate the traditional laws and please their gods.
For three months it appeared that the national religion would be upheld, but in the heat of August a messenger appeared at Kawaihae for Liholiho, summoning him back to Kailua.
This time he remained offshore on a large canoe for two days. Couriers brought the king liquor. When the waters calmed, he came ashore and saw his mother defying the kapu. This time he sat down with the women and in a drunken state ate voraciously.
He acted quickly and declared that the kapu system was abolished. He then summoned his cousin.
But Kekuaokalani refused. He moved into further isolation. More months passed. Word had spread about Kekuaokalani’s defiance. Disenfranchised kahuna and others faithful to the religion gathered with Kekuaokalani.
Liholiho sent trusted chiefs to bring Kekuaokalani to Kailua. The delegation arrived at night and met with the defender of the faith. It was resolved that in the morning he would go to Kailua to negotiate with the new king — but he would never abandon the religion.
At dawn, however, Kekuaokalani told the delegation he would travel with his men by land and would not go in their canoe. The delegation swiftly returned to Kailua.
Liholiho’s mother, Keopulani, an ally to Ka’ahumanu, interpreted this as an armed rebellion. Warriors armed with muskets and spears set out to meet Kekuaokalani on his way to Kailua. Liholiho stayed in Kailua.
The forces met on the black and barren lava fields known as Kuamo’o on Dec. 20, 1819. Kekuaokalani saw his men had less ammunition and muskets. There would be no surrender. They skirmished and fought for most of the day. Before noon, Kekuaokalani was badly wounded in the leg and bleeding so heavily he could no longer stand.
Sitting on a large lava rock, he loaded his musket and fired into the line of advancing warriors. They returned fire and Kekuaokalani was shot in the chest. He went to the ground, covered his face with his cloak, and died. His wife, who stood by him, was shown no mercy and executed. Their bodies were buried there. A sad marker remains to this day.
Two kahuna were also killed; their bodies were dragged on the road to Kailua. Those who were part of Kekuaokalani’s rebellion fled into the wilderness. Liholiho later pardoned them.
The religion and the kapu system with it were no more. By the time the missionaries came in 1820, the indigenous religion was no longer a national faith. Missionaries found heiau neglected and overgrown with weeds. Wooden and stone idols were strewn on the ground and abandoned. For the missionaries, it was ripe for the taking.
* Ben Lowenthal is a trial and appellate lawyer, currently with the Office of the Public Defender, who grew up on Maui. His email is email@example.com. “The State of Aloha” alternates Fridays with Sarah Ruppenthal’s “Neighbors.” | <urn:uuid:21548784-1239-4c3a-8169-3407ad338965> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mauinews.com/opinion/columns/2019/12/the-state-of-aloha-86/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00417.warc.gz | en | 0.980851 | 1,250 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.07889284938... | 2 | The State of Aloha
For close to 200 years, Christianity has been the religion of the Hawaiian people. But how did it happen? How could an entire people — deeply traditional and devoted to its own indigenous religion and pantheon of deities — convert so easily to this foreign faith?
Kamehameha the Great never converted. He worshiped Hawaiian gods for his entire life. The gods were good to him — particularly Kukailimoku, the god associated with warfare.
It resulted in the unification of the islands and the establishment of the Hawaiian nation. During his reign, Kamehameha made it a point to keep the national religion strong.
The religious advisers, or kahuna, were respected, revered and, in some cases, feared. Kamehameha sought their counsel. Along with the religion were sets of regulations known as kapu that regulated many aspects of Hawaiian life, particularly eating restrictions.
Kamehameha selected two men to succeed him. The actual kingdom was left to his son, Liholiho. But he entrusted the religion to Kekuaokalani, a chief of lower rank and cousin to Liholiho.
After the king died in May of 1819 in Kailua-Kona, the nation went into mourning. Queen Ka’ahumanu, Kamehameha’s wife, who is believed to have been eager to rid the restrictions for good, started to violate the eating restrictions.
She and her allies ate food that was forbidden to women: coconut, bananas and pork. On top of this, she ate with men — another violation of the kapu.
Liholiho saw what had happened. Far from Kailua at Kawaihae, he conferred with his cousin. Kekuaokalani reminded the new king that he must care for the government, while the god is his priority. They would rule the kingdom together.
Eventually, Ka’ahumanu sent for the new king. Liholiho promised his cousin that he would uphold the law. Instead of leading a rebellion against Ka’ahumanu, Liholiho was coronated as Kamehameha II alongside Ka’ahumanu as a co-ruler.
For months, the queen and others ate freely. Disgusted by this, Liholiho returned to his cousin at Kawaihae. He saw Kekuaokalani living piously, meditatively and in prayer. This inspired the king anew and together they worked to reinstate the traditional laws and please their gods.
For three months it appeared that the national religion would be upheld, but in the heat of August a messenger appeared at Kawaihae for Liholiho, summoning him back to Kailua.
This time he remained offshore on a large canoe for two days. Couriers brought the king liquor. When the waters calmed, he came ashore and saw his mother defying the kapu. This time he sat down with the women and in a drunken state ate voraciously.
He acted quickly and declared that the kapu system was abolished. He then summoned his cousin.
But Kekuaokalani refused. He moved into further isolation. More months passed. Word had spread about Kekuaokalani’s defiance. Disenfranchised kahuna and others faithful to the religion gathered with Kekuaokalani.
Liholiho sent trusted chiefs to bring Kekuaokalani to Kailua. The delegation arrived at night and met with the defender of the faith. It was resolved that in the morning he would go to Kailua to negotiate with the new king — but he would never abandon the religion.
At dawn, however, Kekuaokalani told the delegation he would travel with his men by land and would not go in their canoe. The delegation swiftly returned to Kailua.
Liholiho’s mother, Keopulani, an ally to Ka’ahumanu, interpreted this as an armed rebellion. Warriors armed with muskets and spears set out to meet Kekuaokalani on his way to Kailua. Liholiho stayed in Kailua.
The forces met on the black and barren lava fields known as Kuamo’o on Dec. 20, 1819. Kekuaokalani saw his men had less ammunition and muskets. There would be no surrender. They skirmished and fought for most of the day. Before noon, Kekuaokalani was badly wounded in the leg and bleeding so heavily he could no longer stand.
Sitting on a large lava rock, he loaded his musket and fired into the line of advancing warriors. They returned fire and Kekuaokalani was shot in the chest. He went to the ground, covered his face with his cloak, and died. His wife, who stood by him, was shown no mercy and executed. Their bodies were buried there. A sad marker remains to this day.
Two kahuna were also killed; their bodies were dragged on the road to Kailua. Those who were part of Kekuaokalani’s rebellion fled into the wilderness. Liholiho later pardoned them.
The religion and the kapu system with it were no more. By the time the missionaries came in 1820, the indigenous religion was no longer a national faith. Missionaries found heiau neglected and overgrown with weeds. Wooden and stone idols were strewn on the ground and abandoned. For the missionaries, it was ripe for the taking.
* Ben Lowenthal is a trial and appellate lawyer, currently with the Office of the Public Defender, who grew up on Maui. His email is email@example.com. “The State of Aloha” alternates Fridays with Sarah Ruppenthal’s “Neighbors.” | 1,216 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Westward expansion brought about numerous wars between Native Americans and colonists during the 18th and 19th centuries. As had occurred before elsewhere on the American continents, the Native Americans rebelled against invasion and occupation. Some of the most bellicose tribes were the Sioux and the Apaches, whose battles and skirmishes against the United States Army have been portrayed in innumerable Westerns. In this post, we’ll tell you about some episodes of the most famous Indian wars of the 19th century.
The Apache Wars
The Apache conflicts began in the 16th century, when the Spanish arrived in the territories of Arizona and New Mexico. Conflict later continued with the Mexicans from the beginning of the 19th century until 1848, when these areas became United States territory. As a result of the discovery of gold in California and the consequent wave of immigrants who crossed this territory on their way to the West Coast, the situation with the Apaches worsened considerably.
The Apache Wars were conflicts that occurred between 1861 and 1886 in the territories of Arizona and New Mexico. Cochise, the Chiricahua Apache chief, led many of these battles against the United States Army alongside his father-in-law, Mangas Coloradas. There was a brief ceasefire in the wars after an agreement was made in which they agreed to live on a reservation in the Chiricahua Mountains and Sulphur Spring Valley, a sacred area for the tribe.
However, the conflicts continued with the famous chief Geronimo, who was born in Sonora and spoke Spanish. Despite being a very controversial figure—many of his actions did not always have the approval of his own people—he kept the United States government in check starting in 1876, with his refusal to accept that Indians were to be confined to reservations. This incited rebellion among many Apache tribes. Geronimo was arrested in the Sierra Madre Mountains in 1886. With his arrest, all the Apache Wars ended, as him and his followers were sent to faraway reservations in Florida and Oklahoma.
Sioux Indian Wars
As we explained in a previous post on American Indian tribes, the Great Sioux Nation was the name that the group of tribes who lived on the Great Plains was known by (Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota). The natural border of their territory was the Mississippi River. They were nomadic and hunted bison. They are one of the most well-known Indian tribes in part because they put up fierce resistance to the advances of the US conquest.
To understand the Sioux Indian Wars which broke out in the 19th century, you have to go back to 1803, when France sold the Louisiana Territory to the United States. This vast expanse of approximately 827,000 square miles stretched over fifteen modern day US states. This date marked the start of westward expansion.
Red Cloud’s War: 1866-1868
In 1851, the United States Government and the Sioux signed the first Treaty of Fort Laramie. With this peace agreement, the Native Americans promised to allow the construction of military forts on Indian territory and the passage of caravans towards the West. In exchange, the government recognized these lands as theirs.
However, constant violations of the treaty and incidents between the new arrivals and the natives lead to a breakdown of peace, which triggered what is known as Red Cloud’s War (1866 and 1868), in honor of the famous Sioux Indian Chief Red Cloud. He allied with the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes to combat what they considered to be an abuse of the occupation of their territories.
This Sioux Indian war is also known as the Powder River War, as the battles were triggered over control of this river, located in the center of Wyoming. The famous Bozeman trail, the main road that led to the Montana gold mines, also passes through here.
During this war, the Native Americans blocked the route, assaulting trains and attacking troops that were constructing forts. As a consequence, a second Treaty of Fort Laramie was signed in 1868. In it, the Lakota were recognized as having control of the Powder River territory and the Black Hills—the famous sacred hills—were recognized as a part of the Great Sioux Reservation. It also established hunting rights in the territories of South Dakota, Wyoming, and Montana.
The Black Hills War 1876-1877
Gold fever and rumors of the discovery of this mineral in the Black Hills motivated many migrants to cross these reservations’ territories; the government did nothing to stop them. These incursions on their territory did not sit well with the Sioux, who responded with assaults, leading to the violation of the treaty by both parties.
Various incidents triggered another Great Sioux War: The Black Hills War, also known as the Great Sioux War (1876-77). It was led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, famous leaders of the Oglala and Hunkpapa tribes, who were well known to the United States Army.
The Battle of Little Bighorn: 1876
The most famous battle of all the Indian Wars is the Battle of the Little Bighorn. It took place in 1876 during the Black Hills War and was the greatest defeat of the United States military in their conflicts with native people. Between June 25 and 26, the Seventh Calvary Regiment, a force of more than 700 men led by Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer, was defeated. A total of 268 people died, including the Colonel.
It seems that one of the factors that played a role in the defeat was Custer’s unwise decision not to wait for reinforcements and attack before they arrived. Furthermore, his troops were divided into three columns that attempted to attack from different areas. They were also outnumbered by Indian warriors.
It was a great victory for the Native Americans, but it had little impact afterwards, as the tribes were defeated in later battles. The Black Hills War ended with a new treaty in 1877 that was unfavorable for the Native Americans, as the Government took over their territories. This time, it was permanent.
The defeat was a point of no return in the Government’s intention of putting an end to the Indians. Since 1877, many military resources were invested in subduing and confining them to reservations. Indeed, all of the leaders fell except for Sitting Bull, who managed to flee to Canada.
The Wounded Knee Massacre: 1890
The Battle of Little Bighorn was followed by one of the darkest episodes in the history of the United States: The Wounded Knee Massacre (1890). In this incident, the Seventh Cavalry Regiment attacked the Pine Ridge Reservation population, causing nearly 300 deaths, the majority of which were women and children.
The Indian Wars finally ended with the surrender of Native American leaders and the tribes’ acceptance of living on reservations, which continue to exist today. If you want to learn more about the history of the Far West and Westerns, don’t miss out on visiting Oasys MiniHollywood. | <urn:uuid:30784a6e-dd0a-49d3-bbca-960eb510de0d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.oasysparquetematico.com/en/native-american-wars/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00169.warc.gz | en | 0.982627 | 1,444 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.43537735939... | 10 | Westward expansion brought about numerous wars between Native Americans and colonists during the 18th and 19th centuries. As had occurred before elsewhere on the American continents, the Native Americans rebelled against invasion and occupation. Some of the most bellicose tribes were the Sioux and the Apaches, whose battles and skirmishes against the United States Army have been portrayed in innumerable Westerns. In this post, we’ll tell you about some episodes of the most famous Indian wars of the 19th century.
The Apache Wars
The Apache conflicts began in the 16th century, when the Spanish arrived in the territories of Arizona and New Mexico. Conflict later continued with the Mexicans from the beginning of the 19th century until 1848, when these areas became United States territory. As a result of the discovery of gold in California and the consequent wave of immigrants who crossed this territory on their way to the West Coast, the situation with the Apaches worsened considerably.
The Apache Wars were conflicts that occurred between 1861 and 1886 in the territories of Arizona and New Mexico. Cochise, the Chiricahua Apache chief, led many of these battles against the United States Army alongside his father-in-law, Mangas Coloradas. There was a brief ceasefire in the wars after an agreement was made in which they agreed to live on a reservation in the Chiricahua Mountains and Sulphur Spring Valley, a sacred area for the tribe.
However, the conflicts continued with the famous chief Geronimo, who was born in Sonora and spoke Spanish. Despite being a very controversial figure—many of his actions did not always have the approval of his own people—he kept the United States government in check starting in 1876, with his refusal to accept that Indians were to be confined to reservations. This incited rebellion among many Apache tribes. Geronimo was arrested in the Sierra Madre Mountains in 1886. With his arrest, all the Apache Wars ended, as him and his followers were sent to faraway reservations in Florida and Oklahoma.
Sioux Indian Wars
As we explained in a previous post on American Indian tribes, the Great Sioux Nation was the name that the group of tribes who lived on the Great Plains was known by (Lakota, Dakota, and Nakota). The natural border of their territory was the Mississippi River. They were nomadic and hunted bison. They are one of the most well-known Indian tribes in part because they put up fierce resistance to the advances of the US conquest.
To understand the Sioux Indian Wars which broke out in the 19th century, you have to go back to 1803, when France sold the Louisiana Territory to the United States. This vast expanse of approximately 827,000 square miles stretched over fifteen modern day US states. This date marked the start of westward expansion.
Red Cloud’s War: 1866-1868
In 1851, the United States Government and the Sioux signed the first Treaty of Fort Laramie. With this peace agreement, the Native Americans promised to allow the construction of military forts on Indian territory and the passage of caravans towards the West. In exchange, the government recognized these lands as theirs.
However, constant violations of the treaty and incidents between the new arrivals and the natives lead to a breakdown of peace, which triggered what is known as Red Cloud’s War (1866 and 1868), in honor of the famous Sioux Indian Chief Red Cloud. He allied with the Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes to combat what they considered to be an abuse of the occupation of their territories.
This Sioux Indian war is also known as the Powder River War, as the battles were triggered over control of this river, located in the center of Wyoming. The famous Bozeman trail, the main road that led to the Montana gold mines, also passes through here.
During this war, the Native Americans blocked the route, assaulting trains and attacking troops that were constructing forts. As a consequence, a second Treaty of Fort Laramie was signed in 1868. In it, the Lakota were recognized as having control of the Powder River territory and the Black Hills—the famous sacred hills—were recognized as a part of the Great Sioux Reservation. It also established hunting rights in the territories of South Dakota, Wyoming, and Montana.
The Black Hills War 1876-1877
Gold fever and rumors of the discovery of this mineral in the Black Hills motivated many migrants to cross these reservations’ territories; the government did nothing to stop them. These incursions on their territory did not sit well with the Sioux, who responded with assaults, leading to the violation of the treaty by both parties.
Various incidents triggered another Great Sioux War: The Black Hills War, also known as the Great Sioux War (1876-77). It was led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, famous leaders of the Oglala and Hunkpapa tribes, who were well known to the United States Army.
The Battle of Little Bighorn: 1876
The most famous battle of all the Indian Wars is the Battle of the Little Bighorn. It took place in 1876 during the Black Hills War and was the greatest defeat of the United States military in their conflicts with native people. Between June 25 and 26, the Seventh Calvary Regiment, a force of more than 700 men led by Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer, was defeated. A total of 268 people died, including the Colonel.
It seems that one of the factors that played a role in the defeat was Custer’s unwise decision not to wait for reinforcements and attack before they arrived. Furthermore, his troops were divided into three columns that attempted to attack from different areas. They were also outnumbered by Indian warriors.
It was a great victory for the Native Americans, but it had little impact afterwards, as the tribes were defeated in later battles. The Black Hills War ended with a new treaty in 1877 that was unfavorable for the Native Americans, as the Government took over their territories. This time, it was permanent.
The defeat was a point of no return in the Government’s intention of putting an end to the Indians. Since 1877, many military resources were invested in subduing and confining them to reservations. Indeed, all of the leaders fell except for Sitting Bull, who managed to flee to Canada.
The Wounded Knee Massacre: 1890
The Battle of Little Bighorn was followed by one of the darkest episodes in the history of the United States: The Wounded Knee Massacre (1890). In this incident, the Seventh Cavalry Regiment attacked the Pine Ridge Reservation population, causing nearly 300 deaths, the majority of which were women and children.
The Indian Wars finally ended with the surrender of Native American leaders and the tribes’ acceptance of living on reservations, which continue to exist today. If you want to learn more about the history of the Far West and Westerns, don’t miss out on visiting Oasys MiniHollywood. | 1,501 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Subsistence and Commercial Activities. The Cree were basically hunters of big game, especially moose. In some areas, moose were supplemented by woodland caribou or barren-ground caribou (reindeer), and in others by white-tailed or Virginia deer. Bear were hunted and were also Ritually important. Waterfowl, geese, and ducks, were seasonally available in favored localities and flyways. Fish were apparently taken by women in the vicinity of the camps, but fishing by men did not become important until the decline of big-game populations, especially among the inhabitants of the Shield. Except for beaver, small fur-bearing animals became valuable only after the beginning of the European fur trade. The early trade introduced an increasing variety of goods. Metal items were of great value and included awls, axes, Kettles, knives, muskets, fishhooks, and other items, such as alcohol, beads, and mirrors. Blankets and cloth were introduced and became common. Cree bands became oriented to specific trading post-mission complexes. Low-cost trade goods had ended with the establishment of the Hudson's Bay Company monopoly, but toward the end of the century independent or "free traders" entered the region. In the mid-twentieth century commercial fishing was added to trapping as a basis of the cash economy.
By the mid-twentieth century, government programs induced subarctic peoples to concentrate in nucleated villages, for "administrative convenience," where the social institutions of Canadian industrial society were located. This increasingly brought an end to or weakened traditional Socioeconomic adjustments and social control mechanisms, as well as many cultural institutions; it also increased unemployment, alcohol abuse, and other social problems, leading to greater dependence upon social welfare programs.
The only aboriginally domesticated animal was the dog, used in hunting or as a pack animal. By the end of the nineteenth century, dog teams were increasingly used for hauling toboggans. In some areas on the southern margins of the Forest, horses came into use as pack animals, saddle horses, and draft animals, until they were replaced by motorized toboggans and pickup trucks.
Industrial Arts. The women were expert in preparing hides and making clothing, storage bags, lodge coverings, and other items. They also made baskets of birchbark and were potters until ceramics were replaced by metal. Men made weapons, showshoes, and birchbark canoes.
Trade. There was probably trade between friendly Algonkian-speaking bands in prehistoric times, although the archaeological record is incomplete. With the establishment of trading centers on the Great Lakes and Hudson and James bays, some Cree were employed seasonally as "home-guard" Indians, hunting, fishing, and carrying messages between forts. Others became middlemen, bringing furs to the traders and trade goods to the Indians of the interior. This phase lasted until the trading companies expanded throughout the forest. Trade was so important that many bands were oriented toward specific posts, and some new bands came into existence around such places.
Division of Labor. Men were responsible for hunting, trapping, fishing with nets, and traveling to the trading posts. Women were responsible for processing the game, preparing food and hides, making clothing and other items such as baskets, and caring for girls and small boys. Shamans were Usually men, and they were concerned with ritual, while female shamans were often skilled in the use of herbal medicine. As a result of concentration in villages and the decline of traditional activities, this division of labor is disappearing and new patterns may be emerging. | <urn:uuid:f760d33c-2635-448c-9225-833ac4cb4d85> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.everyculture.com/North-America/Cree-Western-Woods-Economy.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00272.warc.gz | en | 0.98525 | 748 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.08888717740774155... | 2 | Subsistence and Commercial Activities. The Cree were basically hunters of big game, especially moose. In some areas, moose were supplemented by woodland caribou or barren-ground caribou (reindeer), and in others by white-tailed or Virginia deer. Bear were hunted and were also Ritually important. Waterfowl, geese, and ducks, were seasonally available in favored localities and flyways. Fish were apparently taken by women in the vicinity of the camps, but fishing by men did not become important until the decline of big-game populations, especially among the inhabitants of the Shield. Except for beaver, small fur-bearing animals became valuable only after the beginning of the European fur trade. The early trade introduced an increasing variety of goods. Metal items were of great value and included awls, axes, Kettles, knives, muskets, fishhooks, and other items, such as alcohol, beads, and mirrors. Blankets and cloth were introduced and became common. Cree bands became oriented to specific trading post-mission complexes. Low-cost trade goods had ended with the establishment of the Hudson's Bay Company monopoly, but toward the end of the century independent or "free traders" entered the region. In the mid-twentieth century commercial fishing was added to trapping as a basis of the cash economy.
By the mid-twentieth century, government programs induced subarctic peoples to concentrate in nucleated villages, for "administrative convenience," where the social institutions of Canadian industrial society were located. This increasingly brought an end to or weakened traditional Socioeconomic adjustments and social control mechanisms, as well as many cultural institutions; it also increased unemployment, alcohol abuse, and other social problems, leading to greater dependence upon social welfare programs.
The only aboriginally domesticated animal was the dog, used in hunting or as a pack animal. By the end of the nineteenth century, dog teams were increasingly used for hauling toboggans. In some areas on the southern margins of the Forest, horses came into use as pack animals, saddle horses, and draft animals, until they were replaced by motorized toboggans and pickup trucks.
Industrial Arts. The women were expert in preparing hides and making clothing, storage bags, lodge coverings, and other items. They also made baskets of birchbark and were potters until ceramics were replaced by metal. Men made weapons, showshoes, and birchbark canoes.
Trade. There was probably trade between friendly Algonkian-speaking bands in prehistoric times, although the archaeological record is incomplete. With the establishment of trading centers on the Great Lakes and Hudson and James bays, some Cree were employed seasonally as "home-guard" Indians, hunting, fishing, and carrying messages between forts. Others became middlemen, bringing furs to the traders and trade goods to the Indians of the interior. This phase lasted until the trading companies expanded throughout the forest. Trade was so important that many bands were oriented toward specific posts, and some new bands came into existence around such places.
Division of Labor. Men were responsible for hunting, trapping, fishing with nets, and traveling to the trading posts. Women were responsible for processing the game, preparing food and hides, making clothing and other items such as baskets, and caring for girls and small boys. Shamans were Usually men, and they were concerned with ritual, while female shamans were often skilled in the use of herbal medicine. As a result of concentration in villages and the decline of traditional activities, this division of labor is disappearing and new patterns may be emerging. | 727 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The novel, Sense and Sensibility was written by Jane Austen, in 1811.Jane Austen published four novels anonymously during her lifetime: Sense and Sensibility (1811), Pride and Prejudice (1813), Mansfield Park (1814), Emma (1815).Two novels, Northanger Abbey and Persuasion were published after her death in 1817.These novels are prominent for her satiric depiction of English society and manners.
Sense and Sensibility is about the Dashwood sisters, Elinor, Marianne, and Margaret have lived at their father’s home, Norland, all their life.However, when their father dies and their half-brother inherits everything, they have to find somewhere else to live with their mother.The story is about two women seeking romance and security between the romantic and enlightenment eras.In addition, the story holds many twists and gives accurate portrayals of the romantic and enlightenment era.Austen covered many aspects such as social status of men and women, individual persona, interaction between families, and responsibilities of higher society.
The movie that was produced by Lindsay Doran and directed by Ang Lee captured several aspects of the period unable to be revealed by the book such as attire, art, architecture and landscaping of the estates, hobbies, religion, technology such as travel, medicine and simple ways of living.The movie accurately portrayed Austen;s original concepts of the period dealing with roles of gender.
The book and the movie both showed Elinor and Marianne clashing, as they were products of different periods.Elinor, the eldest sister, is sensible and prudent which is a reflection of the romantic period.Marianne is a representation of the enlightenment period as she is very emotional and never does anything in moderation.
Although the movie followed the book closely, there were several characters not introduced in the movie.With some, their personality was altered but in most cases, the chara… | <urn:uuid:1cb3e1b4-4946-440e-833e-cfde8c12bd48> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/sense-and-sensibility/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00258.warc.gz | en | 0.980682 | 401 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.06631850451... | 1 | The novel, Sense and Sensibility was written by Jane Austen, in 1811.Jane Austen published four novels anonymously during her lifetime: Sense and Sensibility (1811), Pride and Prejudice (1813), Mansfield Park (1814), Emma (1815).Two novels, Northanger Abbey and Persuasion were published after her death in 1817.These novels are prominent for her satiric depiction of English society and manners.
Sense and Sensibility is about the Dashwood sisters, Elinor, Marianne, and Margaret have lived at their father’s home, Norland, all their life.However, when their father dies and their half-brother inherits everything, they have to find somewhere else to live with their mother.The story is about two women seeking romance and security between the romantic and enlightenment eras.In addition, the story holds many twists and gives accurate portrayals of the romantic and enlightenment era.Austen covered many aspects such as social status of men and women, individual persona, interaction between families, and responsibilities of higher society.
The movie that was produced by Lindsay Doran and directed by Ang Lee captured several aspects of the period unable to be revealed by the book such as attire, art, architecture and landscaping of the estates, hobbies, religion, technology such as travel, medicine and simple ways of living.The movie accurately portrayed Austen;s original concepts of the period dealing with roles of gender.
The book and the movie both showed Elinor and Marianne clashing, as they were products of different periods.Elinor, the eldest sister, is sensible and prudent which is a reflection of the romantic period.Marianne is a representation of the enlightenment period as she is very emotional and never does anything in moderation.
Although the movie followed the book closely, there were several characters not introduced in the movie.With some, their personality was altered but in most cases, the chara… | 403 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Money is any object that is used to purchase goods and services. Throughout history, many different types of objects have been used as money, but coins made from precious metals have been the most common. Because money was useful for buying items, people in ancient Greece and Rome often needed to borrow money from individuals or institutions, such as temples or banks. For much of classical antiquity, the coin itself was worth what it weighed. Fiduciary money, which we use today (in which the object itself is not actually worth its agreed-on value), was rare.
Money in Ancient Greece and Rome. By about the 800s B.C., most Greek communities had adopted official units of money, usually in some form of precious metal. Lydia, in western Asia Minor, was the first nation to mint coins, in about 635 B.C., and the practices of minting and using coins spread rapidly. After about 400 B.C., Rome was also using coins as money. Coins were stamped with a particular design to show that they were of uniform size. This saved people the trouble of having to weigh each coin individually. Although most coins were used in the region in which they were produced, the coins of Athens during the classical* period and the coins of Alexander the Great and his successors in the Hellenistic* period were made in large quantities and used over a wide area.
The first coins were made only of precious metals, especially elec- trum, a naturally occurring mixture of gold and silver. Later silver was used widely, and gold coins were introduced by Philip II, the king of Macedonia, in the 300s B.C. After Philip, a combination of gold and silver was used in most coins. Because southern Italy and Sicily had a limited supply of precious metals, these areas began producing bronze coins, which had less value as metal. By the 300s B.C. most Greek city-states, including Athens, adopted bronze coins. However, most city-states continued to use gold and silver in addition to bronze, believing that coins of high value must be made of good metal.
* classical in Greek history, refers to the period of great political and cultural achievement from about 500 B.C. to 323 B.C.
* Hellenistic referring to the Greek-influenced culture of the Mediterranean world during the three centuries after Alexander the Great, who died in 323 B.C.
Although coins were widely used in Greek and Roman cities, coins were less important or not used at all in large areas of the Mediterranean. Instead, people bartered* agricultural produce or other goods as they always had. Money was not even necessary for overseas trade.
Moneylending. Although the practice of lending money is older than the use of coins in ancient Greece and Rome, coins made moneylending easier. In Greece, most moneylending occurred between individuals, although temples and banks also made loans. Wealth, for the most part, consisted of land and the goods produced from the land. Wealthy people could be cash poor, and they borrowed money from one another to maintain their social standing or to influence political decisions. Poor people also borrowed money from wealthier people, usually at high rates of interest.
Small businesses run by merchants controlled moneylending during the Roman Republic*. Instead of coins, these merchants used bills of exchange, which were written orders from one person to pay a certain amount of money to another. This system spread throughout the empire. During the later years of the Roman Empire, the business of moneylending gradually shifted from merchants to the wealthy owners of large estates. It was customary for Roman moneylenders to charge interest on the loans they made. (See also Banking; Coinage; Economy, Greek; Economy, Roman; Taxation; Trade, Greek; Trade, Roman.)
* barter to exchange goods and services without using money
* Roman Republic Rome during the period from 509 B.C. to 31 B.C., when popular assemblies annually elected their governmental officials
MONEYLENDING AND OVERSEAS TRADE
Overseas traders often needed to borrow large sums of money to finance their trading expeditions. Even if they owned their own ship, they still needed to buy cargo for trade and supplies for the trip. Traders often borrowed the money they needed from wealthy individuals. These moneylenders frequently charged extremely high rates of interest—sometimes as high as 30 percent—because trading expeditions were very risky. Unless the trader was shipwrecked, he had to pay back the loan. If he failed to repay it, the moneylenders could take possession of his ship and its cargo. | <urn:uuid:7e76f215-d2d1-4cba-b015-966ae4c66ba3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://erenow.net/ancient/ancient-greece-and-rome-an-encyclopedia-for-students-4-volume-set/293.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00019.warc.gz | en | 0.981614 | 948 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.353236526... | 5 | Money is any object that is used to purchase goods and services. Throughout history, many different types of objects have been used as money, but coins made from precious metals have been the most common. Because money was useful for buying items, people in ancient Greece and Rome often needed to borrow money from individuals or institutions, such as temples or banks. For much of classical antiquity, the coin itself was worth what it weighed. Fiduciary money, which we use today (in which the object itself is not actually worth its agreed-on value), was rare.
Money in Ancient Greece and Rome. By about the 800s B.C., most Greek communities had adopted official units of money, usually in some form of precious metal. Lydia, in western Asia Minor, was the first nation to mint coins, in about 635 B.C., and the practices of minting and using coins spread rapidly. After about 400 B.C., Rome was also using coins as money. Coins were stamped with a particular design to show that they were of uniform size. This saved people the trouble of having to weigh each coin individually. Although most coins were used in the region in which they were produced, the coins of Athens during the classical* period and the coins of Alexander the Great and his successors in the Hellenistic* period were made in large quantities and used over a wide area.
The first coins were made only of precious metals, especially elec- trum, a naturally occurring mixture of gold and silver. Later silver was used widely, and gold coins were introduced by Philip II, the king of Macedonia, in the 300s B.C. After Philip, a combination of gold and silver was used in most coins. Because southern Italy and Sicily had a limited supply of precious metals, these areas began producing bronze coins, which had less value as metal. By the 300s B.C. most Greek city-states, including Athens, adopted bronze coins. However, most city-states continued to use gold and silver in addition to bronze, believing that coins of high value must be made of good metal.
* classical in Greek history, refers to the period of great political and cultural achievement from about 500 B.C. to 323 B.C.
* Hellenistic referring to the Greek-influenced culture of the Mediterranean world during the three centuries after Alexander the Great, who died in 323 B.C.
Although coins were widely used in Greek and Roman cities, coins were less important or not used at all in large areas of the Mediterranean. Instead, people bartered* agricultural produce or other goods as they always had. Money was not even necessary for overseas trade.
Moneylending. Although the practice of lending money is older than the use of coins in ancient Greece and Rome, coins made moneylending easier. In Greece, most moneylending occurred between individuals, although temples and banks also made loans. Wealth, for the most part, consisted of land and the goods produced from the land. Wealthy people could be cash poor, and they borrowed money from one another to maintain their social standing or to influence political decisions. Poor people also borrowed money from wealthier people, usually at high rates of interest.
Small businesses run by merchants controlled moneylending during the Roman Republic*. Instead of coins, these merchants used bills of exchange, which were written orders from one person to pay a certain amount of money to another. This system spread throughout the empire. During the later years of the Roman Empire, the business of moneylending gradually shifted from merchants to the wealthy owners of large estates. It was customary for Roman moneylenders to charge interest on the loans they made. (See also Banking; Coinage; Economy, Greek; Economy, Roman; Taxation; Trade, Greek; Trade, Roman.)
* barter to exchange goods and services without using money
* Roman Republic Rome during the period from 509 B.C. to 31 B.C., when popular assemblies annually elected their governmental officials
MONEYLENDING AND OVERSEAS TRADE
Overseas traders often needed to borrow large sums of money to finance their trading expeditions. Even if they owned their own ship, they still needed to buy cargo for trade and supplies for the trip. Traders often borrowed the money they needed from wealthy individuals. These moneylenders frequently charged extremely high rates of interest—sometimes as high as 30 percent—because trading expeditions were very risky. Unless the trader was shipwrecked, he had to pay back the loan. If he failed to repay it, the moneylenders could take possession of his ship and its cargo. | 957 | ENGLISH | 1 |
After the close of the American Civil War in 1865, John Wesley Powell, a Union Army veteran who had lost his right forearm to a Confederate musket ball, returned to civilian life as a geology professor. In 1869, he set out to explore and survey the Green and Colorado Rivers and lead the first scientific expedition through the entire Grand Canyon. The feat required boats built specifically for the task by the Thomas Bagley boatyard in Chicago. In the 1860s, there were no boats appropriate for this kind of journey and also no practical way to get them there until the completion of the first Transcontinental Railroad on May 10, 1869. Bagley could then send the boats west by rail to the Green River station in Wyoming. After christening the three large boats KITTY CLYDE’S SISTER, MAID OF THE CAÑON, NO NAME, and the small one EMMA DEAN, the expedition got underway on May 24, 1869. Three months later, on August 30, Powell arrived at his goal, the mouth of the Virgin River, with just three of his four boats and six of the ten men he’d set out with.
In 2013, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) commissioned the Northwest School of Wooden Boatbuilding to recreate two of Bagley’s 21′ Whitehall “freight boats” and the smaller 16′ scout boat for Operation Grand Canyon, a TV program about the retracing the famous expedition by Powell, who was later the director of the U.S. Geological Survey. I worked with eight students to build the Whitehalls, and senior instructor Jeff Hammond built the scout boat with other students.
There are no plans or pictures of the boats of this expedition. Powell’s journals offer only an outline for their construction:
Three* are built of oak; stanch [sic] and firm; doubled-ribbed with double stem and stern posts, and further strengthened by bulkheads, dividing each into three compartments.
Two of these, fore and aft, are decked, forming water-tight cabins. It is expected these will buoy the boats should the waves roll over them in rough water. The little vessels are twenty-one feet long and, taking out the cargoes, can be carried by four men.
The fourth boat is made of pine, very light, but sixteen feet in length, with a sharp cutwater, and every way built for fast rowing and divided into compartments as the others.
*One of Powell’s boats was lost at the rapids he named Disaster Falls. For Operation Grand Canyon only the boats that had survived were replicated.
The usual carvel construction of Whitehalls in the last half of the 19th century was ill-suited for this type of expedition, and, following Powell’s notes and channeling Thomas Bagley, I beefed everything up considerably and added some atypical features. I decided that Bagley would have added a keel batten to back up the garboards if he was concerned about the boat coming down hard on a rock. I also studied photographs and engravings in books about Powell’s second expedition—in 1871—and built the boats the way I felt Bagley would have in 1869.
The first two tasks were to find suitable white oak and to draw the lines that would later be lofted full size. While Jeff and I were drawing lines, our executive director at the time, Pete Leenhouts, was on the phone searching for oak. He eventually found white oak big enough for full-length planks and backbone timbers in Rhode Island, some 3,000 miles away. While we were building the strongback and making patterns and molds, the oak was being harvested and sawn and I was quite nervous about building boats with green wood.
The oak arrived, some as rough-sawn 10/4 flitches. We planed them down to 2 ¼″ and arranged our Mylar backbone patterns to make the best use of the oak’s beautiful grain. The wood had had very little time to dry after being cut, and our moisture meter just blinked—the readings were off the charts.
My students seemed to be enjoying themselves despite the cold, wet, dark shelter we worked in and our morale was high. Soon enough the enormous backbone was in place, and the transom was bolted on.
Powell’s description of the boats as “doubled-ribbed” could be taken to mean either that there were twice as many frames as a normal Whitehall might have or that each was twice as thick. I decided to compromise by increasing the thickness by half and decreasing the normal frame spacing from 9″ to 6″.
The green oak was glorious to bend when steamed—it could take a 90-degree twist in a matter of a few feet—so the garboards went on quickly and we had plenty of time to put on the first broadstrake before we left for the weekend. On Monday morning, as I’d feared, the plank seams that were perfect on Friday now had ¼″ gaps. It was going to be a battle to get these boats to float. I tried everything I knew to keep this from happening again—oiling the planks to slow the drying, building a kiln to dry the oak before it went on the boat, even using a wood stabilizer that replaces water in the cells—but in the end it was a losing battle. Time was not our ally, so we planked the boats and let the oak do what it wanted to do. We flipped the hulls and turned to fitting out the interior and decks.
By May, it was time to get the boats afloat, but some of the seams had gaps of as much as 3/8″. We ripped 8′ lengths of red-cedar splines, matched to the thickness of our planks. Because the seam gaps were anything but uniform, we made splines in several different widths, coated them with linseed oil, and tapped them in. The cotton caulking that followed kept everything in place without glue. I had to leave the shop in disgust several times after I’d caulked the same spot multiple times before it seated properly and didn’t blow out the inside of the planks. My students were calmer than I was about the whole process and so absorbed in it that they wouldn’t even look up when I blurted out my frustrations.
After six months of work we put the Whitehalls—one painted green, the other blue—and the red-hulled scout boat on the beach by the school and waited for the rising tide to lift them off their slings. In the days that followed I trained with the boats in the bay. They were like huge battleships compared to the light boats I was used to rowing, but they could take a pounding like no other Whitehall. They were ready for their journey.
The boats arrived in Flagstaff, Arizona, amidst such a frenzy of activity and preparations for the trip down the Colorado that they were never given names. Fred Thevanin, the fearless leader of Arizona Raft Adventures (AZRA) and in charge of the trip, also served as the guide in the scout boat I’d be in as crew. I had never seen such insanity as people threw bags of potatoes, welded solar-panel brackets onto raft frames, filled whiskey barrels, and moved boats around. We were all as excited and as anxious as we’d have been if we were going to the moon and might never come back. Even the guides, who had been down this stretch of river countless times, knew this would be no ordinary trip.
A few days before launching, the British boatmen arrived along with the remaining film crew—which included Dan Snow, a popular British television host and dedicated historian. The boat crew included Mike Dilger, an ecologist and BBC reporter; Dougal Jerram, a geologist; Sam Willis a maritime historian; Bryan Smith, a filmmaker and whitewater kayaker; Fred Thevanin; and Adam Bringhurst and Tom O’Hara, both river guides. This crew of nine was the same number Powell had for this stretch.
We piled everything into trucks and headed to the boat ramp at Lees Ferry, arriving to ominous claps of thunder and bright, ragged lightning bolts. The rain came soon after so we checked into a local hotel for one last comfortable sleep. Those who hadn’t been down the river looked to the guides for assurance, but because they had never used boats like those we’d built even they were unsure.
The next day, we launched the boats for rowing trials. The hulls had dried out in the desert air, and the seams were leaking badly. I assured everyone that this was normal and the planks would swell up, but feeling cold water around my shins as I rowed a sinking boat made me more terrified by the hour. I had committed to something that now seemed downright foolish; once we left Lees Ferry, there would be no getting out of the canyon except by helicopter. I took solace from Tom’s calm demeanor and focused energy. As we shoved off and headed downstream, I took a deep breath, rejected negative thoughts, and pondered the eight months of hard work that had gotten me this far. What a relief it was to be on the river, living in the moment, and no longer fearing the future. As we rowed through the first riffle, I was surprised by our speed; Fred was quickly figuring out how to manage the 14′ ash sweep he was using to steer. After that riffle, my anxiety turned to excitement.
Our first real challenge was 17 miles downriver from Lees Ferry at House Rock Rapid, where the current threatens to take you into a large hydraulic hole to the left; to avoid it, the boat must cross the river mid-rapid and dodge huge rocks on the river’s right. It would test our maneuverability. As we dropped into the smooth V of water at the top of the rapid, Fred said, “Take me on a walk,” meaning row with a slow but powerful cadence. When smooth water turned to cresting waves Fred said: “Take me on a jog.” A cold breaking wave smacked me in the back and took my breath away. Another wave wrapped around us from the other side. “Don’t forget to breathe,” Fred yelled. He squared up the bow of the boat with the huge lateral wave. As the boat climbed, the water pushed our bow parallel to the lip on top of the wave and we got a glimpse over the edge into the deep and deadly hole, which was roaring like a jet engine. Then, like a big-wave surfer, our boat dropped into the downstream trough, sped into flat water, and pushed through the eddy line with authority. As the eddy spun the boat up river, we were nearly submerged and bailed water while our hearts pounded. The other two boats punch though the waves and into the safety of the eddy.
That night, we camped on a soft, sandy beach sloping from a sheer wall of ancient rocks. Everyone had aches and pains, even the film crew. Despite being on modern rafts, they too had taken some punishment. We unloaded the boats of gear and food, and set up the kitchen. Fred and Bryan figured out what to make for dinner. Our meals consisted of foods that Powell may have taken on his journey. By this point on Powell’s trip, his crew had been on the river for months and were running out of food. Our meal was simple but delicious after a long day of physical exertion under the desert sun.
On many of the nights that followed, like our first night camping just upstream from the head of Crystal Rapid, we would drink bottom-shelf whiskey and sing around the campfire to the beautiful music of Sam and Tom on guitar and banjo. On those nights when we expected torrential rains, I’d work with the English crewmembers to create shelters out of a huge canvas tarp using oars as poles. At the camp downstream from Separation Canyon, we set up a particularly nice canopy over the kitchen using four oars on the perimeter and a longer sweep oar for the peak. We were grown men arguing the finer details of design and knots while wrestling a huge leaky tarp, but it felt like we were kids building a fort.
The boats were constantly deteriorating, and I spent most evenings fixing broken oarlocks, patching holes, and mending oars. To achieve better trim for steering and climbing over waves, I arranged a few boulders as ballast in the stern compartments. Obsessed with the maintenance of the boats we’d created, I was prepared and ready for almost any repair. I’d brought wood, screws, bolts, and three canvas bags full of tools. Almost daily something needed to be fixed. Halfway through the canyon, CRAZY HORSE, as Dan had been calling the blue boat, pulled through an eddy line and struck a rock concealed just below the surface of the water; an hour later, as the fleet pulled into camp, Dan mentioned the boat was sinking. The mangled stem and keel took three hours to fix, with three other team members helping. I had brought large pieces of wood to replace broken pieces, but even if we could replace the stem and keel, the task would have set us back a week. So we put tar in and around the hole, molded a lead sheet by hammering it over the tar, and then tacked it down with copper nails. The four of us showed up for dinner covered with splattered tar.
It was satisfying to see what these boats could endure. People asked me if it was painful to watch the boats get damaged over and over again, but I enjoyed seeing them pushed to their limits and beyond and relished the challenge of keeping them afloat. CRAZY HORSE collided with a sheer wall at Bed Rock Rapid and I was amazed the boat didn’t break in two. The patch we’d put on a few days earlier was ripped completely off, exposing the hole again. The impact punched through the planks, but the damage could have been much worse: The double framing prevented more of the plank from being shattered, and the hole in the stem could be repaired because the timber was oversized.
Crystal Rapid was an exceptional threat to both boats and crew. The filmmakers wanted us to line one boat, portage the second boat, and run the rapid with the third boat to demonstrate methods used by Powell’s expedition. We eased CRAZY HORSE down the bank next to the rapid, with Tom and Bryan in the boat and the rest of us three-deep paying out and then grasping bow and stern lines, we controlled the boat’s descent. We let the boat drift just far enough from shore for the current to pull it downstream without letting it into faster-moving water that would have ripped the lines out of our hands. At one point, CRAZY HORSE perched on some rocks and rolled on its side, allowing a huge wave to come over the rail. The additional weight solidly pinned the boat there, and despite trying for hours we could not free it. We gave up, hoping that the expected decrease in water level at night (the Glen Canyon dam upstream releases less water as the demand for electricity diminishes in the evening) would help get it off the rocks. It was depressing to think that the boat might be in its final resting place. If three crew were rendered boatless, they would have to cram aboard the other two boats. At 4 a.m., however, the water was low enough that we could bail the boat and work it free, after which we lined it the rest of the way to a beach at the bottom of the rapid.
We portaged the scout boat around Crystal Rapid. All nine of us carried provisions and gear 400 yards downriver along the bank. We then lashed oars across the 800-lb boat to provide handholds for carrying it over boulders at the edge of the river. Stumbling and falling in the sweltering sun, it took us hours to portage the boat.
The green boat ran Crystal Rapid and got swept into a boulder garden, slamming into several rocks without much damage. While Powell portaged his boats overland to avoid rapids he deemed unwise to run, most of us agreed that running the rapid was the best way to get people and boats down the river. It was less risky for the boats than lining and safer for the crew than portaging.
Lava Falls was our last big rapid. Of all of the rapids in the Grand Canyon, it is widely regarded as the most powerful and the most dangerous. The film crew took several hours to set up, since they would have only one chance to capture the run on film. After hours of watching private groups scout the rapid only to have Lava Falls flip their rafts, it was finally our turn.
I shoved off while Fred gave directions to Sam on the oars. Fred maneuvered the boat a few feet to the right of a giant hole that has claimed many boats over the years. The muddy water was boiling as we plowed through and over a train of giant waves. At the bottom of the rapid we rode over a pressure wave the size of a bus and came to rest in an eddy on the right side.
Next came CRAZY HORSE carrying Tom, Dan, and Dougal, who also survived Lava even though the boat was swamped. We all stood by as Adam, Bryan, and Mike entered the rapid in their Whitehall. Adam maneuvered next to the explosive keeper hole at the top, then his boat hit a huge hole at the bottom and vanished. When it emerged from the depths like a breaching whale, only two people were aboard. Adam was gone. We quickly rowed out in search of him. Adam eventually resurfaced 10′ behind his boat and swam to catch up. With Bryan’s help, he clambered aboard just before they were swept into the next rapid, Son of Lava. Completely swamped and lacking Adam’s steering sweep, they were at the mercy of the river; they could only hope for the best. All three boats made it through. Our nerves shattered, we regrouped, had a quick bite to eat, and rowed in silence for an hour until we reached our next camp.
Our 18 days in the Grand Canyon gave us a deeper understanding of ourselves, the power of the great Colorado River, and the toughness of Powell and his crew. Only six of the 10 who started his 101-day, 930-mile expedition made it through the canyon, the final leg of the journey. One had given up before reaching the Grand Canyon and after Lava Falls three of the men abandoned Powell at Separation Canyon and were never seen again. Of his four boats, three made it to the end of the expedition. After running just the 280 miles of the canyon and more than 100 rapids, I understood all too clearly my obligation as a boatbuilder to build boats as best I can and to take good care of them. In the Grand Canyon the bond created with boats is especially strong; as the Colorado River guides say: “If you want to live, stay with your boat.”
Ben Kahn earned a bachelor’s degree in industrial arts from Berea College in Kentucky in 1999 and graduated from the Northwest School of Wooden Boatbuilding (NWSWB) in 2001. Working in the Port Townsend, Washington, and Sausalito, California, shipyards prepared him for his current job teaching at NWSWB. He spends his free time enjoying boats and friends in the beautiful Pacific Northwest.
A trailer for the Operation Grand Canyon, is on the BBC’s YouTube channel.
John Wesley Powell went on to serve as the director of the U.S. Geological Survey, and as an anthropologist and ethnographer he was the first director of ethnology at the Smithsonian Institution. He died, strangely enough, in 1902 in none other than Brooklin, Maine—the headquarters of Small Boats Monthly and its sister publication, WoodenBoat. For more about his explorations, see Wallace Stenger’s book Beyond the Hundredth Meridian: John Wesley Powell and the Second Opening of the West.
If you have an interesting story to tell about your adventures with a small wooden boat, please email us a brief outline and a few photos.
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0.22813652... | 2 | After the close of the American Civil War in 1865, John Wesley Powell, a Union Army veteran who had lost his right forearm to a Confederate musket ball, returned to civilian life as a geology professor. In 1869, he set out to explore and survey the Green and Colorado Rivers and lead the first scientific expedition through the entire Grand Canyon. The feat required boats built specifically for the task by the Thomas Bagley boatyard in Chicago. In the 1860s, there were no boats appropriate for this kind of journey and also no practical way to get them there until the completion of the first Transcontinental Railroad on May 10, 1869. Bagley could then send the boats west by rail to the Green River station in Wyoming. After christening the three large boats KITTY CLYDE’S SISTER, MAID OF THE CAÑON, NO NAME, and the small one EMMA DEAN, the expedition got underway on May 24, 1869. Three months later, on August 30, Powell arrived at his goal, the mouth of the Virgin River, with just three of his four boats and six of the ten men he’d set out with.
In 2013, the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) commissioned the Northwest School of Wooden Boatbuilding to recreate two of Bagley’s 21′ Whitehall “freight boats” and the smaller 16′ scout boat for Operation Grand Canyon, a TV program about the retracing the famous expedition by Powell, who was later the director of the U.S. Geological Survey. I worked with eight students to build the Whitehalls, and senior instructor Jeff Hammond built the scout boat with other students.
There are no plans or pictures of the boats of this expedition. Powell’s journals offer only an outline for their construction:
Three* are built of oak; stanch [sic] and firm; doubled-ribbed with double stem and stern posts, and further strengthened by bulkheads, dividing each into three compartments.
Two of these, fore and aft, are decked, forming water-tight cabins. It is expected these will buoy the boats should the waves roll over them in rough water. The little vessels are twenty-one feet long and, taking out the cargoes, can be carried by four men.
The fourth boat is made of pine, very light, but sixteen feet in length, with a sharp cutwater, and every way built for fast rowing and divided into compartments as the others.
*One of Powell’s boats was lost at the rapids he named Disaster Falls. For Operation Grand Canyon only the boats that had survived were replicated.
The usual carvel construction of Whitehalls in the last half of the 19th century was ill-suited for this type of expedition, and, following Powell’s notes and channeling Thomas Bagley, I beefed everything up considerably and added some atypical features. I decided that Bagley would have added a keel batten to back up the garboards if he was concerned about the boat coming down hard on a rock. I also studied photographs and engravings in books about Powell’s second expedition—in 1871—and built the boats the way I felt Bagley would have in 1869.
The first two tasks were to find suitable white oak and to draw the lines that would later be lofted full size. While Jeff and I were drawing lines, our executive director at the time, Pete Leenhouts, was on the phone searching for oak. He eventually found white oak big enough for full-length planks and backbone timbers in Rhode Island, some 3,000 miles away. While we were building the strongback and making patterns and molds, the oak was being harvested and sawn and I was quite nervous about building boats with green wood.
The oak arrived, some as rough-sawn 10/4 flitches. We planed them down to 2 ¼″ and arranged our Mylar backbone patterns to make the best use of the oak’s beautiful grain. The wood had had very little time to dry after being cut, and our moisture meter just blinked—the readings were off the charts.
My students seemed to be enjoying themselves despite the cold, wet, dark shelter we worked in and our morale was high. Soon enough the enormous backbone was in place, and the transom was bolted on.
Powell’s description of the boats as “doubled-ribbed” could be taken to mean either that there were twice as many frames as a normal Whitehall might have or that each was twice as thick. I decided to compromise by increasing the thickness by half and decreasing the normal frame spacing from 9″ to 6″.
The green oak was glorious to bend when steamed—it could take a 90-degree twist in a matter of a few feet—so the garboards went on quickly and we had plenty of time to put on the first broadstrake before we left for the weekend. On Monday morning, as I’d feared, the plank seams that were perfect on Friday now had ¼″ gaps. It was going to be a battle to get these boats to float. I tried everything I knew to keep this from happening again—oiling the planks to slow the drying, building a kiln to dry the oak before it went on the boat, even using a wood stabilizer that replaces water in the cells—but in the end it was a losing battle. Time was not our ally, so we planked the boats and let the oak do what it wanted to do. We flipped the hulls and turned to fitting out the interior and decks.
By May, it was time to get the boats afloat, but some of the seams had gaps of as much as 3/8″. We ripped 8′ lengths of red-cedar splines, matched to the thickness of our planks. Because the seam gaps were anything but uniform, we made splines in several different widths, coated them with linseed oil, and tapped them in. The cotton caulking that followed kept everything in place without glue. I had to leave the shop in disgust several times after I’d caulked the same spot multiple times before it seated properly and didn’t blow out the inside of the planks. My students were calmer than I was about the whole process and so absorbed in it that they wouldn’t even look up when I blurted out my frustrations.
After six months of work we put the Whitehalls—one painted green, the other blue—and the red-hulled scout boat on the beach by the school and waited for the rising tide to lift them off their slings. In the days that followed I trained with the boats in the bay. They were like huge battleships compared to the light boats I was used to rowing, but they could take a pounding like no other Whitehall. They were ready for their journey.
The boats arrived in Flagstaff, Arizona, amidst such a frenzy of activity and preparations for the trip down the Colorado that they were never given names. Fred Thevanin, the fearless leader of Arizona Raft Adventures (AZRA) and in charge of the trip, also served as the guide in the scout boat I’d be in as crew. I had never seen such insanity as people threw bags of potatoes, welded solar-panel brackets onto raft frames, filled whiskey barrels, and moved boats around. We were all as excited and as anxious as we’d have been if we were going to the moon and might never come back. Even the guides, who had been down this stretch of river countless times, knew this would be no ordinary trip.
A few days before launching, the British boatmen arrived along with the remaining film crew—which included Dan Snow, a popular British television host and dedicated historian. The boat crew included Mike Dilger, an ecologist and BBC reporter; Dougal Jerram, a geologist; Sam Willis a maritime historian; Bryan Smith, a filmmaker and whitewater kayaker; Fred Thevanin; and Adam Bringhurst and Tom O’Hara, both river guides. This crew of nine was the same number Powell had for this stretch.
We piled everything into trucks and headed to the boat ramp at Lees Ferry, arriving to ominous claps of thunder and bright, ragged lightning bolts. The rain came soon after so we checked into a local hotel for one last comfortable sleep. Those who hadn’t been down the river looked to the guides for assurance, but because they had never used boats like those we’d built even they were unsure.
The next day, we launched the boats for rowing trials. The hulls had dried out in the desert air, and the seams were leaking badly. I assured everyone that this was normal and the planks would swell up, but feeling cold water around my shins as I rowed a sinking boat made me more terrified by the hour. I had committed to something that now seemed downright foolish; once we left Lees Ferry, there would be no getting out of the canyon except by helicopter. I took solace from Tom’s calm demeanor and focused energy. As we shoved off and headed downstream, I took a deep breath, rejected negative thoughts, and pondered the eight months of hard work that had gotten me this far. What a relief it was to be on the river, living in the moment, and no longer fearing the future. As we rowed through the first riffle, I was surprised by our speed; Fred was quickly figuring out how to manage the 14′ ash sweep he was using to steer. After that riffle, my anxiety turned to excitement.
Our first real challenge was 17 miles downriver from Lees Ferry at House Rock Rapid, where the current threatens to take you into a large hydraulic hole to the left; to avoid it, the boat must cross the river mid-rapid and dodge huge rocks on the river’s right. It would test our maneuverability. As we dropped into the smooth V of water at the top of the rapid, Fred said, “Take me on a walk,” meaning row with a slow but powerful cadence. When smooth water turned to cresting waves Fred said: “Take me on a jog.” A cold breaking wave smacked me in the back and took my breath away. Another wave wrapped around us from the other side. “Don’t forget to breathe,” Fred yelled. He squared up the bow of the boat with the huge lateral wave. As the boat climbed, the water pushed our bow parallel to the lip on top of the wave and we got a glimpse over the edge into the deep and deadly hole, which was roaring like a jet engine. Then, like a big-wave surfer, our boat dropped into the downstream trough, sped into flat water, and pushed through the eddy line with authority. As the eddy spun the boat up river, we were nearly submerged and bailed water while our hearts pounded. The other two boats punch though the waves and into the safety of the eddy.
That night, we camped on a soft, sandy beach sloping from a sheer wall of ancient rocks. Everyone had aches and pains, even the film crew. Despite being on modern rafts, they too had taken some punishment. We unloaded the boats of gear and food, and set up the kitchen. Fred and Bryan figured out what to make for dinner. Our meals consisted of foods that Powell may have taken on his journey. By this point on Powell’s trip, his crew had been on the river for months and were running out of food. Our meal was simple but delicious after a long day of physical exertion under the desert sun.
On many of the nights that followed, like our first night camping just upstream from the head of Crystal Rapid, we would drink bottom-shelf whiskey and sing around the campfire to the beautiful music of Sam and Tom on guitar and banjo. On those nights when we expected torrential rains, I’d work with the English crewmembers to create shelters out of a huge canvas tarp using oars as poles. At the camp downstream from Separation Canyon, we set up a particularly nice canopy over the kitchen using four oars on the perimeter and a longer sweep oar for the peak. We were grown men arguing the finer details of design and knots while wrestling a huge leaky tarp, but it felt like we were kids building a fort.
The boats were constantly deteriorating, and I spent most evenings fixing broken oarlocks, patching holes, and mending oars. To achieve better trim for steering and climbing over waves, I arranged a few boulders as ballast in the stern compartments. Obsessed with the maintenance of the boats we’d created, I was prepared and ready for almost any repair. I’d brought wood, screws, bolts, and three canvas bags full of tools. Almost daily something needed to be fixed. Halfway through the canyon, CRAZY HORSE, as Dan had been calling the blue boat, pulled through an eddy line and struck a rock concealed just below the surface of the water; an hour later, as the fleet pulled into camp, Dan mentioned the boat was sinking. The mangled stem and keel took three hours to fix, with three other team members helping. I had brought large pieces of wood to replace broken pieces, but even if we could replace the stem and keel, the task would have set us back a week. So we put tar in and around the hole, molded a lead sheet by hammering it over the tar, and then tacked it down with copper nails. The four of us showed up for dinner covered with splattered tar.
It was satisfying to see what these boats could endure. People asked me if it was painful to watch the boats get damaged over and over again, but I enjoyed seeing them pushed to their limits and beyond and relished the challenge of keeping them afloat. CRAZY HORSE collided with a sheer wall at Bed Rock Rapid and I was amazed the boat didn’t break in two. The patch we’d put on a few days earlier was ripped completely off, exposing the hole again. The impact punched through the planks, but the damage could have been much worse: The double framing prevented more of the plank from being shattered, and the hole in the stem could be repaired because the timber was oversized.
Crystal Rapid was an exceptional threat to both boats and crew. The filmmakers wanted us to line one boat, portage the second boat, and run the rapid with the third boat to demonstrate methods used by Powell’s expedition. We eased CRAZY HORSE down the bank next to the rapid, with Tom and Bryan in the boat and the rest of us three-deep paying out and then grasping bow and stern lines, we controlled the boat’s descent. We let the boat drift just far enough from shore for the current to pull it downstream without letting it into faster-moving water that would have ripped the lines out of our hands. At one point, CRAZY HORSE perched on some rocks and rolled on its side, allowing a huge wave to come over the rail. The additional weight solidly pinned the boat there, and despite trying for hours we could not free it. We gave up, hoping that the expected decrease in water level at night (the Glen Canyon dam upstream releases less water as the demand for electricity diminishes in the evening) would help get it off the rocks. It was depressing to think that the boat might be in its final resting place. If three crew were rendered boatless, they would have to cram aboard the other two boats. At 4 a.m., however, the water was low enough that we could bail the boat and work it free, after which we lined it the rest of the way to a beach at the bottom of the rapid.
We portaged the scout boat around Crystal Rapid. All nine of us carried provisions and gear 400 yards downriver along the bank. We then lashed oars across the 800-lb boat to provide handholds for carrying it over boulders at the edge of the river. Stumbling and falling in the sweltering sun, it took us hours to portage the boat.
The green boat ran Crystal Rapid and got swept into a boulder garden, slamming into several rocks without much damage. While Powell portaged his boats overland to avoid rapids he deemed unwise to run, most of us agreed that running the rapid was the best way to get people and boats down the river. It was less risky for the boats than lining and safer for the crew than portaging.
Lava Falls was our last big rapid. Of all of the rapids in the Grand Canyon, it is widely regarded as the most powerful and the most dangerous. The film crew took several hours to set up, since they would have only one chance to capture the run on film. After hours of watching private groups scout the rapid only to have Lava Falls flip their rafts, it was finally our turn.
I shoved off while Fred gave directions to Sam on the oars. Fred maneuvered the boat a few feet to the right of a giant hole that has claimed many boats over the years. The muddy water was boiling as we plowed through and over a train of giant waves. At the bottom of the rapid we rode over a pressure wave the size of a bus and came to rest in an eddy on the right side.
Next came CRAZY HORSE carrying Tom, Dan, and Dougal, who also survived Lava even though the boat was swamped. We all stood by as Adam, Bryan, and Mike entered the rapid in their Whitehall. Adam maneuvered next to the explosive keeper hole at the top, then his boat hit a huge hole at the bottom and vanished. When it emerged from the depths like a breaching whale, only two people were aboard. Adam was gone. We quickly rowed out in search of him. Adam eventually resurfaced 10′ behind his boat and swam to catch up. With Bryan’s help, he clambered aboard just before they were swept into the next rapid, Son of Lava. Completely swamped and lacking Adam’s steering sweep, they were at the mercy of the river; they could only hope for the best. All three boats made it through. Our nerves shattered, we regrouped, had a quick bite to eat, and rowed in silence for an hour until we reached our next camp.
Our 18 days in the Grand Canyon gave us a deeper understanding of ourselves, the power of the great Colorado River, and the toughness of Powell and his crew. Only six of the 10 who started his 101-day, 930-mile expedition made it through the canyon, the final leg of the journey. One had given up before reaching the Grand Canyon and after Lava Falls three of the men abandoned Powell at Separation Canyon and were never seen again. Of his four boats, three made it to the end of the expedition. After running just the 280 miles of the canyon and more than 100 rapids, I understood all too clearly my obligation as a boatbuilder to build boats as best I can and to take good care of them. In the Grand Canyon the bond created with boats is especially strong; as the Colorado River guides say: “If you want to live, stay with your boat.”
Ben Kahn earned a bachelor’s degree in industrial arts from Berea College in Kentucky in 1999 and graduated from the Northwest School of Wooden Boatbuilding (NWSWB) in 2001. Working in the Port Townsend, Washington, and Sausalito, California, shipyards prepared him for his current job teaching at NWSWB. He spends his free time enjoying boats and friends in the beautiful Pacific Northwest.
A trailer for the Operation Grand Canyon, is on the BBC’s YouTube channel.
John Wesley Powell went on to serve as the director of the U.S. Geological Survey, and as an anthropologist and ethnographer he was the first director of ethnology at the Smithsonian Institution. He died, strangely enough, in 1902 in none other than Brooklin, Maine—the headquarters of Small Boats Monthly and its sister publication, WoodenBoat. For more about his explorations, see Wallace Stenger’s book Beyond the Hundredth Meridian: John Wesley Powell and the Second Opening of the West.
If you have an interesting story to tell about your adventures with a small wooden boat, please email us a brief outline and a few photos.
We welcome your comments about this article. If you’d like to include a photo or a video with your comment, please email the file or link. | 4,259 | ENGLISH | 1 |
English UK » Adyghe
Past tense 1
Past tense 1
81 [тIокIиплIырэ зырэ]
81 [tIokIiplIyrje zyrje]
БлэкIыгъэ шъуашэр 1
BljekIygje shuashjer 1
How children learn to speak properlyAs soon as a person is born, he communicates with others. Babies cry when they want something. They can already say a few simple words at a few months of age. With two years, they can say sentences of about three words. You can't influence when children begin to speak. But you can influence how well children learn their native language! For that, however, you have to consider a few things. Above all, it's important that the child learning is always motivated. He must recognize that he's succeeding in something when he speaks. Babies like a smile as positive feedback. Older children look for dialogue with their environment. They orient themselves towards the language of the people around them. Therefore the language skills of their parents and educators are important.
Children must also learn that language is valuable! However, they should always have fun in the process. Reading aloud to them shows children how exciting language can be. Parents should also do as much as possible with their child. When a child experiences many things, he wants to talk about them. Children growing up bilingual need firm rules. They have to know which language should be spoken with whom. This way their brain can learn to differentiate between the two languages. When children start going to school, their language changes. They learn a new colloquial language. Then it's important that the parents pay attention to how their child speaks. Studies show that the first language is stamped on the brain forever. What we learn as children accompanies us for the rest of our lives. He who learns his native language properly as a child will profit from it later. He learns new things faster and better – not only foreign languages…
_______ is counted among the Baltic languages. It is spoken by more than 3 million people. These people live in ******, Belarus, and Poland. The only language it is closely related to is Latvian. Although ****** is a very small country, the language is divided into many dialects. _______ is written in Latin letters, but it has a few special symbols. The many double vowels are typical.
There are also several varieties of vowels, such as short, long, and nasal. _______ pronunciation is not difficult. The intonation is markedly more complicated because it is flexible. That is to say, it is based on the grammatical form of the word. It is interesting to note that _______ is a very archaic language. It is considered the language that has strayed from its parent language the least. That means it is still very similar to the first Indo-European language. If you want to know how our ancestors spoke, you should learn _______. | <urn:uuid:cdc7d601-a839-44c7-bd26-d4631cb97784> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.50languages.com/phrasebook/lesson/en/ad/81/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00115.warc.gz | en | 0.980412 | 639 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.51904964447... | 1 | English UK » Adyghe
Past tense 1
Past tense 1
81 [тIокIиплIырэ зырэ]
81 [tIokIiplIyrje zyrje]
БлэкIыгъэ шъуашэр 1
BljekIygje shuashjer 1
How children learn to speak properlyAs soon as a person is born, he communicates with others. Babies cry when they want something. They can already say a few simple words at a few months of age. With two years, they can say sentences of about three words. You can't influence when children begin to speak. But you can influence how well children learn their native language! For that, however, you have to consider a few things. Above all, it's important that the child learning is always motivated. He must recognize that he's succeeding in something when he speaks. Babies like a smile as positive feedback. Older children look for dialogue with their environment. They orient themselves towards the language of the people around them. Therefore the language skills of their parents and educators are important.
Children must also learn that language is valuable! However, they should always have fun in the process. Reading aloud to them shows children how exciting language can be. Parents should also do as much as possible with their child. When a child experiences many things, he wants to talk about them. Children growing up bilingual need firm rules. They have to know which language should be spoken with whom. This way their brain can learn to differentiate between the two languages. When children start going to school, their language changes. They learn a new colloquial language. Then it's important that the parents pay attention to how their child speaks. Studies show that the first language is stamped on the brain forever. What we learn as children accompanies us for the rest of our lives. He who learns his native language properly as a child will profit from it later. He learns new things faster and better – not only foreign languages…
_______ is counted among the Baltic languages. It is spoken by more than 3 million people. These people live in ******, Belarus, and Poland. The only language it is closely related to is Latvian. Although ****** is a very small country, the language is divided into many dialects. _______ is written in Latin letters, but it has a few special symbols. The many double vowels are typical.
There are also several varieties of vowels, such as short, long, and nasal. _______ pronunciation is not difficult. The intonation is markedly more complicated because it is flexible. That is to say, it is based on the grammatical form of the word. It is interesting to note that _______ is a very archaic language. It is considered the language that has strayed from its parent language the least. That means it is still very similar to the first Indo-European language. If you want to know how our ancestors spoke, you should learn _______. | 617 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What is the relationship between freedom and equality?.
The relationship between freedom and equality is a complicated one, as it is something people have struggled for since the beginning of time and to continue to struggle for today. These two terms are closely connected, though not inseparable. Equality has a fairly simple meaning. It is likeness or sameness in quality, power, status, or degree. In simpler terms, it is being the exact same as others. Freedom, on the other hand, is the condition of being able to act and think however you want, without being controlled or limited. The relationship between these two first begins by obtaining freedom. Without freedom one does not have the ability to be equal to others, as he cannot do what he wants. As Tocqueville said, "Men cannot become absolutely equal unless they are entirely free" (p.352). One who is not free has a master who makes his choices for him. The only way to rid himself of the master and gain political freedom is to successfully revolt against the state. With this revolution, all people now have the ability to act however they want and because of this they are considered equal. Once they are free from their human masters they are able to lead a life directed by their own free will and compete on a level playing field with the rest of society.
The progress of freedom and equality began with The Declaration of Independence which set the precedent that "all men are created equal." Up until this point, equality was something that could not be attained; it was almost a foreign idea. Although only white men in America were considered free after this great document was signed, The Declaration of Independence paved the way for many new forms of equality, most importantly gender and racial equality.
In 1848, The Declaration of Sentiments was written and released to the public, demanding gender equality in America. Its main request, besides general equality, was women's suffrage. | <urn:uuid:adc053ad-97e2-40a8-a0cc-768a122a02b6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/87214.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00062.warc.gz | en | 0.987632 | 391 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.081051401793... | 2 | What is the relationship between freedom and equality?.
The relationship between freedom and equality is a complicated one, as it is something people have struggled for since the beginning of time and to continue to struggle for today. These two terms are closely connected, though not inseparable. Equality has a fairly simple meaning. It is likeness or sameness in quality, power, status, or degree. In simpler terms, it is being the exact same as others. Freedom, on the other hand, is the condition of being able to act and think however you want, without being controlled or limited. The relationship between these two first begins by obtaining freedom. Without freedom one does not have the ability to be equal to others, as he cannot do what he wants. As Tocqueville said, "Men cannot become absolutely equal unless they are entirely free" (p.352). One who is not free has a master who makes his choices for him. The only way to rid himself of the master and gain political freedom is to successfully revolt against the state. With this revolution, all people now have the ability to act however they want and because of this they are considered equal. Once they are free from their human masters they are able to lead a life directed by their own free will and compete on a level playing field with the rest of society.
The progress of freedom and equality began with The Declaration of Independence which set the precedent that "all men are created equal." Up until this point, equality was something that could not be attained; it was almost a foreign idea. Although only white men in America were considered free after this great document was signed, The Declaration of Independence paved the way for many new forms of equality, most importantly gender and racial equality.
In 1848, The Declaration of Sentiments was written and released to the public, demanding gender equality in America. Its main request, besides general equality, was women's suffrage. | 392 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How and why did early states form in Egypt and Mesopotamia?
Egypt and Mesopotamia are among the ancient town centers in the history of the world. Most of the ancient States developed around these regions due to the strategic locations, availability of fertile land and soils, availability of strong leadership, social relations, and industrial revolution among other factors. As such Egypt and Mesopotamia emerged to be very strong and with dense human settlement due to the availability of resources. This brief paper looks into some of the contributors that made ancient states to build around Egypt and Mesopotamia.
Availability of great leaders
Leadership is very important in the rise or formation of a State or an urban center. Such establishments do require strong leadership for the purpose of pulling people towards common goals as well as interests. Weak leaders do not attract too much influence to themselves and as such it becomes difficult for them to convince people or attract them for the purpose of establishing a state that is fully functional. Egypt and Mesopotamia are places rich in history of great leaders who had the real ultimate power and authority and as such they were too much influential to be ignored for whatever means. For instance, Narmer, being an ancient Egyptian leader was able to unite both the Upper and the Lower Egypt and as a result of this union, the first Egyptian State was established in the year 3100. Such was the influence of the great Egyptian leaders. This exemplary influence was accompanied by immense resources meaning that the authority had enough economic backing due to the many resources they had and as such it was very easy for them to actualize their threats. With this kind of great leaders, it was very easy for the States to be established in the land of Egypt. This is further expounded upon by the fact that the leaders were able to champion the formation of the various laws that were meant to govern the formation and the operation of such states. This was very much significant due to the strong centralization of power that characterized these arrangements.
The formed states were able to be run in an orderly manner since the legal framework alongside the chain of command was well established an as such the leadership structures were strong. All the structures necessary for the establishment of States in both Egypt and Mesopotamia were put in place due to the influence, power and authority of the strong leadership.
Egypt and Mesopotamia are historically renowned for being very fertile since time immemorial. In the past, there was the tendency of the States to be formed in areas or regions that had adequate land fertility. This was so since the fertile soils provided a lot of agricultural potential which was the major form of economic activity in the ancient days and even up to these days such places still attract massive human settlement. The Nile valley of Egypt and the Mesopotamia plain though they had no other resources were so attractive and as a result there was massive human settlement in those places. One of the leading causes of urbanization was the trading activities. The agricultural products were exchanged in the trading activities that lured people into these fertile regions.
Furthermore, it is good to argue that River Nile being the largest in Africa running all the way from Egypt attracted a lot of human settlement along the river banks who engaged in activities such as fishing among others. With time people began settling within the fertile regions in form of permanent establishments and structures were also erected such as the storage houses for the agricultural products. This was very critical as the trading activities needed to be regulated for there to be order since people of various descents and ethnic identities were being gathered together in the name of agriculture. Food supplies were very important in the past and even in the present world and as such people tended to be attracted to places with fertile soils for the purposes of engaging in agricultural activities. The basis of the formation of States was the availability of a sizable number of human settlements and the availability of resources and as such, the availability of the fertile grounds that attracted massive migration and settlement of people in Egypt and Mesopotamia was the motive or the inspiration behind the formation of States in the two centers.
Social relations also played an important role in the formation of States in Egypt and Mesopotamia. For instance, the social relations such as competition with the neighboring polities were very fundamental. Egypt played a very central part in history. It was a center of attraction for so many things including trade among other things. Many other territories depended on Egypt and as such there had to be very strong relations. The country was known and it is still know to having very strong defense system o rather military system. These social relations included the exchange of goods and services and the preservation of the gains made. This was very central in the formation of states in Egypt and Mesopotamia as the duo did attract very strong social relations and as well they also faced too much competition from the other regions that had the same capacity to develop States and empires. This kind of social arrangement needed the existence of states to formalize and control the social relation for the purpose of benefiting both Egypt and Mesopotamia and also putting them ahead of their competitors.
In summary, here are various factors that necessitated the establishment of States in the ancient days. such factors included agricultural factors in terms fertile soils, availability of trading activities, natural resources, religion, social relations and the availability of great leaders to mention but a few. Egypt and Mesopotamia are amongst the oldest towns in the history of the world. They were established and as such other States were formed in those centers due to the above mentioned urbanization factors in the olden days. the strong leaders in this region and the immense authority they held were the unifying factors that made it possible for them o develop States to formalize the way matters were being run in the regions. Also agricultural activities contributed a lot given that the two regions had River Nile and the Mesopotamia Plain that attracted massive human settlement due to the agricultural activities that provided food supplies and also used for the purposes of trade. Scientific discoveries in these two regions as a result of industrial revolution also promoted the growth of towns and States in these two centers since industrialization created employment opportunities hence attracting human settlement. | <urn:uuid:801cec75-93b6-4f45-961e-d739462da162> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://original-essays.org/essays/culture/early-states-in-egypt-and-mesopotamia | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00115.warc.gz | en | 0.986185 | 1,235 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.05335844680... | 7 | How and why did early states form in Egypt and Mesopotamia?
Egypt and Mesopotamia are among the ancient town centers in the history of the world. Most of the ancient States developed around these regions due to the strategic locations, availability of fertile land and soils, availability of strong leadership, social relations, and industrial revolution among other factors. As such Egypt and Mesopotamia emerged to be very strong and with dense human settlement due to the availability of resources. This brief paper looks into some of the contributors that made ancient states to build around Egypt and Mesopotamia.
Availability of great leaders
Leadership is very important in the rise or formation of a State or an urban center. Such establishments do require strong leadership for the purpose of pulling people towards common goals as well as interests. Weak leaders do not attract too much influence to themselves and as such it becomes difficult for them to convince people or attract them for the purpose of establishing a state that is fully functional. Egypt and Mesopotamia are places rich in history of great leaders who had the real ultimate power and authority and as such they were too much influential to be ignored for whatever means. For instance, Narmer, being an ancient Egyptian leader was able to unite both the Upper and the Lower Egypt and as a result of this union, the first Egyptian State was established in the year 3100. Such was the influence of the great Egyptian leaders. This exemplary influence was accompanied by immense resources meaning that the authority had enough economic backing due to the many resources they had and as such it was very easy for them to actualize their threats. With this kind of great leaders, it was very easy for the States to be established in the land of Egypt. This is further expounded upon by the fact that the leaders were able to champion the formation of the various laws that were meant to govern the formation and the operation of such states. This was very much significant due to the strong centralization of power that characterized these arrangements.
The formed states were able to be run in an orderly manner since the legal framework alongside the chain of command was well established an as such the leadership structures were strong. All the structures necessary for the establishment of States in both Egypt and Mesopotamia were put in place due to the influence, power and authority of the strong leadership.
Egypt and Mesopotamia are historically renowned for being very fertile since time immemorial. In the past, there was the tendency of the States to be formed in areas or regions that had adequate land fertility. This was so since the fertile soils provided a lot of agricultural potential which was the major form of economic activity in the ancient days and even up to these days such places still attract massive human settlement. The Nile valley of Egypt and the Mesopotamia plain though they had no other resources were so attractive and as a result there was massive human settlement in those places. One of the leading causes of urbanization was the trading activities. The agricultural products were exchanged in the trading activities that lured people into these fertile regions.
Furthermore, it is good to argue that River Nile being the largest in Africa running all the way from Egypt attracted a lot of human settlement along the river banks who engaged in activities such as fishing among others. With time people began settling within the fertile regions in form of permanent establishments and structures were also erected such as the storage houses for the agricultural products. This was very critical as the trading activities needed to be regulated for there to be order since people of various descents and ethnic identities were being gathered together in the name of agriculture. Food supplies were very important in the past and even in the present world and as such people tended to be attracted to places with fertile soils for the purposes of engaging in agricultural activities. The basis of the formation of States was the availability of a sizable number of human settlements and the availability of resources and as such, the availability of the fertile grounds that attracted massive migration and settlement of people in Egypt and Mesopotamia was the motive or the inspiration behind the formation of States in the two centers.
Social relations also played an important role in the formation of States in Egypt and Mesopotamia. For instance, the social relations such as competition with the neighboring polities were very fundamental. Egypt played a very central part in history. It was a center of attraction for so many things including trade among other things. Many other territories depended on Egypt and as such there had to be very strong relations. The country was known and it is still know to having very strong defense system o rather military system. These social relations included the exchange of goods and services and the preservation of the gains made. This was very central in the formation of states in Egypt and Mesopotamia as the duo did attract very strong social relations and as well they also faced too much competition from the other regions that had the same capacity to develop States and empires. This kind of social arrangement needed the existence of states to formalize and control the social relation for the purpose of benefiting both Egypt and Mesopotamia and also putting them ahead of their competitors.
In summary, here are various factors that necessitated the establishment of States in the ancient days. such factors included agricultural factors in terms fertile soils, availability of trading activities, natural resources, religion, social relations and the availability of great leaders to mention but a few. Egypt and Mesopotamia are amongst the oldest towns in the history of the world. They were established and as such other States were formed in those centers due to the above mentioned urbanization factors in the olden days. the strong leaders in this region and the immense authority they held were the unifying factors that made it possible for them o develop States to formalize the way matters were being run in the regions. Also agricultural activities contributed a lot given that the two regions had River Nile and the Mesopotamia Plain that attracted massive human settlement due to the agricultural activities that provided food supplies and also used for the purposes of trade. Scientific discoveries in these two regions as a result of industrial revolution also promoted the growth of towns and States in these two centers since industrialization created employment opportunities hence attracting human settlement. | 1,247 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Known to use music to stand in solidarity with the marginalized and the oppressed, Johnny recorded “Bitter Tears: Ballads of the American Indian” in 1964. He was so perplexed with the natives’ tragic experiences in the USA that he thought of working on a concept album that will give voice to their cries.
What made his stand out from other Indian-themed songs was the way he recounts history from the perspectives of an American native. Consequently, the lyrics came out to be harsh and inhospitable to a white man. While a white man sings with politically correct terms pertaining to Indians, Cash, on the other hand, ignored reciprocation to the effort. He candidly sung the lyrics not as Johnny Cash, but as the voice of those who have suffered injustice and displacements.
Hence, let us examine some of the songs included in the said album.
As Long as the Grass Shall Grow
A tongue in cheek treaty signed by George Washington for the Seneca nation to reposes their land in Pennsylvania. The eloquent promises of “For as long as the grass grows and the moon shines” were just empty words. Not long, the treaty was broken. They’re just one among the other tribes who were disillusioned by the government’s promises and treaties.
Here, a Native American expresses his glee at the death of some General George Custer. Apparently, he was a loathed foe and his scalping was much deserved for the crimes committed against his people.
A recounting of the horrors of the ‘trail of tears’ where many Indians were forced out of their ancestral lands. The US government had them placed in reservations instead. What was heart-breaking was the abused and death of a young Native woman.
It resonates most to those who felt discrimination and a devaluing of their heritage by the acculturation of the natives by the white people.
This one’s a straight racism at play when a white woman toys on the naiveté of an Indian man who fell hard for her.
With such strong words, how could one expect that these songs be played on the radio? (At least not on a regular basis.) Frustrated with the cowardice of producers and DJs, Johnny worked hard to have Bitter Tears promoted and supported.
Hats off to you Ole Johnny Cash! Bet you knew that this album won’t sell million-dollar records. Still, you stood your ground of conviction. | <urn:uuid:10850184-4ab4-438d-b3a7-dbd1a9df42d4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.countrythangdaily.com/johnny-cash-bitter-tears/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00538.warc.gz | en | 0.980432 | 512 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.13155709207... | 3 | Known to use music to stand in solidarity with the marginalized and the oppressed, Johnny recorded “Bitter Tears: Ballads of the American Indian” in 1964. He was so perplexed with the natives’ tragic experiences in the USA that he thought of working on a concept album that will give voice to their cries.
What made his stand out from other Indian-themed songs was the way he recounts history from the perspectives of an American native. Consequently, the lyrics came out to be harsh and inhospitable to a white man. While a white man sings with politically correct terms pertaining to Indians, Cash, on the other hand, ignored reciprocation to the effort. He candidly sung the lyrics not as Johnny Cash, but as the voice of those who have suffered injustice and displacements.
Hence, let us examine some of the songs included in the said album.
As Long as the Grass Shall Grow
A tongue in cheek treaty signed by George Washington for the Seneca nation to reposes their land in Pennsylvania. The eloquent promises of “For as long as the grass grows and the moon shines” were just empty words. Not long, the treaty was broken. They’re just one among the other tribes who were disillusioned by the government’s promises and treaties.
Here, a Native American expresses his glee at the death of some General George Custer. Apparently, he was a loathed foe and his scalping was much deserved for the crimes committed against his people.
A recounting of the horrors of the ‘trail of tears’ where many Indians were forced out of their ancestral lands. The US government had them placed in reservations instead. What was heart-breaking was the abused and death of a young Native woman.
It resonates most to those who felt discrimination and a devaluing of their heritage by the acculturation of the natives by the white people.
This one’s a straight racism at play when a white woman toys on the naiveté of an Indian man who fell hard for her.
With such strong words, how could one expect that these songs be played on the radio? (At least not on a regular basis.) Frustrated with the cowardice of producers and DJs, Johnny worked hard to have Bitter Tears promoted and supported.
Hats off to you Ole Johnny Cash! Bet you knew that this album won’t sell million-dollar records. Still, you stood your ground of conviction. | 491 | ENGLISH | 1 |
What does the lable "copperhead" have to do with the Creightons in Across Five Aprils?
During the Civil War, there were a lot of people in the North who did not approve of the war. Many of them believed that the Southern states should be free to have slavery if they wanted. Many of them hated black people and disliked the war because they thought that the war was going to help black people. The derogatory term for Northerners who disliked the war was "Copperheads."
The Creightons are sometimes referred to as Copperheads by people in their area because one of the Creighton boys has gone off to fight for the South. This makes it seem that they are Confederate sympathizers.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:7083d2ba-ff5b-4f28-b813-eb3fb0c6385a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-does-lable-copperhead-have-do-with-creightons-175865 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00399.warc.gz | en | 0.986511 | 157 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.3648714721202... | 4 | What does the lable "copperhead" have to do with the Creightons in Across Five Aprils?
During the Civil War, there were a lot of people in the North who did not approve of the war. Many of them believed that the Southern states should be free to have slavery if they wanted. Many of them hated black people and disliked the war because they thought that the war was going to help black people. The derogatory term for Northerners who disliked the war was "Copperheads."
The Creightons are sometimes referred to as Copperheads by people in their area because one of the Creighton boys has gone off to fight for the South. This makes it seem that they are Confederate sympathizers.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 154 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The sample paper on John Brown Essay familiarizes the reader with the topic-related facts, theories and approaches. Scroll down to read the entire paper.
Yet, the North’s crusade to ND slavery had no banner, no rallying point, or no kindling with which to fuel this burning desire. The North needed someone to rally behind, and John Brown became that person. Eventually, Brown would be martyred, but Brown’s death invoked the abolitionist spirit in all Northerners, and the anticipation of the North to follow behind him illustrates the rapidly, detrimentally changing North-South relationship between 1859 and 1863.
Essentially, between 1859 and 1 863, North-South relations were taking a turn for the worse. Radical abolitionist ideals were sweeping he North, and these Ideals took form through John Brown’s failed effort to provoke a slave rebellion at Harpers Ferry In 1859. This Invasion on a federal armory was organized by Brown. The Invasion Involved only a handful of abolitionists, and freed no slaves. In fact, one free black was among the numerous people murdered during the raid.
This action was condemned by most of the southerners and some of the northerners, but John Brown became a sectional hero to most of the North. Two months after the raid, noted abolitionist writer Horace Greenly wrote an editorial in he New York Tribune (Document A) which stated that although John Brown’s raid was an “unfit mode of combating a great evil”, “his are the errors of a fanatic, not the crimes of a felon. ” Statements such as these gradually influenced the public, and soon enough, Brown was looked upon favorably by much of the northern public.
Why Were The Two Articles About John Brown Used In The Research Paper Even Though They Have Such Obvious Slants?
An excellent example of this shift of opinions Is Illustrated through a review of James Redraft’s The Public Life of Captain John Brown, as printed In the Atlantic Monthly of March 1860 (Document D), This review states that the “The lessons of manliness, brightness and courage, which his [John Brown’s] life teaches, is to be learned by us, not merely as lovers of liberty, not as opponents of slavery, but as men who need more manliness, more uprightness, more courage and simplicity in our common lives. In this passage, Brown is placed upon a pedestal, and it is the author’s desire to see all Americans imitate his ways. Views such as these paved the way for John Brown’s transition into martyrdom, as seen by northern eyes.
The way in which this transition occurred is brilliantly stated in an editorial contained in the Topeka Tribune of November 19, 1 859 (Document C), when the author states that the elevation of Brown’s Image is sufficiently due to “tacit endorsement by telling what building up a reputation of martyr for Brown and his confederates. John Brown even became an Implement of political sophistry with men, such as Frederick Douglas, exalting their relationship with him (Document FL stating that “to have been calculated Walt Join Brown, snared Nils counsels, enjoyed Nils consonance, Ana sympathized with the great objects of his life and death, I esteem as among the highest privileges of my life.
Even Abraham Lincoln used John Brown as a sophist instrument (Document E), accusing the Democrats of seizing “the unfortunate Harpers Ferry affair to influence other elections pending. Tangentially, John Brown’s transition from felon to martyr is representative of the rapidly changing North-South relations between 1859 and 1863. The fact that a man who had performed such a malicious crime towards the South could become so beloved in northern society illustrates the abhorrence the North held for the South. The action John Brown had taken was one that every abolitionist, frustrated by the South’s obstinacy, had longed to try.
Brown performed what all abolitionists hoped for, yet dared to not even suggest. Brown’s martyrdom shows the critical state of North-South relations between 1859 and 1863, as well as the inevitability of war between the two. Union soldiers proudly marched into battles singing The Old Song (Document G), which contained such verses as “his [John Brown’s] soul is marching on” and “He’s gone to be a soldier in the army of the Lord. Northern artists were inspired by Brown, putting their talents to work and creating paintings depicting Brown meeting slave mother on the way to his execution (Document H).
One artist even went as far as to create a myth that John Brown stopped to kiss a black child on his way to his execution through his painting of such a scene. John Brown became a banner of the Union’s difficulties during the Civil War, and this banner was held high in the hearts of every “boy in blue,” as he fought for the abolishment of slavery, and the salvation of the Union.
Conclusively, the fact that John Brown rapidly became highly regarded in northern society between 1859 and 1863, after committing such a elevation crime against South, picturesquely illustrates the rapidly declining North- South relationship during that same time period. In the words of Henry David Thoreau, as stated in The Last Days of John Brown (Document B), “we [Northerners] made a subtle distinction [in regard to John Brown], forgot human laws, and did homage to an idea.
Yet, this was not the only time northerners would perform such an action during this critical time, for President Abraham Lincoln made a subtle distinction, forgot constitutional laws, and did homage to the idea of union after the ultimate decline of North-South relations to the point of division and physical conflict. The views of John Brown’s raid on of the federal armory at Harpers Ferry illustrates the changing North and South relations between the years of 1859-1863. After the event occurred, many looked down upon it in order to try to prevent the inevitable Civil War.
However, through out the next few years, John Brown was praised throughout the Northern lands as a martyr, while in the the Southern lands he was viewed as a murderer. Horace Freely (a Northerner) freed with Mr.. Brown about he need to abolish slavery, but using violence to solve the slavery issue, he did not agree with: “Of course, we regard Brown’s raid as utterly mistaken and, in it’s direct consequences, pernicious, but his errors of a fanatic, not the crimes of a felon. ” (Doc A) Henry Thoreau agrees with Brown totally and completely (and when I say completely, I mean supporting Brown’s motive and actions).
Thoreau goes on about now relent Brown Is, using examples AT ‘enlarger law’ (l reenactment’s, Document E is different than the previous two because it disagrees with them. Abraham Lincoln is against using violence to stop slavery, so he disagrees with Brown completely. Abe is on the path to the White House, therefore looking for votes. In his Hartford, Con. Campaign speech he calls Democrats ‘bushwhackers’ in the sense that followers of Brown are Just democrats out for votes. Now we get a black mans position on the John Brown raid.
Frederick Douglass is in favor of Browns Failed raid. Douglass being an abolitionist and escaped slave took Thoreau side and supported Brown’s actions completely. (Doc F) The views in these documents illustrate the hanging North-South relations in the way how the North at first disapproved of Browns raid, but in the end, and even more so after Brown was hung in VA, the North put Brown as a martyr and a Moses for black people (as illustrated by Thomas Woven). To some, John Brown was a murderer, but to blacks and in many eyes of Northerners, his death was what made him a hero.
John Brown had a plan to invade the south were he wanted all slaves to revolt but failed he was an abolitionist that Just wanted to solve the problem of slavery. The North and South had a change on their point of view of John Brown’s raid for slavery after the Civil War. Northerners before the Civil War detested John Brown’s idea of an immediate end to slavery that involved violence; as the war progressed people became unified and many Americans changed their views on John Brown. The North wanted to abolish slavery but was opposed to any kind of violence that would help get rid of slavery.
Southerners thought of John Brown as murderer and as the leader of betrayal. As a result of the Civil War the North and the South changed their opinions of John Brown. Before the Civil War the North had a different perspective of John Brown than after the war. The North hated the idea of a violent end to slavery they didn’t like John Brown’s idea of an immediate and to slavery. Horace Greenly from New York Justified the idea of ending slavery but never Justified the way that John Brown tried to abolish slavery(Document A).
Northerners wanted to end slavery but not with a negative cause, ending slavery was their goal but in the best way possible. The North in 1859 wanted to end slavery but what John Brown did was murder to them, then and there. Most northerners supported the cause Brown was fighting for but didn’t support the methods that were used by him. The North before the war believed that John Brown was a murderer because his raid killed many people. Later as the war was in progressed people’s views of Brown were starting to change. AR continued and so did the critics of John Brown.
During the Civil War John Brown was not as criticized about his raid then he was before the war broke out. Criticism was more reasonable now. In 1860 Lincoln disapproved with Brown Because he taught that abolition of slavery shouldn’t be done by the government but he did want slavery to be ended. (Document E). Everyone knew that John Brown was a good an fighting for something that was morally right but what people didn’t understand yet was how he did it and why.
Frederick Douglas mentions that he agrees with John Brown. Frederick Douglas was an abolitionist so he was with Brown all the way. Basically John Brown is seen as a complete hero by abolitionists like Frederick Douglas. People before the war had different opinions about Brown. Disapproval soon faded when ten Call war name. As result AT ten Call war many people change t views about John Brown. When the war was over many people respected John Brown. Now after the Civil War Brown is described as a hero in a song that was sung when going into battle. Document G).
It is now realized that Brown was key to end of slavery. People now are starting to respect what he did and are understanding why he did it. If John Brown wouldn’t have stepped up the Civil War would have been a even more difficult battle. Brown opened the eyes of many people. During this time now about 1861 really understand why John Brown fought so violently. And it was now understood that it was for the best. At the end of the war John Brown was seen as a hero for all he did.
In conclusion, before the Civil War broke out and John Brown led raid to make slaves revolt he was seen as a murderer because he killed people and fought violently for his cause. Although many people did not agree with the way he acted against slavery they had a change in mind later when the Civil War ended. John Brown was finally seen as a hero in the North because they now realized it was the only way to make things work. Why wouldn’t people recognize John Brown as a hero before the war? Wouldn’t they do anything as long as they got it their way? So how bad did they want to abolish slavery? | <urn:uuid:a6ab47ca-4acd-456f-b472-6365ca26951d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://paperap.com/paper-on-john-brown-dbq/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00329.warc.gz | en | 0.982027 | 2,491 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.141538351774215... | 3 | The sample paper on John Brown Essay familiarizes the reader with the topic-related facts, theories and approaches. Scroll down to read the entire paper.
Yet, the North’s crusade to ND slavery had no banner, no rallying point, or no kindling with which to fuel this burning desire. The North needed someone to rally behind, and John Brown became that person. Eventually, Brown would be martyred, but Brown’s death invoked the abolitionist spirit in all Northerners, and the anticipation of the North to follow behind him illustrates the rapidly, detrimentally changing North-South relationship between 1859 and 1863.
Essentially, between 1859 and 1 863, North-South relations were taking a turn for the worse. Radical abolitionist ideals were sweeping he North, and these Ideals took form through John Brown’s failed effort to provoke a slave rebellion at Harpers Ferry In 1859. This Invasion on a federal armory was organized by Brown. The Invasion Involved only a handful of abolitionists, and freed no slaves. In fact, one free black was among the numerous people murdered during the raid.
This action was condemned by most of the southerners and some of the northerners, but John Brown became a sectional hero to most of the North. Two months after the raid, noted abolitionist writer Horace Greenly wrote an editorial in he New York Tribune (Document A) which stated that although John Brown’s raid was an “unfit mode of combating a great evil”, “his are the errors of a fanatic, not the crimes of a felon. ” Statements such as these gradually influenced the public, and soon enough, Brown was looked upon favorably by much of the northern public.
Why Were The Two Articles About John Brown Used In The Research Paper Even Though They Have Such Obvious Slants?
An excellent example of this shift of opinions Is Illustrated through a review of James Redraft’s The Public Life of Captain John Brown, as printed In the Atlantic Monthly of March 1860 (Document D), This review states that the “The lessons of manliness, brightness and courage, which his [John Brown’s] life teaches, is to be learned by us, not merely as lovers of liberty, not as opponents of slavery, but as men who need more manliness, more uprightness, more courage and simplicity in our common lives. In this passage, Brown is placed upon a pedestal, and it is the author’s desire to see all Americans imitate his ways. Views such as these paved the way for John Brown’s transition into martyrdom, as seen by northern eyes.
The way in which this transition occurred is brilliantly stated in an editorial contained in the Topeka Tribune of November 19, 1 859 (Document C), when the author states that the elevation of Brown’s Image is sufficiently due to “tacit endorsement by telling what building up a reputation of martyr for Brown and his confederates. John Brown even became an Implement of political sophistry with men, such as Frederick Douglas, exalting their relationship with him (Document FL stating that “to have been calculated Walt Join Brown, snared Nils counsels, enjoyed Nils consonance, Ana sympathized with the great objects of his life and death, I esteem as among the highest privileges of my life.
Even Abraham Lincoln used John Brown as a sophist instrument (Document E), accusing the Democrats of seizing “the unfortunate Harpers Ferry affair to influence other elections pending. Tangentially, John Brown’s transition from felon to martyr is representative of the rapidly changing North-South relations between 1859 and 1863. The fact that a man who had performed such a malicious crime towards the South could become so beloved in northern society illustrates the abhorrence the North held for the South. The action John Brown had taken was one that every abolitionist, frustrated by the South’s obstinacy, had longed to try.
Brown performed what all abolitionists hoped for, yet dared to not even suggest. Brown’s martyrdom shows the critical state of North-South relations between 1859 and 1863, as well as the inevitability of war between the two. Union soldiers proudly marched into battles singing The Old Song (Document G), which contained such verses as “his [John Brown’s] soul is marching on” and “He’s gone to be a soldier in the army of the Lord. Northern artists were inspired by Brown, putting their talents to work and creating paintings depicting Brown meeting slave mother on the way to his execution (Document H).
One artist even went as far as to create a myth that John Brown stopped to kiss a black child on his way to his execution through his painting of such a scene. John Brown became a banner of the Union’s difficulties during the Civil War, and this banner was held high in the hearts of every “boy in blue,” as he fought for the abolishment of slavery, and the salvation of the Union.
Conclusively, the fact that John Brown rapidly became highly regarded in northern society between 1859 and 1863, after committing such a elevation crime against South, picturesquely illustrates the rapidly declining North- South relationship during that same time period. In the words of Henry David Thoreau, as stated in The Last Days of John Brown (Document B), “we [Northerners] made a subtle distinction [in regard to John Brown], forgot human laws, and did homage to an idea.
Yet, this was not the only time northerners would perform such an action during this critical time, for President Abraham Lincoln made a subtle distinction, forgot constitutional laws, and did homage to the idea of union after the ultimate decline of North-South relations to the point of division and physical conflict. The views of John Brown’s raid on of the federal armory at Harpers Ferry illustrates the changing North and South relations between the years of 1859-1863. After the event occurred, many looked down upon it in order to try to prevent the inevitable Civil War.
However, through out the next few years, John Brown was praised throughout the Northern lands as a martyr, while in the the Southern lands he was viewed as a murderer. Horace Freely (a Northerner) freed with Mr.. Brown about he need to abolish slavery, but using violence to solve the slavery issue, he did not agree with: “Of course, we regard Brown’s raid as utterly mistaken and, in it’s direct consequences, pernicious, but his errors of a fanatic, not the crimes of a felon. ” (Doc A) Henry Thoreau agrees with Brown totally and completely (and when I say completely, I mean supporting Brown’s motive and actions).
Thoreau goes on about now relent Brown Is, using examples AT ‘enlarger law’ (l reenactment’s, Document E is different than the previous two because it disagrees with them. Abraham Lincoln is against using violence to stop slavery, so he disagrees with Brown completely. Abe is on the path to the White House, therefore looking for votes. In his Hartford, Con. Campaign speech he calls Democrats ‘bushwhackers’ in the sense that followers of Brown are Just democrats out for votes. Now we get a black mans position on the John Brown raid.
Frederick Douglass is in favor of Browns Failed raid. Douglass being an abolitionist and escaped slave took Thoreau side and supported Brown’s actions completely. (Doc F) The views in these documents illustrate the hanging North-South relations in the way how the North at first disapproved of Browns raid, but in the end, and even more so after Brown was hung in VA, the North put Brown as a martyr and a Moses for black people (as illustrated by Thomas Woven). To some, John Brown was a murderer, but to blacks and in many eyes of Northerners, his death was what made him a hero.
John Brown had a plan to invade the south were he wanted all slaves to revolt but failed he was an abolitionist that Just wanted to solve the problem of slavery. The North and South had a change on their point of view of John Brown’s raid for slavery after the Civil War. Northerners before the Civil War detested John Brown’s idea of an immediate end to slavery that involved violence; as the war progressed people became unified and many Americans changed their views on John Brown. The North wanted to abolish slavery but was opposed to any kind of violence that would help get rid of slavery.
Southerners thought of John Brown as murderer and as the leader of betrayal. As a result of the Civil War the North and the South changed their opinions of John Brown. Before the Civil War the North had a different perspective of John Brown than after the war. The North hated the idea of a violent end to slavery they didn’t like John Brown’s idea of an immediate and to slavery. Horace Greenly from New York Justified the idea of ending slavery but never Justified the way that John Brown tried to abolish slavery(Document A).
Northerners wanted to end slavery but not with a negative cause, ending slavery was their goal but in the best way possible. The North in 1859 wanted to end slavery but what John Brown did was murder to them, then and there. Most northerners supported the cause Brown was fighting for but didn’t support the methods that were used by him. The North before the war believed that John Brown was a murderer because his raid killed many people. Later as the war was in progressed people’s views of Brown were starting to change. AR continued and so did the critics of John Brown.
During the Civil War John Brown was not as criticized about his raid then he was before the war broke out. Criticism was more reasonable now. In 1860 Lincoln disapproved with Brown Because he taught that abolition of slavery shouldn’t be done by the government but he did want slavery to be ended. (Document E). Everyone knew that John Brown was a good an fighting for something that was morally right but what people didn’t understand yet was how he did it and why.
Frederick Douglas mentions that he agrees with John Brown. Frederick Douglas was an abolitionist so he was with Brown all the way. Basically John Brown is seen as a complete hero by abolitionists like Frederick Douglas. People before the war had different opinions about Brown. Disapproval soon faded when ten Call war name. As result AT ten Call war many people change t views about John Brown. When the war was over many people respected John Brown. Now after the Civil War Brown is described as a hero in a song that was sung when going into battle. Document G).
It is now realized that Brown was key to end of slavery. People now are starting to respect what he did and are understanding why he did it. If John Brown wouldn’t have stepped up the Civil War would have been a even more difficult battle. Brown opened the eyes of many people. During this time now about 1861 really understand why John Brown fought so violently. And it was now understood that it was for the best. At the end of the war John Brown was seen as a hero for all he did.
In conclusion, before the Civil War broke out and John Brown led raid to make slaves revolt he was seen as a murderer because he killed people and fought violently for his cause. Although many people did not agree with the way he acted against slavery they had a change in mind later when the Civil War ended. John Brown was finally seen as a hero in the North because they now realized it was the only way to make things work. Why wouldn’t people recognize John Brown as a hero before the war? Wouldn’t they do anything as long as they got it their way? So how bad did they want to abolish slavery? | 2,448 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Martin Luther's Biography
|Martin Luther's Biography|
|SERMONS, ESSAYS AND OPINIONS||
Born at Eisleben in Thüringe, Saxony, Luther attended school at Mansfeld, at Magdeburg under the Brethren of the Common Life, and at Eisleben. He then went to university at Erfurt (1501), where he came under Nominalist influence and learned Greek, graduating B.A. in 1502 and M.A. in 1505. He had intended to study law, but due to a narrow escape from death by lightning, he changed his mind and in spite of his father’s objections became an Augustinian monk in 1506. In the Erfurt monastery he did further theological study, was made a priest in 1507, and with his transfer to Wittenberg in 1508 read for the B.D. (1509) and began to teach moral theology, the Sentences of Peter Lombard, and the holy Scriptures. A visit to Rome on Augustinian business (1510–1511) opened his eyes to the corruption prevalent among the higher clergy. Returning to Wittenberg he took the degree of D.Th. in 1512 and was appointed to the chair of biblical studies, which he occupied for the rest of his life. He also became sub-prior of the Wittenberg house.
Outwardly Luther was building up a successful monastic and academic career but inwardly he was troubled by a conviction of sin that his diligence in monastery life could not relieve. John Staupitz, his vicar-general, proved to be a good counselor at this period. And Luther also read widely in Augustine, Tauler, and the German mystics collected in the volume called German Theology. He also received help from the work of contemporary French theologian Lefèvre d’étaples on the Psalms. His biblical reading, especially in preparation for his classes on the Psalms (1513–1515), Romans (1515–1516), and Galatians (1517) proved to be the decisive factor. It was probably during this period, perhaps in 1514, that he had the famous Tower experience when he came to realize that God’s righteousness in Romans 1 is not the justice that we have to fear but the positive righteousness that God gives believers in Christ—it is a righteousness they receive by personally trusting in Christ. Luther might easily have held and taught his new understanding of justification without interference or vital reforming impact. His colleagues at Wittenberg both on the theological faculty and in the monastery supported him, and church life went on undisturbed. In 1517, however, Luther was aroused when just across the border from Saxony John Tetzel preached an indulgence in which crude theology was accompanied by the crassest materialism. In protest Luther rapidly drew up ninety-five theses for debate, which he posted on the door of the Castle church on October 31, 1517. When translated and widely circulated, these theses brought an explosion of anti-church feeling that wrecked the indulgence. Given practical application in this way, Luther’s theology could no longer go unnoticed, and he came at once under ecclesiastical pressures ranging from attempts at intimidation to promised favors for compliance.
Luther refused to be silenced. He won over many Augustinians at the Heidelberg disputation in 1518. He argued, not incorrectly, that he was defying no dogmatic definition of the church. Pressed by Eck at the Leipzig disputation in 1519, he claimed the supremacy of the authority of Scripture over all ecclesiastical authority. Continuing his own preaching and teaching, he defended the theses in his Explanations (1518) and showed how the righteousness of sinners lies in the alien righteousness of Christ in his Two Kinds of Righteousness (1518). When Charles V, the newly elected emperor, stepped up the pressure, Luther responded in 1520 with three powerful works that have come to be called his primary treatises. In the Address to the German Nobility he appealed to the princes to throw off papal oppression. In the Babylonian Captivity he attacked the current sacramental system. In The Freedom of a Christian Man he expounded the complementary theses that the Christian is both a free lord subject to none and also a servant subject to all. The writings of this period also include his Treatise on Good Works, which shows how faith finds expression in works, and his Sermon on the Mass, which teaches the priesthood of all believers. By the middle of 1520 papal patience was at an end, and a bull was drawn up ordering Luther’s recantation and the burning of his works. Protected by the elector Frederick, Luther denounced the bull, and the theology faculty solemnly burned a copy at a ceremony on December 10, 1520. Early in 1521 a stronger bull of excommunication was prepared that, if carried out, would have deprived Luther of civil rights and protection. Before its execution Charles V agreed to give Luther the chance to recant at the diet to be held at Worms. Here Luther made his resounding confession before the emperor, princes, and other rulers: “My conscience is captive to the Word of God . . . Here I stand, I can do no other.” The situation after Worms seemed hardly favorable for positive reform. A majority at the diet decided to apply the papal bull. In order to shield Luther against violence, Frederick arranged his “kidnapping” on the way home and hid him in the safe castle of the Wartburg under the guise of George the Knight. Luther, however, grasped the opportunity to begin the work of translating the New Testament directly from the Greek into superbly simple and idiomatic German, which served as a model for William Tyndale’s English rendering. He finished this work in the fall of 1522 and followed it up with an Old Testament translation from the Hebrew. This, of course, took much longer and was not finished until 1534. The completed Luther Bible proved to be no less tremendous a force in the German-speaking world than the King James Version was later to be in the English sphere, and it must be regarded as one of Luther’s most valuable contributions to the German church.
Reconstructing a Religion
Able to return from the Wartburg in 1522, Luther turned his attention to the sphere of worship. The main step here, as in relation to Scripture, was to make the services understandable by putting them in the native tongue. Luther, indeed, had no wish to cause friction by unnecessary changes in liturgical structure. The spiritual and theological reformation formed the heart of the matter for him. He thus produced conservative orders for baptism and the mass in 1523. The order of 1526, which included collects, canticles, and a litany, brought some reduction in the baptismal service. Even more significantly, however, it introduced new paraphrases and hymns for congregational use. Luther’s own skill as a hymn writer and his musical interest and ability gave special importance to his work in this field, and even in translation some of his hymns—especially “A Mighty Fortress Is Our God”—have been a constant source of spiritual strength and inspiration. During his time in the Wartburg Luther had given much thought to the question of celibacy. Even earlier he had come to think that the only lifelong vow a Christian ought to take is that of baptism, i.e., of general discipleship. While in the Wartburg he wrote On Monastic Vows. His reforming work when he came back to Wittenberg included the dissolution of monasteries and the ending of clerical celibacy. The resources of the monasteries were made available for the relief of the poor, and marriages between former celibates became the order of the day so that, as Erasmus noted, the tragedy of the break with Rome looked like it finished as a comedy—with everyone getting married and living happily ever after. Luther himself married the former nun Katherine of Bora, and they had a happy life with six children. Luther continued to live in what had been the Augustinian convent, and some of the students he had in for meals took down his conversation, now published in the volumes of Table Talk. Spreading reform to the parishes formed an essential part of reconstruction. Luther saw clearly the need for education, and he thus issued an appeal for Christian schools in 1524, worked with Melanchthon on a plan for popular education in the instructions for the Saxon visitation of 1528, and preached to parents on the duty of sending children to school in 1530. Spiritual as well as secular instruction was needed to remedy the ignorance prevalent in the later Middle Ages. To help pastors provide this, Luther composed a Large Catechism in 1528 and then a more popular Small Catechism in 1529. In the latter he gave a simple exposition of the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and the two sacraments. He also offered forms for confession, morning and evening prayers, and grace at meals. To supply more able pastors and teachers for the parishes he supported Melanchthon in university reforms, especially in the theological faculties.
The work of reconstruction could hardly be completed without a doctrinal statement. Luther had not begun the reformation with a prepared and developed theological position. He saw his way clearly in the matter of justification by grace and faith. When his applying of this teaching to indulgences brought it under attack, he quickly saw that Scripture must be the supreme authority in the church. He then began to work out the ramifications of these basic tenets in other areas but not in a systematic way. His colleague and friend Melanchthon issued a first doctrinal presentation in his work Theological Common Places (1521). Later Luther himself had a hand in the framing of the articles discussed at Marburg (1529), which were then incorporated into the Confession of Augsburg (1530)—although in relation to the latter he played more of the role of a consultant, and Melanchthon acted as principal writer. In 1536 Luther accepted the agreement with the South Germans expressed in the Wittenberg Concord, and in 1537 he offered a restatement of his essential theology in the Articles of Schmalcald, which reaffirm the early creeds, condemn medieval abuses, and give positive teaching on sin, law and gospel, the sacraments, justification, and the church. Finally Luther contributed to positive reform through his constant preaching and writing. Collections of his sermons are available in the comprehensive editions of his works. His writings include many polemical pieces, but there were many constructive works too. Worthy of special mention are his justifiably renowned Lectures on Galatians of 1535, which are among the finest of his works and have had an influence extending well beyond the reformation period. From the publication of his 95 Theses Luther was engaged in unending debate with the Roman Church. In addition, he soon found himself in disagreement with other reforming groups. Since he was plain, outspoken, and pugnacious, and came into collision with equally militant opponents, these controversies often took on a bitter edge that brought personal alienation and greatly hampered the general movement of reform. A first problem arose in 1521 when Luther was in Wartburg. A little group from Zwickau, the Zwickau Prophets, came to Wittenberg and caused great confusion in the church. Visiting the city to deal with the issue Luther preached against the group and later summed up his criticisms in the work Against the Heavenly Prophets. Radicalism took a violent turn with Thomas Munzer, who savagely denounced Luther and was himself denounced in return. When the peasants began to revolt in 1524, Luther sympathized with their demands, attempted mediation, and issued a call for peace. The uprisings increased in 1525 and under the influence of men like Munzer often took on a fanatical character. This led Luther to leave his mediatorial role and to call for the ruthless suppression of the rebels in the interests of divinely willed law and order. Although he still made a plea for economic justice, his attitude alienated many of the peasants and brought a rift.
At the very same period Luther became entangled in an unfortunate if unavoidable controversy with the humanist scholar and reformer Erasmus. The two had much in common, sharing concerns for scholarship, for opening up the Scriptures, and for doctrinal and practical reform. Nevertheless, they differed sharply in character and also in theological approach. Under pressure to declare himself either for Luther or against him, Erasmus turned to the important issue of the freedom of the will and published a Diatribe on Free Will (1524). To this Luther made a sharp and almost scornful reply in his Bondage of the Will (1525). This work is a powerful statement of the Augustinian position that in matters of right conduct and salvation the will has no power to act apart from the divine initiative. Erasmus came out with a counter-reply, but Luther ignored this. Erasmus then aligned himself with the opponents of the Reformation, although still urging reform and maintaining friendly relations with various reformers. The disruptive eucharistic controversy that split the Lutherans from the South Germans and the Swiss also began at this time. In answer to the Swiss, Luther defended his literal reading of the words “This is my body” in various works, especially The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ in 1526 and That These Words of Christ “This is my Body” Still Stand in 1527. Unfortunately Luther adopted in this debate a coarse and vituperative style that did little to win over his opponents or commend his teaching. Philip of Hesse tried to achieve agreement at Marburg in 1529, but in the discussions Luther showed from the first a rigidity that doomed the effort to failure. Later Luther accepted the uneasy concord with Bucer and the South Germans at Wittenberg (1536). No progress was made with the Swiss, however, although it has been thought that if Luther had lived, Calvin might have broken the deadlock. Luther’s concern was that in the saying “This is my body” the word “is” should be given its true force, but he opened the door to controversy by admitting a special mode of Christ’s presence in the relation to bread and wine. The controversy became christological when, in reply to the truth that Christ in the body is now in heaven, Luther claimed that the body enjoys omnipresence through the communicating of the attributes of Christ’s deity to his humanity. As a result christological as well as eucharistic differences continued between the Reformed and the Lutherans long after the death of Luther himself. Luther ran into other difficulties, too. He hoped at first that the renewing of the gospel would open the way for the conversion of the Jews. When this hope was not realized, he made intemperate attacks on the Jews, thus putting a dark blot on his record. Philip of Hesse, the great champion of the Reformation, became a serious embarrassment when he secured the unwilling assent of Luther to his bigamous marriage in 1540. The development of armed religious alliances in the empire also worried Luther, for while he accepted the divine authorization of princes and valued their help in practical reformation, he struggled hard for the principle that the gospel does not need to be advanced or defended by military power. He was mercifully spared the conflict that came so soon after his death.
Death and Legacy
Pressured by ill health and harassed constantly by political and theological problems, Luther tended to display in his last years the less pleasant aspects of his virtues. His courage increasingly appeared as pugnacity, his bluntness as crudity, and his steadfastness as obstinacy. Instead of mellowing with the years, his opposition to the papists, the radicals, and other reformers became even more bitter. Nevertheless, he continued to work for military peace in the empire—and it is a tribute to his underlying desire for peace and reconciliation that the aim of his final journey was to bring together the quarreling rulers of Anhaldt. As chance would have it, his itinerary brought him to the town of his birth, and it was in Eisleben that he died on February 18, 1546. Luther stands out as a very human figure. As he said at Worms, he made no claim to special sanctity. He recognized himself when he stated that believers are at the same time both righteous and sinners. His faults were as easy to see as his virtues. He was not characterized by any hypocrisy or pretense. He saw and told things as they were, whether in relation to the gospel or in relation to himself. This very human figure had extraordinary gifts. Perhaps the most striking thing of all about him was his versatility. Without being an outstanding linguist, he had a mastery of the biblical languages. This mastery went hand-in-hand with a rare theological insight. Luther could see to the heart of theological questions and express himself with astonishing originality and force. If he never put his theology together in a dogmatic, he contributed more to real theology than the vast majority of dogmaticians. Yet Luther was no academician or theological theorist. His daily job was that of a professor, but he put his learning to work on many practical fronts. Theological and pastoral concern launched him into the attack on indulgences that toppled the medieval system. His linguistic skills produced one of the greatest Bible translations of all time. His combination of biblical knowledge with graphic simplicity of utterance and a vital reality of faith made him no less eminent and effective as a preacher. That he should have such lavish liturgical gifts, as well, seems almost incredible. Behind it all, of course, lay the passionate sincerity of one who had been brought to his thought and mission not by abstract speculation but by the realities of sin, grace, forgiveness, and faith. His written works fill many bulky volumes, but the words are all vibrant and challenging, for they came not merely from the study or podium but from life and action. Luther did a work that probably no one else in his highly gifted age could have done. He did it because he had the required combination of learning, insight, character, and faith. When under God the hour struck in 1517, the man for the hour was there. The Reformation that had been arrested so long could no longer be delayed. | <urn:uuid:99ba8e47-958c-4706-888f-0ac4ad754ec1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.wikichristian.org/wiki/en/Martin_Luther%27s_Biography | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00140.warc.gz | en | 0.980446 | 3,857 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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|Martin Luther's Biography|
|SERMONS, ESSAYS AND OPINIONS||
Born at Eisleben in Thüringe, Saxony, Luther attended school at Mansfeld, at Magdeburg under the Brethren of the Common Life, and at Eisleben. He then went to university at Erfurt (1501), where he came under Nominalist influence and learned Greek, graduating B.A. in 1502 and M.A. in 1505. He had intended to study law, but due to a narrow escape from death by lightning, he changed his mind and in spite of his father’s objections became an Augustinian monk in 1506. In the Erfurt monastery he did further theological study, was made a priest in 1507, and with his transfer to Wittenberg in 1508 read for the B.D. (1509) and began to teach moral theology, the Sentences of Peter Lombard, and the holy Scriptures. A visit to Rome on Augustinian business (1510–1511) opened his eyes to the corruption prevalent among the higher clergy. Returning to Wittenberg he took the degree of D.Th. in 1512 and was appointed to the chair of biblical studies, which he occupied for the rest of his life. He also became sub-prior of the Wittenberg house.
Outwardly Luther was building up a successful monastic and academic career but inwardly he was troubled by a conviction of sin that his diligence in monastery life could not relieve. John Staupitz, his vicar-general, proved to be a good counselor at this period. And Luther also read widely in Augustine, Tauler, and the German mystics collected in the volume called German Theology. He also received help from the work of contemporary French theologian Lefèvre d’étaples on the Psalms. His biblical reading, especially in preparation for his classes on the Psalms (1513–1515), Romans (1515–1516), and Galatians (1517) proved to be the decisive factor. It was probably during this period, perhaps in 1514, that he had the famous Tower experience when he came to realize that God’s righteousness in Romans 1 is not the justice that we have to fear but the positive righteousness that God gives believers in Christ—it is a righteousness they receive by personally trusting in Christ. Luther might easily have held and taught his new understanding of justification without interference or vital reforming impact. His colleagues at Wittenberg both on the theological faculty and in the monastery supported him, and church life went on undisturbed. In 1517, however, Luther was aroused when just across the border from Saxony John Tetzel preached an indulgence in which crude theology was accompanied by the crassest materialism. In protest Luther rapidly drew up ninety-five theses for debate, which he posted on the door of the Castle church on October 31, 1517. When translated and widely circulated, these theses brought an explosion of anti-church feeling that wrecked the indulgence. Given practical application in this way, Luther’s theology could no longer go unnoticed, and he came at once under ecclesiastical pressures ranging from attempts at intimidation to promised favors for compliance.
Luther refused to be silenced. He won over many Augustinians at the Heidelberg disputation in 1518. He argued, not incorrectly, that he was defying no dogmatic definition of the church. Pressed by Eck at the Leipzig disputation in 1519, he claimed the supremacy of the authority of Scripture over all ecclesiastical authority. Continuing his own preaching and teaching, he defended the theses in his Explanations (1518) and showed how the righteousness of sinners lies in the alien righteousness of Christ in his Two Kinds of Righteousness (1518). When Charles V, the newly elected emperor, stepped up the pressure, Luther responded in 1520 with three powerful works that have come to be called his primary treatises. In the Address to the German Nobility he appealed to the princes to throw off papal oppression. In the Babylonian Captivity he attacked the current sacramental system. In The Freedom of a Christian Man he expounded the complementary theses that the Christian is both a free lord subject to none and also a servant subject to all. The writings of this period also include his Treatise on Good Works, which shows how faith finds expression in works, and his Sermon on the Mass, which teaches the priesthood of all believers. By the middle of 1520 papal patience was at an end, and a bull was drawn up ordering Luther’s recantation and the burning of his works. Protected by the elector Frederick, Luther denounced the bull, and the theology faculty solemnly burned a copy at a ceremony on December 10, 1520. Early in 1521 a stronger bull of excommunication was prepared that, if carried out, would have deprived Luther of civil rights and protection. Before its execution Charles V agreed to give Luther the chance to recant at the diet to be held at Worms. Here Luther made his resounding confession before the emperor, princes, and other rulers: “My conscience is captive to the Word of God . . . Here I stand, I can do no other.” The situation after Worms seemed hardly favorable for positive reform. A majority at the diet decided to apply the papal bull. In order to shield Luther against violence, Frederick arranged his “kidnapping” on the way home and hid him in the safe castle of the Wartburg under the guise of George the Knight. Luther, however, grasped the opportunity to begin the work of translating the New Testament directly from the Greek into superbly simple and idiomatic German, which served as a model for William Tyndale’s English rendering. He finished this work in the fall of 1522 and followed it up with an Old Testament translation from the Hebrew. This, of course, took much longer and was not finished until 1534. The completed Luther Bible proved to be no less tremendous a force in the German-speaking world than the King James Version was later to be in the English sphere, and it must be regarded as one of Luther’s most valuable contributions to the German church.
Reconstructing a Religion
Able to return from the Wartburg in 1522, Luther turned his attention to the sphere of worship. The main step here, as in relation to Scripture, was to make the services understandable by putting them in the native tongue. Luther, indeed, had no wish to cause friction by unnecessary changes in liturgical structure. The spiritual and theological reformation formed the heart of the matter for him. He thus produced conservative orders for baptism and the mass in 1523. The order of 1526, which included collects, canticles, and a litany, brought some reduction in the baptismal service. Even more significantly, however, it introduced new paraphrases and hymns for congregational use. Luther’s own skill as a hymn writer and his musical interest and ability gave special importance to his work in this field, and even in translation some of his hymns—especially “A Mighty Fortress Is Our God”—have been a constant source of spiritual strength and inspiration. During his time in the Wartburg Luther had given much thought to the question of celibacy. Even earlier he had come to think that the only lifelong vow a Christian ought to take is that of baptism, i.e., of general discipleship. While in the Wartburg he wrote On Monastic Vows. His reforming work when he came back to Wittenberg included the dissolution of monasteries and the ending of clerical celibacy. The resources of the monasteries were made available for the relief of the poor, and marriages between former celibates became the order of the day so that, as Erasmus noted, the tragedy of the break with Rome looked like it finished as a comedy—with everyone getting married and living happily ever after. Luther himself married the former nun Katherine of Bora, and they had a happy life with six children. Luther continued to live in what had been the Augustinian convent, and some of the students he had in for meals took down his conversation, now published in the volumes of Table Talk. Spreading reform to the parishes formed an essential part of reconstruction. Luther saw clearly the need for education, and he thus issued an appeal for Christian schools in 1524, worked with Melanchthon on a plan for popular education in the instructions for the Saxon visitation of 1528, and preached to parents on the duty of sending children to school in 1530. Spiritual as well as secular instruction was needed to remedy the ignorance prevalent in the later Middle Ages. To help pastors provide this, Luther composed a Large Catechism in 1528 and then a more popular Small Catechism in 1529. In the latter he gave a simple exposition of the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, the Ten Commandments, and the two sacraments. He also offered forms for confession, morning and evening prayers, and grace at meals. To supply more able pastors and teachers for the parishes he supported Melanchthon in university reforms, especially in the theological faculties.
The work of reconstruction could hardly be completed without a doctrinal statement. Luther had not begun the reformation with a prepared and developed theological position. He saw his way clearly in the matter of justification by grace and faith. When his applying of this teaching to indulgences brought it under attack, he quickly saw that Scripture must be the supreme authority in the church. He then began to work out the ramifications of these basic tenets in other areas but not in a systematic way. His colleague and friend Melanchthon issued a first doctrinal presentation in his work Theological Common Places (1521). Later Luther himself had a hand in the framing of the articles discussed at Marburg (1529), which were then incorporated into the Confession of Augsburg (1530)—although in relation to the latter he played more of the role of a consultant, and Melanchthon acted as principal writer. In 1536 Luther accepted the agreement with the South Germans expressed in the Wittenberg Concord, and in 1537 he offered a restatement of his essential theology in the Articles of Schmalcald, which reaffirm the early creeds, condemn medieval abuses, and give positive teaching on sin, law and gospel, the sacraments, justification, and the church. Finally Luther contributed to positive reform through his constant preaching and writing. Collections of his sermons are available in the comprehensive editions of his works. His writings include many polemical pieces, but there were many constructive works too. Worthy of special mention are his justifiably renowned Lectures on Galatians of 1535, which are among the finest of his works and have had an influence extending well beyond the reformation period. From the publication of his 95 Theses Luther was engaged in unending debate with the Roman Church. In addition, he soon found himself in disagreement with other reforming groups. Since he was plain, outspoken, and pugnacious, and came into collision with equally militant opponents, these controversies often took on a bitter edge that brought personal alienation and greatly hampered the general movement of reform. A first problem arose in 1521 when Luther was in Wartburg. A little group from Zwickau, the Zwickau Prophets, came to Wittenberg and caused great confusion in the church. Visiting the city to deal with the issue Luther preached against the group and later summed up his criticisms in the work Against the Heavenly Prophets. Radicalism took a violent turn with Thomas Munzer, who savagely denounced Luther and was himself denounced in return. When the peasants began to revolt in 1524, Luther sympathized with their demands, attempted mediation, and issued a call for peace. The uprisings increased in 1525 and under the influence of men like Munzer often took on a fanatical character. This led Luther to leave his mediatorial role and to call for the ruthless suppression of the rebels in the interests of divinely willed law and order. Although he still made a plea for economic justice, his attitude alienated many of the peasants and brought a rift.
At the very same period Luther became entangled in an unfortunate if unavoidable controversy with the humanist scholar and reformer Erasmus. The two had much in common, sharing concerns for scholarship, for opening up the Scriptures, and for doctrinal and practical reform. Nevertheless, they differed sharply in character and also in theological approach. Under pressure to declare himself either for Luther or against him, Erasmus turned to the important issue of the freedom of the will and published a Diatribe on Free Will (1524). To this Luther made a sharp and almost scornful reply in his Bondage of the Will (1525). This work is a powerful statement of the Augustinian position that in matters of right conduct and salvation the will has no power to act apart from the divine initiative. Erasmus came out with a counter-reply, but Luther ignored this. Erasmus then aligned himself with the opponents of the Reformation, although still urging reform and maintaining friendly relations with various reformers. The disruptive eucharistic controversy that split the Lutherans from the South Germans and the Swiss also began at this time. In answer to the Swiss, Luther defended his literal reading of the words “This is my body” in various works, especially The Sacrament of the Body and Blood of Christ in 1526 and That These Words of Christ “This is my Body” Still Stand in 1527. Unfortunately Luther adopted in this debate a coarse and vituperative style that did little to win over his opponents or commend his teaching. Philip of Hesse tried to achieve agreement at Marburg in 1529, but in the discussions Luther showed from the first a rigidity that doomed the effort to failure. Later Luther accepted the uneasy concord with Bucer and the South Germans at Wittenberg (1536). No progress was made with the Swiss, however, although it has been thought that if Luther had lived, Calvin might have broken the deadlock. Luther’s concern was that in the saying “This is my body” the word “is” should be given its true force, but he opened the door to controversy by admitting a special mode of Christ’s presence in the relation to bread and wine. The controversy became christological when, in reply to the truth that Christ in the body is now in heaven, Luther claimed that the body enjoys omnipresence through the communicating of the attributes of Christ’s deity to his humanity. As a result christological as well as eucharistic differences continued between the Reformed and the Lutherans long after the death of Luther himself. Luther ran into other difficulties, too. He hoped at first that the renewing of the gospel would open the way for the conversion of the Jews. When this hope was not realized, he made intemperate attacks on the Jews, thus putting a dark blot on his record. Philip of Hesse, the great champion of the Reformation, became a serious embarrassment when he secured the unwilling assent of Luther to his bigamous marriage in 1540. The development of armed religious alliances in the empire also worried Luther, for while he accepted the divine authorization of princes and valued their help in practical reformation, he struggled hard for the principle that the gospel does not need to be advanced or defended by military power. He was mercifully spared the conflict that came so soon after his death.
Death and Legacy
Pressured by ill health and harassed constantly by political and theological problems, Luther tended to display in his last years the less pleasant aspects of his virtues. His courage increasingly appeared as pugnacity, his bluntness as crudity, and his steadfastness as obstinacy. Instead of mellowing with the years, his opposition to the papists, the radicals, and other reformers became even more bitter. Nevertheless, he continued to work for military peace in the empire—and it is a tribute to his underlying desire for peace and reconciliation that the aim of his final journey was to bring together the quarreling rulers of Anhaldt. As chance would have it, his itinerary brought him to the town of his birth, and it was in Eisleben that he died on February 18, 1546. Luther stands out as a very human figure. As he said at Worms, he made no claim to special sanctity. He recognized himself when he stated that believers are at the same time both righteous and sinners. His faults were as easy to see as his virtues. He was not characterized by any hypocrisy or pretense. He saw and told things as they were, whether in relation to the gospel or in relation to himself. This very human figure had extraordinary gifts. Perhaps the most striking thing of all about him was his versatility. Without being an outstanding linguist, he had a mastery of the biblical languages. This mastery went hand-in-hand with a rare theological insight. Luther could see to the heart of theological questions and express himself with astonishing originality and force. If he never put his theology together in a dogmatic, he contributed more to real theology than the vast majority of dogmaticians. Yet Luther was no academician or theological theorist. His daily job was that of a professor, but he put his learning to work on many practical fronts. Theological and pastoral concern launched him into the attack on indulgences that toppled the medieval system. His linguistic skills produced one of the greatest Bible translations of all time. His combination of biblical knowledge with graphic simplicity of utterance and a vital reality of faith made him no less eminent and effective as a preacher. That he should have such lavish liturgical gifts, as well, seems almost incredible. Behind it all, of course, lay the passionate sincerity of one who had been brought to his thought and mission not by abstract speculation but by the realities of sin, grace, forgiveness, and faith. His written works fill many bulky volumes, but the words are all vibrant and challenging, for they came not merely from the study or podium but from life and action. Luther did a work that probably no one else in his highly gifted age could have done. He did it because he had the required combination of learning, insight, character, and faith. When under God the hour struck in 1517, the man for the hour was there. The Reformation that had been arrested so long could no longer be delayed. | 3,954 | ENGLISH | 1 |
AIDS is a collection of symptoms known as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. It is caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which leads to loss of immune cells and leaves individuals susceptible to other infections and the development of certain types of cancers. There is no cure for AIDS, though drugs can slow down and stabilize the disease's progress.
AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, and it began to be noticed as a problem in the United States in the '80s. AIDS is caused by a virus called human immunodeficiency virus, which was isolated and purified in the mid-'80s, and by the late '80s a test had been developed to see if people actually had this virus in their system. The HIV virus interacts with a certain kind of white blood cell called a T cell, and it binds to a certain molecule on the surface of these T cells. And that's how it gains entry into the cells. So you can think of HIV as a blood-borne pathogen or kind of a virus. Now, what happens when the HIV virus gets into the cell: HIV is a retrovirus, so that means that it has an RNA genome that's converted to DNA. And the DNA integrates into the cell, and then it begins to make RNA, copies of itself, which then are turned into protein in the cytoplasm. And other RNAs are packaged into other viruses that leave those T cells and look for other T cells. And in the process of expanding the HIV virus in these T cells, the T cells become dysfunctional as more and more and more pick up the virus through their receptors. And the patient begins to lose function, and that's why they're acquiring an immunodeficiency syndrome. And at the present time, there really is no way to take someone who has the HIV virus and get rid of it in their system. But there are drugs that inhibit different parts of the HIV lifestyle. And it was in the early 1990s that a graduate student in Boston had been experimenting with these three drugs separately in showing which parts of the lifestyle they inhibit, or the life cycle rather of the HIV virus they inhibited, and then had the bright idea that if one works pretty well and two works pretty well and three works pretty well by themselves, maybe all three together would work very well. And that was done in clinical trials. And that is the current state-of-the-art therapy for AIDS; it's called triple-drug therapy. And this really slows down the spread of the HIV virus and allows patients who take these drugs to have a relatively normal life. Now, there are few side effects with the liver and things, but I think these drugs will do until we come up with a better way to get rid of the HIV virus. | <urn:uuid:78ad6c19-4adf-4879-83e9-15b710f87402> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Acquired-Immunodeficiency-Syndrome | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00440.warc.gz | en | 0.985248 | 572 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.000896747224032... | 9 | AIDS is a collection of symptoms known as acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. It is caused by infection with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which leads to loss of immune cells and leaves individuals susceptible to other infections and the development of certain types of cancers. There is no cure for AIDS, though drugs can slow down and stabilize the disease's progress.
AIDS stands for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, and it began to be noticed as a problem in the United States in the '80s. AIDS is caused by a virus called human immunodeficiency virus, which was isolated and purified in the mid-'80s, and by the late '80s a test had been developed to see if people actually had this virus in their system. The HIV virus interacts with a certain kind of white blood cell called a T cell, and it binds to a certain molecule on the surface of these T cells. And that's how it gains entry into the cells. So you can think of HIV as a blood-borne pathogen or kind of a virus. Now, what happens when the HIV virus gets into the cell: HIV is a retrovirus, so that means that it has an RNA genome that's converted to DNA. And the DNA integrates into the cell, and then it begins to make RNA, copies of itself, which then are turned into protein in the cytoplasm. And other RNAs are packaged into other viruses that leave those T cells and look for other T cells. And in the process of expanding the HIV virus in these T cells, the T cells become dysfunctional as more and more and more pick up the virus through their receptors. And the patient begins to lose function, and that's why they're acquiring an immunodeficiency syndrome. And at the present time, there really is no way to take someone who has the HIV virus and get rid of it in their system. But there are drugs that inhibit different parts of the HIV lifestyle. And it was in the early 1990s that a graduate student in Boston had been experimenting with these three drugs separately in showing which parts of the lifestyle they inhibit, or the life cycle rather of the HIV virus they inhibited, and then had the bright idea that if one works pretty well and two works pretty well and three works pretty well by themselves, maybe all three together would work very well. And that was done in clinical trials. And that is the current state-of-the-art therapy for AIDS; it's called triple-drug therapy. And this really slows down the spread of the HIV virus and allows patients who take these drugs to have a relatively normal life. Now, there are few side effects with the liver and things, but I think these drugs will do until we come up with a better way to get rid of the HIV virus. | 571 | ENGLISH | 1 |
2.5 James Gibson & the Ecological Theory of Perception
Seeing the World
How do you see the world? Do you see what it really is or do you actually see a shadow that your brain clarifies? Basically, do you have direct perception or indirect perception?
Perception is how humans, and other animals, see the world. It is the interpretation everyone makes of what they see, and in another sense, the world that surrounds them. If that perception is direct, then the true reality is experienced. However, if perception is indirect, then the actual world is indistinct and must be completed by a trick of the brain. So which is it, direct or indirect? Jacob Gibson, a psychologist, was interested in this facet of how people perceive the world.
The Traditional View of Perception
Prior to Gibson’s work, psychologists had the idea that the real world was never actually seen. They thought that the eyes only provide a faulty input, that is a shadow of reality, rather than a direct input. This faulty glance of reality is then filtered through the brain, which interprets what it sees. The brain fills in the gaps of the faulty perception and provides to the eye and other senses a clearer picture of what is real. This idea came about because it was known that the human eye saw only a distorted image (upside down) and the brain created the true right-side up image.
This type of perception explains why six people can see the same accident yet have very different descriptions when questioned about it. Due to different experiences and different personalities, each individual’s brain will fill in the details and provide a slightly different outcome, or output.
The Ecological Theory of Perception
However, James Gibson did not agree with this view of perception. He was convinced that the researchers who had come before him were looking at the question through the wrong lens. His idea was that people directly perceived what they were experiencing.
During World War II, Gibson worked with aviators. The instructors were having problems teaching the new fliers how to react during a dogfight. The problem was they did not react quickly enough to what they were seeing. Gibson looked at how bees and birds completed the same maneuvers without problem and realized that the young aviators were reacting to what they actually saw rather than what experience told them was coming up (since they had no previous experience). This helped him form the thought that they were directly perceiving the action and thus were not able to react to it quickly enough.
His ecological theory of perception came about because he believed that actual perception was much more complex than scientists had previously believed. People, and all animals, perceive things directly and this can be observed if researchers look at all of the evidence. In Gibson’s view, perception was made up of two components:
- Animal-environment systems: this is the world in which the perceiving animal lives. Gibson believed that the setting was just as important to understanding perception as the individual who was perceiving.
- Guiding activity: it is also important to know what the individual does within the environment. Perception is aided by not only the world the subject sees but also how they are culturally taught to move within their environment.
The ecological perspective used these two keys in order to know something about the individual who was perceiving a certain action. Gibson said that the reason different individuals perceived the same event differently was due to perspective (the angle at which they saw the event, which is part of the animal-environment systems) and how they have lived within that environment previously (the guiding activity).
Which View is Correct?
There has been a great deal of research into both views of perception. Basically, there is no consensus. Gibson and his colleagues were able to find evidence that perception could be explained as direct if the right criteria were observed. He believed that indirect perception required too narrow a vision of what perception was.
James Gibson was a psychologist in the middle of the twentieth century who studied perception, how animals see their environment. The traditional view of perception was that it was indirect perception. A faulty input or view of a scene (demonstrating how the eye receives information) was corrected by the brain to complete the perception picture. Gibson, from viewing new aviator training during World War II, believed in direct perception. He theorized that people actually saw what was in front of them with no gap filling by the brain. His ecological theory of perception was guided by two principles: animal-environment systems and guiding activity. James Gibson thought that to completely understand perception the observer had to take into account the perceiver’s environment and how they acted within that environment. | <urn:uuid:347dbad1-30fa-4ab7-97d5-5c0fc6120cb5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://eugeniesantiago.com/me/2020/01/12/2-5-james-gibson-the-ecological-theory-of-perception/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00058.warc.gz | en | 0.983145 | 949 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | 2.5 James Gibson & the Ecological Theory of Perception
Seeing the World
How do you see the world? Do you see what it really is or do you actually see a shadow that your brain clarifies? Basically, do you have direct perception or indirect perception?
Perception is how humans, and other animals, see the world. It is the interpretation everyone makes of what they see, and in another sense, the world that surrounds them. If that perception is direct, then the true reality is experienced. However, if perception is indirect, then the actual world is indistinct and must be completed by a trick of the brain. So which is it, direct or indirect? Jacob Gibson, a psychologist, was interested in this facet of how people perceive the world.
The Traditional View of Perception
Prior to Gibson’s work, psychologists had the idea that the real world was never actually seen. They thought that the eyes only provide a faulty input, that is a shadow of reality, rather than a direct input. This faulty glance of reality is then filtered through the brain, which interprets what it sees. The brain fills in the gaps of the faulty perception and provides to the eye and other senses a clearer picture of what is real. This idea came about because it was known that the human eye saw only a distorted image (upside down) and the brain created the true right-side up image.
This type of perception explains why six people can see the same accident yet have very different descriptions when questioned about it. Due to different experiences and different personalities, each individual’s brain will fill in the details and provide a slightly different outcome, or output.
The Ecological Theory of Perception
However, James Gibson did not agree with this view of perception. He was convinced that the researchers who had come before him were looking at the question through the wrong lens. His idea was that people directly perceived what they were experiencing.
During World War II, Gibson worked with aviators. The instructors were having problems teaching the new fliers how to react during a dogfight. The problem was they did not react quickly enough to what they were seeing. Gibson looked at how bees and birds completed the same maneuvers without problem and realized that the young aviators were reacting to what they actually saw rather than what experience told them was coming up (since they had no previous experience). This helped him form the thought that they were directly perceiving the action and thus were not able to react to it quickly enough.
His ecological theory of perception came about because he believed that actual perception was much more complex than scientists had previously believed. People, and all animals, perceive things directly and this can be observed if researchers look at all of the evidence. In Gibson’s view, perception was made up of two components:
- Animal-environment systems: this is the world in which the perceiving animal lives. Gibson believed that the setting was just as important to understanding perception as the individual who was perceiving.
- Guiding activity: it is also important to know what the individual does within the environment. Perception is aided by not only the world the subject sees but also how they are culturally taught to move within their environment.
The ecological perspective used these two keys in order to know something about the individual who was perceiving a certain action. Gibson said that the reason different individuals perceived the same event differently was due to perspective (the angle at which they saw the event, which is part of the animal-environment systems) and how they have lived within that environment previously (the guiding activity).
Which View is Correct?
There has been a great deal of research into both views of perception. Basically, there is no consensus. Gibson and his colleagues were able to find evidence that perception could be explained as direct if the right criteria were observed. He believed that indirect perception required too narrow a vision of what perception was.
James Gibson was a psychologist in the middle of the twentieth century who studied perception, how animals see their environment. The traditional view of perception was that it was indirect perception. A faulty input or view of a scene (demonstrating how the eye receives information) was corrected by the brain to complete the perception picture. Gibson, from viewing new aviator training during World War II, believed in direct perception. He theorized that people actually saw what was in front of them with no gap filling by the brain. His ecological theory of perception was guided by two principles: animal-environment systems and guiding activity. James Gibson thought that to completely understand perception the observer had to take into account the perceiver’s environment and how they acted within that environment. | 928 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Consolation of Philosophy
Revision as of 18:54, 3 June 2008 by Mynameisnotpj (Oops.)
Boethius may have written his book, The Consolation of Philosophy, from prison in the year 524 AD, but the issues he addresses are every bit as relevant to modern life as they were to life in the 6th century. A philosopher, statesman, and theologian, Boethius was imprisoned by Germanic King Theoderick on trumped up charges. In his Consolation, Boethius creates a dialogue between his imprisoned self and Lady Philosophy to examine the true nature of happiness.
Philosophy initially finds Boethius despondent because of his changed circumstances. A respected scholar and politician, he has lost everthing: his wealth, his position, his friends and even all contact with his family. He is bemoaning his fate and the false charges that have put him in prison. Lady Philosophy diagnoses his illness: he has forgotten who he truly is and exactly what is his nature and purpose. She reminds him that the world was not created by chance but by a divine creator. She then turns her attention to human happiness. Fortune she asserts, cannot bring true happiness because the things fortune brings are transient: wealth, power,and honor. She reminds Boethius that although he is not with his family they are still alive. She then goes on to examine the ways in which people seek happiness and shows that when humans have those things they tend to become slaves to them for fear of losing them. She further asserts that bad fortune is actually good because it frees one from bondage to transient, earthly things.
All people are seeking happiness, Philosophy asserts, but most of them are seeking in the wrong places. She then equates happiness with the good and further asserts since God the creator is the Supreme Good, all people are actually seeking him even if they do not know it. Boethius counters with the questions: how then can there be evil in the world with if it has a Good and Perfect creator? Philosophy says that evil is really nothing because it has no power over good, because all men seek good and those who are evil cannot achieve that which they seek. Every action she says, requires will and power. Those men who seek good but do not achieve it thus have no power. Boethius still questions this because he is unable to understnd why it often seems that the evil prosper and the good suffer. This is a one of the most difficult problems a philosopher will face, Lady Philosophy admits. She then explains that what we see as fate, God sees as Providence. We cannot always understand what God intends but his intentions are always good for the correction of evil and the reward of good. However, this only brings Boethius to another question: If God knows all things and his Providence guides all actions, then how can man possibly have free will? Philosophy explains this by showing that just because God knows what will happen does not mean he wills what will happen. She says that man cannot put our own limitations on God. He is outside of time so all times look the same to him and his view is different: he sees a never changing present.
Thus Lady Philosophy provides consolation to Boethius for his situation. God foreknew it and it is part of his providential plan. Boethius happiness can be based in his virtue and in his knowledge of truth rather than in the ups and downs of circumstances. And indeed, good did come out of Boethius' imprisonment even though he never left his prison save to escape to death, he left us this book to help us learn to rise above our circumstances and never to let our circumstances controll us. Boethius may have phisically died in prison but in addition to a place in paradise, he gained immortality through his message which is still providing consolation to readers today. | <urn:uuid:5ab96c0d-667a-49a3-b9ae-ce9b1bea4754> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.wikisummaries.org/w/index.php?title=The_Consolation_of_Philosophy&oldid=11717 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00242.warc.gz | en | 0.985192 | 796 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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Revision as of 18:54, 3 June 2008 by Mynameisnotpj (Oops.)
Boethius may have written his book, The Consolation of Philosophy, from prison in the year 524 AD, but the issues he addresses are every bit as relevant to modern life as they were to life in the 6th century. A philosopher, statesman, and theologian, Boethius was imprisoned by Germanic King Theoderick on trumped up charges. In his Consolation, Boethius creates a dialogue between his imprisoned self and Lady Philosophy to examine the true nature of happiness.
Philosophy initially finds Boethius despondent because of his changed circumstances. A respected scholar and politician, he has lost everthing: his wealth, his position, his friends and even all contact with his family. He is bemoaning his fate and the false charges that have put him in prison. Lady Philosophy diagnoses his illness: he has forgotten who he truly is and exactly what is his nature and purpose. She reminds him that the world was not created by chance but by a divine creator. She then turns her attention to human happiness. Fortune she asserts, cannot bring true happiness because the things fortune brings are transient: wealth, power,and honor. She reminds Boethius that although he is not with his family they are still alive. She then goes on to examine the ways in which people seek happiness and shows that when humans have those things they tend to become slaves to them for fear of losing them. She further asserts that bad fortune is actually good because it frees one from bondage to transient, earthly things.
All people are seeking happiness, Philosophy asserts, but most of them are seeking in the wrong places. She then equates happiness with the good and further asserts since God the creator is the Supreme Good, all people are actually seeking him even if they do not know it. Boethius counters with the questions: how then can there be evil in the world with if it has a Good and Perfect creator? Philosophy says that evil is really nothing because it has no power over good, because all men seek good and those who are evil cannot achieve that which they seek. Every action she says, requires will and power. Those men who seek good but do not achieve it thus have no power. Boethius still questions this because he is unable to understnd why it often seems that the evil prosper and the good suffer. This is a one of the most difficult problems a philosopher will face, Lady Philosophy admits. She then explains that what we see as fate, God sees as Providence. We cannot always understand what God intends but his intentions are always good for the correction of evil and the reward of good. However, this only brings Boethius to another question: If God knows all things and his Providence guides all actions, then how can man possibly have free will? Philosophy explains this by showing that just because God knows what will happen does not mean he wills what will happen. She says that man cannot put our own limitations on God. He is outside of time so all times look the same to him and his view is different: he sees a never changing present.
Thus Lady Philosophy provides consolation to Boethius for his situation. God foreknew it and it is part of his providential plan. Boethius happiness can be based in his virtue and in his knowledge of truth rather than in the ups and downs of circumstances. And indeed, good did come out of Boethius' imprisonment even though he never left his prison save to escape to death, he left us this book to help us learn to rise above our circumstances and never to let our circumstances controll us. Boethius may have phisically died in prison but in addition to a place in paradise, he gained immortality through his message which is still providing consolation to readers today. | 799 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Arsenic: it’s been called the “king of poisons” and the “poison of kings.” And for good reason – it has a lengthy, storied history, one full of mysterious poisoners and sometimes less-than-sympathetic victims. It's been a tool for thousands of years, used to kill countless people by shutting down their cells; a pea-sized amount of the stuff is enough to cause excruciating death.
The ancient Romans used arsenic against their political enemies, and for centuries it was the go-to poison for women who hated their husbands. It's odorless and tasteless, so it could easily be sprinkled into someone’s yogurt (a Chinese emperor died that way) or mixed into wine (that’s how the Borgias killed their enemies). Before it could be detected with tests, arsenic poisoning was the perfect crime – just ask Giulia Tofana, the Renaissance poisoner who helped 600 women murder their spouses.
When it wasn't killing people, arsenic was being used in everyday life as a rat poison, a healer, and even makeup. Just like radium was used as a medicine, an arsenic compound successfully treated syphilis before the discovery of penicillin. Regardless of how many lives it saved, however, arsenic remains one of the deadliest substances in human history.
Arsenic poisoning was popular because it left very little trace. The symptoms of arsenic poisoning – vomiting and diarrhea – were easily mistaken for other common diseases, such as food poisoning or cholera. Arsenic could both be used to kill quickly – a pea-sized amount was all it took – and slowly, using minuscule amounts of arsenic over a period of months until it built up in the victim’s system and shut down their organs. It was also odorless and tasteless, so it was easy to conceal in food or wine.
As a London newspaper reported in 1855, “If you feel a deadly sensation within and grow gradually weaker, how do you know you are not poisoned?” Arsenic was a silent killer, and it was usually used by people very close to the victim: a wife, a disgruntled servant, or a son eager to acquire his inheritance, for example.
Arsenic wasn't just known as a poison – it was also marketed as a way for women to beautify themselves. In the 19th century, women used arsenic powder to whiten their skin. It literally destroyed their red blood vessels, giving women the coveted pale, almost-dead look popularized in Victorian times. It could cause capillary damage in the skin, as well, which gave some a desirable "rosy-cheeked look."
According to an 1896 ad for Dr. Cambell's Safe Arsenic Complexion Wafers (pictured above), rubbing arsenic on your face would transform you into a "lovely creature" and an "object of worship." The wafers purported to remove pimples, freckles, and tans, and give skin radiant health. That is, if you survived the side effects.
Giulia Tofana invented a mysterious poison in 17th century Italy called Aqua Tofana – also known as the inheritance poison. The concoction was disguised as a bottle of makeup, and women bought the arsenic-laced potion to help them escape bad marriages. In those years, death was sometimes the only way to escape an abusive husband.
Just a few drops of the poison could kill without leaving a trace – and as many as 600 people died as a result of Tofana’s potion. In 1659, one of Tofana's customers was caught, and the investigation ultimately led back to Tofana. She was executed along with her daughter and several accomplices.
The Borgias are famous for many reasons: Alexander VI, the Borgia Pope, was a ruthless man who propelled his children to power (he wasn't a pope who was big on celibacy). He married off his daughter Lucretia multiple times, while pushing his son Cesare to build the family’s wealth and legacy. In addition to having a pope as the patriarch, the Borgias are also known for poisoning people – which became known as “the gift of the Borgias.”
The Borgias's favorite delivery method was arsenic in wine. When their victims died, church law dictated the ownership of their property reverted to the church, which, of course, was run by the Borgias. But when Alexander VI accidentally drank poisoned wine and died, the family’s fortunes quickly fell. | <urn:uuid:c1f77955-bafd-4727-b75d-8c3e730677c3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ranker.com/list/history-of-arsenic/genevieve-carlton?ref=collections&l=2797283&collectionId=1542 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00183.warc.gz | en | 0.983598 | 952 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.1952391266822815... | 2 | Arsenic: it’s been called the “king of poisons” and the “poison of kings.” And for good reason – it has a lengthy, storied history, one full of mysterious poisoners and sometimes less-than-sympathetic victims. It's been a tool for thousands of years, used to kill countless people by shutting down their cells; a pea-sized amount of the stuff is enough to cause excruciating death.
The ancient Romans used arsenic against their political enemies, and for centuries it was the go-to poison for women who hated their husbands. It's odorless and tasteless, so it could easily be sprinkled into someone’s yogurt (a Chinese emperor died that way) or mixed into wine (that’s how the Borgias killed their enemies). Before it could be detected with tests, arsenic poisoning was the perfect crime – just ask Giulia Tofana, the Renaissance poisoner who helped 600 women murder their spouses.
When it wasn't killing people, arsenic was being used in everyday life as a rat poison, a healer, and even makeup. Just like radium was used as a medicine, an arsenic compound successfully treated syphilis before the discovery of penicillin. Regardless of how many lives it saved, however, arsenic remains one of the deadliest substances in human history.
Arsenic poisoning was popular because it left very little trace. The symptoms of arsenic poisoning – vomiting and diarrhea – were easily mistaken for other common diseases, such as food poisoning or cholera. Arsenic could both be used to kill quickly – a pea-sized amount was all it took – and slowly, using minuscule amounts of arsenic over a period of months until it built up in the victim’s system and shut down their organs. It was also odorless and tasteless, so it was easy to conceal in food or wine.
As a London newspaper reported in 1855, “If you feel a deadly sensation within and grow gradually weaker, how do you know you are not poisoned?” Arsenic was a silent killer, and it was usually used by people very close to the victim: a wife, a disgruntled servant, or a son eager to acquire his inheritance, for example.
Arsenic wasn't just known as a poison – it was also marketed as a way for women to beautify themselves. In the 19th century, women used arsenic powder to whiten their skin. It literally destroyed their red blood vessels, giving women the coveted pale, almost-dead look popularized in Victorian times. It could cause capillary damage in the skin, as well, which gave some a desirable "rosy-cheeked look."
According to an 1896 ad for Dr. Cambell's Safe Arsenic Complexion Wafers (pictured above), rubbing arsenic on your face would transform you into a "lovely creature" and an "object of worship." The wafers purported to remove pimples, freckles, and tans, and give skin radiant health. That is, if you survived the side effects.
Giulia Tofana invented a mysterious poison in 17th century Italy called Aqua Tofana – also known as the inheritance poison. The concoction was disguised as a bottle of makeup, and women bought the arsenic-laced potion to help them escape bad marriages. In those years, death was sometimes the only way to escape an abusive husband.
Just a few drops of the poison could kill without leaving a trace – and as many as 600 people died as a result of Tofana’s potion. In 1659, one of Tofana's customers was caught, and the investigation ultimately led back to Tofana. She was executed along with her daughter and several accomplices.
The Borgias are famous for many reasons: Alexander VI, the Borgia Pope, was a ruthless man who propelled his children to power (he wasn't a pope who was big on celibacy). He married off his daughter Lucretia multiple times, while pushing his son Cesare to build the family’s wealth and legacy. In addition to having a pope as the patriarch, the Borgias are also known for poisoning people – which became known as “the gift of the Borgias.”
The Borgias's favorite delivery method was arsenic in wine. When their victims died, church law dictated the ownership of their property reverted to the church, which, of course, was run by the Borgias. But when Alexander VI accidentally drank poisoned wine and died, the family’s fortunes quickly fell. | 943 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Excavated in 2013, this mouthpiece to a brass instrument was found with a clay tobacco pipestem wedged in its shank, preventing the horn from being blown. Perhaps this was a practical joke, or simply an acquaintance tired of hearing this horn every morning. While it is possible that the pipestem was unintentionally lodged in the mouthpiece after deposition, the chances of this happening are limited. If intentionally placed, the mouthpiece and the pipestem provides us with a few clues as to when this might have occurred.
The form of the mouthpiece suggests that it belonged to a natural, or valve-less horn, such as a bugle. The tubular valve horn, like the modern trumpet, was developed in the early-1800s. Prior to this, horns were limited to a single harmonic series, and changing that series required the addition of crooks (curved tube) and shanks (straight tube). While natural horns were widely used in classical composure through the 19th century, their use in the military began in antiquity and persists through the present.
To date, archaeologists have uncovered two horn mouthpieces at Jamestown. The first was found in an early 1607-1610 pit feature, and was missing its shank. The second, described here, was found in the upper layers of an excavation unit just south of the church, and likely dates to the American Revolution. The tobacco pipestem lodged in the mouthpiece was manufactured in the mid-18th century, further supporting this date. Jamestown Island served as a temporary posts for the Continental Army and Virginia Militia during the American Revolution, and played a supporting role in the 1781 Battle of Greensprings. It is possible that this mouthpiece, with its tobacco pipestem wedged inside, was discarded at this time.
Was this an early celebration of April Fool’s Day? Probably not, but it is certainly true that the first day of April has been recognized as a day of jokes, pranks, and deception in American and English society since the late-17th century. While Jamestown Rediscovery archaeologists have yet to uncover earlier practical jokes, who knows what this year will bring. Stayed tuned until April of 2018. | <urn:uuid:c60b2183-1be7-4378-bb9d-831c487dd67e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historicjamestowne.org/selected-artifacts/trumpet-mouthpiece/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00351.warc.gz | en | 0.982256 | 458 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.1115627214312... | 1 | Excavated in 2013, this mouthpiece to a brass instrument was found with a clay tobacco pipestem wedged in its shank, preventing the horn from being blown. Perhaps this was a practical joke, or simply an acquaintance tired of hearing this horn every morning. While it is possible that the pipestem was unintentionally lodged in the mouthpiece after deposition, the chances of this happening are limited. If intentionally placed, the mouthpiece and the pipestem provides us with a few clues as to when this might have occurred.
The form of the mouthpiece suggests that it belonged to a natural, or valve-less horn, such as a bugle. The tubular valve horn, like the modern trumpet, was developed in the early-1800s. Prior to this, horns were limited to a single harmonic series, and changing that series required the addition of crooks (curved tube) and shanks (straight tube). While natural horns were widely used in classical composure through the 19th century, their use in the military began in antiquity and persists through the present.
To date, archaeologists have uncovered two horn mouthpieces at Jamestown. The first was found in an early 1607-1610 pit feature, and was missing its shank. The second, described here, was found in the upper layers of an excavation unit just south of the church, and likely dates to the American Revolution. The tobacco pipestem lodged in the mouthpiece was manufactured in the mid-18th century, further supporting this date. Jamestown Island served as a temporary posts for the Continental Army and Virginia Militia during the American Revolution, and played a supporting role in the 1781 Battle of Greensprings. It is possible that this mouthpiece, with its tobacco pipestem wedged inside, was discarded at this time.
Was this an early celebration of April Fool’s Day? Probably not, but it is certainly true that the first day of April has been recognized as a day of jokes, pranks, and deception in American and English society since the late-17th century. While Jamestown Rediscovery archaeologists have yet to uncover earlier practical jokes, who knows what this year will bring. Stayed tuned until April of 2018. | 473 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the second century B.C., the Seleucid kings who ruled Palestine decided to form local governments similar to what was found in Greek cities. They set up councils who administered the city's affairs, made civil and religious laws and were to be subject to the supreme authority of the king. These local councils were known as "sanhedrins".
In Jerusalem, the council became known as The Sanhedrin due to its vast influence. The Romans were extremely tolerant of the local religious beliefs and practices of the people they conquered. They did not seek to change these beliefs nor did they desire to intrude into their religious practices. They wanted their subjected peoples to have a limited amount of freedom to rule themselves locally. The Sanhedrin was entrusted by the Romans with the administration of Jerusalem, but was subject to the Roman procurator or governor for Judea.
The Sanhedrin was composed of 71 men including its leader, the High Priest. These 71 men were divided into three groups. First were the "Chief Priests" of the Sadducees. These were usually very influential men of the priestly class. They were aristocrats in that they felt "entitled" to their positions of rank and privilege due to their nobility. They were the "upper class elites" of their time.
The second group making up The Sanhedrin was the "Ancients" which were non-priestly Sadducees of the "upper class elites". These men were every bit as influential as the chief priests, but represented the laity.
Sadducees were a socially liberal but doctrinally conservative faction. They strove to preserve the original and true moral heritage of Judaism found in the Torah (The Law of Moses). They refused to accept any additional oral regulations based on tradition. They believed tradition was the distortion of the Torah. Both the "Chief Priests" and the "Ancients" were Sadducees.
The third group making up the Sanhedrin was the "Scribes" which were "active" laymen who were predominantly Pharisees. Scribes were doctors of the Law as opposed to the Sadducees who were of the wealthy elite class. The priesthood became identified with the Sadducees and the Scribes with the Pharisees. Because the scribes were doctors of The Law, they became known as lawyers.
Scribes were highly educated in the Law and could in theory be a priest, layman, Pharisee or Sadducee. In Jesus' time, almost all the Scribes were laymen as opposed to priests and were of the Pharisee persuasion as opposed to that of the Sadducees. To become a Scribe, the education started as a child learning at the feet of a master. The course of study usually was not completed until the student was around forty years old. Scribes were usually very poor due to their extensive time studying. They had to work at another trade in order to earn a living.
The Scribes were the professional intellectuals of the day. They knew The Law of Moses inside and out. But they were also so well educated that they began writing commentaries on the Law which took precedence over the Law itself. There were several thousand of these commentaries which provided rules for the Sabbath, tithing, and worship. By the time of Jesus, the Scribes had strayed so far from the Law with their personal interpretations, what was taught was nothing more than tradition many times.
Where "Chief Priests", "Ancients" and "Scribes" addressed who these people were; "Sadducee" and "Pharisee" defined what they believed. The Pharisees were a group that had become bitter toward the ruling classes (Sadducees). The Pharisees held themselves aloof from the common people, thinking of themselves as superior and more pure. They also kept aloof from all that was secular, irreligious or impure. The Pharisees believed the Torah or "written law" was only part of what was to be believed. They believed there was also an extensive "oral law" built upon customs and traditions which had been passed along through the generations and carried equal weight to the "written law". The scribes and Pharisees worked together and developed the Talmud, which is a collection of maxims written or orally handed down through the centuries.
By Jesus' time, the Scribes had written that their words carried greater weight than the words of the Torah. Once they established this, any law could be drawn up and sanctioned as "The Law". Generally speaking, most scribes were Pharisees and most Pharisees were scribes. There were good and bad Pharisees just as there are good and bad Christians. Jesus himself was on good terms with many Pharisees like Simon, Nicodemus and Joseph of Arimathea. But it was also the Pharisees more than any other group who despised Jesus and sought constantly to destroy him.
Unlike the Sadducees where the only recorded confrontation between them and Jesus dealt with the subject of the resurrection; there was constant friction between the Pharisees and Jesus. Nowhere is that tension better shown than in Matthew 23.
Jesus told the multitude and his disciples that because the Pharisees and Scribes "sit in Moses seat" (as expounders of the law), they were to obey what they told them to do upon the authority of Moses, but not to imitate their conduct. He said this because the scribes and the Pharisees did not practice what they preached.
"Do as I say but not as I do" has been applied to many people, but the original guilty parties were the scribes and Pharisees. Jesus told the people that because the scribes and Pharisees did not practice what they preached, their words were to be obeyed but their actions were to be dismissed. He then goes on to explain how everything done by these people was done to be "seen of men."
The Phylacteries were small boxes containing slips of parchment on which were written some divine precept. The scribes and Pharisees made these small boxes bigger and more conspicuous so everyone could see how pious they were. They did the same type of thing with the blue fringes on their garments. They loved the place of honor at feasts and the best seats in the synagogues. On the street, they loved to have men call them Rabbi, or "my master" (a title of great respect given a teacher).
All these things were done for "show". They were all superficial and hypocritical. Jesus then tells the people in verses 8 through 12 the proper way things are to be done. From the NIV:
"But you are not to be called ‘Rabbi' for you have only one Master and you are all brothers.
And do not call anyone on earth ‘father' for you have one Father, and He is in heaven.
Nor are you to be called ‘teacher' for you have one Teacher, the Christ.
The greatest among you will be your servant.
For whoever exalts himself will be humbled, and whoever humbles himself will be exalted."
What Jesus told the people was the total opposite of everything the scribes and Pharisees practiced. He said no one is to be called "Rabbi" because Jesus is the only Master. We saw earlier that the scribes and Pharisees loved to be called "Rabbi" in public. Jesus said not to call anyone on earth "father" because our Father is in heaven. Calling someone "father" in Jesus' time was another title given to a teacher, implying that "fatherly" wisdom and authority should command submission and obedience, which the scribes and Pharisees demanded.
Jesus said no one is to called "teacher", or "master", for there is only one Master, and it is Christ. Masters were leaders and guides who exercised authority over others. The scribes and Pharisees loved to "lord it over" the common people and demanded that they call them "teacher" or "master" as a sign of total submission.
As he taught in other places, Jesus tells the people again that whoever is the greatest or is the leader, MUST be the servant. Whoever seeks to exalt himself will be humbled and whoever humbles himself will be exalted. Religious leaders who demand the common people bow down before them and serve them are not representatives of Jesus Christ. It was at the "last supper" that Jesus got down on the floor and washed his disciple's feet as a sign of humility.
The scribes and Pharisees of Jesus' time were basically nothing but arrogant intellectuals who reflected a "holier than thou" persona and demanded the common man be under their subjection. They told others what to do, but did the opposite. They made a show of all that is "religious" to portray themselves as holy and pious. They were experts at pomp and pageantry and wherever they went they demanded the best seats and to be called "master". These religious leaders were the antithesis of what Jesus Christ was in his earthly ministry. That is why Jesus, in his last public teaching to the Jewish people, blasted the scribes and Pharisees' hypocrisy and sin with the 7 "woes" of Matthew 23.
Next time we will look at these 7 "woes" and see how they not only pertained to the religious leaders of Jesus' time, but could be applicable to religious leaders of any time. Leaders have a responsibility to those they lead, and it is not to "lord it over" them, lie to them or demand tithes and adoration from them. Leaders who do these things are the modern day "scribes" and "Pharisees" who need to repent in the same way those of Jesus' time should have, but didn't.
Ya know... In a company meeting I mentioned that being a manager was being a servant...
You should have seen all the managers get uncomfortably quiet...
God put people over others to serve them... As he made corporations to serve people, and not the other way around.
It is suppose to work the same in all walks of life. | <urn:uuid:5421ee00-6428-40e4-b36d-a2982747d04e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.christianblog.com/blog/blessings2you/scribes-pharisees-and-religious-hypocrisy-part-1/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00215.warc.gz | en | 0.989729 | 2,125 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.1397431641... | 2 | In the second century B.C., the Seleucid kings who ruled Palestine decided to form local governments similar to what was found in Greek cities. They set up councils who administered the city's affairs, made civil and religious laws and were to be subject to the supreme authority of the king. These local councils were known as "sanhedrins".
In Jerusalem, the council became known as The Sanhedrin due to its vast influence. The Romans were extremely tolerant of the local religious beliefs and practices of the people they conquered. They did not seek to change these beliefs nor did they desire to intrude into their religious practices. They wanted their subjected peoples to have a limited amount of freedom to rule themselves locally. The Sanhedrin was entrusted by the Romans with the administration of Jerusalem, but was subject to the Roman procurator or governor for Judea.
The Sanhedrin was composed of 71 men including its leader, the High Priest. These 71 men were divided into three groups. First were the "Chief Priests" of the Sadducees. These were usually very influential men of the priestly class. They were aristocrats in that they felt "entitled" to their positions of rank and privilege due to their nobility. They were the "upper class elites" of their time.
The second group making up The Sanhedrin was the "Ancients" which were non-priestly Sadducees of the "upper class elites". These men were every bit as influential as the chief priests, but represented the laity.
Sadducees were a socially liberal but doctrinally conservative faction. They strove to preserve the original and true moral heritage of Judaism found in the Torah (The Law of Moses). They refused to accept any additional oral regulations based on tradition. They believed tradition was the distortion of the Torah. Both the "Chief Priests" and the "Ancients" were Sadducees.
The third group making up the Sanhedrin was the "Scribes" which were "active" laymen who were predominantly Pharisees. Scribes were doctors of the Law as opposed to the Sadducees who were of the wealthy elite class. The priesthood became identified with the Sadducees and the Scribes with the Pharisees. Because the scribes were doctors of The Law, they became known as lawyers.
Scribes were highly educated in the Law and could in theory be a priest, layman, Pharisee or Sadducee. In Jesus' time, almost all the Scribes were laymen as opposed to priests and were of the Pharisee persuasion as opposed to that of the Sadducees. To become a Scribe, the education started as a child learning at the feet of a master. The course of study usually was not completed until the student was around forty years old. Scribes were usually very poor due to their extensive time studying. They had to work at another trade in order to earn a living.
The Scribes were the professional intellectuals of the day. They knew The Law of Moses inside and out. But they were also so well educated that they began writing commentaries on the Law which took precedence over the Law itself. There were several thousand of these commentaries which provided rules for the Sabbath, tithing, and worship. By the time of Jesus, the Scribes had strayed so far from the Law with their personal interpretations, what was taught was nothing more than tradition many times.
Where "Chief Priests", "Ancients" and "Scribes" addressed who these people were; "Sadducee" and "Pharisee" defined what they believed. The Pharisees were a group that had become bitter toward the ruling classes (Sadducees). The Pharisees held themselves aloof from the common people, thinking of themselves as superior and more pure. They also kept aloof from all that was secular, irreligious or impure. The Pharisees believed the Torah or "written law" was only part of what was to be believed. They believed there was also an extensive "oral law" built upon customs and traditions which had been passed along through the generations and carried equal weight to the "written law". The scribes and Pharisees worked together and developed the Talmud, which is a collection of maxims written or orally handed down through the centuries.
By Jesus' time, the Scribes had written that their words carried greater weight than the words of the Torah. Once they established this, any law could be drawn up and sanctioned as "The Law". Generally speaking, most scribes were Pharisees and most Pharisees were scribes. There were good and bad Pharisees just as there are good and bad Christians. Jesus himself was on good terms with many Pharisees like Simon, Nicodemus and Joseph of Arimathea. But it was also the Pharisees more than any other group who despised Jesus and sought constantly to destroy him.
Unlike the Sadducees where the only recorded confrontation between them and Jesus dealt with the subject of the resurrection; there was constant friction between the Pharisees and Jesus. Nowhere is that tension better shown than in Matthew 23.
Jesus told the multitude and his disciples that because the Pharisees and Scribes "sit in Moses seat" (as expounders of the law), they were to obey what they told them to do upon the authority of Moses, but not to imitate their conduct. He said this because the scribes and the Pharisees did not practice what they preached.
"Do as I say but not as I do" has been applied to many people, but the original guilty parties were the scribes and Pharisees. Jesus told the people that because the scribes and Pharisees did not practice what they preached, their words were to be obeyed but their actions were to be dismissed. He then goes on to explain how everything done by these people was done to be "seen of men."
The Phylacteries were small boxes containing slips of parchment on which were written some divine precept. The scribes and Pharisees made these small boxes bigger and more conspicuous so everyone could see how pious they were. They did the same type of thing with the blue fringes on their garments. They loved the place of honor at feasts and the best seats in the synagogues. On the street, they loved to have men call them Rabbi, or "my master" (a title of great respect given a teacher).
All these things were done for "show". They were all superficial and hypocritical. Jesus then tells the people in verses 8 through 12 the proper way things are to be done. From the NIV:
"But you are not to be called ‘Rabbi' for you have only one Master and you are all brothers.
And do not call anyone on earth ‘father' for you have one Father, and He is in heaven.
Nor are you to be called ‘teacher' for you have one Teacher, the Christ.
The greatest among you will be your servant.
For whoever exalts himself will be humbled, and whoever humbles himself will be exalted."
What Jesus told the people was the total opposite of everything the scribes and Pharisees practiced. He said no one is to be called "Rabbi" because Jesus is the only Master. We saw earlier that the scribes and Pharisees loved to be called "Rabbi" in public. Jesus said not to call anyone on earth "father" because our Father is in heaven. Calling someone "father" in Jesus' time was another title given to a teacher, implying that "fatherly" wisdom and authority should command submission and obedience, which the scribes and Pharisees demanded.
Jesus said no one is to called "teacher", or "master", for there is only one Master, and it is Christ. Masters were leaders and guides who exercised authority over others. The scribes and Pharisees loved to "lord it over" the common people and demanded that they call them "teacher" or "master" as a sign of total submission.
As he taught in other places, Jesus tells the people again that whoever is the greatest or is the leader, MUST be the servant. Whoever seeks to exalt himself will be humbled and whoever humbles himself will be exalted. Religious leaders who demand the common people bow down before them and serve them are not representatives of Jesus Christ. It was at the "last supper" that Jesus got down on the floor and washed his disciple's feet as a sign of humility.
The scribes and Pharisees of Jesus' time were basically nothing but arrogant intellectuals who reflected a "holier than thou" persona and demanded the common man be under their subjection. They told others what to do, but did the opposite. They made a show of all that is "religious" to portray themselves as holy and pious. They were experts at pomp and pageantry and wherever they went they demanded the best seats and to be called "master". These religious leaders were the antithesis of what Jesus Christ was in his earthly ministry. That is why Jesus, in his last public teaching to the Jewish people, blasted the scribes and Pharisees' hypocrisy and sin with the 7 "woes" of Matthew 23.
Next time we will look at these 7 "woes" and see how they not only pertained to the religious leaders of Jesus' time, but could be applicable to religious leaders of any time. Leaders have a responsibility to those they lead, and it is not to "lord it over" them, lie to them or demand tithes and adoration from them. Leaders who do these things are the modern day "scribes" and "Pharisees" who need to repent in the same way those of Jesus' time should have, but didn't.
Ya know... In a company meeting I mentioned that being a manager was being a servant...
You should have seen all the managers get uncomfortably quiet...
God put people over others to serve them... As he made corporations to serve people, and not the other way around.
It is suppose to work the same in all walks of life. | 2,100 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Ed Morales, Special to CNN
CNN (February 3, 2012)
"When I was 8 years old, my aunt tried to register us in school," Sylvia Méndez said, "and because she had light skin and her Mexican family had a French [-sounding] surname, they took her kids, but they said me and my brother would have to go to the Mexican school."
At barely 5 feet tall, with deep brown skin, dark eyes, a broad, inviting smile, and thick black hair, the 76-year-old Méndez looks like she could be Mexican.
But that is only half of her story.
Her tale is one that led to the integration of California schools in 1946, eight years before Brown vs. Board of Education, and illustrates a forgotten period in U.S. history where wealthy U.S. farm owners tried to substitute Puerto Ricans for Mexicans.
It might be one of the most important stories in U.S. Latino history and it began in 1926, when Felícita Gómez Martínez, Méndez' mother, arrived in Phoenix, Arizona, from Puerto Rico.
That was the year Arizona cotton growers arranged with the U.S. Bureau of Insular Affairs to import 1,500 Puerto Ricans to replace Mexican labor. The cotton growers were having trouble finding workers because new immigration policies restricted European immigration. There was also growing competition from urban industries for Mexican immigrant workers.
When the Puerto Ricans arrived, they were given about 40% lower wages than they were promised and working conditions that were well below the standards they expected. A local labor coalition reported that the Puerto Ricans claimed that they had no place to sleep and were not given food for days at a time. The work was done in a hot, dry sun they weren't used to, and their hands bled from the cotton thorns.
Time: The myth of desegregation
These terrible conditions were hardly a surprising reality for immigrant labor, but Puerto Ricans are not technically immigrants. The Jones Act, passed by the U.S. Congress in 1917, said all Puerto Ricans, whether born on the island territory or the mainland, were American citizens.
"My mother and her family were always aware that they were U.S. citizens," Sylvia Méndez said. "When they realized the Arizona growers thought they could mistreat them, they just were not going to stand for it and they fought back."
According to Professor César Ayala of the University of California at Los Angeles, who researched the family history, the Gómez family took part in riots and protests against the cotton growers soon after arriving. Then, along with their Puerto Rican peers, they attempted to join the American Federation of Labor but were rejected because they were considered "outsiders" affiliated with the radical union, International Workers of the World.
Carey McWilliams, a prominent historian of Mexican-Americans wrote that in March 1927, the Puerto Ricans marched to the Arizona Capitol, but instead of receiving help, they
were forcefully locked down and arrested for refusing to work. Like many other whites, blacks and Mexicans before them, the Gómez family and their fellow countrymen decided to leave.
Their stay in Arizona was only about six months, Felícita said in a 1975 interview with Ayala.
"My father, he had a hot foot," she said. "He wanted to travel...so he came to California." The Gómez patriarch got a job with the railroad that brought the family all the way to Palm Springs.
By 1927 the entire Gómez clan was on the road to California, where the family patriarch eventually got work picking eggplants in the Coachella Valley.
Although the Gómez family was Puerto Rican, they grew so entwined with the Mexican experience that they essentially "became" Mexican. "My grandfather didn't speak like a Puerto Rican," Sylvia Méndez said. "He moved into the Mexican community and spoke like a Mexican."
In 1935, Felícita married Gonzalo Méndez, who was a naturalized Mexican immigrant from Chihuahua. Later that year their daughter Sylvia Méndez was born.
An enterprising couple, they opened a cantina in a Mexican barrio of Santa Ana, Orange County, which was successful enough for them to eventually lease a farm from a Japanese-American family who were interned in a War Relocation Camp during World War II. By the mid-40s, according to Ayala, they had a workforce of 30 during peak season and their profits made them among the more prosperous Latino families in the area.
"My mom was like a lot of Puerto Rican women I met-intelligent, the go-getter type," Méndez said, laughing. "My dad had this charisma that made everyone want to be his compadre."
As good as life became for the Méndezes, there were still indignities they had to suffer living in the segregated California of the 1940s. They would sit forever in restaurants waiting to be served after all the white customers. The only property they were allowed to buy was in the Mexican barrios.
Despite their very American rags to riches story, Felícita Méndez' children - Sylvia, Gonzalo and Gerónimo - were not allowed to access to the full American dream. They were barred from attending the better public schools and relegated to the "Mexican school."
When Sylvia was 8, her aunt, who was a lighter-skinned Mexican-American with a French-sounding name - Viadurri - took her to the "white" school to enroll her with the Viadurri children. When school officials refused to admit Sylvia and her brother while at the same time accepting the Viadurris, it set off the battle.
"I started crying and I go home and I tell my mother, 'They don't want us in that school,' and my mother said, 'We're going to fight for you, because you're just as good as they are and we're all equal under God! Of course you're going to go to that school.'"
So in 1945, Felícita Méndez decided once again to fight for her rights, investing some of the money she and her husband earned as successful business owners, and took their case to court. Méndez vs.Westminster, went all the way to the federal court in Los Angeles and in 1946 became one of the landmark cases in civil rights history, spurring the desegregation of California schools.
Felícita Méndez never stopped demanding excellence from her children. "When I graduated from high school," said Sylvia, "I wanted to be a telephone operator and my mother says, 'we didn't fight for you to become a telephone operator. You have to go to college.'"
Sylvia Méndez went on to create the life her mother dreamed for her. She was a nursing director at a Los Angeles medical center until retirement in 1990.
The case became an important precedent for the more well-known Brown vs. Board of Education, which led to desegregated schools in 1954. Méndez vs. Westminster was ground breaking, but never got the attention normally associated with such an important decision.
That is why Sylvia Méndez decided to dedicate her life to spreading the word about her parent's battle and Méndez vs. Westminster. As a result of her crusade, two schools have been named after Felícita and Gonzalo Méndez. A film that documented the case, "For All the Children," was made by filmmaker Sandra Robbie in 2003.
And in February of last year, President Barack Obama presented Sylvia Méndez with the Congressional Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor, for her activism.
"I cried when they gave it to me, and I told him, this is for my mother and father," she said. Gonzalo Méndez died in 1964 at age 51. Felícita Méndez died in 1998. Neither one lived to see the two schools that were constructed in Santa Ana and Los Angeles in their names.
Sylvia Méndez' tireless efforts to shed light on Méndez vs. Westminster has created a strong historical basis for Puerto Rican and Mexican unity in a case that defined Latinos' quest for civil rights in America.
Although Sylvia Méndez' mother virtually "became" a Mexican, she was in fact a proud Puerto Rican, whose insistence that she was a U.S. citizen may have been a crucial factor in the Méndez' unerring quest for justice.
Outside of the work of Puerto Rican congressman Luis Gutiérrez (Democrat of Illinois), who is one of the nation's strongest supporters of immigrants' rights, there aren't that many instances where Puerto Ricans and Mexicans share a strong political alliance. In this case, Puerto Ricans and Mexicans working together made civil rights history.
"I was speaking at a Chicano class in a university and they wanted me to say I was Mexican," Sylvia Méndez remembered. "And I said 'No, I'm proud of both heritages.' Méndez-Westminster is not just about Mexicans, it's about all the other nationalities who came to fight with us."
Ed Morales is a professor at Columbia University's Center for the Study of Ethnicity and Race. He is also a journalist and author of "Living in Spanglish: The Search for Spanish Identity in the America." | <urn:uuid:d25dc1cb-da22-4546-a409-52477b235d05> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://indigenouspeoplenet.blogspot.com/2012/02/school-desegregation-case-you-don-know.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00445.warc.gz | en | 0.985457 | 1,982 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.18120583891... | 1 | By Ed Morales, Special to CNN
CNN (February 3, 2012)
"When I was 8 years old, my aunt tried to register us in school," Sylvia Méndez said, "and because she had light skin and her Mexican family had a French [-sounding] surname, they took her kids, but they said me and my brother would have to go to the Mexican school."
At barely 5 feet tall, with deep brown skin, dark eyes, a broad, inviting smile, and thick black hair, the 76-year-old Méndez looks like she could be Mexican.
But that is only half of her story.
Her tale is one that led to the integration of California schools in 1946, eight years before Brown vs. Board of Education, and illustrates a forgotten period in U.S. history where wealthy U.S. farm owners tried to substitute Puerto Ricans for Mexicans.
It might be one of the most important stories in U.S. Latino history and it began in 1926, when Felícita Gómez Martínez, Méndez' mother, arrived in Phoenix, Arizona, from Puerto Rico.
That was the year Arizona cotton growers arranged with the U.S. Bureau of Insular Affairs to import 1,500 Puerto Ricans to replace Mexican labor. The cotton growers were having trouble finding workers because new immigration policies restricted European immigration. There was also growing competition from urban industries for Mexican immigrant workers.
When the Puerto Ricans arrived, they were given about 40% lower wages than they were promised and working conditions that were well below the standards they expected. A local labor coalition reported that the Puerto Ricans claimed that they had no place to sleep and were not given food for days at a time. The work was done in a hot, dry sun they weren't used to, and their hands bled from the cotton thorns.
Time: The myth of desegregation
These terrible conditions were hardly a surprising reality for immigrant labor, but Puerto Ricans are not technically immigrants. The Jones Act, passed by the U.S. Congress in 1917, said all Puerto Ricans, whether born on the island territory or the mainland, were American citizens.
"My mother and her family were always aware that they were U.S. citizens," Sylvia Méndez said. "When they realized the Arizona growers thought they could mistreat them, they just were not going to stand for it and they fought back."
According to Professor César Ayala of the University of California at Los Angeles, who researched the family history, the Gómez family took part in riots and protests against the cotton growers soon after arriving. Then, along with their Puerto Rican peers, they attempted to join the American Federation of Labor but were rejected because they were considered "outsiders" affiliated with the radical union, International Workers of the World.
Carey McWilliams, a prominent historian of Mexican-Americans wrote that in March 1927, the Puerto Ricans marched to the Arizona Capitol, but instead of receiving help, they
were forcefully locked down and arrested for refusing to work. Like many other whites, blacks and Mexicans before them, the Gómez family and their fellow countrymen decided to leave.
Their stay in Arizona was only about six months, Felícita said in a 1975 interview with Ayala.
"My father, he had a hot foot," she said. "He wanted to travel...so he came to California." The Gómez patriarch got a job with the railroad that brought the family all the way to Palm Springs.
By 1927 the entire Gómez clan was on the road to California, where the family patriarch eventually got work picking eggplants in the Coachella Valley.
Although the Gómez family was Puerto Rican, they grew so entwined with the Mexican experience that they essentially "became" Mexican. "My grandfather didn't speak like a Puerto Rican," Sylvia Méndez said. "He moved into the Mexican community and spoke like a Mexican."
In 1935, Felícita married Gonzalo Méndez, who was a naturalized Mexican immigrant from Chihuahua. Later that year their daughter Sylvia Méndez was born.
An enterprising couple, they opened a cantina in a Mexican barrio of Santa Ana, Orange County, which was successful enough for them to eventually lease a farm from a Japanese-American family who were interned in a War Relocation Camp during World War II. By the mid-40s, according to Ayala, they had a workforce of 30 during peak season and their profits made them among the more prosperous Latino families in the area.
"My mom was like a lot of Puerto Rican women I met-intelligent, the go-getter type," Méndez said, laughing. "My dad had this charisma that made everyone want to be his compadre."
As good as life became for the Méndezes, there were still indignities they had to suffer living in the segregated California of the 1940s. They would sit forever in restaurants waiting to be served after all the white customers. The only property they were allowed to buy was in the Mexican barrios.
Despite their very American rags to riches story, Felícita Méndez' children - Sylvia, Gonzalo and Gerónimo - were not allowed to access to the full American dream. They were barred from attending the better public schools and relegated to the "Mexican school."
When Sylvia was 8, her aunt, who was a lighter-skinned Mexican-American with a French-sounding name - Viadurri - took her to the "white" school to enroll her with the Viadurri children. When school officials refused to admit Sylvia and her brother while at the same time accepting the Viadurris, it set off the battle.
"I started crying and I go home and I tell my mother, 'They don't want us in that school,' and my mother said, 'We're going to fight for you, because you're just as good as they are and we're all equal under God! Of course you're going to go to that school.'"
So in 1945, Felícita Méndez decided once again to fight for her rights, investing some of the money she and her husband earned as successful business owners, and took their case to court. Méndez vs.Westminster, went all the way to the federal court in Los Angeles and in 1946 became one of the landmark cases in civil rights history, spurring the desegregation of California schools.
Felícita Méndez never stopped demanding excellence from her children. "When I graduated from high school," said Sylvia, "I wanted to be a telephone operator and my mother says, 'we didn't fight for you to become a telephone operator. You have to go to college.'"
Sylvia Méndez went on to create the life her mother dreamed for her. She was a nursing director at a Los Angeles medical center until retirement in 1990.
The case became an important precedent for the more well-known Brown vs. Board of Education, which led to desegregated schools in 1954. Méndez vs. Westminster was ground breaking, but never got the attention normally associated with such an important decision.
That is why Sylvia Méndez decided to dedicate her life to spreading the word about her parent's battle and Méndez vs. Westminster. As a result of her crusade, two schools have been named after Felícita and Gonzalo Méndez. A film that documented the case, "For All the Children," was made by filmmaker Sandra Robbie in 2003.
And in February of last year, President Barack Obama presented Sylvia Méndez with the Congressional Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor, for her activism.
"I cried when they gave it to me, and I told him, this is for my mother and father," she said. Gonzalo Méndez died in 1964 at age 51. Felícita Méndez died in 1998. Neither one lived to see the two schools that were constructed in Santa Ana and Los Angeles in their names.
Sylvia Méndez' tireless efforts to shed light on Méndez vs. Westminster has created a strong historical basis for Puerto Rican and Mexican unity in a case that defined Latinos' quest for civil rights in America.
Although Sylvia Méndez' mother virtually "became" a Mexican, she was in fact a proud Puerto Rican, whose insistence that she was a U.S. citizen may have been a crucial factor in the Méndez' unerring quest for justice.
Outside of the work of Puerto Rican congressman Luis Gutiérrez (Democrat of Illinois), who is one of the nation's strongest supporters of immigrants' rights, there aren't that many instances where Puerto Ricans and Mexicans share a strong political alliance. In this case, Puerto Ricans and Mexicans working together made civil rights history.
"I was speaking at a Chicano class in a university and they wanted me to say I was Mexican," Sylvia Méndez remembered. "And I said 'No, I'm proud of both heritages.' Méndez-Westminster is not just about Mexicans, it's about all the other nationalities who came to fight with us."
Ed Morales is a professor at Columbia University's Center for the Study of Ethnicity and Race. He is also a journalist and author of "Living in Spanglish: The Search for Spanish Identity in the America." | 1,990 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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