Split (1)

train · 729k rows

text string	id string	dump string	url string	file_path string	language string	language_score float64	token_count int64	score float64	int_score int64	embedding list	count int64	Content string	Tokens int64	Top_Lang string	Top_Conf float64
School uniform facts for kids A school uniform is a standard set of clothing people (usually children) wear when they go to school. It might have a particular color of trousers or skirt, plus a matching shirt and perhaps a jacket or necktie, with matching shoes. In some countries, like Germany, students can wear anything they like when they go to school. In other countries, like England, there is usually a standard dress code in school, usually a set of dressing for girls and one for boys. Boys and girls need to wear school uniforms when they go to school. In many countries, such as the United States, some schools require wearing a uniform, and some do not. Originally, school uniforms were introduced to hide the social differences between students, but uniforms can also help with safety. Using standard uniforms can also save the money needed to buy extra clothes as fashion to impress other people at school. Uniforms can reduce the conspicuous consumption of rich people, who get costly items, which show how much more wealth they have than other people. However, school uniforms can also help with health and safety by having clothes which have been tested to be safer when worn. Some fabrics can cause skin rashes in some people, while a uniform can be made of comfortable fabrics. Also, loose-fitting clothes can get caught in machinery or playground equipment, which limits what activities children can do safely. There are several types of economic bullying which can be lessened by use of school uniforms. When many students are from families with less money, sometimes students with more money have been called "goody two shoes" because they wore newer shoes, where neither shoe was in poor shape. In schools where more students are rich, poorer students have been insulted for the old-style or tattered clothes they wore. Some children do not like uniforms because they are told what to wear. Images for kids School uniform Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.	<urn:uuid:8e79f877-b4d3-4ec2-9ed1-a2e7ac812834>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kids.kiddle.co/School_uniform	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00326.warc.gz	en	0.983315	394	3.375	3	[ 0.08579202741384506, 0.05775979906320572, 0.2663195729255676, -0.3329489827156067, 0.24852752685546875, 0.40350890159606934, 0.18453821539878845, 0.058438319712877274, -0.06307236850261688, -0.04143407940864563, 0.22606097161769867, 0.21824894845485687, 0.11107778549194336, 0.4501757025718...	1	School uniform facts for kids A school uniform is a standard set of clothing people (usually children) wear when they go to school. It might have a particular color of trousers or skirt, plus a matching shirt and perhaps a jacket or necktie, with matching shoes. In some countries, like Germany, students can wear anything they like when they go to school. In other countries, like England, there is usually a standard dress code in school, usually a set of dressing for girls and one for boys. Boys and girls need to wear school uniforms when they go to school. In many countries, such as the United States, some schools require wearing a uniform, and some do not. Originally, school uniforms were introduced to hide the social differences between students, but uniforms can also help with safety. Using standard uniforms can also save the money needed to buy extra clothes as fashion to impress other people at school. Uniforms can reduce the conspicuous consumption of rich people, who get costly items, which show how much more wealth they have than other people. However, school uniforms can also help with health and safety by having clothes which have been tested to be safer when worn. Some fabrics can cause skin rashes in some people, while a uniform can be made of comfortable fabrics. Also, loose-fitting clothes can get caught in machinery or playground equipment, which limits what activities children can do safely. There are several types of economic bullying which can be lessened by use of school uniforms. When many students are from families with less money, sometimes students with more money have been called "goody two shoes" because they wore newer shoes, where neither shoe was in poor shape. In schools where more students are rich, poorer students have been insulted for the old-style or tattered clothes they wore. Some children do not like uniforms because they are told what to wear. Images for kids School uniform Facts for Kids. Kiddle Encyclopedia.	388	ENGLISH	1
Chapter 2 Summary Henrietta Lacks was born in 1920, the eighth of ten children. Her mother died in 1924, at which point her father took all the children to his family’s home in Clover, Virginia and split them up to live with various relatives. Henrietta was placed with Tommy Lacks, her grandfather, in a four-room cabin that had once been home to slaves. This cabin was the center of Lacks family life, and everyone called it the home-house. When Henrietta moved in, Tommy Lacks was already raising another grandchild, Henrietta’s cousin David Lacks. David, whom everyone called Day, had been born to an unwed mother on the home-house floor nine years before. Henrietta spent the rest of her life with Day, eventually marrying him and giving birth to five children. In childhood, Henrietta and Day got up early each morning to tend the farm animals and the kitchen garden. When they were finished, they went to work in the tobacco fields with their siblings and cousins. In early childhood, they attended school as well, but neither made it past elementary school. When they were not working, the many children of Henrietta’s extended family went swimming, held bonfires, and played games together. In summer, the cousins frequently slept all together in a crawl space over a kitchen outbuilding near the home-house. In harvest season, they accompanied Tommy one evening each week on trips to South Boston to sell tobacco. On these trips, they and other black farming families slept alongside farm animals in the basement of the warehouse where the tobacco was sold. In her early teen years, Henrietta was popular with boys because she was so pretty. Her affections wavered between her cousin Day and another cousin,... (The entire section is 430 words.)	<urn:uuid:40b02327-def1-4d77-80b5-1501ca3f7eba>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/topics/the-immortal-life-of-henrietta-lacks/chapter-summary/chapter-2-summary	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00431.warc.gz	en	0.98689	376	3.421875	3	[ 0.092287078499794, 0.0606815405189991, 0.28353872895240784, 0.119876429438591, -0.32413601875305176, -0.052285924553871155, -0.17830504477024078, 0.24800066649913788, 0.010855356231331825, -0.14001435041427612, 0.3146607577800751, -0.17124107480049133, 0.49659350514411926, 0.31405308842658...	2	Chapter 2 Summary Henrietta Lacks was born in 1920, the eighth of ten children. Her mother died in 1924, at which point her father took all the children to his family’s home in Clover, Virginia and split them up to live with various relatives. Henrietta was placed with Tommy Lacks, her grandfather, in a four-room cabin that had once been home to slaves. This cabin was the center of Lacks family life, and everyone called it the home-house. When Henrietta moved in, Tommy Lacks was already raising another grandchild, Henrietta’s cousin David Lacks. David, whom everyone called Day, had been born to an unwed mother on the home-house floor nine years before. Henrietta spent the rest of her life with Day, eventually marrying him and giving birth to five children. In childhood, Henrietta and Day got up early each morning to tend the farm animals and the kitchen garden. When they were finished, they went to work in the tobacco fields with their siblings and cousins. In early childhood, they attended school as well, but neither made it past elementary school. When they were not working, the many children of Henrietta’s extended family went swimming, held bonfires, and played games together. In summer, the cousins frequently slept all together in a crawl space over a kitchen outbuilding near the home-house. In harvest season, they accompanied Tommy one evening each week on trips to South Boston to sell tobacco. On these trips, they and other black farming families slept alongside farm animals in the basement of the warehouse where the tobacco was sold. In her early teen years, Henrietta was popular with boys because she was so pretty. Her affections wavered between her cousin Day and another cousin,... (The entire section is 430 words.)	373	ENGLISH	1
For centuries keeping the chill of winter at bay was accomplished by stacking wood, and by rubbing two sticks together or using a flint, starting a fire. The shortcomings were evident regardless of whether the fire was in a cave or fireplace; one side baked while the back side froze. The first major step toward modern heating was made by the Romans. The words were derived from Greek but the engineering was Roman brilliance. Hypocaust, hypocaustum in Latin, derived from the word “hypo” which means “under” and “caust” which means “burnt” was an engineering marvel that was essentially a primitive form of central heating. It was also costly and as a result its use was largely restricted to the homes of the wealthy, public baths, and in rare instances, some government buildings. The system had to be incorporated into new construction rather than applied to older homes as it required the ground floor to be raised and supported pilae or pillars that allowed for heated air to circulate under the floor. This also required specially constructed floors; a layer of baked tiles, a layer of concrete and then a layer of glazed decorative tiles. In the walls there clay flues which allowed the heat to be distributed to the second story while heating the room below. Walls were often finished with glazed tiles to better hold the heat, and to provide a degree of insulation. A primary challenge was to ensure that smoke from the wood fired furnace under the floor did not leak into the house. The Romans were well aware of the poisonous gasses associated with smoke. Another challenge was in the engineering of the flues to ensure that one room did not become a furnace and others were chilled. Public baths were an integral part of Roman social life. In these buildings a special furnace room, or caldarium in Latin, was built. The architect Vitruvius wrote about this specialized construction in great detail in a book entitled De architectura. He explained that fuel could be best utilized by building the furnace room for the men’s bath in a manner that enjoined it to the bath for women. The Pompeii Old Baths remain as an example of how these baths were constructed. For home or public use, the hypocaust was expensive to use and to maintain. Slave labor was trained in operation and maintenance, vast amounts of wood was required, and it required constant supervision when in operation. As an interesting historic footnote, after the collapse of the Roman Empire, central heating for homes was not available until the early 20th century. And even with modern materials and equipment, archaeologists have had tremendous difficulty in trying to duplicate this Roman heating system. Fortunately keeping the chill of winter has never been easier. One call to AIRzona Comfort Solutions is all that is needed to ensure your home is warm in the winter and cool in the summer. Written by Jim Hinckley of Jim Hinckley’s America	<urn:uuid:45263e1a-57ef-47ee-9c3f-05f5f341ea51>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thebee.news/a-history-of-staying-warm/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00404.warc.gz	en	0.982012	598	3.8125	4	[ -0.3849855661392212, 0.7304010391235352, 0.520136833190918, 0.057993557304143906, 0.08190377056598663, -0.14002475142478943, -0.007526757195591927, 0.028688853606581688, -0.2595290243625641, -0.22879810631275177, -0.3756764233112335, -0.46818214654922485, -0.08913726359605789, 0.4111351370...	14	For centuries keeping the chill of winter at bay was accomplished by stacking wood, and by rubbing two sticks together or using a flint, starting a fire. The shortcomings were evident regardless of whether the fire was in a cave or fireplace; one side baked while the back side froze. The first major step toward modern heating was made by the Romans. The words were derived from Greek but the engineering was Roman brilliance. Hypocaust, hypocaustum in Latin, derived from the word “hypo” which means “under” and “caust” which means “burnt” was an engineering marvel that was essentially a primitive form of central heating. It was also costly and as a result its use was largely restricted to the homes of the wealthy, public baths, and in rare instances, some government buildings. The system had to be incorporated into new construction rather than applied to older homes as it required the ground floor to be raised and supported pilae or pillars that allowed for heated air to circulate under the floor. This also required specially constructed floors; a layer of baked tiles, a layer of concrete and then a layer of glazed decorative tiles. In the walls there clay flues which allowed the heat to be distributed to the second story while heating the room below. Walls were often finished with glazed tiles to better hold the heat, and to provide a degree of insulation. A primary challenge was to ensure that smoke from the wood fired furnace under the floor did not leak into the house. The Romans were well aware of the poisonous gasses associated with smoke. Another challenge was in the engineering of the flues to ensure that one room did not become a furnace and others were chilled. Public baths were an integral part of Roman social life. In these buildings a special furnace room, or caldarium in Latin, was built. The architect Vitruvius wrote about this specialized construction in great detail in a book entitled De architectura. He explained that fuel could be best utilized by building the furnace room for the men’s bath in a manner that enjoined it to the bath for women. The Pompeii Old Baths remain as an example of how these baths were constructed. For home or public use, the hypocaust was expensive to use and to maintain. Slave labor was trained in operation and maintenance, vast amounts of wood was required, and it required constant supervision when in operation. As an interesting historic footnote, after the collapse of the Roman Empire, central heating for homes was not available until the early 20th century. And even with modern materials and equipment, archaeologists have had tremendous difficulty in trying to duplicate this Roman heating system. Fortunately keeping the chill of winter has never been easier. One call to AIRzona Comfort Solutions is all that is needed to ensure your home is warm in the winter and cool in the summer. Written by Jim Hinckley of Jim Hinckley’s America	581	ENGLISH	1
The Gaelic Image The Gaelic Image This image was developed and presented by the Gaelic Council of Nova Scotia on behalf of the Gaelic Community. It represents expressions of Gaelic language and culture unique to Nova Scotia. The image is that of a salmon in the shape of the letter 'G'. The salmon represents the gift of knowledge in the Gaelic storytelling traditions of Nova Scotia, Scotland and Ireland and the Isle of Man. The 'G' represents the Gaelic language and the ripples are the manifestations of the language through its rich culture of song, story, music, dance and custom and belief system. The Story of Fionn MacCumhail and the Salmon Now this salmon was called Finntan in ancient times and was one of the Immortals, and he might be eaten and yet live. But in the time of Finegas he was called the Salmon of the Pool of Fec, which is the place where the fair river broadens out into a great still pool, with green banks softly sloping upward from the clear brown water. Seven years was Finegas watching the pool, but not until after Finn had come to be his disciple was the salmon caught. Then Finegas gave it to Finn to cook, and bade him eat none of it. But when Finegas saw him coming with the fish, he knew that something had chanced to the lad, for he had been used to have the eye of a young man but now he had the eye of a sage. Finegas said, "Hast thou eaten of the salmon?" "Nay," said Finn, "but it burnt me as I turned it upon the spit and I put my thumb in my mouth". And Finegas smote his hands together and was silent for a while. Then he said to the lad who stood by obediently, "Take the salmon and eat it, Finn, son of Cumhal, for to thee the prophecy is come. And now go hence, for I can teach thee no more, and blessing and victory be thine."	<urn:uuid:2b6c7567-d1f5-460e-9071-beed1b12a33f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gaelic.ca/salmon-image	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00241.warc.gz	en	0.980366	423	3.359375	3	[ 0.07533363997936249, 0.40802809596061707, 0.0028069638647139072, -0.017837293446063995, -0.34424570202827454, -0.03018398955464363, 0.6345474123954773, -0.1424395889043808, -0.3802112936973572, -0.028662100434303284, -0.03870149701833725, -0.8175051808357239, 0.23792441189289093, -0.046896...	14	The Gaelic Image The Gaelic Image This image was developed and presented by the Gaelic Council of Nova Scotia on behalf of the Gaelic Community. It represents expressions of Gaelic language and culture unique to Nova Scotia. The image is that of a salmon in the shape of the letter 'G'. The salmon represents the gift of knowledge in the Gaelic storytelling traditions of Nova Scotia, Scotland and Ireland and the Isle of Man. The 'G' represents the Gaelic language and the ripples are the manifestations of the language through its rich culture of song, story, music, dance and custom and belief system. The Story of Fionn MacCumhail and the Salmon Now this salmon was called Finntan in ancient times and was one of the Immortals, and he might be eaten and yet live. But in the time of Finegas he was called the Salmon of the Pool of Fec, which is the place where the fair river broadens out into a great still pool, with green banks softly sloping upward from the clear brown water. Seven years was Finegas watching the pool, but not until after Finn had come to be his disciple was the salmon caught. Then Finegas gave it to Finn to cook, and bade him eat none of it. But when Finegas saw him coming with the fish, he knew that something had chanced to the lad, for he had been used to have the eye of a young man but now he had the eye of a sage. Finegas said, "Hast thou eaten of the salmon?" "Nay," said Finn, "but it burnt me as I turned it upon the spit and I put my thumb in my mouth". And Finegas smote his hands together and was silent for a while. Then he said to the lad who stood by obediently, "Take the salmon and eat it, Finn, son of Cumhal, for to thee the prophecy is come. And now go hence, for I can teach thee no more, and blessing and victory be thine."	417	ENGLISH	1
Lately, much attention has been given to shameful events including criminals, police, arrest, murder, vandalism, rioting, and protests that have plagued the streets of America. These events, of course, are not isolated to just our modern times. During the time leading up to the Revolutionary War, there was a tumultuous stirring in the 1700’s, a movement which one might label, “American Lives Matter.” This righteous movement occurred after a long train of abuses against all American citizens of every color and nationality. From the Boston Massacre of 1770, the bombing of Boston and burning of Charlestown in 1774, or in the attacks on Williamsburg, Concord, or Lexington in 1775, Americans were attacked with lethal force! Beyond warfare, here is a short list of bigoted and hateful things those Americans were forced to endure: - The innocent were killed and oppressed - Americans were being forced at gun point to share their homes with their oppressor’s Army where they were forced to take care of all their domestic needs. In many cases, the women in the households were forced to submit their virtue to these savage captors. - Those “accused” of a crime were tried in courts with specifically appointed discriminatory judges or kidnapped and transported overseas to a prejudice court where they were tried for crimes made up by law enforcement. - Many were taken slaves to serve in their oppressor’s Navy! - Their money was stolen arbitrarily by the oppressive regime to expand their political stranglehold and ensure their dominance over Americans. - A campaign of hate was launched against Americans that promoted internal insurrection and external barbaric warfare from would-be friends whose minds were poisoned by lies. - A military-enforced moratorium was placed on their businesses, which caused deplorable economic conditions for American families and children – some so bad it brought death! - The hateful and cruel regime then created law enforcement agencies with one purpose: to continually steal, criminalize, harass and oppress in the midst of misery, prejudice, and dominating hopelessness. Americans then did what any people group would do: they banded together and formed defenses. What they didn’t do is turn to crime, begin to destroy their own cities, or plunder their neighbor’s property. Instead, they appealed to Heaven and resisted tyranny to defend their God-given rights. Believing that they were thus operating under fundamental Biblical principles of self defense, a leader of this “Liberation Movement,” Samuel Adams, boldly warned his people’s oppressor: You know that the cause of America is just. You know that she contends for that freedom to which all men are entitled – that she contends against oppression, rapine, and more than savage barbarity. The blood of the innocent is upon your hands, and all the waters of the ocean will not wash it away. We again make our solemn appeal to the God of heaven to decide between you and us. And we pray that, in the doubtful scale of battle, we may be successful as we have justice on our side, and that the merciful Savior of the world may forgive our oppressors. We all know men like Adams, Washington, and Jefferson prevailed in their fight for equality and liberty for their people. I encourage you to study their methods and the “self-evident” truths of their cause. Learn more about your Constitution with Jake MacAulay and the Institute on the Constitution and receive your free gift.Don't forget to Like Freedom Outpost on Facebook and Twitter, and follow our friends at RepublicanLegion.com. Become an insider! Sign up for the free Freedom Outpost email newsletter, and we'll make sure to keep you in the loop.	<urn:uuid:9ff12a43-88bf-45dd-9e83-522fd2e0f5bd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://freedomoutpost.com/american-lives-matter-1776/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00061.warc.gz	en	0.9803	776	3.484375	3	[ -0.05471128970384598, 0.02456142194569111, 0.20603007078170776, -0.05693186819553375, 0.27182644605636597, 0.25401198863983154, -0.047517016530036926, 0.06751693785190582, 0.050574734807014465, 0.16161079704761505, 0.36461102962493896, 0.25823816657066345, -0.048244744539260864, 0.12088897...	3	Lately, much attention has been given to shameful events including criminals, police, arrest, murder, vandalism, rioting, and protests that have plagued the streets of America. These events, of course, are not isolated to just our modern times. During the time leading up to the Revolutionary War, there was a tumultuous stirring in the 1700’s, a movement which one might label, “American Lives Matter.” This righteous movement occurred after a long train of abuses against all American citizens of every color and nationality. From the Boston Massacre of 1770, the bombing of Boston and burning of Charlestown in 1774, or in the attacks on Williamsburg, Concord, or Lexington in 1775, Americans were attacked with lethal force! Beyond warfare, here is a short list of bigoted and hateful things those Americans were forced to endure: - The innocent were killed and oppressed - Americans were being forced at gun point to share their homes with their oppressor’s Army where they were forced to take care of all their domestic needs. In many cases, the women in the households were forced to submit their virtue to these savage captors. - Those “accused” of a crime were tried in courts with specifically appointed discriminatory judges or kidnapped and transported overseas to a prejudice court where they were tried for crimes made up by law enforcement. - Many were taken slaves to serve in their oppressor’s Navy! - Their money was stolen arbitrarily by the oppressive regime to expand their political stranglehold and ensure their dominance over Americans. - A campaign of hate was launched against Americans that promoted internal insurrection and external barbaric warfare from would-be friends whose minds were poisoned by lies. - A military-enforced moratorium was placed on their businesses, which caused deplorable economic conditions for American families and children – some so bad it brought death! - The hateful and cruel regime then created law enforcement agencies with one purpose: to continually steal, criminalize, harass and oppress in the midst of misery, prejudice, and dominating hopelessness. Americans then did what any people group would do: they banded together and formed defenses. What they didn’t do is turn to crime, begin to destroy their own cities, or plunder their neighbor’s property. Instead, they appealed to Heaven and resisted tyranny to defend their God-given rights. Believing that they were thus operating under fundamental Biblical principles of self defense, a leader of this “Liberation Movement,” Samuel Adams, boldly warned his people’s oppressor: You know that the cause of America is just. You know that she contends for that freedom to which all men are entitled – that she contends against oppression, rapine, and more than savage barbarity. The blood of the innocent is upon your hands, and all the waters of the ocean will not wash it away. We again make our solemn appeal to the God of heaven to decide between you and us. And we pray that, in the doubtful scale of battle, we may be successful as we have justice on our side, and that the merciful Savior of the world may forgive our oppressors. We all know men like Adams, Washington, and Jefferson prevailed in their fight for equality and liberty for their people. I encourage you to study their methods and the “self-evident” truths of their cause. Learn more about your Constitution with Jake MacAulay and the Institute on the Constitution and receive your free gift.Don't forget to Like Freedom Outpost on Facebook and Twitter, and follow our friends at RepublicanLegion.com. Become an insider! Sign up for the free Freedom Outpost email newsletter, and we'll make sure to keep you in the loop.	753	ENGLISH	1
Civil Rights Issues This is an example of a paper created by one of our writers. You can use it as an inspiration for your own paper, or simply order a similar work from us at a special price. BTW, this paper got an A+, and yours can too! The civil rights issue is an evolving problem in American society and it can be seen in how different aspects of it have emerged in different decades. The mid-20th century is usually perceived as the beginning of all civil rights awareness nationally, and this is largely due to the immense movement of the African-American population in the 1950s. It is difficult for a modern mind to comprehend but, before this movement achieved its goals, discrimination based on race was essentially legal. Blacks were not permitted to attend the same schools as whites, just as segregated facilities were ordinary in Southern hotels, restaurants, and public transportation. This generated further racism, in a general denial of opportunity. As civil rights movements would also later demonstrate, the black fight for civil rights was then largely reactive. It was a response to a widespread and legalized inequality, and one going completely against the precepts of the national ideologies and government. Success here came hard, as marches and protests often escalated into violence. What finally rendered the movement successful was awareness, and this awareness could only be achieved by a consistent protest over time, and as reported by the new media. While the black civil rights efforts would go into the 1960s, it seems the efforts of this one disenfranchised population spurred on others. Homosexuals had long been subject to discrimination, if of a different kind. More exactly, gay men and women were the “invisible” minority, usually not subject to bias unless they asserted themselves publicly as gay. That the conditions were nonetheless oppressive was powerfully demonstrated in the Stonewall riots of 1969. The New York police had long conducted random raids on places where gays gathered in public but, in June of that year, the gays overtly resisted. Suddenly, a unified population was challenging harassment that had been allowed to go on unquestioned, and what enabled the gay civil rights success in this time and place was the hidden community behind it. That is to say, Stonewall was an expression of gay solidarity that had been growing in New York City, and the actions then ignited gay protest in other major cities. As with the black movement, it was visibility that would be key, along with a consistent expression of resistance. As an example of current civil rights issues, in the 1970s, women emerged as an immense presence demanding civil rights. While not as marginalized as other groups, women felt that their sheer numbers contributed to their oppression; they have been so accepted in certain ways within the society that empowerment was not possible, except through overt demonstrations for equal rights. The hallmark of this movement, in fact, was equal pay, which was seized upon as necessary to support a woman’s true equality as a contributing member of society. Prominent feminists like Gloria Steinem used the media, in magazines and on television, to broadcast the objectives. While some, like the passing of the Equal Rights Amendment, would fail, women made great gains in altering legislation that discriminated against women, particularly in fields of employment and legal protections afforded to men. This movement continues, as do other civil rights movements. In the 1980s, for instance, gays faced another hurdle in discrimination: AIDS. As the disease was linked in the public mind to homosexuality, new forms of bias were evident. In 1987, hundreds of thousands marched on Washington (echoing the black protests of decades earlier), demanding the government address a health crisis which, if it affected mainly heterosexuals, would have been immediately and powerfully addressed. Not long after, another minority would demand justice, even while facing opposition even more forceful than that facing gays or women. Immigration in the 1990s was a controversial subject, and tides of poor Mexican immigrants, seeking work opportunities, were openly castigated and/or abused by American employers. Simply, the illegality of their presence made them vulnerable, and they worked harder and for less pay. This came to a head with California’s Proposition 187, passed by voters in 1995 and prohibiting undocumented immigrants from receiving health and education services. A U.S. District Court judge overturned 187 in 1997 as unconstitutional, a great victory for the millions of Mexicans not yet legal citizens. While the Mexican civil rights efforts have a character all their own, they emphasize how, over the course of decades, blacks, gays, women, and themselves can only gain rights through the consistent and unified demand for them. The above-mentioned examples are current civil rights issues in America today. And even now in 2018 marginalized communities fight for their civil rights as did blacks decades ago.	<urn:uuid:0f505e88-2288-4c3c-b144-4a6f12946951>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essaybox.org/samples/civil-rights-issues/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00154.warc.gz	en	0.98183	965	3.9375	4	[ -0.39368224143981934, -0.05530795082449913, -0.1920604705810547, -0.12841252982616425, -0.4033486843109131, 0.6568095684051514, -0.3279961347579956, 0.20469889044761658, -0.23022015392780304, 0.1996164619922638, 0.14561951160430908, 0.5071173310279846, -0.06998487561941147, 0.0069608166813...	1	Civil Rights Issues This is an example of a paper created by one of our writers. You can use it as an inspiration for your own paper, or simply order a similar work from us at a special price. BTW, this paper got an A+, and yours can too! The civil rights issue is an evolving problem in American society and it can be seen in how different aspects of it have emerged in different decades. The mid-20th century is usually perceived as the beginning of all civil rights awareness nationally, and this is largely due to the immense movement of the African-American population in the 1950s. It is difficult for a modern mind to comprehend but, before this movement achieved its goals, discrimination based on race was essentially legal. Blacks were not permitted to attend the same schools as whites, just as segregated facilities were ordinary in Southern hotels, restaurants, and public transportation. This generated further racism, in a general denial of opportunity. As civil rights movements would also later demonstrate, the black fight for civil rights was then largely reactive. It was a response to a widespread and legalized inequality, and one going completely against the precepts of the national ideologies and government. Success here came hard, as marches and protests often escalated into violence. What finally rendered the movement successful was awareness, and this awareness could only be achieved by a consistent protest over time, and as reported by the new media. While the black civil rights efforts would go into the 1960s, it seems the efforts of this one disenfranchised population spurred on others. Homosexuals had long been subject to discrimination, if of a different kind. More exactly, gay men and women were the “invisible” minority, usually not subject to bias unless they asserted themselves publicly as gay. That the conditions were nonetheless oppressive was powerfully demonstrated in the Stonewall riots of 1969. The New York police had long conducted random raids on places where gays gathered in public but, in June of that year, the gays overtly resisted. Suddenly, a unified population was challenging harassment that had been allowed to go on unquestioned, and what enabled the gay civil rights success in this time and place was the hidden community behind it. That is to say, Stonewall was an expression of gay solidarity that had been growing in New York City, and the actions then ignited gay protest in other major cities. As with the black movement, it was visibility that would be key, along with a consistent expression of resistance. As an example of current civil rights issues, in the 1970s, women emerged as an immense presence demanding civil rights. While not as marginalized as other groups, women felt that their sheer numbers contributed to their oppression; they have been so accepted in certain ways within the society that empowerment was not possible, except through overt demonstrations for equal rights. The hallmark of this movement, in fact, was equal pay, which was seized upon as necessary to support a woman’s true equality as a contributing member of society. Prominent feminists like Gloria Steinem used the media, in magazines and on television, to broadcast the objectives. While some, like the passing of the Equal Rights Amendment, would fail, women made great gains in altering legislation that discriminated against women, particularly in fields of employment and legal protections afforded to men. This movement continues, as do other civil rights movements. In the 1980s, for instance, gays faced another hurdle in discrimination: AIDS. As the disease was linked in the public mind to homosexuality, new forms of bias were evident. In 1987, hundreds of thousands marched on Washington (echoing the black protests of decades earlier), demanding the government address a health crisis which, if it affected mainly heterosexuals, would have been immediately and powerfully addressed. Not long after, another minority would demand justice, even while facing opposition even more forceful than that facing gays or women. Immigration in the 1990s was a controversial subject, and tides of poor Mexican immigrants, seeking work opportunities, were openly castigated and/or abused by American employers. Simply, the illegality of their presence made them vulnerable, and they worked harder and for less pay. This came to a head with California’s Proposition 187, passed by voters in 1995 and prohibiting undocumented immigrants from receiving health and education services. A U.S. District Court judge overturned 187 in 1997 as unconstitutional, a great victory for the millions of Mexicans not yet legal citizens. While the Mexican civil rights efforts have a character all their own, they emphasize how, over the course of decades, blacks, gays, women, and themselves can only gain rights through the consistent and unified demand for them. The above-mentioned examples are current civil rights issues in America today. And even now in 2018 marginalized communities fight for their civil rights as did blacks decades ago.	1,006	ENGLISH	1
The cattle industry in the United States in the nineteenth century due to the young nation’s abundant land, wide-open spaces, and rapid development of railroad lines to transport the beef from western ranches to population centers in the Midwest and the East Coast. Beginnings of the Cattle Industry The Europeans who first settled in America at the end of the 15th century had brought longhorn cattle with them. By the early 19th century cattle ranches were common in Mexico. At that time Mexico included what was to become Texas. The longhorn cattle were kept on an open range, looked after by cowboys called vaqueros. In 1836, Texas became independent, the Mexicans left, leaving their cattle behind. Texan farmers claimed the cattle and set up their own ranches. Beef was not popular so the animals were used for their skins and tallow. In the 1850s, beef began to be more popular and its price rose making some ranchers quite wealthy. In 1861, Civil War broke out between the Northern and Southern states. Texan ranchers left their farms to fight for the Confederate army. The Confederates lost the war. The defeat destroyed the economy in the South. However, the cattle, left to their own devices, had multiplied. There were approximately 5 million longhorn cattle in Texas in 1865 but there was no market for them in the South. There was, however, a market in the north. If the ranchers could get their cattle to the North they would fetch ten times what they were worth in the South. Why was Joseph McCoy important for the cattle industry? Joseph McCoy was a livestock trader in Chicago. He wanted to bring the longhorn cattle from Texas to Chicago and from there distribute them to the East. Making himself a lot of money in the process. Homesteaders who had established themselves in Kansas objected to the cattle crossing their land because they carried a tick that killed other animals. Cattlemen driving cattle through Kansas met fierce opposition and were reluctant to make the journey. McCoy knew that the railroad companies were keen to carry more freight. The Kansas/Pacific railway ran past a frontier village. McCoy built a hotel, stockyard, office and bank in the village which became known as Abilene – one of the first cow towns. Cattle were to be driven from Texas to Abilene and were then taken East by train. Abilene was near the end of a trail that had been established during the Civil War by Jesse Chisholm to take supplies to the Confederate army. The trail lay to the west of the Kansas farms which meant the cattlemen could use it without hostility from the Kansas homesteaders. In 1867, McCoy spent $5,000 on advertising and riders. He promised a good price for cattle sold in Abilene and was a man of his word. One cattleman bought 600 cows for $5,400 and sold them in Abilene for $16,800. It was the beginning of the ‘beef bonanza’. Between 1867 and 1881 McCoy sent more than 2 million cattle from Abilene to Chicago. His reputation for reliability gave rise to the expression ‘the real McCoy’. This 20th Century drawing shows cattle being driven into Abilene Rise and Fall The cattle industry was at its peak from 1867 until the early 1880s. The following factors contributed to this: Increased number of railway lines – able to transport cattle to new markets Development of refrigerated rail carriages – cattle could be slaughtered before transportation Removal of Indians from the Plains to reservations – more land available for ranching In the last twenty years of the nineteenth century the beef trade virtually collapsed. The following factors contributed to this: Farmers began to experiment with different breeds of cattle that could not live on the open range. There was less grass available for grazing due to the number of people settling on the Plains. In 1883 there was a drought that ruined what grass there was.? The demand for beef fell which meant that ranching was less profitable The winter of 1886/7 was very severe – cattle and cowboys died in the freezing temperatures A New Approach The days of the open range were over. From the late nineteenth century cattle were kept on enclosed ranches and farmed in much smaller quantities. Two inventions were particularly important in making this an option: Barbed wire was invented by J F Glidden in 1874. This invention meant that large areas could be fenced cheaply. Cattle were now enclosed on ranches and no longer roamed the Plains. As a result fewer cowboys were needed and the long drive was a thing of the past. The strong winds that blew across the Plains were an ideal source of energy. Windmills were used to drive pumps that could pump water from underground. This meant that cattle ranches did not need to be sited near a river or stream. The age of the wild and free cowboy was gone, they now spent much of their time mending fences and tending the cattle. The cattle industry was irrevocably changed. However, the image of the wild and free cowboy was dramatised in Wild West shows performed for eastern audiences and it is that image that became, and has remained, a feature of the legend of the wild, wild west. This article is part of our larger resource on the American West culture, society, economics, and warfare. Click here for our comprehensive article on the American West. Cite This Article"American West – The Cattle Industry" History on the Net © 2000-2020, Salem Media. January 18, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/american-west-the-cattle-industry> More Citation Information.	<urn:uuid:65f9e9d3-2658-42f5-aab5-8e0ee7402697>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historyonthenet.com/american-west-the-cattle-industry	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00275.warc.gz	en	0.98425	1,200	3.875	4	[ 0.07586292922496796, -0.059124819934368134, 0.2652117609977722, 0.4943568706512451, 0.44506582617759705, -0.4248567223548889, -0.2757202982902527, -0.05714583769440651, -0.1508653163909912, -0.3652881681919098, -0.21235504746437073, -0.15452124178409576, 0.271147221326828, 0.09605678915977...	1	The cattle industry in the United States in the nineteenth century due to the young nation’s abundant land, wide-open spaces, and rapid development of railroad lines to transport the beef from western ranches to population centers in the Midwest and the East Coast. Beginnings of the Cattle Industry The Europeans who first settled in America at the end of the 15th century had brought longhorn cattle with them. By the early 19th century cattle ranches were common in Mexico. At that time Mexico included what was to become Texas. The longhorn cattle were kept on an open range, looked after by cowboys called vaqueros. In 1836, Texas became independent, the Mexicans left, leaving their cattle behind. Texan farmers claimed the cattle and set up their own ranches. Beef was not popular so the animals were used for their skins and tallow. In the 1850s, beef began to be more popular and its price rose making some ranchers quite wealthy. In 1861, Civil War broke out between the Northern and Southern states. Texan ranchers left their farms to fight for the Confederate army. The Confederates lost the war. The defeat destroyed the economy in the South. However, the cattle, left to their own devices, had multiplied. There were approximately 5 million longhorn cattle in Texas in 1865 but there was no market for them in the South. There was, however, a market in the north. If the ranchers could get their cattle to the North they would fetch ten times what they were worth in the South. Why was Joseph McCoy important for the cattle industry? Joseph McCoy was a livestock trader in Chicago. He wanted to bring the longhorn cattle from Texas to Chicago and from there distribute them to the East. Making himself a lot of money in the process. Homesteaders who had established themselves in Kansas objected to the cattle crossing their land because they carried a tick that killed other animals. Cattlemen driving cattle through Kansas met fierce opposition and were reluctant to make the journey. McCoy knew that the railroad companies were keen to carry more freight. The Kansas/Pacific railway ran past a frontier village. McCoy built a hotel, stockyard, office and bank in the village which became known as Abilene – one of the first cow towns. Cattle were to be driven from Texas to Abilene and were then taken East by train. Abilene was near the end of a trail that had been established during the Civil War by Jesse Chisholm to take supplies to the Confederate army. The trail lay to the west of the Kansas farms which meant the cattlemen could use it without hostility from the Kansas homesteaders. In 1867, McCoy spent $5,000 on advertising and riders. He promised a good price for cattle sold in Abilene and was a man of his word. One cattleman bought 600 cows for $5,400 and sold them in Abilene for $16,800. It was the beginning of the ‘beef bonanza’. Between 1867 and 1881 McCoy sent more than 2 million cattle from Abilene to Chicago. His reputation for reliability gave rise to the expression ‘the real McCoy’. This 20th Century drawing shows cattle being driven into Abilene Rise and Fall The cattle industry was at its peak from 1867 until the early 1880s. The following factors contributed to this: Increased number of railway lines – able to transport cattle to new markets Development of refrigerated rail carriages – cattle could be slaughtered before transportation Removal of Indians from the Plains to reservations – more land available for ranching In the last twenty years of the nineteenth century the beef trade virtually collapsed. The following factors contributed to this: Farmers began to experiment with different breeds of cattle that could not live on the open range. There was less grass available for grazing due to the number of people settling on the Plains. In 1883 there was a drought that ruined what grass there was.? The demand for beef fell which meant that ranching was less profitable The winter of 1886/7 was very severe – cattle and cowboys died in the freezing temperatures A New Approach The days of the open range were over. From the late nineteenth century cattle were kept on enclosed ranches and farmed in much smaller quantities. Two inventions were particularly important in making this an option: Barbed wire was invented by J F Glidden in 1874. This invention meant that large areas could be fenced cheaply. Cattle were now enclosed on ranches and no longer roamed the Plains. As a result fewer cowboys were needed and the long drive was a thing of the past. The strong winds that blew across the Plains were an ideal source of energy. Windmills were used to drive pumps that could pump water from underground. This meant that cattle ranches did not need to be sited near a river or stream. The age of the wild and free cowboy was gone, they now spent much of their time mending fences and tending the cattle. The cattle industry was irrevocably changed. However, the image of the wild and free cowboy was dramatised in Wild West shows performed for eastern audiences and it is that image that became, and has remained, a feature of the legend of the wild, wild west. This article is part of our larger resource on the American West culture, society, economics, and warfare. Click here for our comprehensive article on the American West. Cite This Article"American West – The Cattle Industry" History on the Net © 2000-2020, Salem Media. January 18, 2020 <https://www.historyonthenet.com/american-west-the-cattle-industry> More Citation Information.	1,234	ENGLISH	1
Facts: Franz Grunbaum was a Jewish man who lived In Vienna before World War 11. In 1938, the Nazis imprisoned him in the Dachau concentration camp, where he died three years later. The Nazis also confiscated his property, which included a valuable drawing. This drawing changed hands several times until it was eventually sold to David Bakalar in 1963. Years later, Franz Grumbaum's heirs, Milos Vavra and Leon Fischer, argued that they were true owners of the picture. At this point, it was worth an estimated $675,00. The trial court disagreed, finding that Bakalar was the drawings owner. Vavra and Fischer appealed. In the Bakalar case involving artwork stolen during World War 11, do you agree with the court's decision? Should the heirs get a chance to recover the drawing that was stolen from their ancestor? Or should Bakalar who has owned the drawing for 50 years and knew nothing about its origin, be able to keep ownership.© BrainMass Inc. brainmass.com October 10, 2019, 7:58 am ad1c9bdddf I agree with the courts' decision. David Bakalar had purchased the drawing in good faith. He had paid the price for the drawing and had not known that the drawing had been stolen. The defense used in the court was the "laches". This is a doctrine that bars actions in which there is a lengthy delay in filing a claim. ... The answer to this problem explains the Bakalar V. Vavra case. The references related to the answer are also included.	<urn:uuid:0e65b2e7-6c2c-40d6-8233-8cfedc64c2a2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brainmass.com/business/business-law/bakalar-vavra-case-602440	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00112.warc.gz	en	0.983262	331	3.265625	3	[ -0.2536356747150421, 0.34246331453323364, -0.2728811800479889, -0.06884808093309402, -0.18758592009544373, -0.09819994866847992, 0.45677077770233154, 0.08156337589025497, -0.0020645344629883766, 0.020519694313406944, -0.09900914132595062, -0.10904991626739502, -0.6123472452163696, 0.386833...	1	Facts: Franz Grunbaum was a Jewish man who lived In Vienna before World War 11. In 1938, the Nazis imprisoned him in the Dachau concentration camp, where he died three years later. The Nazis also confiscated his property, which included a valuable drawing. This drawing changed hands several times until it was eventually sold to David Bakalar in 1963. Years later, Franz Grumbaum's heirs, Milos Vavra and Leon Fischer, argued that they were true owners of the picture. At this point, it was worth an estimated $675,00. The trial court disagreed, finding that Bakalar was the drawings owner. Vavra and Fischer appealed. In the Bakalar case involving artwork stolen during World War 11, do you agree with the court's decision? Should the heirs get a chance to recover the drawing that was stolen from their ancestor? Or should Bakalar who has owned the drawing for 50 years and knew nothing about its origin, be able to keep ownership.© BrainMass Inc. brainmass.com October 10, 2019, 7:58 am ad1c9bdddf I agree with the courts' decision. David Bakalar had purchased the drawing in good faith. He had paid the price for the drawing and had not known that the drawing had been stolen. The defense used in the court was the "laches". This is a doctrine that bars actions in which there is a lengthy delay in filing a claim. ... The answer to this problem explains the Bakalar V. Vavra case. The references related to the answer are also included.	343	ENGLISH	1
After the time of Barbarossa and Richard Ceur de Lion lived another great Crusading king. This was a grandson of Philip II, named Louis IX, who became sovereign of France in 1226. He was then only eleven years old, so for some years his mother ruled the kingdom. A few years after he had begun to reign Louis decided to make his brother Alphonse the governor of a certain part of France . The nobles of the region refused to have Alphonse as governor and invited Henry III of England to help them in a revolt. Henry crossed to France with an army to support the rebellious nobles. He was duke of Aquitaine and Gascony ; so that although he was the king in England he had to do homage to the king of France for his possessions in that country, and fight for him if called upon to do so. Louis gathered an army and hastened to meet the English troops. He drove Henry from place to place, until at last he forced him to make terms of peace. The rebellious nobles who had invited the English king to France soon after swore allegiance to Louis and afterwards he had little trouble in his kingdom. Once Louis was dangerously ill and his life was despaired of. Finally he was believed to be dying and his wife and chief officials gathered round his bed to await the end. Suddenly he roused himself and said in a feeble voice, "The cross! The cross!" They laid the cross upon his heart and he clasped it fervently. For a while he slumbered. When he awoke he appeared much better. In a day or two he was entirely well. He then made a solemn vow that in thankfulness for his restoration he would go on a Crusade to the Holy Land . Louis lived at a time when everybody was full of the Crusading spirit. A few years before he was born even the children in France and Germany started out upon a Crusade of their own. It is called in history the "Children's Crusade." Several thousand left their homes and marched toward the Mediterranean . They thought that God would open a pathway to the Holy Land for them through its waters. A number of them died of cold and hunger when trying to cross the Alps . Some reached Rome , and when the Pope saw them he told them to return home and not think of going on a Crusade until they were grown up. It is easy to understand how in such an age people flocked to Louis' banner when he asked for volunteers to go with him on another Crusade. In a few months forty thousand Crusaders assembled at a French port on the Mediterranean Sea . On a bright day in August, 1248, they went on board the fleet which was ready to sail. The king called to the Crusaders, "Sing in the name of God. Shout forth his praises as we sail away." Then quickly, on ship after ship, shouts of praise burst from the lips of thousands and amid the grand chorus the fleet began its voyage. The Crusaders went to Damietta (Dam-i-et'-ta), in Egypt . Louis was so eager to land that he jumped into water up to his waist and waded ashore. He captured the city without striking a blow. He had resolved to make war on the Moslems in Egypt rather than in the Holy Land , so when he left Damietta he marched southward. He supposed there would be no strong force to stop his progress. However, he was mistaken, for he had not marched forty miles toward Cairo when he was attacked by a Moslem army led by the sultan of Egypt . A great battle was fought. The Crusaders were commanded by King Louis and throughout the battle showed the utmost bravery, but they were outnumbered. Thousands were slain and the survivors retreated toward Damietta . The Moslems pursued them and the Crusaders were obliged to surrender. Out of the forty thousand men who had left France only about six thousand now remained. Many had died of disease as well as in battle. King Louis was among the prisoners, and the sultan of Egypt agreed to release him only upon the payment of a large ransom. When the ransom had been paid a truce was made for ten years between Louis and the sultan, and the good king left Egypt . He then went to the Holy Land , and for four years worked to deliver Crusaders who were in Moslem prisons.	<urn:uuid:6a6ac8fe-5d9b-4f66-af2b-ba7ba1680b5f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://e-reading.mobi/chapter.php/70959/81/Haaren_-_Famous_Men_of_The_Middle_Ages.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00138.warc.gz	en	0.991678	899	3.28125	3	[ -0.41083699464797974, 0.6948459148406982, 0.10255789756774902, -0.16945518553256989, -0.4849385619163513, -0.3925760090351105, 0.07517419755458832, 0.4586139917373657, 0.010929521173238754, -0.22364863753318787, 0.2676476836204529, -0.4786154329776764, 0.30923107266426086, -0.0062807574868...	1	After the time of Barbarossa and Richard Ceur de Lion lived another great Crusading king. This was a grandson of Philip II, named Louis IX, who became sovereign of France in 1226. He was then only eleven years old, so for some years his mother ruled the kingdom. A few years after he had begun to reign Louis decided to make his brother Alphonse the governor of a certain part of France . The nobles of the region refused to have Alphonse as governor and invited Henry III of England to help them in a revolt. Henry crossed to France with an army to support the rebellious nobles. He was duke of Aquitaine and Gascony ; so that although he was the king in England he had to do homage to the king of France for his possessions in that country, and fight for him if called upon to do so. Louis gathered an army and hastened to meet the English troops. He drove Henry from place to place, until at last he forced him to make terms of peace. The rebellious nobles who had invited the English king to France soon after swore allegiance to Louis and afterwards he had little trouble in his kingdom. Once Louis was dangerously ill and his life was despaired of. Finally he was believed to be dying and his wife and chief officials gathered round his bed to await the end. Suddenly he roused himself and said in a feeble voice, "The cross! The cross!" They laid the cross upon his heart and he clasped it fervently. For a while he slumbered. When he awoke he appeared much better. In a day or two he was entirely well. He then made a solemn vow that in thankfulness for his restoration he would go on a Crusade to the Holy Land . Louis lived at a time when everybody was full of the Crusading spirit. A few years before he was born even the children in France and Germany started out upon a Crusade of their own. It is called in history the "Children's Crusade." Several thousand left their homes and marched toward the Mediterranean . They thought that God would open a pathway to the Holy Land for them through its waters. A number of them died of cold and hunger when trying to cross the Alps . Some reached Rome , and when the Pope saw them he told them to return home and not think of going on a Crusade until they were grown up. It is easy to understand how in such an age people flocked to Louis' banner when he asked for volunteers to go with him on another Crusade. In a few months forty thousand Crusaders assembled at a French port on the Mediterranean Sea . On a bright day in August, 1248, they went on board the fleet which was ready to sail. The king called to the Crusaders, "Sing in the name of God. Shout forth his praises as we sail away." Then quickly, on ship after ship, shouts of praise burst from the lips of thousands and amid the grand chorus the fleet began its voyage. The Crusaders went to Damietta (Dam-i-et'-ta), in Egypt . Louis was so eager to land that he jumped into water up to his waist and waded ashore. He captured the city without striking a blow. He had resolved to make war on the Moslems in Egypt rather than in the Holy Land , so when he left Damietta he marched southward. He supposed there would be no strong force to stop his progress. However, he was mistaken, for he had not marched forty miles toward Cairo when he was attacked by a Moslem army led by the sultan of Egypt . A great battle was fought. The Crusaders were commanded by King Louis and throughout the battle showed the utmost bravery, but they were outnumbered. Thousands were slain and the survivors retreated toward Damietta . The Moslems pursued them and the Crusaders were obliged to surrender. Out of the forty thousand men who had left France only about six thousand now remained. Many had died of disease as well as in battle. King Louis was among the prisoners, and the sultan of Egypt agreed to release him only upon the payment of a large ransom. When the ransom had been paid a truce was made for ten years between Louis and the sultan, and the good king left Egypt . He then went to the Holy Land , and for four years worked to deliver Crusaders who were in Moslem prisons.	903	ENGLISH	1
NCERT Solutions for Class 10 English Chapter 4 - June 1944 English is a widely used language across the world. To improve your English communication skills, the CBSE Class 10 syllabus focuses on English Grammar, English Comprehension and English Composition. There are several reading and writing exercises on TopperLearning to study the topics present in the CBSE Class 10 English syllabus. We make it easy for you to understand English grammar concepts such as parts of speech, idioms, prepositions, determiners, etc. If you are visual learner, you can watch CBSE Class 10 English videos to understand the concepts. Also, you can score more by solving the CBSE Class 10 English Sample papers or learning from our CBSE Class 10 English notes. Answering the questions in the CBSE Board Class 10 exams can be challenging for you. To support you in your studies, we provide step-by-step explanations for CBSE Class 10 English textbook questions. Our CBSE Class 10 English solutions are prepared by qualified academic experts. So, get started without stress and remember, we are there to help you score more marks. TopperLearning provides study materials for CBSE Class 10 English which will help you to score more marks in the examination. Students can find study resources like highly interactive video lessons, important question banks, sample papers, past year question papers and many more fun learning sessions which will help them crack the examination with ease. Our study materials for CBSE Class 10 English are created by subject experts and teachers of English. Our video lessons will help you to clear all your concepts. Apart from all these resources, we provide free NCERT textbook solutions to our CBSE Class 10 students. For revision and practise, you can refer to our sample papers. At TopperLearning, we believe in making study materials fun and compelling, so that students get a strong grip on their studies. Chapter 4 - June 1944 Exercise 13 June Anne begins this entry by listing the various presents she received on her fifteenth birthday. She then moves on to give updates on the progress of the invasion. This focus on the invasion highlights the mood of the age. Life in and around Europe during the war was not as complicated as it generally appears to be. People living in the countries fighting the war could not get bothered or excited about mundane happenings. Their lives were constantly threatened. They could not, under such circumstances, celebrate birthdays or grumble over household chores. However, as the war extended for about two years now, some people such as the Franks and others in hiding tried to lighten the mood, if only for a short time, by celebrating special occasions like birthdays. They exchanged small gifts and treated each other to some snacks. However, that was the extent of their happy moments. They could not truly be happy in the absence of the freedom which they deserved and longed for. Anne's updates of the war give an indication of the mindset of all people like her trapped in hiding places and hanging on to any piece of news which could give them some hope. Chapter 4 - June 1944 Exercise 14 June Overshadowed and disheartened by the misconceptions which people had of her, Anne expresses herself in this entry. She writes that she understands her own mistakes and limitations better than anyone else; she wishes to improve herself and was also working towards achieving it. Anne questions herself why people judge her for being forward and knowing. She believes that the only reason for this could be that they themselves have not developed their thinking skills and knowledge, and thus, they cannot tolerate others who know or understand better than them. Anne's biggest accuser is Mrs Van Daan. Anne plainly calls her 'stupid'. According to her, Mrs van Daan sees faults in Anne because those faults are present in her. Anne accepts that she is well-read and knowing, but she does not see it as a reason for being questioned and criticised. She believes that she does a good job of assessing and reproaching herself. She therefore cannot tolerate it when others, such as her mother, add to the scolding. The overload of harmful criticism could dishearten and discourage her. Anne believed that the people in her life who judged her were more than enough. Her own sternness was sufficient at times to bring her to tears. What she really needed was someone who would understand and accept her as she was and give her sound advice when she needed it. Anne writes that she does not see Peter filling this void within her. She knew that there was some force which was holding both of them back and only letting them be good friends. She believed that Peter would not be able to understand these dilemmas within her and give her the kind of advice she was looking for. Also, Anne did not approve certain aspects of Peter's character. Because these could not be done away with, it was difficult for her to hold him and his advice in high regard. Their friendship had lasted long only because they had agreed not to argue over topics on which their opinions differed. Chapter 4 - June 1944 Exercise 15 June In this entry, Anne writes about her love for nature. She elevates the qualities of nature by equating it to a gift from God. She says that people tend to learn the importance of things only when they lose them. Similarly, she too learned to appreciate nature when the liberty of being in its presence and enjoying it was taken away. She mentions two instances when she went out of her way to spend a few moments enjoying nature. The first being an evening on Whitsun when she remained awake till half past eleven only to enjoy the beauty of the Moon. On this occasion, her desire was not fulfilled as the Moon was too bright that night, and if the window was kept open, its light would illuminate the room within and make them visible to the people outside. On another night, Anne waited upstairs enjoying the dark night, the gale and blowing clouds until it was time for the window to be shut. Although it was a stormy night, Anne saw beauty in it too and appreciated it. The other windows in the house also had a view of the outside, but they were all sealed with dusty nets. These nets, Anne notes, diminished the beauty of nature, which according to her, always had to be unadulterated and pure. Anne loved to sit in the presence of nature as it calmed her mind and composed her thoughts. It made her feel something which she never felt before. Chapter 4 - June 1944 Exercise 16 June Peter's mother, Mrs van Daan, was going through another phase of despair. She could not tolerate living in hiding any longer. She was also disgruntled over the closeness between Peter and Anne. She did not like the fact that Peter chose to confide in Anne and not her. Also, Dussel was not receiving her with equal interest. To vent her negative emotions, she resorted to self-pity, arguments and abusive language. Her behaviour angered Peter, and his anger reflected in his relation with everyone else. There were other problems too in the annex. Kraler had received a second call for the digging work. He would have to go away for four weeks. This meant even more shortage of resources in the annex. About the same time, Koophius had to get his stomach operated. Because the two would be away for a long time, there would be a great shortage of food in the annex. Chapter 4 - June 1944 Exercise 23 June By this time, everyone had got used to the steady progress of the Allies in the invasion. Anne writes that the English had begun their attack on Cherbourg. The phrase 'nothing special' indicates that they were all sure that now that the invasion had begun, it would surely lead to its culmination in the form of a victory. Anne writes that her father and Mr van Daan expect freedom to come by 10th October. Anne also writes about the Russians who had entered the war and had begun their attack near Vitebsk. While the war continued outside, inside the annex they faced another problem, the shortage of potatoes. The next step was to count the number of potatoes each got, so that everyone got equal food to eat. Chapter 4 - June 1944 Exercise 27 June As expected, the Allies were taking over countries each day and freeing people from the dictators. This gave hope to everyone including Anne. It improved everyone's mood and gave them renewed hope. Anne was surprised and proud that the English had managed to take control of the whole Cotentin Peninsular just within three weeks of beginning the invasion. The English now had a harbour on the enemy's coast and could land their arms and ammunition there. The Germans in the meantime were sending off their women and children to Groningen, Friesland and Gelderland for protection from the invaders. One of their leaders Mussert stated that he would not shy away from putting on the uniform and taking up arms should the Allies reach as far as their hiding place. Anne here comments that the 'fat man' was no match for the forces of the English and his words did not hold much of a threat for the powerful Allies. Chapter 4 - June 1944 Exercise 30 June In this entry, Anne puts her knowledge of English to a test. In English, she describes the bad weather and praises herself for having gained basic knowledge of English. She says that she has been reading an Ideal Husband with the aid of a dictionary. Meanwhile, she writes that the war continued. Bobroisk, Mogilef and Ors had fallen, and many people were taken as prisoners. She gives other general information in short sentences only to test her command over English. She writes that Elli had changed her hair style and that the temperature had improved. She ends this entry in the form of a news report with the line 'That's the latest news'. Chapter 4 - June 1944 Exercise 5 June In this entry, Anne writes about the troubles arising in the annex due to Dussel's behaviour and gives information regarding the progress of the war. She writes that a quarrel had started between the Franks and Dussel over the sharing of butter. Anne called the subject of the argument 'a trivial matter' which did not deserve such attention. She then writes about the closeness and casual flirtation between Mrs van Daan and Dussel. Anne observed their casual kisses and friendly laughs and concluded that Dussel was beginning to long for a woman's company. Anne ends her analysis of Dussel here and goes on to talk about the war situation. In short sentences, she notes that Rome had been taken over by the fifth army but with little devastation. She mentions that there had been heavy bombardment at the French coast and Pas de Calaris. Anne also mentions that the weather continued to be bad and that vegetables were scarce. Chapter 4 - June 1944 Exercise 6 June On the morning of 6th June 1944, news came with the opening line 'This is D-day'. The news reports announced that the invasion had finally begun. The news first came in at eight o'clock. After this, there were continuous reports at intervals of one or two hours. The news reports kept updating the listeners with the progress of the war. The first news that they received was of heavy bombardment at Calais, Boulogne, Le Havre, Cherbourg and Pas de Calais. To minimise loss of civilian lives, people living close to the borders were instructed to be prepared for bombardments. The German news announced that English parachute troops had landed on the French coast and their landing crafts were in a battle with the German navy. The English news at one o'clock gave a detailed report of the troops and resources deployed for war. On the English news which was aired at twelve o'clock, General Eisenhower told the French people that the military would fight a tough battle, that victory was sure to come after it and that 1944 would bring complete victory to everyone. Speeches were made one after the other by leaders of all countries confirming the news of the invasion and assuring their masses of the same outcome. The news reports assured everyone that the time for the final invasion had come. They were relieved that the troops were coming to rescue them. Anne writes that they were oppressed and in hiding for so long that the news came as a great relief. At the beginning, it had been difficult for them to trust the news. They had heard such news on many occasions in the past which had later proved to be mere trial attempts. However, this time, there was a certain confidence in the reporters of the news that even the people in the annex felt hopeful. Anne writes that hope was all they had to rely on. The fear, privations and suffering which they had gone through could only be countered by steadfast courage and belief. They did not even have the freedom to cry over their own miseries like the French, Russians, Italians or Germans. They had to clench their teeth and be strong. They had to endure the knife of oppression pressed against their throats and yet wait for deliverance to come. They knew that it would come. For it was no more a question of just a few thousand Jews. It now concerned Holland and all the occupied European countries. The knowledge of having someone come to their rescue brought a pleasant feeling to the Jews. Chapter 4 - June 1944 Exercise 9 June The latest update of the invasion informed the people that Bayeux, a village on the coast of France, had been taken over by the Allies. The Allies were now fighting to take over Cane. By doing this they were planning to cut off the peninsular where Cherbourg was located. Courageous reporters brought detailed reports directly from the war front for their listeners every evening. Although the weather had been bad for a few days, it did not deter the fighters from duty, especially the air force which was up and watching at all times. Army officials on the battlefields and even the ones who had returned after being wounded narrated their experiences with great zeal. Even leaders like Churchill showed eagerness to fight alongside the troops. Such news kept the people hopeful, but their excitement had withered off a little. They now gauged that the invasion was not so easy to achieve. It would not be coming as soon as the common man expected. They estimated the war to culminate by the year end. Because none of them could do anything but to wait patiently and hope for a positive outcome, they did just that and returned to their regular lives. Franz Liszt was a musician and an artist. Anne had read about him in the trilogy Hungarian Rhapsody. This book recorded information about his personal life and his life as a musician. Anne writes that the man was a virtuoso and a child prodigy in music. The man was the greatest pianist of his time. Anne notes that the book was very interesting and mentioned great people like Beethoven, Victor Hugo and Cherubini. Anne's opinion was that Liszt was a modest and generous man, though exceptionally vain at times. While on one hand, his art meant everything to him, on the other hand, he was crazy about a high-quality French brandy (called cognac) and about women. He was a gentleman in terms of generosity and concern for others. He spent money lavishly and went out of his way while granting favours. He had liberal religious beliefs and supported world freedom. All in all, Anne considered him a fine man. Why choose TopperLearning’s CBSE Class 10 study materials? We provide CBSE Class 10 Chapter-wise English lesson explanation as per the latest CBSE syllabus. For each subject, we have 2000+ questions (with answers) and 10+ sample papers to support you with your exam preparations. Also, we respond to doubts posted in our forum within 24 hours. Our MIQs and revision notes are perfect for last-minute revisions. With our support, you can feel at ease and work successfully towards your goal of becoming a CBSE topper. Kindly Sign up for a personalised experience - Ask Study Doubts - Sample Papers - Past Year Papers - Textbook Solutions Verify mobile number Enter the OTP sent to your number	<urn:uuid:be77c431-a90d-4df2-b177-65d822914e9d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.topperlearning.com/ncert-solutions/cbse-class-10-english/english-diary-of-a-young-girl/june-1944	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00085.warc.gz	en	0.986806	3,326	3.46875	3	[ -0.6172996759414673, 0.12710921466350555, 0.0938231498003006, -0.5027221441268921, -0.1599065065383911, -0.03855014592409134, 0.14845594763755798, 0.311472624540329, -0.09362645447254181, -0.392777681350708, -0.1083732545375824, -0.09946635365486145, 0.06914525479078293, 0.1096084490418434...	1	NCERT Solutions for Class 10 English Chapter 4 - June 1944 English is a widely used language across the world. 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Chapter 4 - June 1944 Exercise 13 June Anne begins this entry by listing the various presents she received on her fifteenth birthday. She then moves on to give updates on the progress of the invasion. This focus on the invasion highlights the mood of the age. Life in and around Europe during the war was not as complicated as it generally appears to be. People living in the countries fighting the war could not get bothered or excited about mundane happenings. Their lives were constantly threatened. They could not, under such circumstances, celebrate birthdays or grumble over household chores. However, as the war extended for about two years now, some people such as the Franks and others in hiding tried to lighten the mood, if only for a short time, by celebrating special occasions like birthdays. They exchanged small gifts and treated each other to some snacks. However, that was the extent of their happy moments. They could not truly be happy in the absence of the freedom which they deserved and longed for. Anne's updates of the war give an indication of the mindset of all people like her trapped in hiding places and hanging on to any piece of news which could give them some hope. Chapter 4 - June 1944 Exercise 14 June Overshadowed and disheartened by the misconceptions which people had of her, Anne expresses herself in this entry. She writes that she understands her own mistakes and limitations better than anyone else; she wishes to improve herself and was also working towards achieving it. Anne questions herself why people judge her for being forward and knowing. She believes that the only reason for this could be that they themselves have not developed their thinking skills and knowledge, and thus, they cannot tolerate others who know or understand better than them. Anne's biggest accuser is Mrs Van Daan. Anne plainly calls her 'stupid'. According to her, Mrs van Daan sees faults in Anne because those faults are present in her. Anne accepts that she is well-read and knowing, but she does not see it as a reason for being questioned and criticised. She believes that she does a good job of assessing and reproaching herself. She therefore cannot tolerate it when others, such as her mother, add to the scolding. The overload of harmful criticism could dishearten and discourage her. Anne believed that the people in her life who judged her were more than enough. Her own sternness was sufficient at times to bring her to tears. What she really needed was someone who would understand and accept her as she was and give her sound advice when she needed it. Anne writes that she does not see Peter filling this void within her. She knew that there was some force which was holding both of them back and only letting them be good friends. She believed that Peter would not be able to understand these dilemmas within her and give her the kind of advice she was looking for. Also, Anne did not approve certain aspects of Peter's character. Because these could not be done away with, it was difficult for her to hold him and his advice in high regard. Their friendship had lasted long only because they had agreed not to argue over topics on which their opinions differed. Chapter 4 - June 1944 Exercise 15 June In this entry, Anne writes about her love for nature. She elevates the qualities of nature by equating it to a gift from God. She says that people tend to learn the importance of things only when they lose them. Similarly, she too learned to appreciate nature when the liberty of being in its presence and enjoying it was taken away. She mentions two instances when she went out of her way to spend a few moments enjoying nature. The first being an evening on Whitsun when she remained awake till half past eleven only to enjoy the beauty of the Moon. On this occasion, her desire was not fulfilled as the Moon was too bright that night, and if the window was kept open, its light would illuminate the room within and make them visible to the people outside. On another night, Anne waited upstairs enjoying the dark night, the gale and blowing clouds until it was time for the window to be shut. Although it was a stormy night, Anne saw beauty in it too and appreciated it. The other windows in the house also had a view of the outside, but they were all sealed with dusty nets. These nets, Anne notes, diminished the beauty of nature, which according to her, always had to be unadulterated and pure. Anne loved to sit in the presence of nature as it calmed her mind and composed her thoughts. It made her feel something which she never felt before. Chapter 4 - June 1944 Exercise 16 June Peter's mother, Mrs van Daan, was going through another phase of despair. She could not tolerate living in hiding any longer. She was also disgruntled over the closeness between Peter and Anne. She did not like the fact that Peter chose to confide in Anne and not her. Also, Dussel was not receiving her with equal interest. To vent her negative emotions, she resorted to self-pity, arguments and abusive language. Her behaviour angered Peter, and his anger reflected in his relation with everyone else. There were other problems too in the annex. Kraler had received a second call for the digging work. He would have to go away for four weeks. This meant even more shortage of resources in the annex. About the same time, Koophius had to get his stomach operated. Because the two would be away for a long time, there would be a great shortage of food in the annex. Chapter 4 - June 1944 Exercise 23 June By this time, everyone had got used to the steady progress of the Allies in the invasion. Anne writes that the English had begun their attack on Cherbourg. The phrase 'nothing special' indicates that they were all sure that now that the invasion had begun, it would surely lead to its culmination in the form of a victory. Anne writes that her father and Mr van Daan expect freedom to come by 10th October. Anne also writes about the Russians who had entered the war and had begun their attack near Vitebsk. While the war continued outside, inside the annex they faced another problem, the shortage of potatoes. The next step was to count the number of potatoes each got, so that everyone got equal food to eat. Chapter 4 - June 1944 Exercise 27 June As expected, the Allies were taking over countries each day and freeing people from the dictators. This gave hope to everyone including Anne. It improved everyone's mood and gave them renewed hope. Anne was surprised and proud that the English had managed to take control of the whole Cotentin Peninsular just within three weeks of beginning the invasion. The English now had a harbour on the enemy's coast and could land their arms and ammunition there. The Germans in the meantime were sending off their women and children to Groningen, Friesland and Gelderland for protection from the invaders. One of their leaders Mussert stated that he would not shy away from putting on the uniform and taking up arms should the Allies reach as far as their hiding place. Anne here comments that the 'fat man' was no match for the forces of the English and his words did not hold much of a threat for the powerful Allies. Chapter 4 - June 1944 Exercise 30 June In this entry, Anne puts her knowledge of English to a test. In English, she describes the bad weather and praises herself for having gained basic knowledge of English. She says that she has been reading an Ideal Husband with the aid of a dictionary. Meanwhile, she writes that the war continued. Bobroisk, Mogilef and Ors had fallen, and many people were taken as prisoners. She gives other general information in short sentences only to test her command over English. She writes that Elli had changed her hair style and that the temperature had improved. She ends this entry in the form of a news report with the line 'That's the latest news'. Chapter 4 - June 1944 Exercise 5 June In this entry, Anne writes about the troubles arising in the annex due to Dussel's behaviour and gives information regarding the progress of the war. She writes that a quarrel had started between the Franks and Dussel over the sharing of butter. Anne called the subject of the argument 'a trivial matter' which did not deserve such attention. She then writes about the closeness and casual flirtation between Mrs van Daan and Dussel. Anne observed their casual kisses and friendly laughs and concluded that Dussel was beginning to long for a woman's company. Anne ends her analysis of Dussel here and goes on to talk about the war situation. In short sentences, she notes that Rome had been taken over by the fifth army but with little devastation. She mentions that there had been heavy bombardment at the French coast and Pas de Calaris. Anne also mentions that the weather continued to be bad and that vegetables were scarce. Chapter 4 - June 1944 Exercise 6 June On the morning of 6th June 1944, news came with the opening line 'This is D-day'. The news reports announced that the invasion had finally begun. The news first came in at eight o'clock. After this, there were continuous reports at intervals of one or two hours. The news reports kept updating the listeners with the progress of the war. The first news that they received was of heavy bombardment at Calais, Boulogne, Le Havre, Cherbourg and Pas de Calais. To minimise loss of civilian lives, people living close to the borders were instructed to be prepared for bombardments. The German news announced that English parachute troops had landed on the French coast and their landing crafts were in a battle with the German navy. The English news at one o'clock gave a detailed report of the troops and resources deployed for war. On the English news which was aired at twelve o'clock, General Eisenhower told the French people that the military would fight a tough battle, that victory was sure to come after it and that 1944 would bring complete victory to everyone. Speeches were made one after the other by leaders of all countries confirming the news of the invasion and assuring their masses of the same outcome. The news reports assured everyone that the time for the final invasion had come. They were relieved that the troops were coming to rescue them. Anne writes that they were oppressed and in hiding for so long that the news came as a great relief. At the beginning, it had been difficult for them to trust the news. They had heard such news on many occasions in the past which had later proved to be mere trial attempts. However, this time, there was a certain confidence in the reporters of the news that even the people in the annex felt hopeful. Anne writes that hope was all they had to rely on. The fear, privations and suffering which they had gone through could only be countered by steadfast courage and belief. They did not even have the freedom to cry over their own miseries like the French, Russians, Italians or Germans. They had to clench their teeth and be strong. They had to endure the knife of oppression pressed against their throats and yet wait for deliverance to come. They knew that it would come. For it was no more a question of just a few thousand Jews. It now concerned Holland and all the occupied European countries. The knowledge of having someone come to their rescue brought a pleasant feeling to the Jews. Chapter 4 - June 1944 Exercise 9 June The latest update of the invasion informed the people that Bayeux, a village on the coast of France, had been taken over by the Allies. The Allies were now fighting to take over Cane. By doing this they were planning to cut off the peninsular where Cherbourg was located. Courageous reporters brought detailed reports directly from the war front for their listeners every evening. Although the weather had been bad for a few days, it did not deter the fighters from duty, especially the air force which was up and watching at all times. Army officials on the battlefields and even the ones who had returned after being wounded narrated their experiences with great zeal. Even leaders like Churchill showed eagerness to fight alongside the troops. Such news kept the people hopeful, but their excitement had withered off a little. They now gauged that the invasion was not so easy to achieve. It would not be coming as soon as the common man expected. They estimated the war to culminate by the year end. Because none of them could do anything but to wait patiently and hope for a positive outcome, they did just that and returned to their regular lives. Franz Liszt was a musician and an artist. Anne had read about him in the trilogy Hungarian Rhapsody. This book recorded information about his personal life and his life as a musician. Anne writes that the man was a virtuoso and a child prodigy in music. The man was the greatest pianist of his time. Anne notes that the book was very interesting and mentioned great people like Beethoven, Victor Hugo and Cherubini. Anne's opinion was that Liszt was a modest and generous man, though exceptionally vain at times. While on one hand, his art meant everything to him, on the other hand, he was crazy about a high-quality French brandy (called cognac) and about women. He was a gentleman in terms of generosity and concern for others. He spent money lavishly and went out of his way while granting favours. He had liberal religious beliefs and supported world freedom. All in all, Anne considered him a fine man. Why choose TopperLearning’s CBSE Class 10 study materials? We provide CBSE Class 10 Chapter-wise English lesson explanation as per the latest CBSE syllabus. For each subject, we have 2000+ questions (with answers) and 10+ sample papers to support you with your exam preparations. Also, we respond to doubts posted in our forum within 24 hours. Our MIQs and revision notes are perfect for last-minute revisions. With our support, you can feel at ease and work successfully towards your goal of becoming a CBSE topper. Kindly Sign up for a personalised experience - Ask Study Doubts - Sample Papers - Past Year Papers - Textbook Solutions Verify mobile number Enter the OTP sent to your number	3,407	ENGLISH	1
Who Is Mikhail Gorbachev? Mikhail Gorbachev became a delegate to the Communist Party Congress in 1961. He was elected general secretary in 1985. He became the first president of the Soviet Union in 1990, and won the Nobel Prize for Peace that same year. He resigned in 1991, and has since founded the Gorbachev Foundation and remains active in social and political causes. Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev was born on March 2, 1931, to a Russian-Ukrainian family in the village of Privolnoye, in the Krasnogvardeisky District near the Stavropol Territory of southern Russia. Gorbachev’s parents were peasants. His father, Sergei, operated a combine harvester for a living. Sergei was drafted into the Russian Army when the Nazis invaded the USSR in 1941. Three years later, he was wounded in action and returned home to resume operating farm machinery. Sergei passed on his experience to his young son, Mikhail. Mikhail Gorbachev was a quick learner and showed an aptitude for mechanics. As a teenager, Gorbachev contributed to the family’s income by driving tractors at a local machine station. So hard a worker was he that, by the age of 17, Gorbachev was the youngest ever to win the Order of the Red Banner of Labor for his active role in bringing in that year’s bumper crop. Gorbachev’s mother, Maria, exemplified this tireless work ethic with her lifelong toil on a collective farm. The political climate during Mikhail Gorbachev’s upbringing was turbulent. In the 1930s, when Gorbachev was still very young, he suffered the trauma of seeing his maternal grandfather, Pantelei Gopkalo, arrested during the Great Purge. Gopkalo was accused of being a Trotskyite counterrevolutionary and was imprisoned and tortured for 14 months. To his family’s great relief, he was spared execution.The economic climate during Mikhail Gorbachev’s childhood was also one of turmoil. In 1933, southern Russia endured a major drought. Since the region depended on farming for both food and income, its residents suffered from famine, and many died of starvation. As a child, Gorbachev had a passion for learning. When he graduated from high school with a silver medal in 1950, his father persuaded him to continue on to university. Gorbachev’s academic record was stellar, and he was accepted into Moscow University, the premier school in the Soviet Union, without having to take the entrance exam. The university even provided him with free living accommodations at a nearby hostel. Gorbachev graduated from Moscow University cum laude with a law degree in 1955 and shortly afterward returned to his hometown with his new wife, Raisa, a fellow Moscow University alumnus. Early Political Involvement Gorbachev had become a candidate member of the Communist party while he was in high school, but it wasn’t until 1952, when he was at Moscow University, that he was granted full membership. Once back in Stavropol after graduation, Gorbachev took a position at the Stavropol territorial prosecutor’s office. Soon after he began the job, Gorbachev ran into some old acquaintances. They remembered him from his involvement in the Young Communist League during high school. Because Gorbachev had shown himself to be dedicated and organized, they asked him to be the assistant director of propaganda for the territorial committee of the local Communist youth league. Soviet premier Joseph Stalin had died two years prior, and the Soviet Union’s process of political restructuring created an exciting climate for young Communist Party activists. Eager to get involved, Gorbachev accepted the offer and resigned his position at the prosecutor’s office after just 10 days on the job. Gorbachev steadily rose through the ranks of the Communist league. In 1956, he was made first secretary of the Stavropol City Komsomol Committee. In 1961, he was appointed as a delegate to the party congress. Throughout the 1960s, Gorbachev continued to advance his political position and increase his knowledge of agriculture and economics, eventually becoming the regional agricultural administrator and party leader. In 1980, Gorbachev made a critical advancement in his burgeoning political career when he became a full member of the Politburo, otherwise known as the Political Bureau of the Central Agency, the executive committee for numerous Communist Party factions.Cold War In 1984, Gorbachev’s mentor at the Kremlin, Yuri Andropov, general secretary of the Communist Party, died. An important year in Gorbachev's timeline, 1984 was also when he first met Margaret Thatcher, prime minister of Great Britain, with whom he would develop a strong relationship. Becoming General Secretary In 1985, when Andropov’s successor, Konstantin Chernenko, also died, Gorbachev was elected general secretary of the Communist Party. Gorbachev inherited the issues that Andropov and Chernenko had been struggling to tackle, including serious domestic problems and escalating Cold War tensions. But Gorbachev’s youthful energy and enthusiasm gave the Soviet Union hope that a new generation of leaders geared toward positive change had taken charge. During his term as general secretary, Gorbachev was engaged with U.S. president Ronald Reagan in a costly race to amass nuclear weapons in space. The expense put further stress on the already suffering Soviet economy. Gorbachev worked diligently to create reforms that he believed would improve the Soviet standard of living. By providing more freedom and democracy to Soviets, he strove toward “glasnost” and “perestroika,” openness and restructure. He worked toward establishing a market economy that was more socially oriented. Gorbachev’s reforms were also geared toward increasing productivity and reducing waste. Even a couple of years prior to his appointment, Gorbachev had attempted to improve Soviet relations with the leaders of Western nations. Ronald Reagan was initially distrustful, but when he met with Gorbachev at the first Geneva arms summit in November 1985, Reagan was surprised to find that “there was warmth in [Gorbachev’s] face and style.” Reagan recognized “a moral dimension in Gorbachev.” Thatcher said of the Soviet leader, "I like Mr. Gorbachev. We can do business together." Over the next three years, Reagan and Gorbachev met at four additional summits, during which their relationship further warmed as they collaborated on bringing the Cold War to a close. Besides Reagan and Thatcher, during this period Gorbachev also cultivated strong ties with West German chancellor Helmut Kohl. Unfortunately, U.S.-Soviet relations took a major hit when the Chernobyl nuclear power plant exploded in the Ukraine on April 26, 1986. The Soviet Union failed to release a full report until more than two weeks after the event. In light of Gorbachev’s policy of “openness,” some considered his reaction hypocritical. During the 1985 summit in Geneva and the October 1986 Reykjavik summit, the strain between Gorbachev and Reagan was apparent. The two disagreed over the development of a Strategic Defense Initiative, which Reagan wanted and Gorbachev didn't. Both summits ended in stalemates. At the end of 1987, Gorbachev gave in to Reagan’s argument. At this point, the Soviet Union’s economy was in crisis. Gorbachev’s economic reforms weren’t working. In 1987, Gorbachev and Reagan signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty, the first-ever mutual agreement on nuclear weapons reduction. The Soviet Union welcomed some desperately needed relief from the expenses of the space race. Included among Gorbachev’s key political reforms was a new, more democratic election system. In 1989, he organized elections that required Communist Party members to run against non-party members. He revoked the Communist Party’s special status as set forth in the USSR’s constitution. State power was handed over to the Congress of People’s Duties of the USSR, the Soviet Union’s first parliament, based on democratic elections. On March 15, 1990, the Congress of People’s Duties elected Gorbachev the first president of the Soviet Union. During his presidency, Gorbachev promoted more peaceful international relations. He ordered Soviet troops to withdraw from Afghanistan. Through his peaceful negotiations with President Reagan, Gorbachev was also instrumental in ending the Cold War. He is likewise credited for his crucial role in the fall of the Berlin Wall and subsequent reunification of Germany. For his excellent leadership and his contributions to the overall betterment of world development, Gorbachev was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize on October 15, 1990. In addition to fielding conflicts with other nations, Gorbachev tackled pressing issues within the Soviet Union. Different ethnic groups within the USSR had begun to wage war against one another, while other groups, such as Ukrainians and Lithuanians, demanded that they become independent nations. As Gorbachev was grappling with these fractures, along with a still flailing Soviet economy, a new rival leader came on the scene. Boris Yeltsin, a former Communist Party member, emphasized radical changes to the economy. In the summer of 1991, Yeltsin was voted president of the Russian Republic. Gorbachev now faced the problem of how to balance the shared power between him and the opposing leader. In August 1991, while Gorbachev was vacationing in the Crimea, Communist conservatives captured him in a coup to seize power. Ironically, among the Communist Party conservatives who organized the coup was Prime Minister Pavlov, whom Gorbachev had hired to help him balance power with Yeltsin. Despite his opposing leadership, Yeltsin manned a resistance against the coup, and the coup ultimately failed. Upon Gorbachev’s return home, rumors circulated that he may have been in cahoots with the coup leaders. The public grew distrustful of Gorbachev and was increasingly supportive of Yeltsin, whom they now viewed as a hero. By Christmas 1991, the Soviet Union had crumbled. Gorbachev inevitably stepped down from his position as president of the Soviet Union, handing over complete power to Yeltsin. We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us!	<urn:uuid:2af743c4-446c-4a4d-8176-7fa60373c2d9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.biography.com/political-figure/mikhail-gorbachev	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00194.warc.gz	en	0.980359	2,165	3.4375	3	[ 0.032069131731987, 0.1775047779083252, 0.3595578670501709, 0.28103694319725037, -0.04294591397047043, -0.29828470945358276, 0.28491106629371643, 0.22378167510032654, -0.3890255093574524, -0.09563203901052475, 0.2863350510597229, 0.0695962905883789, 0.24486449360847473, 0.5434702634811401, ...	8	Who Is Mikhail Gorbachev? Mikhail Gorbachev became a delegate to the Communist Party Congress in 1961. He was elected general secretary in 1985. He became the first president of the Soviet Union in 1990, and won the Nobel Prize for Peace that same year. He resigned in 1991, and has since founded the Gorbachev Foundation and remains active in social and political causes. Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev was born on March 2, 1931, to a Russian-Ukrainian family in the village of Privolnoye, in the Krasnogvardeisky District near the Stavropol Territory of southern Russia. Gorbachev’s parents were peasants. His father, Sergei, operated a combine harvester for a living. Sergei was drafted into the Russian Army when the Nazis invaded the USSR in 1941. Three years later, he was wounded in action and returned home to resume operating farm machinery. Sergei passed on his experience to his young son, Mikhail. Mikhail Gorbachev was a quick learner and showed an aptitude for mechanics. As a teenager, Gorbachev contributed to the family’s income by driving tractors at a local machine station. So hard a worker was he that, by the age of 17, Gorbachev was the youngest ever to win the Order of the Red Banner of Labor for his active role in bringing in that year’s bumper crop. Gorbachev’s mother, Maria, exemplified this tireless work ethic with her lifelong toil on a collective farm. The political climate during Mikhail Gorbachev’s upbringing was turbulent. In the 1930s, when Gorbachev was still very young, he suffered the trauma of seeing his maternal grandfather, Pantelei Gopkalo, arrested during the Great Purge. Gopkalo was accused of being a Trotskyite counterrevolutionary and was imprisoned and tortured for 14 months. To his family’s great relief, he was spared execution.The economic climate during Mikhail Gorbachev’s childhood was also one of turmoil. In 1933, southern Russia endured a major drought. Since the region depended on farming for both food and income, its residents suffered from famine, and many died of starvation. As a child, Gorbachev had a passion for learning. When he graduated from high school with a silver medal in 1950, his father persuaded him to continue on to university. Gorbachev’s academic record was stellar, and he was accepted into Moscow University, the premier school in the Soviet Union, without having to take the entrance exam. The university even provided him with free living accommodations at a nearby hostel. Gorbachev graduated from Moscow University cum laude with a law degree in 1955 and shortly afterward returned to his hometown with his new wife, Raisa, a fellow Moscow University alumnus. Early Political Involvement Gorbachev had become a candidate member of the Communist party while he was in high school, but it wasn’t until 1952, when he was at Moscow University, that he was granted full membership. Once back in Stavropol after graduation, Gorbachev took a position at the Stavropol territorial prosecutor’s office. Soon after he began the job, Gorbachev ran into some old acquaintances. They remembered him from his involvement in the Young Communist League during high school. Because Gorbachev had shown himself to be dedicated and organized, they asked him to be the assistant director of propaganda for the territorial committee of the local Communist youth league. Soviet premier Joseph Stalin had died two years prior, and the Soviet Union’s process of political restructuring created an exciting climate for young Communist Party activists. Eager to get involved, Gorbachev accepted the offer and resigned his position at the prosecutor’s office after just 10 days on the job. Gorbachev steadily rose through the ranks of the Communist league. In 1956, he was made first secretary of the Stavropol City Komsomol Committee. In 1961, he was appointed as a delegate to the party congress. Throughout the 1960s, Gorbachev continued to advance his political position and increase his knowledge of agriculture and economics, eventually becoming the regional agricultural administrator and party leader. In 1980, Gorbachev made a critical advancement in his burgeoning political career when he became a full member of the Politburo, otherwise known as the Political Bureau of the Central Agency, the executive committee for numerous Communist Party factions.Cold War In 1984, Gorbachev’s mentor at the Kremlin, Yuri Andropov, general secretary of the Communist Party, died. An important year in Gorbachev's timeline, 1984 was also when he first met Margaret Thatcher, prime minister of Great Britain, with whom he would develop a strong relationship. Becoming General Secretary In 1985, when Andropov’s successor, Konstantin Chernenko, also died, Gorbachev was elected general secretary of the Communist Party. Gorbachev inherited the issues that Andropov and Chernenko had been struggling to tackle, including serious domestic problems and escalating Cold War tensions. But Gorbachev’s youthful energy and enthusiasm gave the Soviet Union hope that a new generation of leaders geared toward positive change had taken charge. During his term as general secretary, Gorbachev was engaged with U.S. president Ronald Reagan in a costly race to amass nuclear weapons in space. The expense put further stress on the already suffering Soviet economy. Gorbachev worked diligently to create reforms that he believed would improve the Soviet standard of living. By providing more freedom and democracy to Soviets, he strove toward “glasnost” and “perestroika,” openness and restructure. He worked toward establishing a market economy that was more socially oriented. Gorbachev’s reforms were also geared toward increasing productivity and reducing waste. Even a couple of years prior to his appointment, Gorbachev had attempted to improve Soviet relations with the leaders of Western nations. Ronald Reagan was initially distrustful, but when he met with Gorbachev at the first Geneva arms summit in November 1985, Reagan was surprised to find that “there was warmth in [Gorbachev’s] face and style.” Reagan recognized “a moral dimension in Gorbachev.” Thatcher said of the Soviet leader, "I like Mr. Gorbachev. We can do business together." Over the next three years, Reagan and Gorbachev met at four additional summits, during which their relationship further warmed as they collaborated on bringing the Cold War to a close. Besides Reagan and Thatcher, during this period Gorbachev also cultivated strong ties with West German chancellor Helmut Kohl. Unfortunately, U.S.-Soviet relations took a major hit when the Chernobyl nuclear power plant exploded in the Ukraine on April 26, 1986. The Soviet Union failed to release a full report until more than two weeks after the event. In light of Gorbachev’s policy of “openness,” some considered his reaction hypocritical. During the 1985 summit in Geneva and the October 1986 Reykjavik summit, the strain between Gorbachev and Reagan was apparent. The two disagreed over the development of a Strategic Defense Initiative, which Reagan wanted and Gorbachev didn't. Both summits ended in stalemates. At the end of 1987, Gorbachev gave in to Reagan’s argument. At this point, the Soviet Union’s economy was in crisis. Gorbachev’s economic reforms weren’t working. In 1987, Gorbachev and Reagan signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty, the first-ever mutual agreement on nuclear weapons reduction. The Soviet Union welcomed some desperately needed relief from the expenses of the space race. Included among Gorbachev’s key political reforms was a new, more democratic election system. In 1989, he organized elections that required Communist Party members to run against non-party members. He revoked the Communist Party’s special status as set forth in the USSR’s constitution. State power was handed over to the Congress of People’s Duties of the USSR, the Soviet Union’s first parliament, based on democratic elections. On March 15, 1990, the Congress of People’s Duties elected Gorbachev the first president of the Soviet Union. During his presidency, Gorbachev promoted more peaceful international relations. He ordered Soviet troops to withdraw from Afghanistan. Through his peaceful negotiations with President Reagan, Gorbachev was also instrumental in ending the Cold War. He is likewise credited for his crucial role in the fall of the Berlin Wall and subsequent reunification of Germany. For his excellent leadership and his contributions to the overall betterment of world development, Gorbachev was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize on October 15, 1990. In addition to fielding conflicts with other nations, Gorbachev tackled pressing issues within the Soviet Union. Different ethnic groups within the USSR had begun to wage war against one another, while other groups, such as Ukrainians and Lithuanians, demanded that they become independent nations. As Gorbachev was grappling with these fractures, along with a still flailing Soviet economy, a new rival leader came on the scene. Boris Yeltsin, a former Communist Party member, emphasized radical changes to the economy. In the summer of 1991, Yeltsin was voted president of the Russian Republic. Gorbachev now faced the problem of how to balance the shared power between him and the opposing leader. In August 1991, while Gorbachev was vacationing in the Crimea, Communist conservatives captured him in a coup to seize power. Ironically, among the Communist Party conservatives who organized the coup was Prime Minister Pavlov, whom Gorbachev had hired to help him balance power with Yeltsin. Despite his opposing leadership, Yeltsin manned a resistance against the coup, and the coup ultimately failed. Upon Gorbachev’s return home, rumors circulated that he may have been in cahoots with the coup leaders. The public grew distrustful of Gorbachev and was increasingly supportive of Yeltsin, whom they now viewed as a hero. By Christmas 1991, the Soviet Union had crumbled. Gorbachev inevitably stepped down from his position as president of the Soviet Union, handing over complete power to Yeltsin. We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us!	2,262	ENGLISH	1
In 1892, the first women’s basketball team was established at Smith College, but the first intercollegiate basketball game was played by Stanford and the University of California, Berkeley campus. This game opened doors for women to be able to play basketball if not against other colleges then recreationally. It was thought that women were not physically capable of playing sports that males could play. So physical education teacher, Senda Berenson of Smith College studied this new sport of basketball and changed the rules of the game a bit to make the game more accessible to women. Berenson wanted women’s basketball to represent friendship and socialization. The teammates have to work together and communicate to win points. She developed a game for women that was not as rough like the men’s version as well as changing the rules on holding, snatching the ball, and traveling. She also ruled that players set to certain positions could not leave their set court. These rules she developed would stick to the game of basketball until minor modifications were done in the 1960s. This page is from the 1927 Genevan Yearbook and contains a photo, description, and scores from the 1926-1927 women’s basketball season. They had a successful year with only two losses for the season. The bottom of the paragraph explains that the 1927 women’s basketball team is the last time Geneva College will have an intercollegiate team. It states that “the ‘glory that was Geneva Girls’ Team’ is gone forever. For this was the last year for girls’ inter-collegiate basketball…”	<urn:uuid:e0b91d3c-a7ee-4f1e-ba95-c93f407c7115>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gcdigitalhistory.wordpress.com/about-the-archive/women-at-geneva/women-in-sports/womens-basketball-in-the-1920s/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00025.warc.gz	en	0.987759	334	3.328125	3	[ -0.2384142279624939, 0.16537831723690033, 0.254500150680542, -0.041051529347896576, -0.45116937160491943, -0.011311710812151432, 0.2857012152671814, 0.1681855171918869, 0.05713914334774017, 0.14574488997459412, 0.12690314650535583, -0.542427122592926, 0.12971508502960205, -0.07355161756277...	2	In 1892, the first women’s basketball team was established at Smith College, but the first intercollegiate basketball game was played by Stanford and the University of California, Berkeley campus. This game opened doors for women to be able to play basketball if not against other colleges then recreationally. It was thought that women were not physically capable of playing sports that males could play. So physical education teacher, Senda Berenson of Smith College studied this new sport of basketball and changed the rules of the game a bit to make the game more accessible to women. Berenson wanted women’s basketball to represent friendship and socialization. The teammates have to work together and communicate to win points. She developed a game for women that was not as rough like the men’s version as well as changing the rules on holding, snatching the ball, and traveling. She also ruled that players set to certain positions could not leave their set court. These rules she developed would stick to the game of basketball until minor modifications were done in the 1960s. This page is from the 1927 Genevan Yearbook and contains a photo, description, and scores from the 1926-1927 women’s basketball season. They had a successful year with only two losses for the season. The bottom of the paragraph explains that the 1927 women’s basketball team is the last time Geneva College will have an intercollegiate team. It states that “the ‘glory that was Geneva Girls’ Team’ is gone forever. For this was the last year for girls’ inter-collegiate basketball…”	333	ENGLISH	1
Named after the river which was first recorded in 1360. How the river got its name is uncertain but one suggestion is that it could have been renamed after a medieval landowner named Rendel. The original name having been lost. Others say that the Raven reference is of relatively late origin and so is unlikely to refer to the breed of bird. But if the name is Saxon other possible meanings are the fast-flowing stream or the crusted stream, referring to algae-covered or stagnant water. But perhaps the most romantic suggestion comes from Charles Knight’s 1842 history The Journey-Book of Kent. In it Knight writes: “The history or tradition of the origin of the Ravensbourne ‘When Caesar was encamped here, his troops were in great need of water, and none could be found in the vicinity. Observing however that a raven frequently alighted near the camp, and conjecturing that it was for the purpose of quenching its thirst, he ordered the coming of the bird to be watched for, and the spot to be particularly noted. This was done, and the result was as he anticipated. The object of the raven’s resort was this little spring; from thence Caesar derived a supply of water for the Roman legions; and from the circumstance of its discovery, the spring was called the Raven’s bourne or brook’. “The water was formerly in great repute for its medicinal virtues, and was used to bathe in. Till about the commencement of the present century there was a bathing-house, overhung with some very beautiful trees. The spring and the heath then formed the great objects of attraction to the gentry and other residents of the neighbourhood for some miles round: on a bright summer day Keston Common (as the heath is called) might often be seen dotted, as it were, with parties of people, the gay costume of the ladies contrasted upon the brown heath, and the air ringing with the sounds of laughter and music. The crystal waters of the Ravensbourne now rise into the circular basin, through small holes with which its bottom is entirely pierced: from the basin they flow through an opening near its top into a concealed trough, and then into the first of the ponds. It never stops, never dries up; it flows to-day as it flowed two thousand years ago, when the Roman saw it bubbling up almost concealed in the brown heath.” 87 total views, 1 views today	<urn:uuid:b0cad78b-cc60-47a1-81e1-e1b193e9a174>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://londonstreetguide.com/ravensbourne-road-br1/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00222.warc.gz	en	0.980527	513	3.5625	4	[ -0.03226621448993683, 0.11805035918951035, 0.19028006494045258, 0.2842155694961548, -0.019688541069626808, 0.017875615507364273, 0.32274264097213745, -0.17198990285396576, -0.13971872627735138, 0.07238317281007767, -0.0963364914059639, -0.6250595450401306, -0.27585381269454956, -0.13554768...	1	Named after the river which was first recorded in 1360. How the river got its name is uncertain but one suggestion is that it could have been renamed after a medieval landowner named Rendel. The original name having been lost. Others say that the Raven reference is of relatively late origin and so is unlikely to refer to the breed of bird. But if the name is Saxon other possible meanings are the fast-flowing stream or the crusted stream, referring to algae-covered or stagnant water. But perhaps the most romantic suggestion comes from Charles Knight’s 1842 history The Journey-Book of Kent. In it Knight writes: “The history or tradition of the origin of the Ravensbourne ‘When Caesar was encamped here, his troops were in great need of water, and none could be found in the vicinity. Observing however that a raven frequently alighted near the camp, and conjecturing that it was for the purpose of quenching its thirst, he ordered the coming of the bird to be watched for, and the spot to be particularly noted. This was done, and the result was as he anticipated. The object of the raven’s resort was this little spring; from thence Caesar derived a supply of water for the Roman legions; and from the circumstance of its discovery, the spring was called the Raven’s bourne or brook’. “The water was formerly in great repute for its medicinal virtues, and was used to bathe in. Till about the commencement of the present century there was a bathing-house, overhung with some very beautiful trees. The spring and the heath then formed the great objects of attraction to the gentry and other residents of the neighbourhood for some miles round: on a bright summer day Keston Common (as the heath is called) might often be seen dotted, as it were, with parties of people, the gay costume of the ladies contrasted upon the brown heath, and the air ringing with the sounds of laughter and music. The crystal waters of the Ravensbourne now rise into the circular basin, through small holes with which its bottom is entirely pierced: from the basin they flow through an opening near its top into a concealed trough, and then into the first of the ponds. It never stops, never dries up; it flows to-day as it flowed two thousand years ago, when the Roman saw it bubbling up almost concealed in the brown heath.” 87 total views, 1 views today	507	ENGLISH	1
The Face of the Industrial Revolution When imagining the people who lived during the Industrial Revolution, it is easy to picture the characters from a Charles Dickens novel. It is easy to imagine cities filled with soot-faced Oliver Twists and David Copperfields. In some respects, this picture is accurate. The first half of the nineteenth century saw many major technological advances. The invention of the steam engine made manufacturing and transportation much easier and dozens of large factories sprung up within the span of a few years. New mining techniques were developed in order to produce the coal needed to power the new factories. Rural citizens, looking for work, began to migrate to major cities such as London and New York. The air was indeed filled with a Dickensian smog, but the Industrial Revolution also had a profound effect on skin care products and cosmetic use. As the average pay rose, an increasing number of ordinary citizens were finding themselves able to afford soaps and make-ups that had previously been far out of reach. A Moral Dilemma By the end of the eighteenth century, make-up had been deemed inappropriate for all but prostitutes and actors. While this attitude persisted throughout much of the nineteenth century, women were allowed a few cosmetic exceptions. Pale skin was still considered a mark of high birth and while the heavy lead powders of a century earlier were no longer used, they were replaced by a thin coating of zinc oxide. The zinc oxide offered the benefit of a lightened skin tone, but was more subtle and more natural looking than the caked on powder that had been so popular before. Subtle eyeshadow made from lampblack was also popular, although lip and cheek rouge remained taboo. While many women still mixed their own cosmetics, modern manufacturing techniques had made it much easier to mass produce these products. Although the use of manufactured cosmetics was extremely popular, however, it was not considered proper to buy or sell beauty products. Because of this, most stores sold them under the counter. In spite of the stigma that still surrounded skincare and cosmetic products, some women did speak out to promote their use. In 1833, Jacobine Weiler published a book titled, "Cosmetics of the Female Sex, or The Secret Art of Perfecting Beauty and Health and Retaining It into Old Age" that promoted cosmetic use as a beauty aid. While respectable women could not be seen buying lip or cheek rouge, numerous recipes were published describing methods for making lip pomade in the home. Recipes included common ingredients such as butter, wax and natural dies made from currants and the plant alkanna tictoria.* For all the women who defended cosmetic use, however, there were many others who believed that wearing make-up was the first step toward a life of sin. Many books dedicated to the defamation of cosmetics were also published. "Godey's Lady's Book," for example, was published around the middle of the century. It suggested that instead of trying to cover blemishes with make-up, women should rely solely on "moral cosmetics," which included sleeping and avoiding sinful pastimes such as gambling and drinking. Cleansing the Natural Way As mass production methods were refined, the price of numerous hygiene products became less expensive and more readily available. While perfumed soaps had been considered a luxury item half a century earlier, soap was now commonplace in all but the poorest homes. Because women could no longer hide behind a thick layer of powder, there was a much stronger emphasis on naturally beautiful skin. Harsh cleansers were more easily produced as well, but they were often ignored in exchange for more natural skincare ingredients. Egg yolks, honey and oatmeal were all commonly used to soften the skin and help diminish blemishes. Lemon juice was sometimes used to naturally bleach the skin a few shades lighter. While naturally glowing health may have been the look of choice at the beginning of the nineteenth century, however, it would soon make way for the frail, sickly look of the Victorian Era. Read more about nineteenth century make-up here: http://www.localhistories.org/cosmetics.html * Read more about the Industrial defenders of cosmetics here: http://www.cosmetic-business.com/en/showartikel.php?art_id=1409	<urn:uuid:6f23888a-fb0a-4818-ad8c-f52fd9e4ed17>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://homeremedytreatments.com/history-of-skincare-part-16-the-industrial-revolution-1800-1849/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00218.warc.gz	en	0.980416	882	3.34375	3	[ -0.07010900229215622, 0.2833757996559143, 0.28812864422798157, 0.5240139961242676, 0.0508149154484272, 0.3314542770385742, 0.18922367691993713, 0.21316243708133698, -0.55976402759552, -0.13921919465065002, -0.08650104701519012, -0.23438602685928345, -0.18916283547878265, 0.0238824971020221...	2	The Face of the Industrial Revolution When imagining the people who lived during the Industrial Revolution, it is easy to picture the characters from a Charles Dickens novel. It is easy to imagine cities filled with soot-faced Oliver Twists and David Copperfields. In some respects, this picture is accurate. The first half of the nineteenth century saw many major technological advances. The invention of the steam engine made manufacturing and transportation much easier and dozens of large factories sprung up within the span of a few years. New mining techniques were developed in order to produce the coal needed to power the new factories. Rural citizens, looking for work, began to migrate to major cities such as London and New York. The air was indeed filled with a Dickensian smog, but the Industrial Revolution also had a profound effect on skin care products and cosmetic use. As the average pay rose, an increasing number of ordinary citizens were finding themselves able to afford soaps and make-ups that had previously been far out of reach. A Moral Dilemma By the end of the eighteenth century, make-up had been deemed inappropriate for all but prostitutes and actors. While this attitude persisted throughout much of the nineteenth century, women were allowed a few cosmetic exceptions. Pale skin was still considered a mark of high birth and while the heavy lead powders of a century earlier were no longer used, they were replaced by a thin coating of zinc oxide. The zinc oxide offered the benefit of a lightened skin tone, but was more subtle and more natural looking than the caked on powder that had been so popular before. Subtle eyeshadow made from lampblack was also popular, although lip and cheek rouge remained taboo. While many women still mixed their own cosmetics, modern manufacturing techniques had made it much easier to mass produce these products. Although the use of manufactured cosmetics was extremely popular, however, it was not considered proper to buy or sell beauty products. Because of this, most stores sold them under the counter. In spite of the stigma that still surrounded skincare and cosmetic products, some women did speak out to promote their use. In 1833, Jacobine Weiler published a book titled, "Cosmetics of the Female Sex, or The Secret Art of Perfecting Beauty and Health and Retaining It into Old Age" that promoted cosmetic use as a beauty aid. While respectable women could not be seen buying lip or cheek rouge, numerous recipes were published describing methods for making lip pomade in the home. Recipes included common ingredients such as butter, wax and natural dies made from currants and the plant alkanna tictoria.* For all the women who defended cosmetic use, however, there were many others who believed that wearing make-up was the first step toward a life of sin. Many books dedicated to the defamation of cosmetics were also published. "Godey's Lady's Book," for example, was published around the middle of the century. It suggested that instead of trying to cover blemishes with make-up, women should rely solely on "moral cosmetics," which included sleeping and avoiding sinful pastimes such as gambling and drinking. Cleansing the Natural Way As mass production methods were refined, the price of numerous hygiene products became less expensive and more readily available. While perfumed soaps had been considered a luxury item half a century earlier, soap was now commonplace in all but the poorest homes. Because women could no longer hide behind a thick layer of powder, there was a much stronger emphasis on naturally beautiful skin. Harsh cleansers were more easily produced as well, but they were often ignored in exchange for more natural skincare ingredients. Egg yolks, honey and oatmeal were all commonly used to soften the skin and help diminish blemishes. Lemon juice was sometimes used to naturally bleach the skin a few shades lighter. While naturally glowing health may have been the look of choice at the beginning of the nineteenth century, however, it would soon make way for the frail, sickly look of the Victorian Era. Read more about nineteenth century make-up here: http://www.localhistories.org/cosmetics.html * Read more about the Industrial defenders of cosmetics here: http://www.cosmetic-business.com/en/showartikel.php?art_id=1409	860	ENGLISH	1
We thank God and celebrate the growth of our readership in the last 12 months. Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847) converted to Christianity when he was young, going on to become one of the foremost Protestant composers. Now that Luther’s anti-Semitism is attracting so much attention, it seems all the more striking that the composer of the Reformation Symphony, should have been a Jew, Mendelssohn (1809–1847). He wrote it for the anniversary of the Conference of Augsburg in 1830. Even though he was born into a Jewish family, he converted to Christianity, and went on to become one of the foremost Protestant composers. He arranged Bach’s St Matthew’s Passion and his evangelical faith took him to compose an oratorio on Paul, using only biblical text, and on Elijah. A few years ago, a Czech writer called Jiri Weil wrote a novel entitled “Mendelssohn is on the Roof”. He tells the story that during the Nazi occupation of Prague, an SS official received an order to remove Mendelssohn’s statue from the roof of a concert hall. The problem was that the roof was full of statues of different composers, and he had no means of identifying them. The Nazi official remembered that in their “racial science” classes on Jews, they had been told that Jews had large noses. He therefore decided to remove the statue with the biggest nose, but it turned out to be the very Wagner who had said that, regardless of being a Lutheran, Mendelssohn continued being a Jew. On account of this, his music was banned by the Nazis. A CONVERTED JEW Mendelssohn’s Christianity was so sincere, that even Jewish academics recognise that his conversion was authentic. He was born in Hamburg in 1809 to Jewish parents, but he was baptized before they were. His grandfather, Moses, was an important rabbi and philosopher, who’s Judaism was strongly orthodox, even though his five children converted to Christianity. His father, Abraham, was a banker and businessman. Mendelssohn was confirmed in the Lutheran church at the age of 14, following the baptism of all the children in order to be better accepted into German society. His father wanted to change his name to Bartholdy, but Felix maintained his Jewish name Mendelssohn. According to the rabbi Stahl, although Felix was a convinced Christian, he was never ashamed of his Jewish origins. Like Mozart, Mendelssohn was a prodigy child. His first public performance on the piano came at the age of nine, and he started composing music the following year. Educated by his mother in an exquisite and refined culture, he mastered Latin and Greek, as well as being able to paint and draw with accomplishment. He was a good sportsman, but he particularly excelled in music. He played the piano and the organ with great mastery, but he was also excellent on the violin and the viola. At the age of sixteen he wrote his enchanting overture for Shakespeare’s “Midsummer night’s dream”. Some people think that he never surpassed his genius in that romantic piece. His family moved to Berlin in 1912, where Felix studied with Carl Zelter, who had links to the Bach family and who introduced him to an elderly Goethe. From a young age, Felix was very close to his sister Fanny, a renowned pianist and composer, who published several of her own compositions under Felix’ name. He was a contemporary of Hegel at the University of Berlin, studying aesthetics, geography and history. His memory was so impressive that the story goes that once, when he arrived to play his overture to “A Midsummer Night’s Dream” in England, he realised that he had left the music in a car, so sat down and rewrote the whole piece from memory then and there. At the age of twelve he was already studying Bach’s St Matthew Passion in the Royal Library of Berlin, where a manuscript was kept. His mother gave him a copy for his birthday, made especially for him, since it had not yet been published. Eight years later he presented it in Berlin, in one of the greatest events in the history of music. He conducted the music again for Bach’s birthday on 21 March 1829, having by then become a famous conductor at the age of twenty. THE JOY OF LIVING Sigmund Spaeth once observed that it was a relief to find a musician who was really happy for most of his life, even though Mendelssohn’s was so short. Most of great composers seem to have had difficult characters. But this does not seem to have been the case for Mendelssohn. According to most witnesses, he was a modest man with a joyful nature – as his name would suggest –, albeit somewhat nervous. He married the daughter of a French Protestant pastor, Cecile Jeanrenaud, with whom he had five children. While he was extroverted, she was rather reserved, but they got on well. She painted, while he composed his music. He was however so passionate that he sometimes became excited to the point of suffering collapses, like the one that caused his death at the age of 38, shortly after which his wife also died. They were only married for ten years. Many people have wondered where Mendelssohn got that energy that filled him with that strange joy of living. For him, “the Bible was the best thing”. That is what he said when he composed his oratorio on Paul, based on the biblical text and Bach’s chorales. He loved the Scriptures so much that his words resound with a strength – there and in his piece on Elijah –, that many compare it with an act of public worship. His music is a true celebration of faith. His favourite singer was the Swedish soprano Jenny Lind, whom he met in 1844. He wrote some of his work for her, but she retired when she was at the top of her career. Mendelssohn’s biographer, Philip Radcliffe tells that a friend asked her why she was retiring from music at that point, and she answered: “What else can I do when every day it made me think less of the Bible?”. Mendelssohn is famous for his wedding march, his short and intimate pieces for piano known as his “Songs without words”, his popular Violin Concerto in E minor (recorded by Anna Sophie Mutter for Deutsche Grammophon for his 200 year anniversary) and his “Scottish” and “Italian” symphonies. Protestants remember him however in particular for the music he wrote in commemoration of the 300 years of the Augsburg Confession. His “Reformation Symphony” ends with Luther’s hymn “A Mighty Fortress is our God”, based on the words of Psalm 46, which contains this glorious declaration from the Reformer: God's Word forever shall abide, no thanks to foes, who fear it; for God himself fight by our side with weapons of the Spirit. Were they to take our house, goods, honour, child, or spouse, though life be wrenched away, they cannot win the day. The kingdom's ours forever! On his tomb in the Berlin-Kreuzberg Holy Trinity Cemetery is marked out by a large white cross. At his funeral, six hundred voices sang: “Christ and the Resurrection”. Following various attacks, Felix left this world, six months after his sister Fanny – who suffered, like her parents and grandparents, of apoplexy–. In his last years, he suffered from ill health, from nervousness or too much work, but he kept his faith until the end. Although the Nazi’s saw him as just another Jew, whose statue in Leipzig they should remove and whose descendants they had to expel, they were not able to destroy the Word that gave him strength and joy in life. They closed down the family business, demolished his statue, but despite it all and “though life be wrenched away, they cannot win the day. The kingdom’s ours forever”.	<urn:uuid:52a2ee95-69ca-414c-82f3-908c9ba5cd63>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://evangelicalfocus.com/blogs/2166/Mendelssohn_Jewish_composer_of_the_Reformation_Symphony_	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00216.warc.gz	en	0.991488	1,749	3.5	4	[ 0.1274755299091339, 0.4834733009338379, -0.03652422875165939, -0.22457435727119446, -0.3866172432899475, -0.08230061084032059, -0.32641902565956116, 0.265099436044693, -0.04379924014210701, 0.1303516924381256, -0.05157281458377838, -0.20956945419311523, -0.08284944295883179, -0.02276733145...	1	We thank God and celebrate the growth of our readership in the last 12 months. Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847) converted to Christianity when he was young, going on to become one of the foremost Protestant composers. Now that Luther’s anti-Semitism is attracting so much attention, it seems all the more striking that the composer of the Reformation Symphony, should have been a Jew, Mendelssohn (1809–1847). He wrote it for the anniversary of the Conference of Augsburg in 1830. Even though he was born into a Jewish family, he converted to Christianity, and went on to become one of the foremost Protestant composers. He arranged Bach’s St Matthew’s Passion and his evangelical faith took him to compose an oratorio on Paul, using only biblical text, and on Elijah. A few years ago, a Czech writer called Jiri Weil wrote a novel entitled “Mendelssohn is on the Roof”. He tells the story that during the Nazi occupation of Prague, an SS official received an order to remove Mendelssohn’s statue from the roof of a concert hall. The problem was that the roof was full of statues of different composers, and he had no means of identifying them. The Nazi official remembered that in their “racial science” classes on Jews, they had been told that Jews had large noses. He therefore decided to remove the statue with the biggest nose, but it turned out to be the very Wagner who had said that, regardless of being a Lutheran, Mendelssohn continued being a Jew. On account of this, his music was banned by the Nazis. A CONVERTED JEW Mendelssohn’s Christianity was so sincere, that even Jewish academics recognise that his conversion was authentic. He was born in Hamburg in 1809 to Jewish parents, but he was baptized before they were. His grandfather, Moses, was an important rabbi and philosopher, who’s Judaism was strongly orthodox, even though his five children converted to Christianity. His father, Abraham, was a banker and businessman. Mendelssohn was confirmed in the Lutheran church at the age of 14, following the baptism of all the children in order to be better accepted into German society. His father wanted to change his name to Bartholdy, but Felix maintained his Jewish name Mendelssohn. According to the rabbi Stahl, although Felix was a convinced Christian, he was never ashamed of his Jewish origins. Like Mozart, Mendelssohn was a prodigy child. His first public performance on the piano came at the age of nine, and he started composing music the following year. Educated by his mother in an exquisite and refined culture, he mastered Latin and Greek, as well as being able to paint and draw with accomplishment. He was a good sportsman, but he particularly excelled in music. He played the piano and the organ with great mastery, but he was also excellent on the violin and the viola. At the age of sixteen he wrote his enchanting overture for Shakespeare’s “Midsummer night’s dream”. Some people think that he never surpassed his genius in that romantic piece. His family moved to Berlin in 1912, where Felix studied with Carl Zelter, who had links to the Bach family and who introduced him to an elderly Goethe. From a young age, Felix was very close to his sister Fanny, a renowned pianist and composer, who published several of her own compositions under Felix’ name. He was a contemporary of Hegel at the University of Berlin, studying aesthetics, geography and history. His memory was so impressive that the story goes that once, when he arrived to play his overture to “A Midsummer Night’s Dream” in England, he realised that he had left the music in a car, so sat down and rewrote the whole piece from memory then and there. At the age of twelve he was already studying Bach’s St Matthew Passion in the Royal Library of Berlin, where a manuscript was kept. His mother gave him a copy for his birthday, made especially for him, since it had not yet been published. Eight years later he presented it in Berlin, in one of the greatest events in the history of music. He conducted the music again for Bach’s birthday on 21 March 1829, having by then become a famous conductor at the age of twenty. THE JOY OF LIVING Sigmund Spaeth once observed that it was a relief to find a musician who was really happy for most of his life, even though Mendelssohn’s was so short. Most of great composers seem to have had difficult characters. But this does not seem to have been the case for Mendelssohn. According to most witnesses, he was a modest man with a joyful nature – as his name would suggest –, albeit somewhat nervous. He married the daughter of a French Protestant pastor, Cecile Jeanrenaud, with whom he had five children. While he was extroverted, she was rather reserved, but they got on well. She painted, while he composed his music. He was however so passionate that he sometimes became excited to the point of suffering collapses, like the one that caused his death at the age of 38, shortly after which his wife also died. They were only married for ten years. Many people have wondered where Mendelssohn got that energy that filled him with that strange joy of living. For him, “the Bible was the best thing”. That is what he said when he composed his oratorio on Paul, based on the biblical text and Bach’s chorales. He loved the Scriptures so much that his words resound with a strength – there and in his piece on Elijah –, that many compare it with an act of public worship. His music is a true celebration of faith. His favourite singer was the Swedish soprano Jenny Lind, whom he met in 1844. He wrote some of his work for her, but she retired when she was at the top of her career. Mendelssohn’s biographer, Philip Radcliffe tells that a friend asked her why she was retiring from music at that point, and she answered: “What else can I do when every day it made me think less of the Bible?”. Mendelssohn is famous for his wedding march, his short and intimate pieces for piano known as his “Songs without words”, his popular Violin Concerto in E minor (recorded by Anna Sophie Mutter for Deutsche Grammophon for his 200 year anniversary) and his “Scottish” and “Italian” symphonies. Protestants remember him however in particular for the music he wrote in commemoration of the 300 years of the Augsburg Confession. His “Reformation Symphony” ends with Luther’s hymn “A Mighty Fortress is our God”, based on the words of Psalm 46, which contains this glorious declaration from the Reformer: God's Word forever shall abide, no thanks to foes, who fear it; for God himself fight by our side with weapons of the Spirit. Were they to take our house, goods, honour, child, or spouse, though life be wrenched away, they cannot win the day. The kingdom's ours forever! On his tomb in the Berlin-Kreuzberg Holy Trinity Cemetery is marked out by a large white cross. At his funeral, six hundred voices sang: “Christ and the Resurrection”. Following various attacks, Felix left this world, six months after his sister Fanny – who suffered, like her parents and grandparents, of apoplexy–. In his last years, he suffered from ill health, from nervousness or too much work, but he kept his faith until the end. Although the Nazi’s saw him as just another Jew, whose statue in Leipzig they should remove and whose descendants they had to expel, they were not able to destroy the Word that gave him strength and joy in life. They closed down the family business, demolished his statue, but despite it all and “though life be wrenched away, they cannot win the day. The kingdom’s ours forever”.	1,686	ENGLISH	1
A series of sketches and hand prints made by Leonardo Da Vinci, and hidden underneath one of his most famous paintings for more than 500 years, have been revealed for the first time. Scientific analysis of 'The Virgin of the Rocks,' on display at London's National Gallery, has shown the original composition Leonardo started and then abandoned, before he painted the final product that has been admired for centuries. Initial designs for the angel and Baby Jesus in the painting have been uncovered by the process, as well as hand prints where the artist or an assistant patted down paint on the canvas, London's National Gallery said. The angle of the infant Christ's head was changed so that he was seen in profile, while some parts of the angel's curly hair were been removed. "In the abandoned composition both figures are positioned higher up, while the angel, facing out, is looking down on the Infant Christ with what appears to be a much tighter embrace," the gallery explained in a press release. "These new images were found because the drawings were made in a material that contained some zinc, so it could be seen in the macro x-ray fluorescence (MA-XRF) maps showing where this chemical element was present, and also through new infrared and hyperspectral imaging," it explained. The revelations were made as the National Gallery announced a new exhibition on the artist, titled "Leonardo: Experience a Masterpiece," which will run from November. The 500-year anniversary of Leonardo's death was commemorated earlier this year, and the artist, scientist and inventor remains one of the most enduring figures in Western history. The UDS$450 million (AUD$666 million) question: Where is Leonardo da Vinci's 'Salvator Mundi'? His surviving body of work as a painter is slim: Fewer than 20 artworks are universally attributed to him, although two of them - the "Mona Lisa" and "The Last Supper" - are easily among the most famous in the world. Leonardo painted two versions of "The Virgin of the Rocks," which look similar overall but have crucial differences in the composition. The earlier, dating to around 1483, is on display at the Louvre in Paris. The National Gallery version was completed sometime between 1495 and 1508.	<urn:uuid:38ba46c5-406c-4063-926d-a0fbada5e04c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.9news.com.au/world/leonardo-da-vinci-secrets-hidden-sketches-under-masterpiece-revealed-uk-news/eb3e7490-eb92-4dd3-8bfa-594374c366e1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00180.warc.gz	en	0.980005	474	3.28125	3	[ 0.08160987496376038, 0.22494781017303467, 0.32852911949157715, 0.006907176226377487, -0.14643777906894684, 0.6921638250350952, -0.1965838521718979, 0.11379613727331161, 0.4122134745121002, -0.025664005428552628, 0.10281932353973389, -0.015034785494208336, -0.011348148807883263, 0.320401489...	3	A series of sketches and hand prints made by Leonardo Da Vinci, and hidden underneath one of his most famous paintings for more than 500 years, have been revealed for the first time. Scientific analysis of 'The Virgin of the Rocks,' on display at London's National Gallery, has shown the original composition Leonardo started and then abandoned, before he painted the final product that has been admired for centuries. Initial designs for the angel and Baby Jesus in the painting have been uncovered by the process, as well as hand prints where the artist or an assistant patted down paint on the canvas, London's National Gallery said. The angle of the infant Christ's head was changed so that he was seen in profile, while some parts of the angel's curly hair were been removed. "In the abandoned composition both figures are positioned higher up, while the angel, facing out, is looking down on the Infant Christ with what appears to be a much tighter embrace," the gallery explained in a press release. "These new images were found because the drawings were made in a material that contained some zinc, so it could be seen in the macro x-ray fluorescence (MA-XRF) maps showing where this chemical element was present, and also through new infrared and hyperspectral imaging," it explained. The revelations were made as the National Gallery announced a new exhibition on the artist, titled "Leonardo: Experience a Masterpiece," which will run from November. The 500-year anniversary of Leonardo's death was commemorated earlier this year, and the artist, scientist and inventor remains one of the most enduring figures in Western history. The UDS$450 million (AUD$666 million) question: Where is Leonardo da Vinci's 'Salvator Mundi'? His surviving body of work as a painter is slim: Fewer than 20 artworks are universally attributed to him, although two of them - the "Mona Lisa" and "The Last Supper" - are easily among the most famous in the world. Leonardo painted two versions of "The Virgin of the Rocks," which look similar overall but have crucial differences in the composition. The earlier, dating to around 1483, is on display at the Louvre in Paris. The National Gallery version was completed sometime between 1495 and 1508.	475	ENGLISH	1
Presidential Reconstruction started once Abraham Lincoln was assassinated and Andrew Jackson became president. He favored the white Southerners rather than the African Americans. He pardoned the white Southerners, let them back into political office, and allowed them to pass Black Codes. He also believed that African Americans shouldn't vote, have the same rights as the whites, or even live on their own. White League & KKK Black Codes were created during the ear of Presidential Reconstruction. These codes didn't allow Blacks to do many things. These things were not being able to congregate after sunset, they had curfews, and they couldn't even preach without a special permission from the president of the police jury. If the African Americans went against the Black Codes, they would be punished. Come get your rations. Radical Reconstruction started and this brought a lot of changes. The Northerners behind Radical Reconstruction wanted the former Southern Confederates who started the Civil War to be punished. The 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendment was created and these amendments gave African Americans the right to vote and citizenship. The Reconstruction Act of 1867 didn't allow former Confederates to vote and sent in the military to make sure African Americans were treated as equals. Compromise of 1877 Time to head out boys. The White League and KKK were both for white supremacy. They wanted to bring down African Americans. They used violence to keep African Americans from voting. The White League even tried to overthrow the Louisiana Government with violence. These group wanted to put fear into the African Americans and Republicans. The Freedmen's Bureau helped African Americans get off their feet. They gave African Americans supplies like food and water, clothes. They supplied them with rations. The South didn't like the Freedmen's Bureau because it helped the African Americans. They also didn't like the "carpetbaggers" because some of them worked with the North and went to to the South. The Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction. President Hayes took the military out of the South. The North was no longer in the business of the South. This caused the Southerners to take away the voting rights of the African Americans and separate them.	<urn:uuid:af119b22-6c18-45a6-93fa-afdffb55ed35>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/273cb3c9/reconstruction	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00381.warc.gz	en	0.982863	454	4.125	4	[ -0.4600168466567993, 0.2753413915634155, -0.10017867386341095, 0.003999866545200348, 0.01563827507197857, 0.20949767529964447, 0.006451081018894911, -0.21267032623291016, -0.2891710102558136, 0.3980167508125305, 0.35781657695770264, 0.22481657564640045, -0.047335147857666016, 0.21748192608...	1	Presidential Reconstruction started once Abraham Lincoln was assassinated and Andrew Jackson became president. He favored the white Southerners rather than the African Americans. He pardoned the white Southerners, let them back into political office, and allowed them to pass Black Codes. He also believed that African Americans shouldn't vote, have the same rights as the whites, or even live on their own. White League & KKK Black Codes were created during the ear of Presidential Reconstruction. These codes didn't allow Blacks to do many things. These things were not being able to congregate after sunset, they had curfews, and they couldn't even preach without a special permission from the president of the police jury. If the African Americans went against the Black Codes, they would be punished. Come get your rations. Radical Reconstruction started and this brought a lot of changes. The Northerners behind Radical Reconstruction wanted the former Southern Confederates who started the Civil War to be punished. The 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendment was created and these amendments gave African Americans the right to vote and citizenship. The Reconstruction Act of 1867 didn't allow former Confederates to vote and sent in the military to make sure African Americans were treated as equals. Compromise of 1877 Time to head out boys. The White League and KKK were both for white supremacy. They wanted to bring down African Americans. They used violence to keep African Americans from voting. The White League even tried to overthrow the Louisiana Government with violence. These group wanted to put fear into the African Americans and Republicans. The Freedmen's Bureau helped African Americans get off their feet. They gave African Americans supplies like food and water, clothes. They supplied them with rations. The South didn't like the Freedmen's Bureau because it helped the African Americans. They also didn't like the "carpetbaggers" because some of them worked with the North and went to to the South. The Compromise of 1877 ended Reconstruction. President Hayes took the military out of the South. The North was no longer in the business of the South. This caused the Southerners to take away the voting rights of the African Americans and separate them.	462	ENGLISH	1
\|Born\|\|January 11, 1843\| \|Died\|\|February 11, 1930 87)(aged\| \|Place of burial\| Grandview Cemetery Chillicothe \|Service/\|\|United States Army\| \|Years of service\|\|1861–1865\| \|Unit\|\|73rd Ohio Infantry\| \|Battles/wars\|\| American Civil War \| *Battle of Gettysburg \|Awards\|\|Medal of Honor\| Richard Enderlin (January 11, 1843 – February 11, 1930) was a musician and United States Army soldier who received a Medal of Honor for the heroism he displayed when fighting in the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863. The United States Army (USA) is the land warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces. It is one of the seven uniformed services of the United States, and is designated as the Army of the United States in the United States Constitution. As the oldest and most senior branch of the U.S. military in order of precedence, the modern U.S. Army has its roots in the Continental Army, which was formed to fight the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783)—before the United States of America was established as a country. After the Revolutionary War, the Congress of the Confederation created the United States Army on 3 June 1784 to replace the disbanded Continental Army. The United States Army considers itself descended from the Continental Army, and dates its institutional inception from the origin of that armed force in 1775. The Medal of Honor is the United States of America's highest and most prestigious personal military decoration that may be awarded to recognize U.S. military service members who have distinguished themselves by acts of valor. The medal is normally awarded by the President of the United States in the name of the U.S. Congress. Because the medal is presented "in the name of Congress", it is often referred to informally as the "Congressional Medal of Honor". However, the official name of the current award is "Medal of Honor". Within the United States Code the medal is referred to as the "Medal of Honor", and less frequently as "Congressional Medal of Honor". U.S. awards, including the Medal of Honor, do not have post-nominal titles, and while there is no official abbreviation, the most common abbreviations are "MOH" and "MH". The Battle of Gettysburg was fought July 1–3, 1863, in and around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, by Union and Confederate forces during the American Civil War. The battle involved the largest number of casualties of the entire war and is often described as the war's turning point. Union Maj. Gen. George Meade's Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, halting Lee's invasion of the North. Enderlin was born in Germany and grew up in Chillicothe, Ohio. He enlisted in the Army in November 1861. Enderlin thought his unit was not directly engaged, so the bugler voluntarily joined the defense of Cemetery Ridge. On July 2, during combat, George Nixon III (the great-grandfather of American President Richard Nixon) was mortally wounded and was carried out of harm's way by Enderlin. For this action, he was promoted to sergeant the next day, and received the Medal of Honor on September 11, 1897. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central and Western Europe, lying between the Baltic and North Seas to the north and the Alps, Lake Constance and the High Rhine to the south. It borders Denmark to the north, Poland and the Czech Republic to the east, Austria and Switzerland to the south, France to the southwest, and Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands to the west. Chillicothe is a city in and the county seat of Ross County, Ohio, United States. Located along the Scioto River 45 miles south of Columbus, Chillicothe was the first and third capital of Ohio. Cemetery Ridge is a geographic feature in Gettysburg National Military Park, south of the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, that figured prominently in the Battle of Gettysburg, July 1 to July 3, 1863. It formed a primary defensive position for the Union Army during the battle, roughly the center of what is popularly known as the "fish-hook" line. The Confederate army launched attacks on the Union positions on the second and third days of the battle, but were driven back both times. Enderlin was later wounded in his right foot at the Battle of Dallas, and served in the Veteran Reserve Corps until his discharge in May 1865. The Battle of Dallas was a series of engagements during the Atlanta Campaign of the American Civil War. They occurred between May 26 and June 4, 1864, in and around Dallas, Georgia, between Lt. General William J. Hardee's Confederate corps and the Union defense line, held by the XV Corps under Maj. General John A. Logan of the Army of the Tennessee. The Battle of New Hope Church and the Battle of Pickett's Mill are often subgrouped as part of the overall engagement at Dallas. The Veteran Reserve Corps was a military reserve organization created within the Union Army during the American Civil War to allow partially disabled or otherwise infirm soldiers to perform light duty, freeing able-bodied soldiers to serve on the front lines. It existed from 1863 to 1869. Enderlin is buried at Grandview Cemetery, Chillicothe, Ross County, Ohio, US. Ross County is a county in the Appalachian region of the U.S. state of Ohio. As of the 2010 United States Census, the population was 78,064. Its county seat is Chillicothe, the first and third capital of Ohio. Established on August 20, 1798, the county is named for Federalist Senator James Ross of Pennsylvania. Rank and organization: Musician, Company B, 73d Ohio Infantry. Place and date: At Gettysburg, Pa., 1-July 3, 1863. Entered service at: Chillicothe, Ohio. Birth: Germany. Date of issue: September 11, 1897. Voluntarily took a rifle and served as a soldier in the ranks during the first and second days of the battle. Voluntarily and at his own imminent peril went into the enemy's lines at night and, under a sharp fire, rescued a wounded comrade. John Cleveland Robinson had a long and distinguished career in the United States Army, fighting in numerous wars and culminating his career as a Union Army brigadier general of volunteers and brevet major general of volunteers in the American Civil War. In 1866, President Andrew Johnson nominated and the U.S. Senate confirmed Robinson's appointment to the brevet grade of major general in the regular army. He was a recipient of the Medal of Honor for valor in action in 1864 near Spotsylvania Courthouse, Virginia, where he lost a leg. When he retired from the U.S. Army on May 6, 1869, he was placed on the retired list as a full rank major general, USA. After his army service, he was Lieutenant Governor of New York from 1873 to 1874 and served two terms as the president of the Grand Army of the Republic. Theophilus Francis Rodenbough was born in Easton, Pennsylvania and was a Union Army officer during the American Civil War. He received America's highest military decoration the Medal of Honor for his actions at the Battle of Trevilian Station. After his retirement from the U.S. Army in 1870, he wrote several books about military history. Orland Smith was a railroad executive and a brigade commander in the Union Army during the American Civil War. In 1864, he led a spirited bayonet charge during the Battle of Wauhatchie that took a significant Confederate position on a hill that now bears his name. Richard Conner was an American Civil War Union Army soldier who received the Medal of Honor for his bravery in action. Peter Kappesser was a soldier in the United States Army who received the Medal of Honor for his actions during the American Civil War. Alonzo Hereford Cushing was an artillery officer in the Union Army during the American Civil War. He was killed in action during Battle of Gettysburg while defending the Union position on Cemetery Ridge against Pickett's Charge. In 2013, 150 years after Cushing's death, he was nominated for the Medal of Honor. The nomination was approved by the United States Congress, and was sent for review by the Defense Department and the President. Francis Asbury Wallar was a corporal in the 6th Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment of the Union Army who received the Medal of Honor. On July 1, 1863, while participating in the Battle of Gettysburg, he engaged a Confederate soldier in single combat, capturing him and seizing his battle flag. Edmund Rice was a soldier in the United States Army and a Medal of Honor recipient who achieved the rank of Brigadier General. Nathan Huntley Edgerton was a Union Army officer who received the Medal of Honor for gallantry in the American Civil War. Henry Shippen Huidekoper was a Union Army lieutenant colonel from Pennsylvania who received the United States military's highest decorations for bravery, the Medal of Honor, for his actions at the Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War. Francis Jefferson Coates was a soldier in the Union Army during the American Civil War and one of 64 men who received the Medal of Honor for actions during the Battle of Gettysburg. John Thomas Patterson served in the Union Army during the American Civil War. He received the Medal of Honor for his actions during the Second Battle of Winchester. Frederick Fuger was an enlisted man and officer in the U.S. Army. He received the Medal of Honor for gallantry during the Battle of Gettysburg while defending the Union position on Cemetery Ridge against Pickett's Charge on July 3, 1863. The 66th Ohio Volunteer Infantry was an infantry regiment in the Union Army during the American Civil War. The 73rd Ohio Volunteer Infantry was an infantry regiment in the Union Army during the American Civil War. Charles E. Capehart (1833–1911) was an officer in the U.S. Cavalry during the American Civil War. He received the Medal of Honor for action following the Battle of Gettysburg on July 4, 1863. Elbridge Robinson was a Union Army soldier during the American Civil War. He received the Medal of Honor for gallantry during the Second Battle of Winchester, Virginia on June 14, 1863. James Richmond was a Union Army soldier in the American Civil War and a recipient of the U.S. military's highest decoration, the Medal of Honor, for his actions at the Battle of Gettysburg. Private Henry Casey was an American soldier who fought in the American Civil War. Casey received the country's highest award for bravery during combat, the Medal of Honor, for his action during the Battle of Vicksburg in Mississippi on 22 April 1863. He was honored with the award on 23 September 1897. Edward M. Knox was a Union Army soldier in the American Civil War who received the U.S. military's highest decoration, the Medal of Honor. \|This article about a person of the American Civil War is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\|	<urn:uuid:6e11da0b-ce42-4d82-a043-715a3f74545b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wikimili.com/en/Richard_Enderlin	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00292.warc.gz	en	0.980946	2,353	3.5	4	[ -0.41486579179763794, 0.6145201921463013, 0.5186878442764282, -0.15319004654884338, -0.23101507127285004, 0.15733729302883148, 0.4913138747215271, 0.016143865883350372, -0.2532428801059723, -0.048277176916599274, 0.2520652413368225, 0.03867045044898987, 0.2004847526550293, 0.30739441514015...	1	\|Born\|\|January 11, 1843\| \|Died\|\|February 11, 1930 87)(aged\| \|Place of burial\| Grandview Cemetery Chillicothe \|Service/\|\|United States Army\| \|Years of service\|\|1861–1865\| \|Unit\|\|73rd Ohio Infantry\| \|Battles/wars\|\| American Civil War \| *Battle of Gettysburg \|Awards\|\|Medal of Honor\| Richard Enderlin (January 11, 1843 – February 11, 1930) was a musician and United States Army soldier who received a Medal of Honor for the heroism he displayed when fighting in the Battle of Gettysburg in 1863. The United States Army (USA) is the land warfare service branch of the United States Armed Forces. It is one of the seven uniformed services of the United States, and is designated as the Army of the United States in the United States Constitution. As the oldest and most senior branch of the U.S. military in order of precedence, the modern U.S. Army has its roots in the Continental Army, which was formed to fight the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783)—before the United States of America was established as a country. After the Revolutionary War, the Congress of the Confederation created the United States Army on 3 June 1784 to replace the disbanded Continental Army. The United States Army considers itself descended from the Continental Army, and dates its institutional inception from the origin of that armed force in 1775. The Medal of Honor is the United States of America's highest and most prestigious personal military decoration that may be awarded to recognize U.S. military service members who have distinguished themselves by acts of valor. The medal is normally awarded by the President of the United States in the name of the U.S. Congress. Because the medal is presented "in the name of Congress", it is often referred to informally as the "Congressional Medal of Honor". However, the official name of the current award is "Medal of Honor". Within the United States Code the medal is referred to as the "Medal of Honor", and less frequently as "Congressional Medal of Honor". U.S. awards, including the Medal of Honor, do not have post-nominal titles, and while there is no official abbreviation, the most common abbreviations are "MOH" and "MH". The Battle of Gettysburg was fought July 1–3, 1863, in and around the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, by Union and Confederate forces during the American Civil War. The battle involved the largest number of casualties of the entire war and is often described as the war's turning point. Union Maj. Gen. George Meade's Army of the Potomac defeated attacks by Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, halting Lee's invasion of the North. Enderlin was born in Germany and grew up in Chillicothe, Ohio. He enlisted in the Army in November 1861. Enderlin thought his unit was not directly engaged, so the bugler voluntarily joined the defense of Cemetery Ridge. On July 2, during combat, George Nixon III (the great-grandfather of American President Richard Nixon) was mortally wounded and was carried out of harm's way by Enderlin. For this action, he was promoted to sergeant the next day, and received the Medal of Honor on September 11, 1897. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central and Western Europe, lying between the Baltic and North Seas to the north and the Alps, Lake Constance and the High Rhine to the south. It borders Denmark to the north, Poland and the Czech Republic to the east, Austria and Switzerland to the south, France to the southwest, and Luxembourg, Belgium and the Netherlands to the west. Chillicothe is a city in and the county seat of Ross County, Ohio, United States. Located along the Scioto River 45 miles south of Columbus, Chillicothe was the first and third capital of Ohio. Cemetery Ridge is a geographic feature in Gettysburg National Military Park, south of the town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, that figured prominently in the Battle of Gettysburg, July 1 to July 3, 1863. It formed a primary defensive position for the Union Army during the battle, roughly the center of what is popularly known as the "fish-hook" line. The Confederate army launched attacks on the Union positions on the second and third days of the battle, but were driven back both times. Enderlin was later wounded in his right foot at the Battle of Dallas, and served in the Veteran Reserve Corps until his discharge in May 1865. The Battle of Dallas was a series of engagements during the Atlanta Campaign of the American Civil War. They occurred between May 26 and June 4, 1864, in and around Dallas, Georgia, between Lt. General William J. Hardee's Confederate corps and the Union defense line, held by the XV Corps under Maj. General John A. Logan of the Army of the Tennessee. The Battle of New Hope Church and the Battle of Pickett's Mill are often subgrouped as part of the overall engagement at Dallas. The Veteran Reserve Corps was a military reserve organization created within the Union Army during the American Civil War to allow partially disabled or otherwise infirm soldiers to perform light duty, freeing able-bodied soldiers to serve on the front lines. It existed from 1863 to 1869. Enderlin is buried at Grandview Cemetery, Chillicothe, Ross County, Ohio, US. Ross County is a county in the Appalachian region of the U.S. state of Ohio. As of the 2010 United States Census, the population was 78,064. Its county seat is Chillicothe, the first and third capital of Ohio. Established on August 20, 1798, the county is named for Federalist Senator James Ross of Pennsylvania. Rank and organization: Musician, Company B, 73d Ohio Infantry. Place and date: At Gettysburg, Pa., 1-July 3, 1863. Entered service at: Chillicothe, Ohio. Birth: Germany. Date of issue: September 11, 1897. Voluntarily took a rifle and served as a soldier in the ranks during the first and second days of the battle. Voluntarily and at his own imminent peril went into the enemy's lines at night and, under a sharp fire, rescued a wounded comrade. John Cleveland Robinson had a long and distinguished career in the United States Army, fighting in numerous wars and culminating his career as a Union Army brigadier general of volunteers and brevet major general of volunteers in the American Civil War. In 1866, President Andrew Johnson nominated and the U.S. Senate confirmed Robinson's appointment to the brevet grade of major general in the regular army. He was a recipient of the Medal of Honor for valor in action in 1864 near Spotsylvania Courthouse, Virginia, where he lost a leg. When he retired from the U.S. Army on May 6, 1869, he was placed on the retired list as a full rank major general, USA. After his army service, he was Lieutenant Governor of New York from 1873 to 1874 and served two terms as the president of the Grand Army of the Republic. Theophilus Francis Rodenbough was born in Easton, Pennsylvania and was a Union Army officer during the American Civil War. He received America's highest military decoration the Medal of Honor for his actions at the Battle of Trevilian Station. After his retirement from the U.S. Army in 1870, he wrote several books about military history. Orland Smith was a railroad executive and a brigade commander in the Union Army during the American Civil War. In 1864, he led a spirited bayonet charge during the Battle of Wauhatchie that took a significant Confederate position on a hill that now bears his name. Richard Conner was an American Civil War Union Army soldier who received the Medal of Honor for his bravery in action. Peter Kappesser was a soldier in the United States Army who received the Medal of Honor for his actions during the American Civil War. Alonzo Hereford Cushing was an artillery officer in the Union Army during the American Civil War. He was killed in action during Battle of Gettysburg while defending the Union position on Cemetery Ridge against Pickett's Charge. In 2013, 150 years after Cushing's death, he was nominated for the Medal of Honor. The nomination was approved by the United States Congress, and was sent for review by the Defense Department and the President. Francis Asbury Wallar was a corporal in the 6th Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry Regiment of the Union Army who received the Medal of Honor. On July 1, 1863, while participating in the Battle of Gettysburg, he engaged a Confederate soldier in single combat, capturing him and seizing his battle flag. Edmund Rice was a soldier in the United States Army and a Medal of Honor recipient who achieved the rank of Brigadier General. Nathan Huntley Edgerton was a Union Army officer who received the Medal of Honor for gallantry in the American Civil War. Henry Shippen Huidekoper was a Union Army lieutenant colonel from Pennsylvania who received the United States military's highest decorations for bravery, the Medal of Honor, for his actions at the Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War. Francis Jefferson Coates was a soldier in the Union Army during the American Civil War and one of 64 men who received the Medal of Honor for actions during the Battle of Gettysburg. John Thomas Patterson served in the Union Army during the American Civil War. He received the Medal of Honor for his actions during the Second Battle of Winchester. Frederick Fuger was an enlisted man and officer in the U.S. Army. He received the Medal of Honor for gallantry during the Battle of Gettysburg while defending the Union position on Cemetery Ridge against Pickett's Charge on July 3, 1863. The 66th Ohio Volunteer Infantry was an infantry regiment in the Union Army during the American Civil War. The 73rd Ohio Volunteer Infantry was an infantry regiment in the Union Army during the American Civil War. Charles E. Capehart (1833–1911) was an officer in the U.S. Cavalry during the American Civil War. He received the Medal of Honor for action following the Battle of Gettysburg on July 4, 1863. Elbridge Robinson was a Union Army soldier during the American Civil War. He received the Medal of Honor for gallantry during the Second Battle of Winchester, Virginia on June 14, 1863. James Richmond was a Union Army soldier in the American Civil War and a recipient of the U.S. military's highest decoration, the Medal of Honor, for his actions at the Battle of Gettysburg. Private Henry Casey was an American soldier who fought in the American Civil War. Casey received the country's highest award for bravery during combat, the Medal of Honor, for his action during the Battle of Vicksburg in Mississippi on 22 April 1863. He was honored with the award on 23 September 1897. Edward M. Knox was a Union Army soldier in the American Civil War who received the U.S. military's highest decoration, the Medal of Honor. \|This article about a person of the American Civil War is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\|	2,518	ENGLISH	1
\|Cold Air Damming Explanation\| When a winter storm is approaching, I frequently mention the cold air wedge that forms east of the mountains in my forecast discussion. You may have wondered what that is, and that is why I decided to write this explanation. Cold air damming (or cadding for short), commonly referred to as the "wedge", often occurs in this area during winter storms, and occasionally during all-rain events as well. Cadding occurs when a cold-core (meaning it originated in Canada or the Arctic region and is cold at the center) high-pressure system is located to our north, typically in or near New England. Air flow around a high-pressure system is clockwise, which means that it will send cold air southward, into Virginia and the Carolinas, as the diagram to the right shows.\| You can also see that the low-pressure system that is moving up from the south sends a surge of warm air northward to the west of the mountains. The typical result is a mixture of wintry weather to the east of the mountains where cadding holds temperatures below freezing, but temperatures are much warmer to the west of the mountains. The map below shows a classic cadding situation, with surface temperatures from 7 PM on January 26, 2004 (or 00 zulu/GMT time January 27). Notice that cadding during this winter storm was particularly strong, with the freezing line (the top of the dark green area) going all the way down into northeastern Georgia. Sometimes cadding only stretches as far as northern South Carolina, it just depends on the strength of the high-pressure system in New England. Temperatures in this area were in the lower to mid 20s. However, just to the west of the mountains, it is much warmer, with temperatures in the lower to mid 50s in central Kentucky. The freezing line to the west of the mountains reached all the way into central Ohio and northwestern West Virginia. Cadding is part of what makes most winter storms so difficult to forecast in this area, because computer models have a difficult time dealing with it, and they tend to underestimate the cadding (in other words, their forecasts are usually too warm.) However, cadding has much less impact on temperatures in the upper atmosphere, where temperatures often rise above freezing during winter storms. Since upper air temperatures usually determine precipitation type, that is why we usually get a wintry mix instead of just snow. Even though cadding keeps surface temperatures well below freezing, the temperatures in the upper atmosphere warm up into the mid or upper 30s, and that situation would cause sleet and/or freezing rain to fall. During the time frame depicted in the map above, although temperatures were in the mid 20s, we were getting freezing rain, because upper atmosphere temperatures were much warmer. \|How Different Precipitation Types Form\|\|Weather Term of the Day\| \|For about a 3-month period in the fall of 2007, I included a weather term along with its definition on my website each day. If you missed some of these or would just like to review them again, you can click here (right-click, save target as) to see the list of terms and definitions that I used. Or, click here for the complete glossary from the NWS.\| \|Computer Models Explanation\| \|The term "computer model" is used often in the Forecast Discussion. A computer model is a sophisticated computer that receives all the current data and outputs a forecast. The forecasts go out to 2 to 16 days and are updated 1 to 4 times daily depending on the model.\| \|The Truth About Global Warming / Climate Change\| (Article written by Kevin Joyce in the summer of 2007.)\| "Global Warming." Such a simple phrase, yet one that is surrounded by an incredible amount of controversy. My purpose in writing this is to inform the general public about the issue, and to help separate facts from fiction. There is a significant amount of misinformation out there, primarily due to the fact that some people are trying to use the issue to gain some kind of a political advantage. While I do have a strong opinion on the issue, I will make a point to clearly distinguish between the facts and my opinions. You can either read the entire article, or jump to a section of interest: • We've only been collecting reliable data for about a half-century at most • Quality control issues with the data that we do have • Recent corrections to NASA global temperature data point to the warmest decade on record being the 1930s • Changes in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere likely cause changes in temperature, not the other way around • We know that hurricane activity goes in cycles of about 30 years • Dr. William Gray's comments on global warming • The unnecessary involvement of politics in the debate • Lynchburg's data dates back to the 1890s, and they rarely set record highs; over 130 of their record highs were set in the 1930s • 24 all-time state record highs across the country were set in or around the 1930s, while just two have been set in the last 10 years Fact: Unfortunately, and contrary to what you may have heard, the only fact about the entire global warming issue is that we have no idea what the cause is, or even if we're warming much at all. People have strong opinions on both sides of the issue, but despite what anyone may try to tell you, that is the only fact. We simply don't know. I'll start with the latter point. "Of course the earth is warming; even if we're not causing it, all the data says we're warmer than we've ever been!" You've probably heard that argument, but is it correct? Actually, it's far from it. First of all, we only have reasonably accurate temperature data across the world going back a few decades--50 years at most. When we're dealing with something this complex, 50 years of data is practically nothing, and certainly isn't anywhere near enough to even begin making a conclusion one way or the other. Secondly, even with the data that we have, there are significant quality control issues. Some observation sites are moved around a lot over time, especially in certain parts of the world such as in China. Any time a site is moved, its data is basically rendered useless, because every location has its own localized climate. Aside from that problem, some stations that have remained in the same location in a big city for a long time are now becoming subject to the "urban heat island" effect. Apart from the issue of global warming, there has been definite warming in urban areas over the last few decades. Researchers have attempted to introduce corrections to that data to account for the heat island effect, but there is really no way of knowing if those corrections are accurate or not. In addition, I recently became aware of the alarming fact that there are significantly fewer observation sites around the world than there have been in the recent past, and many of those that have disappeared have been in cooler areas. Russia, in particular, has lost many, many stations since the breakup of the USSR, and obviously that is one of the colder parts of the world. Losing that much data from a large, cold part of the world is sure to cause a bit of an increase in global temperature averages, even if there has been no change at all. Finally, a significant discovery was revealed in early August of 2007. Unfortunately, it was largely ignored by the media of this country, although it was published in an Australian newspaper. So, what is this discovery? Apparently, NASA had some kind of a Y2K computer bug that caused a glitch in their global temperature data. Essentially, the glitch caused data from the last decade or two to appear warmer than it actually was. The scientists who researched this issue claimed to have a lot of difficulty in even getting access to some of this data, but once they were finally able to, they found the problem and corrected it. (If you would like to read more about this: 1998 no longer the hottest year on record in USA or Cold, hard facts take the heat out of some hot claims) With this discovery, 1934 has now moved into the top slot as the warmest year on record, and the infamous warm year of 1998 drops back to second place. In fact, 4 of the top 10 years are now in the 1930s, making it the warmest decade on record. Along with one in the 1920s and another in the 1950s, that gives us a total of 6 years prior to 1960 among the top-10 warmest on record. Just 3 of the top 10 years occurred in the 1990s, and 2006 is the other. My reason for explaining all of that is to show you an example of how many problems we have with global temperature data, and how it's not particularly useful in trying to prove anything because it simply can't be trusted. If a simple computer glitch causes us to think that a certain year was the warmest on record and that turns out not to be the case, how can we rely on any of this data? It is for these reasons, among many others, that we truly have no possible way of knowing whether or not global warming is even occurring, and we won't for a long time to come. Opinion: The facts show that we can't prove whether the planet is warming, cooling, or staying about the same. But, my opinion on the issue goes far beyond that. While we are clearly in somewhat of a warm period, that's all it is--a period. Humans are having little to no impact on the environment, and it's all a natural cycle. In fact, I believe it is likely that we will enter a cooler period within the next 10 to 15 years. Unfortunately, given the data problems I discussed earlier, we don't really have any way of knowing if humans are impacting the environment or not. But I strongly feel like we are not. First of all, the atmosphere is large and incredibly complex. Based on that simple fact, I already have doubts that anything we could do on the ground could have anything more than a minor impact on the atmosphere. Going one step further, I have seen data on multiple occasions that indicates the opposite of what most people believe. (Note that this is in the "opinion" section because I have no way of verifying whether or not it is accurate, although it does have a reasonable amount of evidence to support it.) This data states that, contrary to popular belief, changes in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are a result of temperature changes, not the cause of temperature changes. Basically, the data shows that temperatures increase, THEN carbon dioxide (CO2) levels increase. If CO2 levels only increase after temperatures already have, how can an increase in CO2 cause an increase in temperature? It can't. If this data were to be proven true, it would basically put an end to all the talk of human-induced global warming. Unfortunately, like so many other things I have discussed, it's unlikely that it can be proven beyond any doubt, and so the debate continues. We know for a fact that hurricane activity in the Atlantic Ocean has a cycle of about 30 years. We saw increased activity in the 1930s, 40s, and 50s, then decreased activity in the 60s, 70s, and 80s. Yes, Hurricane Camille did hit in 1969, but overall, those three decades were quieter. Another more active period began in the early 1990s, and it is expected to continue until about 2015 or 2020. The fact that we saw 27 named storms in 2005, near the middle of a cycle of increased activity, was not really a shock. No one expected to see quite that many storms, but still, it wasn't a huge surprise to most people. (Despite the fact that 2005 will officially go on record as being the most active season since records began in 1888, that is likely not the case. 1933 held the old record, and we had 21 named storms in that year. But, keep in mind that satellites had not yet been invented in 1933, and it is extremely likely that several storms developed out in the middle of the Atlantic that no one ever knew about. If we had today's technology back then, 1933 likely would have featured more than 27 named storms.) Given that fact, isn't it reasonable to assume that the overall climate may have a similar cycle? After all, we know the 1920s and 1930s were as warm if not warmer than today, and don't forget that the 1930s was referred to as the "dust bowl". It was hot and dry, and there was a lot of hurricane activity. Sounds a lot like today, doesn't it? Temperatures cooled back down after that, and the period from the 1960s to the 1980s was fairly cool across the country and probably across the world as well. We started to warm back up after that, but who's to say that we won't start cooling back down in the next 10 to 15 years? A number of top meteorologists agree with that prediction. Dr. William Gray has made some strong comments against global warming in recent months. He is a well-known hurricane forecaster at the Colorado State University, and is quite possibly the most knowledgeable person in that field. He made seasonal hurricane predictions for about 30 years before turning that job over to his mentee. He strongly believes that global warming is NOT a reality, and has had some strong words for the people he calls "global warming alarmists". Dr. Gray has been quoted as saying "I have a bit of an obligation, at my age -- I was trained to tell the truth. There's a lot of hogwash in this." (Interview with Dr. William Gray) Why anyone would listen to Al Gore and not listen to the top hurricane expert in the country about the issue of climate change is something I'll never understand, but that certainly seems to be happening to some extent. Speaking of Gore, politicians are a big reason why this debate has really gotten out of hand. I won't name names (aside from him) and I won't name parties, but there are some very alarming things going on. Dr. Gray has clearly stated that he had a lot of difficulty even getting grants to help him with his research, because of his view on the issue. There are also some people who will quickly state that "global warming is real and humans are causing it; all scientists agree and the debate is over." It is VERY concerning to me whenever one side of a debate tries to censor the other side (such as Heidi Cullum of The Weather Channel, who believes that any television meteorologist who doesn't believe in global warming should be stripped of their American Meteorological Society seal), or even pretend that it doesn't exist at all. That instantly tells me that the side attempting to do the censoring doesn't think their side of the debate is foolproof, but they want to convince people that it is. But that's not how to have a healthy debate. Because of what other people have chosen to do, I felt like I needed to briefly touch on the political side of the debate, although it really shouldn't be a political issue at all. Finally, I want to touch on the significance of some record temperatures. During the summer of 2007, especially, we saw frequent record highs and record high minimums (the warmest morning low on record) across the region. Our National Weather Service office (Blacksburg) maintains official climate data for five locations. Four of those (Danville, Roanoke, Blacksburg, and Bluefield WV) averaged around 15 records during the month of August alone, for a combined total of 60 records. However, the other station in Lynchburg only set 2 records during the month. The National Weather Service attributed some of that to the fact that Lynchburg was farther away from the center of the hot air mass. While it's true that could have some impact, I don't think it was enough to make much of a difference. So, why did Lynchburg only set 2 records while the other locations set around 15? It's simple. The other four stations have data going back about a half-century, while Lynchburg's data goes back 115 years, all the way back into the 1890s. The much longer period of record, combined with my hypothesis that it was actually quite a bit warmer in the 1930s than it is today, are the main reasons why Lynchburg rarely sets new temperature records. Over 130 (more than one-third) of Lynchburg's daily record highs were set between 1930 and 1941, while only a handful have been set in the last five years. (I was unable to find an exact count, but it's probably between 5 and 10.) This data overwhemingly supports the idea that it was much warmer in the 1930s. We do have to keep in mind that we're only talking about one location, but I feel like it is fairly representative of the overall pattern. Since I originally wrote this, the month of September brought forth a continuation of heat. Danville had 14 days with highs at or above 90, close to the record for September of 17 such days. Lynchburg had half as many 90+ days with 7, but that was far short of their record of 15, which was set back in September 1933. If Danville's records extended back that far, their record would have likely been quite a bit higher than 17 days. As hot as this September was overall, I have a feeling it was much, much hotter back in 1933 (which was also likely the most active hurricane season on record, as I discussed a little earlier). The other aspect related to record temperatures concerns state records. Each state has its all-time record high temperature on record. Virginia's record high is 110, set in 1954 at Balcony Falls. Now, when you look at the list of record highs as a whole, things get really interesting. 24 (roughly half) of the 50 state record highs were set between 1930 and 1937. In fact, three record highs have held since 1900 or before. Contrary to that, just 8 state record highs have been set in the last 30 years, and just 2 have been tied since the turn of the century (South Dakota tied its record in 2006, and Arizona did the same in 2007). Since both of those temperatures just tied the old records, there really hasn't been a new statewide record high temperature set since 1995. If global warming was such a serious problem, don't you think we would have set more state record highs by now? We haven't set any state record lows since the turn of the century, although we did set 6 new records in the mid to late 1990s. Four of those were set in early February 1996, which also marks the time frame of the lowest temperature I have ever recorded (-2, but my records only date back to 1995). Based on that data, as well as a number of other factors and simple observation, it seems obvious that we're not in cold pattern. But at the same time, it's not as warm as some would have you believe, either. My main point is this: it is extremely likely that humans are having little to no impact on the environment, and most likely we are simply in a warmer cycle, as has happened time and time again over the course of history. Don't forget that the same group of people that is screaming "global warming!" today was screaming "global cooling!" back in the 1970s. When they start screaming about global cooling again in about 30 or 40 years, just think back to our current debate. Remember the truth, that we have no way of knowing anything in this debate for certain, but also remember the likelihood that it's all just a natural cycle.	<urn:uuid:0ae50f3f-b1cd-4665-a3eb-52b8fdee2efe>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.martinsvilleweather.com/content/learn.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00325.warc.gz	en	0.980608	4,081	3.4375	3	[ -0.2955269515514374, 0.09603969752788544, 0.3965511620044708, 0.4353645443916321, 0.4953087568283081, -0.22129863500595093, 0.4467970132827759, 0.06754203140735626, -0.3081977665424347, -0.03698360547423363, -0.1200634241104126, -0.39482223987579346, 0.3917747139930725, 0.2017083764076233,...	1	\|Cold Air Damming Explanation\| When a winter storm is approaching, I frequently mention the cold air wedge that forms east of the mountains in my forecast discussion. You may have wondered what that is, and that is why I decided to write this explanation. Cold air damming (or cadding for short), commonly referred to as the "wedge", often occurs in this area during winter storms, and occasionally during all-rain events as well. Cadding occurs when a cold-core (meaning it originated in Canada or the Arctic region and is cold at the center) high-pressure system is located to our north, typically in or near New England. Air flow around a high-pressure system is clockwise, which means that it will send cold air southward, into Virginia and the Carolinas, as the diagram to the right shows.\| You can also see that the low-pressure system that is moving up from the south sends a surge of warm air northward to the west of the mountains. The typical result is a mixture of wintry weather to the east of the mountains where cadding holds temperatures below freezing, but temperatures are much warmer to the west of the mountains. The map below shows a classic cadding situation, with surface temperatures from 7 PM on January 26, 2004 (or 00 zulu/GMT time January 27). Notice that cadding during this winter storm was particularly strong, with the freezing line (the top of the dark green area) going all the way down into northeastern Georgia. Sometimes cadding only stretches as far as northern South Carolina, it just depends on the strength of the high-pressure system in New England. Temperatures in this area were in the lower to mid 20s. However, just to the west of the mountains, it is much warmer, with temperatures in the lower to mid 50s in central Kentucky. The freezing line to the west of the mountains reached all the way into central Ohio and northwestern West Virginia. Cadding is part of what makes most winter storms so difficult to forecast in this area, because computer models have a difficult time dealing with it, and they tend to underestimate the cadding (in other words, their forecasts are usually too warm.) However, cadding has much less impact on temperatures in the upper atmosphere, where temperatures often rise above freezing during winter storms. Since upper air temperatures usually determine precipitation type, that is why we usually get a wintry mix instead of just snow. Even though cadding keeps surface temperatures well below freezing, the temperatures in the upper atmosphere warm up into the mid or upper 30s, and that situation would cause sleet and/or freezing rain to fall. During the time frame depicted in the map above, although temperatures were in the mid 20s, we were getting freezing rain, because upper atmosphere temperatures were much warmer. \|How Different Precipitation Types Form\|\|Weather Term of the Day\| \|For about a 3-month period in the fall of 2007, I included a weather term along with its definition on my website each day. If you missed some of these or would just like to review them again, you can click here (right-click, save target as) to see the list of terms and definitions that I used. Or, click here for the complete glossary from the NWS.\| \|Computer Models Explanation\| \|The term "computer model" is used often in the Forecast Discussion. A computer model is a sophisticated computer that receives all the current data and outputs a forecast. The forecasts go out to 2 to 16 days and are updated 1 to 4 times daily depending on the model.\| \|The Truth About Global Warming / Climate Change\| (Article written by Kevin Joyce in the summer of 2007.)\| "Global Warming." Such a simple phrase, yet one that is surrounded by an incredible amount of controversy. My purpose in writing this is to inform the general public about the issue, and to help separate facts from fiction. There is a significant amount of misinformation out there, primarily due to the fact that some people are trying to use the issue to gain some kind of a political advantage. While I do have a strong opinion on the issue, I will make a point to clearly distinguish between the facts and my opinions. You can either read the entire article, or jump to a section of interest: • We've only been collecting reliable data for about a half-century at most • Quality control issues with the data that we do have • Recent corrections to NASA global temperature data point to the warmest decade on record being the 1930s • Changes in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere likely cause changes in temperature, not the other way around • We know that hurricane activity goes in cycles of about 30 years • Dr. William Gray's comments on global warming • The unnecessary involvement of politics in the debate • Lynchburg's data dates back to the 1890s, and they rarely set record highs; over 130 of their record highs were set in the 1930s • 24 all-time state record highs across the country were set in or around the 1930s, while just two have been set in the last 10 years Fact: Unfortunately, and contrary to what you may have heard, the only fact about the entire global warming issue is that we have no idea what the cause is, or even if we're warming much at all. People have strong opinions on both sides of the issue, but despite what anyone may try to tell you, that is the only fact. We simply don't know. I'll start with the latter point. "Of course the earth is warming; even if we're not causing it, all the data says we're warmer than we've ever been!" You've probably heard that argument, but is it correct? Actually, it's far from it. First of all, we only have reasonably accurate temperature data across the world going back a few decades--50 years at most. When we're dealing with something this complex, 50 years of data is practically nothing, and certainly isn't anywhere near enough to even begin making a conclusion one way or the other. Secondly, even with the data that we have, there are significant quality control issues. Some observation sites are moved around a lot over time, especially in certain parts of the world such as in China. Any time a site is moved, its data is basically rendered useless, because every location has its own localized climate. Aside from that problem, some stations that have remained in the same location in a big city for a long time are now becoming subject to the "urban heat island" effect. Apart from the issue of global warming, there has been definite warming in urban areas over the last few decades. Researchers have attempted to introduce corrections to that data to account for the heat island effect, but there is really no way of knowing if those corrections are accurate or not. In addition, I recently became aware of the alarming fact that there are significantly fewer observation sites around the world than there have been in the recent past, and many of those that have disappeared have been in cooler areas. Russia, in particular, has lost many, many stations since the breakup of the USSR, and obviously that is one of the colder parts of the world. Losing that much data from a large, cold part of the world is sure to cause a bit of an increase in global temperature averages, even if there has been no change at all. Finally, a significant discovery was revealed in early August of 2007. Unfortunately, it was largely ignored by the media of this country, although it was published in an Australian newspaper. So, what is this discovery? Apparently, NASA had some kind of a Y2K computer bug that caused a glitch in their global temperature data. Essentially, the glitch caused data from the last decade or two to appear warmer than it actually was. The scientists who researched this issue claimed to have a lot of difficulty in even getting access to some of this data, but once they were finally able to, they found the problem and corrected it. (If you would like to read more about this: 1998 no longer the hottest year on record in USA or Cold, hard facts take the heat out of some hot claims) With this discovery, 1934 has now moved into the top slot as the warmest year on record, and the infamous warm year of 1998 drops back to second place. In fact, 4 of the top 10 years are now in the 1930s, making it the warmest decade on record. Along with one in the 1920s and another in the 1950s, that gives us a total of 6 years prior to 1960 among the top-10 warmest on record. Just 3 of the top 10 years occurred in the 1990s, and 2006 is the other. My reason for explaining all of that is to show you an example of how many problems we have with global temperature data, and how it's not particularly useful in trying to prove anything because it simply can't be trusted. If a simple computer glitch causes us to think that a certain year was the warmest on record and that turns out not to be the case, how can we rely on any of this data? It is for these reasons, among many others, that we truly have no possible way of knowing whether or not global warming is even occurring, and we won't for a long time to come. Opinion: The facts show that we can't prove whether the planet is warming, cooling, or staying about the same. But, my opinion on the issue goes far beyond that. While we are clearly in somewhat of a warm period, that's all it is--a period. Humans are having little to no impact on the environment, and it's all a natural cycle. In fact, I believe it is likely that we will enter a cooler period within the next 10 to 15 years. Unfortunately, given the data problems I discussed earlier, we don't really have any way of knowing if humans are impacting the environment or not. But I strongly feel like we are not. First of all, the atmosphere is large and incredibly complex. Based on that simple fact, I already have doubts that anything we could do on the ground could have anything more than a minor impact on the atmosphere. Going one step further, I have seen data on multiple occasions that indicates the opposite of what most people believe. (Note that this is in the "opinion" section because I have no way of verifying whether or not it is accurate, although it does have a reasonable amount of evidence to support it.) This data states that, contrary to popular belief, changes in the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are a result of temperature changes, not the cause of temperature changes. Basically, the data shows that temperatures increase, THEN carbon dioxide (CO2) levels increase. If CO2 levels only increase after temperatures already have, how can an increase in CO2 cause an increase in temperature? It can't. If this data were to be proven true, it would basically put an end to all the talk of human-induced global warming. Unfortunately, like so many other things I have discussed, it's unlikely that it can be proven beyond any doubt, and so the debate continues. We know for a fact that hurricane activity in the Atlantic Ocean has a cycle of about 30 years. We saw increased activity in the 1930s, 40s, and 50s, then decreased activity in the 60s, 70s, and 80s. Yes, Hurricane Camille did hit in 1969, but overall, those three decades were quieter. Another more active period began in the early 1990s, and it is expected to continue until about 2015 or 2020. The fact that we saw 27 named storms in 2005, near the middle of a cycle of increased activity, was not really a shock. No one expected to see quite that many storms, but still, it wasn't a huge surprise to most people. (Despite the fact that 2005 will officially go on record as being the most active season since records began in 1888, that is likely not the case. 1933 held the old record, and we had 21 named storms in that year. But, keep in mind that satellites had not yet been invented in 1933, and it is extremely likely that several storms developed out in the middle of the Atlantic that no one ever knew about. If we had today's technology back then, 1933 likely would have featured more than 27 named storms.) Given that fact, isn't it reasonable to assume that the overall climate may have a similar cycle? After all, we know the 1920s and 1930s were as warm if not warmer than today, and don't forget that the 1930s was referred to as the "dust bowl". It was hot and dry, and there was a lot of hurricane activity. Sounds a lot like today, doesn't it? Temperatures cooled back down after that, and the period from the 1960s to the 1980s was fairly cool across the country and probably across the world as well. We started to warm back up after that, but who's to say that we won't start cooling back down in the next 10 to 15 years? A number of top meteorologists agree with that prediction. Dr. William Gray has made some strong comments against global warming in recent months. He is a well-known hurricane forecaster at the Colorado State University, and is quite possibly the most knowledgeable person in that field. He made seasonal hurricane predictions for about 30 years before turning that job over to his mentee. He strongly believes that global warming is NOT a reality, and has had some strong words for the people he calls "global warming alarmists". Dr. Gray has been quoted as saying "I have a bit of an obligation, at my age -- I was trained to tell the truth. There's a lot of hogwash in this." (Interview with Dr. William Gray) Why anyone would listen to Al Gore and not listen to the top hurricane expert in the country about the issue of climate change is something I'll never understand, but that certainly seems to be happening to some extent. Speaking of Gore, politicians are a big reason why this debate has really gotten out of hand. I won't name names (aside from him) and I won't name parties, but there are some very alarming things going on. Dr. Gray has clearly stated that he had a lot of difficulty even getting grants to help him with his research, because of his view on the issue. There are also some people who will quickly state that "global warming is real and humans are causing it; all scientists agree and the debate is over." It is VERY concerning to me whenever one side of a debate tries to censor the other side (such as Heidi Cullum of The Weather Channel, who believes that any television meteorologist who doesn't believe in global warming should be stripped of their American Meteorological Society seal), or even pretend that it doesn't exist at all. That instantly tells me that the side attempting to do the censoring doesn't think their side of the debate is foolproof, but they want to convince people that it is. But that's not how to have a healthy debate. Because of what other people have chosen to do, I felt like I needed to briefly touch on the political side of the debate, although it really shouldn't be a political issue at all. Finally, I want to touch on the significance of some record temperatures. During the summer of 2007, especially, we saw frequent record highs and record high minimums (the warmest morning low on record) across the region. Our National Weather Service office (Blacksburg) maintains official climate data for five locations. Four of those (Danville, Roanoke, Blacksburg, and Bluefield WV) averaged around 15 records during the month of August alone, for a combined total of 60 records. However, the other station in Lynchburg only set 2 records during the month. The National Weather Service attributed some of that to the fact that Lynchburg was farther away from the center of the hot air mass. While it's true that could have some impact, I don't think it was enough to make much of a difference. So, why did Lynchburg only set 2 records while the other locations set around 15? It's simple. The other four stations have data going back about a half-century, while Lynchburg's data goes back 115 years, all the way back into the 1890s. The much longer period of record, combined with my hypothesis that it was actually quite a bit warmer in the 1930s than it is today, are the main reasons why Lynchburg rarely sets new temperature records. Over 130 (more than one-third) of Lynchburg's daily record highs were set between 1930 and 1941, while only a handful have been set in the last five years. (I was unable to find an exact count, but it's probably between 5 and 10.) This data overwhemingly supports the idea that it was much warmer in the 1930s. We do have to keep in mind that we're only talking about one location, but I feel like it is fairly representative of the overall pattern. Since I originally wrote this, the month of September brought forth a continuation of heat. Danville had 14 days with highs at or above 90, close to the record for September of 17 such days. Lynchburg had half as many 90+ days with 7, but that was far short of their record of 15, which was set back in September 1933. If Danville's records extended back that far, their record would have likely been quite a bit higher than 17 days. As hot as this September was overall, I have a feeling it was much, much hotter back in 1933 (which was also likely the most active hurricane season on record, as I discussed a little earlier). The other aspect related to record temperatures concerns state records. Each state has its all-time record high temperature on record. Virginia's record high is 110, set in 1954 at Balcony Falls. Now, when you look at the list of record highs as a whole, things get really interesting. 24 (roughly half) of the 50 state record highs were set between 1930 and 1937. In fact, three record highs have held since 1900 or before. Contrary to that, just 8 state record highs have been set in the last 30 years, and just 2 have been tied since the turn of the century (South Dakota tied its record in 2006, and Arizona did the same in 2007). Since both of those temperatures just tied the old records, there really hasn't been a new statewide record high temperature set since 1995. If global warming was such a serious problem, don't you think we would have set more state record highs by now? We haven't set any state record lows since the turn of the century, although we did set 6 new records in the mid to late 1990s. Four of those were set in early February 1996, which also marks the time frame of the lowest temperature I have ever recorded (-2, but my records only date back to 1995). Based on that data, as well as a number of other factors and simple observation, it seems obvious that we're not in cold pattern. But at the same time, it's not as warm as some would have you believe, either. My main point is this: it is extremely likely that humans are having little to no impact on the environment, and most likely we are simply in a warmer cycle, as has happened time and time again over the course of history. Don't forget that the same group of people that is screaming "global warming!" today was screaming "global cooling!" back in the 1970s. When they start screaming about global cooling again in about 30 or 40 years, just think back to our current debate. Remember the truth, that we have no way of knowing anything in this debate for certain, but also remember the likelihood that it's all just a natural cycle.	4,356	ENGLISH	1
To what extent was the Third Reich a Totalitarian Dictatorship? To be able to answer this question it is important to define what is meant by totalitarian dictatorship’. Totalitarian means a form of government that does not allow rival political parties and demands total obedience from the people and, dictatorship means ruler who has complete power . The Nazi Party did have as its intention the creation of what we would see as a totalitarian dictatorship, but the important question is how far they achieved this goal. The Third Reich was a totalitarian state in the sense that it was a one party state’. A law was passed making illegal any other political party other than the Nazi Party. All political parties other than the Nazi party were abolished; the Social Democratic Party was outlawed as hostile to the nation and state’ and, smaller parties were persuaded’ to dissolve themselves. The individual German states also lost their independence. Nazi governors were put in charge to replace the elected state governors, making the Third Reich a Nazi only state. This principal is further enforced by The Enabling Law’, which gave Hitler the same authority to make decisions and pass laws as the Reichstag once had. The Enabling Law allowed Hitler a dictatorial position, as he no longer had to consult the Reichstag on matters arising, he could pass whatever policy he wished. However, it can be argued that the Third Reich was not a totalitarian dictatorship as Hitler did not exercise his authority efficiently enough to become a totalitarian leader. Mommsen describes how he became much removed from day-to-day decision making and distanced himself from policies, either through laziness or through a fear of becoming associated with unpopular decisions e.g. the Euthanasia programme, which became unpopular and was officially withdrawn. By the later stages of the regime so many orders of the Fhrer were issued he must have had these brought to him by the government machine, orders which were then signed and issued as Hitler’s direct will. Indeed Mommsen goes further, saying that Hitler’s fanatical and irrational objectives could not have formed the basis for rational government. He remained a propagandist and much of what he said was nothing more than propaganda. The use of propaganda was however a vital aspect to the indoctrination of the ordinary German people to follow Nazi ideology through sensorship. The media was virtually taken over by the Nazi’s. Two-thirds of the national newspapers were controlled by the Nazi’s, material was vetted before it even got to the journalists. Radio broadcasting stations were bought up by the Nazi’s and radios were mass produced solely for the use of distribution amongst the German people. Loudspeakers were also installed in public places for the use of collective listening. Furthermore, 13% of broadcasting staff were dismissed on political and racial grounds, and their replacements were Nazi party members. Goebels who had been appointed Minister of Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda, told his broadcasters in 1933, we will place the radio in the service of our ideology and no other ideology…By this instrument you are the creators of public opinion’ . Further to this was the introduction of the Nazi salute, this strengthened the individual’s identity with the regime, thus ensuring Nazi ideological conformity. The Nazi’s employed control over social groups one of which being manipulated was the young. Hitler was a firm believer in the need to indoctrinate Nazi ideology early and the power of young people in ensuring the continued vitality of the “Thousand Year Reich.” The Hitler Youth was based on Hitler’s anti-intellectualism, focusing on military training in preparation for becoming a soldier at 18. Young German women were indoctrinated with the values of obedience, duty, self-sacrifice, discipline and physical self-control. The goal of girls in the BDM was to prepare women for motherhood and raise children who would be educated in the ways of National Socialism . This would secure the continued obedience to the Nazi party and fulfil the Nazi aim of the one party state. The Third Reich was not a totalitarian state as there were other groups in Germany outside the direct control of the Nazis. The Elites continued to operate as an effective group with their	<urn:uuid:c417b177-af3d-4714-a8af-83ae65a40b92>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://pennsylvaniaangerclass.com/miss/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00226.warc.gz	en	0.987114	860	3.734375	4	[ -0.17888163030147552, 0.21576400101184845, -0.21526500582695007, -0.3331608474254608, 0.1768568605184555, 0.296836793422699, 0.27579164505004883, -0.06670127809047699, -0.22267402708530426, 0.19953647255897522, 0.25388890504837036, -0.05507912114262581, 0.1559402048587799, 0.02019760757684...	2	To what extent was the Third Reich a Totalitarian Dictatorship? To be able to answer this question it is important to define what is meant by totalitarian dictatorship’. Totalitarian means a form of government that does not allow rival political parties and demands total obedience from the people and, dictatorship means ruler who has complete power . The Nazi Party did have as its intention the creation of what we would see as a totalitarian dictatorship, but the important question is how far they achieved this goal. The Third Reich was a totalitarian state in the sense that it was a one party state’. A law was passed making illegal any other political party other than the Nazi Party. All political parties other than the Nazi party were abolished; the Social Democratic Party was outlawed as hostile to the nation and state’ and, smaller parties were persuaded’ to dissolve themselves. The individual German states also lost their independence. Nazi governors were put in charge to replace the elected state governors, making the Third Reich a Nazi only state. This principal is further enforced by The Enabling Law’, which gave Hitler the same authority to make decisions and pass laws as the Reichstag once had. The Enabling Law allowed Hitler a dictatorial position, as he no longer had to consult the Reichstag on matters arising, he could pass whatever policy he wished. However, it can be argued that the Third Reich was not a totalitarian dictatorship as Hitler did not exercise his authority efficiently enough to become a totalitarian leader. Mommsen describes how he became much removed from day-to-day decision making and distanced himself from policies, either through laziness or through a fear of becoming associated with unpopular decisions e.g. the Euthanasia programme, which became unpopular and was officially withdrawn. By the later stages of the regime so many orders of the Fhrer were issued he must have had these brought to him by the government machine, orders which were then signed and issued as Hitler’s direct will. Indeed Mommsen goes further, saying that Hitler’s fanatical and irrational objectives could not have formed the basis for rational government. He remained a propagandist and much of what he said was nothing more than propaganda. The use of propaganda was however a vital aspect to the indoctrination of the ordinary German people to follow Nazi ideology through sensorship. The media was virtually taken over by the Nazi’s. Two-thirds of the national newspapers were controlled by the Nazi’s, material was vetted before it even got to the journalists. Radio broadcasting stations were bought up by the Nazi’s and radios were mass produced solely for the use of distribution amongst the German people. Loudspeakers were also installed in public places for the use of collective listening. Furthermore, 13% of broadcasting staff were dismissed on political and racial grounds, and their replacements were Nazi party members. Goebels who had been appointed Minister of Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda, told his broadcasters in 1933, we will place the radio in the service of our ideology and no other ideology…By this instrument you are the creators of public opinion’ . Further to this was the introduction of the Nazi salute, this strengthened the individual’s identity with the regime, thus ensuring Nazi ideological conformity. The Nazi’s employed control over social groups one of which being manipulated was the young. Hitler was a firm believer in the need to indoctrinate Nazi ideology early and the power of young people in ensuring the continued vitality of the “Thousand Year Reich.” The Hitler Youth was based on Hitler’s anti-intellectualism, focusing on military training in preparation for becoming a soldier at 18. Young German women were indoctrinated with the values of obedience, duty, self-sacrifice, discipline and physical self-control. The goal of girls in the BDM was to prepare women for motherhood and raise children who would be educated in the ways of National Socialism . This would secure the continued obedience to the Nazi party and fulfil the Nazi aim of the one party state. The Third Reich was not a totalitarian state as there were other groups in Germany outside the direct control of the Nazis. The Elites continued to operate as an effective group with their	835	ENGLISH	1
On August, 1914, the plan was that they would cross the treacherous Weddell Sea and land at Vahsel Bay. The Weddell Sea was known for its crushing ice. 28 men, including Ernest Shackleton, boarded the Endurance. By January, 1915, the ice was too treacherous to move through and the Endurance was stuck. Shackleton announced they’d spend the winter on ice. When the ship began to crack after, Shackleton ordered his men to set up camp using the remains of the ship and for the four weakest sled dog pups and the carpenter’s cat Mrs. Chippy to be shot. The crew built camp on ice until the ship finally sank on November 21. They settled for a three months stay. The rest of the dogs were eaten and by April, the floe they were surviving on began to break and they were forced onto three lifeboats. They arrived a week later on Elephant island, the first land they’d seen in 497 days. From there, Shackleton set out on one of the lifeboats with five men and month’s worth of provinces while the rest of the crew stayed behind and made shelter out of the two remaining rafts. On May 20, they at last reached civilization. And on Aug. 30, 1916, the last of the men were rescued and safe.	<urn:uuid:9afa2e87-edf5-4563-9bea-13a44e77130a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://viral-feed.today/the-most-amazing-top-10-survival-stories-that-will-blow-you-away/9/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00201.warc.gz	en	0.988119	279	3.625	4	[ -0.3853871524333954, -0.0034870896488428116, -0.1309681385755539, 0.011059112846851349, 0.020246291533112526, 0.06787655502557755, -0.0700860321521759, -0.23052328824996948, -0.3007194399833679, -0.23210830986499786, 0.5247030258178711, -0.6529430150985718, 0.5131598114967346, 0.2604951262...	1	On August, 1914, the plan was that they would cross the treacherous Weddell Sea and land at Vahsel Bay. The Weddell Sea was known for its crushing ice. 28 men, including Ernest Shackleton, boarded the Endurance. By January, 1915, the ice was too treacherous to move through and the Endurance was stuck. Shackleton announced they’d spend the winter on ice. When the ship began to crack after, Shackleton ordered his men to set up camp using the remains of the ship and for the four weakest sled dog pups and the carpenter’s cat Mrs. Chippy to be shot. The crew built camp on ice until the ship finally sank on November 21. They settled for a three months stay. The rest of the dogs were eaten and by April, the floe they were surviving on began to break and they were forced onto three lifeboats. They arrived a week later on Elephant island, the first land they’d seen in 497 days. From there, Shackleton set out on one of the lifeboats with five men and month’s worth of provinces while the rest of the crew stayed behind and made shelter out of the two remaining rafts. On May 20, they at last reached civilization. And on Aug. 30, 1916, the last of the men were rescued and safe.	295	ENGLISH	1
Leaves 2 really enjoyed the puppet show they had watched. A puppet show of the story the "Three Little Pigs". And they all know the story so well that they could become the puppeteers themselves and instead of watching the show, they could make their own show. What do they need? Puppets, of course. Our students brought paper rolls from home and we helped them transform them into puppets. First of all, we need to color them. Should we paint them green? No! Blue? No! We are making pigs and pigs are pink. So, everybody took a brush and painted the rolls pink. When the rools were dry every student got three of them, because in the story there are three pigs. Now, we need to put clothes on them. Blue for the first pig, green for the second pig and red for the third pig. Grab some glue and let's get down to work. Hm, do you think our puppets are ready? Of course not! They still need eyes, a nose and ears. Two eyes for the pig in blue, two eyes for the pig in green, two eyes for the pig in red ... that makes ... SIX eyes. And we need three noses for our three pigs and six ears ... wow... that's a lot of work. Oh, but it was worth it! Just look at your little pigs. Aren't they wonderful? And now you can put on your very own puppet show ... well ... hmmm ... you still need a wolf! ...	<urn:uuid:f390eb48-6ea5-474d-81c3-0f2fdd0745fa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.afs.edu.gr/newsd.php?id=949&lg=1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00080.warc.gz	en	0.983887	317	3.609375	4	[ -0.18387825787067413, -0.2258499562740326, 0.02414608933031559, -0.2304166555404663, -0.16079629957675934, 0.4131016135215759, -0.260236918926239, -0.14737673103809357, -0.1560565084218979, 0.13005331158638, 0.19218717515468597, -0.37495991587638855, 0.28723159432411194, 0.1603228151798248...	10	Leaves 2 really enjoyed the puppet show they had watched. A puppet show of the story the "Three Little Pigs". And they all know the story so well that they could become the puppeteers themselves and instead of watching the show, they could make their own show. What do they need? Puppets, of course. Our students brought paper rolls from home and we helped them transform them into puppets. First of all, we need to color them. Should we paint them green? No! Blue? No! We are making pigs and pigs are pink. So, everybody took a brush and painted the rolls pink. When the rools were dry every student got three of them, because in the story there are three pigs. Now, we need to put clothes on them. Blue for the first pig, green for the second pig and red for the third pig. Grab some glue and let's get down to work. Hm, do you think our puppets are ready? Of course not! They still need eyes, a nose and ears. Two eyes for the pig in blue, two eyes for the pig in green, two eyes for the pig in red ... that makes ... SIX eyes. And we need three noses for our three pigs and six ears ... wow... that's a lot of work. Oh, but it was worth it! Just look at your little pigs. Aren't they wonderful? And now you can put on your very own puppet show ... well ... hmmm ... you still need a wolf! ...	312	ENGLISH	1
The Lucayan did not know it was Oct. 12, 1492. They did not know that their island, in what would become the Bahamas, had been spotted by Spanish explorers led by a Genoese man named Christopher Columbus. And they did not know that in less than 30 years, their island would be empty from the coming genocide. As Columbus and his men approached, the Lucayans greeted them warmly, offering food and water, and “we understood that they had asked us if we had come from heaven,” he wrote in his journal. Then he added, “With 50 men they can all be subjugated and made to do what is required of them.” Some of them, he noticed, were wearing gold nose rings. Columbus and his crew stayed just long enough to kidnap a few inhabitants, before sailing away to explore other islands filled with indigenous people. This year Washington, D.C., joins at least five states and dozens of cities and counties in replacing Columbus Day with Indigenous Peoples’ Day. It’s part of a decades-long reckoning with the sanitized version of the European colonization of the Americas. In Hispaniola — what is now Haiti and the Dominican Republic — Columbus encountered the Lucayans’ cousins, the Taíno. (The Lucayan were a branch of the much larger Taíno, who were part of the Arawak language group.) Historians disagree on how many Taíno lived on Hispaniola at the time, with estimates ranging from 60,000 to 8 million. One contemporaneous account from Bartolomé de las Casas claimed there were 3 million. More about las Casas shortly. There Columbus built a fort where he left a few dozen of his crew, killed two people, took more hostages and sailed back to Spain. As soon as they hit cooler weather, the Taíno began to die, according to Howard Zinn in “A People’s History of the United States.” After significantly overselling the prospects for gold to the king and queen of Spain, Columbus returned to Hispaniola with 17 ships and 1,200 men. The men he had left at the fort the year before had all been killed, “after they had roamed the island in gangs looking for gold, taking women and children as slaves for sex and labour,” Zinn wrote. Columbus and his crew searched and searched for gold to no avail, so they filled their ships with something else they could sell: people. Of the 500 Taíno they took — selected because they were the strongest and healthiest specimens — 200 died on the voyage to Spain. Many more died once they had been sold into slavery. So Columbus tried again for gold, but this time he and his men didn’t go looking for it. They ordered all Taíno people 14 and older to deliver a certain amount of gold dust every three months. If they didn’t, their hands would be cut off. They even laid wagers on whether they could slice a man in two at a stroke, or cut an individual's head from his body, or disembowel him with a single blow of their axes. At this point, the Taíno were refusing to grow crops, and those who didn’t bleed to death after their hands were removed began to die of famine and disease. When they fled into the mountains, they were hunted down by dogs. Many killed themselves with cassava poison. Columbus’s men also continued to sexually abuse Taíno women and girls. In 1500, Columbus wrote to an acquaintance that “there are many dealers who go about looking for girls; those from nine to 10 are now in demand.” As the population plummeted, they abducted indigenous people from other islands, like the Lucayan, to work the fields and mines of Hispaniola. When the British colonized the Bahamas in the 1600s, the islands had been deserted for more than a century. Bartolomé de las Casas arrived in Hispaniola in 1502, when he was 18. For decades, he participated in the mistreatment of the Taíno and the introduction of enslaved Africans, before renouncing it all, becoming a Dominican friar and confessing what he had witnessed in “A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies.” It is worth quoting him at length. This excerpt is very graphic: “They (Spanish explorers) forced their way into native settlements, slaughtering everyone they found there, including small children, old men, pregnant women, and even women who had just given birth. They hacked them to pieces, slicing open their bellies with their swords as though they were so many sheep herded into a pen. They even laid wagers on whether they could slice a man in two at a stroke, or cut an individual’s head from his body, or disembowel him with a single blow of their axes. They grabbed suckling infants by the feet and, ripping them from their mothers’ breasts, dashed them headlong against the rocks. Other, laughing and joking all the while, threw them over their shoulders, shouting, ‘Wriggle, you little perisher.’ ” When las Casas wrote this in 1542, there were only 200 Taíno left on Hispaniola. Across the Caribbean, he claimed the Spanish were responsible for the deaths of 12 to 15 million indigenous people. Historians usually attribute most of the deaths to the spread of diseases for which native people had no immunity, but recently historian Andrés Reséndez has pushed back against this, arguing that populations were lower than previously estimated, and “a nexus of slavery, overwork and famine killed more Indians in the Caribbean than smallpox, influenza and malaria.” Soon after Columbus’s death in 1506, Spanish explorers moved onto to other islands, like Puerto Rico and Jamaica, and according to de las Casas, “perpetrated the same outrages and committed the same crimes as before.” By 1650, Zinn wrote, reports indicated the Taíno were extinct. But recent scholarship proves that may not have been the case. Researchers compared the DNA from the tooth of a pre-Columbian Lucayan woman found in a cave in the Bahamas to that of contemporary Puerto Ricans, who are generally thought to be an interracial mix of African, European and Native American ancestry. They found that the Native American component in the Puerto Rican samples was closely related to the Lucayan DNA. The results were published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences in 2018. With 50 men they can all be subjugated and made to do what is required of them Jorge Estevez, a Taíno descendant who assisted the research, told Newsweek: “I wish my grandmother were alive today so that I could confirm to her what she already knew. It shows that the true story is one of assimilation, certainly, but not total extinction.” The Taíno also live on in our language — barbecue, hammock, canoe, tobacco and hurricane are all derived from Taíno words.	<urn:uuid:094bb731-f5d3-4498-9abc-038a346a8671>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://nationalpost.com/news/world/the-lucayan-the-indigenous-people-christopher-columbus-could-not-annihilate	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00119.warc.gz	en	0.983438	1,498	3.609375	4	[ -0.31961873173713684, 0.07693535089492798, 0.23256656527519226, 0.1575460135936737, -0.147054061293602, -0.4104369282722473, 0.31971433758735657, 0.21181727945804596, -0.3140486776828766, 0.10527078807353973, 0.45814821124076843, 0.1455725133419037, -0.2522178292274475, 0.47719353437423706...	2	The Lucayan did not know it was Oct. 12, 1492. They did not know that their island, in what would become the Bahamas, had been spotted by Spanish explorers led by a Genoese man named Christopher Columbus. And they did not know that in less than 30 years, their island would be empty from the coming genocide. As Columbus and his men approached, the Lucayans greeted them warmly, offering food and water, and “we understood that they had asked us if we had come from heaven,” he wrote in his journal. Then he added, “With 50 men they can all be subjugated and made to do what is required of them.” Some of them, he noticed, were wearing gold nose rings. Columbus and his crew stayed just long enough to kidnap a few inhabitants, before sailing away to explore other islands filled with indigenous people. This year Washington, D.C., joins at least five states and dozens of cities and counties in replacing Columbus Day with Indigenous Peoples’ Day. It’s part of a decades-long reckoning with the sanitized version of the European colonization of the Americas. In Hispaniola — what is now Haiti and the Dominican Republic — Columbus encountered the Lucayans’ cousins, the Taíno. (The Lucayan were a branch of the much larger Taíno, who were part of the Arawak language group.) Historians disagree on how many Taíno lived on Hispaniola at the time, with estimates ranging from 60,000 to 8 million. One contemporaneous account from Bartolomé de las Casas claimed there were 3 million. More about las Casas shortly. There Columbus built a fort where he left a few dozen of his crew, killed two people, took more hostages and sailed back to Spain. As soon as they hit cooler weather, the Taíno began to die, according to Howard Zinn in “A People’s History of the United States.” After significantly overselling the prospects for gold to the king and queen of Spain, Columbus returned to Hispaniola with 17 ships and 1,200 men. The men he had left at the fort the year before had all been killed, “after they had roamed the island in gangs looking for gold, taking women and children as slaves for sex and labour,” Zinn wrote. Columbus and his crew searched and searched for gold to no avail, so they filled their ships with something else they could sell: people. Of the 500 Taíno they took — selected because they were the strongest and healthiest specimens — 200 died on the voyage to Spain. Many more died once they had been sold into slavery. So Columbus tried again for gold, but this time he and his men didn’t go looking for it. They ordered all Taíno people 14 and older to deliver a certain amount of gold dust every three months. If they didn’t, their hands would be cut off. They even laid wagers on whether they could slice a man in two at a stroke, or cut an individual's head from his body, or disembowel him with a single blow of their axes. At this point, the Taíno were refusing to grow crops, and those who didn’t bleed to death after their hands were removed began to die of famine and disease. When they fled into the mountains, they were hunted down by dogs. Many killed themselves with cassava poison. Columbus’s men also continued to sexually abuse Taíno women and girls. In 1500, Columbus wrote to an acquaintance that “there are many dealers who go about looking for girls; those from nine to 10 are now in demand.” As the population plummeted, they abducted indigenous people from other islands, like the Lucayan, to work the fields and mines of Hispaniola. When the British colonized the Bahamas in the 1600s, the islands had been deserted for more than a century. Bartolomé de las Casas arrived in Hispaniola in 1502, when he was 18. For decades, he participated in the mistreatment of the Taíno and the introduction of enslaved Africans, before renouncing it all, becoming a Dominican friar and confessing what he had witnessed in “A Short Account of the Destruction of the Indies.” It is worth quoting him at length. This excerpt is very graphic: “They (Spanish explorers) forced their way into native settlements, slaughtering everyone they found there, including small children, old men, pregnant women, and even women who had just given birth. They hacked them to pieces, slicing open their bellies with their swords as though they were so many sheep herded into a pen. They even laid wagers on whether they could slice a man in two at a stroke, or cut an individual’s head from his body, or disembowel him with a single blow of their axes. They grabbed suckling infants by the feet and, ripping them from their mothers’ breasts, dashed them headlong against the rocks. Other, laughing and joking all the while, threw them over their shoulders, shouting, ‘Wriggle, you little perisher.’ ” When las Casas wrote this in 1542, there were only 200 Taíno left on Hispaniola. Across the Caribbean, he claimed the Spanish were responsible for the deaths of 12 to 15 million indigenous people. Historians usually attribute most of the deaths to the spread of diseases for which native people had no immunity, but recently historian Andrés Reséndez has pushed back against this, arguing that populations were lower than previously estimated, and “a nexus of slavery, overwork and famine killed more Indians in the Caribbean than smallpox, influenza and malaria.” Soon after Columbus’s death in 1506, Spanish explorers moved onto to other islands, like Puerto Rico and Jamaica, and according to de las Casas, “perpetrated the same outrages and committed the same crimes as before.” By 1650, Zinn wrote, reports indicated the Taíno were extinct. But recent scholarship proves that may not have been the case. Researchers compared the DNA from the tooth of a pre-Columbian Lucayan woman found in a cave in the Bahamas to that of contemporary Puerto Ricans, who are generally thought to be an interracial mix of African, European and Native American ancestry. They found that the Native American component in the Puerto Rican samples was closely related to the Lucayan DNA. The results were published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences in 2018. With 50 men they can all be subjugated and made to do what is required of them Jorge Estevez, a Taíno descendant who assisted the research, told Newsweek: “I wish my grandmother were alive today so that I could confirm to her what she already knew. It shows that the true story is one of assimilation, certainly, but not total extinction.” The Taíno also live on in our language — barbecue, hammock, canoe, tobacco and hurricane are all derived from Taíno words.	1,489	ENGLISH	1
The first non-military hospital in the state of North Carolina, St. Peter’s Hospital was built to address contagious diseases by treating patients and removing the sick from the general population. The hospital opened in 1876 and in its early years, gained a reputation for kidnapping some of its non-willing patients. Reform came quickly and by the early 1900s, the facility had cared for thousands throughout the state of North Carolina. Today, the building remains significant due to its partially renovated and partially persevered architectural structure, with much of the internal structure dating back to it’s original work. However the building's interior is currently serving as condos, and is not open to the public. St. Peter’s Hospital was initially developed in reaction to a local Rector of St. Peter’s Church promoting medical services for the underprivileged in the city. The first civilian hospital, St. Peter’s opened on January 20th 1876. The first hospital was named Charlotte Home and Hospital, and was located in two rooms rented out of a residential home. This is widely accepted as having been the first non military hospital in North Carolina. According to records, the first patients of the hospital were hardly willing participants in the health care movement, and the neighbors that surrounded the facility’s first few locations were displeased with their proximity to the establishment. Early employees of the hospital describe the environment of a hospital admission similar to a kidnapping, as people were essentially forced into treatment. Additionally, the neighbors complained about the chance of contagion and exposure to disease and illness the hospital facilitated. It is stated that policemen were often present to escort, or force, the ill into the building as well as to restrict rioters outside from entering. In 1877 a permanent location was established for the Charlotte Home and Hospital. The building process was ceremonial and elaborate, and one year later the one story, four room building was opened to patients. The success of this purchase and construction is due to a local organization responsible for raising the $275 dollars required to fund the project. The Busy Bee Society, a women's academy, is credited with this achievement. By the late 1890’s the Charlotte Home and Hospital was developing into a major medical center, serving not only residents of Charlotte but those all throughout the state of North Carolina. A major addition to the hospital was proposed in 1898. Built in front of the original building and additions, the new structure had 30 rooms over three stories, with large porches on three sides of the building and on each floor. The building contained a drug store, private doctor’s rooms, community rooms, laundry facilities, and other additions that were incredibly novel to medical centers at this time. In 1922 another 22 rooms were added, including nurses quarters, a maternity ward, baby ward, and children ward, along with additional space that would serve to double the capacity of the “charity” wards. Today the hospital has been renovated into private offices and condos. However the building is still aesthetically similar as to how it would have appeared in 1922, with internal components of the structure dating back to its original 1800’s structure. While the building is not open to the public the exterior remains significant to medical history and North Carolina history.	<urn:uuid:f0199172-47ba-4f2b-9fa6-ba0a7a4eb68b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.theclio.com/entry/17236	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00191.warc.gz	en	0.986007	670	3.28125	3	[ -0.1530948281288147, 0.6740807890892029, 0.12341169267892838, 0.00960157997906208, -0.09847497940063477, 0.026406047865748405, -0.00646610464900732, 0.26996201276779175, -0.11844386160373688, 0.19112825393676758, 0.5769155025482178, -0.1023760437965393, -0.0800924301147461, 0.0544367991387...	2	The first non-military hospital in the state of North Carolina, St. Peter’s Hospital was built to address contagious diseases by treating patients and removing the sick from the general population. The hospital opened in 1876 and in its early years, gained a reputation for kidnapping some of its non-willing patients. Reform came quickly and by the early 1900s, the facility had cared for thousands throughout the state of North Carolina. Today, the building remains significant due to its partially renovated and partially persevered architectural structure, with much of the internal structure dating back to it’s original work. However the building's interior is currently serving as condos, and is not open to the public. St. Peter’s Hospital was initially developed in reaction to a local Rector of St. Peter’s Church promoting medical services for the underprivileged in the city. The first civilian hospital, St. Peter’s opened on January 20th 1876. The first hospital was named Charlotte Home and Hospital, and was located in two rooms rented out of a residential home. This is widely accepted as having been the first non military hospital in North Carolina. According to records, the first patients of the hospital were hardly willing participants in the health care movement, and the neighbors that surrounded the facility’s first few locations were displeased with their proximity to the establishment. Early employees of the hospital describe the environment of a hospital admission similar to a kidnapping, as people were essentially forced into treatment. Additionally, the neighbors complained about the chance of contagion and exposure to disease and illness the hospital facilitated. It is stated that policemen were often present to escort, or force, the ill into the building as well as to restrict rioters outside from entering. In 1877 a permanent location was established for the Charlotte Home and Hospital. The building process was ceremonial and elaborate, and one year later the one story, four room building was opened to patients. The success of this purchase and construction is due to a local organization responsible for raising the $275 dollars required to fund the project. The Busy Bee Society, a women's academy, is credited with this achievement. By the late 1890’s the Charlotte Home and Hospital was developing into a major medical center, serving not only residents of Charlotte but those all throughout the state of North Carolina. A major addition to the hospital was proposed in 1898. Built in front of the original building and additions, the new structure had 30 rooms over three stories, with large porches on three sides of the building and on each floor. The building contained a drug store, private doctor’s rooms, community rooms, laundry facilities, and other additions that were incredibly novel to medical centers at this time. In 1922 another 22 rooms were added, including nurses quarters, a maternity ward, baby ward, and children ward, along with additional space that would serve to double the capacity of the “charity” wards. Today the hospital has been renovated into private offices and condos. However the building is still aesthetically similar as to how it would have appeared in 1922, with internal components of the structure dating back to its original 1800’s structure. While the building is not open to the public the exterior remains significant to medical history and North Carolina history.	683	ENGLISH	1
Put those mediocre B-minus essays on the trash pile and level up to A-plus quality. Hopefully, with a little bit of guidance, you can successfully transition from a good writer, to a fantastic one. So put a bit of thinking into your projects, work a little harder, and don’t be afraid to try a few new strategies to turn your essay into a piece that will impress your teacher. The country of Switzerland hay enjoyed state of prolonged peace thanks to its neutrality. A state that is independent is given a right to claim its neutrality in the event of a war. This leaves the country bound to treat all other warring countries equally. The Hague Convection formed in the year 1907 stipulates the duties and rights of any neutral state. When a country declares itself a neutral state, it has obligations to fulfill and is not allowed to take any sides even in future wars between the two warring nations. Austria, Sweden, Finland and Ireland are the only known neutral countries in Europe. In most cases, countries declared themselves neutral countries to avoid being attacked. Unfortunately, these countries end up being the most targeted countries. By being a neutral country, Switzerland was protected by the international treaty from attack. This means that no country was supposed to attack a neutral country. This provision was however violated by most Germany and most of its allies during World War Two. They dropped bombs on Switzerland soil with the aim of provoking it so as to join in the war. Switzerland, however, stayed put and did not join in the war. It was thus able to save a lot of resources that it would have used during the war. Many countries that took part in the war are still recuperating from the economic stress that they put themselves in because of the war. Others are suffering from adverse effects of the chemical bombs that were used in their countries. Switzerland and other neutral courtiers were lucky to avoid such effects. Due to non-involvement in the war, Switzerland has managed to maintain good relations with many Nations. This is the reason it receives many visitors. It is a base of many of the UN Organizations and this brings it a lot of foreigners. This is a significant boost to the tourism industry of Switzerland. Switzerland also operates many international accounts that are not restricted. Many people are comfortable with its neutrality and thus consider banking there as it would be easy to manage accounts even in the event of another war. It also leads in the production of a variety of goods. Production in large scale began during the war as it had to be prepared to give aid to fighting nations. This was a significant boost because even after the war when many fighting companies were recovering, Switzerland exported a lot and boosted its economy. © Copyright 2009-2020. The-Kings-Speech.com all rights reserved	<urn:uuid:7502220f-7779-4838-b172-f2587cd7af04>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.the-kings-speech.com/switzerland-as-a-neutral-country/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00502.warc.gz	en	0.98376	567	3.265625	3	[ -0.46782219409942627, 0.2329009473323822, -0.065191350877285, -0.33962106704711914, 0.14414483308792114, -0.04820030555129051, 0.10003376752138138, 0.5024442076683044, 0.10517985373735428, 0.18909768760204315, -0.14188522100448608, -0.3140946924686432, 0.19719356298446655, 0.66897201538085...	2	Put those mediocre B-minus essays on the trash pile and level up to A-plus quality. Hopefully, with a little bit of guidance, you can successfully transition from a good writer, to a fantastic one. So put a bit of thinking into your projects, work a little harder, and don’t be afraid to try a few new strategies to turn your essay into a piece that will impress your teacher. The country of Switzerland hay enjoyed state of prolonged peace thanks to its neutrality. A state that is independent is given a right to claim its neutrality in the event of a war. This leaves the country bound to treat all other warring countries equally. The Hague Convection formed in the year 1907 stipulates the duties and rights of any neutral state. When a country declares itself a neutral state, it has obligations to fulfill and is not allowed to take any sides even in future wars between the two warring nations. Austria, Sweden, Finland and Ireland are the only known neutral countries in Europe. In most cases, countries declared themselves neutral countries to avoid being attacked. Unfortunately, these countries end up being the most targeted countries. By being a neutral country, Switzerland was protected by the international treaty from attack. This means that no country was supposed to attack a neutral country. This provision was however violated by most Germany and most of its allies during World War Two. They dropped bombs on Switzerland soil with the aim of provoking it so as to join in the war. Switzerland, however, stayed put and did not join in the war. It was thus able to save a lot of resources that it would have used during the war. Many countries that took part in the war are still recuperating from the economic stress that they put themselves in because of the war. Others are suffering from adverse effects of the chemical bombs that were used in their countries. Switzerland and other neutral courtiers were lucky to avoid such effects. Due to non-involvement in the war, Switzerland has managed to maintain good relations with many Nations. This is the reason it receives many visitors. It is a base of many of the UN Organizations and this brings it a lot of foreigners. This is a significant boost to the tourism industry of Switzerland. Switzerland also operates many international accounts that are not restricted. Many people are comfortable with its neutrality and thus consider banking there as it would be easy to manage accounts even in the event of another war. It also leads in the production of a variety of goods. Production in large scale began during the war as it had to be prepared to give aid to fighting nations. This was a significant boost because even after the war when many fighting companies were recovering, Switzerland exported a lot and boosted its economy. © Copyright 2009-2020. The-Kings-Speech.com all rights reserved	566	ENGLISH	1
What is naturalism in "The Red Badge of Courage" and what is the relationship between fears, surviving and nature and naturalism in the novel? Naturalism is a view that man is often controlled by forces he cannot control. There are many examples of this view in "The Red Badge of Courage", but several incidents are often used to support the naturalistic elements of the novel. The first thing we notice is that the men waiting in the Union camp have absolutely no control over when they are going into battle. There are many rumors, but the men have no control is actually deciding when they will be put in a life and death situation. In addition, when they finally are forced into battle, there seems to be no fairness as to who is killed and who survives. Jim Conklin suffers a terrible death even though he had been one of the most noble soldiers in the camp. Henry flees the battle and should not be rewarded for his cowardice. However, after being struck in the head by another Union soldier, everyone thinks he has his "red badge of courage". When Henry makes it back to his regiment, the men there are celebrating their victory. This feeling becomes hollow after Henry and Wilson overhear the officer calling their regiment "a bunch of mule drivers". Finally, as you read the book, you will notice that nature seems really undisturbed by all the fighting. Life goes on normally for the animals while the human continue to destroy themselves. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	<urn:uuid:c90b68e3-4f5f-45af-a928-b13895965fe4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-naturalism-red-badge-courage-what-82591	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00555.warc.gz	en	0.984477	304	3.359375	3	[ -0.21644960343837738, 0.3458542823791504, -0.12004102021455765, 0.31475961208343506, 0.22788076102733612, -0.08520587533712387, 0.7685352563858032, 0.24171693623065948, 0.07346122711896896, -0.31349441409111023, -0.24587367475032806, -0.05299714580178261, 0.23701192438602448, 0.18388585746...	3	What is naturalism in "The Red Badge of Courage" and what is the relationship between fears, surviving and nature and naturalism in the novel? Naturalism is a view that man is often controlled by forces he cannot control. There are many examples of this view in "The Red Badge of Courage", but several incidents are often used to support the naturalistic elements of the novel. The first thing we notice is that the men waiting in the Union camp have absolutely no control over when they are going into battle. There are many rumors, but the men have no control is actually deciding when they will be put in a life and death situation. In addition, when they finally are forced into battle, there seems to be no fairness as to who is killed and who survives. Jim Conklin suffers a terrible death even though he had been one of the most noble soldiers in the camp. Henry flees the battle and should not be rewarded for his cowardice. However, after being struck in the head by another Union soldier, everyone thinks he has his "red badge of courage". When Henry makes it back to his regiment, the men there are celebrating their victory. This feeling becomes hollow after Henry and Wilson overhear the officer calling their regiment "a bunch of mule drivers". Finally, as you read the book, you will notice that nature seems really undisturbed by all the fighting. Life goes on normally for the animals while the human continue to destroy themselves. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	301	ENGLISH	1
Sir John Moore is one of those people who are both famous and forgotten. True, there are three monuments to his life. One is in St. Paul’s Cathedral in London. Another is in his native city of Glasgow. The third monument is in the Spanish city of Corunna. It commemorates Moore’s actions at the end of a distinguished military career that began as a 14-year-old ensign with a British regiment fighting in the American War for Independence. The Great Retreat Moore went to Spain in 1808 as the commander of the British Army sent to support the Spanish Army resistance to Napoleon. By November, he was deep in Spain, short of supplies, and not getting much support from the Spanish Army. Retreat seemed like the only option. Great retreats don’t get a lot of press. The Times called Moore’s “a shameful disaster.” But the great retreats of military history preserve armies to fight again. Three of the great ones are Washington’s retreat from New York, the UN Force’s rear-guard action at the Chosin Reservoir, and the British evacuation from Dunkirk. Moore’s idea was to return to Corunna, where the men could board British ships to make their escape and fight another day. It was a lot like Dunkirk, only with a much longer hike in far worse conditions. Moore led his army 200 miles over the Spanish mountains of Leon and Galicia. The roads were bad in the best of times, but this was bitter cold November with snow and sleet and ice. By the time the army reached Corunna, it had lost 5,000 men and the British evacuation fleet wasn’t’ there yet. Moore established a defensive position outside Corunna to hold off the French while his soldiers boarded the British ships. During the battle he was “struck in his left breast and shoulder by a cannon shot, which broke his ribs, his arm, lacerated his shoulder, and the whole of his left side and lungs.” He remained conscious and composed for several hours, directing the troops, making sure his will could be found, and giving instructions to his aides. When he died a day later, his burial was conducted under fire in the dead of night. He was buried wrapped in his military cloak. The funeral was commemorated by a poem, “The Burial of Sir John Moore After Corunna” by Charles Wolfe. That poem ends with these lines. “We carved not a line, and we raised not a stone, But left him alone with his glory.” Moore’s military adversary, French Marshal Jean-de-Dieu Soult, ordered a monument to Moore erected over his grave. The Great Role Model Sir John Moore’s heroism is the stuff of legend, but he should also be remembered for other “less heroic” actions. In 1801 he commanded the 95th Regiment of Foot, the first to be designated “light infantry.” In 1803, he was selected to command a brigade at the Shorncliffe Army Camp. What he did there changed the British Army forever. The belief at the time was that soldiers could not be trusted to act on their own. They could only be effective when they were directed in detail by their officers. Moore’s training at Shorncliffe created the first effective light infantry units and trained soldiers who acted independently. The belief at the time was that only soldiers from “hunting cultures” could be trained to shoot well. Moore trained everyone to shoot well and armed them with rifles instead of muskets. The belief at the time, was that the core skill for a soldier was loading his musket quickly and effectively. The Army didn’t use live ammunition in training because it cost money and didn’t improve the results of soldiers who fired musket volleys in formation. Moore used live ammunition, designed moving and popup targets to improve rifle skills, and sponsored marksmanship contests. The belief at the time was that only harsh discipline could force obedience. Flogging was common. Moore did not use flogging. He taught the soldiers who wanted it to read and write, because he believed that better men made better soldiers. In Moore’s regiment, officers (usually from the upper class) and regular soldiers worked together more than in other regiments and were more likely to share the same hardships. The Rifles did other things differently, too. Regular British soldiers wore red coats with white belting. Rifles regiments wore green jackets with black leather. The Rifles marched faster than regular infantry. When you look at it from the perspective of 200 years, it’s really amazing. Many of the things that we think of as 21st Century insights and practices were in place at Shorncliffe in the early 19th century. Moore believed that people could learn, and so he trained them. Moore believed that people could be trusted to act on their own, so that’s what he expected. Moore believed that people could improve themselves, so he helped them. British historian Sir Arthur Bryant summed it up this way: “Moore’s contribution to the British Army was not only that matchless light infantry who ever since enshrined his training, but also the belief that the perfect soldier can only be made by evoking all that is finest in man – physical, mental, and spiritual.” Bravery and heroic action are inspiring, but they’re only for the day. Sir John Moore is one of my heroes and a role model because that belief in people and their ability to learn and act is one of the most powerful forces a leader can possess. For Further Reading Two web sites have more information about the Rifles and their history. The Regimental Museum of The Rifles is the official site of the museum. The History of the 95th Rifles is a reenactor site with a lot of information. If you want to learn more about the 95th Rifles in the Napoleonic Wars, I recommend Mark Urban’s excellent book, Wellington’s Rifles: Six Years to Waterloo with England’s Legendary Sharpshooters. To come at this period a different way, try Bernard Cornwell’s excellent series of historical novels whose main character, Richard Sharpe is a rifleman. I’m pointing you to the one titled Sharpe’s Rifles which is set around the time of Moore’s retreat to Corunna.	<urn:uuid:08ad79c2-9692-482c-8b51-e09508259e34>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.threestarleadership.com/leadership/sir-john-moore-hero-and-role-model	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00137.warc.gz	en	0.981867	1,375	3.484375	3	[ -0.13182266056537628, 0.5847020149230957, 0.20560333132743835, 0.564213752746582, -0.2137254774570465, 0.1630699336528778, 0.06830054521560669, -0.10288678109645844, -0.2082081139087677, -0.5187813639640808, -0.025137707591056824, -0.3200736939907074, -0.030035370960831642, 0.3412744402885...	5	Sir John Moore is one of those people who are both famous and forgotten. True, there are three monuments to his life. One is in St. Paul’s Cathedral in London. Another is in his native city of Glasgow. The third monument is in the Spanish city of Corunna. It commemorates Moore’s actions at the end of a distinguished military career that began as a 14-year-old ensign with a British regiment fighting in the American War for Independence. The Great Retreat Moore went to Spain in 1808 as the commander of the British Army sent to support the Spanish Army resistance to Napoleon. By November, he was deep in Spain, short of supplies, and not getting much support from the Spanish Army. Retreat seemed like the only option. Great retreats don’t get a lot of press. The Times called Moore’s “a shameful disaster.” But the great retreats of military history preserve armies to fight again. Three of the great ones are Washington’s retreat from New York, the UN Force’s rear-guard action at the Chosin Reservoir, and the British evacuation from Dunkirk. Moore’s idea was to return to Corunna, where the men could board British ships to make their escape and fight another day. It was a lot like Dunkirk, only with a much longer hike in far worse conditions. Moore led his army 200 miles over the Spanish mountains of Leon and Galicia. The roads were bad in the best of times, but this was bitter cold November with snow and sleet and ice. By the time the army reached Corunna, it had lost 5,000 men and the British evacuation fleet wasn’t’ there yet. Moore established a defensive position outside Corunna to hold off the French while his soldiers boarded the British ships. During the battle he was “struck in his left breast and shoulder by a cannon shot, which broke his ribs, his arm, lacerated his shoulder, and the whole of his left side and lungs.” He remained conscious and composed for several hours, directing the troops, making sure his will could be found, and giving instructions to his aides. When he died a day later, his burial was conducted under fire in the dead of night. He was buried wrapped in his military cloak. The funeral was commemorated by a poem, “The Burial of Sir John Moore After Corunna” by Charles Wolfe. That poem ends with these lines. “We carved not a line, and we raised not a stone, But left him alone with his glory.” Moore’s military adversary, French Marshal Jean-de-Dieu Soult, ordered a monument to Moore erected over his grave. The Great Role Model Sir John Moore’s heroism is the stuff of legend, but he should also be remembered for other “less heroic” actions. In 1801 he commanded the 95th Regiment of Foot, the first to be designated “light infantry.” In 1803, he was selected to command a brigade at the Shorncliffe Army Camp. What he did there changed the British Army forever. The belief at the time was that soldiers could not be trusted to act on their own. They could only be effective when they were directed in detail by their officers. Moore’s training at Shorncliffe created the first effective light infantry units and trained soldiers who acted independently. The belief at the time was that only soldiers from “hunting cultures” could be trained to shoot well. Moore trained everyone to shoot well and armed them with rifles instead of muskets. The belief at the time, was that the core skill for a soldier was loading his musket quickly and effectively. The Army didn’t use live ammunition in training because it cost money and didn’t improve the results of soldiers who fired musket volleys in formation. Moore used live ammunition, designed moving and popup targets to improve rifle skills, and sponsored marksmanship contests. The belief at the time was that only harsh discipline could force obedience. Flogging was common. Moore did not use flogging. He taught the soldiers who wanted it to read and write, because he believed that better men made better soldiers. In Moore’s regiment, officers (usually from the upper class) and regular soldiers worked together more than in other regiments and were more likely to share the same hardships. The Rifles did other things differently, too. Regular British soldiers wore red coats with white belting. Rifles regiments wore green jackets with black leather. The Rifles marched faster than regular infantry. When you look at it from the perspective of 200 years, it’s really amazing. Many of the things that we think of as 21st Century insights and practices were in place at Shorncliffe in the early 19th century. Moore believed that people could learn, and so he trained them. Moore believed that people could be trusted to act on their own, so that’s what he expected. Moore believed that people could improve themselves, so he helped them. British historian Sir Arthur Bryant summed it up this way: “Moore’s contribution to the British Army was not only that matchless light infantry who ever since enshrined his training, but also the belief that the perfect soldier can only be made by evoking all that is finest in man – physical, mental, and spiritual.” Bravery and heroic action are inspiring, but they’re only for the day. Sir John Moore is one of my heroes and a role model because that belief in people and their ability to learn and act is one of the most powerful forces a leader can possess. For Further Reading Two web sites have more information about the Rifles and their history. The Regimental Museum of The Rifles is the official site of the museum. The History of the 95th Rifles is a reenactor site with a lot of information. If you want to learn more about the 95th Rifles in the Napoleonic Wars, I recommend Mark Urban’s excellent book, Wellington’s Rifles: Six Years to Waterloo with England’s Legendary Sharpshooters. To come at this period a different way, try Bernard Cornwell’s excellent series of historical novels whose main character, Richard Sharpe is a rifleman. I’m pointing you to the one titled Sharpe’s Rifles which is set around the time of Moore’s retreat to Corunna.	1,309	ENGLISH	1
Frederick Douglass was a African American who was born in February 1818. He had been taken from his mother, sisters, & brother at a young age, was forced into slavery, and was treated harshly. Frederick was born in February 1818. He never had a childhood, because he was taken away from his mother, four sisters, and his one and only brother. When he was seven, he worked on the property of Captain Aaron Anthony for a few years until being sent to the North with the Auldr’s family. Frederick was treated better in the North, rather than being in the south. Mrs. Auld taught Frederick the basics of reading and writing until Mr. Auld stopped her. After Captain Anthony died, Frederick became a slave to Anthonyr’s son-in-law. Then he hired a slave breaker that beat slaves until they gave up and followed orders, until the Auldr’s family put Frederick in the shipyards to work. Then after a while Frederick borrowed a sailors identification to escape in New York where the Auldr’s family put him and escape from slavery in Maryland. Later on Frederick joined an Abolitionist group and went to meetings and shared his experiences when he was a slave. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Harsh Childhood Of Frederick Douglass" essay for youCreate order What will Frederick do to help stop slavery of African Americans? Frederick Douglass was born in February in the year of 1818 in Talbot County, Maryland. He later chose to celebrate it on February 14th. Frederick had 4 sisters, 1 brother and his mother. He never knew or heard of his father in his life. Frederick didnt have much of a childhood, because he was taken away from his family at an early age, and he was forced into slavery. He had to take in harsh treatment while working as a slave on Captain Anthonyr’s land. In 1825 Captain Anthony sent Douglass to Baltimore, Maryland to work with the Auldr’s family, who treated him better than the south while he was a slave. When he was in the North Mrs. Auld taught Frederick the basics of reading and writing up until Mr. Auld stopped her. When Captain Anthony died his son-in-law took over the property and hired a slave breaker that beat slaves until they give up and do what they are told without hesitation. Frederick fought back and the beatings from the slave breaker stopped. The Auld’s family found out about this and took Frederick to Baltimore, Maryland where he can work in the shipyards. In 1838 He borrowed identification papers from an African American sailor, so he could escape from New York. Frederick later married a free African American woman whose name is Anna Murray, and moved to Bedford, Massachusetts where they had 5 kids together. He became involved with in Antislavery up in the North. In 1841, Frederick was in an abolitionist meeting up in Nantucket, Massachusetts; he did a speech of his experience as a slave. After the speech he was immediately hired by an Antislavery society to give lectures. Frederick was an excellent speaker, they were well thought out and forceful. Everyone around him was inspired by his speeches and lectures, even Harvard students wanted to do an autobiography about Frederick Douglass. These Novels were from him (The Story of His Life, The Narrative of The Life of Frederick Douglass) was published in 1845, after 10 years (My Bondage and My Freedom). In 1881 his third autobiography (Life and Times of Frederick Douglass.) These could have put him in danger, but it helped out in stopping slavery. Frederick Douglass was taken away from his family, when he was at a young age. When he was forced into slavery he was treated terribly. Frederick worked for Captain Anthony for a few years until being sent to the Auldr’s family, where he learned the basics of reading and writing. Later on, when he got older he joined two groups which were; abolitionist and anti slavery movements. Frederick got into the speeches of his experience of being a slave and students from Harvard wanted to do autobiographies about him and stories. He helped stop slavery, even though these novels and books couldve put him in danger. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	<urn:uuid:041ce6e3-7b0f-4579-9433-0b53d15df113>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studydriver.com/harsh-childhood-of-frederick-douglass/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00290.warc.gz	en	0.992259	922	3.71875	4	[ -0.04225204139947891, 0.7632921934127808, 0.3692672848701477, 0.2418469339609146, -0.05798938125371933, -0.2410271316766739, -0.07681506872177124, -0.23337598145008087, -0.24190708994865417, -0.2771607041358948, 0.24737128615379333, -0.20150238275527954, -0.387966513633728, 0.0809328481554...	1	Frederick Douglass was a African American who was born in February 1818. He had been taken from his mother, sisters, & brother at a young age, was forced into slavery, and was treated harshly. Frederick was born in February 1818. He never had a childhood, because he was taken away from his mother, four sisters, and his one and only brother. When he was seven, he worked on the property of Captain Aaron Anthony for a few years until being sent to the North with the Auldr’s family. Frederick was treated better in the North, rather than being in the south. Mrs. Auld taught Frederick the basics of reading and writing until Mr. Auld stopped her. After Captain Anthony died, Frederick became a slave to Anthonyr’s son-in-law. Then he hired a slave breaker that beat slaves until they gave up and followed orders, until the Auldr’s family put Frederick in the shipyards to work. Then after a while Frederick borrowed a sailors identification to escape in New York where the Auldr’s family put him and escape from slavery in Maryland. Later on Frederick joined an Abolitionist group and went to meetings and shared his experiences when he was a slave. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Harsh Childhood Of Frederick Douglass" essay for youCreate order What will Frederick do to help stop slavery of African Americans? Frederick Douglass was born in February in the year of 1818 in Talbot County, Maryland. He later chose to celebrate it on February 14th. Frederick had 4 sisters, 1 brother and his mother. He never knew or heard of his father in his life. Frederick didnt have much of a childhood, because he was taken away from his family at an early age, and he was forced into slavery. He had to take in harsh treatment while working as a slave on Captain Anthonyr’s land. In 1825 Captain Anthony sent Douglass to Baltimore, Maryland to work with the Auldr’s family, who treated him better than the south while he was a slave. When he was in the North Mrs. Auld taught Frederick the basics of reading and writing up until Mr. Auld stopped her. When Captain Anthony died his son-in-law took over the property and hired a slave breaker that beat slaves until they give up and do what they are told without hesitation. Frederick fought back and the beatings from the slave breaker stopped. The Auld’s family found out about this and took Frederick to Baltimore, Maryland where he can work in the shipyards. In 1838 He borrowed identification papers from an African American sailor, so he could escape from New York. Frederick later married a free African American woman whose name is Anna Murray, and moved to Bedford, Massachusetts where they had 5 kids together. He became involved with in Antislavery up in the North. In 1841, Frederick was in an abolitionist meeting up in Nantucket, Massachusetts; he did a speech of his experience as a slave. After the speech he was immediately hired by an Antislavery society to give lectures. Frederick was an excellent speaker, they were well thought out and forceful. Everyone around him was inspired by his speeches and lectures, even Harvard students wanted to do an autobiography about Frederick Douglass. These Novels were from him (The Story of His Life, The Narrative of The Life of Frederick Douglass) was published in 1845, after 10 years (My Bondage and My Freedom). In 1881 his third autobiography (Life and Times of Frederick Douglass.) These could have put him in danger, but it helped out in stopping slavery. Frederick Douglass was taken away from his family, when he was at a young age. When he was forced into slavery he was treated terribly. Frederick worked for Captain Anthony for a few years until being sent to the Auldr’s family, where he learned the basics of reading and writing. Later on, when he got older he joined two groups which were; abolitionist and anti slavery movements. Frederick got into the speeches of his experience of being a slave and students from Harvard wanted to do autobiographies about him and stories. He helped stop slavery, even though these novels and books couldve put him in danger. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	931	ENGLISH	1
In order to make molasses, you must have sugar cane or sorgo (sorghum cane). We grew both in our youth, but we only made the molasses ourselves from sugar cane. When in 1940 we grew sorgo, we got Mr. Billy Walker to make it into sorghum molasses. I was the only one fond of sorghum molasses, so after I left home, there were no eaters. Our stored supply was finally sold to moonshiners who in wartime could get no granulated sugar. So how did we grow sugar cane? Our favored place to grow sugar cane was in the Hollow, east of our house, where the drainage eastward flowed into Lack and Allen land. We started in the fall of the year by cutting stalks of cane and placing them into a built-up bed of pine straw in the nearby woods, then covering them with pine straw and brush so that rain would drain away and leave the cane moist but not standing in water. This was to be our stock for the next year’s crop. Sugar cane is a tropical member of the grass family and propagated by rooting at the joints or by using seed (in its natural jungle habitat). It never made seed at our latitude so we propagated it by cutting the stalks we had saved so that a joint with an eye would be on each piece. We placed this joint by hand with the eye upright in plowed soil, then covered it about an inch or two with loose dirt. The eye sprouted into the soil with a root and sent a shoot up through the soil as the new sugar cane plant. This we carefully cultivated and fertilized heavily. The cane grew slowly through the year until frost in November. Then the stalks were as large as they would get, about five feet long, and they ripened until we were ready to cut it. (When I saw sugar cane fully headed out with seed in Puerto Rico, the cutting operation would start; but this was not the way we had to do it.) When we cut the sugar cane, we first had to first clear away the leaves and tops with cane knives or machetes. Then we cut and stacked the stalks until we could move them by wagon to the cane mill. There we stacked the cane in piles until we were ready to make molasses. We did not have to plant sugar cane each year. One planting would nearly always last two years, and sometimes three, dependent on the severity of the winter. The joints at ground level which had not frozen would sprout for the second or third year. Another ingredient for making molasses was the wood for heating the vat. It generally had to be cut two to four weeks in advance in order to be dry enough to burn well. We used pine, but sometimes added dry oak, or sometimes lighterwood, (Lyte’ard) if we were short of pine which burned well. Our cane mill or molasses making operations were on the road, as my father had intended to make molasses for the public. He set it up as a permanent facility. The three essential parts were the well for water to use in operations and for animals, the cane grinding mill, and the cooking vat. We only equipped the well with a windlass rope and bucket during cooking operations. We needed the water for startup and for shutdown of the cooking vat and for our animals. The grinding mill was operated by a long lever which forced a big roller and two smaller rollers to turn and crush the cane stalks, forcing out the cane juice into a barrel which flowed downhill to a tap on the evaporating pan or cooking vat. The long lever was pulled by a mule going round and round. After the cane stalks were crushed, we called them cane “mashes,” but the term used in Louisiana sugar-making operations was “bagasse.” These crushed stalks had to be carried away to a pile of “mashes.” We never found any good use for them. (It may be useful to review the way we observed a molasses-making operation when we visited Donald in Florida. It is the same way molasses were made years ago all across the Caribbean, particularly in Jamaica. The juice flows into a huge kettle of known size all the way up to a marker ring. Then the juice is cooked down to another marker ring, at which time the product is sampled and should be molasses. During this cookdown, the juice is skimmed frequently to remove bits of stalk and other debris which do not cook. This is simplicity itself. You start with this level A, and you cook down to here at the final level B. Everything in this kettle will taste the same, either good or bad.) Cooking on a continuous-flow, evaporative vat required a great deal more skill which one developed by practice and careful observation. What you aimed for is a steady hot fire under the vat which did not cause hot spots, then a carefully adjusted inflow of cane juice, then a slow flow of juice around the 40 feet or more of vat partitions (baffles), diligent use of skimmers made from screen so pick up debris, and then a thin stream of molasses flowing out of the hot end of the vat into the molasses collecting tub. If the juice came too slow, the molasses cooked too long. If the juice came too fast, the molasses were thin and the outflow had to be slowed or even stopped for some time. We obtained more uniformity by allowing the molasses collecting tub to fill about 2/3 of the way to the top. Then, someone filled the new molasses buckets, gallon and half-gallon, with molasses from the tap in the collecting tub. To stop operations for the night or for the season, you let the juice run out of the collecting barrel, then put in water. The water forced the cooking molasses out and operations stopped. The last time I made molasses with Clifford, Donald, and Roland, and the only time I was in charge, was 1938. Dueward was marginally involved, having cut the firewood we used some time earlier. We were all in school, of course, and could only make preparations when we got home each day. We got the sugar cane moved to the cane mill, and it is possible that Dueward helped with that. We then got the well prepared, and moved the evaporative vat from its garage storage on the rafters and got it into place on the furnace. Each year we had to make clay mud plaster which we put on the furnace to assure a tight fit of the pan to the furnace. We also did repairs to the mud and straw chimney at the same time. With that done we put water in the pan, which we would cook off to clean the copper pan on the starting day of Saturday. Dueward did not think the wood was dry enough to burn and he took no part in the specific preparations. We did not think we had a choice. We resolved to cook molasses Saturday, come what may. Of course, we got up early and got a fire going under the pan. Clifford started grinding cane and filling the collecting barrel. Roland fed the fire and had a long stick for pushing the wood up under the pan. Donald moved the cane up to the grinders, and moved the mashes away. Then he would help Roland with the fire. I kept watch on the boiling water, and then started the flow of juice. As soon as the vat seemed clean, I ran the boiling water off and started cooking the juice. Soon, the bubbling molasses showed up at the hot end of the vat and I started filling the collecting tub with molasses. Donald would then run the hot molasses from the tub into the new molasses buckets. He had a board for pressing down on the hot lids to get the buckets completely closed. This went on all day. No time for lunch for us. Just the kind of snack we could eat on the job which our mother brought us, the same as she had always fixed for our father. We had to change mules so the mule (Old Pet) could get lunch, but we got along. I was 15 years old, Clifford was 13, Donald was 11, almost 12, and Roland was not yet 10. I was busy, but I do not recall seeing Dueward any time that day. We completed all our cane and had, if I recall correctly, 71 and ½ gallons of molasses. We dismantled the operations, put all the equipment back in its storage places, and moved the cans of syrup to storage. I soldered some of the tops, built boxes, and shipped them to Uncle Tom in New Haven, CT, and some more to Aunt Terry in Memphis, TN. I think Dueward got some for his cutting the wood and doing other work. I guess we ate the rest, or provided it to tenants. I thought this was the last time we ever made molasses, but Donald assured me that he, Clifford, and Roland had made molasses there once more when he was the cook. This must have been in 1941 when I was at Mississippi State. So I assumed Donald made the last molasses. Then I talked to Larry Hough and he assured me that he and Dueward had made molasses together at some time later, probably in the 1950 decade. So Larry was the last person to see molasses being made. We do know that Larry was able to sell the copper evaporative pan for more actual dollars than we had paid for it. By then, it was a rarity. Molasses, 24 Jul 2005.	<urn:uuid:781333d0-1e8b-4f4e-b530-b59b72a421aa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://k00kaburra.livejournal.com/200036.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00486.warc.gz	en	0.983174	2,013	3.4375	3	[ -0.12988469004631042, 0.35524818301200867, 0.37294259667396545, -0.1984274685382843, 0.5754588842391968, -0.2729131579399109, -0.35919737815856934, 0.022443503141403198, -0.45993903279304504, 0.06645146012306213, -0.017066452652215958, -0.487601101398468, -0.2193347066640854, 0.16752566397...	5	In order to make molasses, you must have sugar cane or sorgo (sorghum cane). We grew both in our youth, but we only made the molasses ourselves from sugar cane. When in 1940 we grew sorgo, we got Mr. Billy Walker to make it into sorghum molasses. I was the only one fond of sorghum molasses, so after I left home, there were no eaters. Our stored supply was finally sold to moonshiners who in wartime could get no granulated sugar. So how did we grow sugar cane? Our favored place to grow sugar cane was in the Hollow, east of our house, where the drainage eastward flowed into Lack and Allen land. We started in the fall of the year by cutting stalks of cane and placing them into a built-up bed of pine straw in the nearby woods, then covering them with pine straw and brush so that rain would drain away and leave the cane moist but not standing in water. This was to be our stock for the next year’s crop. Sugar cane is a tropical member of the grass family and propagated by rooting at the joints or by using seed (in its natural jungle habitat). It never made seed at our latitude so we propagated it by cutting the stalks we had saved so that a joint with an eye would be on each piece. We placed this joint by hand with the eye upright in plowed soil, then covered it about an inch or two with loose dirt. The eye sprouted into the soil with a root and sent a shoot up through the soil as the new sugar cane plant. This we carefully cultivated and fertilized heavily. The cane grew slowly through the year until frost in November. Then the stalks were as large as they would get, about five feet long, and they ripened until we were ready to cut it. (When I saw sugar cane fully headed out with seed in Puerto Rico, the cutting operation would start; but this was not the way we had to do it.) When we cut the sugar cane, we first had to first clear away the leaves and tops with cane knives or machetes. Then we cut and stacked the stalks until we could move them by wagon to the cane mill. There we stacked the cane in piles until we were ready to make molasses. We did not have to plant sugar cane each year. One planting would nearly always last two years, and sometimes three, dependent on the severity of the winter. The joints at ground level which had not frozen would sprout for the second or third year. Another ingredient for making molasses was the wood for heating the vat. It generally had to be cut two to four weeks in advance in order to be dry enough to burn well. We used pine, but sometimes added dry oak, or sometimes lighterwood, (Lyte’ard) if we were short of pine which burned well. Our cane mill or molasses making operations were on the road, as my father had intended to make molasses for the public. He set it up as a permanent facility. The three essential parts were the well for water to use in operations and for animals, the cane grinding mill, and the cooking vat. We only equipped the well with a windlass rope and bucket during cooking operations. We needed the water for startup and for shutdown of the cooking vat and for our animals. The grinding mill was operated by a long lever which forced a big roller and two smaller rollers to turn and crush the cane stalks, forcing out the cane juice into a barrel which flowed downhill to a tap on the evaporating pan or cooking vat. The long lever was pulled by a mule going round and round. After the cane stalks were crushed, we called them cane “mashes,” but the term used in Louisiana sugar-making operations was “bagasse.” These crushed stalks had to be carried away to a pile of “mashes.” We never found any good use for them. (It may be useful to review the way we observed a molasses-making operation when we visited Donald in Florida. It is the same way molasses were made years ago all across the Caribbean, particularly in Jamaica. The juice flows into a huge kettle of known size all the way up to a marker ring. Then the juice is cooked down to another marker ring, at which time the product is sampled and should be molasses. During this cookdown, the juice is skimmed frequently to remove bits of stalk and other debris which do not cook. This is simplicity itself. You start with this level A, and you cook down to here at the final level B. Everything in this kettle will taste the same, either good or bad.) Cooking on a continuous-flow, evaporative vat required a great deal more skill which one developed by practice and careful observation. What you aimed for is a steady hot fire under the vat which did not cause hot spots, then a carefully adjusted inflow of cane juice, then a slow flow of juice around the 40 feet or more of vat partitions (baffles), diligent use of skimmers made from screen so pick up debris, and then a thin stream of molasses flowing out of the hot end of the vat into the molasses collecting tub. If the juice came too slow, the molasses cooked too long. If the juice came too fast, the molasses were thin and the outflow had to be slowed or even stopped for some time. We obtained more uniformity by allowing the molasses collecting tub to fill about 2/3 of the way to the top. Then, someone filled the new molasses buckets, gallon and half-gallon, with molasses from the tap in the collecting tub. To stop operations for the night or for the season, you let the juice run out of the collecting barrel, then put in water. The water forced the cooking molasses out and operations stopped. The last time I made molasses with Clifford, Donald, and Roland, and the only time I was in charge, was 1938. Dueward was marginally involved, having cut the firewood we used some time earlier. We were all in school, of course, and could only make preparations when we got home each day. We got the sugar cane moved to the cane mill, and it is possible that Dueward helped with that. We then got the well prepared, and moved the evaporative vat from its garage storage on the rafters and got it into place on the furnace. Each year we had to make clay mud plaster which we put on the furnace to assure a tight fit of the pan to the furnace. We also did repairs to the mud and straw chimney at the same time. With that done we put water in the pan, which we would cook off to clean the copper pan on the starting day of Saturday. Dueward did not think the wood was dry enough to burn and he took no part in the specific preparations. We did not think we had a choice. We resolved to cook molasses Saturday, come what may. Of course, we got up early and got a fire going under the pan. Clifford started grinding cane and filling the collecting barrel. Roland fed the fire and had a long stick for pushing the wood up under the pan. Donald moved the cane up to the grinders, and moved the mashes away. Then he would help Roland with the fire. I kept watch on the boiling water, and then started the flow of juice. As soon as the vat seemed clean, I ran the boiling water off and started cooking the juice. Soon, the bubbling molasses showed up at the hot end of the vat and I started filling the collecting tub with molasses. Donald would then run the hot molasses from the tub into the new molasses buckets. He had a board for pressing down on the hot lids to get the buckets completely closed. This went on all day. No time for lunch for us. Just the kind of snack we could eat on the job which our mother brought us, the same as she had always fixed for our father. We had to change mules so the mule (Old Pet) could get lunch, but we got along. I was 15 years old, Clifford was 13, Donald was 11, almost 12, and Roland was not yet 10. I was busy, but I do not recall seeing Dueward any time that day. We completed all our cane and had, if I recall correctly, 71 and ½ gallons of molasses. We dismantled the operations, put all the equipment back in its storage places, and moved the cans of syrup to storage. I soldered some of the tops, built boxes, and shipped them to Uncle Tom in New Haven, CT, and some more to Aunt Terry in Memphis, TN. I think Dueward got some for his cutting the wood and doing other work. I guess we ate the rest, or provided it to tenants. I thought this was the last time we ever made molasses, but Donald assured me that he, Clifford, and Roland had made molasses there once more when he was the cook. This must have been in 1941 when I was at Mississippi State. So I assumed Donald made the last molasses. Then I talked to Larry Hough and he assured me that he and Dueward had made molasses together at some time later, probably in the 1950 decade. So Larry was the last person to see molasses being made. We do know that Larry was able to sell the copper evaporative pan for more actual dollars than we had paid for it. By then, it was a rarity. Molasses, 24 Jul 2005.	1,996	ENGLISH	1
The squadron was formed in 1745 to counter French forces in North America, with the headquarters at the Halifax Naval Yard in Nova Scotia (now CFB Halifax). The area of command had first been designated as the North American Station in 1767, under the command of Commodore Samuel Hood, with the headquarters in Halifax from 1758 to 1794, and thereafter in Halifax and Bermuda. Land and buildings for a permanent Naval Yard were purchased by the Royal Navy in 1758 and the Yard was officially commissioned in 1759. The Yard served as the main base for the Royal Navy in North America during the Seven Years' War, the American Revolution, and the French Revolutionary Wars. Following American independence in 1783, Bermuda was the only British territory left between Nova Scotia and the West Indies (by agreement with the Spanish government, a Royal Navy base was maintained in Florida until this was ceded to the United States), and was selected as the new headquarters for the region. The establishment of a base there was delayed for a dozen years, however, due to the need to survey the encircling barrier reef to locate channels suitable for large warships. Once this had been completed, a base was established at St. George's in 1794, with the fleet anchoring at Murray's Anchorage in the northern lagoon, named for Vice Admiral Sir George Murray, who became the Commander-in-Chief of the new River St. Lawrence and Coast of America and North America and West Indies Station. The Admiralty also began purchasing land at Bermuda's West End, including Ireland Island, Spanish Point, and smaller islands in the Great Sound with the intent of building the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda, and a permanent naval base there, with its anchorage on Grassy Bay. The construction of this base was to drag on through much of the Nineteenth Century. Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren was appointed Commander-in-Chief in 1812, and he and his staff seem to have spent most of their time at Bermuda during the War of 1812 (he was replaced by Vice Admiral Sir Alexander Inglis Cochrane in 1813), from where the blockade of much of the Atlantic Seaboard of the United States was orchestrated, and the punitive expedition which included the Raid on Alexandria, the Battle of Bladensburg, and the Burning of Washington was launched in August, 1814. In 1813, the area of command had become the North America Station again, with the West Indies falling under the Jamaica Station, and in 1816 it was renamed the North America and Lakes of Canada Station. The headquarters was initially in Bermuda during the winter and Halifax during the summer, but Admiralty House, Bermuda, became the year-round headquarters of the Station in 1821, when the area of command became the North America and Newfoundland Station. In 1818 Halifax became the summer base for the squadron which shifted to the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda, for the remainder of the year. In 1819, the main base of the Station was moved from Halifax to Bermuda, which was better positioned to counter threats from the United States. Halifax continued to be used as the summer base for the station until 1907. At around the same time that the main base was moved the area of command was redesignated as the North America and West Indies Station, and remained so until 1907, when the North America and West Indies Station was abolished and replaced by the 4th Cruiser Squadron. These were based in England and Bermuda was redesignated from a base to a coaling station, although the dockyard remained in operation. The Commander-in-Chief, North America and West Indies Station, remained in Bermuda. The Royal Navy withdrew from Halifax in 1905, and the Halifax Naval Yard was handed over to the Royal Canadian Navy in 1910. The North America and West Indies Station was restored in 1915, and incorporated the 8th Cruiser Squadron from 1924–25. In 1942 the title of C-in-C America and West Indies was re-styled Senior British Naval Officer, Western Atlantic. In 1945 the America and West Indies title was restored. In 1951, the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda, was closed, with the Admiralty Floating Dock No. 5 towed to Britain by HM Tugs Warden and Reward, departing on 11 July. The position of Senior Naval Officer West Indies (SNOWI) was established as a Sub-Area Commander under the Commander-in-Chief of the America and West Indies station. The occupant of this position was a commodore, and was provided with a shore office on Ireland Island (which was beside the Victualling Yard until 1962), but was required to spend much of his time at sea in the West Indies. A flagship (between 1951 and April, 1956, this was successively HMS Sheffield, HMS Superb, HMS Sheffield, HMS Kenya) and other vessels of the America and West Indies Squadron continued to be based at the South Yard of the former Royal Naval Dockyard, where the Royal Navy maintained a Berthing Area under the command of a Resident Naval Officer (RNO), but were detached from the Home Fleet, and their refits and repairs were thenceforth to be carried out in Britain. The RNO had his own office in one of the houses of Dockyard Terrace. Admiralty land not required for the continued naval operations was sold to the colonial government. There was also an RNO in Nassau. , the anchorage for the fleet in Bermuda between 1816 and 1956, with the Royal Naval Dockyard in the background In 1952, the Commander-in-Chief, Vice Admiral Sir William Andrewes, became the initial Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic.	<urn:uuid:5ea2db00-77ed-42d4-9bb6-22be2d5e23e4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wikiplanet.click/enciclopedia/en/North_America_and_West_Indies_Station	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00253.warc.gz	en	0.980992	1,153	3.5	4	[ -0.2191765457391739, 0.37164193391799927, 0.18936340510845184, -0.2843777537345886, 0.020295176655054092, 0.11328478902578354, -0.1747761368751526, 0.28990745544433594, 0.048862993717193604, 0.25820404291152954, 0.42870721220970154, -0.3594582676887512, 0.14074468612670898, 0.2672958970069...	1	The squadron was formed in 1745 to counter French forces in North America, with the headquarters at the Halifax Naval Yard in Nova Scotia (now CFB Halifax). The area of command had first been designated as the North American Station in 1767, under the command of Commodore Samuel Hood, with the headquarters in Halifax from 1758 to 1794, and thereafter in Halifax and Bermuda. Land and buildings for a permanent Naval Yard were purchased by the Royal Navy in 1758 and the Yard was officially commissioned in 1759. The Yard served as the main base for the Royal Navy in North America during the Seven Years' War, the American Revolution, and the French Revolutionary Wars. Following American independence in 1783, Bermuda was the only British territory left between Nova Scotia and the West Indies (by agreement with the Spanish government, a Royal Navy base was maintained in Florida until this was ceded to the United States), and was selected as the new headquarters for the region. The establishment of a base there was delayed for a dozen years, however, due to the need to survey the encircling barrier reef to locate channels suitable for large warships. Once this had been completed, a base was established at St. George's in 1794, with the fleet anchoring at Murray's Anchorage in the northern lagoon, named for Vice Admiral Sir George Murray, who became the Commander-in-Chief of the new River St. Lawrence and Coast of America and North America and West Indies Station. The Admiralty also began purchasing land at Bermuda's West End, including Ireland Island, Spanish Point, and smaller islands in the Great Sound with the intent of building the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda, and a permanent naval base there, with its anchorage on Grassy Bay. The construction of this base was to drag on through much of the Nineteenth Century. Admiral Sir John Borlase Warren was appointed Commander-in-Chief in 1812, and he and his staff seem to have spent most of their time at Bermuda during the War of 1812 (he was replaced by Vice Admiral Sir Alexander Inglis Cochrane in 1813), from where the blockade of much of the Atlantic Seaboard of the United States was orchestrated, and the punitive expedition which included the Raid on Alexandria, the Battle of Bladensburg, and the Burning of Washington was launched in August, 1814. In 1813, the area of command had become the North America Station again, with the West Indies falling under the Jamaica Station, and in 1816 it was renamed the North America and Lakes of Canada Station. The headquarters was initially in Bermuda during the winter and Halifax during the summer, but Admiralty House, Bermuda, became the year-round headquarters of the Station in 1821, when the area of command became the North America and Newfoundland Station. In 1818 Halifax became the summer base for the squadron which shifted to the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda, for the remainder of the year. In 1819, the main base of the Station was moved from Halifax to Bermuda, which was better positioned to counter threats from the United States. Halifax continued to be used as the summer base for the station until 1907. At around the same time that the main base was moved the area of command was redesignated as the North America and West Indies Station, and remained so until 1907, when the North America and West Indies Station was abolished and replaced by the 4th Cruiser Squadron. These were based in England and Bermuda was redesignated from a base to a coaling station, although the dockyard remained in operation. The Commander-in-Chief, North America and West Indies Station, remained in Bermuda. The Royal Navy withdrew from Halifax in 1905, and the Halifax Naval Yard was handed over to the Royal Canadian Navy in 1910. The North America and West Indies Station was restored in 1915, and incorporated the 8th Cruiser Squadron from 1924–25. In 1942 the title of C-in-C America and West Indies was re-styled Senior British Naval Officer, Western Atlantic. In 1945 the America and West Indies title was restored. In 1951, the Royal Naval Dockyard, Bermuda, was closed, with the Admiralty Floating Dock No. 5 towed to Britain by HM Tugs Warden and Reward, departing on 11 July. The position of Senior Naval Officer West Indies (SNOWI) was established as a Sub-Area Commander under the Commander-in-Chief of the America and West Indies station. The occupant of this position was a commodore, and was provided with a shore office on Ireland Island (which was beside the Victualling Yard until 1962), but was required to spend much of his time at sea in the West Indies. A flagship (between 1951 and April, 1956, this was successively HMS Sheffield, HMS Superb, HMS Sheffield, HMS Kenya) and other vessels of the America and West Indies Squadron continued to be based at the South Yard of the former Royal Naval Dockyard, where the Royal Navy maintained a Berthing Area under the command of a Resident Naval Officer (RNO), but were detached from the Home Fleet, and their refits and repairs were thenceforth to be carried out in Britain. The RNO had his own office in one of the houses of Dockyard Terrace. Admiralty land not required for the continued naval operations was sold to the colonial government. There was also an RNO in Nassau. , the anchorage for the fleet in Bermuda between 1816 and 1956, with the Royal Naval Dockyard in the background In 1952, the Commander-in-Chief, Vice Admiral Sir William Andrewes, became the initial Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic.	1,258	ENGLISH	1
Women have been an inspiration for many writers for centuries. They have been celebrated as symbols of beauty, affection and strength, and we usually connect them with motherhood and raising children. The works about women very often reveal not only lives of women, but they also describe the times and problems they had to face, and they provide a very clear picture about the whole society of the times when these works were created. Contrasting the modern day women to the women in Voltaire’s period we can look into the past and the present and see how women’s roles have changed. After centuries of conforming to female stereotypes created by men, women are slowly taking control of their own image making. Image of being equal to the men and being able to face the reality of life on their own, without men’s support. In the past the traditional concepts of what it means to be a woman were taught in the early stages of development. Parents encourage outdated roles in the way little girls are dressed, the toys they play with, and the books that are read to them. As pointed out in “X: A Fabulous Child’s Story” by Lois Gould, girls were treated a distinct way. In the late 1800s, women did not play an important role in society at all. Their job was mainly to cook, clean, sew, take care of the children, and keep the house in order. They were treated as a material possession rather than a human being that could think and act for themselves and looked upon as a decorative member of the household. Women were treated just as sex objects , alive just to satisfy a mans needs and desires. They were robbed of their true identity. The male always dominated over the women and it was not viewed as “unfair. ” The history of mankind is a history of repeated injuries on the part of men toward woman, having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over her. ” (Declaration of Sentiments) It was believed that women were the inferior gender and had to have special attention given to them. Women were also very limited in their rights in 1872. Such rights included: women had to submit to laws when they had no voice in their formation, married women had no property rights, husbands had legal power over and responsibility for their wives to the extent that they could imprison or beat them with impunity, divorce and child custody laws favored men, giving no rights to women and when women did work they were paid only a fraction of what men earned, women were not allowed to enter professions such as medicine or law, and women were robbed of their self-confidence and self-respect, and were made totally dependent on men. Declaration of Sentiments) But times have changed now. Women now have the power to do anything they want to when they put their minds to it. Over the last century women have made incredible progress in their struggle to claim their equal rights and humanity, gaining the right to vote in 1920 under the 19th amendment in the constitution, gaining a right to an equal education, owning property and having a job. Women’s new role in society is focused on independence. Society has found that women are able to succeed without set limitations and expectations despite earlier notions. The media no longer focuses primarily on superficial aspects of women but also on a more profound basis. In Ever After, a modern version of Cinderella, Danielle is respected not only for her beauty but also for her intelligence and distinct personality. She shares her knowledge of democracy, education, and equality with Henry, the prince. Danielle’s actions represent the new forms of empowerment modern women strive for. Women are now encouraged to educate themselves beyond the domestic elements. Advertisements share this idea of a “new woman. ” Hamburger Helper ads typically present workingwomen who are also able to make dinner for the family. In “Beauty and the Beast of Advertising,” Jean Kilbourne recognizes that it is somewhat common to see a “liberated woman” with “independence and self-esteem”. Similar ideas of independence are portrayed in the business world. New positions are shaped for strong-willed women who are able to take on more responsibility. These new roles for women are continuing to gain acceptance. The play “Antigone” is built on the conflicts between man and women and their roles in society. Creon is an authoritative figure who feels his authority should not be undermined by anyone, especially a woman (Antigone). Antigone with her strong belief that all the dead deserves honor buries her brother Polynices which was a strict violation of the king’s law. This act of Antigone was very courageous. Creon never allowed any man to go against him and definitely no woman. He believed that until he is alive no woman is going to lord over him. Even in such a situation where Antigone’s life depends on it she calmly and eloquently argues the righteousness of her actions instead of quivering with fear under Creon’s threats. This small paragraph from the play proves that men cannot suppress women and they can challenge men in every field. Women have improved their ability to succeed in life and realized that they are not just sex objects but people who have the same right as men. Women have made an incredible appearance and play an immense role in today’s society. Women are basically treated with equality today with men and the times sure have changed. In modern day society, women are very well educated and have improved in many areas. Being educated they learned that they can succeed in the working force and use laws that protect them from being discriminated against in any situation. Nonetheless in some households women are treated with no respect. They are sometimes told what to do. The only difference today is that women have their own opinions and can speak their minds. Women have become independent and they do not need men to support them.	<urn:uuid:d17d308f-84ee-49b7-a9f6-48b1175c3804>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://monsterliterature.com/women-aspiration-in-literature/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00549.warc.gz	en	0.987676	1,220	3.890625	4	[ 0.050500016659498215, 0.43423205614089966, 0.20491161942481995, 0.06255325675010681, -0.3200129270553589, 0.5161929130554199, -0.07065625488758087, -0.016382869333028793, -0.07902504503726959, -0.15701505541801453, 0.11119057238101959, 0.16321411728858948, -0.03246384114027023, 0.028780899...	2	Women have been an inspiration for many writers for centuries. They have been celebrated as symbols of beauty, affection and strength, and we usually connect them with motherhood and raising children. The works about women very often reveal not only lives of women, but they also describe the times and problems they had to face, and they provide a very clear picture about the whole society of the times when these works were created. Contrasting the modern day women to the women in Voltaire’s period we can look into the past and the present and see how women’s roles have changed. After centuries of conforming to female stereotypes created by men, women are slowly taking control of their own image making. Image of being equal to the men and being able to face the reality of life on their own, without men’s support. In the past the traditional concepts of what it means to be a woman were taught in the early stages of development. Parents encourage outdated roles in the way little girls are dressed, the toys they play with, and the books that are read to them. As pointed out in “X: A Fabulous Child’s Story” by Lois Gould, girls were treated a distinct way. In the late 1800s, women did not play an important role in society at all. Their job was mainly to cook, clean, sew, take care of the children, and keep the house in order. They were treated as a material possession rather than a human being that could think and act for themselves and looked upon as a decorative member of the household. Women were treated just as sex objects , alive just to satisfy a mans needs and desires. They were robbed of their true identity. The male always dominated over the women and it was not viewed as “unfair. ” The history of mankind is a history of repeated injuries on the part of men toward woman, having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over her. ” (Declaration of Sentiments) It was believed that women were the inferior gender and had to have special attention given to them. Women were also very limited in their rights in 1872. Such rights included: women had to submit to laws when they had no voice in their formation, married women had no property rights, husbands had legal power over and responsibility for their wives to the extent that they could imprison or beat them with impunity, divorce and child custody laws favored men, giving no rights to women and when women did work they were paid only a fraction of what men earned, women were not allowed to enter professions such as medicine or law, and women were robbed of their self-confidence and self-respect, and were made totally dependent on men. Declaration of Sentiments) But times have changed now. Women now have the power to do anything they want to when they put their minds to it. Over the last century women have made incredible progress in their struggle to claim their equal rights and humanity, gaining the right to vote in 1920 under the 19th amendment in the constitution, gaining a right to an equal education, owning property and having a job. Women’s new role in society is focused on independence. Society has found that women are able to succeed without set limitations and expectations despite earlier notions. The media no longer focuses primarily on superficial aspects of women but also on a more profound basis. In Ever After, a modern version of Cinderella, Danielle is respected not only for her beauty but also for her intelligence and distinct personality. She shares her knowledge of democracy, education, and equality with Henry, the prince. Danielle’s actions represent the new forms of empowerment modern women strive for. Women are now encouraged to educate themselves beyond the domestic elements. Advertisements share this idea of a “new woman. ” Hamburger Helper ads typically present workingwomen who are also able to make dinner for the family. In “Beauty and the Beast of Advertising,” Jean Kilbourne recognizes that it is somewhat common to see a “liberated woman” with “independence and self-esteem”. Similar ideas of independence are portrayed in the business world. New positions are shaped for strong-willed women who are able to take on more responsibility. These new roles for women are continuing to gain acceptance. The play “Antigone” is built on the conflicts between man and women and their roles in society. Creon is an authoritative figure who feels his authority should not be undermined by anyone, especially a woman (Antigone). Antigone with her strong belief that all the dead deserves honor buries her brother Polynices which was a strict violation of the king’s law. This act of Antigone was very courageous. Creon never allowed any man to go against him and definitely no woman. He believed that until he is alive no woman is going to lord over him. Even in such a situation where Antigone’s life depends on it she calmly and eloquently argues the righteousness of her actions instead of quivering with fear under Creon’s threats. This small paragraph from the play proves that men cannot suppress women and they can challenge men in every field. Women have improved their ability to succeed in life and realized that they are not just sex objects but people who have the same right as men. Women have made an incredible appearance and play an immense role in today’s society. Women are basically treated with equality today with men and the times sure have changed. In modern day society, women are very well educated and have improved in many areas. Being educated they learned that they can succeed in the working force and use laws that protect them from being discriminated against in any situation. Nonetheless in some households women are treated with no respect. They are sometimes told what to do. The only difference today is that women have their own opinions and can speak their minds. Women have become independent and they do not need men to support them.	1,184	ENGLISH	1
Emmeline Pankhurst Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Also Known For : Birth Place : Emmeline Pankhurst was born on July 15, 1858. She was a British political activist. She was also the leader of the British Suffragette Movement. She was born into a family that was obsessed with radical politics. She was the founder of the Women’s Franchise League. She also co-founded the Women’s Social and Political Union. She was arrested a couple of times for her activism, but she did not give up. Emmeline Pankhurst was born on July 15, 1858, in Manchester in England. She was born to Robert Goulden who was a businessman and Sophia Jane Craine. Her parents were politically active. She was brought up alongside ten siblings. She loved reading from a young age, and so she read ‘The Pilgrim’s Progress,’ ‘The French Revolution: A History,’ ‘Stowe Uncle Tom’s Cabin’ and ‘The Odyssey.’ When she was fifteen, she joined the Ecole Normale de Neuilly in Paris, France. Her parents were not so concerned with her education as they wanted her to marry early. In 1879, she got married to Richard Pankhurst who was a barrister who supported women’s suffrage, education reform and freedom of speech. They lived in Russell Square where she hosted guests such as Indian Member of Parliament Dadabhai Naorija and Socialist Activists Herbert Burrows and Annie Besant among other prominent names. In 1888, the National Society for Women’s Suffrage split and Emmeline joined the Parliament Street Society. The National Society for Women’s Suffrage advocated for the rights of women to vote. The Parliament Street Society did not, however, support the rights of married women to vote. In 1889, Emmeline and her husband founded the Women’s Franchise League (WFL) which advocated for both unmarried and married women’s rights to vote. The organization was considered as a radical because it not only supporting women’s voting rights but also equal rights for women in the areas of divorce and inheritance. It also advocated for trade unionism, and it also sought alliances with socialist organizations. She became friends with socialist Keir Hardie who was from Scotland. In 1893, Keir was made a member of parliament, and he assisted in the creation of the Independent Labour Party (ILP). She later left WFL and joined ILP. In 1894, she was elected poor law Guardian in Chorlton-on-Medlock, and she was not impressed with the conditions in the Manchester workhouse. In 1898, her husband died leaving her with a lot of debts. Emmeline resigned from the Board of Guardians and started working as a paid registrar of Births and Death in Chorlton. In 1900, she became a member of the Manchester School Board. In 1908, as she tried to enter the parliament, she was arrested and imprisoned for six weeks. She later assisted in the founding of the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) which was all about women being allowed to vote. In 1910, she led a protest with three hundred women. Emmeline was demanding to meet Prime Minister Asquith, but he did not give them audience. The women were treated so badly by the police that the day came to be known as Black Friday. The women did not give up as they went on hunger strikes, committed arsons, conducted protests and they were arrested at the same time. In 1912, Emmeline was arrested and released most of the time. When World War I began, she stopped the suffrage campaigns. The government also released the suffragists that they were holding. She later founded an adoption home for babies of single mothers in Camden Hill. In 1916, she visited North America, Canada and the United States where she raised money. She also pleaded with the United States’ Government to help Britain. In 1918, the Representation of the People Act came into place allowing women over 30 years to vote. The WSPU later became the Women’s Party. In 1928, she joined the Conservative Party and ran as a candidate for parliament. Her campaign was however affected due to her ill health. In 1878, she got married to Richard Pankhurst with whom she has five children, Christabel, Francis, Adela, Henry Francis and Estelle. In 1898, her husband died. She died on June 14, 1928, in London. Emmeline died at the age of sixty nine. Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Salva Kiir Mayardit	<urn:uuid:7b34943d-df86-4f73-a380-6eae7be18d53>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/emmeline-pankhurst/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00302.warc.gz	en	0.990466	992	3.453125	3	[ 0.09285551309585571, 0.2461746633052826, 0.2908114194869995, 0.2322169989347458, -0.36575788259506226, 0.6478979587554932, 0.10676891356706619, 0.23326091468334198, -0.009862152859568596, 0.3516441583633423, -0.3863259553909302, -0.43939661979675293, 0.17950215935707092, 0.1172333434224128...	1	Emmeline Pankhurst Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Died On : Also Known For : Birth Place : Emmeline Pankhurst was born on July 15, 1858. She was a British political activist. She was also the leader of the British Suffragette Movement. She was born into a family that was obsessed with radical politics. She was the founder of the Women’s Franchise League. She also co-founded the Women’s Social and Political Union. She was arrested a couple of times for her activism, but she did not give up. Emmeline Pankhurst was born on July 15, 1858, in Manchester in England. She was born to Robert Goulden who was a businessman and Sophia Jane Craine. Her parents were politically active. She was brought up alongside ten siblings. She loved reading from a young age, and so she read ‘The Pilgrim’s Progress,’ ‘The French Revolution: A History,’ ‘Stowe Uncle Tom’s Cabin’ and ‘The Odyssey.’ When she was fifteen, she joined the Ecole Normale de Neuilly in Paris, France. Her parents were not so concerned with her education as they wanted her to marry early. In 1879, she got married to Richard Pankhurst who was a barrister who supported women’s suffrage, education reform and freedom of speech. They lived in Russell Square where she hosted guests such as Indian Member of Parliament Dadabhai Naorija and Socialist Activists Herbert Burrows and Annie Besant among other prominent names. In 1888, the National Society for Women’s Suffrage split and Emmeline joined the Parliament Street Society. The National Society for Women’s Suffrage advocated for the rights of women to vote. The Parliament Street Society did not, however, support the rights of married women to vote. In 1889, Emmeline and her husband founded the Women’s Franchise League (WFL) which advocated for both unmarried and married women’s rights to vote. The organization was considered as a radical because it not only supporting women’s voting rights but also equal rights for women in the areas of divorce and inheritance. It also advocated for trade unionism, and it also sought alliances with socialist organizations. She became friends with socialist Keir Hardie who was from Scotland. In 1893, Keir was made a member of parliament, and he assisted in the creation of the Independent Labour Party (ILP). She later left WFL and joined ILP. In 1894, she was elected poor law Guardian in Chorlton-on-Medlock, and she was not impressed with the conditions in the Manchester workhouse. In 1898, her husband died leaving her with a lot of debts. Emmeline resigned from the Board of Guardians and started working as a paid registrar of Births and Death in Chorlton. In 1900, she became a member of the Manchester School Board. In 1908, as she tried to enter the parliament, she was arrested and imprisoned for six weeks. She later assisted in the founding of the Women’s Social and Political Union (WSPU) which was all about women being allowed to vote. In 1910, she led a protest with three hundred women. Emmeline was demanding to meet Prime Minister Asquith, but he did not give them audience. The women were treated so badly by the police that the day came to be known as Black Friday. The women did not give up as they went on hunger strikes, committed arsons, conducted protests and they were arrested at the same time. In 1912, Emmeline was arrested and released most of the time. When World War I began, she stopped the suffrage campaigns. The government also released the suffragists that they were holding. She later founded an adoption home for babies of single mothers in Camden Hill. In 1916, she visited North America, Canada and the United States where she raised money. She also pleaded with the United States’ Government to help Britain. In 1918, the Representation of the People Act came into place allowing women over 30 years to vote. The WSPU later became the Women’s Party. In 1928, she joined the Conservative Party and ran as a candidate for parliament. Her campaign was however affected due to her ill health. In 1878, she got married to Richard Pankhurst with whom she has five children, Christabel, Francis, Adela, Henry Francis and Estelle. In 1898, her husband died. She died on June 14, 1928, in London. Emmeline died at the age of sixty nine. Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Salva Kiir Mayardit	1,011	ENGLISH	1
This page tells all about the Plymouth Colony and what some call the first Thanksgiving. The holiday of Thanksgiving was born from the Puritan settlement of Plymouth, on the coast of present-day Massachusetts. Puritan separatists, desperate for religious freedom, left England in 1607 for the Netherlands under increasing pressure from the crown to conform. Although they were allowed religious freedom, they were not granted citizenship in the Netherlands, and hence, could not secure meaningful jobs and were restricted to those that were low-paying and unskilled. Some Puritans, disheartened by the drifting of their children from the church, made arrangements with the Merchant Adventurers (a London joint-stock company) to relocate to America. Payment for their passage was made in exchange for future repayment and a percentage of future profits made by the settlement. 35 Pilgrims (as they would come to be known) boarded the Mayflower with 67 other passengers and set sail for Virginia on September 16, 1620. The treacherous voyage across the stormy Atlantic Ocean lasted 10 weeks. When the Mayflower finally approached America, it was no where near Jamestown or even Virginia. On November 11, 1620, the Mayflower reached land off present-day Cape Cod. Some historians believe the Mayflower never intended to sail to Virginia, but rather had secretly planned to sail to New England. Many of the passengers threatened mutiny because they were supposed to be brought to Virginia. As a result, the Mayflower Compact was drafted which guaranteed the equal treatment of all settlers in the new colony. The Mayflower Compact further documented the colony's continued allegiance to England, but also called for the establishment of an independent, civil government. The Compact was signed by 41 male passengers and the decision to remain at Plymouth, rather than to spend more time at sea was made. The settlers organized themselves into a group known as the Council of New England. The council promised one hundred acres of land to those settlers who remained at Plymouth for seven years. The Mayflower and its passengers explored the coast of Massachusetts for several weeks before finding the perfect spot at Plymouth on December 21, 1620. Life in Massachusetts was difficult for the settlers. Half of the original passengers on the Mayflower died of disease, starvation, and the harsh Massachusetts winter. Unlike Jamestown, however, Indian attacks were not a constant threat. Rather, the local Wampanoag Indians were responsible for the survival of the colonists. Squanto, who was kidnapped and had experienced life in Europe as a slave and later as an observer of European culture in a monastery, had recently returned to Massachusetts only to find his former village ravaged by death and disease. He assimilated into the Wampanoag village located at Plymouth and later joined the Pilgrim colony at Plymouth when they learned he could speak English. Squanto taught the Pilgrims how to establish friendly relations with the Indians and how to plant crops, fish, and trap mammals for the fur trade. If it wasn't for Squanto, the Wampanoags and their sachem Massasoit, all of the settlers would have surely perished. One year after the landing of the Mayflower, the surviving Pilgrims celebrated their first fall harvest with a prodigious feast. They invited 91 of their Indian neighbors. The feast was what some call the first ever Thanksgiving.	<urn:uuid:c34e04d1-8e83-4c7c-bb2f-f0cd51478a59>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mrnussbaum.com/plymouth-colony	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00420.warc.gz	en	0.983848	674	4.3125	4	[ 0.19035296142101288, 0.049698635935783386, 0.34308740496635437, -0.443290650844574, -0.18432793021202087, -0.050269708037376404, -0.2511705756187439, 0.10548371821641922, -0.05482826381921768, 0.42931056022644043, -0.23959890007972717, -0.024664632976055145, -0.23200702667236328, 0.2215653...	1	This page tells all about the Plymouth Colony and what some call the first Thanksgiving. The holiday of Thanksgiving was born from the Puritan settlement of Plymouth, on the coast of present-day Massachusetts. Puritan separatists, desperate for religious freedom, left England in 1607 for the Netherlands under increasing pressure from the crown to conform. Although they were allowed religious freedom, they were not granted citizenship in the Netherlands, and hence, could not secure meaningful jobs and were restricted to those that were low-paying and unskilled. Some Puritans, disheartened by the drifting of their children from the church, made arrangements with the Merchant Adventurers (a London joint-stock company) to relocate to America. Payment for their passage was made in exchange for future repayment and a percentage of future profits made by the settlement. 35 Pilgrims (as they would come to be known) boarded the Mayflower with 67 other passengers and set sail for Virginia on September 16, 1620. The treacherous voyage across the stormy Atlantic Ocean lasted 10 weeks. When the Mayflower finally approached America, it was no where near Jamestown or even Virginia. On November 11, 1620, the Mayflower reached land off present-day Cape Cod. Some historians believe the Mayflower never intended to sail to Virginia, but rather had secretly planned to sail to New England. Many of the passengers threatened mutiny because they were supposed to be brought to Virginia. As a result, the Mayflower Compact was drafted which guaranteed the equal treatment of all settlers in the new colony. The Mayflower Compact further documented the colony's continued allegiance to England, but also called for the establishment of an independent, civil government. The Compact was signed by 41 male passengers and the decision to remain at Plymouth, rather than to spend more time at sea was made. The settlers organized themselves into a group known as the Council of New England. The council promised one hundred acres of land to those settlers who remained at Plymouth for seven years. The Mayflower and its passengers explored the coast of Massachusetts for several weeks before finding the perfect spot at Plymouth on December 21, 1620. Life in Massachusetts was difficult for the settlers. Half of the original passengers on the Mayflower died of disease, starvation, and the harsh Massachusetts winter. Unlike Jamestown, however, Indian attacks were not a constant threat. Rather, the local Wampanoag Indians were responsible for the survival of the colonists. Squanto, who was kidnapped and had experienced life in Europe as a slave and later as an observer of European culture in a monastery, had recently returned to Massachusetts only to find his former village ravaged by death and disease. He assimilated into the Wampanoag village located at Plymouth and later joined the Pilgrim colony at Plymouth when they learned he could speak English. Squanto taught the Pilgrims how to establish friendly relations with the Indians and how to plant crops, fish, and trap mammals for the fur trade. If it wasn't for Squanto, the Wampanoags and their sachem Massasoit, all of the settlers would have surely perished. One year after the landing of the Mayflower, the surviving Pilgrims celebrated their first fall harvest with a prodigious feast. They invited 91 of their Indian neighbors. The feast was what some call the first ever Thanksgiving.	703	ENGLISH	1
Where it all happened In 1333, Kinsale was established as a town under a charter granted by King Edward of England. Through its history, Kinsale has been an important link with Spain. Charles Fort, built in 1677, guarded the entrance to Kinsale Harbor. From 1694, Kinsale served as a supply base for the English Royal Navy. Captain Woodes Rogers mentions Kinsale in his 1798 memoirs. He became Governor of Nassau and was an important player in Anne Bonny's life. (Wikipedia) The Pink House was an important grogerie in Anne Bonny's history because it is where she met James Bonny. The picture on the right was the way the Pink House looked in Anne Bonny's day. The Pink House was built in 1694. The picture on the left is how The pink House looks today. Located at 17 Chalmers Street in downtown Charleston. (Wikipedia) Nassau, founded in 1670 as Charles Town, was burned in 1684. It was rebuilt in 1695 and renamed Nassau. From 1703 to 1713, with no Royal Governor, Nassau became the bastion of pirates. During these years, Nassau was called the "Pirate Republic". In 1718, Captain Woodes Rogers was appointed Royal Governor. He was to regain control for the British Crown. He clamped down on piracy and published the Proclamation naming Anne Bonny, John Rackham et al "As Pirates". (wikipedia) On September 15th 1720, Governor Woodes Rogers signed a Proclamation naming John Rackham, Anne Bonny, Mary Reed and the rest of his crew as Pirates and Enemies of the Crown of Great Britain. And, so are to be treated and deem'd by all of His Majesty's subjects. He had previously condemned all pirates to death. Port Royal, Jamaica, had been the port of choice of the Caribbean pirates. It was closed by the Governor. The selection of Nassau was made because there was no Royal Governor. Nassau's location was better suited to pirating. The Straits of Florida was the main route for ships laden with gold and sugar from Mexico, Jamaica, and Cuba to Europe and returning ships with supplies. It was also the route used by slaver ships bringing slaves to the sugar plantations. (Wikipedia) Christopher Columbus was the first European to set foot on the Island of Jamaica in 1494, when he claimed it for Spain. His return in 1503 was the result of a ship wreck. He and his crew lived there for a few months until they were rescued. In 1655, Britain was successful in taking Jamaica from Spain but, the pirates were using the harbor to be called Port Royal as headquarters for a number of years before the English takeover. Port Royal had earned the reputation as the "wickedest place on Earth". The 1692 earthquake virtually devastated Port Royal causing the relocation of the pirates that utilized it as headquarters. They moved to Nassau. (Wikipedia) Cuba was one of "Calico Jack" Rackham's favorite places to pirate and relax. Anne Bonny's first child was born in Cuba while staying with friends of Rackham. He knew that there were many small, deep harbors and little official presence by the police or military. Christopher Columbus landed on the northeastern coast, October 28, 1492 and claimed the island for Spain. This is a mariners map of Anne Bonny's world in 1720. As you can see Nassau, The Bahamas, Cuba, Jamaica, and Espaniola (now Haiti & Dominican Republic) are pretty much correctly drawn because they were well traveled. North, Central, and South America are mostly guesses because they were yet to be actually mapped. John "Calico Jack" Rackham, Anne Bonny and their crew were captured by Jonathan Barnet in Dry Harbor Bay, Jamaica, near Ocho Rios on October 21, 1721. The crew had been drinking the entire day and most were below deck sleeping. Anne Bonny and Mary Reed were on guard. Barnett's crew were too much for Anne and Mary. As Jack and his crew were herded, passing the two women, Anne Bonny was heard saying to Rackham, "if you had fought like a man you need not have hanged like a dog". 1) "Calico Jack" Rackham and his senior crew were tried in Villa de la Vega and were found guilty of being pirates. They were taken, in an open wagon so they could be viewed, to Port Royal Harbor 2) where they were hanged in a public execution November 18, 1721. 3) Following his death, Rackham's body was gibbeted and put on display, on a small islet at the main entrance to Port Royal Harbor. It is now known as Rackham's Cay. Anne Bonny and Mary Reed were tried on November 17, 1721 by the Governor of Jamaica, Sir Nicholas Lawes (Anne Bonny had struck his sister) in the town of Villa de la Vega (also called Spanish Town) as pirates and found guilty. The verdict was "you are to go...to the place of execution...where you shall be hanged by the neck until dead..." Both Anne Bonny and Mary Reed escaped by "pleading their bellies" as they were both pregnant and such could not be hanged in Jamaica. Gibbeting refers to the use of a metal cage from which the dead bodies of criminals were hung on public display to deter other existing or potential criminals. It was most often used for traitors, murderers, highwaymen and pirates. Rackham's body was Gibbeted and placed at the main entrance of the busy harbor of Port Royal as a reminder to "would be" pirates. (Wikipedia) The famous Skull and crossed swords was designed by John "Calico Jack" Rackham. It was different from previous designed Skull and crossed bones because Rackham wanted to send a message to ships he was commandeering that if they didn't surrender all would be killed.	<urn:uuid:0cc7f294-c3d5-4e77-846f-b2f73b33fa69>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.fieryredhair.com/the-gallery	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00075.warc.gz	en	0.988715	1,243	3.296875	3	[ -0.2259225845336914, -0.40568268299102783, 0.5261750817298889, -0.19267112016677856, 0.22765997052192688, -0.2113945186138153, 0.14549200236797333, 0.15110215544700623, -0.5186888575553894, -0.3592093586921692, 0.3918376863002777, -0.2358153760433197, -0.2592811584472656, 0.224687337875366...	17	Where it all happened In 1333, Kinsale was established as a town under a charter granted by King Edward of England. Through its history, Kinsale has been an important link with Spain. Charles Fort, built in 1677, guarded the entrance to Kinsale Harbor. From 1694, Kinsale served as a supply base for the English Royal Navy. Captain Woodes Rogers mentions Kinsale in his 1798 memoirs. He became Governor of Nassau and was an important player in Anne Bonny's life. (Wikipedia) The Pink House was an important grogerie in Anne Bonny's history because it is where she met James Bonny. The picture on the right was the way the Pink House looked in Anne Bonny's day. The Pink House was built in 1694. The picture on the left is how The pink House looks today. Located at 17 Chalmers Street in downtown Charleston. (Wikipedia) Nassau, founded in 1670 as Charles Town, was burned in 1684. It was rebuilt in 1695 and renamed Nassau. From 1703 to 1713, with no Royal Governor, Nassau became the bastion of pirates. During these years, Nassau was called the "Pirate Republic". In 1718, Captain Woodes Rogers was appointed Royal Governor. He was to regain control for the British Crown. He clamped down on piracy and published the Proclamation naming Anne Bonny, John Rackham et al "As Pirates". (wikipedia) On September 15th 1720, Governor Woodes Rogers signed a Proclamation naming John Rackham, Anne Bonny, Mary Reed and the rest of his crew as Pirates and Enemies of the Crown of Great Britain. And, so are to be treated and deem'd by all of His Majesty's subjects. He had previously condemned all pirates to death. Port Royal, Jamaica, had been the port of choice of the Caribbean pirates. It was closed by the Governor. The selection of Nassau was made because there was no Royal Governor. Nassau's location was better suited to pirating. The Straits of Florida was the main route for ships laden with gold and sugar from Mexico, Jamaica, and Cuba to Europe and returning ships with supplies. It was also the route used by slaver ships bringing slaves to the sugar plantations. (Wikipedia) Christopher Columbus was the first European to set foot on the Island of Jamaica in 1494, when he claimed it for Spain. His return in 1503 was the result of a ship wreck. He and his crew lived there for a few months until they were rescued. In 1655, Britain was successful in taking Jamaica from Spain but, the pirates were using the harbor to be called Port Royal as headquarters for a number of years before the English takeover. Port Royal had earned the reputation as the "wickedest place on Earth". The 1692 earthquake virtually devastated Port Royal causing the relocation of the pirates that utilized it as headquarters. They moved to Nassau. (Wikipedia) Cuba was one of "Calico Jack" Rackham's favorite places to pirate and relax. Anne Bonny's first child was born in Cuba while staying with friends of Rackham. He knew that there were many small, deep harbors and little official presence by the police or military. Christopher Columbus landed on the northeastern coast, October 28, 1492 and claimed the island for Spain. This is a mariners map of Anne Bonny's world in 1720. As you can see Nassau, The Bahamas, Cuba, Jamaica, and Espaniola (now Haiti & Dominican Republic) are pretty much correctly drawn because they were well traveled. North, Central, and South America are mostly guesses because they were yet to be actually mapped. John "Calico Jack" Rackham, Anne Bonny and their crew were captured by Jonathan Barnet in Dry Harbor Bay, Jamaica, near Ocho Rios on October 21, 1721. The crew had been drinking the entire day and most were below deck sleeping. Anne Bonny and Mary Reed were on guard. Barnett's crew were too much for Anne and Mary. As Jack and his crew were herded, passing the two women, Anne Bonny was heard saying to Rackham, "if you had fought like a man you need not have hanged like a dog". 1) "Calico Jack" Rackham and his senior crew were tried in Villa de la Vega and were found guilty of being pirates. They were taken, in an open wagon so they could be viewed, to Port Royal Harbor 2) where they were hanged in a public execution November 18, 1721. 3) Following his death, Rackham's body was gibbeted and put on display, on a small islet at the main entrance to Port Royal Harbor. It is now known as Rackham's Cay. Anne Bonny and Mary Reed were tried on November 17, 1721 by the Governor of Jamaica, Sir Nicholas Lawes (Anne Bonny had struck his sister) in the town of Villa de la Vega (also called Spanish Town) as pirates and found guilty. The verdict was "you are to go...to the place of execution...where you shall be hanged by the neck until dead..." Both Anne Bonny and Mary Reed escaped by "pleading their bellies" as they were both pregnant and such could not be hanged in Jamaica. Gibbeting refers to the use of a metal cage from which the dead bodies of criminals were hung on public display to deter other existing or potential criminals. It was most often used for traitors, murderers, highwaymen and pirates. Rackham's body was Gibbeted and placed at the main entrance of the busy harbor of Port Royal as a reminder to "would be" pirates. (Wikipedia) The famous Skull and crossed swords was designed by John "Calico Jack" Rackham. It was different from previous designed Skull and crossed bones because Rackham wanted to send a message to ships he was commandeering that if they didn't surrender all would be killed.	1,315	ENGLISH	1
LGBT history as a whole is difficult to study, with both its legal and societal condemnation historically and today. The first attempts to study the history of homosexuality were not started until the 19th century and these were largely hampered by source scarcity and societal opinion. It was not until the mid 20th century that as a study it became more popular, and until the 1970s that all identities under the LGBT umbrella were included. The last several decades have seen a massive increase in scholarship, especially in gay male history; however other identities have struggled much more. Trans historiography has been hampered by how to define trans historical figures, particularly so in the issue of whether people were trans or if they were passing as another gender for other reasons, such as avoiding being drafted into military service. Bisexual history has languished similarly due to the issue of how to consider historical figures who appeared to be bisexual – were they bisexual or were they gay and their opposite sex relationships a requirement of the society they lived in, or were such relationships genuine? This, of course, has implications for same-sex history: are historical figures being labelled as attracted only to the same sex or could they have been bisexual? While the lack of definitively knowing hampers any study of history, LGBT history particularly struggles. Lesbian history has always struggled – even the term ‘lesbian’ to describe history has been considered by some to be a difficult descriptor. Some feel that lesbian refers to an identity that historically women would have not considered themselves to be. Sometimes the phrase ‘women who loved women’ has been used. Scholars such as Cook and Rich argued for the use of the term ‘lesbian’ to describe women who had relationships with other women. However other scholars prefer to avoid the term, arguing that lesbian as a concept did not exist, or that the term does not fit the historical reality of the women they are studying. Others have also argued that this term is too Western-centric. However, others have pointed out that terms such as queer are too broad and erase the specific experience of women. This issue on phrasing symbolises the difficulty that lesbian history has faced. While there has been little debate about male homosexual history, lesbian history has been much more problematic. The existence of lesbian history has always been harder to find, just because as the history of women in general has been difficult to source because of the domination of men in the historical written word, lesbians have often been written out of history – even more so than heterosexual women who generally have been only featured when, relevant to men. Lesbian behaviour was less likely to be prosecuted than gay male behaviour (not that lesbians were not prosecuted but they were caught less often or in some cases the sheer idea of lesbianism was so alien that legislation did not exist) which also reduces the amount of source material available, although what does exist is important. Prior to the 19th century lesbian history is fragmented, although some lesbian historians, like Emma Donoghue, have criticised historians for failing to notice mentions of lesbians due their own heterocentrisim. Debates over whether female historical figures had romantic and/or sexual relationships with each other or whether they simply had close platonic friendships plague lesbian history. Many lesbian historians have pointed out that they themselves, and those that came before them who clearly were, and often identified, as lesbian have been described as ‘platonic’ yet that there are often signs of such romantic and/or sexual relationships. Anne Lister’s diaries are an example of this; when her diaries were originally deciphered some declared them a hoax because of their ‘explicitness’ and her frank understanding of her sexuality. Most sources we do have on lesbian history focus predominantly on upper class women as they were the most able to record their own experiences. This can be frustrating for two reasons: women in the lower classes made up higher proportions of the general population and therefore are more likely to make up a significant proportion of lesbian women; and also that working class women traditionally had more opportunity to socialise with other women and without as much scrutiny. Upper class women were far more likely to have limited social circles and limited opportunity to be able to conduct affairs privately. Not only does this limit the amount of available knowledge it also means we miss out on knowing about working class lesbian subcultures and communities prior to the 19th and 20th centuries. Oral history has been an important part of lesbian history and has provided a significant amount of source material, although this is mostly restricted to post 1920s, as lesbian oral history was not recorded until the 1970s and beyond. Along with sources such as zines and photography, archive groups in the 1970s and 1980s attempted to construct archives focused on the lesbian experience, such as the Lesbian Archive – now housed at the Glasgow Women’s Library–, and the Lesbian Herstory Archives in New York. Other regional archives exist as does archives holding either LGBT history as whole or feminist/women’s history. So why is lesbian history so important to discover? Other than the general desire to uncover the past as much as possible, many lesbians find it important to connect to their forebearers and to demonstrate that their identity is legitimate and has existed for millennia. Lesbian erasure, historically and currently, is a major issue not just in society in general but also in the LGBT and feminist communities that claim to include and represent them. Erasure and ignorance of lesbian history helps exacerbate lesbian erasure. Many lesbians have been outspoken about society’s attempts to erase ‘lesbian’ as an identity, from claiming that ‘lesbian’ is exclusive or to that it doesn’t even exist – the tendency for some historians to deny lesbian history prior to the 19th century does just this. LGBT history often focuses on gay men while feminist history often focuses on heterosexual women. The fact that lesbians have often been both at the forefront of social movements is often ignored, even within these movements, and despite their presence they have been later ostracised or written out of these histories. Therefore their lesbian identity has been paramount to them. This importance also highlights the need for lesbian history to be inclusive of all lesbians. Recent scholarship has aimed to not only focus on white middle-class women in western societies but to expand our knowledge of lesbian history and how the diversity of these women are how we can broaden our overall knowledge.	<urn:uuid:11eec3fd-25ae-4299-868b-e7e1882f54ce>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wuhstry.wordpress.com/2019/03/06/the-struggles-with-lesbian-history/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00151.warc.gz	en	0.984634	1,307	3.546875	4	[ 0.19008372724056244, 0.3451650142669678, 0.3509877920150757, 0.17083889245986938, -0.376275897026062, 0.6581637859344482, -0.2232556939125061, 0.23811884224414825, 0.12135592848062515, -0.22206807136535645, 0.03377427160739899, -0.2575373649597168, -0.1308063417673111, -0.11319543421268463...	7	LGBT history as a whole is difficult to study, with both its legal and societal condemnation historically and today. The first attempts to study the history of homosexuality were not started until the 19th century and these were largely hampered by source scarcity and societal opinion. It was not until the mid 20th century that as a study it became more popular, and until the 1970s that all identities under the LGBT umbrella were included. The last several decades have seen a massive increase in scholarship, especially in gay male history; however other identities have struggled much more. Trans historiography has been hampered by how to define trans historical figures, particularly so in the issue of whether people were trans or if they were passing as another gender for other reasons, such as avoiding being drafted into military service. Bisexual history has languished similarly due to the issue of how to consider historical figures who appeared to be bisexual – were they bisexual or were they gay and their opposite sex relationships a requirement of the society they lived in, or were such relationships genuine? This, of course, has implications for same-sex history: are historical figures being labelled as attracted only to the same sex or could they have been bisexual? While the lack of definitively knowing hampers any study of history, LGBT history particularly struggles. Lesbian history has always struggled – even the term ‘lesbian’ to describe history has been considered by some to be a difficult descriptor. Some feel that lesbian refers to an identity that historically women would have not considered themselves to be. Sometimes the phrase ‘women who loved women’ has been used. Scholars such as Cook and Rich argued for the use of the term ‘lesbian’ to describe women who had relationships with other women. However other scholars prefer to avoid the term, arguing that lesbian as a concept did not exist, or that the term does not fit the historical reality of the women they are studying. Others have also argued that this term is too Western-centric. However, others have pointed out that terms such as queer are too broad and erase the specific experience of women. This issue on phrasing symbolises the difficulty that lesbian history has faced. While there has been little debate about male homosexual history, lesbian history has been much more problematic. The existence of lesbian history has always been harder to find, just because as the history of women in general has been difficult to source because of the domination of men in the historical written word, lesbians have often been written out of history – even more so than heterosexual women who generally have been only featured when, relevant to men. Lesbian behaviour was less likely to be prosecuted than gay male behaviour (not that lesbians were not prosecuted but they were caught less often or in some cases the sheer idea of lesbianism was so alien that legislation did not exist) which also reduces the amount of source material available, although what does exist is important. Prior to the 19th century lesbian history is fragmented, although some lesbian historians, like Emma Donoghue, have criticised historians for failing to notice mentions of lesbians due their own heterocentrisim. Debates over whether female historical figures had romantic and/or sexual relationships with each other or whether they simply had close platonic friendships plague lesbian history. Many lesbian historians have pointed out that they themselves, and those that came before them who clearly were, and often identified, as lesbian have been described as ‘platonic’ yet that there are often signs of such romantic and/or sexual relationships. Anne Lister’s diaries are an example of this; when her diaries were originally deciphered some declared them a hoax because of their ‘explicitness’ and her frank understanding of her sexuality. Most sources we do have on lesbian history focus predominantly on upper class women as they were the most able to record their own experiences. This can be frustrating for two reasons: women in the lower classes made up higher proportions of the general population and therefore are more likely to make up a significant proportion of lesbian women; and also that working class women traditionally had more opportunity to socialise with other women and without as much scrutiny. Upper class women were far more likely to have limited social circles and limited opportunity to be able to conduct affairs privately. Not only does this limit the amount of available knowledge it also means we miss out on knowing about working class lesbian subcultures and communities prior to the 19th and 20th centuries. Oral history has been an important part of lesbian history and has provided a significant amount of source material, although this is mostly restricted to post 1920s, as lesbian oral history was not recorded until the 1970s and beyond. Along with sources such as zines and photography, archive groups in the 1970s and 1980s attempted to construct archives focused on the lesbian experience, such as the Lesbian Archive – now housed at the Glasgow Women’s Library–, and the Lesbian Herstory Archives in New York. Other regional archives exist as does archives holding either LGBT history as whole or feminist/women’s history. So why is lesbian history so important to discover? Other than the general desire to uncover the past as much as possible, many lesbians find it important to connect to their forebearers and to demonstrate that their identity is legitimate and has existed for millennia. Lesbian erasure, historically and currently, is a major issue not just in society in general but also in the LGBT and feminist communities that claim to include and represent them. Erasure and ignorance of lesbian history helps exacerbate lesbian erasure. Many lesbians have been outspoken about society’s attempts to erase ‘lesbian’ as an identity, from claiming that ‘lesbian’ is exclusive or to that it doesn’t even exist – the tendency for some historians to deny lesbian history prior to the 19th century does just this. LGBT history often focuses on gay men while feminist history often focuses on heterosexual women. The fact that lesbians have often been both at the forefront of social movements is often ignored, even within these movements, and despite their presence they have been later ostracised or written out of these histories. Therefore their lesbian identity has been paramount to them. This importance also highlights the need for lesbian history to be inclusive of all lesbians. Recent scholarship has aimed to not only focus on white middle-class women in western societies but to expand our knowledge of lesbian history and how the diversity of these women are how we can broaden our overall knowledge.	1,308	ENGLISH	1
Peonage, also called debt slavery or debt servitude, is a system where an employer compels a worker to pay off a debt with work. Legally, peonage was outlawed by Congress in 1867. However, after Reconstruction, many Southern black men were swept into peonage though different methods, and the system was not completely eradicated until the 1940s. In some cases, employers advanced workers some pay or initial transportation costs, and workers willingly agreed to work without pay in order to pay it off. Sometimes those debts were quickly paid off, and a fair wage worker/employer relationship established. In many more cases, however, workers became indebted to planters (through sharecropping loans), merchants (through credit), or company stores (through living expenses). Workers were often unable to re-pay the debt, and found themselves in a continuous work-without-pay cycle. But the most corrupt and abusive peonage occurred in concert with southern state and county government. In the south, many black men were picked up for minor crimes or on trumped-up charges, and, when faced with staggering fines and court fees, forced to work for a local employer would who pay their fines for them. Southern states also leased their convicts en mass to local industrialists. The paperwork and debt record of individual prisoners was often lost, and these men found themselves trapped in inescapable situations. A decade ago, the FBI sent Brewster Kahle, founder of the Internet Archive, a now-infamous type of subpoena known as a National Security Letter, demanding the name, address and activity record of a registered Internet Archive user. The letter came with an everlasting gag order, barring Kahle from discussing the order with anyone but his attorney — not even his wife could know. They eventually allowed her to make a call, but she still hadn’t decided whether she would help the FBI. Then the agents threatened to go after her family. “He said, ‘Well, you should know, we’re also thinking about prosecuting your mum for the things you said she did on the tape,'” she said, crying. “In order to cooperate and avoid charges, I would have to make monitored phone calls which they would listen in to and record and I might have to wear a wire and go see people in person. “I was mortified and afraid of what this would do to my family. I was still in love with Bill at the time so I felt really responsible.” Two decades on from the outbreak of the scandal, the now public figure and writer said she still doesn’t “feel comfortable talking about it”, but the one thing that she’s adamant about is that despite the moral and ethical implications, it was a consensual relationship. “It’s not as if it didn’t register with me that he was the president. Obviously it did,” she said. “‘But I think in one way the moment we were actually in the back office for the first time the truth is I think it meant more to me the someone who other people desired, desired me. “However wrong it was, however misguided, for who I was at that time, at 22 years old, it was how I felt.”	<urn:uuid:dd5d6c1f-8fda-4edb-bcdd-7b99c6cd6f78>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.openpolitics.com/tag/fbi/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00385.warc.gz	en	0.986148	691	3.546875	4	[ -0.35187000036239624, 0.11672589182853699, -0.2588229179382324, 0.10567061603069305, 0.267844557762146, -0.5373961329460144, 0.35844549536705017, -0.26867276430130005, -0.3047676980495453, 0.09018277376890182, 0.3523685038089752, 0.19564880430698395, -0.2184889018535614, 0.1281114518642425...	3	Peonage, also called debt slavery or debt servitude, is a system where an employer compels a worker to pay off a debt with work. Legally, peonage was outlawed by Congress in 1867. However, after Reconstruction, many Southern black men were swept into peonage though different methods, and the system was not completely eradicated until the 1940s. In some cases, employers advanced workers some pay or initial transportation costs, and workers willingly agreed to work without pay in order to pay it off. Sometimes those debts were quickly paid off, and a fair wage worker/employer relationship established. In many more cases, however, workers became indebted to planters (through sharecropping loans), merchants (through credit), or company stores (through living expenses). Workers were often unable to re-pay the debt, and found themselves in a continuous work-without-pay cycle. But the most corrupt and abusive peonage occurred in concert with southern state and county government. In the south, many black men were picked up for minor crimes or on trumped-up charges, and, when faced with staggering fines and court fees, forced to work for a local employer would who pay their fines for them. Southern states also leased their convicts en mass to local industrialists. The paperwork and debt record of individual prisoners was often lost, and these men found themselves trapped in inescapable situations. A decade ago, the FBI sent Brewster Kahle, founder of the Internet Archive, a now-infamous type of subpoena known as a National Security Letter, demanding the name, address and activity record of a registered Internet Archive user. The letter came with an everlasting gag order, barring Kahle from discussing the order with anyone but his attorney — not even his wife could know. They eventually allowed her to make a call, but she still hadn’t decided whether she would help the FBI. Then the agents threatened to go after her family. “He said, ‘Well, you should know, we’re also thinking about prosecuting your mum for the things you said she did on the tape,'” she said, crying. “In order to cooperate and avoid charges, I would have to make monitored phone calls which they would listen in to and record and I might have to wear a wire and go see people in person. “I was mortified and afraid of what this would do to my family. I was still in love with Bill at the time so I felt really responsible.” Two decades on from the outbreak of the scandal, the now public figure and writer said she still doesn’t “feel comfortable talking about it”, but the one thing that she’s adamant about is that despite the moral and ethical implications, it was a consensual relationship. “It’s not as if it didn’t register with me that he was the president. Obviously it did,” she said. “‘But I think in one way the moment we were actually in the back office for the first time the truth is I think it meant more to me the someone who other people desired, desired me. “However wrong it was, however misguided, for who I was at that time, at 22 years old, it was how I felt.”	652	ENGLISH	1
In the novel Our Inner Conflicts by Karen Horney, it creates and explains a theory of neurosis based on attitudes either moving toward, away, or against people. The author Karen Horney was a German psychoanalyst who also had a first-hand experience with depression in her childhood. She dedicated her time and work into school. Horney also went against Freud’s views, she believed that culture, not anatomy, was the cause of differences between woman and men. She attended medical school at the beginning of the 1900s and eventually developed a theory of neurosis. Horney’s theory states that we have a couple of ways that we view ourselves; ideal image, despised Image, the actual self, and the real self. This is the person, putting themselves in the middle of ideal and despised image. When an individual is not living up to their perfect image this will cause anxiety and the individual may start feeling bad about themselves and their image. She came up with three neurotic trends to help combat anxiety. The main point was the basic conflicts and the solutions used to try to resolve such conflicts. Neurotic conflicts can only be changed by changing your personality, not by your rational decision. Horney explains that neurosis results from anxiety created by relationships, and that neurosis is a problem when a person is faced with a conflict concerning human relationships. As stated in the book, “It is the prerogative as well as the burden of human beings to be able to exert choice, to make decision. We may have to decide between desires that lead in opposite directions.” Decision making is hard when you are in conflict between two sets of values. Her theory explains strategies used to cope with people’s inner conflicts. Anxiety can result from a bunch of different factors such as, indifferences, hostile atmosphere, discrimination, and many more. The anxiety results in some of the individuals to overthink and come up with ideas and images about themselves. Some individuals go through self-realization and they see their actual self. Others come up with an idealized image of who they want to be, these individuals have a personal standard of perfection. Its exaggerated and an unrealistic view for the individual compared to their behaviors, appearance and thinking ability. Lastly a despised image is when the individual feels like they can’t live up to all their standards. These individuals look down on themselves and think of themselves as weak and worthless. Horney came up with solutions to help individuals fight their anxiety and deal with their inner conflicts. The first one is moving towards people which would be the individual seeking acceptance from others, people might think these individuals are clingy or needy but they just are looking for love, acceptance and approval; which is the self-effacing solution. As stated in the book, “when moving towards people he accepts his own helplessness, and in spite of his estrangement and fears tries to win the affection of others and lean on them.” Once you accept your downfalls, and get support and people motivate you, you can only go up from there and better yourself. Furthermore, the next one would be moving away from others, these individuals are antisocial and hostile, people would describe them as indifferent and cold, they need self-sufficiency and perfection, this is the detached or the resigned solution. As stated in the book, “when moving away from people he wants neither to belong nor to fight, but keep apart. He feels he has not much in common with them, they do not understand him anyhow. He builds up a world of his own- with nature, with his dolls, his books, his dreams.” The individual feels better off on their own because they do not feel connected with others, they use imagination to create nonliving things. The last one moves the individual against others, this results in them trying to control other people. Often, these individuals can be described as unkind, difficult, and in need of power; this is the expansive solution. As stated in the book, “when he moves against people he accepts and take for granted the hostility around him, and determines, consciously or unconsciously, to fight. He implicitly distrust the feelings and interventions of others towards himself. He rebels in whatever ways are open to himself.” The individual wants to protect himself and be stronger and defeat them. The three solutions Horney came up with can be broken up into two separate kinds of strategies involving other people or a conflict within yourself. Therefore, I agree with Horney’s theory about neurosis. This book explains a significant amount about human nature and character. It may be hard and uncomfortable to admit and bring awareness to the conflicts that you may have. You may think that if you push it to the side enough and try not to think about it than it may just disappear and go away. It does not work like that, one of the biggest conflicts that humans must face is a conflict that they have within themselves. These problems are fought within our mind. Her three solutions are based to solve the conflicts that individuals face every day.	<urn:uuid:9f7b33a2-5dc0-4a0e-9fff-ffefe247363e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://essayhub.net/essays/review-of-our-inner-conflicts-by-karen-horney	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00031.warc.gz	en	0.98045	1,040	3.515625	4	[ 0.1044563353061676, 0.5082457065582275, 0.15131154656410217, 0.11292272806167603, -0.4331786632537842, 0.5005964636802673, 0.613822340965271, 0.12349596619606018, 0.3484077751636505, -0.09668376296758652, -0.0016109662828966975, -0.2546437978744507, 0.24381452798843384, 0.4781593084335327,...	2	In the novel Our Inner Conflicts by Karen Horney, it creates and explains a theory of neurosis based on attitudes either moving toward, away, or against people. The author Karen Horney was a German psychoanalyst who also had a first-hand experience with depression in her childhood. She dedicated her time and work into school. Horney also went against Freud’s views, she believed that culture, not anatomy, was the cause of differences between woman and men. She attended medical school at the beginning of the 1900s and eventually developed a theory of neurosis. Horney’s theory states that we have a couple of ways that we view ourselves; ideal image, despised Image, the actual self, and the real self. This is the person, putting themselves in the middle of ideal and despised image. When an individual is not living up to their perfect image this will cause anxiety and the individual may start feeling bad about themselves and their image. She came up with three neurotic trends to help combat anxiety. The main point was the basic conflicts and the solutions used to try to resolve such conflicts. Neurotic conflicts can only be changed by changing your personality, not by your rational decision. Horney explains that neurosis results from anxiety created by relationships, and that neurosis is a problem when a person is faced with a conflict concerning human relationships. As stated in the book, “It is the prerogative as well as the burden of human beings to be able to exert choice, to make decision. We may have to decide between desires that lead in opposite directions.” Decision making is hard when you are in conflict between two sets of values. Her theory explains strategies used to cope with people’s inner conflicts. Anxiety can result from a bunch of different factors such as, indifferences, hostile atmosphere, discrimination, and many more. The anxiety results in some of the individuals to overthink and come up with ideas and images about themselves. Some individuals go through self-realization and they see their actual self. Others come up with an idealized image of who they want to be, these individuals have a personal standard of perfection. Its exaggerated and an unrealistic view for the individual compared to their behaviors, appearance and thinking ability. Lastly a despised image is when the individual feels like they can’t live up to all their standards. These individuals look down on themselves and think of themselves as weak and worthless. Horney came up with solutions to help individuals fight their anxiety and deal with their inner conflicts. The first one is moving towards people which would be the individual seeking acceptance from others, people might think these individuals are clingy or needy but they just are looking for love, acceptance and approval; which is the self-effacing solution. As stated in the book, “when moving towards people he accepts his own helplessness, and in spite of his estrangement and fears tries to win the affection of others and lean on them.” Once you accept your downfalls, and get support and people motivate you, you can only go up from there and better yourself. Furthermore, the next one would be moving away from others, these individuals are antisocial and hostile, people would describe them as indifferent and cold, they need self-sufficiency and perfection, this is the detached or the resigned solution. As stated in the book, “when moving away from people he wants neither to belong nor to fight, but keep apart. He feels he has not much in common with them, they do not understand him anyhow. He builds up a world of his own- with nature, with his dolls, his books, his dreams.” The individual feels better off on their own because they do not feel connected with others, they use imagination to create nonliving things. The last one moves the individual against others, this results in them trying to control other people. Often, these individuals can be described as unkind, difficult, and in need of power; this is the expansive solution. As stated in the book, “when he moves against people he accepts and take for granted the hostility around him, and determines, consciously or unconsciously, to fight. He implicitly distrust the feelings and interventions of others towards himself. He rebels in whatever ways are open to himself.” The individual wants to protect himself and be stronger and defeat them. The three solutions Horney came up with can be broken up into two separate kinds of strategies involving other people or a conflict within yourself. Therefore, I agree with Horney’s theory about neurosis. This book explains a significant amount about human nature and character. It may be hard and uncomfortable to admit and bring awareness to the conflicts that you may have. You may think that if you push it to the side enough and try not to think about it than it may just disappear and go away. It does not work like that, one of the biggest conflicts that humans must face is a conflict that they have within themselves. These problems are fought within our mind. Her three solutions are based to solve the conflicts that individuals face every day.	1,017	ENGLISH	1
The Odysseus we know from the epic poem The Odyssey is very different emotionally than the same character described by Alfred Lord Tennyson (under a different name) in his poem Ulysses. Tennyson’s Ulysses is melancholy about the state of his home and wishes to return to the open sea, while Homer’s Odysseus is happy to return home after twenty long years on the seas. Tennyson’s Ulysses describes “how dull it is to pause, to make an end” and how he wishes for excitement, adventure, and “new things. ” Homer describes Odysseus as longing “for homefor the sight of home. As you see, Odysseus is homesick and eager to return home, although he knows his wife and son have aged, grown, and changed without him. He accepts these facts and presumably continues living with his family, doubtful of his son’s ability as a ruler. While it is unclear whether or not Ulysses leaves his home once again, it is certain that he wishes to. He resents that his family has grown without him; as for his kingdom, he has faith in his son and believes him to be ready for the burden of power and responsibilities that come with ruling a kingdom. The two characters, while having achieved the same great deeds, have very different natures. The adventurous Ulysses is depressed at the thought of having to remain at home and never again experiencing an exciting and dangerous journey like the one that brought him home. The original Odysseus, however, feels long overdue for a rest and is happy to return to his leisurely, comfortable life and loving family.	<urn:uuid:8b795670-c2fc-4f8a-b952-9b340396b7ad>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mypaynetapps.com/the-odyssey-and-ulysses/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00335.warc.gz	en	0.982441	354	3.515625	4	[ 0.02790813334286213, 0.03147241845726967, 0.5088862180709839, 0.12786737084388733, -0.36475202441215515, -0.27735626697540283, 0.12852200865745544, 0.23688912391662598, -0.2221866101026535, -0.5354501605033875, -0.0028462884947657585, -0.1992931067943573, -0.3008911609649658, 0.34032231569...	2	The Odysseus we know from the epic poem The Odyssey is very different emotionally than the same character described by Alfred Lord Tennyson (under a different name) in his poem Ulysses. Tennyson’s Ulysses is melancholy about the state of his home and wishes to return to the open sea, while Homer’s Odysseus is happy to return home after twenty long years on the seas. Tennyson’s Ulysses describes “how dull it is to pause, to make an end” and how he wishes for excitement, adventure, and “new things. ” Homer describes Odysseus as longing “for homefor the sight of home. As you see, Odysseus is homesick and eager to return home, although he knows his wife and son have aged, grown, and changed without him. He accepts these facts and presumably continues living with his family, doubtful of his son’s ability as a ruler. While it is unclear whether or not Ulysses leaves his home once again, it is certain that he wishes to. He resents that his family has grown without him; as for his kingdom, he has faith in his son and believes him to be ready for the burden of power and responsibilities that come with ruling a kingdom. The two characters, while having achieved the same great deeds, have very different natures. The adventurous Ulysses is depressed at the thought of having to remain at home and never again experiencing an exciting and dangerous journey like the one that brought him home. The original Odysseus, however, feels long overdue for a rest and is happy to return to his leisurely, comfortable life and loving family.	348	ENGLISH	1
Tiberius Claudius Nero Tiberius Caesar Augustus 19 August 14 BCE – 16 March 37 CE 16 November 42 BCE 16 March 37 CE Tiberius Claudius Nero was born in 42 BCE in Rome. Tiberius was a member of the Claudius family. Thanks to adoption by Augustus, he entered the Julia family. All subsequent emperors as far as Nero were related to these families to varying degrees, hence the name Julio-Claudian dynasty. He was son of Tiberius Claudius and Livia Drusilla. He was only four years old when his mother Livia divorced with his father. Suetonius describes that when Tiberius was to be born, Livia reached fortune-tellers. She pulled out one chicken sitting on eggs, and then she warmed up with her own hands or with the help of servant women, alternately, until the hatching took place. The chicken appeared decorated with an exceptionally beautiful comb. The astrologer Scribonius announced a great future for the baby, promising even royal power, but without royal badges. – Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars III, 142, 14 Tacitus characterizes Tiberius as a self-contained person, initially submissive to his mother, later even jealous of her good reputation among some senators. It is considered that, under the influence of Sejanus (the commander of the praetorians, who became the Emperor’s closest advisor) he turned into a cruel autocrat who did not care about anyone. This is how he is characterized: “… admittedly a mature and tried warrior, but full of pride, both old and hereditary in the Claudius family; many signs of his cruelty, though subdued, also reveal themselves”. Taciutus continues: “Next to him, a mother with an inborn woman lust for reign”. This quotation clearly emphasizes Livia’s dominance over Tiberius even when he was already emperor: “… while Augustus was still alive, there was still someone to resort to, especially as Tiberius had an ingrained respect for his mother, and Sejan did not dare to take the seriousness of the parent overtake”. Tacitus is generally silent when it comes to the way Tiberius was brought up, but in this one sentence it is conspicuous. “Ingrained respect for the mother”, after all, could not have resulted from anything other than the teaching of this by a raw mother, but also an understanding mother. Tiberius, although later in his reign is insensitive and even arrogant to his mother, did not dare to raise his hand on her. This jealousy was the driving force behind his first actions against his mother. And as Tacit tells us, he did not allow the name Livia to be called “mother of the homeland”. He has stated on several occasions that it is necessary to maintain a measure in the evidence of honour for women and that he himself will apply a similar limitation to those distinctions which he would like to be awarded”. We continue to read: “…in fact, tormented by jealousy and considering the exaltation of a woman as humiliation of herself did not even allow the lictor to enact for her, refused her the altar of adoption and other such honours”. He also writes about the same thing Suetonius: “he was exceptionally outraged by the deliberations of the Senate in order to add one more to his previous titles as son of August: the son of Livia”. In 29 BCE Tiberius began his participation in public life by participating in August’s triumph to commemorate Battle of Action. At the age of 17, he became quaestor. In 20 BCE, he went to the East with a mission to receive the legionnaires returned by the Party and lost by Crassus, Decidius and Mark Antony. After returning from the East, together with his brother Drusus the Elder fought against the Alpine tribes. Then, for a year, he was Provincial Governor of the Province Galia Comata. In 13 and 7 BCE Tiberius held the office of consul. Tiberius during the reign of Augustus was the commander of armies, he has been very courageous in numerous campaigns, especially in Illyria and Pannonia (12 – 9 BCE, 6 – 9 CE) and in Germany (9-7 BCE and 4-6 CE). Suetonius also quotes his family’s pedigree and a special event that took place while Livia was married to his father Tiberius Claudius Nero. Then it was Nero, who stood on the side of the Mark Antony, he and his wife Livia had to flee from Augustus. At night they found themselves in the forest, when suddenly “a forest fire occurred on all sides and surrounded the whole retinue with a ring so tightly that the flame burned even a part of Livia’s coat and hair”. Love and behaviour The first wife of Tiberius was Vipsania Agrippina, daughter Marcus Agrippa with which, as Suetonius suggests, she was happy. The marriage took place either in the year 20 or 19 BCE. In 13 BCE their son Drusus (called the Younger) was born. However, Augustus after the widowhood daughter Julia was looking for a suitable candidate for her. “Finally, he chose a stepchild, Tiberius, and forced him to abandon his wife, with whom he already had one child”. Tiberius’ love for Vipsania Agrippina, Suetonius describes in some detail, what our writer, of course, has used. Of course, a second marriage concluded not out of love, but out of duty, turned out to be fatal in effect. The marriage was unsuccessful and the only child, Nero, died in infancy. Tiberius left for the island of Rhodes, or rather he was deported to it. There he found out that his wife had been convicted of debauchery and adultery, that a divorce application had been filed on his behalf, and that he had been granted it by the will of Augustus. However, Tiberius could not return to Rome. He came there only when he promised not to interfere in the management of the state or influence its fate. Suetonius also quotes a story, as he himself points out an untested one that belongs to gossip, ” supposedly after Tiberius left the secret meeting peacemakers heard these words of Augustus: “The unfortunate Roman people, who will get into such free crushing jaws”. Let us note the difference of opinion that we notice in Tacit and Suetonius about the reason why August mentioned his successor in the person of Tiberius. This quotation writes that Augustus did it” not out of attachment to or concern for the state… but having reviewed his [Tiberius] haughtiness and cruelty, he sought fame in the worst contrast to himself”. Suetonius evaluated the decision more leniently August: Submissive to his wife’s requests, he did not object to his [Tiberius] cynicism, perhaps even on a personal level: in order to make such a successor even more regrettable at some point in his life. I cannot, however, allow the thought that this prudent and prudent ruler can be reckless in every respect, especially in matters of such particular importance. I’m rather inclined to suppose that considering the advantages and disadvantages of Tiberius, Augustus considered the advantages to be predominant. What’s more, he got into a public spell at a meeting that he was made for the good of the state. – Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars III, 146, 21 Tiberius was reluctant to endure his mother’s company, of which Suetonius informs us. He also did not want to be accused of being in charge of his actions. He was irritated by her behaviour: “often asked her to stay away from more important and unpleasant things to a woman, especially from the moment she saw a woman in a fire near the temple of Vesta, as she had personally done, encouraging the people and soldiers to help even more strongly; and this is how she used to do during her husband’s lifetime”. As Suetonius suggests, there was finally such an argument between them that Livia took from home August’s hidden letters about the evil disposition of Tiberius and read them out loud. Since then, he has only seen his mother for a few hours, and when she fell ill, he stopped visiting her at all. After his death, he also disregarded her corpse, allowed her to start rotting before the funeral, and her friends cruelly experienced it. Cassius Dion writes about Tiberius that “he did many great deeds and made only a few mistakes; but when he no longer had a dangerous competitor, his behaviour, which until then had shown countless good deeds, changed to the exact opposite”. Without hesitation, he tortured to gain witnesses against his opponents, real or imaginary. According to Cassius Dion, the change in the way Tiberius was influenced by the following factors Lucius Aelius Sejanus, which he quickly promoted. The Cassius also confirms Suetonius’s account of Tiberius attitude towards Livia’s funeral. Despite Tiberius’ lack of love for his mother, his cruelty and indifference, all ancient historians agree on one thing. If Livia was suspected of a crime or conspiracy, Tiberius also took part in it. If we assume that it was as a result of the actions of Livia August who brought Tiberius to life, as suggested by Suetonius, she could also have a share in the government of the state shortly after the death of her husband, which would result from the Tacit’s message. Perhaps they were the ones who led to the situation that August no longer had a choice because there was no other candidate to succeed him. It is possible that Livia and Tiberius led in different ways to the death of all potential candidates, but it could not be ruled out that it was a coincidence. When Augustus died in 29 CE, Tiberius ceased to have any scruples. As Tacitus writes: “without changing his pleasurable lifestyle, he did not take part in the devotion to his mother’s ministry”. The Senate’s distribution of Livia’s honours was so harsh. He did not even want to reveal her will immediately and never, after it was announced, he never fulfilled what she wrote in it. Tiberius, after withdrawing from public activity and going to voluntary exile on the island of Rhodes in 6 BCE, returned to favour after several years, when August decided to appoint him as successor after the death of Gaius and Lucius (sons of Mark Agrippa). He adopted it, at the same time obliging his nephew to adopt it Germanicus. After the death of Augustus on August 19, 14 CE, Tiberius automatically assumed the office of Emperor of Rome. It quickly became unpopular, especially in senatorial circles. There was also confusion in the armies on the Rhine and attempts to proclaim Germanicus the Emperor. Later it was suspected that Tiberius had his fingers in the mysterious death of his popular nephew. There was accused of poisoning Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso. Tiberius spent the last years of his reign in seclusion on the island of Capri, where, according to Suetonius, he had the following characteristics invent perverse games. The historian Suetonius writes about the perverse sexual excesses of Tiberius during his stay on the island, but his testimony is questionable. Rome at that time was controlled by Sejan, the commander of the praetorians, who became the Emperor’s closest advisor. He used terror against political opponents. The victim of the persecution was, among others, the family of Germanicus: his widow Agrippina and her older sons Nero and Druzus. Sejanus together with his lover Livilla, the bran of his husband Livilla, and the son of Tiberius – Drusus the Younger. Sejanus probably sought to seize power. His plans collapsed, however, when Antonio the Younger managed to convince Tiberius of Sejan’s conspiracy intentions. By order of Emperor, Sejan, his family and allies were executed in 31 CE. For his successors, Tiberius foresaw his cousin Caligula and his own grandson Gemellus, which he passed on in his will. The painting depicts the Emperor Tiberius, who was supposed to be strangled by order. Naevius Sutorius Macro – prefect of praetorians. He died on March 16, 37 CE in Misenum. He was buried in Mausoleum of Augustus. Antient writers: Suetonius and Tacit write that Caligula and the new commander of the praetorians, Macro, speeded up his death by suffocating the emperor with a pillow. However, it cannot be ruled out that Tiberius died a natural death. The reign of Tiberius is a period of peace and good governance for ordinary people in the provinces, but for the Roman aristocracy it is a time of growing tyranny and terror. The city of Tiberiada on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee was named after Tiberius by Herod Antipas. According to Suetonius, Tiberius was extremely economical. During the war expeditions, the participants were only fed without paying any acorns or prizes. He was also known for the fact that he avoided organizing shows, as well as being organized by others. Only once did he provide financial assistance to several senators, who have sufficiently argued their needs.	<urn:uuid:c1ea166a-758f-4ec9-b76b-3dbfecbb9dbc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.imperiumromanum.edu.pl/en/biographies-of-romans/tiberius/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00528.warc.gz	en	0.986354	2,898	3.578125	4	[ -0.031248193234205246, 0.6788043975830078, 0.7253187894821167, 0.16701915860176086, -0.4784778356552124, -0.3050839304924011, 0.23328296840190887, 0.2151368409395218, 0.23775771260261536, -0.5036110877990723, 0.00014590669889003038, -0.3458545207977295, -0.21933895349502563, 0.506282925605...	3	Tiberius Claudius Nero Tiberius Caesar Augustus 19 August 14 BCE – 16 March 37 CE 16 November 42 BCE 16 March 37 CE Tiberius Claudius Nero was born in 42 BCE in Rome. Tiberius was a member of the Claudius family. Thanks to adoption by Augustus, he entered the Julia family. All subsequent emperors as far as Nero were related to these families to varying degrees, hence the name Julio-Claudian dynasty. He was son of Tiberius Claudius and Livia Drusilla. He was only four years old when his mother Livia divorced with his father. Suetonius describes that when Tiberius was to be born, Livia reached fortune-tellers. She pulled out one chicken sitting on eggs, and then she warmed up with her own hands or with the help of servant women, alternately, until the hatching took place. The chicken appeared decorated with an exceptionally beautiful comb. The astrologer Scribonius announced a great future for the baby, promising even royal power, but without royal badges. – Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars III, 142, 14 Tacitus characterizes Tiberius as a self-contained person, initially submissive to his mother, later even jealous of her good reputation among some senators. It is considered that, under the influence of Sejanus (the commander of the praetorians, who became the Emperor’s closest advisor) he turned into a cruel autocrat who did not care about anyone. This is how he is characterized: “… admittedly a mature and tried warrior, but full of pride, both old and hereditary in the Claudius family; many signs of his cruelty, though subdued, also reveal themselves”. Taciutus continues: “Next to him, a mother with an inborn woman lust for reign”. This quotation clearly emphasizes Livia’s dominance over Tiberius even when he was already emperor: “… while Augustus was still alive, there was still someone to resort to, especially as Tiberius had an ingrained respect for his mother, and Sejan did not dare to take the seriousness of the parent overtake”. Tacitus is generally silent when it comes to the way Tiberius was brought up, but in this one sentence it is conspicuous. “Ingrained respect for the mother”, after all, could not have resulted from anything other than the teaching of this by a raw mother, but also an understanding mother. Tiberius, although later in his reign is insensitive and even arrogant to his mother, did not dare to raise his hand on her. This jealousy was the driving force behind his first actions against his mother. And as Tacit tells us, he did not allow the name Livia to be called “mother of the homeland”. He has stated on several occasions that it is necessary to maintain a measure in the evidence of honour for women and that he himself will apply a similar limitation to those distinctions which he would like to be awarded”. We continue to read: “…in fact, tormented by jealousy and considering the exaltation of a woman as humiliation of herself did not even allow the lictor to enact for her, refused her the altar of adoption and other such honours”. He also writes about the same thing Suetonius: “he was exceptionally outraged by the deliberations of the Senate in order to add one more to his previous titles as son of August: the son of Livia”. In 29 BCE Tiberius began his participation in public life by participating in August’s triumph to commemorate Battle of Action. At the age of 17, he became quaestor. In 20 BCE, he went to the East with a mission to receive the legionnaires returned by the Party and lost by Crassus, Decidius and Mark Antony. After returning from the East, together with his brother Drusus the Elder fought against the Alpine tribes. Then, for a year, he was Provincial Governor of the Province Galia Comata. In 13 and 7 BCE Tiberius held the office of consul. Tiberius during the reign of Augustus was the commander of armies, he has been very courageous in numerous campaigns, especially in Illyria and Pannonia (12 – 9 BCE, 6 – 9 CE) and in Germany (9-7 BCE and 4-6 CE). Suetonius also quotes his family’s pedigree and a special event that took place while Livia was married to his father Tiberius Claudius Nero. Then it was Nero, who stood on the side of the Mark Antony, he and his wife Livia had to flee from Augustus. At night they found themselves in the forest, when suddenly “a forest fire occurred on all sides and surrounded the whole retinue with a ring so tightly that the flame burned even a part of Livia’s coat and hair”. Love and behaviour The first wife of Tiberius was Vipsania Agrippina, daughter Marcus Agrippa with which, as Suetonius suggests, she was happy. The marriage took place either in the year 20 or 19 BCE. In 13 BCE their son Drusus (called the Younger) was born. However, Augustus after the widowhood daughter Julia was looking for a suitable candidate for her. “Finally, he chose a stepchild, Tiberius, and forced him to abandon his wife, with whom he already had one child”. Tiberius’ love for Vipsania Agrippina, Suetonius describes in some detail, what our writer, of course, has used. Of course, a second marriage concluded not out of love, but out of duty, turned out to be fatal in effect. The marriage was unsuccessful and the only child, Nero, died in infancy. Tiberius left for the island of Rhodes, or rather he was deported to it. There he found out that his wife had been convicted of debauchery and adultery, that a divorce application had been filed on his behalf, and that he had been granted it by the will of Augustus. However, Tiberius could not return to Rome. He came there only when he promised not to interfere in the management of the state or influence its fate. Suetonius also quotes a story, as he himself points out an untested one that belongs to gossip, ” supposedly after Tiberius left the secret meeting peacemakers heard these words of Augustus: “The unfortunate Roman people, who will get into such free crushing jaws”. Let us note the difference of opinion that we notice in Tacit and Suetonius about the reason why August mentioned his successor in the person of Tiberius. This quotation writes that Augustus did it” not out of attachment to or concern for the state… but having reviewed his [Tiberius] haughtiness and cruelty, he sought fame in the worst contrast to himself”. Suetonius evaluated the decision more leniently August: Submissive to his wife’s requests, he did not object to his [Tiberius] cynicism, perhaps even on a personal level: in order to make such a successor even more regrettable at some point in his life. I cannot, however, allow the thought that this prudent and prudent ruler can be reckless in every respect, especially in matters of such particular importance. I’m rather inclined to suppose that considering the advantages and disadvantages of Tiberius, Augustus considered the advantages to be predominant. What’s more, he got into a public spell at a meeting that he was made for the good of the state. – Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars III, 146, 21 Tiberius was reluctant to endure his mother’s company, of which Suetonius informs us. He also did not want to be accused of being in charge of his actions. He was irritated by her behaviour: “often asked her to stay away from more important and unpleasant things to a woman, especially from the moment she saw a woman in a fire near the temple of Vesta, as she had personally done, encouraging the people and soldiers to help even more strongly; and this is how she used to do during her husband’s lifetime”. As Suetonius suggests, there was finally such an argument between them that Livia took from home August’s hidden letters about the evil disposition of Tiberius and read them out loud. Since then, he has only seen his mother for a few hours, and when she fell ill, he stopped visiting her at all. After his death, he also disregarded her corpse, allowed her to start rotting before the funeral, and her friends cruelly experienced it. Cassius Dion writes about Tiberius that “he did many great deeds and made only a few mistakes; but when he no longer had a dangerous competitor, his behaviour, which until then had shown countless good deeds, changed to the exact opposite”. Without hesitation, he tortured to gain witnesses against his opponents, real or imaginary. According to Cassius Dion, the change in the way Tiberius was influenced by the following factors Lucius Aelius Sejanus, which he quickly promoted. The Cassius also confirms Suetonius’s account of Tiberius attitude towards Livia’s funeral. Despite Tiberius’ lack of love for his mother, his cruelty and indifference, all ancient historians agree on one thing. If Livia was suspected of a crime or conspiracy, Tiberius also took part in it. If we assume that it was as a result of the actions of Livia August who brought Tiberius to life, as suggested by Suetonius, she could also have a share in the government of the state shortly after the death of her husband, which would result from the Tacit’s message. Perhaps they were the ones who led to the situation that August no longer had a choice because there was no other candidate to succeed him. It is possible that Livia and Tiberius led in different ways to the death of all potential candidates, but it could not be ruled out that it was a coincidence. When Augustus died in 29 CE, Tiberius ceased to have any scruples. As Tacitus writes: “without changing his pleasurable lifestyle, he did not take part in the devotion to his mother’s ministry”. The Senate’s distribution of Livia’s honours was so harsh. He did not even want to reveal her will immediately and never, after it was announced, he never fulfilled what she wrote in it. Tiberius, after withdrawing from public activity and going to voluntary exile on the island of Rhodes in 6 BCE, returned to favour after several years, when August decided to appoint him as successor after the death of Gaius and Lucius (sons of Mark Agrippa). He adopted it, at the same time obliging his nephew to adopt it Germanicus. After the death of Augustus on August 19, 14 CE, Tiberius automatically assumed the office of Emperor of Rome. It quickly became unpopular, especially in senatorial circles. There was also confusion in the armies on the Rhine and attempts to proclaim Germanicus the Emperor. Later it was suspected that Tiberius had his fingers in the mysterious death of his popular nephew. There was accused of poisoning Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso. Tiberius spent the last years of his reign in seclusion on the island of Capri, where, according to Suetonius, he had the following characteristics invent perverse games. The historian Suetonius writes about the perverse sexual excesses of Tiberius during his stay on the island, but his testimony is questionable. Rome at that time was controlled by Sejan, the commander of the praetorians, who became the Emperor’s closest advisor. He used terror against political opponents. The victim of the persecution was, among others, the family of Germanicus: his widow Agrippina and her older sons Nero and Druzus. Sejanus together with his lover Livilla, the bran of his husband Livilla, and the son of Tiberius – Drusus the Younger. Sejanus probably sought to seize power. His plans collapsed, however, when Antonio the Younger managed to convince Tiberius of Sejan’s conspiracy intentions. By order of Emperor, Sejan, his family and allies were executed in 31 CE. For his successors, Tiberius foresaw his cousin Caligula and his own grandson Gemellus, which he passed on in his will. The painting depicts the Emperor Tiberius, who was supposed to be strangled by order. Naevius Sutorius Macro – prefect of praetorians. He died on March 16, 37 CE in Misenum. He was buried in Mausoleum of Augustus. Antient writers: Suetonius and Tacit write that Caligula and the new commander of the praetorians, Macro, speeded up his death by suffocating the emperor with a pillow. However, it cannot be ruled out that Tiberius died a natural death. The reign of Tiberius is a period of peace and good governance for ordinary people in the provinces, but for the Roman aristocracy it is a time of growing tyranny and terror. The city of Tiberiada on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee was named after Tiberius by Herod Antipas. According to Suetonius, Tiberius was extremely economical. During the war expeditions, the participants were only fed without paying any acorns or prizes. He was also known for the fact that he avoided organizing shows, as well as being organized by others. Only once did he provide financial assistance to several senators, who have sufficiently argued their needs.	2,889	ENGLISH	1
Louis Pasteur was a very important chemist and microbiologist born on December 27,1822 and died September 28, 1895. He laid the groundwork molecular asymmetry, found a vaccine against rabies, cholera, smallpox, and anthrax, found that microorganisms cause disease and fermentation (it is the foaming that happens during manufacture of beer and wine), and more. Louis Pasteur has accomplished so much that there are hospitals, schools, buildings, institutions, and streets that hold his name. When he was young, he was an average kid, who had a poor family that enjoyed art and singing. But when Louis had realized he was meant for Science. He went to collage earning degrees in math, physics, and chemistry, to later become a science teacher. He then became a professor at the University of Strasbourg, fell in love with Marie Laurent, married her, and had five kids. Sadly, three of them died from typhoid fever which then encouraged him to find a cure for infectious diseases.Pasteur doing so, found that he could make people immune to the disease by making a vaccine, which is a weaker form of the diseases. He found this out by first working on cows, and the diseases anthrax. In 1848, Pasteur made a huge discovery. What had scientists lost and confused for years was explained. Pasteur found that molecules could be in mirror image forms. This discovery showed that many natural molecules were either right or left handed. In 1865, Pasteur was asked to go to the south of France by his friend Dumas to study the epidemic that was killing silkworms. He was reluctant at first but they were really good friends, and his family came. They found that a little globule was a sign of the disease. He figured out that it started with the moths, who produced the eggs that had the diseases. To stop this, he figured he would wait until after the moth had laid her eggs and then check the moth if she had any globule, and if she did, they would have to destroy the eggs to stop the spreading. He tried this, but it did not work. Worms without the globule died, and even some worm with it lived. Months went by, and then they figured out what they had done wrong, that there wasn’t one disease, but two. One of them being with the globule and one with an alive microscopic creature that multiplied. The healthy worms got sick from their food, mulberry leaves, that grew in the soil that had droppings of the sick worms. The other disease was passed through their intestines. That French silk market was saved from silkworms thanks to Pasteur. Pasteur is also very well known for the process, Pasteurization, that kills microbes in foods and drinks. It was invented in 1864 which was huge at the time because it obviated many illnesses. In this process you would heat up a drink (like milk or wine) and then very quickly cooling it down. We can thank him for our long lasting beverages. After several strokes, the scientist who made incredible discoveries, died, and he may be a part of the reason you are alive and reading this report right now.	<urn:uuid:31ea3bf2-7e80-494e-aecf-12e07ee2fcc4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://virginiaangerclass.com/louis-to-the-disease-by-making-a-vaccine/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00330.warc.gz	en	0.993445	656	3.71875	4	[ 0.12486716359853745, 0.4103788435459137, 0.0510755218565464, 0.026628945022821426, -0.08371341228485107, -0.6004223823547363, 0.5394899249076843, 0.6516135334968567, -0.30684468150138855, 0.14953462779521942, 0.36819103360176086, -0.8218154907226562, 0.1657291054725647, 0.09460004419088364...	5	Louis Pasteur was a very important chemist and microbiologist born on December 27,1822 and died September 28, 1895. He laid the groundwork molecular asymmetry, found a vaccine against rabies, cholera, smallpox, and anthrax, found that microorganisms cause disease and fermentation (it is the foaming that happens during manufacture of beer and wine), and more. Louis Pasteur has accomplished so much that there are hospitals, schools, buildings, institutions, and streets that hold his name. When he was young, he was an average kid, who had a poor family that enjoyed art and singing. But when Louis had realized he was meant for Science. He went to collage earning degrees in math, physics, and chemistry, to later become a science teacher. He then became a professor at the University of Strasbourg, fell in love with Marie Laurent, married her, and had five kids. Sadly, three of them died from typhoid fever which then encouraged him to find a cure for infectious diseases.Pasteur doing so, found that he could make people immune to the disease by making a vaccine, which is a weaker form of the diseases. He found this out by first working on cows, and the diseases anthrax. In 1848, Pasteur made a huge discovery. What had scientists lost and confused for years was explained. Pasteur found that molecules could be in mirror image forms. This discovery showed that many natural molecules were either right or left handed. In 1865, Pasteur was asked to go to the south of France by his friend Dumas to study the epidemic that was killing silkworms. He was reluctant at first but they were really good friends, and his family came. They found that a little globule was a sign of the disease. He figured out that it started with the moths, who produced the eggs that had the diseases. To stop this, he figured he would wait until after the moth had laid her eggs and then check the moth if she had any globule, and if she did, they would have to destroy the eggs to stop the spreading. He tried this, but it did not work. Worms without the globule died, and even some worm with it lived. Months went by, and then they figured out what they had done wrong, that there wasn’t one disease, but two. One of them being with the globule and one with an alive microscopic creature that multiplied. The healthy worms got sick from their food, mulberry leaves, that grew in the soil that had droppings of the sick worms. The other disease was passed through their intestines. That French silk market was saved from silkworms thanks to Pasteur. Pasteur is also very well known for the process, Pasteurization, that kills microbes in foods and drinks. It was invented in 1864 which was huge at the time because it obviated many illnesses. In this process you would heat up a drink (like milk or wine) and then very quickly cooling it down. We can thank him for our long lasting beverages. After several strokes, the scientist who made incredible discoveries, died, and he may be a part of the reason you are alive and reading this report right now.	679	ENGLISH	1
A common stomach bug may also be linked to the development of irregular heart rhythm, also known as atrial fibrillation, suggests a small study in Heart. The bug in question, Helicobacter pylori, causes ulcers, and has also been implicated in the development of stomach cancer and ischaemic heart disease. The researchers base their findings on 59 patients with persistent atrial fibrillation. The patients included those who had no structural heart disease. All the patients were given a battery of tests, including a heart tracing, and levels of C reactive protein, an indicator of systemic inflammation. They were also directly tested for the presence of H pylori. The results were compared with those from a group of 45 healthy volunteers in whom the same tests were carried out. Both groups were similar in terms of age and levels of blood fats, although significantly more of the patients with atrial fibrillation were being treated for high blood pressure. The patients with atrial fibrillation were around 20 times as likely to test positive for H pylori as the healthy volunteers, and their levels of C reactive protein were around five times as high. Both rates of H pylori and C reactive protein levels were also significantly higher among those patients with persistent atrial fibrillation than those with spasmodic episodes of irregular heart rhythm. H pylori is a very resilient bacterium and has properties that enable it to escape detection by the immune system, say the authors. And chronic gastritis, caused by persistent H pylori infection, may predispose to atrial fibrillation, they suggest. Click here to view full paper	<urn:uuid:6136e7c0-bcd4-4843-bf1c-7047142321db>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.news-medical.net/news/2005/06/15/11051.aspx	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00448.warc.gz	en	0.98003	341	3.359375	3	[ -0.3610134720802307, 0.0190805122256279, 0.008297671563923359, 0.24883122742176056, 0.3234036862850189, -0.019066516309976578, 0.2633688151836395, 0.4441658854484558, -0.1518329232931137, -0.3218623101711273, 0.1658545285463333, -0.4340052306652069, -0.05636267736554146, 0.1089555099606514...	2	A common stomach bug may also be linked to the development of irregular heart rhythm, also known as atrial fibrillation, suggests a small study in Heart. The bug in question, Helicobacter pylori, causes ulcers, and has also been implicated in the development of stomach cancer and ischaemic heart disease. The researchers base their findings on 59 patients with persistent atrial fibrillation. The patients included those who had no structural heart disease. All the patients were given a battery of tests, including a heart tracing, and levels of C reactive protein, an indicator of systemic inflammation. They were also directly tested for the presence of H pylori. The results were compared with those from a group of 45 healthy volunteers in whom the same tests were carried out. Both groups were similar in terms of age and levels of blood fats, although significantly more of the patients with atrial fibrillation were being treated for high blood pressure. The patients with atrial fibrillation were around 20 times as likely to test positive for H pylori as the healthy volunteers, and their levels of C reactive protein were around five times as high. Both rates of H pylori and C reactive protein levels were also significantly higher among those patients with persistent atrial fibrillation than those with spasmodic episodes of irregular heart rhythm. H pylori is a very resilient bacterium and has properties that enable it to escape detection by the immune system, say the authors. And chronic gastritis, caused by persistent H pylori infection, may predispose to atrial fibrillation, they suggest. Click here to view full paper	326	ENGLISH	1
As standards of social decorum for the upper classes increased in the later Victorian period, the need for servants in Victorian England increased as well. A Difficult Life for Servants in Victorian England The British census of 1891 found that 1.3 million girls and women worked as domestic servants in Victorian England. They were usually recruited between the ages of 10 and 13, after they had been through some elementary schooling. Many employers hoped for the servants they hired to have at least some elementary literacy and numeracy. It was difficult to get in the 1850s, but by the ’80s and ’90s it was becoming a more realistic expectation. If you went to work for a middle-class family or an upper-class family, you would usually have to go to live in the house where you were working. If you were working for an upper working-class family, it was more likely that you would live at home and simply migrate over every day to do the work. Wherever you were a servant, the hours of labor were very long. This is a transcript from the video series Victorian Britain. Watch it now, on The Great Courses Plus. The times when you would have to work hardest were often the holidays when everyone else was having the day off, because usually then, Christmas, for example, the family for which you worked would be having a big party or dinner and you would have to work to get it all ready. That is one reason why Boxing Day, the day after Christmas, is a traditional day for giving presents—boxes—to the servants, hence the name. The job had a lot of disadvantages. First, as a servant you were under constant scrutiny; at the same time you were subject to a very rigid form of apartheid. You were living very close to the family, but you were constantly being reminded that you were not a member of it. Most employers felt they had a right to look through their servants’ belongings. It was entirely their purview to go through the servants’ chest of drawers and make sure they hadn’t got anything which the employer objected to. Books of advice for middle-class wives are full of instructions about how you have to keep a very close watch on the servants to make sure that they are acting right. Up to 1860, it was legal to beat your servants without any redress. It was legal to order them to accompany you to church; they sat in the back in a segregated section. Advertisements for servants would specify that they must be Church of England or they must be Presbyterian. Very often columns of advertisements in the papers would say: “No Irish need apply.” Servants were often told to make themselves as nearly silent and invisible as they possibly could. Life of Alienation for Victorian Servants It was quite common to have a certain name associated with a certain job. The scullery maid is called Mary. If you hire Gwyneth, you call her Mary because she is the scullery maid. You couldn’t even depend on maintaining your own name for the purposes of your working life. If you were working as a servant in a relatively constrained family that didn’t have much money to spare, you couldn’t even depend on being given enough to eat. There were plenty of stories about servants who were constantly malnourished. It was very common for a family to be only just barely able to afford to spend any service money at all. What they did spend it on would be a servant who would sometimes get the worst of everything. If a servant became sick, you had no job security. You could be turned out by the employer who could be annoyed by the fact that you aren’t available to do the job. If you lived in, you tended to be remote from your own family and friends. Often you would be living in an alien class environment, and employers didn’t want close contacts between the servants and the family. They certainly didn’t want the servant’s family trooping in. And they didn’t really want the servants going off to spend time with their family. Many of them insisted on “no followers,” by which they meant boyfriends. Of course, it would be difficult to prevent an entire category of the population from having boyfriends, especially teenage girls. That encouraged deceit. The girls looked for ways to have some contact with boys, and that would make the employer feel that the servants were untrustworthy, and they’d say, “It is so hard to get good servants.” It was very common for girls to work in their teens and early twenties, then leave to get married, usually to someone in their own social class. It was relatively less common for women to spend their whole working lives in service, although a fair number did. Being a Servant in Victorian England Had a Bright Side But being a servant did have advantages as well. First, it gave you the chance to live in grand surroundings, far better places to actually pass your working life than you otherwise would ever have. Every working-class person in London was aware of the workhouse as a place you could go if you fell destitute, the constant hazards of falling into prostitution, the enormous number of homeless people, and the fact that even people who were housed lived in conditions of chronic overcrowding— 50,000 London families lived in single rooms in 1890. As a servant, you had an attic or shared an attic with another servant. It wouldn’t look like much to us, but to them it was a great thing. If you had a good employer, you could have at least a limited sense of membership in the family.Some families were very good to their servants. In a way, the servants were in the same position as the children. This is the age when children were told that you must be seen but not heard; the servants were in the same situation—excluded from the grown ups’ activities, kept quiet, forced to be obedient and docile. It is a parallel way of life. There are lots of memoirs written by people who grew up in the Victorian era saying how closely they associated with their servants when they were children and how remote they felt from their own parents. Winston Churchill’s book, My Early Life, is a good example of that. He had a nanny whom he was very close to indeed, but he never had any relationship with his parents; they were remote figures who didn’t have very much time for him. Incidentally, having first looked after him, when he got old enough, the nanny went to work for the Attlee family, and looked after young Clement Attlee, who became Prime Minister immediately after Churchill in the late 1940s. Those that Cared for Their Servants If your employer had a good sense of responsibility you would get the benefit of your employer’s protection. Listen to a speech that Prince Albert made to an organization called the Servants’ Provident and Benevolent Society. Who would not feel the deepest interest in the welfare of their domestic servants? Whose heart would fail to sympathize with those who minister to us in sickness, receive us upon our first appearance in this world, and even extend their cares to our mortal remains, who lie under our roof, form our household, and are part of the family? Clearly there was some sense of responsibility to your servants and to take their welfare very seriously. A servant named Elizabeth Gaye died in the 1880s. Her employer looked after the funeral and had her headstone engraved: “In memory of Elizabeth Gaye, who, after a service of 40 years, finding her strength diminished, with unparalleled disinterestedness, requested that her wages might be proportionately lessened.” Learn more about Victoria’s Early Reign—1837-61 It is an incredible story: first, that the family would have all these very long words engraved on the tombstone and, second, that the thing they thought worth singling out to commemorate her entire life was that she had asked for a pay cut because she was aware that she was becoming a little unsteady. Common Questions About Servants in Victorian England Servants in Victorian England were a small step up from abject poverty as they generally had quarters and food from the household they looked after, but they generally lived a difficult life of constant work and servitude.	<urn:uuid:62844b98-02b8-4db4-b094-110062a4db6c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thegreatcoursesdaily.com/servants-in-victorian-england/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00137.warc.gz	en	0.991461	1,749	3.6875	4	[ -0.11867047101259232, -0.2138519585132599, 0.38488805294036865, -0.3397381007671356, 0.20161759853363037, -0.02815590612590313, -0.26347020268440247, -0.25415098667144775, -0.2315119504928589, 0.014116652309894562, -0.17411863803863525, -0.012264952063560486, -0.0019320636056363583, -0.066...	4	As standards of social decorum for the upper classes increased in the later Victorian period, the need for servants in Victorian England increased as well. A Difficult Life for Servants in Victorian England The British census of 1891 found that 1.3 million girls and women worked as domestic servants in Victorian England. They were usually recruited between the ages of 10 and 13, after they had been through some elementary schooling. Many employers hoped for the servants they hired to have at least some elementary literacy and numeracy. It was difficult to get in the 1850s, but by the ’80s and ’90s it was becoming a more realistic expectation. If you went to work for a middle-class family or an upper-class family, you would usually have to go to live in the house where you were working. If you were working for an upper working-class family, it was more likely that you would live at home and simply migrate over every day to do the work. Wherever you were a servant, the hours of labor were very long. This is a transcript from the video series Victorian Britain. Watch it now, on The Great Courses Plus. The times when you would have to work hardest were often the holidays when everyone else was having the day off, because usually then, Christmas, for example, the family for which you worked would be having a big party or dinner and you would have to work to get it all ready. That is one reason why Boxing Day, the day after Christmas, is a traditional day for giving presents—boxes—to the servants, hence the name. The job had a lot of disadvantages. First, as a servant you were under constant scrutiny; at the same time you were subject to a very rigid form of apartheid. You were living very close to the family, but you were constantly being reminded that you were not a member of it. Most employers felt they had a right to look through their servants’ belongings. It was entirely their purview to go through the servants’ chest of drawers and make sure they hadn’t got anything which the employer objected to. Books of advice for middle-class wives are full of instructions about how you have to keep a very close watch on the servants to make sure that they are acting right. Up to 1860, it was legal to beat your servants without any redress. It was legal to order them to accompany you to church; they sat in the back in a segregated section. Advertisements for servants would specify that they must be Church of England or they must be Presbyterian. Very often columns of advertisements in the papers would say: “No Irish need apply.” Servants were often told to make themselves as nearly silent and invisible as they possibly could. Life of Alienation for Victorian Servants It was quite common to have a certain name associated with a certain job. The scullery maid is called Mary. If you hire Gwyneth, you call her Mary because she is the scullery maid. You couldn’t even depend on maintaining your own name for the purposes of your working life. If you were working as a servant in a relatively constrained family that didn’t have much money to spare, you couldn’t even depend on being given enough to eat. There were plenty of stories about servants who were constantly malnourished. It was very common for a family to be only just barely able to afford to spend any service money at all. What they did spend it on would be a servant who would sometimes get the worst of everything. If a servant became sick, you had no job security. You could be turned out by the employer who could be annoyed by the fact that you aren’t available to do the job. If you lived in, you tended to be remote from your own family and friends. Often you would be living in an alien class environment, and employers didn’t want close contacts between the servants and the family. They certainly didn’t want the servant’s family trooping in. And they didn’t really want the servants going off to spend time with their family. Many of them insisted on “no followers,” by which they meant boyfriends. Of course, it would be difficult to prevent an entire category of the population from having boyfriends, especially teenage girls. That encouraged deceit. The girls looked for ways to have some contact with boys, and that would make the employer feel that the servants were untrustworthy, and they’d say, “It is so hard to get good servants.” It was very common for girls to work in their teens and early twenties, then leave to get married, usually to someone in their own social class. It was relatively less common for women to spend their whole working lives in service, although a fair number did. Being a Servant in Victorian England Had a Bright Side But being a servant did have advantages as well. First, it gave you the chance to live in grand surroundings, far better places to actually pass your working life than you otherwise would ever have. Every working-class person in London was aware of the workhouse as a place you could go if you fell destitute, the constant hazards of falling into prostitution, the enormous number of homeless people, and the fact that even people who were housed lived in conditions of chronic overcrowding— 50,000 London families lived in single rooms in 1890. As a servant, you had an attic or shared an attic with another servant. It wouldn’t look like much to us, but to them it was a great thing. If you had a good employer, you could have at least a limited sense of membership in the family.Some families were very good to their servants. In a way, the servants were in the same position as the children. This is the age when children were told that you must be seen but not heard; the servants were in the same situation—excluded from the grown ups’ activities, kept quiet, forced to be obedient and docile. It is a parallel way of life. There are lots of memoirs written by people who grew up in the Victorian era saying how closely they associated with their servants when they were children and how remote they felt from their own parents. Winston Churchill’s book, My Early Life, is a good example of that. He had a nanny whom he was very close to indeed, but he never had any relationship with his parents; they were remote figures who didn’t have very much time for him. Incidentally, having first looked after him, when he got old enough, the nanny went to work for the Attlee family, and looked after young Clement Attlee, who became Prime Minister immediately after Churchill in the late 1940s. Those that Cared for Their Servants If your employer had a good sense of responsibility you would get the benefit of your employer’s protection. Listen to a speech that Prince Albert made to an organization called the Servants’ Provident and Benevolent Society. Who would not feel the deepest interest in the welfare of their domestic servants? Whose heart would fail to sympathize with those who minister to us in sickness, receive us upon our first appearance in this world, and even extend their cares to our mortal remains, who lie under our roof, form our household, and are part of the family? Clearly there was some sense of responsibility to your servants and to take their welfare very seriously. A servant named Elizabeth Gaye died in the 1880s. Her employer looked after the funeral and had her headstone engraved: “In memory of Elizabeth Gaye, who, after a service of 40 years, finding her strength diminished, with unparalleled disinterestedness, requested that her wages might be proportionately lessened.” Learn more about Victoria’s Early Reign—1837-61 It is an incredible story: first, that the family would have all these very long words engraved on the tombstone and, second, that the thing they thought worth singling out to commemorate her entire life was that she had asked for a pay cut because she was aware that she was becoming a little unsteady. Common Questions About Servants in Victorian England Servants in Victorian England were a small step up from abject poverty as they generally had quarters and food from the household they looked after, but they generally lived a difficult life of constant work and servitude.	1,711	ENGLISH	1
Women have in the present age been accredited with playing a pivotal role in the building of our nation. However, this task did not begin in the recent years but can trace its beginning back to the colonial American era where the traditional role of women was reinvented due to the realities of the new world. Prior to the colonial era, the roles of women were greatly limited by the traditional attitudes of women as the “weaker sex”. However, with the movement to the New World, their previously clearly defined roles began to be blurred mostly as a consequence of the labor deficit in colonial America which led to a state where the contribution by the women was most vital for the survival of the family. However, this new definition of women led to the women being involved in labor that had previously been taken up by men in addition to their domestic chores. This resulted in women being generally faced with multiple hardships. The life of the American woman in the colonial era is thus interpreted in different light by many a historian. However, the commonly held notion that the society generally devalued the contribution of the women and subjected them to inhuman treatment and suffering is a gross misinterpretation as is demonstrated by the “notes on Virginia” by Thomas Jefferson. While the lives of the women in Colonial American were inevitably marked with multiple responsibilities and hardships, the women also took the time out to make merriment thus helping to lighten their weary loads thus creating a balance that made life bearable. This paper shall set out to document the typical life of the women in that era by doing an extensive research and analyzing firsthand accounts from these women. The paper shall then delve into the activities that made the daily lives of the women fun to some extent. The first colonists were men who traveled to North America and claimed lands for the Kings and Queens of their homelands; these lands were known as colonies. The colonies proved to be a major attraction to many Europeans who were either unemployed or did not own land. The prospects of a new country where land was in abundance and the space was in plenty as opposed to the crowded cities of London and Paris saw thousands of Europeans move to the colonies. Some women traveled together with their husbands or independently with the hope of marrying off and starting new families in the new world. However, the realities that met the hopeful new immigrants were very different from what they had anticipated. Kalman and Walker state most colonists originated from the European cities and were thus ill prepared for the harsh realities that met them in the wilderness that was the new world. The cities, despite their many ills were equipped with social amenities. However, in the colonies, there were no farms, roads, homes or hospitals and the colonists were faced with illnesses and food shortages. This new realities bore down on the women population who had to reinvent themselves in order to cope. The daily life of the colonial American Woman thus became characterized by the dual role of wife and family co-provider therefore making the colonial American Women fulfill a very important function in society. In addition to the traditional role of wife and mother, the women also played an economic role as they worked together with their male counterparts to produce foods and other supplies necessary for the survival of their families. The colonial society was run by men and married women were expected to be subordinate to their husband. The role of the woman as dictated by society was that of primarily playing a supportive role to her husband and family. This can be demonstrated by an extract from the Godey’s Lady’s Book which advised that a woman must strive to live within the provisions of the man and take care to be grateful that the man has allowed her to keep his house. This state was fortified by the law which dictated that the man held control of all property and married women had to relinquish their rights to any property to their husbands who were the sole controllers of both the women’s labor and access to economic resources. Bearing in mind that most of the colonial American’s were practicing Christians, this stance of male women as subordinate to men was justified by use of the Old Testament’s patriarchal model which emphasized female inferiority and male superiority. As such, women could not undertake any economic activity independent of their husbands or fathers thus making them financially dependent on the male figures. The English Common Law adopted in America dictated that through marriage, the husband and wife became as one person thus suspending the legal existence of the woman. In essence, this meant that a married woman’s inheritance, property, income and even her very clothing belonged to her husband and she could do nothing without her husband’s consent. Some of the women who came to the new world came as Indentured servants. This were women whom, unable to pay for the trip from Europe, made deals with colonists sponsors to pay for their trips in return for which they agreed to work as servants to repay their sponsors by working in their homes, fields or workshops for as many as 7 years. The fate of these women was far worse than that of the women who came with their husbands or families. First and foremost, the productive and reproductive labor of the indentured servants was completely controlled by their masters for the term of the indenture. Most of these masters were not benevolent and thus forbade the women from marrying, leaving or even purchasing any property without their explicit permission. In addition to this, the women were paid wages that were below the current rates and despite the stipulation by the law as to the specified provisions they could receive, most masters provided only a bare minimal of food and cloths. Death was a constant reality to the early colonists both male and female alike. However, death as a result of childbirth was especially reserved for women. The population of the early settlers in America was fairly low and owing to diseases and other factors which raised the mortality rate, the population was greatly diminished. This was in contrast to the high demand for labor that the new colonies demanded. As such, women were greatly pressured to have children as there was a heavy dependence on child labor for the family’s advancement. On average, the colonial woman had 8 children in her lifetime. This was in spite of the bleak realities that each childbirth event held for the woman. The possibility of death during childbirth was a constant reality to the women and in cases where the baby happened to be trapped inside the womb, any attempts at a Cesarean operation almost always resulted in the death of the mother. Middleton tells of the story of a young colonial wife, Mary Clapp who buried four of her infants before having her life prematurely ended as a result of a childbirth complication. As if the childbearing task was not hard enough, most mothers were only allowed to rest for a few days before they were forced to resume their daily household chores. This was especially hard for the women who were greatly weakened by the child bearing episode. In addition to this, the women had to carry with them their children to the fields where they worked since most families could not afford house helps to take care of the baby. In most cases, the first child had hardly been fully weaned before the next child was conceived and the cycle ran on. Despite the many hardships that the women in colonial America faced, they also engaged in a lot of activities that enabled them to ease the hardships by enjoying themselves if only for a while. As has been noted in previous discussion, women were burdened with work throughout their lives. To liven up the drudgery that they were subjected to, women mostly took up working in groups. This had a positive effect since the women could uplift each other’s spirits and generally encourage each other. A particularly interesting activity that the women undertook was competing in their work. They organized corn-husking parties and competed to see who could pick the most berries in the plantations or even spin the most thread. This had the effect of converting an otherwise tiring and mundane task such as spinning yarn into a joy for the participants. In addition to this, at times they would organize quilting bees. This was the most common activity that the women would comfortably do and deem as fun. In essence, they would carefully cut different pieces of clothes then sew them together so as to make a quilt. The one with the most beautiful quilt and with the best time was declared the winner of that competition. As mentioned earlier, women always worked in groups and as they worked they entertained themselves by singing. This could be done randomly, or by forming designated groups which would compete against each other as they worked. To add on this, they would occasionally indulge themselves with spelling bee. In these bees, they would each ask for spellings and the one who got the most answers would have their chores done by the other women in that particular group. Due to the strictness of the rules that governed these women regarding to their social freedom and responsibilities, they learned how to make their chores fun. For example, weddings and holiday preparations was the highlight of many women. They often enjoyed cooking and preparing such festivities. In some states, women coming from high class families either through the parents or husband were allowed to play card games, smoke and even gamble. This was however under very strict supervision by a dominant male to monitor their behaviors and ensure that they do not shame the family’s name and status. Harvest time was perhaps the worst time for the women during the colonial age. This was because they were supposed to help out in the fields while at the same time fulfilling their homely roles and obligations. Many hours were dedicated to this process in order to avoid spoilage and also to get better market value before the markets flooded with the same harvests. After the busy harvest season, women engaged in the harvest fairs which were marked by celebration. To celebrate a good harvest, the women folk prepared savory dishes and indulged in little luxuries such as cakes and wild turkeys. In some states, the harvest fairs were characterized by the preparation of a particular meal. This task was carried out by the women. The older women were expected to teach the younger ones how to do this in a bid to pass the knowledge through generations and consequently preserve the valued culture. While the harvest fares were mostly simple in nature, modestly sized and lasted only for short durations, they offered a sense of solace and a variation to the months of self-denial and having to bear with hard work, extreme weather conditions and worst of all a society filled with disrespectful and unappreciative men. Women in the colonial age often did some differentiated activities during the little free time they got. These activities went along way in showing their craftsmanship. Pottery was one such activity. Originally introduced by the Native women who worked as slaves, the craft over time became a common activity amongst the American women too. Other than that, the women also perfected the art of knitting during this age. According to the cultures that prevailed, all women were expected to master this craft before they got married. It was considered as a key point in showcasing one’s responsibility and care towards their family. It also showed that the woman was not lazy and minded her family’s perception in the community. It was also a good way of passing time as opposed to gossiping. The women also involved themselves in making quilts. They were not merely for competition reasons. Some of these quilts were carefully mended with specific material/ cloths to ensure that they provide warmth for the families during winter and other cold seasons. To further show their craftsmanship, the women were also in charge of making candles and soap for family use. This was done after the slaughtering seasons. It was the most disgusting job as they worked with suet from the slaughter houses. After heating the suet the removed fat would be used to make the candles or be mixed with burnt ash to make soap. This just goes to show the ingenuity possessed by these women considering the working conditions that they were entitled to. It was also during this age that the use of rugs was discovered. The women would weave these rugs from worn out clothes and blankets and later use them in the house floor to prevent against splinters from the then wooden floors. Even though these crafts were done in a bid to avoid confrontation from the men and society, they provided the women with avenues for both learning and socializing with each other. The foundation of the new world was on godliness as dictated by the bible. Religion played a significant role in the lives of the women in the colonies. The women were devoted to establishing an orderly and religious colony and therefore had much spiritual zeal which came about as a result of their devotion to a good cause. A particularly interesting facet of the life of the colonial woman was the organization of bible study groups and prayer groups. In many homes it was more likely to find a bible than any other book. It was a daily ritual to read the Bible after meals and early in the morning before the members embarked on their daily activities. These tasks were done by the men who probably got an education but it was the duty of the women to ensure that the teachings are imparted in the lives of the children. The women were not allowed to preach or speak in the presence of men. These were rules derived directly from the bible and were to be strictly followed. Disregarding them called for stern action against the culprit and would also bring shame to the family. Women were also supposed to attend bible study sessions in which they were given biblical citations as to how they are supposed to live, their position in the society and their roles in the family setting. At the same time, they were taught the importance of prayers and how to pray. Marriage to them was a privilege and sacred. Promiscuity especially on the women side was considered as the greatest sin of all and the women found guilty for this would forever be banished from the community and the family would be carry that shame through generations to come. In accordance to dressing, women were supposed to wear a loose dress and cover their hair. This was a sign of decency as well as high morals. These gowns were to fully cover their necks up to the ankles. This was because of the general belief that a woman’s body was a source of temptations. Therefore dressing in this manner was to avoid tempting men into having impure thoughts. This paper set out to illustrate that the women in colonial America faced a lot of challenges in their lives and to reinforce this statement, a detailed discussion has been provided as to their chores, children and husbands. However, despite this, this paper has also conceded that these women still managed to find the time to do things which were fun so as to lighten their otherwise very heavy loads. By reviewing the lives of women at that time and other relevant literature, this paper has showcased the different tasks that women undertook so as to overcome the difficulties inherent in their lives. Examples have been given which demonstrated that despite the challenges, prejudices and difficulties that faced women, they focused on what was most important; building a better tomorrow. Their ingenuity in terms of craftsmanship and nurturing instincts portrayed in colonial America have ever since evolved leading to advances in the pottery, candle and soap making industries. From this research paper, it can be authoritatively stated that the women did manage to overcome the limits that society and the realities of their everyday living presented to make a comfortable life for their families and themselves. In today’s society which is characterized by wide spread disillusionment and a broken down family structure it would seem that we have a lot to learn from the lifestyle experienced by women in the colonial age. Abramovitz, Mimi. Regulating the lives of women: social welfare policy from colonial times to the present. South End Press, 1996. Earle, Morse, Alice. Home Life in Colonial Days. Pelican Publishing Company, 1998. Humphrey, Sue carol. The Revolutionary era: Primary Documents on Events from 1776 to 1800. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003. Kalman, Bobbie and Walker, Niki. Colonial WOmen. Crabtree Publishing Company, 2003. Kamensky, Jane. The Colonial Mosaic 1600-1760. Oxford University Press, 1995. Marble, Annie. The Women Who Came In The Mayflower. Babylon Dreams, 2009. Middleton, Richard. Colonial America: a history, 1565-1776. Wiley-Blackwell, 2002. Miller, Marie, Brandon. Good Women of a Well-blessed Land: Women’s Lives in Colonial America. Twenty-First Century Books, 2003. Brian Tubbs, How Were Women Treated in Early America? http://colonial-america.suite101.com/article.cfm/how_were_women_treated_in_early_america (accessed Jan, 2007) Bobbie Kalman and Niki Walker. Colonial Women (Crabtree Publishing Company, 2003),11 Peter Pappas. Re-Defining the Role of Women in Industrial America. www. edteck.com/dbq. (Accessed February 3, 2010). Mimi Abramovitz. Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present. (South End Press, 1996), 54. Bobbie Kalman and Niki Walker. Colonial Women (Crabtree Publishing Company, 2003), 4 Mimi Abramovitz. Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present. (South End Press, 1996), 56. Mimi Abramovitz. Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present. (South End Press, 1996), 56. Richard Middleton. Colonial America: a history, 1565-1776 (Wiley-Blackwell, 2002), 246. Marie Brandon. Good Women of a Well-blessed Land: Women’s Lives in Colonial America (Twenty-First Century Books, 2003), 57. Annie Marble. The Women Who Came In The Mayflower, (Babylon Dreams, 2009), 17. Jane Kamensky. The colonial mosaic 1600-1760, (Oxford University Press, 1995), 56 Richford Nannette. About colonial crafts, (2009) Annie Marble. The Women Who Came In The Mayflower, (Babylon Dreams, 2009), 9.	<urn:uuid:d235c705-8669-4d13-9fae-07c2a2b20a5f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://graceplaceofwillmar.org/the-lightly-heavy-load-women-in-colonial-america/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00232.warc.gz	en	0.985841	3,795	4.1875	4	[ -0.21671587228775024, 0.2664255201816559, 0.5243631601333618, 0.2511383295059204, -0.016061466187238693, 0.5268230438232422, -0.11902965605258942, 0.03521348536014557, -0.1531640738248825, 0.08205380290746689, 0.36547619104385376, -0.13071127235889435, -0.22391349077224731, 0.2102928012609...	3	Women have in the present age been accredited with playing a pivotal role in the building of our nation. However, this task did not begin in the recent years but can trace its beginning back to the colonial American era where the traditional role of women was reinvented due to the realities of the new world. Prior to the colonial era, the roles of women were greatly limited by the traditional attitudes of women as the “weaker sex”. However, with the movement to the New World, their previously clearly defined roles began to be blurred mostly as a consequence of the labor deficit in colonial America which led to a state where the contribution by the women was most vital for the survival of the family. However, this new definition of women led to the women being involved in labor that had previously been taken up by men in addition to their domestic chores. This resulted in women being generally faced with multiple hardships. The life of the American woman in the colonial era is thus interpreted in different light by many a historian. However, the commonly held notion that the society generally devalued the contribution of the women and subjected them to inhuman treatment and suffering is a gross misinterpretation as is demonstrated by the “notes on Virginia” by Thomas Jefferson. While the lives of the women in Colonial American were inevitably marked with multiple responsibilities and hardships, the women also took the time out to make merriment thus helping to lighten their weary loads thus creating a balance that made life bearable. This paper shall set out to document the typical life of the women in that era by doing an extensive research and analyzing firsthand accounts from these women. The paper shall then delve into the activities that made the daily lives of the women fun to some extent. The first colonists were men who traveled to North America and claimed lands for the Kings and Queens of their homelands; these lands were known as colonies. The colonies proved to be a major attraction to many Europeans who were either unemployed or did not own land. The prospects of a new country where land was in abundance and the space was in plenty as opposed to the crowded cities of London and Paris saw thousands of Europeans move to the colonies. Some women traveled together with their husbands or independently with the hope of marrying off and starting new families in the new world. However, the realities that met the hopeful new immigrants were very different from what they had anticipated. Kalman and Walker state most colonists originated from the European cities and were thus ill prepared for the harsh realities that met them in the wilderness that was the new world. The cities, despite their many ills were equipped with social amenities. However, in the colonies, there were no farms, roads, homes or hospitals and the colonists were faced with illnesses and food shortages. This new realities bore down on the women population who had to reinvent themselves in order to cope. The daily life of the colonial American Woman thus became characterized by the dual role of wife and family co-provider therefore making the colonial American Women fulfill a very important function in society. In addition to the traditional role of wife and mother, the women also played an economic role as they worked together with their male counterparts to produce foods and other supplies necessary for the survival of their families. The colonial society was run by men and married women were expected to be subordinate to their husband. The role of the woman as dictated by society was that of primarily playing a supportive role to her husband and family. This can be demonstrated by an extract from the Godey’s Lady’s Book which advised that a woman must strive to live within the provisions of the man and take care to be grateful that the man has allowed her to keep his house. This state was fortified by the law which dictated that the man held control of all property and married women had to relinquish their rights to any property to their husbands who were the sole controllers of both the women’s labor and access to economic resources. Bearing in mind that most of the colonial American’s were practicing Christians, this stance of male women as subordinate to men was justified by use of the Old Testament’s patriarchal model which emphasized female inferiority and male superiority. As such, women could not undertake any economic activity independent of their husbands or fathers thus making them financially dependent on the male figures. The English Common Law adopted in America dictated that through marriage, the husband and wife became as one person thus suspending the legal existence of the woman. In essence, this meant that a married woman’s inheritance, property, income and even her very clothing belonged to her husband and she could do nothing without her husband’s consent. Some of the women who came to the new world came as Indentured servants. This were women whom, unable to pay for the trip from Europe, made deals with colonists sponsors to pay for their trips in return for which they agreed to work as servants to repay their sponsors by working in their homes, fields or workshops for as many as 7 years. The fate of these women was far worse than that of the women who came with their husbands or families. First and foremost, the productive and reproductive labor of the indentured servants was completely controlled by their masters for the term of the indenture. Most of these masters were not benevolent and thus forbade the women from marrying, leaving or even purchasing any property without their explicit permission. In addition to this, the women were paid wages that were below the current rates and despite the stipulation by the law as to the specified provisions they could receive, most masters provided only a bare minimal of food and cloths. Death was a constant reality to the early colonists both male and female alike. However, death as a result of childbirth was especially reserved for women. The population of the early settlers in America was fairly low and owing to diseases and other factors which raised the mortality rate, the population was greatly diminished. This was in contrast to the high demand for labor that the new colonies demanded. As such, women were greatly pressured to have children as there was a heavy dependence on child labor for the family’s advancement. On average, the colonial woman had 8 children in her lifetime. This was in spite of the bleak realities that each childbirth event held for the woman. The possibility of death during childbirth was a constant reality to the women and in cases where the baby happened to be trapped inside the womb, any attempts at a Cesarean operation almost always resulted in the death of the mother. Middleton tells of the story of a young colonial wife, Mary Clapp who buried four of her infants before having her life prematurely ended as a result of a childbirth complication. As if the childbearing task was not hard enough, most mothers were only allowed to rest for a few days before they were forced to resume their daily household chores. This was especially hard for the women who were greatly weakened by the child bearing episode. In addition to this, the women had to carry with them their children to the fields where they worked since most families could not afford house helps to take care of the baby. In most cases, the first child had hardly been fully weaned before the next child was conceived and the cycle ran on. Despite the many hardships that the women in colonial America faced, they also engaged in a lot of activities that enabled them to ease the hardships by enjoying themselves if only for a while. As has been noted in previous discussion, women were burdened with work throughout their lives. To liven up the drudgery that they were subjected to, women mostly took up working in groups. This had a positive effect since the women could uplift each other’s spirits and generally encourage each other. A particularly interesting activity that the women undertook was competing in their work. They organized corn-husking parties and competed to see who could pick the most berries in the plantations or even spin the most thread. This had the effect of converting an otherwise tiring and mundane task such as spinning yarn into a joy for the participants. In addition to this, at times they would organize quilting bees. This was the most common activity that the women would comfortably do and deem as fun. In essence, they would carefully cut different pieces of clothes then sew them together so as to make a quilt. The one with the most beautiful quilt and with the best time was declared the winner of that competition. As mentioned earlier, women always worked in groups and as they worked they entertained themselves by singing. This could be done randomly, or by forming designated groups which would compete against each other as they worked. To add on this, they would occasionally indulge themselves with spelling bee. In these bees, they would each ask for spellings and the one who got the most answers would have their chores done by the other women in that particular group. Due to the strictness of the rules that governed these women regarding to their social freedom and responsibilities, they learned how to make their chores fun. For example, weddings and holiday preparations was the highlight of many women. They often enjoyed cooking and preparing such festivities. In some states, women coming from high class families either through the parents or husband were allowed to play card games, smoke and even gamble. This was however under very strict supervision by a dominant male to monitor their behaviors and ensure that they do not shame the family’s name and status. Harvest time was perhaps the worst time for the women during the colonial age. This was because they were supposed to help out in the fields while at the same time fulfilling their homely roles and obligations. Many hours were dedicated to this process in order to avoid spoilage and also to get better market value before the markets flooded with the same harvests. After the busy harvest season, women engaged in the harvest fairs which were marked by celebration. To celebrate a good harvest, the women folk prepared savory dishes and indulged in little luxuries such as cakes and wild turkeys. In some states, the harvest fairs were characterized by the preparation of a particular meal. This task was carried out by the women. The older women were expected to teach the younger ones how to do this in a bid to pass the knowledge through generations and consequently preserve the valued culture. While the harvest fares were mostly simple in nature, modestly sized and lasted only for short durations, they offered a sense of solace and a variation to the months of self-denial and having to bear with hard work, extreme weather conditions and worst of all a society filled with disrespectful and unappreciative men. Women in the colonial age often did some differentiated activities during the little free time they got. These activities went along way in showing their craftsmanship. Pottery was one such activity. Originally introduced by the Native women who worked as slaves, the craft over time became a common activity amongst the American women too. Other than that, the women also perfected the art of knitting during this age. According to the cultures that prevailed, all women were expected to master this craft before they got married. It was considered as a key point in showcasing one’s responsibility and care towards their family. It also showed that the woman was not lazy and minded her family’s perception in the community. It was also a good way of passing time as opposed to gossiping. The women also involved themselves in making quilts. They were not merely for competition reasons. Some of these quilts were carefully mended with specific material/ cloths to ensure that they provide warmth for the families during winter and other cold seasons. To further show their craftsmanship, the women were also in charge of making candles and soap for family use. This was done after the slaughtering seasons. It was the most disgusting job as they worked with suet from the slaughter houses. After heating the suet the removed fat would be used to make the candles or be mixed with burnt ash to make soap. This just goes to show the ingenuity possessed by these women considering the working conditions that they were entitled to. It was also during this age that the use of rugs was discovered. The women would weave these rugs from worn out clothes and blankets and later use them in the house floor to prevent against splinters from the then wooden floors. Even though these crafts were done in a bid to avoid confrontation from the men and society, they provided the women with avenues for both learning and socializing with each other. The foundation of the new world was on godliness as dictated by the bible. Religion played a significant role in the lives of the women in the colonies. The women were devoted to establishing an orderly and religious colony and therefore had much spiritual zeal which came about as a result of their devotion to a good cause. A particularly interesting facet of the life of the colonial woman was the organization of bible study groups and prayer groups. In many homes it was more likely to find a bible than any other book. It was a daily ritual to read the Bible after meals and early in the morning before the members embarked on their daily activities. These tasks were done by the men who probably got an education but it was the duty of the women to ensure that the teachings are imparted in the lives of the children. The women were not allowed to preach or speak in the presence of men. These were rules derived directly from the bible and were to be strictly followed. Disregarding them called for stern action against the culprit and would also bring shame to the family. Women were also supposed to attend bible study sessions in which they were given biblical citations as to how they are supposed to live, their position in the society and their roles in the family setting. At the same time, they were taught the importance of prayers and how to pray. Marriage to them was a privilege and sacred. Promiscuity especially on the women side was considered as the greatest sin of all and the women found guilty for this would forever be banished from the community and the family would be carry that shame through generations to come. In accordance to dressing, women were supposed to wear a loose dress and cover their hair. This was a sign of decency as well as high morals. These gowns were to fully cover their necks up to the ankles. This was because of the general belief that a woman’s body was a source of temptations. Therefore dressing in this manner was to avoid tempting men into having impure thoughts. This paper set out to illustrate that the women in colonial America faced a lot of challenges in their lives and to reinforce this statement, a detailed discussion has been provided as to their chores, children and husbands. However, despite this, this paper has also conceded that these women still managed to find the time to do things which were fun so as to lighten their otherwise very heavy loads. By reviewing the lives of women at that time and other relevant literature, this paper has showcased the different tasks that women undertook so as to overcome the difficulties inherent in their lives. Examples have been given which demonstrated that despite the challenges, prejudices and difficulties that faced women, they focused on what was most important; building a better tomorrow. Their ingenuity in terms of craftsmanship and nurturing instincts portrayed in colonial America have ever since evolved leading to advances in the pottery, candle and soap making industries. From this research paper, it can be authoritatively stated that the women did manage to overcome the limits that society and the realities of their everyday living presented to make a comfortable life for their families and themselves. In today’s society which is characterized by wide spread disillusionment and a broken down family structure it would seem that we have a lot to learn from the lifestyle experienced by women in the colonial age. Abramovitz, Mimi. Regulating the lives of women: social welfare policy from colonial times to the present. South End Press, 1996. Earle, Morse, Alice. Home Life in Colonial Days. Pelican Publishing Company, 1998. Humphrey, Sue carol. The Revolutionary era: Primary Documents on Events from 1776 to 1800. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003. Kalman, Bobbie and Walker, Niki. Colonial WOmen. Crabtree Publishing Company, 2003. Kamensky, Jane. The Colonial Mosaic 1600-1760. Oxford University Press, 1995. Marble, Annie. The Women Who Came In The Mayflower. Babylon Dreams, 2009. Middleton, Richard. Colonial America: a history, 1565-1776. Wiley-Blackwell, 2002. Miller, Marie, Brandon. Good Women of a Well-blessed Land: Women’s Lives in Colonial America. Twenty-First Century Books, 2003. Brian Tubbs, How Were Women Treated in Early America? http://colonial-america.suite101.com/article.cfm/how_were_women_treated_in_early_america (accessed Jan, 2007) Bobbie Kalman and Niki Walker. Colonial Women (Crabtree Publishing Company, 2003),11 Peter Pappas. Re-Defining the Role of Women in Industrial America. www. edteck.com/dbq. (Accessed February 3, 2010). Mimi Abramovitz. Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present. (South End Press, 1996), 54. Bobbie Kalman and Niki Walker. Colonial Women (Crabtree Publishing Company, 2003), 4 Mimi Abramovitz. Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present. (South End Press, 1996), 56. Mimi Abramovitz. Regulating the Lives of Women: Social Welfare Policy from Colonial Times to the Present. (South End Press, 1996), 56. Richard Middleton. Colonial America: a history, 1565-1776 (Wiley-Blackwell, 2002), 246. Marie Brandon. Good Women of a Well-blessed Land: Women’s Lives in Colonial America (Twenty-First Century Books, 2003), 57. Annie Marble. The Women Who Came In The Mayflower, (Babylon Dreams, 2009), 17. Jane Kamensky. The colonial mosaic 1600-1760, (Oxford University Press, 1995), 56 Richford Nannette. About colonial crafts, (2009) Annie Marble. The Women Who Came In The Mayflower, (Babylon Dreams, 2009), 9.	3,827	ENGLISH	1
and suffered the fate of condemned traitors in Rome, being flung from the Tarpeian Rock, the precipitous edge of that same Capitoline Hill he had defended. In 376 B.C., Licinius, who was one of the ten tribunes for the people, began a long struggle with the patricians by making certain proposals called the Licinian Rogations, that there should be a limit to the amount of public land taken by any single citizen, so leaving some for everybody, that outstanding debts should be forgiven without interest upon the repayment of the principal, and that henceforth one at least of the two consuls should be a plebeian. This precipitated a ten-year struggle. The plebeian power to stop business by the veto of their representatives, the tribunes, was fully exercised. In cases of national extremity it was the custom to set all other magistrates aside and appoint one leader, the Dictator. Rome had done such a thing during times of military necessity before, but now the patricians set up a Dictator in a time of profound peace, with the idea of crushing Licinius altogether. They appointed Camillus, who had besieged and taken Veii from the Etruscans. But Camillus was a wiser man than his supporters; he brought about a compromise between the two orders in which most of the demands of the plebeians were conceded (366 B.C.), dedicated a temple to Concord, and resigned his power. Thereafter the struggle between the orders abated. It abated because, among other influences, the social differences between patricians and plebeians were diminishing. Trade was coming to Rome with increasing political power, and many plebeians were growing rich and many patricians becoming relatively poor. Inter-marriage had been rendered possible by a change in the law, and social intermixture was going on. While the rich plebeians were becoming, if not aristocratic, at least oligarchic in habits and sympathy, new classes were springing up in Rome with fresh interests and no political standing. Particularly abundant were the freed-men, slaves set free, for the most part artisans, but some of them traders, who were growing wealthy. And the Senate, no longer a purely patrician body—since various official positions were now open to plebeians, and such plebeian officials became senators—was becoming now an assembly of all the wealthy, able, ener-	<urn:uuid:51b4b67b-58fd-4a12-bc01-f901c09a8216>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Outline_of_History_Vol_1.djvu/483	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00065.warc.gz	en	0.981413	507	3.359375	3	[ -0.3774620592594147, 0.19834303855895996, 0.24957720935344696, -0.06873320043087006, -0.33555126190185547, -0.005325154401361942, -0.018562739714980125, 0.032168734818696976, 0.38396430015563965, 0.101845882833004, 0.14992424845695496, -0.2811802625656128, 0.16776375472545624, 0.2404877394...	1	and suffered the fate of condemned traitors in Rome, being flung from the Tarpeian Rock, the precipitous edge of that same Capitoline Hill he had defended. In 376 B.C., Licinius, who was one of the ten tribunes for the people, began a long struggle with the patricians by making certain proposals called the Licinian Rogations, that there should be a limit to the amount of public land taken by any single citizen, so leaving some for everybody, that outstanding debts should be forgiven without interest upon the repayment of the principal, and that henceforth one at least of the two consuls should be a plebeian. This precipitated a ten-year struggle. The plebeian power to stop business by the veto of their representatives, the tribunes, was fully exercised. In cases of national extremity it was the custom to set all other magistrates aside and appoint one leader, the Dictator. Rome had done such a thing during times of military necessity before, but now the patricians set up a Dictator in a time of profound peace, with the idea of crushing Licinius altogether. They appointed Camillus, who had besieged and taken Veii from the Etruscans. But Camillus was a wiser man than his supporters; he brought about a compromise between the two orders in which most of the demands of the plebeians were conceded (366 B.C.), dedicated a temple to Concord, and resigned his power. Thereafter the struggle between the orders abated. It abated because, among other influences, the social differences between patricians and plebeians were diminishing. Trade was coming to Rome with increasing political power, and many plebeians were growing rich and many patricians becoming relatively poor. Inter-marriage had been rendered possible by a change in the law, and social intermixture was going on. While the rich plebeians were becoming, if not aristocratic, at least oligarchic in habits and sympathy, new classes were springing up in Rome with fresh interests and no political standing. Particularly abundant were the freed-men, slaves set free, for the most part artisans, but some of them traders, who were growing wealthy. And the Senate, no longer a purely patrician body—since various official positions were now open to plebeians, and such plebeian officials became senators—was becoming now an assembly of all the wealthy, able, ener-	508	ENGLISH	1
Ancient Brazilian pit house occupied continuously for centuries Prehistoric proto-Jê Brazilian peoples may have continually renovated and extended their pit houses to allow occupation over centuries, according to a study published July 6, 2016 in the open-access journal PLOS ONE by Jonas Gregorio de Souza from the University of Exeter, UK, and colleagues. Pit houses, covered buildings which are partly dug into the ground, were used by prehistoric South American proto-Jê peoples. It was previously thought that the proto-Jê pit house villages of the southern Brazilian highlands were abandoned and later reoccupied over time rather than inhabited continuously. However, the authors of the present study re-examined this assumption, using comprehensive AMS radiocarbon dating and Bayesian modelling of one very large or 'oversized' pit house in Campo Belo do Sul, Brazil, to characterize how it was used between Cal. A.D. 1395 and 1650. They found that the house had likely never been abandoned in this period, but was instead continually occupied and extended over the years. Occupants built new floors on top of old, and the authors found twelve well preserved floors in total, five of which were covered by completely burnt collapsed roofs. The authors suggest that the home was occupied for over two centuries by a single family or group, and as time went on, they used different types of ceramics and techniques to renovate and update their home. Jonas Gregorio de Souza said: "Our research shows the disparity in domestic architecture in the southern Brazilian highlands. We have highlighted that it is important to use radiocarbon dating on individual structures to understand how and for how long homes were occupied. While the study was based on a single house and the authors were not able to draw conclusions about the function of such very large structures, this study provides insight into the permanent dwellings and elaborate architectural renewal rituals that existed in southern proto-Jê communities at this time. Jonas Gregorio de Souza noted: "We now know more about the way these groups lived, and are able to challenge the view, dominant until relatively recently, that these were marginal cultures in the context of lowland South America."	<urn:uuid:544ebeb3-09c3-4155-a59b-b7aa4956017a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://phys.org/news/2016-07-ancient-brazilian-pit-house-occupied.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00003.warc.gz	en	0.980055	453	3.6875	4	[ -0.08155717700719833, 0.4089541435241699, 0.6638998985290527, -0.01418664213269949, -0.06390391290187836, -0.08778098970651627, -0.47536200284957886, -0.19954422116279602, 0.10055045038461685, 0.07095231115818024, -0.10084870457649231, -0.5251255631446838, -0.14284807443618774, 0.629343867...	4	Ancient Brazilian pit house occupied continuously for centuries Prehistoric proto-Jê Brazilian peoples may have continually renovated and extended their pit houses to allow occupation over centuries, according to a study published July 6, 2016 in the open-access journal PLOS ONE by Jonas Gregorio de Souza from the University of Exeter, UK, and colleagues. Pit houses, covered buildings which are partly dug into the ground, were used by prehistoric South American proto-Jê peoples. It was previously thought that the proto-Jê pit house villages of the southern Brazilian highlands were abandoned and later reoccupied over time rather than inhabited continuously. However, the authors of the present study re-examined this assumption, using comprehensive AMS radiocarbon dating and Bayesian modelling of one very large or 'oversized' pit house in Campo Belo do Sul, Brazil, to characterize how it was used between Cal. A.D. 1395 and 1650. They found that the house had likely never been abandoned in this period, but was instead continually occupied and extended over the years. Occupants built new floors on top of old, and the authors found twelve well preserved floors in total, five of which were covered by completely burnt collapsed roofs. The authors suggest that the home was occupied for over two centuries by a single family or group, and as time went on, they used different types of ceramics and techniques to renovate and update their home. Jonas Gregorio de Souza said: "Our research shows the disparity in domestic architecture in the southern Brazilian highlands. We have highlighted that it is important to use radiocarbon dating on individual structures to understand how and for how long homes were occupied. While the study was based on a single house and the authors were not able to draw conclusions about the function of such very large structures, this study provides insight into the permanent dwellings and elaborate architectural renewal rituals that existed in southern proto-Jê communities at this time. Jonas Gregorio de Souza noted: "We now know more about the way these groups lived, and are able to challenge the view, dominant until relatively recently, that these were marginal cultures in the context of lowland South America."	450	ENGLISH	1
The second Battle of Cambrai 1918 By the 28th of September 1918, if ever thoughts arose that the German army was on its last legs, the battle of Cambrai soon dispelled them. This northern French city, an ancient capital, had been in German hands since 1914, its roads and railways a key logistical hub linking north with south, and east to Germany. General Ludendorff was of no mind to lose it. On a broad high plateau to the north and west of the city he massed his battalions. Into the last of the prepared trenches, hidden in ravines and hollows, in shell-holes and behind lines of wire they flooded. Against them were ranged the four divisions of the Canadian Corps, the 11th British alongside. It was to be what one battalion history described as “the most desperately fought engagement of the war”. Five long days of bitter fighting ensued, attack followed by waves of counter-attacks. Artillery roared night and day. By October 2nd division after enemy division had been thrown into the breach, an astounding 13 in all. To no avail. The Allied encirclement of the city was virtually complete, the German defenders beaten and exhausted. Cambrai itself still loomed, but the heart of the German line on the Western Front was pierced for good, the mighty Hindenburg Line turned from the north and an iron wedge thrown between his forces north and south. Perhaps more than any other, this second battle of Cambrai was the one that convinced Germany’s generals of the need for peace. But to the desperately weary soldiers, mourning the thousands of their fallen comrades, the war went on and they girded themselves for the next battle.	<urn:uuid:b8eb1466-b93b-409f-b04e-5fe40ad6bfdf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.darrellduthie.com/uncategorized/the-second-battle-of-cambrai-1918/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00548.warc.gz	en	0.981307	350	3.5625	4	[ -0.2683708667755127, 0.4703589677810669, -0.3007384240627289, 0.010050872340798378, -0.30404186248779297, -0.007378391921520233, -0.36696937680244446, 0.35430097579956055, 0.10895946621894836, -0.23462454974651337, -0.0692632719874382, -0.5603137612342834, 0.41643378138542175, 0.6528011560...	9	The second Battle of Cambrai 1918 By the 28th of September 1918, if ever thoughts arose that the German army was on its last legs, the battle of Cambrai soon dispelled them. This northern French city, an ancient capital, had been in German hands since 1914, its roads and railways a key logistical hub linking north with south, and east to Germany. General Ludendorff was of no mind to lose it. On a broad high plateau to the north and west of the city he massed his battalions. Into the last of the prepared trenches, hidden in ravines and hollows, in shell-holes and behind lines of wire they flooded. Against them were ranged the four divisions of the Canadian Corps, the 11th British alongside. It was to be what one battalion history described as “the most desperately fought engagement of the war”. Five long days of bitter fighting ensued, attack followed by waves of counter-attacks. Artillery roared night and day. By October 2nd division after enemy division had been thrown into the breach, an astounding 13 in all. To no avail. The Allied encirclement of the city was virtually complete, the German defenders beaten and exhausted. Cambrai itself still loomed, but the heart of the German line on the Western Front was pierced for good, the mighty Hindenburg Line turned from the north and an iron wedge thrown between his forces north and south. Perhaps more than any other, this second battle of Cambrai was the one that convinced Germany’s generals of the need for peace. But to the desperately weary soldiers, mourning the thousands of their fallen comrades, the war went on and they girded themselves for the next battle.	362	ENGLISH	1
The Jesús María de la Limpia Concepción was the command ship of the Spanish South Sea Armada; mostly she was just called La Capitana, the ship of the captain. In 1654 La Capitana sank after hitting a reef off the coast of Ecuador. 20 seamen died in the shipwreck. The sinking of the huge galleon was the largest financial loss the Spanish South Sea Armada ever had to put up with. La Capitana held most of the treasures gained in the Spanish colonies that year: 2,212 ingots of silver, 216 strongboxes of silver coins, and 22 boxes of wrought silver went down to the bottom of the ocean. The total loss added up to about 10 million pesos. La Capitana was salvaged in 1997; two years later some of her coins were sold at auction. The coins were mostly 4 and 8 reales from the Potosí mint. Some of them were countermarked, like this real de a ocho, a real of eight, also known as peso.	<urn:uuid:7625474d-c2d6-409e-816a-5385cc66a222>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://moneymuseum.com/en/coins?id=2448	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00319.warc.gz	en	0.980618	221	3.546875	4	[ 0.06849320232868195, 0.08002778887748718, 0.31704723834991455, -0.49422308802604675, 0.0787377804517746, -0.15894369781017303, 0.11873271316289902, 0.2897413372993469, 0.12693312764167786, -0.14183108508586884, 0.09788217395544052, -0.1347590982913971, -0.005216402001678944, 0.119510650634...	8	The Jesús María de la Limpia Concepción was the command ship of the Spanish South Sea Armada; mostly she was just called La Capitana, the ship of the captain. In 1654 La Capitana sank after hitting a reef off the coast of Ecuador. 20 seamen died in the shipwreck. The sinking of the huge galleon was the largest financial loss the Spanish South Sea Armada ever had to put up with. La Capitana held most of the treasures gained in the Spanish colonies that year: 2,212 ingots of silver, 216 strongboxes of silver coins, and 22 boxes of wrought silver went down to the bottom of the ocean. The total loss added up to about 10 million pesos. La Capitana was salvaged in 1997; two years later some of her coins were sold at auction. The coins were mostly 4 and 8 reales from the Potosí mint. Some of them were countermarked, like this real de a ocho, a real of eight, also known as peso.	234	ENGLISH	1
The second century was a time where the poor kept getting poorer and the rich were getting richer. During the start of second century BC in Rome many of the elections were heavily influenced by bribery. Roman politicians began to see a commercial value attached to the votes that the poorer Roman citizens had (Lutz). The first half of the second century was a time period that saw many wars fought by the Romans, such as, the Second, Third, and Fourth Macedonian Wars as well as the Second and Third Punic Wars. These wars allowed for Rome to gain massive amounts of wealth and allow the richer of the Roman elite to become even richer. During this time of warring, a new class appears, called the Equites. This elite class was a part of a rising trend in non-Senatorial wealthy in the empire. Many of these newly wealthy families gained their fortunes through Publicani tax farming, the exploitation of taxes in newly acquired lands, or through buying up small farms on the ager publicus. These large farms will also be worked by the increasing amount of slaves in Rome, also due in part by their continual foreign wars. This increase in slaves, in tandem with a large consolidation of wealth in new elite classes all add to the tension felt in Rome leading up to the Gracchan “revolution”. During the later half of the second century there was even more bribery as well something even more sinister, violence. The use of violence in politics to get their laws through voting. Tiberius Gracchus put forth many laws that were designed to help a lot of the poorer Roman citizens and because of this he gained a lot of support from the masses. Because of this the Senate felt the Tiberius Gracchus was becoming too powerful and that he would eventually become so well liked that no one would be able to oppose him (Lutz). Ultimately the violence began when Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus put through a law without consulting the senate first and was eventually killed by a mob of senators (Plutarch). A few years later Gaius Gracchus, brother of Tiberius Gracchus, was also was also well liked by the Roman people and was then killed by his political opponents. After this politicians realized that they could either murder their opponents or hire thugs to force people to vote a certain way (Lutz). The use of violence starting with the murder of Tiberius Gracchus was an event that would change Rome forever. Violence used in politics would be the tool used by many Roman politicians to come. It was used by Sulla to eventually take control of Rome and put into action his set of laws and kill his political opponents. Eventually Caesar used armies to seize control of Rome and was then murdered by conspirators to get rid of Caesar.	<urn:uuid:976adb8f-af26-43ca-91ec-a273d880f4fa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://sites.psu.edu/deathoftiberiusgracchus/rome-in-the-second-century/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00202.warc.gz	en	0.988125	570	3.8125	4	[ -0.6194697618484497, 0.2334086000919342, 0.18260528147220612, -0.16945523023605347, -0.08431707322597504, -0.12156428396701813, -0.28767120838165283, 0.3672787547111511, 0.03666634485125542, -0.13536468148231506, 0.09110608696937561, -0.1039714515209198, 0.09489858895540237, 0.260874569416...	2	The second century was a time where the poor kept getting poorer and the rich were getting richer. During the start of second century BC in Rome many of the elections were heavily influenced by bribery. Roman politicians began to see a commercial value attached to the votes that the poorer Roman citizens had (Lutz). The first half of the second century was a time period that saw many wars fought by the Romans, such as, the Second, Third, and Fourth Macedonian Wars as well as the Second and Third Punic Wars. These wars allowed for Rome to gain massive amounts of wealth and allow the richer of the Roman elite to become even richer. During this time of warring, a new class appears, called the Equites. This elite class was a part of a rising trend in non-Senatorial wealthy in the empire. Many of these newly wealthy families gained their fortunes through Publicani tax farming, the exploitation of taxes in newly acquired lands, or through buying up small farms on the ager publicus. These large farms will also be worked by the increasing amount of slaves in Rome, also due in part by their continual foreign wars. This increase in slaves, in tandem with a large consolidation of wealth in new elite classes all add to the tension felt in Rome leading up to the Gracchan “revolution”. During the later half of the second century there was even more bribery as well something even more sinister, violence. The use of violence in politics to get their laws through voting. Tiberius Gracchus put forth many laws that were designed to help a lot of the poorer Roman citizens and because of this he gained a lot of support from the masses. Because of this the Senate felt the Tiberius Gracchus was becoming too powerful and that he would eventually become so well liked that no one would be able to oppose him (Lutz). Ultimately the violence began when Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus put through a law without consulting the senate first and was eventually killed by a mob of senators (Plutarch). A few years later Gaius Gracchus, brother of Tiberius Gracchus, was also was also well liked by the Roman people and was then killed by his political opponents. After this politicians realized that they could either murder their opponents or hire thugs to force people to vote a certain way (Lutz). The use of violence starting with the murder of Tiberius Gracchus was an event that would change Rome forever. Violence used in politics would be the tool used by many Roman politicians to come. It was used by Sulla to eventually take control of Rome and put into action his set of laws and kill his political opponents. Eventually Caesar used armies to seize control of Rome and was then murdered by conspirators to get rid of Caesar.	570	ENGLISH	1
Some 5,000 years ago, on a day with weather much like today's, a prehistoric person tread high up in what is now the Swiss Alps, wearing goat leather pants, leather shoes and armed with a bow and arrows. The unremarkable journey through the Schnidejoch pass, a lofty trail 2,756 metres (9,000 feet) above sea level, has been a boon to scientists. But it would never have emerged if climate change were not melting the nearby glacier. So far, 300 objects dating as far back as the Neolithic or New Stone Age -- about 4,000 BC in Europe -- to the later Bronze and Iron Ages and the Medieval era have been found in the site's former icefields. "We know now that the discoveries on Schnidejoch are the oldest of this kind ever made in the Alps," said Albert Hafner, an expert with the archaeology service in Bern canton. They have allowed researchers not only to piece together snapshots of life way back when, but also to shed light on climate fluctuations in the past 6,500 years -- and hopefully shed light on what is happening now. "For us, the site itself is the most important find because we have this correlation between climate change and archaeological objects," Hafner said. "We know that people were only able to walk on this site when it was relatively warm," said Martin Grosjean, executive director of a national network called Swiss Climate Research. "When it was too cold, the glacier advanced and it was not a passable route." Scientists have long known there were periods of warmer weather in the region but the artefacts allowed them to identify the exact years, when the site would have been passable on foot. According to Grosjean, such data could help sharpen forecasts for the future by taking into account patterns of natural temperature fluctuation. The treasure trove preserved in the icefields was discovered after two hikers noticed a strange piece of wood lying upon some stones in 2003. It turned out to be a quiver -- a case for arrows -- made from birch bark and dating as far back as 3,000 B.C. Hafner said this object may be the most significant single discovery at the site. "It is the only quiver found that is made of birch bark. It is unique in Europe," he said. Since then, even older objects have been excavated, including a wooden bow estimated to predate by 1,000 years the famed "Oetzi the Iceman" -- a 5,100-year-old frozen body found high in the Tyrolean Alps on a glacier straddling Italy and Austria in 1991. Experts have deduced that many of the most valuable items may have originated from one ill-fated person, probably carrying the quiver, bow and arrows and clothed in leather pants and shoes. "We think the person may have been killed during an accident because there were several objects from the same period found on the site," said Hafner. "It is unlikely that people would be leaving these objects so high up in the mountain." The leather samples are also the oldest of their kind ever found, said Grosjean. "Leather decays easily in ambient temperatures. We know there were villages by the lakes in Switzerland but we've never found such leather objects," he said. Analysis showed the pants' patch was made from a domesticated goat that resembled a breed recorded in Laos in those days. "But the chances that the goat migrated from Laos are very slim. It could be a species that we had never before recorded to have been present in the Europe. Or its lineage may have died out since," said Grosjean. Five years on, discoveries continue as the glaciers retreats. "Last week, we found another Roman coin," said Grosjean, while Hafner said talks were underway with several museums on a future exhibition of the finds. And with climate change, more such sites could emerge. "The leather pieces are the oldest such finds now but maybe in the coming years, with other glaciers retreating around the world, they may not be the oldest for long," said Grosjean. A recent UN Environment Programme report said by the end of the century, swathes of mountain ranges worldwide risk losing their glaciers if global warming continues at its projected rate. "The ongoing trend of worldwide and rapid, if not accelerating, glacier shrinkage ... may lead to the deglaciation of large parts of many mountain ranges by the end of the 21st century," the report warned.	<urn:uuid:91327ff1-0a3f-4053-974a-f31272554117>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.china.org.cn/environment/pics/2008-09/08/content_16409867.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00355.warc.gz	en	0.980317	949	3.453125	3	[ -0.46853792667388916, 0.30391770601272583, 0.36276012659072876, 0.2502880096435547, 0.18635600805282593, -0.1141519695520401, -0.15062573552131653, -0.42816591262817383, -0.2541772723197937, 0.11284209042787552, 0.2356717884540558, -0.417226105928421, 0.31587791442871094, 0.469154417514801...	3	Some 5,000 years ago, on a day with weather much like today's, a prehistoric person tread high up in what is now the Swiss Alps, wearing goat leather pants, leather shoes and armed with a bow and arrows. The unremarkable journey through the Schnidejoch pass, a lofty trail 2,756 metres (9,000 feet) above sea level, has been a boon to scientists. But it would never have emerged if climate change were not melting the nearby glacier. So far, 300 objects dating as far back as the Neolithic or New Stone Age -- about 4,000 BC in Europe -- to the later Bronze and Iron Ages and the Medieval era have been found in the site's former icefields. "We know now that the discoveries on Schnidejoch are the oldest of this kind ever made in the Alps," said Albert Hafner, an expert with the archaeology service in Bern canton. They have allowed researchers not only to piece together snapshots of life way back when, but also to shed light on climate fluctuations in the past 6,500 years -- and hopefully shed light on what is happening now. "For us, the site itself is the most important find because we have this correlation between climate change and archaeological objects," Hafner said. "We know that people were only able to walk on this site when it was relatively warm," said Martin Grosjean, executive director of a national network called Swiss Climate Research. "When it was too cold, the glacier advanced and it was not a passable route." Scientists have long known there were periods of warmer weather in the region but the artefacts allowed them to identify the exact years, when the site would have been passable on foot. According to Grosjean, such data could help sharpen forecasts for the future by taking into account patterns of natural temperature fluctuation. The treasure trove preserved in the icefields was discovered after two hikers noticed a strange piece of wood lying upon some stones in 2003. It turned out to be a quiver -- a case for arrows -- made from birch bark and dating as far back as 3,000 B.C. Hafner said this object may be the most significant single discovery at the site. "It is the only quiver found that is made of birch bark. It is unique in Europe," he said. Since then, even older objects have been excavated, including a wooden bow estimated to predate by 1,000 years the famed "Oetzi the Iceman" -- a 5,100-year-old frozen body found high in the Tyrolean Alps on a glacier straddling Italy and Austria in 1991. Experts have deduced that many of the most valuable items may have originated from one ill-fated person, probably carrying the quiver, bow and arrows and clothed in leather pants and shoes. "We think the person may have been killed during an accident because there were several objects from the same period found on the site," said Hafner. "It is unlikely that people would be leaving these objects so high up in the mountain." The leather samples are also the oldest of their kind ever found, said Grosjean. "Leather decays easily in ambient temperatures. We know there were villages by the lakes in Switzerland but we've never found such leather objects," he said. Analysis showed the pants' patch was made from a domesticated goat that resembled a breed recorded in Laos in those days. "But the chances that the goat migrated from Laos are very slim. It could be a species that we had never before recorded to have been present in the Europe. Or its lineage may have died out since," said Grosjean. Five years on, discoveries continue as the glaciers retreats. "Last week, we found another Roman coin," said Grosjean, while Hafner said talks were underway with several museums on a future exhibition of the finds. And with climate change, more such sites could emerge. "The leather pieces are the oldest such finds now but maybe in the coming years, with other glaciers retreating around the world, they may not be the oldest for long," said Grosjean. A recent UN Environment Programme report said by the end of the century, swathes of mountain ranges worldwide risk losing their glaciers if global warming continues at its projected rate. "The ongoing trend of worldwide and rapid, if not accelerating, glacier shrinkage ... may lead to the deglaciation of large parts of many mountain ranges by the end of the 21st century," the report warned.	954	ENGLISH	1
Jean-Martin Charcot was the most influential neurologist of the 1800s. He identified neurological disorders with such precision that many of his diagnoses are still recognised by physicians. These include multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (later called Lou Gehrig’s disease) and Parkinson’s disease. His reputation was tarnished when he used the same approach to investigate hysteria. Charcot spent his career in Paris. He worked at the medical school of the University of Paris, and later was at Salpêtrière, a mental hospital for women. Philippe Pinel did his most important work there in the early 1800s. Pinel monitored his patients’ disordered speech and behaviour, looking for ways to connect with them. Charcot approached patients as if they were pathological specimens, to be observed and measured with an expert’s objective eye. He pioneered the art and science of medical photography, even describing himself as a camera. His method combined clinical observation and postmortem dissection, and his experience and intuition helped him accurately link sets of symptoms to tissue damage in specific parts of the nervous system. Charcot investigated hysteria using controversial techniques such as hypnosis and magnets. He argued extreme susceptibility to hypnosis was an early symptom of hysteria. He also proposed hysteria was an inherited nerve disease, linked to degeneration, and that it was found in both women and men. Charcot explained the spasms and outbursts patients displayed under hypnosis were features of hysteria. Critics argued they testified to the power of suggestion (and the power of Charcot’s personality). Sigmund Freud studied briefly with Charcot, but he later rejected Charcot’s use of hypnosis and his idea that hysteria was rooted in weak nerves. However, Freud always acknowledged Charcot’s influence and his unparalleled diagnostic eye.	<urn:uuid:8c8e0e74-0986-41e4-b9ac-e5ef687a4171>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://tracesdefrance.fr/2019/11/23/jean-martin-charcot-1825-93/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00371.warc.gz	en	0.981798	375	3.765625	4	[ 0.07268752157688141, 0.5439819693565369, 0.5050751566886902, 0.09223443269729614, -0.04730593413114548, 0.2317352294921875, 0.6476812958717346, 0.40628400444984436, -0.20960524678230286, -0.15289458632469177, -0.4076688289642334, 0.026930494233965874, -0.19171960651874542, 0.36498782038688...	10	Jean-Martin Charcot was the most influential neurologist of the 1800s. He identified neurological disorders with such precision that many of his diagnoses are still recognised by physicians. These include multiple sclerosis, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (later called Lou Gehrig’s disease) and Parkinson’s disease. His reputation was tarnished when he used the same approach to investigate hysteria. Charcot spent his career in Paris. He worked at the medical school of the University of Paris, and later was at Salpêtrière, a mental hospital for women. Philippe Pinel did his most important work there in the early 1800s. Pinel monitored his patients’ disordered speech and behaviour, looking for ways to connect with them. Charcot approached patients as if they were pathological specimens, to be observed and measured with an expert’s objective eye. He pioneered the art and science of medical photography, even describing himself as a camera. His method combined clinical observation and postmortem dissection, and his experience and intuition helped him accurately link sets of symptoms to tissue damage in specific parts of the nervous system. Charcot investigated hysteria using controversial techniques such as hypnosis and magnets. He argued extreme susceptibility to hypnosis was an early symptom of hysteria. He also proposed hysteria was an inherited nerve disease, linked to degeneration, and that it was found in both women and men. Charcot explained the spasms and outbursts patients displayed under hypnosis were features of hysteria. Critics argued they testified to the power of suggestion (and the power of Charcot’s personality). Sigmund Freud studied briefly with Charcot, but he later rejected Charcot’s use of hypnosis and his idea that hysteria was rooted in weak nerves. However, Freud always acknowledged Charcot’s influence and his unparalleled diagnostic eye.	368	ENGLISH	1
Do healthy diets make for empty wallets? New research has uncovered that the more expensive a food is, the more a person is likely to rate it as being healthy. A complex decision tree of choices drives a consumer to buy different foods. The perceived healthiness of a food is one such factor and is one where facts and beliefs can intermingle. Healthy foods are often perceived as being more expensive. On the surface, this can appear valid – organic and gluten-free foods are two examples. But just how much can price influence the perception of the health merits of a food? In a series of related experiments, researchers from the United States explored how price can influence the subjective view of the health merits of a food. In the first study, people were given health information on a new product called ‘granola bites’. Some were told the food had a health grade of A- (healthful), while others were told the product was less healthy with a grade of C. Next they estimated how much they thought the product would cost. People assessing the food with an A-minus rating were more likely to estimate it was dearer than the price given to the grade C food. Another experiment using the reverse design of the first experiment with a new group of people reached a similar conclusion. This time, people were asked to give a health rating to a breakfast biscuit after being told the price. People who were told that the product was expensive were more likely to give it a higher health rating. The next experiment asked people to imagine that a work colleague had asked them to order their lunch. Half of the people were told that their colleague wanted a healthy lunch, while the other half were given no instructions. Next, the participants were offered two food choices: a chicken balsamic wrap and a roasted chicken wrap. The ingredients and price for each wrap were shown, but the wrap which was more expensive varied for each person. People asked to choose a healthy wrap were more likely to go for the more expensive wrap, regardless of which wrap it was. In the final experiment, people were presented with a new product called the ‘Healthiest Protein Bar on the Planet’. Some people were told the bar cost $0.99, while others were told it cost $4. Product reviews were made available to help give their own opinions on the product. When told the bar was $0.99, people were much more likely to read the product reviews to form their own views. It seems that people had a higher standard of evidence for a general health claim made by low priced product. A more expensive product required a lower level of evidence to validate the health claim. Health and price are central facets of the food purchase decision process. Price is considered a proxy measure of health but this relationship does not hold up across all foods. Food marketers are only too aware of the price premium they can get by green-washing a food. In the absence of solid knowledge of the nutritional merits of a food, it is best to steer away from heavily marketed and expensive food choices. Last Reviewed: 04/12/2019 Norman Swan Medical Communications Haws KL et al. Healthy diets make empty wallets: the healthy = expensive intuition. Epub online May 12, 2017. doi: 10.1093/jcr/ucw078. More than one in 4 kids aged 5-17 years in Australia is above a healthy weight. Find out how to help kids make changes to their diet and activity levels. Why your gut microbiome should matter to you Each of us has a unique gut microbiome - the composition of which can change on a daily basis. Your microbiome can affect your weight, your food cravings, your immune system and your mental health. Why does weight go back on? Research into a drug for type 2 diabetes may inadvertently help to explain that weight regain for people that diet to lose weight is not a simple matter of poor self-control. Does salt promote over-eating? When you can’t stop at one. Sensory researchers from Deakin University recruited 48 healthy adults to look at whether salt leads to passive over-eating, this is what they found. Are kids good for your health? A new study has shown that child-initiated intervention has positive effects on the lifestyle of their mothers and can bring about positive healthy changes for themselves and their families.	<urn:uuid:3508b556-b8a7-4806-97f6-99f7efe4980e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mydr.com.au/news/do-healthy-diets-make-for-empty-wallets	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00444.warc.gz	en	0.98322	908	3.296875	3	[ 0.08149542659521103, -0.035932235419750214, 0.06390050053596497, 0.026520436629652977, 0.2554522454738617, 0.053239353001117706, 0.29369038343429565, 0.38596633076667786, 0.08057335019111633, -0.008254354819655418, 0.1311199814081192, -0.27559423446655273, -0.04386065900325775, 0.214389979...	1	Do healthy diets make for empty wallets? New research has uncovered that the more expensive a food is, the more a person is likely to rate it as being healthy. A complex decision tree of choices drives a consumer to buy different foods. The perceived healthiness of a food is one such factor and is one where facts and beliefs can intermingle. Healthy foods are often perceived as being more expensive. On the surface, this can appear valid – organic and gluten-free foods are two examples. But just how much can price influence the perception of the health merits of a food? In a series of related experiments, researchers from the United States explored how price can influence the subjective view of the health merits of a food. In the first study, people were given health information on a new product called ‘granola bites’. Some were told the food had a health grade of A- (healthful), while others were told the product was less healthy with a grade of C. Next they estimated how much they thought the product would cost. People assessing the food with an A-minus rating were more likely to estimate it was dearer than the price given to the grade C food. Another experiment using the reverse design of the first experiment with a new group of people reached a similar conclusion. This time, people were asked to give a health rating to a breakfast biscuit after being told the price. People who were told that the product was expensive were more likely to give it a higher health rating. The next experiment asked people to imagine that a work colleague had asked them to order their lunch. Half of the people were told that their colleague wanted a healthy lunch, while the other half were given no instructions. Next, the participants were offered two food choices: a chicken balsamic wrap and a roasted chicken wrap. The ingredients and price for each wrap were shown, but the wrap which was more expensive varied for each person. People asked to choose a healthy wrap were more likely to go for the more expensive wrap, regardless of which wrap it was. In the final experiment, people were presented with a new product called the ‘Healthiest Protein Bar on the Planet’. Some people were told the bar cost $0.99, while others were told it cost $4. Product reviews were made available to help give their own opinions on the product. When told the bar was $0.99, people were much more likely to read the product reviews to form their own views. It seems that people had a higher standard of evidence for a general health claim made by low priced product. A more expensive product required a lower level of evidence to validate the health claim. Health and price are central facets of the food purchase decision process. Price is considered a proxy measure of health but this relationship does not hold up across all foods. Food marketers are only too aware of the price premium they can get by green-washing a food. In the absence of solid knowledge of the nutritional merits of a food, it is best to steer away from heavily marketed and expensive food choices. Last Reviewed: 04/12/2019 Norman Swan Medical Communications Haws KL et al. Healthy diets make empty wallets: the healthy = expensive intuition. Epub online May 12, 2017. doi: 10.1093/jcr/ucw078. More than one in 4 kids aged 5-17 years in Australia is above a healthy weight. Find out how to help kids make changes to their diet and activity levels. Why your gut microbiome should matter to you Each of us has a unique gut microbiome - the composition of which can change on a daily basis. Your microbiome can affect your weight, your food cravings, your immune system and your mental health. Why does weight go back on? Research into a drug for type 2 diabetes may inadvertently help to explain that weight regain for people that diet to lose weight is not a simple matter of poor self-control. Does salt promote over-eating? When you can’t stop at one. Sensory researchers from Deakin University recruited 48 healthy adults to look at whether salt leads to passive over-eating, this is what they found. Are kids good for your health? A new study has shown that child-initiated intervention has positive effects on the lifestyle of their mothers and can bring about positive healthy changes for themselves and their families.	898	ENGLISH	1
The story of Chinese immigration to Canada is best known for two things. First, the arrival of Chinese labourers in large numbers in the late 1800s to build the crucial last link of the Canadian Pacific Railway—the most difficult and dangerous section which required crossing the Rocky Mountains. And second, for the institution of a head tax meant to dissuade those very men from remaining in the country once the work was completed. A good many chose to pay the tax and stay anyway. Travelling east along the tracks they had laid themselves, they migrated to the prairies, to Ontario, Quebec and the Maritimes, bringing cheap labour, hand laundries and dim sum restaurants to communities across the country. In the face of failure, the fee for the head tax was repeatedly raised. From$50 in 1885 to $500 by 1906, a sum equal to the price of two commercial lots in downtown Vancouver at the time. Yet, the Chinese persisted. In the end, Parliament passed what became known as the Exclusion Act in 1923, cancelling the head tax and barring virtually all Chinese immigration. Members of clergy, diplomats, merchants and students were the only exceptions. Canada’s Exclusion Era The heaviest burden of this regime was shouldered by the generation of Chinese already here. First, through the imposition of a system of registration requiring them to carry photo ID at all times. As historian Lisa Rose Mar writes in “Brokering Belonging—Chinese in Canada`s Exclusion Era 1885-1945”: “Previously only African slaves and First Nations people had been subject to this kind of pass system in Canada,” she wrote. The new legislation also meant the Chinese were cut off from a supply of labour for their businesses in Canada. More importantly, it reduced their chances of ever living with their families for more than a few months every five years or so to nil. The rules condemned them to long-distance marriages and parenthood in installments while living lonely, isolated lives as bachelors in Canada. They did what they could to bring in relatives. It’s been estimated that as few as 50 of those permitted entry during the years the act was in effect came with legitimate papers. The regime was finally abandoned in 1948 when Canada was preparing to sign the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights. Thanks to historians like Pierre Berton and CBC series like “The National Dream” we have images explaining how and why some six hundred men died. As they blasted through the Rockies, an estimated three men died per mile of track laid. Such statistics come alive in Anne Tait’s 2009 mini-series “Iron Road”, with scenes of men being lowered over cliff-sides to lay nitroglycerine charges, and of corpses being buried alongside the newly laid track. Although the Canadian government officially apologised for the Chinese Head Tax, we’ve not yet connected all the dots. For instance, the fact that the Canadian government contributed $25 million to the building of the CPR while collecting $23 million from Chinese immigrants during the head tax era. Thus it can still be legitimately said that the Chinese not only built the railway but paid for it. Behind history there are always individuals, named and unnamed. The great majority, of course, unnamed and unremembered. People like Wong Dong Wong, who came to Canada in 1911, at the age of 16. Brought to Canada by his uncle after his parents and grandfather died, Wong was an orphan with no kin or prospects in China. After several years in Vancouver, repaying his dept to his uncle, he moved east to Toronto. Ending up “in service” as it was termed then, Wong worked as a live-in domestic servant for middle class families. In those years he learned to read and write Chinese, acquired some basic “kitchen” English and became an expert cook. In 1928, he was hired by the son of an Irish immigrant who’d done well in the hat-making business. The son and his family were about to move into a new house in an area known as Forest Hill Village. The job was that of a cook/housekeeper, and the family was my father’s. Wong stayed in that job for almost forty years, retiring to a rooming house on Dundas Street in the late 1960s. I knew him for the first 25 years of my life and stayed attached to him until his death. I knew him like I knew my grandparents, as a benign and indulgent authority figure. Someone whose life was woven into mine, yet whom I actually knew very little about. “Finding Mr. Wong” is the result of my effort to learn more. It’s both a biography and a memoir, a composite portrait of a simple man, and an oft repeated tale. My searches took me to Wong’s home village in Taishan, which was home to many early immigrants to Canada. As the late Wayson Choy put it in an email to me before I left for China, seeing Taishan and visiting Wong’s home village, Shui Doi, would perhaps allow me to “imagine the richness that must have haunted Mr. Wong’s memories when he looked about his Canadian landscape and, surely, longed for home.” It took a good deal of digging and two trips to China and Shui Doi to discover the rest. He was 16 years-old and 4”9 when he arrived, sponsored by an uncle named Wong YeeWoen who’d preceded him to Gold Mountain. His uncle also arranged his passage and the payment of his $500 head tax. Wong was an orphan as he’d told us but having no siblings also meant he’d have had nothing to return to in China. What family he had, he would have to make here in Canada.	<urn:uuid:8a8324ea-7ed4-44c9-91d8-19fc0cce5312>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://newcanadianmedia.ca/finding-mr-wong/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00430.warc.gz	en	0.985977	1,220	3.671875	4	[ -0.33719372749328613, 0.19802188873291016, 0.19617269933223724, 0.0672132819890976, -0.01817840151488781, 0.12974849343299866, 0.10963708162307739, -0.044026054441928864, 0.004935791250318289, 0.4576556086540222, 0.6427047252655029, -0.02762993611395359, 0.09410854429006577, 0.132425576448...	14	The story of Chinese immigration to Canada is best known for two things. First, the arrival of Chinese labourers in large numbers in the late 1800s to build the crucial last link of the Canadian Pacific Railway—the most difficult and dangerous section which required crossing the Rocky Mountains. And second, for the institution of a head tax meant to dissuade those very men from remaining in the country once the work was completed. A good many chose to pay the tax and stay anyway. Travelling east along the tracks they had laid themselves, they migrated to the prairies, to Ontario, Quebec and the Maritimes, bringing cheap labour, hand laundries and dim sum restaurants to communities across the country. In the face of failure, the fee for the head tax was repeatedly raised. From$50 in 1885 to $500 by 1906, a sum equal to the price of two commercial lots in downtown Vancouver at the time. Yet, the Chinese persisted. In the end, Parliament passed what became known as the Exclusion Act in 1923, cancelling the head tax and barring virtually all Chinese immigration. Members of clergy, diplomats, merchants and students were the only exceptions. Canada’s Exclusion Era The heaviest burden of this regime was shouldered by the generation of Chinese already here. First, through the imposition of a system of registration requiring them to carry photo ID at all times. As historian Lisa Rose Mar writes in “Brokering Belonging—Chinese in Canada`s Exclusion Era 1885-1945”: “Previously only African slaves and First Nations people had been subject to this kind of pass system in Canada,” she wrote. The new legislation also meant the Chinese were cut off from a supply of labour for their businesses in Canada. More importantly, it reduced their chances of ever living with their families for more than a few months every five years or so to nil. The rules condemned them to long-distance marriages and parenthood in installments while living lonely, isolated lives as bachelors in Canada. They did what they could to bring in relatives. It’s been estimated that as few as 50 of those permitted entry during the years the act was in effect came with legitimate papers. The regime was finally abandoned in 1948 when Canada was preparing to sign the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights. Thanks to historians like Pierre Berton and CBC series like “The National Dream” we have images explaining how and why some six hundred men died. As they blasted through the Rockies, an estimated three men died per mile of track laid. Such statistics come alive in Anne Tait’s 2009 mini-series “Iron Road”, with scenes of men being lowered over cliff-sides to lay nitroglycerine charges, and of corpses being buried alongside the newly laid track. Although the Canadian government officially apologised for the Chinese Head Tax, we’ve not yet connected all the dots. For instance, the fact that the Canadian government contributed $25 million to the building of the CPR while collecting $23 million from Chinese immigrants during the head tax era. Thus it can still be legitimately said that the Chinese not only built the railway but paid for it. Behind history there are always individuals, named and unnamed. The great majority, of course, unnamed and unremembered. People like Wong Dong Wong, who came to Canada in 1911, at the age of 16. Brought to Canada by his uncle after his parents and grandfather died, Wong was an orphan with no kin or prospects in China. After several years in Vancouver, repaying his dept to his uncle, he moved east to Toronto. Ending up “in service” as it was termed then, Wong worked as a live-in domestic servant for middle class families. In those years he learned to read and write Chinese, acquired some basic “kitchen” English and became an expert cook. In 1928, he was hired by the son of an Irish immigrant who’d done well in the hat-making business. The son and his family were about to move into a new house in an area known as Forest Hill Village. The job was that of a cook/housekeeper, and the family was my father’s. Wong stayed in that job for almost forty years, retiring to a rooming house on Dundas Street in the late 1960s. I knew him for the first 25 years of my life and stayed attached to him until his death. I knew him like I knew my grandparents, as a benign and indulgent authority figure. Someone whose life was woven into mine, yet whom I actually knew very little about. “Finding Mr. Wong” is the result of my effort to learn more. It’s both a biography and a memoir, a composite portrait of a simple man, and an oft repeated tale. My searches took me to Wong’s home village in Taishan, which was home to many early immigrants to Canada. As the late Wayson Choy put it in an email to me before I left for China, seeing Taishan and visiting Wong’s home village, Shui Doi, would perhaps allow me to “imagine the richness that must have haunted Mr. Wong’s memories when he looked about his Canadian landscape and, surely, longed for home.” It took a good deal of digging and two trips to China and Shui Doi to discover the rest. He was 16 years-old and 4”9 when he arrived, sponsored by an uncle named Wong YeeWoen who’d preceded him to Gold Mountain. His uncle also arranged his passage and the payment of his $500 head tax. Wong was an orphan as he’d told us but having no siblings also meant he’d have had nothing to return to in China. What family he had, he would have to make here in Canada.	1,214	ENGLISH	1
32-gun fifth-rate launched in 1783 and broken up 1797. Fifth rate was the penultimate class of warships in a hierarchical system of six "ratings" based on size and firepower. The rating system in the British (originally English) Royal Navy as originally devised had just four rates, but early in the reign of Charles I the original fourth rate (derived from the "Small Ships" category under his father, James I) was divided into new classifications of fourth, fifth, and sixth rates. While a fourth rate was defined as a ship of the line, fifth and the smaller sixth-rates were never included among ships-of-the-line. Nevertheless, during the Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century, fifth rates often found themselves involved among the battle fleet in major actions. Structurally, these were two-deckers with a complete battery on the lower deck, and fewer guns on the upper deck (below the forecastle and quarter decks, usually with no guns in the waist on this deck). The fifth rates at the start of the 18th century were small two-deckers, generally either 40-gun ships with a full battery on two decks, or "demi-batterie" ships, carrying a few heavy guns on their lower deck (which often used the rest of the lower deck for row ports) and a full battery of lesser guns on the upper deck. However, the latter were gradually phased out, as the low freeboard (the height of the lower deck gunport sills above the waterline) meant that it was often impossible to open the lower deck gunports in rough weather. The 40-gun (or later 44-gun) fifth rates continued to be built until the later half of the 18th century (a large group were built during the American War of Independence). From mid-century, a new fifth-rate type was introduced: the classic frigate, with no gun ports on the lower deck, and the main battery of from 26 to 30 guns disposed solely on the upper deck, although smaller guns were mounted on the quarterdeck and forecastle. Fifth-rate ships served as fast scouts or independent cruisers and included a variety of gun arrangements. The fifth rates of the 1750s generally carried a main battery of twenty-six 12-pounders on the upper deck, with six 6-pounders on the quarterdeck and forecastle (a few carried extra 6-pounders on the quarterdeck) to give a total rating of 32-guns. Larger fifth rates introduced during the late 1770s carried a main battery of twenty-six or twenty-eight 18-pounders, also with smaller guns (6-pounders or 9-pounders) on the quarterdeck and forecastle. Tonnage ranged from 700 to 1450 tons, with crews of 215 to 294 men. To be posted aboard a fifth-rate ship was considered an attractive assignment. Fifth rates were often assigned to interdict enemy shipping, offering the prospect of prize money for the crew. Fifth-rate frigates were considered useful for their combination of maneuverability and firepower, which, in theory, would allow them to outmaneuver an enemy of greater force and run down one of lesser force. It was for this reason that frigates of this sort were commonly used in patrol and to disrupt enemy shipping lanes much as heavy cruisers would later in history.	<urn:uuid:578320ad-00c0-4e88-b08e-67807d0de6ec>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.hms-penelope.com/2---32-gun-1783	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00432.warc.gz	en	0.985456	705	3.625	4	[ -0.4263637661933899, -0.21874284744262695, 0.2035467028617859, -0.5379701852798462, -0.093565434217453, -0.2839069366455078, -0.3440217673778534, 0.2150641530752182, 0.019376371055841446, -0.30008330941200256, 0.4089275598526001, 0.1105569452047348, -0.36167213320732117, 0.5597053170204163...	6	32-gun fifth-rate launched in 1783 and broken up 1797. Fifth rate was the penultimate class of warships in a hierarchical system of six "ratings" based on size and firepower. The rating system in the British (originally English) Royal Navy as originally devised had just four rates, but early in the reign of Charles I the original fourth rate (derived from the "Small Ships" category under his father, James I) was divided into new classifications of fourth, fifth, and sixth rates. While a fourth rate was defined as a ship of the line, fifth and the smaller sixth-rates were never included among ships-of-the-line. Nevertheless, during the Anglo-Dutch Wars of the 17th century, fifth rates often found themselves involved among the battle fleet in major actions. Structurally, these were two-deckers with a complete battery on the lower deck, and fewer guns on the upper deck (below the forecastle and quarter decks, usually with no guns in the waist on this deck). The fifth rates at the start of the 18th century were small two-deckers, generally either 40-gun ships with a full battery on two decks, or "demi-batterie" ships, carrying a few heavy guns on their lower deck (which often used the rest of the lower deck for row ports) and a full battery of lesser guns on the upper deck. However, the latter were gradually phased out, as the low freeboard (the height of the lower deck gunport sills above the waterline) meant that it was often impossible to open the lower deck gunports in rough weather. The 40-gun (or later 44-gun) fifth rates continued to be built until the later half of the 18th century (a large group were built during the American War of Independence). From mid-century, a new fifth-rate type was introduced: the classic frigate, with no gun ports on the lower deck, and the main battery of from 26 to 30 guns disposed solely on the upper deck, although smaller guns were mounted on the quarterdeck and forecastle. Fifth-rate ships served as fast scouts or independent cruisers and included a variety of gun arrangements. The fifth rates of the 1750s generally carried a main battery of twenty-six 12-pounders on the upper deck, with six 6-pounders on the quarterdeck and forecastle (a few carried extra 6-pounders on the quarterdeck) to give a total rating of 32-guns. Larger fifth rates introduced during the late 1770s carried a main battery of twenty-six or twenty-eight 18-pounders, also with smaller guns (6-pounders or 9-pounders) on the quarterdeck and forecastle. Tonnage ranged from 700 to 1450 tons, with crews of 215 to 294 men. To be posted aboard a fifth-rate ship was considered an attractive assignment. Fifth rates were often assigned to interdict enemy shipping, offering the prospect of prize money for the crew. Fifth-rate frigates were considered useful for their combination of maneuverability and firepower, which, in theory, would allow them to outmaneuver an enemy of greater force and run down one of lesser force. It was for this reason that frigates of this sort were commonly used in patrol and to disrupt enemy shipping lanes much as heavy cruisers would later in history.	726	ENGLISH	1
Blues has been vital to the development of many forms of popular music, and Tennessee has played an important role. In the early twentieth century, Memphis became a hub of blues music as many African-American musicians from the Mississippi Delta moved north for career opportunities. Early Memphis blues musicians include W.C. Handy, the “Father of the Blues,” and Memphis Minnie. Later, electric blues musicians such as Howlin’ Wolf and B.B. King became popular. By Joseph M. VanDyke, Tennessee State University Much of the rich musical history of Tennessee is rooted in the blues. In the early part of the twentieth century, what was once considered a state of mind became associated with a musical style that had its origins in African-American folk traditions. Since many of these traditions were developed in West Tennessee and the Mississippi Delta, Memphis became a center of this activity. Perhaps the most famous of the early blues artists was band leader and composer W.C. Handy (1873-1958). Although he was born in Florence, Alabama, his early career was spent in Memphis where he became famous for such compositions as “Memphis Blues” and “Saint Louis Blues,” one of the most popular songs in the history of American music. Handy, who had received formal music training, set black folk music he had heard to written form and is most important for bringing early blues to wide national recognition through his performances and music publishing company. The first major blues recording artist was Bessie Smith (1894-1937) of Chattanooga. By her teens she was traveling and performing throughout the South. Her recording career began in 1923, and throughout that decade she was one of the biggest selling blues artists. Her music was termed “city blues” or “classic blues” and featured a refined, sophisticated style. She often performed and recorded with jazz bands including musicians such as Louis Armstrong. The advancement of recording technology led to major record companies coming to Memphis to record what were known as “field sessions.” Most of these recordings were made from 1927-1930 and drew many musicians from West Tennessee and the Mississippi Delta. These musicians generally exhibited a raw, earthy style of blues sometimes mixed with other styles such as ragtime, vaudeville, and pop music. Some of the most popular were so-called “jug bands” such as The Memphis Jug Band and Cannon’s Jug Stompers. In the 1920’s and 1930’s Memphis was the major recording center for “Delta blues,” a style actually born in the Mississippi Delta but which migrated to Memphis, the area’s nearest major city. Among those musicians who came to Memphis from elsewhere and found fame were Furry Lewis and Memphis Minnie (Lizzie Douglas). Memphis native Frank Stokes was also an important figure, as well as Brownsville’s Sleepy John Estes, Yank Rachell, and Hammie Nixon. Sonny Boy Williamson was popular in the blues scene in Jackson and later moved to St. Louis and then Chicago to record. His songs such as “Sugar Mama Blues” and “Good Morning, Little School Girl” were very popular and influential to other blues singers. In the post-war era of the late 1940s and 1950s, blues styles evolved with the use of amplification of instruments such as the electric guitar and bass, along with adding drums and other instruments such as the saxophone. Important artists of this time include Memphis Slim (Peter Chatman), and Big Maybelle (Maybelle Louise Smith) of Jackson. Bobby Blue Bland, born in Barretville, and Koko Taylor, born in Millington, found fame with their mix of traditional blues, rhythm and blues, and soul. The most famous of all the modern blues artists from Memphis was Riley “B.B.” King. Born in Mississippi, he came to Memphis in 1947 after serving in the army and started his career as a disk jockey. The “B.B.” came from billing himself as “The Blues Boy from Beale Street.” His recording career produced such classics as “Lucille” and “The Thrill is Gone.” He was a great influence on both blues and rock musicians and in his later years gained even greater widespread fame through his heavy touring schedule and frequent television appearances. Wells, Paul F. “Blues, Jazz, and Ragtime in Tennessee.” In A History of Tennessee Arts, Carroll Van West, Ed.-in-Chief. Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press. 2004. Van West, Carroll. “Music.” In The Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture, Carroll Van West, Ed.-in-Chief. Nashville: Tennessee Historical Society, Rutledge Hill Press. 1998.	<urn:uuid:a42cd2f5-3c2a-4cbe-9507-6e3820e66150>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://tnhalloffame.org/blues.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00203.warc.gz	en	0.983227	1,019	3.390625	3	[ -0.1892547756433487, -0.192256361246109, 0.38152098655700684, -0.4742324948310852, -0.24414005875587463, 0.2966062128543854, 0.010619492270052433, -0.1869361400604248, -0.03681916743516922, 0.14601247012615204, 0.3928917646408081, 0.29031312465667725, 0.0022383793257176876, -0.049693893641...	4	Blues has been vital to the development of many forms of popular music, and Tennessee has played an important role. In the early twentieth century, Memphis became a hub of blues music as many African-American musicians from the Mississippi Delta moved north for career opportunities. Early Memphis blues musicians include W.C. Handy, the “Father of the Blues,” and Memphis Minnie. Later, electric blues musicians such as Howlin’ Wolf and B.B. King became popular. By Joseph M. VanDyke, Tennessee State University Much of the rich musical history of Tennessee is rooted in the blues. In the early part of the twentieth century, what was once considered a state of mind became associated with a musical style that had its origins in African-American folk traditions. Since many of these traditions were developed in West Tennessee and the Mississippi Delta, Memphis became a center of this activity. Perhaps the most famous of the early blues artists was band leader and composer W.C. Handy (1873-1958). Although he was born in Florence, Alabama, his early career was spent in Memphis where he became famous for such compositions as “Memphis Blues” and “Saint Louis Blues,” one of the most popular songs in the history of American music. Handy, who had received formal music training, set black folk music he had heard to written form and is most important for bringing early blues to wide national recognition through his performances and music publishing company. The first major blues recording artist was Bessie Smith (1894-1937) of Chattanooga. By her teens she was traveling and performing throughout the South. Her recording career began in 1923, and throughout that decade she was one of the biggest selling blues artists. Her music was termed “city blues” or “classic blues” and featured a refined, sophisticated style. She often performed and recorded with jazz bands including musicians such as Louis Armstrong. The advancement of recording technology led to major record companies coming to Memphis to record what were known as “field sessions.” Most of these recordings were made from 1927-1930 and drew many musicians from West Tennessee and the Mississippi Delta. These musicians generally exhibited a raw, earthy style of blues sometimes mixed with other styles such as ragtime, vaudeville, and pop music. Some of the most popular were so-called “jug bands” such as The Memphis Jug Band and Cannon’s Jug Stompers. In the 1920’s and 1930’s Memphis was the major recording center for “Delta blues,” a style actually born in the Mississippi Delta but which migrated to Memphis, the area’s nearest major city. Among those musicians who came to Memphis from elsewhere and found fame were Furry Lewis and Memphis Minnie (Lizzie Douglas). Memphis native Frank Stokes was also an important figure, as well as Brownsville’s Sleepy John Estes, Yank Rachell, and Hammie Nixon. Sonny Boy Williamson was popular in the blues scene in Jackson and later moved to St. Louis and then Chicago to record. His songs such as “Sugar Mama Blues” and “Good Morning, Little School Girl” were very popular and influential to other blues singers. In the post-war era of the late 1940s and 1950s, blues styles evolved with the use of amplification of instruments such as the electric guitar and bass, along with adding drums and other instruments such as the saxophone. Important artists of this time include Memphis Slim (Peter Chatman), and Big Maybelle (Maybelle Louise Smith) of Jackson. Bobby Blue Bland, born in Barretville, and Koko Taylor, born in Millington, found fame with their mix of traditional blues, rhythm and blues, and soul. The most famous of all the modern blues artists from Memphis was Riley “B.B.” King. Born in Mississippi, he came to Memphis in 1947 after serving in the army and started his career as a disk jockey. The “B.B.” came from billing himself as “The Blues Boy from Beale Street.” His recording career produced such classics as “Lucille” and “The Thrill is Gone.” He was a great influence on both blues and rock musicians and in his later years gained even greater widespread fame through his heavy touring schedule and frequent television appearances. Wells, Paul F. “Blues, Jazz, and Ragtime in Tennessee.” In A History of Tennessee Arts, Carroll Van West, Ed.-in-Chief. Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press. 2004. Van West, Carroll. “Music.” In The Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture, Carroll Van West, Ed.-in-Chief. Nashville: Tennessee Historical Society, Rutledge Hill Press. 1998.	983	ENGLISH	1
After More leaves, Cromwell and Rich discuss the situation. Rich wonders if More can be frightened. Cromwell says, “We’ll put something in the cupboard” (119). Cromwell repeats that as “a man of conscience” (119) the King wants Thomas to bless his marriage or be destroyed. Rich says those are odd alternatives, but Cromwell explains that in the King’s logic, if he destroys someone, it is proof the person was bad. Cromwell claims they are keepers of the King’s conscience. “And it’s ravenous” (120). Act Two, Scene Seven: Commentary Cromwell reveals something about the King and about himself at the same time. The King has started down a course where he will stop at nothing to get what he wants. He has Church and Parliament under his control. He is not above the law; he is the law, as far as he is concerned. Cromwell sees that the King calls his ambition his “conscience,” as he did when he told Thomas he felt his first marriage was a sin. Cromwell is a tool of the King, but at the same time, enjoys the cruelty of power and being Henry’s instrument. He likes to see virtuous men fall. He enjoys laying traps. There could be the concern that Henry’s subordinates are arranging all this terrorizing, but More knows it is the King who wrote the denunciation, because he recognizes the language. This is why he is finally afraid and knows he is no longer safe.	<urn:uuid:b087326f-da3f-42d5-a610-e9b4900459df>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.novelguide.com/a-man-for-all-seasons/summaries/act2-scene7	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00155.warc.gz	en	0.981966	329	3.3125	3	[ -0.22832489013671875, 0.26993492245674133, -0.10393060743808746, -0.1781778633594513, 0.06334888190031052, -0.005517390090972185, 0.6756094694137573, -0.29098212718963623, 0.240848571062088, -0.18209321796894073, -0.24655817449092865, -0.29332244396209717, 0.04632299020886421, 0.2600339055...	5	After More leaves, Cromwell and Rich discuss the situation. Rich wonders if More can be frightened. Cromwell says, “We’ll put something in the cupboard” (119). Cromwell repeats that as “a man of conscience” (119) the King wants Thomas to bless his marriage or be destroyed. Rich says those are odd alternatives, but Cromwell explains that in the King’s logic, if he destroys someone, it is proof the person was bad. Cromwell claims they are keepers of the King’s conscience. “And it’s ravenous” (120). Act Two, Scene Seven: Commentary Cromwell reveals something about the King and about himself at the same time. The King has started down a course where he will stop at nothing to get what he wants. He has Church and Parliament under his control. He is not above the law; he is the law, as far as he is concerned. Cromwell sees that the King calls his ambition his “conscience,” as he did when he told Thomas he felt his first marriage was a sin. Cromwell is a tool of the King, but at the same time, enjoys the cruelty of power and being Henry’s instrument. He likes to see virtuous men fall. He enjoys laying traps. There could be the concern that Henry’s subordinates are arranging all this terrorizing, but More knows it is the King who wrote the denunciation, because he recognizes the language. This is why he is finally afraid and knows he is no longer safe.	314	ENGLISH	1
Germans Reject Geneva Convention From the very beginning, German policy on the treatment of Soviet prisoners of war (POWs) was determined by Nazi ideology. German political and military leaders regarded Soviet POWs not only as racially less valuable but as potential enemies, obstacles in the German conquest of "living space." The Nazi regime claimed that it was under no obligation for the humane care of prisoners of war from the Red Army because the Soviet Union had not ratified the 1929 Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War, nor had it specifically declared its commitment to the 1907 Hague Convention on the Rules of War. Technically both nations, therefore, were bound only by the general international law of war as it had developed in modern times. Yet even under that law, prisoners of war were to be protected. Policy of Mass Starvation in the East Soviet prisoners of war were the first victims of the Nazi policy of mass starvation in the east. In August 1941, the German army set a ration of just 2,200 calories per day for working Soviet prisoners of war. Even this was not enough to sustain life for long, but in practice the POWs received much less than the official ration. Many Soviet prisoners of war received at most a ration of only 700 calories a day. Within a few weeks the result of this "subsistence" ration, as the German army termed it, was death by starvation. The POWs were often provided, for example, only special "Russian" bread made from sugar beet husks and straw flour. Suffering from malnutrition and nearing starvation, numerous reports from the late summer and fall of 1941 show that in many camps the desperate POWs tried to ease their hunger by eating grass and leaves. The Germans made little provision to shelter most of the prisoners they took from the Soviet military. Eventually the Germans established makeshift camps but the lack of proper food, clothing, and shelter took a terrible toll. Often the prisoners had to dig holes in the ground as improvised shelter from the elements. By the end of 1941, epidemics (especially typhoid and dysentery) emerged as the main cause of death. In October 1941 alone, almost 5,000 Soviet POWs died each day. The onset of winter accelerated the mass death of Soviet POWs, because so many had little or no protection from the cold. Even in POW camps in Germany, Soviet POWs had often been left for months to vegetate in trenches, dugouts or sod houses. In the occupied eastern territories conditions were even worse. In Belorussia only pavilions (structures with roofs but no walls) were available to house Soviet POWs. By the winter of 1941, starvation and disease resulted in mass death of unimaginable proportions. Many Soviet soldiers, including many wounded, died on the way to the prisoner collection centers and transit camps; others died during transit to camps in occupied Poland or the German Reich. Most of the prisoners captured in 1941 had to march to the rear across hundreds of miles and those who were too exhausted to continue were shot to death on the spot. When Soviet POWs were transported by train, the Armed Forces High Command permitted only open freight cars to be used. Sometimes days went by without the prisoners receiving any rations. This resulted in an enormous loss of life during winter months. According to army reports between 25 percent and 70 percent of the prisoners on these transports from the occupied Baltic countries died en route to Germany. The large number of dead was due not just to irresponsible neglect by German officers but also to mass shootings. The Germans shot severely wounded Soviet soldiers to free the German army of their care. Time and again German forces were called upon to take "energetic and ruthless action" and "use their arms" unhesitatingly "to wipe out any trace of resistance" from Soviet POWs. Those attempting to escape were shot without warning. Moreover, a decree issued on September 8, 1941, stated that the use of arms against Soviet POWs was, "as a rule, to be regarded as legal"—a clear invitation for German soldiers to kill Soviet POWs with impunity. In the middle of July 1941, Gen. Hermann Reinecke, who was the officer in charge of prisoner-of-war affairs in the Armed Forces High Command, permitted security forces under the Reich Security Main Office to screen Soviet prisoners of war in the POW camps for "politically and racially intolerable elements" among the Soviet prisoners. These prisoners were transferred to SS jurisdiction and killed. This contributed to an enormous rise in the number of victims, since not only were "all important state and party functionaries" regarded as "intolerable," but so were "intellectuals," all "fanatic Communists," and "all Jews." The executions did not take place in the prisoner-of-war camps or their immediate area. Instead, prisoners were transferred to a secure area and shot. The concentration camps proved an ideal location for executions. In Gross-Rosen concentration camp, for example, the SS killed more than 65,000 Soviet POWS by feeding them only a thin soup of grass, water, and salt for six months. In Flossenbürg, SS men burned Soviet POWs alive. In Majdanek, they shot them in trenches. In Mauthausen, Austria, so many POWs were shot that the local population complained that their water supply had been contaminated. The rivers and streams near the camp ran red with blood. Estimates of the numbers of victims of this operation range from at least 140,000 up to 500,000. The Auschwitz-Birkenau and Majdanek camps had originally been constructed for the Soviet POWs that Heinrich Himmler had claimed for himself. The POWs were to be put to work in the huge industrial conglomerates that the SS was planning to set up together with firms such as I.G. Farben. But in January 1942, only a few hundred of the Soviet prisoners who had originally been brought to Auschwitz—out of a total of 10,000—were still alive, and no further influx was expected. For this reason Himmler decided, in the week following the Wannsee Conference, to fill the camps with 150,000 Jews. In this manner the SS camps for POWs became part of the infrastructure for the murder of the Jews. It was when dealing with Soviet POWs at Auschwitz that camp commandant Rudolf Hoess and his assistants experimented with the means of killing that has since become the symbol of Nazi genocide: Zyklon B. In early September 1941, 600 Soviet POWs were selected for execution. Hoess decided to gas them with Zyklon B, also known as hydrogen cyanide, in the Auschwitz I gas chamber. The experimental gassing here also included 250 inmates who had been designated unfit for work. The Nazis had already experimented with gassing as the means to kill people they considered disabled beginning in October 1939. A method was thereby found that would kill millions of people with minimal effort. Those lessons were subsequently applied first to Soviet POWs and then to Jews. By February 1942, 2,000,000 of the 3,300,000 Soviet soldiers in German custody up to that point had died from starvation, exposure, disease, or shooting. Series: Soviet Prisoners of War Critical Thinking Questions - Compare and contrast the treatment of Russian POWs and captured soldiers of other enemies by the Nazi military. - What international agreements govern treatment of POWs? How have they changed since the end of World War II? - Do these agreements and regulations apply to fighters not aligned with a particular country or its military? How have modern nations responded to this circumstance?	<urn:uuid:5d21e74c-ae65-48c4-90aa-242d211b69b8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/the-treatment-of-soviet-pows-starvation-disease-and-shootings-june-1941january-1942?series=20462	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00166.warc.gz	en	0.981916	1,564	4.09375	4	[ -0.45437055826187134, 0.6006635427474976, 0.09625260531902313, 0.43567681312561035, 0.058421552181243896, 0.19727060198783875, -0.12098643183708191, 0.15137122571468353, -0.11165720224380493, -0.21215227246284485, 0.4762210547924042, -0.2593960464000702, 0.42429670691490173, 0.693026185035...	11	Germans Reject Geneva Convention From the very beginning, German policy on the treatment of Soviet prisoners of war (POWs) was determined by Nazi ideology. German political and military leaders regarded Soviet POWs not only as racially less valuable but as potential enemies, obstacles in the German conquest of "living space." The Nazi regime claimed that it was under no obligation for the humane care of prisoners of war from the Red Army because the Soviet Union had not ratified the 1929 Geneva Convention on Prisoners of War, nor had it specifically declared its commitment to the 1907 Hague Convention on the Rules of War. Technically both nations, therefore, were bound only by the general international law of war as it had developed in modern times. Yet even under that law, prisoners of war were to be protected. Policy of Mass Starvation in the East Soviet prisoners of war were the first victims of the Nazi policy of mass starvation in the east. In August 1941, the German army set a ration of just 2,200 calories per day for working Soviet prisoners of war. Even this was not enough to sustain life for long, but in practice the POWs received much less than the official ration. Many Soviet prisoners of war received at most a ration of only 700 calories a day. Within a few weeks the result of this "subsistence" ration, as the German army termed it, was death by starvation. The POWs were often provided, for example, only special "Russian" bread made from sugar beet husks and straw flour. Suffering from malnutrition and nearing starvation, numerous reports from the late summer and fall of 1941 show that in many camps the desperate POWs tried to ease their hunger by eating grass and leaves. The Germans made little provision to shelter most of the prisoners they took from the Soviet military. Eventually the Germans established makeshift camps but the lack of proper food, clothing, and shelter took a terrible toll. Often the prisoners had to dig holes in the ground as improvised shelter from the elements. By the end of 1941, epidemics (especially typhoid and dysentery) emerged as the main cause of death. In October 1941 alone, almost 5,000 Soviet POWs died each day. The onset of winter accelerated the mass death of Soviet POWs, because so many had little or no protection from the cold. Even in POW camps in Germany, Soviet POWs had often been left for months to vegetate in trenches, dugouts or sod houses. In the occupied eastern territories conditions were even worse. In Belorussia only pavilions (structures with roofs but no walls) were available to house Soviet POWs. By the winter of 1941, starvation and disease resulted in mass death of unimaginable proportions. Many Soviet soldiers, including many wounded, died on the way to the prisoner collection centers and transit camps; others died during transit to camps in occupied Poland or the German Reich. Most of the prisoners captured in 1941 had to march to the rear across hundreds of miles and those who were too exhausted to continue were shot to death on the spot. When Soviet POWs were transported by train, the Armed Forces High Command permitted only open freight cars to be used. Sometimes days went by without the prisoners receiving any rations. This resulted in an enormous loss of life during winter months. According to army reports between 25 percent and 70 percent of the prisoners on these transports from the occupied Baltic countries died en route to Germany. The large number of dead was due not just to irresponsible neglect by German officers but also to mass shootings. The Germans shot severely wounded Soviet soldiers to free the German army of their care. Time and again German forces were called upon to take "energetic and ruthless action" and "use their arms" unhesitatingly "to wipe out any trace of resistance" from Soviet POWs. Those attempting to escape were shot without warning. Moreover, a decree issued on September 8, 1941, stated that the use of arms against Soviet POWs was, "as a rule, to be regarded as legal"—a clear invitation for German soldiers to kill Soviet POWs with impunity. In the middle of July 1941, Gen. Hermann Reinecke, who was the officer in charge of prisoner-of-war affairs in the Armed Forces High Command, permitted security forces under the Reich Security Main Office to screen Soviet prisoners of war in the POW camps for "politically and racially intolerable elements" among the Soviet prisoners. These prisoners were transferred to SS jurisdiction and killed. This contributed to an enormous rise in the number of victims, since not only were "all important state and party functionaries" regarded as "intolerable," but so were "intellectuals," all "fanatic Communists," and "all Jews." The executions did not take place in the prisoner-of-war camps or their immediate area. Instead, prisoners were transferred to a secure area and shot. The concentration camps proved an ideal location for executions. In Gross-Rosen concentration camp, for example, the SS killed more than 65,000 Soviet POWS by feeding them only a thin soup of grass, water, and salt for six months. In Flossenbürg, SS men burned Soviet POWs alive. In Majdanek, they shot them in trenches. In Mauthausen, Austria, so many POWs were shot that the local population complained that their water supply had been contaminated. The rivers and streams near the camp ran red with blood. Estimates of the numbers of victims of this operation range from at least 140,000 up to 500,000. The Auschwitz-Birkenau and Majdanek camps had originally been constructed for the Soviet POWs that Heinrich Himmler had claimed for himself. The POWs were to be put to work in the huge industrial conglomerates that the SS was planning to set up together with firms such as I.G. Farben. But in January 1942, only a few hundred of the Soviet prisoners who had originally been brought to Auschwitz—out of a total of 10,000—were still alive, and no further influx was expected. For this reason Himmler decided, in the week following the Wannsee Conference, to fill the camps with 150,000 Jews. In this manner the SS camps for POWs became part of the infrastructure for the murder of the Jews. It was when dealing with Soviet POWs at Auschwitz that camp commandant Rudolf Hoess and his assistants experimented with the means of killing that has since become the symbol of Nazi genocide: Zyklon B. In early September 1941, 600 Soviet POWs were selected for execution. Hoess decided to gas them with Zyklon B, also known as hydrogen cyanide, in the Auschwitz I gas chamber. The experimental gassing here also included 250 inmates who had been designated unfit for work. The Nazis had already experimented with gassing as the means to kill people they considered disabled beginning in October 1939. A method was thereby found that would kill millions of people with minimal effort. Those lessons were subsequently applied first to Soviet POWs and then to Jews. By February 1942, 2,000,000 of the 3,300,000 Soviet soldiers in German custody up to that point had died from starvation, exposure, disease, or shooting. Series: Soviet Prisoners of War Critical Thinking Questions - Compare and contrast the treatment of Russian POWs and captured soldiers of other enemies by the Nazi military. - What international agreements govern treatment of POWs? How have they changed since the end of World War II? - Do these agreements and regulations apply to fighters not aligned with a particular country or its military? How have modern nations responded to this circumstance?	1,656	ENGLISH	1
On 30 August 1887, in the town of Brunswick, Tennessee, a black mill worker named James Eastman came out victorious in a fight his white employer had started. On 1 April 1892, an unidentified black man—reported to be the only black man in the county—was “standing around” in a white neighbourhood in Millersburg, Ohio.According to the Aurora Daily Express, it was “alleged that he ‘sneaked around town,’ that he ‘stared at people,’ and committed several grave misdemeanors against the people and dignity of the state. But it [did] not appear that he perpetrated any crime.” On 23 July 1926, a farmer’s daughter in Wythe County, Virginia, gave birth to a child whose father was Raymond Bird, a black farmhand. All three men were lynched. Hazel Turner was lynched in Lowndes County, Georgia on 18 May 1918. He was one of at least eleven black people murdered by mobs after the killing of a white farmer. His wife, Mary, who was eight months pregnant, maintained his innocence and swore to bring his killers to justice. The following day, she too was lynched. As documented by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, “Turner was still alive when a member of the mob split her abdomen open with a knife and her unborn child fell on the ground. The baby was stomped and crushed … Turner’s body was riddled with hundreds of bullets.” The lynching of thousands of black people counts among the least recognised atrocities in the United States. They revealed unspeakable cruelty and apathy— victims were left hanging for days, severed fingers were passed around, picnics were organised to watch lynchings and postcards were made with the victims’ photographs. Most incidents remained uninvestigated, blamed on parties unknown. Already a subscriber? Sign in	<urn:uuid:fb85a322-bb32-4595-888f-e9d2fc59dc6c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://caravanmagazine.in/history/national-memorial-for-peace-and-justice	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00543.warc.gz	en	0.985581	405	3.546875	4	[ -0.4690386950969696, 0.21684198081493378, -0.06638598442077637, 0.3938464820384979, -0.03282327577471733, -0.06415435671806335, 0.4887332618236542, -0.07589263468980789, -0.37388595938682556, 0.15817919373512268, 0.3061932921409607, 0.12558600306510925, -0.057751040905714035, 0.22752526402...	3	On 30 August 1887, in the town of Brunswick, Tennessee, a black mill worker named James Eastman came out victorious in a fight his white employer had started. On 1 April 1892, an unidentified black man—reported to be the only black man in the county—was “standing around” in a white neighbourhood in Millersburg, Ohio.According to the Aurora Daily Express, it was “alleged that he ‘sneaked around town,’ that he ‘stared at people,’ and committed several grave misdemeanors against the people and dignity of the state. But it [did] not appear that he perpetrated any crime.” On 23 July 1926, a farmer’s daughter in Wythe County, Virginia, gave birth to a child whose father was Raymond Bird, a black farmhand. All three men were lynched. Hazel Turner was lynched in Lowndes County, Georgia on 18 May 1918. He was one of at least eleven black people murdered by mobs after the killing of a white farmer. His wife, Mary, who was eight months pregnant, maintained his innocence and swore to bring his killers to justice. The following day, she too was lynched. As documented by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, “Turner was still alive when a member of the mob split her abdomen open with a knife and her unborn child fell on the ground. The baby was stomped and crushed … Turner’s body was riddled with hundreds of bullets.” The lynching of thousands of black people counts among the least recognised atrocities in the United States. They revealed unspeakable cruelty and apathy— victims were left hanging for days, severed fingers were passed around, picnics were organised to watch lynchings and postcards were made with the victims’ photographs. Most incidents remained uninvestigated, blamed on parties unknown. Already a subscriber? Sign in	404	ENGLISH	1
Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon are two of the most prominent poets who saw action in the First World War. Wilfred Owen like many others, had gone to war believing it had a just cause and that it was his duty, like millions of others, to join up and fight for his country. Sassoon lost his brother early on in the war and the death of his close friend was to be the final straw for him. He had encountered some of the most turbulent fighting and saw combat in the bloodiest battles, but following his friend’s death, he published his famous declaration against the war, which ultimately led to his spell at Craig Lockhart, in which he questioned the continuing involvement in the war, despite him believing the fighting could be ended. The war also affected Wilfred Owen to a similar degree. Moreover, the experiences that he witnessed during the war, was to completely change his outlook on it. He witnessed first hand how ruthless the great war was, he saw countless people dead and disfigured and saw front line action throughout the conflict. He himself suffered shell shock to such a degree that he had to spend time in an Edinburgh hospital. ‘Dulce et decorum est’ by Wilfred Owen, is one of the most famous of the World War One poems and it is critical of the war itself and its name is taken and is written as a narrated iambic pentameter which expresses Owens’s negative attitude to the war just as much, if not more so, than his poem ‘Futility.’ ‘Dulce et decorum est’ is roughly translated into English as ‘how fitting it is to die for one’s country’ and this ideal had been used as propaganda by the British during WW1, trying to get people to sign up for the war. What Owen is saying is that there is nothing glorious in dying in this war, the title is a play on words due to the nature of the poem and it certainly contrasts the idea of it being great to die in war. His poem highlighted the reality of war. Owen uses a range of poetic techniques throughout the poem, he uses in-depth detailed descriptions and uses imagery that allows the reader to fully grasp what it is that he has seen by using phrases such as “the blood, Come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs” and “Obscene as cancer”. This poem is visually descriptive, although it does convey impressions through other senses too. It includes words, which describe sounds such as ‘gargling’ and ‘guttering’. It has words that describe taste, like ‘bitter as cud’ and other such like words. These descriptive words are very effective and help the reader to see what the poem is describing. Dialogue is used to bring a feeling of panic. This is used in the first line of the second stanza and exclamation marks are also used to show the tone of the voice and to emphasise “Gas! Gas! Quick, boys!” “In all my dreams, before my helpless sight, He plunges at me, guttering, choking, drowning.” Owen uses assonance in this poem as well, descriptive language is again used to stress what is going on ‘stumbling’ fumbling,’ ‘drowning,’ ‘chocking,’ ‘guttering’ and ‘floundering’. These help the reader to see the horrors of what the young soldier went through and as to why it came to have such an effect on Owen. Owen uses an array of devices in his poems, in ‘Dulce decorum est’, he breaks up the poem into three parts, to stress the full horror of what the soldier is going through as at the end of first stanza, the young man is dying. The first stanza of the poem is written in the past tense, as it explores Owen still coming to terms with the experience while he was in hospital recovering from injuries , when the gas attack begins. In the poem Owen uses lots of poetical devices such as similes, metaphors, alliteration and assonance to convey his loathing of war. The evocative language, allows the reader to grasp the horror that a gas attack inflicts on someone, it was just one of the horrifying events that Owen witnessed while fighting in the trenches and on the front line and is one of the key factors. Owen uses repetition to emphasise certain words, for example he repeats the word ‘drowning’ because he wants the reader to really think about what he is saying, and by leaving the word ‘drowning’ at the end of the line it makes it more dramatic than at first My friend, you would not tell with such high zest To children ardent for some desperate glory, The old Lie; Dulce et Decorum est Pro patria mori The idea of futility is clearly expressed here by Owen, he is saying the brutality of the way this man has died. In his eyes proves it is not fitting to die for one’s country, such a barbaric way for someone to die, and then what they do with the body “Behind the wagon that we flung him in”, so casually, due to how frequently people died in this war. The death of a solider lost the effect that it would have on any other person not serving in the trenches as it was commonplace and was not a glorious way to die. This poem has been seen by many as a direct response to Rupert Brooke’s ‘The Soldier’. He is having a go at the people that tell the ‘lie’ it is sweet and right to die for your country. In other words, it is a wonderful and great honour to fight and die for your country and Owen is expressing that it is not, it is in fact, undeniably, futile as there will be no glory for them in death. The poem then goes on to give a grotesque image ‘of vile, incurable sores on innocent tongues’ to further emphasise how shocking and gruesome the scene of the solider dying was. ‘Futility’ is a poem written by Wilfred Owen, in which he is critical not only of the war but of God as well. Whereas sonnets generally take a joyful or happy tone, this is not, as it is littered with irony. It tells of how the death of a soldier close to Owen had died and this leads him to question what they are doing in the war and ever increasingly has questioned not only that but questions God as well and how the life giver the sun, does not give life to the dead soldier who isn’t coming back, as he is ‘lifeless’. Sassoon uses sarcasm and clichés, making ironic comments throughout his poetry to present his displeasure at the war. Sassoon had signed up on the very first day and likewise with many others and was a strong supporter of what the British were trying to achieve. As time went on and he saw the horrors of war, he became discontented with the war and became a strong objector. His poems were very critical of the goings on, not only in the war but at home as well. He strongly criticises the general public in his poem ‘Suicide in the trenches’ which tells the story of a young soldier who took his life while on the front line, You smug-faced crowds with kindling eye Who cheer when soldier lads march by, Sneak home and pray you'll never know The hell where youth and laughter go. Sassoon like many others had become discontented with the war and uses dark satire in his poems, similar to what Owen does in ‘Dulce et Decorucm est’ and for a similar effect. They both found that the War was a futile one and were dismayed and displeased with the jingoistic poetry of poets like Jessie Pope and other poetry that was used as pro-war propaganda like ‘The Soldier’ By Rupert Brooke. This portrayed an unrealistic reality about the war, in the eyes of Sassoon and especially Owen who considered these poems were having a detrimental effect, as it was used as part of the recruitment drive to get people to sign up for the war, with false pretences. It is widely acknowledged that Owens’s poem Dulce et Decorum est was originally going to be addressed to Jessie Pope as it is completely contrary to the poems that she wrote including one of her most famous poems, "The Call" in which she uses a lot of rhetorical questions, for example “Who'll earn the Empire's thanks?” and “Will you, my laddie?” Is repeated numerous times, throughout her poem.	<urn:uuid:d216d44e-dc06-4e13-a7c0-585dc24cee6d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.studymode.com/essays/Futility-In-World-War-One-Poetry-63623446.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00255.warc.gz	en	0.984972	1,856	3.71875	4	[ -0.5940455198287964, 0.5503548979759216, -0.1575356423854828, 0.19178789854049683, 0.23649582266807556, 0.11400413513183594, 0.1775895059108734, 0.2562936246395111, -0.025050709024071693, -0.43560147285461426, -0.04066172614693642, -0.03076714277267456, 0.1652790904045105, 0.28237229585647...	2	Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon are two of the most prominent poets who saw action in the First World War. Wilfred Owen like many others, had gone to war believing it had a just cause and that it was his duty, like millions of others, to join up and fight for his country. Sassoon lost his brother early on in the war and the death of his close friend was to be the final straw for him. He had encountered some of the most turbulent fighting and saw combat in the bloodiest battles, but following his friend’s death, he published his famous declaration against the war, which ultimately led to his spell at Craig Lockhart, in which he questioned the continuing involvement in the war, despite him believing the fighting could be ended. The war also affected Wilfred Owen to a similar degree. Moreover, the experiences that he witnessed during the war, was to completely change his outlook on it. He witnessed first hand how ruthless the great war was, he saw countless people dead and disfigured and saw front line action throughout the conflict. He himself suffered shell shock to such a degree that he had to spend time in an Edinburgh hospital. ‘Dulce et decorum est’ by Wilfred Owen, is one of the most famous of the World War One poems and it is critical of the war itself and its name is taken and is written as a narrated iambic pentameter which expresses Owens’s negative attitude to the war just as much, if not more so, than his poem ‘Futility.’ ‘Dulce et decorum est’ is roughly translated into English as ‘how fitting it is to die for one’s country’ and this ideal had been used as propaganda by the British during WW1, trying to get people to sign up for the war. What Owen is saying is that there is nothing glorious in dying in this war, the title is a play on words due to the nature of the poem and it certainly contrasts the idea of it being great to die in war. His poem highlighted the reality of war. Owen uses a range of poetic techniques throughout the poem, he uses in-depth detailed descriptions and uses imagery that allows the reader to fully grasp what it is that he has seen by using phrases such as “the blood, Come gargling from the froth-corrupted lungs” and “Obscene as cancer”. This poem is visually descriptive, although it does convey impressions through other senses too. It includes words, which describe sounds such as ‘gargling’ and ‘guttering’. It has words that describe taste, like ‘bitter as cud’ and other such like words. These descriptive words are very effective and help the reader to see what the poem is describing. Dialogue is used to bring a feeling of panic. This is used in the first line of the second stanza and exclamation marks are also used to show the tone of the voice and to emphasise “Gas! Gas! Quick, boys!” “In all my dreams, before my helpless sight, He plunges at me, guttering, choking, drowning.” Owen uses assonance in this poem as well, descriptive language is again used to stress what is going on ‘stumbling’ fumbling,’ ‘drowning,’ ‘chocking,’ ‘guttering’ and ‘floundering’. These help the reader to see the horrors of what the young soldier went through and as to why it came to have such an effect on Owen. Owen uses an array of devices in his poems, in ‘Dulce decorum est’, he breaks up the poem into three parts, to stress the full horror of what the soldier is going through as at the end of first stanza, the young man is dying. The first stanza of the poem is written in the past tense, as it explores Owen still coming to terms with the experience while he was in hospital recovering from injuries , when the gas attack begins. In the poem Owen uses lots of poetical devices such as similes, metaphors, alliteration and assonance to convey his loathing of war. The evocative language, allows the reader to grasp the horror that a gas attack inflicts on someone, it was just one of the horrifying events that Owen witnessed while fighting in the trenches and on the front line and is one of the key factors. Owen uses repetition to emphasise certain words, for example he repeats the word ‘drowning’ because he wants the reader to really think about what he is saying, and by leaving the word ‘drowning’ at the end of the line it makes it more dramatic than at first My friend, you would not tell with such high zest To children ardent for some desperate glory, The old Lie; Dulce et Decorum est Pro patria mori The idea of futility is clearly expressed here by Owen, he is saying the brutality of the way this man has died. In his eyes proves it is not fitting to die for one’s country, such a barbaric way for someone to die, and then what they do with the body “Behind the wagon that we flung him in”, so casually, due to how frequently people died in this war. The death of a solider lost the effect that it would have on any other person not serving in the trenches as it was commonplace and was not a glorious way to die. This poem has been seen by many as a direct response to Rupert Brooke’s ‘The Soldier’. He is having a go at the people that tell the ‘lie’ it is sweet and right to die for your country. In other words, it is a wonderful and great honour to fight and die for your country and Owen is expressing that it is not, it is in fact, undeniably, futile as there will be no glory for them in death. The poem then goes on to give a grotesque image ‘of vile, incurable sores on innocent tongues’ to further emphasise how shocking and gruesome the scene of the solider dying was. ‘Futility’ is a poem written by Wilfred Owen, in which he is critical not only of the war but of God as well. Whereas sonnets generally take a joyful or happy tone, this is not, as it is littered with irony. It tells of how the death of a soldier close to Owen had died and this leads him to question what they are doing in the war and ever increasingly has questioned not only that but questions God as well and how the life giver the sun, does not give life to the dead soldier who isn’t coming back, as he is ‘lifeless’. Sassoon uses sarcasm and clichés, making ironic comments throughout his poetry to present his displeasure at the war. Sassoon had signed up on the very first day and likewise with many others and was a strong supporter of what the British were trying to achieve. As time went on and he saw the horrors of war, he became discontented with the war and became a strong objector. His poems were very critical of the goings on, not only in the war but at home as well. He strongly criticises the general public in his poem ‘Suicide in the trenches’ which tells the story of a young soldier who took his life while on the front line, You smug-faced crowds with kindling eye Who cheer when soldier lads march by, Sneak home and pray you'll never know The hell where youth and laughter go. Sassoon like many others had become discontented with the war and uses dark satire in his poems, similar to what Owen does in ‘Dulce et Decorucm est’ and for a similar effect. They both found that the War was a futile one and were dismayed and displeased with the jingoistic poetry of poets like Jessie Pope and other poetry that was used as pro-war propaganda like ‘The Soldier’ By Rupert Brooke. This portrayed an unrealistic reality about the war, in the eyes of Sassoon and especially Owen who considered these poems were having a detrimental effect, as it was used as part of the recruitment drive to get people to sign up for the war, with false pretences. It is widely acknowledged that Owens’s poem Dulce et Decorum est was originally going to be addressed to Jessie Pope as it is completely contrary to the poems that she wrote including one of her most famous poems, "The Call" in which she uses a lot of rhetorical questions, for example “Who'll earn the Empire's thanks?” and “Will you, my laddie?” Is repeated numerous times, throughout her poem.	1,752	ENGLISH	1
Czechoslovakia was one of the few states in Europe between the wars with a genuine parliamentary democracy. The First Republic, as it became known, was a multiethnic one: apart from Czechs and Slovaks, nearly a quarter of its people were ethnic Germans; the Tesin region in the north had a large Polish minority, while South Slovakia and Ruthenia were home to some three-quarters of a million Hungarians. Up until the Munich Pact of 1938 and subsequent Nazi occupation, Czechoslovakia was a magnet for refugees from Hitler's Germany, communist Russia, Ukraine, and elsewhere, says Dr David Kraft, curator of the new exhibit "Exile in Prague and Czechoslovakia 1918-1938". "Czechoslovakia was in the period between 1918 and 1938 a democratic country. It was open to refugees and it was very easy to cross the border, which was very important, and it was also a multinational state. In this respect, for example for the people who came from Germany, it was very easy to establish new lives here." "The Czechoslovak policy towards immigrants was very much differentiated; it was very open to the people who were known journalists, scientists, politicians, etc and was generally open for people like the Social Democrats who fled Germany after Hitler came to power. "The policy was also very much open to the Russians in the twenties, for example, when the so-called Russian Action was founded. The situation was more complicated for communists; the policy was very restrictive towards communists and people with no 'obvious' political alliance, like Jews, or people who had no, or nearly no property. "It must be said that Czechoslovakia did not grant 'asylum' in the twenties and thirties; it just had very flexible legislation, which enabled many people to stay for long or 'indefinite' periods of time." Between the wars, Czechoslovakia was - according to official documentation -- host to tens of thousands of refugees. They arrived in waves, with the first and largest group, that of Russians and Ukrainians, arriving in the early 1920s. They fled the new Soviet regime, along with smaller groups of Byelorussians, Armenians, Kalmyks and others who found themselves on the losing side of the Bolshevik revolution. The Czechoslovakia of President Tomas G Masaryk, says Dr Kraft, was seen as a welcoming "island of democracy". "Many Russians came here after the end of World War I, after the Civil War in Russia, many also came in some affiliation to the Czechoslovak legions which were active in Russia. Some of them left Czechoslovakia in the thirties for France and the United States, but many of them stayed and obtained Czechoslovak citizenship." "It must be said that there were two basic lines in the Czechoslovak policy: one was represented by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and by [Prime Minister Edvard] Benes, who were in favour of openness and tolerance towards refugees; the other by the Ministry of the Interior, and this was more restrictive. Masaryk was closely linked to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs; he was supporting the liberal view, he supported different committees, he was one of the founders of the Russian Action, for example..." RP: Large numbers of anti-fascist Germans, and Jews of varied backgrounds and nationalities, began seeking refuge in Czechoslovakia in the early 1930s. What kind of numbers are we talking about overall? "Well, Czechoslovakia hosted over two and a half thousand political refugees. After Britain and France, it was the largest community in Europe, in the 1930s. The numbers are not very dramatic, but it must also be said that, for example, Prague was a bilingual town where German was normally spoken, so many people came here and found their way relatively easily, so the exact numbers are difficult to say. The big wave came, of course, after the Treaty of Munich, and then after 15 March 1939 there were many attempts to leave the country. RP: Who were some of the well-known people who sought refuge here? "Well, we have intentionally not paid attention in this exhibit to well-known people like [the German writers] Thomas Mann, Heinrich Mann or [Czech-Austrian painter] Oskar Kokoschka, to give you just a few names. We have tried to trace through the archives normal rank-and-file people; we have found in many cases the way that led them to the country and also, in some cases, were able to identify their fates after 1938." "As far as very known personalities, there's Otto Wells, leader of the German Social Democrats, [whose party was the only to vote against Hitler's March 1933 "Enabling Act" that stripped Parliament of its powers and legalised the Nazi dictatorship], Prof. Hans Kelsen, who was professor of law at the German University of Prague in the thirties. But generally we have tried to establish what life was like for the normal rank-and-file refugees because they constituted 95 percent of the people who were here." RP: In the introduction to the book it speaks about Czechoslovakia between the wars as being an 'island of democracy'. Was it for that reason, really, that the country became the third largest centre for refugees? Or what were some of the determining factors that led groups of people to come here? "I think it was definitely so. It was a country that was multinational, which had an open educational system. There were many university students who came to complete their education. Maybe you have noticed in recent days [famed Nazi hunter] Simon Wiesenthal died. He was from [part of Ukraine] and he studied architecture in Prague in the thirties. That was very typical for people from Galacia, for example, and this was a democratic country with a functioning parliamentary system, and there was no comparison to the communist system in Russia, to the Nazi system in Germany or to the very authoritarian regimes, like in Hungary or Poland." "So I think there were objective reasons why people were coming here. It was seemingly very safe here in the thirties." RP: Lastly, I wonder if you could draw some parallels between Czechoslovak immigration or political asylum policy at that time and today. "If I am to speak personally, it seems to me relatively sad that this country, which had many citizens who had to leave the country for political reasons - back in 1948, 1968 and of course going further back, also in 1938 - it seems to me the country is not very much open to asylum seekers and that our policy is relatively restrictive. Definitely it's restrictive vis-à-vis the situation as it was here in this country in the twenties and the thirties." Jana Ciglerová: Americans say their lives are fantastic, Czechs say everything is terrible – neither is true Study: Demand for new flats in Prague set to keep outstripping supply “There is good, better and then there is the USSR.” – New book depicts life in communist Czechoslovakia through memories of people who experienced it CzechTourism head hints attracting tourists no longer agency’s main goal ‘The fat lady sings’: Prague’s State Opera marks restoration to former glory with gala concert	<urn:uuid:0e23d64e-a891-4699-8a54-2d2fc326362f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.radio.cz/en/section/panorama/czechoslovakia-island-of-democracy-and-refuge-between-the-wars	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00486.warc.gz	en	0.989223	1,519	3.78125	4	[ -0.2275470346212387, 0.20295779407024384, -0.07752226293087006, -0.2082120031118393, -0.2164943814277649, 0.1380152404308319, -0.09838971495628357, 0.2219330072402954, 0.008639205247163773, 0.08460888266563416, 0.5105610489845276, -0.02002405747771263, 0.05446232855319977, 0.36891257762908...	1	Czechoslovakia was one of the few states in Europe between the wars with a genuine parliamentary democracy. The First Republic, as it became known, was a multiethnic one: apart from Czechs and Slovaks, nearly a quarter of its people were ethnic Germans; the Tesin region in the north had a large Polish minority, while South Slovakia and Ruthenia were home to some three-quarters of a million Hungarians. Up until the Munich Pact of 1938 and subsequent Nazi occupation, Czechoslovakia was a magnet for refugees from Hitler's Germany, communist Russia, Ukraine, and elsewhere, says Dr David Kraft, curator of the new exhibit "Exile in Prague and Czechoslovakia 1918-1938". "Czechoslovakia was in the period between 1918 and 1938 a democratic country. It was open to refugees and it was very easy to cross the border, which was very important, and it was also a multinational state. In this respect, for example for the people who came from Germany, it was very easy to establish new lives here." "The Czechoslovak policy towards immigrants was very much differentiated; it was very open to the people who were known journalists, scientists, politicians, etc and was generally open for people like the Social Democrats who fled Germany after Hitler came to power. "The policy was also very much open to the Russians in the twenties, for example, when the so-called Russian Action was founded. The situation was more complicated for communists; the policy was very restrictive towards communists and people with no 'obvious' political alliance, like Jews, or people who had no, or nearly no property. "It must be said that Czechoslovakia did not grant 'asylum' in the twenties and thirties; it just had very flexible legislation, which enabled many people to stay for long or 'indefinite' periods of time." Between the wars, Czechoslovakia was - according to official documentation -- host to tens of thousands of refugees. They arrived in waves, with the first and largest group, that of Russians and Ukrainians, arriving in the early 1920s. They fled the new Soviet regime, along with smaller groups of Byelorussians, Armenians, Kalmyks and others who found themselves on the losing side of the Bolshevik revolution. The Czechoslovakia of President Tomas G Masaryk, says Dr Kraft, was seen as a welcoming "island of democracy". "Many Russians came here after the end of World War I, after the Civil War in Russia, many also came in some affiliation to the Czechoslovak legions which were active in Russia. Some of them left Czechoslovakia in the thirties for France and the United States, but many of them stayed and obtained Czechoslovak citizenship." "It must be said that there were two basic lines in the Czechoslovak policy: one was represented by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and by [Prime Minister Edvard] Benes, who were in favour of openness and tolerance towards refugees; the other by the Ministry of the Interior, and this was more restrictive. Masaryk was closely linked to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs; he was supporting the liberal view, he supported different committees, he was one of the founders of the Russian Action, for example..." RP: Large numbers of anti-fascist Germans, and Jews of varied backgrounds and nationalities, began seeking refuge in Czechoslovakia in the early 1930s. What kind of numbers are we talking about overall? "Well, Czechoslovakia hosted over two and a half thousand political refugees. After Britain and France, it was the largest community in Europe, in the 1930s. The numbers are not very dramatic, but it must also be said that, for example, Prague was a bilingual town where German was normally spoken, so many people came here and found their way relatively easily, so the exact numbers are difficult to say. The big wave came, of course, after the Treaty of Munich, and then after 15 March 1939 there were many attempts to leave the country. RP: Who were some of the well-known people who sought refuge here? "Well, we have intentionally not paid attention in this exhibit to well-known people like [the German writers] Thomas Mann, Heinrich Mann or [Czech-Austrian painter] Oskar Kokoschka, to give you just a few names. We have tried to trace through the archives normal rank-and-file people; we have found in many cases the way that led them to the country and also, in some cases, were able to identify their fates after 1938." "As far as very known personalities, there's Otto Wells, leader of the German Social Democrats, [whose party was the only to vote against Hitler's March 1933 "Enabling Act" that stripped Parliament of its powers and legalised the Nazi dictatorship], Prof. Hans Kelsen, who was professor of law at the German University of Prague in the thirties. But generally we have tried to establish what life was like for the normal rank-and-file refugees because they constituted 95 percent of the people who were here." RP: In the introduction to the book it speaks about Czechoslovakia between the wars as being an 'island of democracy'. Was it for that reason, really, that the country became the third largest centre for refugees? Or what were some of the determining factors that led groups of people to come here? "I think it was definitely so. It was a country that was multinational, which had an open educational system. There were many university students who came to complete their education. Maybe you have noticed in recent days [famed Nazi hunter] Simon Wiesenthal died. He was from [part of Ukraine] and he studied architecture in Prague in the thirties. That was very typical for people from Galacia, for example, and this was a democratic country with a functioning parliamentary system, and there was no comparison to the communist system in Russia, to the Nazi system in Germany or to the very authoritarian regimes, like in Hungary or Poland." "So I think there were objective reasons why people were coming here. It was seemingly very safe here in the thirties." RP: Lastly, I wonder if you could draw some parallels between Czechoslovak immigration or political asylum policy at that time and today. "If I am to speak personally, it seems to me relatively sad that this country, which had many citizens who had to leave the country for political reasons - back in 1948, 1968 and of course going further back, also in 1938 - it seems to me the country is not very much open to asylum seekers and that our policy is relatively restrictive. Definitely it's restrictive vis-à-vis the situation as it was here in this country in the twenties and the thirties." Jana Ciglerová: Americans say their lives are fantastic, Czechs say everything is terrible – neither is true Study: Demand for new flats in Prague set to keep outstripping supply “There is good, better and then there is the USSR.” – New book depicts life in communist Czechoslovakia through memories of people who experienced it CzechTourism head hints attracting tourists no longer agency’s main goal ‘The fat lady sings’: Prague’s State Opera marks restoration to former glory with gala concert	1,543	ENGLISH	1
Writers differ in the purpose for which they write. Some aim to entertain, but the more serious and skilled writers usually have the goal of expressing a serious idea. Writers such as Hariet Beecher Stowe and Alex Haley are writers who write for more than mere entertainment. Uncle Toms Cabin, written by Harriet Beecher Stowe, had a political purpose. Stowe intended to help America realize the inhumanity of slavery and the pain it brought upon African-Americans by writing a melodramatic novel. She despised the South for practicing slavery and the North as well for their prejudice against blacks. Roots was written by Alex Haley in search of his origin. His hunger for knowledge of who he was and who his ancestors were inspired him to carry out numerous years of research and countless interviews in order to finish his book. Although Alex Haley wrote Roots in search of his origin and Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote Uncle Toms Cabin for a political purpose, both authors lead readers to sympathize with the predicaments of African-Americans by putting a human face, as well as a racial one on the tragedy of slavery, thus involving all readers in the inhumanity of the institution. In Uncle Toms Cabin we are cordially introduced to Uncle Tom. He is a “large, broad-chested, powerfully-made man, of a full glossy black, and a face whose truly African feature [are] characterized by and expression of grave and steady good sense, united with much kindliness and benevolence”(Stowe 24). By her description of Tom, Stowe contradicts the common stereotype that blacks are savages and inhumane by giving Uncle Tom the characteristics of an ideal, honest man. He is described as being “kind” and “benevolent” as well as having an “expression of good sense”. Stowe also portrays Uncle Tom as a perfect being. It seems as if his personality is without a flaw and seems too good to be true. By giving Uncle Tom this flawless characteristic, Stowe is able to show that he too is human although his difference in skin color. As one is introduced to the setting of Uncle Toms cabin, one feels at home and very relaxed. Aunt Chloes cooking of various tasty dishes adds to the serene environment of the cabin and as we see Uncle Tom learning how to read and write from his young “Masr George,” it seems as though there are no worries, hardships are unknown, and an utopia exists within the walls of the cabin. Stowe creates this peaceful scene in order to intensify the readers disgust when tragedy strikes. It seems as if all is well and nothing can go wrong in Uncle Toms life. Stowe also momentarily hides the heinousness of slavery by creating this carefree setting in Uncle Toms cabin. Dramatic irony occurs as Uncle Tom has no clue of the tragedy that lies ahead while the reader senses a disruptive change close by(Stowe 25). Around the world one is greeted with the good news of a manchild being born to Omoro and Binta Kinte in a village called Juffure which is located north of the coast of the Gambia, West Africa(Haley 1). His name is Kunta Kinte and with the progress of time, we learn that he is bright, tenacious, bold, confident, and honest. Haley, like Stowe, portrays Kunta in a positive manner in order for the reader to realize that African-Americans had a long line of history before they were kidnapped into slavery. They too had forefathers who accomplished great achievements and benefited the next generation in many different ways. They were not savages or inhumane in their homeland but instead, educated and civilized as well. Kunta shows great respect and admiration for his father and dreams of becoming just like Omoro when he becomes a man. Life in Juffure is very peaceful. The young, naked children play throughout the day by having wrestling matches and eagerly listening to the moral stories told by the village grandmothers, who loved the children as if they were their own. Older children attend school and learn the history of their forefathers as well as verses from the Koran. After classes are over, they tend the goats, which they do with extreme alertness for they are fully responsible for their fathers’ goats. The women in Juffure pass the day by cooking breakfast, working in the rice fields during the day, and finally cooking dinner for their husbands and children. Although they are very busy all the time, they manage to find the time to relax by the town well and gossip amongst themselves. Finally, the men set off for their days work of preparing the land for farming of the primary crops. After dinner they gather around the village bonfire along with Juffures Council of Elders and discuss the many problems that occurred within the village. Unlike Stowe, Haley does not intend to intensify the mood of the reader when tragedy strikes. Instead, he is merely portraying the life of Kunta in an African village of the 1700s. By depicting Juffure, he is able to show that the Africans indeed had their own way of life in Africa. They were not savages that whites thought them to be as but rather civilized human beings with system and order established in their villages as well as a very humane family structure. In fact, Haley shows that these people showed great respect to their elders and to their ancestors with strongly established morals. He also introduces the reader to a different culture in a different time period so that he may compare it with their own ways of life. Furthermore, the reader gains knowledge of Haleys ancestors and their unique culture thus partially understanding the origin of African-Americans in our society today. Unfortunately, back around the world Uncle Toms cabins transient utopia is shattered as we learn of the unfortunate fate of Uncle Tom. Although he is Mr. Shelbys best hand, he is to be sold to a slave trader because of the debt that Mr. Shelby has accumulated. He will be sold “down south” to work on a plantation and sadly end his life from exhaustion and emaciation. As he exchanges his last good-byes and leaves his home and family not knowing if he will ever return, one is amazed at his willingness to obey his master and not let him down no matter what the consequences may be. He is a man of sacrifice who is willing to give up everything important in his life to satisfy his master and save him from debt. His honesty and submissive attitude touches ones heart and also adds to the effect to the melancholic mood at the same time. Yet, this scene seems unrealistic. One is amazed at Uncle Tom’s willingness not to disappoint his master and sacrifice his own life and everything he has. Once again his attitude toward this predicament seems too good to be true and absolutely heartbreaking to the reader. One begins to question how Uncle Tom can be so pious and honest in such a world he lives in. It is over-dramatized by Stowe in order to lead the southern plantation owners to feel the grief of their slaves. One begins to wonder if there is any justice in the world. What has Uncle Tom done to deserve this anguish? He has done absolutely nothing but helplessly becomes a victim of the inhumane institution of slavery. Tragedy also strikes in Juffure. In the midst of Kuntas peaceful life, he is captured by white slave traders at the age of sixteen and thus his life is forever destroyed just as he is entering the first stage of manhood. During his journey to America, he suffers from diseases, filth, brutality, heat exhaustion, and hunger. “Kunta wondered if he had gone mad. Naked, chained, shackled, he awoke on his back between two other men in a pitch darkness full of steamy heat and sickening stink and nightmarish bedlam of shrieking, praying, and vomiting”(Haley 150). Furthermore, the men were chained to each other in very confined spaces, allowing no movement at all. They had no choice but to relieve their bowels where they lay and remain shackled surrounded by their own filth. This unsanitary environment enabled diseases, lice, and fleas to spread like wildfire within the hold. The stinging bites, then the itching of the body lice, steadily grew worse. In the filth, the lice as well as the fleas had multiplied by the thousands until they swarmed all over the hold. They were worst wherever the body crevices held any hair. Kuntas armpits and around his foto, felt as if they were on fire, and his free hand scratched steadily wherever his shackled hand couldnt reach. (Haley 159) Finally, the constant rubbing of their backs against the rough wooden boards gradually wear the skin and muscles of Kunta and the other unfortunate souls so that the bone is visible. Kuntas screams were joined by others as each movement up and down, or from side to side, sent the chained mens naked shoulder, elbows, and buttocksalready festered and bleedinggrinding down even harder against the rough boards beneath them, grating away still more of the soft, infected skin until the muscles underneath began rubbing against the boards. (Haley 179) In the hold where these men lie, there is constant moaning and screaming from the physical anguish as well as mental anguish. Haley portrays the inhumane journey from Africa to America so that the reader may realize that African-Americans suffered great difficulties during their reluctant voyage. They were not brought here in a peaceful manner but rather experienced great physical as well as emotional pain. He also reminds the reader that their lives were disrupted by slavery. They lost their homes and family, they lost their ways of life, and most importantly they forgot who they were and where they came from due to the change in culture in America. Haley creates this very clear picture of the physical and emotional destruction for readers who have never imagined it. Even after the long, tortuous journey across the ocean, Kunta continues to face many difficulties. He has no way of communication with other blacks, his African future and ways are shunned, and most importantly, he feels as if these blacks are of another race. He is unable to understand their ways and their culture, just as they are not able to understand his ways and his culture. He feels that they are pagans and are a disgrace to the black race. Unlike him, they eat the meat of swine and smoke tobacco which is absolutely forbidden in his African village. Although Haley also depicts the wickedness of slavery and the destruction it causes on the individual, he does so in a much more realistic fashion than Stowe. The tortuous journey is accurate and can be backed up with evidence. Furthermore, while reading through these passages that describes the voyage, the reader can feel the physical, as well as mental anguish of these men and can also hear the screams and moans in their minds. The reader sympathizes with these unfortunate souls in this horrid scene and begins to understand what they have been through. They begin to realize that these people are humans as well and can feel just as any other person of any skin color. Stowe also focuses on the slave’s hunger for freedom. By creating a story of a family’s struggle for freedom with much difficulties and dangers, she is able to depict the determinations of those who escaped from slavery. Throughout the entire novel, Uncle Tom never struggles for his freedom. However, we are introduced to Eliza, Harry, and George; a family whose only wish is to become free together. When Eliza eavesdrops on her master and learns that her little boy Harry is to be sold along with Uncle Tom, she decides to run away to Canada. She is aware of the consequences of being caught and the dangers that lie ahead, but she is willing to risk everything in order to remain with her only son. With the help of Quakers and abolitionists, she is able to reunite with her husband and successfully escape to Canada where they become free human beings for the first time in their lives. Once again, the reader is mystified as he or she pictures Eliza jumping across the icy river with Harry in her arms. It seems extremely unrealistic and makes one wonder if there had been a divine intervention or supernatural force involved. By creating such a fictional scene, Stowe is able to aid the reader realize how desperate Eliza is to obtain freedom; an inborn right given to all human beings. Haley also focuses on the slave’s determination for freedom by portraying several of Kunta’s escapes. Although Kunta is never successful, he never gives up his hope of returning to his village and reuniting with his family. He always looks around his surroundings with keenness in order to learn the landscapes and the different ways of the people in this new country so that he will have a better chance of escaping and regaining his freedom. Although his moments of freedom are transitory, he is unable to contain the joy of being free once again. Springing up, fearing above all another barking dog, Kunta slipped away like a shadow from the fallen driver and the overturned flame. He ran bent low, legs crashing through frosted stalks of cotton. His muscles, so long unused, screamed with pain, but the cold, rushing air felt good upon his skin, and he had to stop himself from whooping out loud with the pleasure of feeling so wildly free. (Haley 207) One may take freedom for granted but as one sees Kunta’s joy of being free so intense, one begins to understand that for the slaves, it was their only wish. Unlike us, they had to earn their freedom by buying themselves free or escaping from the chains of slavery despite the many dangers and unthinkable consequences. Unfortunately, Kuntas dream of regaining freedom and seeing his family is shattered when he is caught by slave trackers who cut off the front portion of his right foot. The flame of freedom, which he has so desperately kept alive, burns out as he reluctantly realizes that he will never again be a free man while he remains in a place called America. One pushed the trunk under Kuntas right foot as the other tied the foot to the trunk so tightly that all of Kuntas raging couldnt free it. The bleeding [slave tracker] picked up the ax. Kunta was screaming and thrashing as the ax flashed up, then down so fastsevering skin, tendons, muscles, bonethat Kunta heard the ax thud into the trunk as the shock of it sent the agony deep into his brain. As the explosion of pain bolted through him, Kuntas upper body spasmed forward and his hands went flailing downward as if to save the front half of his foot, which was falling forward, as bright red blood jetted from the stump as he plunged into blackness. (Haley 244) During this turning point, the reader is deeply saddened and begins to feel the disappointment of Kunta. His only wish of being a free individual is destroyed and he is to remain a slave for the rest of his life in a distant land. Although Kuntas effort to regain freedom may be fictional, it is much more realistic than that of Eliza. He is not able to escape miraculously like Eliza, but instead is caught repeatedly. His numerous efforts show his determination and tenacity, which he has obtained from his experiences back in Africa. However, similarly to Stowe, Haley is able to help the reader sympathize with Kunta’s unfortunate fate. In his commentary Edmund Wilson states the following. We may even be surprised to discover that the novel is by no means an indictment drawn up by New England against the South. Mrs. Stowe has, on the contrary, been careful to contrive her story in such a way that the Southern states and New England shall be shown as involved to an equal degree in kidnapping into slaver of the Negroes and the subsequent maltreatment of them, and that the emphasis shall all be laid on the impracticability of slavery as a permanent institution. The author, if anything, leans over backwards in trying to make it plain that the New Englanders are as much to blame as the South and to exhibit the Southerners in a favorable light. ” (Wilson 564) Wilson implies that Stowe did not write against the South but instead wrote against both the North and the South. She wrote against the South by portraying the predicaments of African-Americans and by introducing the readers to a notorious slave owner named Simon Legree. She also wrote against the North by introducing us readers to Miss Ophelia. Although her attitude toward blacks gradually changes, at first she displays prejudice toward the slaves. She is surprised by the fact that Little Eva hugs and kisses Mammythe slave housekeeperand also thinks that blacks are too stupid to be educated. Kenneth S. Lynn wrote in his commentary of Uncle Toms Cabin that “[Stowe] centered her novel on the helpless instability of the Negros home life”(Lynn 563). One must clearly understand Stowes intention of trying to help both the North and South realize the pain caused by slavery. By depicting the dramatic scene when Uncle Tom reluctantly shares his last good-byes with his family, she provides a chance for the reader to imagine himself or herself in Uncle Toms or Aunt Chloes shoes. Thus the reader might feel the anguish of losing a loved one for someone elses debt and understand how it feels to be property rather than an individual. Lynn also states that “for the most part, the dramatic personae of Uncle Toms Cabinblack and white, Northern and Southernare shockingly believable, no matter how factitious and dramatic situations may be in which they are placed”(Lynn 563). Although all of Stowes characters are fictional, they symbolize the people of America during the era of slavery. For example, in the South there were Simon Legreesmasters who treated their slaves with brutality and hatred; who treated their dogs better than they did their slaves; and who took advantage of their female slaves by using them for their own pleasure. Nevertheless, Evas also existed in the South. These were people who did not judge the African-Americans for their skin color but rather for their personalities; people who treated their slaves as human beings and loved them with all their hearts; and people who emancipated their slaves from the morbid grasp of slavery. Finally, in the north there existed Miss Opheliasnortherners who despised the South for their practice of slavery but yet held prejudice toward blacks. Finally, Leslie A. Fiedler writes the following in her commentary of Uncle Toms Cabin. How oddly they undercut the scenes of separated families, of baffled mother-love, at which Mrs. Stowe worked so hardfeeling perhaps that to her bourgeois readers slavery would stand condemned only if it were proved an offense against the sacred family and the suffering mother. (Fiedler 565) Like Lynn, Fiedler recognizes Stowes attempt to help the readers feel the agony of the slaves by creating sorrow within a familysomething that is common to everyone. When Eliza learns that her only child is to be sold, one transcends beyond racism and begins to feel Elizas pain as a mother. One then realizes that these poor souls are indeed humans as well and their pains are as heartbreaking as any other persons pain. They are not ignorant savages who can only survive under the white man’s command. Instead, they are individuals who deserve the right of freedom like anyone else. In his commentary of Roots, James Baldwin states the following: The world of [“Roots”] begins in Gambia West Africa in 1750 with the birth of one of [Haley’s] ancestors, Kunta Kinte In the re-creation of this time and place, Haley succeeds beautifully where many have failed. He must have studied and sweated hard to achieve such ease and grace, for he would appear to have been born in his ancestral village and to be personally acquainted with everybody there. Baldwin 259) Baldwin clearly understands Haley’s intention of finding his true origin in Africa. However, in order to do so, Haley had to carry out numerous years of research both in America and Africa. Haley’s extensive research paid off. Just as Baldwin stated, Haley does an excellent job of portraying life in Juffure. It seems as if he was there watching the life of Kunta as he grew up in his native village. Furthermore, it seems as if he actually lived the life of Kunta Kinte and merely wrote his own autobiography. One is truly amazed at how Haley combined his research with his imagination and created such a realistic world that existed more that two hundred years ago. Like James Baldwin, Arnold Rampersad also realizes Haley’s intention for writing Roots. In his commentary he states that “Haley’s search for his ancestors is not conducted to discover unvarnished truth but rather, from one perspective, to justify the history of blacks in America”(Rampersad 247). African-Americans were torn away from their homeland and families by slave traders and Haley wants everyone to understand this. He wants people to realize how African-Americans got here and also the hardships they have been through. Furthermore, he states that African-Americans were people with a history rather than uncivilized savages who roamed the jungles like wild animals. They too had order in their societies and were civilized in their own different way. By writing Roots, Haley was also able to give and idea to those who are unfortunate of not knowing their origin by helping them understand where they came from and how their ancestors’ lifestyles were back in Africa. Just as Rampersad stated, he was not searching for an “unvarnished truth” but instead, he was “justifying the history of blacks in America. ” On the other hand, however, Russell Warren Howe thinks otherwise. In his commentary he states the following: Yet for all Haley’s undeniable achievement and painstaking research, implying a claim to authenticity, the key historical portions are marred by serious factual errors The Juffure of the 1750s is portrayed almost as it appears today. For instance, the village’s main crop is rice, which was not introduced until this century and only became Gambia’s staple diet after World War II. Kinte is weaned at 13 monthsconceivable now, when every Mauritanian storekeeper in Gambia sells powdered mild and formula, but unthinkable in traditional West Africa before the age of three or later. Adults in the village know their agesan unlikely situation even today There are other minor incongruities. (Howe 248) One can see clearly that Howe does not understand Haley’s intentions for writing Roots. Howe seems to think Haley was writing a history book and thus picks at the minor historical errors in Haley’s book. Although Roots might have a few minor flaws in the historical point of view, one must understand that Haley was not writing a history book; he was writing a saga of his own family in order to discover his true origin and let the history of his people be known to the world. Instead of focusing on the minor historical errors, one should focus on the predicaments of families and individuals as well as the maltreatment that some blacks received from their white masters. Each book aims at the reader’s conscience. Stowe is blatant, Haley more subtle. However, these two authors were inspired by different reasons for writing their books. Stowe intended to criticize the North for permitting slavery to proceed and the South for practicing slavery. Thus she wrote in a general manner and over-dramatized her novel in order for the reader to sympathize with the African-American race. On the other hand, Haley intended to find his origin and thus help other African-Americans realize their origins as well even though it might not be traceable. Thus his purpose was mainly personal and his book fairly realistic. However, both authors lead the reader to understand that these people are just as human as whites or any other race. They are not stupid or ignorant and the fact that they have a different skin color does not make them savages. Most importantly, both Stowe and Haley states the importance of freedom and helps the reader realize how he or she takes it for granted while the slaves merely dreamed about it during the era of slavery.	<urn:uuid:c44cc50d-3fe2-4fa0-a2e0-3e56e549b81f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://windsongcastlecottage.com/slavery-an-era-of-inhumanity/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00271.warc.gz	en	0.983324	5,083	3.546875	4	[ 0.04032348096370697, 0.34341126680374146, 0.26410210132598877, -0.04355974495410919, 0.13975703716278076, 0.11961870640516281, 0.2323135882616043, -0.3137696087360382, -0.13699093461036682, -0.04554956406354904, 0.407574862241745, 0.2850985527038574, -0.07036547362804413, 0.082967326045036...	2	Writers differ in the purpose for which they write. Some aim to entertain, but the more serious and skilled writers usually have the goal of expressing a serious idea. Writers such as Hariet Beecher Stowe and Alex Haley are writers who write for more than mere entertainment. Uncle Toms Cabin, written by Harriet Beecher Stowe, had a political purpose. Stowe intended to help America realize the inhumanity of slavery and the pain it brought upon African-Americans by writing a melodramatic novel. She despised the South for practicing slavery and the North as well for their prejudice against blacks. Roots was written by Alex Haley in search of his origin. His hunger for knowledge of who he was and who his ancestors were inspired him to carry out numerous years of research and countless interviews in order to finish his book. Although Alex Haley wrote Roots in search of his origin and Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote Uncle Toms Cabin for a political purpose, both authors lead readers to sympathize with the predicaments of African-Americans by putting a human face, as well as a racial one on the tragedy of slavery, thus involving all readers in the inhumanity of the institution. In Uncle Toms Cabin we are cordially introduced to Uncle Tom. He is a “large, broad-chested, powerfully-made man, of a full glossy black, and a face whose truly African feature [are] characterized by and expression of grave and steady good sense, united with much kindliness and benevolence”(Stowe 24). By her description of Tom, Stowe contradicts the common stereotype that blacks are savages and inhumane by giving Uncle Tom the characteristics of an ideal, honest man. He is described as being “kind” and “benevolent” as well as having an “expression of good sense”. Stowe also portrays Uncle Tom as a perfect being. It seems as if his personality is without a flaw and seems too good to be true. By giving Uncle Tom this flawless characteristic, Stowe is able to show that he too is human although his difference in skin color. As one is introduced to the setting of Uncle Toms cabin, one feels at home and very relaxed. Aunt Chloes cooking of various tasty dishes adds to the serene environment of the cabin and as we see Uncle Tom learning how to read and write from his young “Masr George,” it seems as though there are no worries, hardships are unknown, and an utopia exists within the walls of the cabin. Stowe creates this peaceful scene in order to intensify the readers disgust when tragedy strikes. It seems as if all is well and nothing can go wrong in Uncle Toms life. Stowe also momentarily hides the heinousness of slavery by creating this carefree setting in Uncle Toms cabin. Dramatic irony occurs as Uncle Tom has no clue of the tragedy that lies ahead while the reader senses a disruptive change close by(Stowe 25). Around the world one is greeted with the good news of a manchild being born to Omoro and Binta Kinte in a village called Juffure which is located north of the coast of the Gambia, West Africa(Haley 1). His name is Kunta Kinte and with the progress of time, we learn that he is bright, tenacious, bold, confident, and honest. Haley, like Stowe, portrays Kunta in a positive manner in order for the reader to realize that African-Americans had a long line of history before they were kidnapped into slavery. They too had forefathers who accomplished great achievements and benefited the next generation in many different ways. They were not savages or inhumane in their homeland but instead, educated and civilized as well. Kunta shows great respect and admiration for his father and dreams of becoming just like Omoro when he becomes a man. Life in Juffure is very peaceful. The young, naked children play throughout the day by having wrestling matches and eagerly listening to the moral stories told by the village grandmothers, who loved the children as if they were their own. Older children attend school and learn the history of their forefathers as well as verses from the Koran. After classes are over, they tend the goats, which they do with extreme alertness for they are fully responsible for their fathers’ goats. The women in Juffure pass the day by cooking breakfast, working in the rice fields during the day, and finally cooking dinner for their husbands and children. Although they are very busy all the time, they manage to find the time to relax by the town well and gossip amongst themselves. Finally, the men set off for their days work of preparing the land for farming of the primary crops. After dinner they gather around the village bonfire along with Juffures Council of Elders and discuss the many problems that occurred within the village. Unlike Stowe, Haley does not intend to intensify the mood of the reader when tragedy strikes. Instead, he is merely portraying the life of Kunta in an African village of the 1700s. By depicting Juffure, he is able to show that the Africans indeed had their own way of life in Africa. They were not savages that whites thought them to be as but rather civilized human beings with system and order established in their villages as well as a very humane family structure. In fact, Haley shows that these people showed great respect to their elders and to their ancestors with strongly established morals. He also introduces the reader to a different culture in a different time period so that he may compare it with their own ways of life. Furthermore, the reader gains knowledge of Haleys ancestors and their unique culture thus partially understanding the origin of African-Americans in our society today. Unfortunately, back around the world Uncle Toms cabins transient utopia is shattered as we learn of the unfortunate fate of Uncle Tom. Although he is Mr. Shelbys best hand, he is to be sold to a slave trader because of the debt that Mr. Shelby has accumulated. He will be sold “down south” to work on a plantation and sadly end his life from exhaustion and emaciation. As he exchanges his last good-byes and leaves his home and family not knowing if he will ever return, one is amazed at his willingness to obey his master and not let him down no matter what the consequences may be. He is a man of sacrifice who is willing to give up everything important in his life to satisfy his master and save him from debt. His honesty and submissive attitude touches ones heart and also adds to the effect to the melancholic mood at the same time. Yet, this scene seems unrealistic. One is amazed at Uncle Tom’s willingness not to disappoint his master and sacrifice his own life and everything he has. Once again his attitude toward this predicament seems too good to be true and absolutely heartbreaking to the reader. One begins to question how Uncle Tom can be so pious and honest in such a world he lives in. It is over-dramatized by Stowe in order to lead the southern plantation owners to feel the grief of their slaves. One begins to wonder if there is any justice in the world. What has Uncle Tom done to deserve this anguish? He has done absolutely nothing but helplessly becomes a victim of the inhumane institution of slavery. Tragedy also strikes in Juffure. In the midst of Kuntas peaceful life, he is captured by white slave traders at the age of sixteen and thus his life is forever destroyed just as he is entering the first stage of manhood. During his journey to America, he suffers from diseases, filth, brutality, heat exhaustion, and hunger. “Kunta wondered if he had gone mad. Naked, chained, shackled, he awoke on his back between two other men in a pitch darkness full of steamy heat and sickening stink and nightmarish bedlam of shrieking, praying, and vomiting”(Haley 150). Furthermore, the men were chained to each other in very confined spaces, allowing no movement at all. They had no choice but to relieve their bowels where they lay and remain shackled surrounded by their own filth. This unsanitary environment enabled diseases, lice, and fleas to spread like wildfire within the hold. The stinging bites, then the itching of the body lice, steadily grew worse. In the filth, the lice as well as the fleas had multiplied by the thousands until they swarmed all over the hold. They were worst wherever the body crevices held any hair. Kuntas armpits and around his foto, felt as if they were on fire, and his free hand scratched steadily wherever his shackled hand couldnt reach. (Haley 159) Finally, the constant rubbing of their backs against the rough wooden boards gradually wear the skin and muscles of Kunta and the other unfortunate souls so that the bone is visible. Kuntas screams were joined by others as each movement up and down, or from side to side, sent the chained mens naked shoulder, elbows, and buttocksalready festered and bleedinggrinding down even harder against the rough boards beneath them, grating away still more of the soft, infected skin until the muscles underneath began rubbing against the boards. (Haley 179) In the hold where these men lie, there is constant moaning and screaming from the physical anguish as well as mental anguish. Haley portrays the inhumane journey from Africa to America so that the reader may realize that African-Americans suffered great difficulties during their reluctant voyage. They were not brought here in a peaceful manner but rather experienced great physical as well as emotional pain. He also reminds the reader that their lives were disrupted by slavery. They lost their homes and family, they lost their ways of life, and most importantly they forgot who they were and where they came from due to the change in culture in America. Haley creates this very clear picture of the physical and emotional destruction for readers who have never imagined it. Even after the long, tortuous journey across the ocean, Kunta continues to face many difficulties. He has no way of communication with other blacks, his African future and ways are shunned, and most importantly, he feels as if these blacks are of another race. He is unable to understand their ways and their culture, just as they are not able to understand his ways and his culture. He feels that they are pagans and are a disgrace to the black race. Unlike him, they eat the meat of swine and smoke tobacco which is absolutely forbidden in his African village. Although Haley also depicts the wickedness of slavery and the destruction it causes on the individual, he does so in a much more realistic fashion than Stowe. The tortuous journey is accurate and can be backed up with evidence. Furthermore, while reading through these passages that describes the voyage, the reader can feel the physical, as well as mental anguish of these men and can also hear the screams and moans in their minds. The reader sympathizes with these unfortunate souls in this horrid scene and begins to understand what they have been through. They begin to realize that these people are humans as well and can feel just as any other person of any skin color. Stowe also focuses on the slave’s hunger for freedom. By creating a story of a family’s struggle for freedom with much difficulties and dangers, she is able to depict the determinations of those who escaped from slavery. Throughout the entire novel, Uncle Tom never struggles for his freedom. However, we are introduced to Eliza, Harry, and George; a family whose only wish is to become free together. When Eliza eavesdrops on her master and learns that her little boy Harry is to be sold along with Uncle Tom, she decides to run away to Canada. She is aware of the consequences of being caught and the dangers that lie ahead, but she is willing to risk everything in order to remain with her only son. With the help of Quakers and abolitionists, she is able to reunite with her husband and successfully escape to Canada where they become free human beings for the first time in their lives. Once again, the reader is mystified as he or she pictures Eliza jumping across the icy river with Harry in her arms. It seems extremely unrealistic and makes one wonder if there had been a divine intervention or supernatural force involved. By creating such a fictional scene, Stowe is able to aid the reader realize how desperate Eliza is to obtain freedom; an inborn right given to all human beings. Haley also focuses on the slave’s determination for freedom by portraying several of Kunta’s escapes. Although Kunta is never successful, he never gives up his hope of returning to his village and reuniting with his family. He always looks around his surroundings with keenness in order to learn the landscapes and the different ways of the people in this new country so that he will have a better chance of escaping and regaining his freedom. Although his moments of freedom are transitory, he is unable to contain the joy of being free once again. Springing up, fearing above all another barking dog, Kunta slipped away like a shadow from the fallen driver and the overturned flame. He ran bent low, legs crashing through frosted stalks of cotton. His muscles, so long unused, screamed with pain, but the cold, rushing air felt good upon his skin, and he had to stop himself from whooping out loud with the pleasure of feeling so wildly free. (Haley 207) One may take freedom for granted but as one sees Kunta’s joy of being free so intense, one begins to understand that for the slaves, it was their only wish. Unlike us, they had to earn their freedom by buying themselves free or escaping from the chains of slavery despite the many dangers and unthinkable consequences. Unfortunately, Kuntas dream of regaining freedom and seeing his family is shattered when he is caught by slave trackers who cut off the front portion of his right foot. The flame of freedom, which he has so desperately kept alive, burns out as he reluctantly realizes that he will never again be a free man while he remains in a place called America. One pushed the trunk under Kuntas right foot as the other tied the foot to the trunk so tightly that all of Kuntas raging couldnt free it. The bleeding [slave tracker] picked up the ax. Kunta was screaming and thrashing as the ax flashed up, then down so fastsevering skin, tendons, muscles, bonethat Kunta heard the ax thud into the trunk as the shock of it sent the agony deep into his brain. As the explosion of pain bolted through him, Kuntas upper body spasmed forward and his hands went flailing downward as if to save the front half of his foot, which was falling forward, as bright red blood jetted from the stump as he plunged into blackness. (Haley 244) During this turning point, the reader is deeply saddened and begins to feel the disappointment of Kunta. His only wish of being a free individual is destroyed and he is to remain a slave for the rest of his life in a distant land. Although Kuntas effort to regain freedom may be fictional, it is much more realistic than that of Eliza. He is not able to escape miraculously like Eliza, but instead is caught repeatedly. His numerous efforts show his determination and tenacity, which he has obtained from his experiences back in Africa. However, similarly to Stowe, Haley is able to help the reader sympathize with Kunta’s unfortunate fate. In his commentary Edmund Wilson states the following. We may even be surprised to discover that the novel is by no means an indictment drawn up by New England against the South. Mrs. Stowe has, on the contrary, been careful to contrive her story in such a way that the Southern states and New England shall be shown as involved to an equal degree in kidnapping into slaver of the Negroes and the subsequent maltreatment of them, and that the emphasis shall all be laid on the impracticability of slavery as a permanent institution. The author, if anything, leans over backwards in trying to make it plain that the New Englanders are as much to blame as the South and to exhibit the Southerners in a favorable light. ” (Wilson 564) Wilson implies that Stowe did not write against the South but instead wrote against both the North and the South. She wrote against the South by portraying the predicaments of African-Americans and by introducing the readers to a notorious slave owner named Simon Legree. She also wrote against the North by introducing us readers to Miss Ophelia. Although her attitude toward blacks gradually changes, at first she displays prejudice toward the slaves. She is surprised by the fact that Little Eva hugs and kisses Mammythe slave housekeeperand also thinks that blacks are too stupid to be educated. Kenneth S. Lynn wrote in his commentary of Uncle Toms Cabin that “[Stowe] centered her novel on the helpless instability of the Negros home life”(Lynn 563). One must clearly understand Stowes intention of trying to help both the North and South realize the pain caused by slavery. By depicting the dramatic scene when Uncle Tom reluctantly shares his last good-byes with his family, she provides a chance for the reader to imagine himself or herself in Uncle Toms or Aunt Chloes shoes. Thus the reader might feel the anguish of losing a loved one for someone elses debt and understand how it feels to be property rather than an individual. Lynn also states that “for the most part, the dramatic personae of Uncle Toms Cabinblack and white, Northern and Southernare shockingly believable, no matter how factitious and dramatic situations may be in which they are placed”(Lynn 563). Although all of Stowes characters are fictional, they symbolize the people of America during the era of slavery. For example, in the South there were Simon Legreesmasters who treated their slaves with brutality and hatred; who treated their dogs better than they did their slaves; and who took advantage of their female slaves by using them for their own pleasure. Nevertheless, Evas also existed in the South. These were people who did not judge the African-Americans for their skin color but rather for their personalities; people who treated their slaves as human beings and loved them with all their hearts; and people who emancipated their slaves from the morbid grasp of slavery. Finally, in the north there existed Miss Opheliasnortherners who despised the South for their practice of slavery but yet held prejudice toward blacks. Finally, Leslie A. Fiedler writes the following in her commentary of Uncle Toms Cabin. How oddly they undercut the scenes of separated families, of baffled mother-love, at which Mrs. Stowe worked so hardfeeling perhaps that to her bourgeois readers slavery would stand condemned only if it were proved an offense against the sacred family and the suffering mother. (Fiedler 565) Like Lynn, Fiedler recognizes Stowes attempt to help the readers feel the agony of the slaves by creating sorrow within a familysomething that is common to everyone. When Eliza learns that her only child is to be sold, one transcends beyond racism and begins to feel Elizas pain as a mother. One then realizes that these poor souls are indeed humans as well and their pains are as heartbreaking as any other persons pain. They are not ignorant savages who can only survive under the white man’s command. Instead, they are individuals who deserve the right of freedom like anyone else. In his commentary of Roots, James Baldwin states the following: The world of [“Roots”] begins in Gambia West Africa in 1750 with the birth of one of [Haley’s] ancestors, Kunta Kinte In the re-creation of this time and place, Haley succeeds beautifully where many have failed. He must have studied and sweated hard to achieve such ease and grace, for he would appear to have been born in his ancestral village and to be personally acquainted with everybody there. Baldwin 259) Baldwin clearly understands Haley’s intention of finding his true origin in Africa. However, in order to do so, Haley had to carry out numerous years of research both in America and Africa. Haley’s extensive research paid off. Just as Baldwin stated, Haley does an excellent job of portraying life in Juffure. It seems as if he was there watching the life of Kunta as he grew up in his native village. Furthermore, it seems as if he actually lived the life of Kunta Kinte and merely wrote his own autobiography. One is truly amazed at how Haley combined his research with his imagination and created such a realistic world that existed more that two hundred years ago. Like James Baldwin, Arnold Rampersad also realizes Haley’s intention for writing Roots. In his commentary he states that “Haley’s search for his ancestors is not conducted to discover unvarnished truth but rather, from one perspective, to justify the history of blacks in America”(Rampersad 247). African-Americans were torn away from their homeland and families by slave traders and Haley wants everyone to understand this. He wants people to realize how African-Americans got here and also the hardships they have been through. Furthermore, he states that African-Americans were people with a history rather than uncivilized savages who roamed the jungles like wild animals. They too had order in their societies and were civilized in their own different way. By writing Roots, Haley was also able to give and idea to those who are unfortunate of not knowing their origin by helping them understand where they came from and how their ancestors’ lifestyles were back in Africa. Just as Rampersad stated, he was not searching for an “unvarnished truth” but instead, he was “justifying the history of blacks in America. ” On the other hand, however, Russell Warren Howe thinks otherwise. In his commentary he states the following: Yet for all Haley’s undeniable achievement and painstaking research, implying a claim to authenticity, the key historical portions are marred by serious factual errors The Juffure of the 1750s is portrayed almost as it appears today. For instance, the village’s main crop is rice, which was not introduced until this century and only became Gambia’s staple diet after World War II. Kinte is weaned at 13 monthsconceivable now, when every Mauritanian storekeeper in Gambia sells powdered mild and formula, but unthinkable in traditional West Africa before the age of three or later. Adults in the village know their agesan unlikely situation even today There are other minor incongruities. (Howe 248) One can see clearly that Howe does not understand Haley’s intentions for writing Roots. Howe seems to think Haley was writing a history book and thus picks at the minor historical errors in Haley’s book. Although Roots might have a few minor flaws in the historical point of view, one must understand that Haley was not writing a history book; he was writing a saga of his own family in order to discover his true origin and let the history of his people be known to the world. Instead of focusing on the minor historical errors, one should focus on the predicaments of families and individuals as well as the maltreatment that some blacks received from their white masters. Each book aims at the reader’s conscience. Stowe is blatant, Haley more subtle. However, these two authors were inspired by different reasons for writing their books. Stowe intended to criticize the North for permitting slavery to proceed and the South for practicing slavery. Thus she wrote in a general manner and over-dramatized her novel in order for the reader to sympathize with the African-American race. On the other hand, Haley intended to find his origin and thus help other African-Americans realize their origins as well even though it might not be traceable. Thus his purpose was mainly personal and his book fairly realistic. However, both authors lead the reader to understand that these people are just as human as whites or any other race. They are not stupid or ignorant and the fact that they have a different skin color does not make them savages. Most importantly, both Stowe and Haley states the importance of freedom and helps the reader realize how he or she takes it for granted while the slaves merely dreamed about it during the era of slavery.	5,007	ENGLISH	1
The outbreak of the French revolution coincided with the beginning of George Washington's first administration, but by 1793, warfare had engulfed Europe, pitting England, Prussia, Austria, and Spain against the new French Republic. In the cabinet Thomas Jefferson opposed any expression of neutrality while Alexander Hamilton supported it. Washington eventually sided with the latter and issued a proclamation of neutrality that barred American ships from supplying war matériel to either side. The proclamation stated that the United States would not offer protection to Americans who violated neutrality laws, and that the United States would actively prosecute anyone within its jurisdiction who violated international law with respect to neutrality. The issue was very sensitive. The United States had won the War of Independence largely through the military and financial support of France, but that was before the French Revolution. Hamilton and his fellow "aristocratic" supporters were not in symnpathy with the revolution. Their argument, which ultimately persuaded Washington, was that France had helped in a war in which they had an interest in the outcome. France's new war was entirely of a European nature and the United States had no interest. Hamilton said as much in newspaper articles written under the name "Pacificus". In the third Pacificus letter, he suggested that France was not due American support since she had to a degree brought the situation on herself. Jefferson and his adherents, to the contrary, were inspired by the revolution and felt that neutrality was a betrayal. Jefferson wrote to Hamilton that: I consider the people who constitute a society or nation as the source of all authority in that nation, as free to transact their common concerns by any agents they think proper, to change these agents individually, or the organisation of them in form or function whenever they please: that all the acts done by those agents under the authority of the nation, are the acts of the nation, are obligatory on them, & enure to their use, & can in no wise be annulled or affected by any change in the form of the government, or of the persons administering it. It was a good argument, based on the same principle that the U.S. Constitution was instituted by "the people." However, there was nothing to gain and much to lose for the United States to involve itself in a European conflict, and whether from Hamilton's logic or the clear national interest, Washington opted for neutrality.	<urn:uuid:37711ced-54dc-4218-b636-c74d31f8a335>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://u-s-history.com/pages/h453.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00282.warc.gz	en	0.984683	478	3.609375	4	[ -0.4944225549697876, 0.1961059868335724, 0.020062323659658432, -0.48807239532470703, -0.3989256024360657, 0.24191665649414062, -0.0009733782499097288, 0.8423001766204834, 0.25125208497047424, 0.3765559196472168, 0.18251806497573853, 0.1226891428232193, -0.2908549904823303, 0.26965159177780...	1	The outbreak of the French revolution coincided with the beginning of George Washington's first administration, but by 1793, warfare had engulfed Europe, pitting England, Prussia, Austria, and Spain against the new French Republic. In the cabinet Thomas Jefferson opposed any expression of neutrality while Alexander Hamilton supported it. Washington eventually sided with the latter and issued a proclamation of neutrality that barred American ships from supplying war matériel to either side. The proclamation stated that the United States would not offer protection to Americans who violated neutrality laws, and that the United States would actively prosecute anyone within its jurisdiction who violated international law with respect to neutrality. The issue was very sensitive. The United States had won the War of Independence largely through the military and financial support of France, but that was before the French Revolution. Hamilton and his fellow "aristocratic" supporters were not in symnpathy with the revolution. Their argument, which ultimately persuaded Washington, was that France had helped in a war in which they had an interest in the outcome. France's new war was entirely of a European nature and the United States had no interest. Hamilton said as much in newspaper articles written under the name "Pacificus". In the third Pacificus letter, he suggested that France was not due American support since she had to a degree brought the situation on herself. Jefferson and his adherents, to the contrary, were inspired by the revolution and felt that neutrality was a betrayal. Jefferson wrote to Hamilton that: I consider the people who constitute a society or nation as the source of all authority in that nation, as free to transact their common concerns by any agents they think proper, to change these agents individually, or the organisation of them in form or function whenever they please: that all the acts done by those agents under the authority of the nation, are the acts of the nation, are obligatory on them, & enure to their use, & can in no wise be annulled or affected by any change in the form of the government, or of the persons administering it. It was a good argument, based on the same principle that the U.S. Constitution was instituted by "the people." However, there was nothing to gain and much to lose for the United States to involve itself in a European conflict, and whether from Hamilton's logic or the clear national interest, Washington opted for neutrality.	478	ENGLISH	1
Who were the Amorites? Question: "Who were the Amorites?" Answer: The Amorites were an ancient nation mentioned frequently in the Old Testament. They were descended from one of the sons of Canaan (Genesis 10:15–16). In early inscriptions, the Amorites were also known as Amurra or Amurri. The “land of the Amorites” included Syria and Israel. Some of the southern mountains of Judea were also called the hill country of the Amorites (Deuteronomy 1:7, 19-20). Two kings of the Amorites named Sihon and Og were defeated by the Israelites under Moses’ leadership (Deuteronomy 31:4). In Joshua 10:10, five Amorite kings were defeated by the people of Israel, and the victory was decisively won in Joshua 11:8. In the time of Samuel, peace existed between Israel and the Amorites (1 Samuel 7:14). Less than a century later, King Solomon forced the remaining Amorites into slavery: “All the people who were left of the Amorites . . . who were not of the people of Israel—their descendants who were left after them in the land, whom the people of Israel were unable to devote to destruction—these Solomon drafted to be slaves” (1 Kings 9:20-21). The Amorites are last mentioned in Amos 2:10. It is assumed they either died out or were absorbed into the culture of Israel. The Amorites were known as fierce warriors during their prime. Moses referred to Og, the king of the Amorites, as a very tall man whose bed was approximately 13.5 feet long (Deuteronomy 3:11). Despite their strong numbers and military might, the Amorites were destroyed due to their worship of false gods. Israel’s conquest of their land was part of God’s judgment on the pagan Amorite culture. Here are a couple lessons to learn from the Amorites: First, only the one, true God is worthy of worship. The idols of the Amorites and the false gods they represent cannot compete with the omnipotent God of Israel. Also, God gives nations opportunity to repent before judgment (2 Peter 3:9; Revelation 2:20-21). The Amorite nation had plenty of time to turn from their idolatry, but they despised God’s goodness and longsuffering and refused to repent (Romans 2:4). The Lord’s judgment upon them was severe, and anyone who imitates their rebellion will eternally regret it (Romans 2:5; Matthew 10:28; Revelation 2:22-23). Recommended Resource: The Popular Handbook of Archaeology and the Bible by Geisler & Holden More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free! Who was Sihon, king of the Amorites? What does it mean that “the sin of the Amorites has not yet reached its full measure” (Genesis 15:16)? Who were the Ammonites? Who were the Canaanites? Who were the Moabites? Miscellaneous Bible Questions Who were the Amorites?	<urn:uuid:1226fbe1-6b3a-4295-b7d0-d00d7ca00d2f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gotquestions.org/Amorites.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00240.warc.gz	en	0.98363	692	3.328125	3	[ -0.07435936480760574, 0.6177341341972351, 0.07771982997655869, -0.1831156611442566, -0.15673625469207764, -0.3763889670372009, 0.29736414551734924, 0.1759122610092163, -0.3205376863479614, 0.18279969692230225, -0.0812123566865921, -0.698275089263916, 0.09680522978305817, 0.4190210103988647...	1	Who were the Amorites? Question: "Who were the Amorites?" Answer: The Amorites were an ancient nation mentioned frequently in the Old Testament. They were descended from one of the sons of Canaan (Genesis 10:15–16). In early inscriptions, the Amorites were also known as Amurra or Amurri. The “land of the Amorites” included Syria and Israel. Some of the southern mountains of Judea were also called the hill country of the Amorites (Deuteronomy 1:7, 19-20). Two kings of the Amorites named Sihon and Og were defeated by the Israelites under Moses’ leadership (Deuteronomy 31:4). In Joshua 10:10, five Amorite kings were defeated by the people of Israel, and the victory was decisively won in Joshua 11:8. In the time of Samuel, peace existed between Israel and the Amorites (1 Samuel 7:14). Less than a century later, King Solomon forced the remaining Amorites into slavery: “All the people who were left of the Amorites . . . who were not of the people of Israel—their descendants who were left after them in the land, whom the people of Israel were unable to devote to destruction—these Solomon drafted to be slaves” (1 Kings 9:20-21). The Amorites are last mentioned in Amos 2:10. It is assumed they either died out or were absorbed into the culture of Israel. The Amorites were known as fierce warriors during their prime. Moses referred to Og, the king of the Amorites, as a very tall man whose bed was approximately 13.5 feet long (Deuteronomy 3:11). Despite their strong numbers and military might, the Amorites were destroyed due to their worship of false gods. Israel’s conquest of their land was part of God’s judgment on the pagan Amorite culture. Here are a couple lessons to learn from the Amorites: First, only the one, true God is worthy of worship. The idols of the Amorites and the false gods they represent cannot compete with the omnipotent God of Israel. Also, God gives nations opportunity to repent before judgment (2 Peter 3:9; Revelation 2:20-21). The Amorite nation had plenty of time to turn from their idolatry, but they despised God’s goodness and longsuffering and refused to repent (Romans 2:4). The Lord’s judgment upon them was severe, and anyone who imitates their rebellion will eternally regret it (Romans 2:5; Matthew 10:28; Revelation 2:22-23). Recommended Resource: The Popular Handbook of Archaeology and the Bible by Geisler & Holden More insights from your Bible study - Get Started with Logos Bible Software for Free! Who was Sihon, king of the Amorites? What does it mean that “the sin of the Amorites has not yet reached its full measure” (Genesis 15:16)? Who were the Ammonites? Who were the Canaanites? Who were the Moabites? Miscellaneous Bible Questions Who were the Amorites?	708	ENGLISH	1
A refugee can be any person who has left their home because they are afraid for their safety if they stay. Once refugees leave home, they have to find asylum in another country until they can resettle into a new home. When refugees flee, their lives twist and turn inside out because of all the changes they go through and everything they leave behind or lose. This is very challenging for many people to go through; as soon as refugees resettle, their lives start to turn back again when they move past the changes and their host community works with them as peers and equals. In the novel Inside Out & Back Again by Thanhha Lai, Ha and her family are living in the middle of the Vietnam war. Ha is ten years old and likes to push boundaries while being three steps behind her mother at all times. Ha doesn't know what to think about her situation; she is hopeful that the war will end or, at least, move away from her home, but she is not naive and understands the dangers that come with living in a country divided by war. When it becomes too much to handle Mother decides that their family must flee to America and find asylum there. Ha, and her brothers have to deal with the sadness and emptiness that many refugees face. Ha goes through the process that most other people who flee their homes go through: she had to deal with her life changing until it was inside out when leaving, then she got to experience it shifting back again while finding a new home. . Refugees' lives turn inside out when having to deal with the loss of family and trying to adapt to a new culture; these challenges lead to the longing of being back in their home country. Refugees come from a country at war; this means that many families have had to deal with the loss of loved ones. In the text "Refugee children in Canada," it was said that "Some have lost many family members, and many have lost everything that was familiar to them" (Fantino and Cook 10).	<urn:uuid:b78cb05c-cd58-4e6f-8da9-5a11018f750e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/218334.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00307.warc.gz	en	0.990803	409	3.8125	4	[ -0.18068206310272217, 0.13690216839313507, 0.14905035495758057, -0.08916252851486206, 0.24877509474754333, 0.08949011564254761, -0.08576319366693497, -0.10345598310232162, -0.06068336218595505, -0.19373171031475067, 0.5084787607192993, 0.13612359762191772, -0.10477018356323242, -0.09982558...	4	A refugee can be any person who has left their home because they are afraid for their safety if they stay. Once refugees leave home, they have to find asylum in another country until they can resettle into a new home. When refugees flee, their lives twist and turn inside out because of all the changes they go through and everything they leave behind or lose. This is very challenging for many people to go through; as soon as refugees resettle, their lives start to turn back again when they move past the changes and their host community works with them as peers and equals. In the novel Inside Out & Back Again by Thanhha Lai, Ha and her family are living in the middle of the Vietnam war. Ha is ten years old and likes to push boundaries while being three steps behind her mother at all times. Ha doesn't know what to think about her situation; she is hopeful that the war will end or, at least, move away from her home, but she is not naive and understands the dangers that come with living in a country divided by war. When it becomes too much to handle Mother decides that their family must flee to America and find asylum there. Ha, and her brothers have to deal with the sadness and emptiness that many refugees face. Ha goes through the process that most other people who flee their homes go through: she had to deal with her life changing until it was inside out when leaving, then she got to experience it shifting back again while finding a new home. . Refugees' lives turn inside out when having to deal with the loss of family and trying to adapt to a new culture; these challenges lead to the longing of being back in their home country. Refugees come from a country at war; this means that many families have had to deal with the loss of loved ones. In the text "Refugee children in Canada," it was said that "Some have lost many family members, and many have lost everything that was familiar to them" (Fantino and Cook 10).	411	ENGLISH	1
Basketball unquestionably is an acclaimed game in the United States. Nearly everybody plays basketball or has in any event attempted to play basketball in any event once in their life. Basketball ended up being created by a Canadian health specialist named Dr James Naismith. He was told to build up another game to engage individuals at the YMCA. His mom and father were initially Scottish outsiders who travel to North America around 1851. At the point when James was more youthful he was constantly athletic and an extraordinary acrobat. He played football for McGill University where he contemplated physical training getting a Bachelor certificate. It was in the United States in December of 1891, where he was told to think of another game for individuals to play inside. He needed to make sense of how huge the room was to be and what number of individuals where to play this new game. He took part in a game called the duck on a stone as a youngster and resolved to apply a portion of similar thoughts into this new game. The kind of basketball that James Naismith made was not a similar sort of basketball that we play today for when he developed the game the groups comprised of nine players in each group, despite everything it incorporated very similar things basketball like a bin ball and two crates, yet the N.B.A. in 1949 dropped the nine man group to a five man groups. In January of 1892, James Naismith made the principles of basketball. These principles wound up being very like the standards in the present basketball… The greatest contrast between the two was the absence of spilling. During the time that James Naismith players would simply toss the ball to each other. Despite the fact that Naismith is credited with designing the sport of NBA중계 and the standards of basketball, Dr. Naismith is not acknowledged anyway for the idea of spilling which is a central point in basketball today. The game crate ball was a medium-term achievement and thus James Naismith has gone down as the man who designed basketball. The National Basketball Association was made in 1949 when the Basketball Association of America and the National Basketball League were consolidated.	<urn:uuid:19b7c2b4-bb12-4664-b9a9-3607d0f498f6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.loursetlemagicien.com/category/sports	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00140.warc.gz	en	0.984671	434	3.40625	3	[ -0.2194884717464447, -0.23990623652935028, 0.21229679882526398, -0.2095390260219574, -0.09916038811206818, 0.3297448754310608, 0.6773770451545715, -0.004799260757863522, -0.10791600495576859, 0.2624482810497284, -0.07042273879051208, -0.5500851273536682, 0.3565906882286072, -0.011073752306...	1	Basketball unquestionably is an acclaimed game in the United States. Nearly everybody plays basketball or has in any event attempted to play basketball in any event once in their life. Basketball ended up being created by a Canadian health specialist named Dr James Naismith. He was told to build up another game to engage individuals at the YMCA. His mom and father were initially Scottish outsiders who travel to North America around 1851. At the point when James was more youthful he was constantly athletic and an extraordinary acrobat. He played football for McGill University where he contemplated physical training getting a Bachelor certificate. It was in the United States in December of 1891, where he was told to think of another game for individuals to play inside. He needed to make sense of how huge the room was to be and what number of individuals where to play this new game. He took part in a game called the duck on a stone as a youngster and resolved to apply a portion of similar thoughts into this new game. The kind of basketball that James Naismith made was not a similar sort of basketball that we play today for when he developed the game the groups comprised of nine players in each group, despite everything it incorporated very similar things basketball like a bin ball and two crates, yet the N.B.A. in 1949 dropped the nine man group to a five man groups. In January of 1892, James Naismith made the principles of basketball. These principles wound up being very like the standards in the present basketball… The greatest contrast between the two was the absence of spilling. During the time that James Naismith players would simply toss the ball to each other. Despite the fact that Naismith is credited with designing the sport of NBA중계 and the standards of basketball, Dr. Naismith is not acknowledged anyway for the idea of spilling which is a central point in basketball today. The game crate ball was a medium-term achievement and thus James Naismith has gone down as the man who designed basketball. The National Basketball Association was made in 1949 when the Basketball Association of America and the National Basketball League were consolidated.	443	ENGLISH	1
Although few people had travelled or explored before 1400, we have learnt that some people like Marco Polo did go out and explore before this date. On the first page of this booklet, we were told how Marco Polo’s stories and tales of his journeys were extremely popular in Italy and around the rest of the world. Before great discoverers sailed on their journeys exploring new parts of the world, they listened to everything that other travellers could tell them. Often these tales were frightening. Often these tales were untrue. But at the time, the traveller who witnessed the event did not really know what he was witnessing. Facts PDF Worksheet: - Aimed at Students studying at UK Year 8/9 or equivalent - Free to download - Use as you wish in the classroom or home environment - Structured study guide and challenging tasks.	<urn:uuid:9f073458-585f-4f33-b79d-0bb021ec85ea>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://schoolhistory.co.uk/early-modern/european-explorers/travellers-tales-worksheet/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00130.warc.gz	en	0.982307	173	3.90625	4	[ 0.2754092514514923, -0.026822449639439583, 0.3349253535270691, -0.24574507772922516, -0.1206778809428215, 0.049509625881910324, 0.44225579500198364, -0.1483999341726303, 0.18461531400680542, -0.18577617406845093, 0.1456660032272339, -0.13991639018058777, 0.17959989607334137, 0.446270197629...	1	Although few people had travelled or explored before 1400, we have learnt that some people like Marco Polo did go out and explore before this date. On the first page of this booklet, we were told how Marco Polo’s stories and tales of his journeys were extremely popular in Italy and around the rest of the world. Before great discoverers sailed on their journeys exploring new parts of the world, they listened to everything that other travellers could tell them. Often these tales were frightening. Often these tales were untrue. But at the time, the traveller who witnessed the event did not really know what he was witnessing. Facts PDF Worksheet: - Aimed at Students studying at UK Year 8/9 or equivalent - Free to download - Use as you wish in the classroom or home environment - Structured study guide and challenging tasks.	171	ENGLISH	1
General Area of the Chinese Quarters On September 11, 1885, a group of at least 15 white miners at the Coal Creek Mine near Newcastle, Washington, attacked a group of about 50 Chinese miners. They fired guns into the air and forced their way into the company building where the Chinese lived. They ordered the Chinese outside at gunpoint, then set fire to the building. It was completely destroyed by the blaze. The miners lost all of their clothing and personal belongings, but no one was known to be seriously injured. Most of the Chinese miners fled into the woods nearby and did not return. Almost all of them had worked at the mine without incident for three years prior to this. About this site: All of the reports of the location of the Chinese quarters are very vague. Witnesses stated they saw the Chinese quarters burning when they came out of the mine, so it was within visual distance of the mine entrance. Some of the mine headquarters buildings were located nearby and are still standing today, but given the general racism that was prevalent at the time it is not likely that the Chinese were housed near those buildings. The location shown here is where several older outbuildings were known to have stood, and this general area is the most probable site of the Chinese quarters.	<urn:uuid:72087ba5-2f2e-40a8-9858-32bae295f006>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.noplaceproject.com/newcastle	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00134.warc.gz	en	0.990686	257	3.28125	3	[ -0.029167303815484047, 0.010812933556735516, 0.14596745371818542, 0.10088758170604706, 0.359083890914917, 0.3466741144657135, 0.057094283401966095, -0.14121267199516296, -0.2507653832435608, -0.06705613434314728, 0.3599274158477783, -0.5133230686187744, -0.18177182972431183, 0.546936273574...	12	General Area of the Chinese Quarters On September 11, 1885, a group of at least 15 white miners at the Coal Creek Mine near Newcastle, Washington, attacked a group of about 50 Chinese miners. They fired guns into the air and forced their way into the company building where the Chinese lived. They ordered the Chinese outside at gunpoint, then set fire to the building. It was completely destroyed by the blaze. The miners lost all of their clothing and personal belongings, but no one was known to be seriously injured. Most of the Chinese miners fled into the woods nearby and did not return. Almost all of them had worked at the mine without incident for three years prior to this. About this site: All of the reports of the location of the Chinese quarters are very vague. Witnesses stated they saw the Chinese quarters burning when they came out of the mine, so it was within visual distance of the mine entrance. Some of the mine headquarters buildings were located nearby and are still standing today, but given the general racism that was prevalent at the time it is not likely that the Chinese were housed near those buildings. The location shown here is where several older outbuildings were known to have stood, and this general area is the most probable site of the Chinese quarters.	264	ENGLISH	1
Holocaust Memorial Day 2017 The aftermath of the Holocaust and of subsequent genocides continues to raise challenging questions for everyone. January 27th was Holocaust Memorial Day and in a poignant and moving assembly, Year 9 students had the privilege of listening to Holocaust survivor Mala Tribich through a live webcast. They were asked to think about what happens after genocide and of their own responsibilities in the wake of such a crime. The event was organized with the Holocaust Educational Trust which works in schools, universities and in the community to raise awareness and understanding of the Holocaust. It was through the Trust’s work that the Holocaust became part of the National Curriculum for History. Ellie Lamport, a Year 9 student, gives her own response to Mala’s presentation On Friday 27th January, I listened to an amazing woman give her experience of the Holocaust. Mala Tribich is one of the most inspiring people I have ever seen because she had the bravery, the courage, and the strength to relive the memories and tell her story. Mala explained how her town was the first to have a ghetto, with more than 3 families to a room. When rumours of liquidation started, she was shipped off to a German family who looked after her and her cousin - but only for the money. Both returned to their families later. However, her cousin ended up in a concentration camp, alone in the gas chamber, with nobody to hold her hand. One day Mala’s mother and younger sister were taken to a synagogue and then marched into the woods by the Germans and killed. There was a mass grave there. 12-year-old Mala had to look after her 5-year-old cousin and work long, hard shifts. One day however they were both taken to a camp, held in the cold overnight and had all their possessions stolen, the only things they had left in the world. When they were transported to Bergen-Belson they found sanctuary in a children’s home, from where they were later liberated and taken to Sweden. Mala came to England to be reunited with her brother. Mala’s story highlighted the harsh reality of the Holocaust and how it happened to real people, with real lives and real stories. It brought out how truly horrific it was. The theme for Holocaust Memorial Day this year was ‘How can life go on?’ and I think Mala is an extremely good example of this. She stood tall through the pain; she hasn’t let it stop her from living the best life she can, and educating the world about the Holocaust from her point of view. Hearing about Mala has helped me think about how life can go on, and how to be as strong as you can for the benefit of others. She has made me realise how horrible that time must have been, the struggle to regain a normal life and live on past it. 12 of our Year 9 students are taking part in the Scholars Programme Launch at Sussex University today with Mrs Lynch https://t.co/9XSjMpxzqa 11:20 AM - 22 Jan 2020	<urn:uuid:a7f86621-4d88-4f43-815e-6ccea8981181>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.eggars.net/news/?pid=3&nid=1&storyid=79	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00555.warc.gz	en	0.983222	648	3.515625	4	[ 0.05835647135972977, 0.7094497084617615, 0.15585607290267944, 0.030539318919181824, 0.001762209227308631, 0.1414361298084259, 0.05572439730167389, 0.14179319143295288, -0.23607105016708374, -0.2840028703212738, 0.27632904052734375, -0.16024106740951538, -0.1545356810092926, 0.1931889057159...	1	Holocaust Memorial Day 2017 The aftermath of the Holocaust and of subsequent genocides continues to raise challenging questions for everyone. January 27th was Holocaust Memorial Day and in a poignant and moving assembly, Year 9 students had the privilege of listening to Holocaust survivor Mala Tribich through a live webcast. They were asked to think about what happens after genocide and of their own responsibilities in the wake of such a crime. The event was organized with the Holocaust Educational Trust which works in schools, universities and in the community to raise awareness and understanding of the Holocaust. It was through the Trust’s work that the Holocaust became part of the National Curriculum for History. Ellie Lamport, a Year 9 student, gives her own response to Mala’s presentation On Friday 27th January, I listened to an amazing woman give her experience of the Holocaust. Mala Tribich is one of the most inspiring people I have ever seen because she had the bravery, the courage, and the strength to relive the memories and tell her story. Mala explained how her town was the first to have a ghetto, with more than 3 families to a room. When rumours of liquidation started, she was shipped off to a German family who looked after her and her cousin - but only for the money. Both returned to their families later. However, her cousin ended up in a concentration camp, alone in the gas chamber, with nobody to hold her hand. One day Mala’s mother and younger sister were taken to a synagogue and then marched into the woods by the Germans and killed. There was a mass grave there. 12-year-old Mala had to look after her 5-year-old cousin and work long, hard shifts. One day however they were both taken to a camp, held in the cold overnight and had all their possessions stolen, the only things they had left in the world. When they were transported to Bergen-Belson they found sanctuary in a children’s home, from where they were later liberated and taken to Sweden. Mala came to England to be reunited with her brother. Mala’s story highlighted the harsh reality of the Holocaust and how it happened to real people, with real lives and real stories. It brought out how truly horrific it was. The theme for Holocaust Memorial Day this year was ‘How can life go on?’ and I think Mala is an extremely good example of this. She stood tall through the pain; she hasn’t let it stop her from living the best life she can, and educating the world about the Holocaust from her point of view. Hearing about Mala has helped me think about how life can go on, and how to be as strong as you can for the benefit of others. She has made me realise how horrible that time must have been, the struggle to regain a normal life and live on past it. 12 of our Year 9 students are taking part in the Scholars Programme Launch at Sussex University today with Mrs Lynch https://t.co/9XSjMpxzqa 11:20 AM - 22 Jan 2020	638	ENGLISH	1
This is the term that is used to describe the music that was played and sung in English churches from the late 17th Century up to about 1860. An example of West Gallery music is the tune that we all know for the song “On Ilkley Moor bar t’at”. This is actually a tune called “Cranbrook” written in the early 19th Century by Thomas Clark a carpenter who lived in Canterbury. The tune was written as a west gallery hymn and carried religious words long before it was used for the comic song we all know. The technique of repeating words and overlapping parts is typical of West Galley music and is known known as fugueing. In the Church of England by about 1600, the only music allowed was psalms. As many of the congregation were unable to read, the parson would call out a line of the psalm at a time and the audience would sing it back. This is a very old way of singing religious songs and is known as lining-out. This technique took on a style of its own with congregations taking it upon themselves to add embellishments to the basic tune. In musical terms the result was probably cacophony, but survivals of this style in the Hebrides and in the Eastern United States have a primitive drive and excitement. In 1644, under the Commonwealth, an Order of Council of the Church of England was published, decreeing that all organs in churches be demolished, thus taking away one musical element from the churches of the time. This situation prevailed until Charles II about 1660 when strict puritan ideas were put aside. There were no musical instruments in the churches, but the church was determined to improve the quality of psalmody and so a movement began to put music back into the churches. This gave scope for composers to pour forth a great deal of religious material for use in services. One of these was John Playford better known as a compiler of books of dances, but who also published books of psalm and hymn tunes. From this point, things started to develop fairly quickly. At first, only psalms were allowed in the churches, but soon hymns not based on the psalms made their appearance. Churches established groups of singers. At first these groups were all male and sang unaccompanied. The style of arrangements was that the tunes were written in 4 parts, with the tenor carrying the tune, underpinned by a bass line and with counter and treble parts above, different from today’s style of scoring for choirs. Choirs then introduced women singers. It was also found that the singers were better able to keep to their part if an instrument played it at the same time. Fiddles in abundance existed in English villages, but it was often up to the church to raise the money for other instruments. The earliest of these church bands had string instruments, but gradually woodwind and brass came into the reckoning. The bass was sometimes provided by instruments such as the Serpent or the Ophicleide. By the middle of the 18th Century, such bands of musicians and singers were in full momentum in most churches up and down the country. In many churches, galleries for the musicians were built at the Western end of the church, giving rise to the term West Gallery. At this stage, no-one joined in: it was music to listen to, just as you would not join in with a church choir singing an anthem, even if you knew it. So a typical English West Gallery Quire of about 1800 would include local singers and musicians, with some women singers. They would be very proud of their art, skill and social status. They would play and sing in church on Sundays but the same musicians would be pressed into service for dances and other social occasions. Whilst they would charge fees for playing for dances and weddings, their playing for the church was done out of pride, with occasional gifts of food or drink. Money was very scarce and so rather than buy books of tunes, they would each keep their own notebooks of tunes, words and parts, many of which have survived today and form the core of today’s West Gallery repertoire, although many more have been lost. Because they occupied a special place in the hierarchy of the village, they enjoyed a certain amount of independence from the church authorities. For example, they were generally allowed to choose their own repertoire to sing on Sundays. This independence, in some cases, grew into what was perceived as a certain amount of arrogance. Whilst the church authorities were keen to promote music in church, they had little control over the music or behaviour of their quires. They not only played in church, but had repertoires for Christmas which they played and sang from house to house in the early hours of Christmas morning and thus many of the West Gallery carols start with the words “Arise, arise”. The musicians themselves were probably self-taught and of variable musical skill, but they took inordinate pride in their art and skill and practised for long hours. Furthermore, performance would be based on the style of folk music with which they were familiar, so that the singing might at times have a strident ring and the playing might have a danceable quality. By the mid-1850s, the church authorities were distinctly concerned about this cuckoo in their midst. Whilst they wanted to encourage worship, they were starting to feel that the West Gallery bands were getting just a little too authoritative and perhaps too secular in their approach to the whole thing. Inspired by the Oxford movement, churches started wanted to seek a return to what they perceived as the status quo ante, namely, music played on the organ, a regular choir in surplices and the whole congregation joining in the music, not just the West Gallery band. These ideas spread as the Industrial Revolution brought more mobility of the workforce and more town-educated clerics moved to country parishes. We can see the result of this in Thomas Hardy’s famous novel Under the Greenwood Tree which details just one such conflict between the new parson and the proud but rejected old West Gallery quire. The result was that many West Gallery choirs just gave up, their old music books were locked away in church archives or in many cases destroyed. The instruments went into decay, or were locked away in church vaults or attics. However, the custom lingered on in many churches until living memory. Apparently the last choir that could have been called a West Gallery choir stopped its activities as late as the 1940s in Dorset. As well as the Oxford movement, there were other forces at work mitigating against the continuance of the quires. Their style of performance and their musicianship was often called into question, as was their repertoire. The Victorian era was distrustful of what were perceived to be ancient customs. When West Gallery music was banished from the churches, the performers refused to let their art die. Many of the groups survived as village choirs, singing now not in church, but in families, around the houses at Christmas and, remarkably, in the public houses of the Pennines. The villages around Sheffield have today an active tradition of singing carols in the pubs at Christmas and have their own versions of the carols. A few modern pieces have crept into the repertoire, but basically the carols that you will hear are the old West Gallery ones, passed down in village and family tradition and sung with fervour and pride each year by the locals. Recent research by Dr Ian Russell has lead to the revival of several village groups that had lapsed and it can be said that the tradition is stronger now than it has been in many years. A similar situation exists in Devon and Cornwall where groups preserve the old village carols. Certainly West Gallery carols have been collected in many West Country villages, and were sung until recently in Shropshire. In Gloucestershire, vestiges of the tradition are found in Ashton-under-Hill (in Gloucestershire until the 1930s) where a set of local carols was kept up until as recently as the 1960s. The nearby village of Elmley Castle in Worcestershire had a similar tradition. It is probable that Chedworth had its own carolling tradition until recently but it is now all but lost. Bisley must have had a recent tradition, and the Stevens family of Bisley until recent times sang their West Gallery-derived version of While Shepherds Watched in the local pubs. West Gallery music also took on its own form in the United States. The music was taken to the States by the settlers and a carol tradition sprang up in New England based on West Gallery, but taking on a style of its own. The fugueing was still there, but the songs were generally sung unaccompanied. Gone too are the Arise group of songs. Several composers of note such as William Billings were noted for their music. America also produced a unique way of reading the music – it derived from the tonic solfa system, but instead of do-ray-me, had different shapes for each note. This was, and still is, known as Shape Note or Sacred Harp singing. The situation today The fact that West Gallery has been rediscovered is mainly due to the efforts of a few pioneers such as Dave Townsend, Mike Bailey and Rollo Woods who have taken the trouble to seek out and teach the old hymns. The teaching of West Gallery music has become a feature of folk festivals and has led to the discovery of even more musical examples as enthusiasts have sought this music in their own area in church archives and in local records offices. The West Gallery Music Association has its own website (http://www.wgma.org.uk/) and has an organisation spread throughout the country. It has several publications to its name. Note by Gwilym Davies November 2011	<urn:uuid:d37e1516-de10-458b-b776-3e28e727eb84>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.gloschristmas.com/songs-carols/west-gallery/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00136.warc.gz	en	0.990236	2,033	3.96875	4	[ 0.45117318630218506, -0.2686540484428406, -0.03553054481744766, -0.08555801212787628, -0.36666619777679443, 0.28960901498794556, -0.31505441665649414, -0.07072027027606964, 0.10742361843585968, -0.1234317421913147, 0.061088927090168, 0.21487703919410706, 0.34278467297554016, -0.28014671802...	8	This is the term that is used to describe the music that was played and sung in English churches from the late 17th Century up to about 1860. An example of West Gallery music is the tune that we all know for the song “On Ilkley Moor bar t’at”. This is actually a tune called “Cranbrook” written in the early 19th Century by Thomas Clark a carpenter who lived in Canterbury. The tune was written as a west gallery hymn and carried religious words long before it was used for the comic song we all know. The technique of repeating words and overlapping parts is typical of West Galley music and is known known as fugueing. In the Church of England by about 1600, the only music allowed was psalms. As many of the congregation were unable to read, the parson would call out a line of the psalm at a time and the audience would sing it back. This is a very old way of singing religious songs and is known as lining-out. This technique took on a style of its own with congregations taking it upon themselves to add embellishments to the basic tune. In musical terms the result was probably cacophony, but survivals of this style in the Hebrides and in the Eastern United States have a primitive drive and excitement. In 1644, under the Commonwealth, an Order of Council of the Church of England was published, decreeing that all organs in churches be demolished, thus taking away one musical element from the churches of the time. This situation prevailed until Charles II about 1660 when strict puritan ideas were put aside. There were no musical instruments in the churches, but the church was determined to improve the quality of psalmody and so a movement began to put music back into the churches. This gave scope for composers to pour forth a great deal of religious material for use in services. One of these was John Playford better known as a compiler of books of dances, but who also published books of psalm and hymn tunes. From this point, things started to develop fairly quickly. At first, only psalms were allowed in the churches, but soon hymns not based on the psalms made their appearance. Churches established groups of singers. At first these groups were all male and sang unaccompanied. The style of arrangements was that the tunes were written in 4 parts, with the tenor carrying the tune, underpinned by a bass line and with counter and treble parts above, different from today’s style of scoring for choirs. Choirs then introduced women singers. It was also found that the singers were better able to keep to their part if an instrument played it at the same time. Fiddles in abundance existed in English villages, but it was often up to the church to raise the money for other instruments. The earliest of these church bands had string instruments, but gradually woodwind and brass came into the reckoning. The bass was sometimes provided by instruments such as the Serpent or the Ophicleide. By the middle of the 18th Century, such bands of musicians and singers were in full momentum in most churches up and down the country. In many churches, galleries for the musicians were built at the Western end of the church, giving rise to the term West Gallery. At this stage, no-one joined in: it was music to listen to, just as you would not join in with a church choir singing an anthem, even if you knew it. So a typical English West Gallery Quire of about 1800 would include local singers and musicians, with some women singers. They would be very proud of their art, skill and social status. They would play and sing in church on Sundays but the same musicians would be pressed into service for dances and other social occasions. Whilst they would charge fees for playing for dances and weddings, their playing for the church was done out of pride, with occasional gifts of food or drink. Money was very scarce and so rather than buy books of tunes, they would each keep their own notebooks of tunes, words and parts, many of which have survived today and form the core of today’s West Gallery repertoire, although many more have been lost. Because they occupied a special place in the hierarchy of the village, they enjoyed a certain amount of independence from the church authorities. For example, they were generally allowed to choose their own repertoire to sing on Sundays. This independence, in some cases, grew into what was perceived as a certain amount of arrogance. Whilst the church authorities were keen to promote music in church, they had little control over the music or behaviour of their quires. They not only played in church, but had repertoires for Christmas which they played and sang from house to house in the early hours of Christmas morning and thus many of the West Gallery carols start with the words “Arise, arise”. The musicians themselves were probably self-taught and of variable musical skill, but they took inordinate pride in their art and skill and practised for long hours. Furthermore, performance would be based on the style of folk music with which they were familiar, so that the singing might at times have a strident ring and the playing might have a danceable quality. By the mid-1850s, the church authorities were distinctly concerned about this cuckoo in their midst. Whilst they wanted to encourage worship, they were starting to feel that the West Gallery bands were getting just a little too authoritative and perhaps too secular in their approach to the whole thing. Inspired by the Oxford movement, churches started wanted to seek a return to what they perceived as the status quo ante, namely, music played on the organ, a regular choir in surplices and the whole congregation joining in the music, not just the West Gallery band. These ideas spread as the Industrial Revolution brought more mobility of the workforce and more town-educated clerics moved to country parishes. We can see the result of this in Thomas Hardy’s famous novel Under the Greenwood Tree which details just one such conflict between the new parson and the proud but rejected old West Gallery quire. The result was that many West Gallery choirs just gave up, their old music books were locked away in church archives or in many cases destroyed. The instruments went into decay, or were locked away in church vaults or attics. However, the custom lingered on in many churches until living memory. Apparently the last choir that could have been called a West Gallery choir stopped its activities as late as the 1940s in Dorset. As well as the Oxford movement, there were other forces at work mitigating against the continuance of the quires. Their style of performance and their musicianship was often called into question, as was their repertoire. The Victorian era was distrustful of what were perceived to be ancient customs. When West Gallery music was banished from the churches, the performers refused to let their art die. Many of the groups survived as village choirs, singing now not in church, but in families, around the houses at Christmas and, remarkably, in the public houses of the Pennines. The villages around Sheffield have today an active tradition of singing carols in the pubs at Christmas and have their own versions of the carols. A few modern pieces have crept into the repertoire, but basically the carols that you will hear are the old West Gallery ones, passed down in village and family tradition and sung with fervour and pride each year by the locals. Recent research by Dr Ian Russell has lead to the revival of several village groups that had lapsed and it can be said that the tradition is stronger now than it has been in many years. A similar situation exists in Devon and Cornwall where groups preserve the old village carols. Certainly West Gallery carols have been collected in many West Country villages, and were sung until recently in Shropshire. In Gloucestershire, vestiges of the tradition are found in Ashton-under-Hill (in Gloucestershire until the 1930s) where a set of local carols was kept up until as recently as the 1960s. The nearby village of Elmley Castle in Worcestershire had a similar tradition. It is probable that Chedworth had its own carolling tradition until recently but it is now all but lost. Bisley must have had a recent tradition, and the Stevens family of Bisley until recent times sang their West Gallery-derived version of While Shepherds Watched in the local pubs. West Gallery music also took on its own form in the United States. The music was taken to the States by the settlers and a carol tradition sprang up in New England based on West Gallery, but taking on a style of its own. The fugueing was still there, but the songs were generally sung unaccompanied. Gone too are the Arise group of songs. Several composers of note such as William Billings were noted for their music. America also produced a unique way of reading the music – it derived from the tonic solfa system, but instead of do-ray-me, had different shapes for each note. This was, and still is, known as Shape Note or Sacred Harp singing. The situation today The fact that West Gallery has been rediscovered is mainly due to the efforts of a few pioneers such as Dave Townsend, Mike Bailey and Rollo Woods who have taken the trouble to seek out and teach the old hymns. The teaching of West Gallery music has become a feature of folk festivals and has led to the discovery of even more musical examples as enthusiasts have sought this music in their own area in church archives and in local records offices. The West Gallery Music Association has its own website (http://www.wgma.org.uk/) and has an organisation spread throughout the country. It has several publications to its name. Note by Gwilym Davies November 2011	2,037	ENGLISH	1
Salvador Dali was born on 11th May, 1904. He is one of the greatest Surrealist artists known. He is considered as the modern master of the twentieth century. The critics call him eccentric genius, a self proclaimed madman. He had lived a life of fame and fortune. Following are the reasons of his success and fame: Surrealist Movement: In his early years, cubism was the most famous art movement. But by 1929 Dali had found his personal style that made him famous – the world of the unconscious that is recalled during our dreams. It was the time when traditional art was being overturned by Monet’s impressionism and Picasso’s cubism, so the new and unconventional Surrealist movement was at the right time and place to make a real splash. Dali was an influential surrealist who forced others to follow his footsteps. Dali showed the genius of surrealism in such a way that made him famous among the audiences yet a big challenge for other artists. He was hated by most of the artists of his age. Because of Dali if a young artist wished to be famous it was a medium other than surrealism. His ideas and painting skills were superior to other surrealist artists. Dali was not only notorious for genius of his work but also for his odd behaviour. His distorted dreams were not only expressed on canvas but also in his daily life. Once while giving a lecture in knights’ metal armour, he had his one foot standing in a bucket of milk. His odd acts are often considered as marketing acts. But his art work was so good that it did not need any marketing. Enthusiastic About Displaying his Work: Dali was very consistent in displaying his work. In 1917, his father arranged a display of his charcoal drawing in their home. In 1919, Dali participated in a group exhibition of the Sociedad de Conciertos in Figueres. He was praised in the local newspaper. In 1921 he designed a poster for an annual festival. In 1922, Dali displayed his works in the Catalan Students’ Association collective show. In 1927, Dali exhibited 21 paintings in his second one-man show. Because of this exhibition, Picasso’s dealer, Paul Rosenberg, expressed his interest in Dali’s work. Joan Miro and Pierre Loeb visited Dali and were impressed by his work. In 1930, Dali participated in the closing exhibition of the Goemans gallery, alongside Arp, Braque, Duchamp, Ernst, Gris, Miro, Magritte, Man Ray, Picabia, Picasso, and Tanguy. In short, Dali was persistent in getting his artworks networked and displayed. Dali’s Works in Plays ; Magazines: In 1930, Dali’s designs were featured in a play, “The Family of Harlequin”. Also Federico Garcia Lorca opened a play, Mariana Mineda, with set and costume designs by Dali. Besides creating a number of famous paintings, Dali caught the attention of media by playing the role of a surrealist clown. His art works became a popular trademark and besides painting he played active role in other activities like jewellery, fashion and film making Alfred Hitchcock. They played an important role in his success. Dali aimed at making an image of eccentric genius through his artworks. He worked hard for marketing his work, which is why he is so famous.	<urn:uuid:8575e22d-9501-4430-82da-64a4d4db2fdd>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thenewstandardgallery.com/salvador-dali-reasons-of-popularity/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00364.warc.gz	en	0.989944	728	3.453125	3	[ 0.11072486639022827, 0.44968193769454956, 0.36543384194374084, 0.22629818320274353, 0.09931093454360962, 0.33773374557495117, 0.2708081007003784, 0.30130574107170105, -0.07395608723163605, -0.03934486582875252, 0.6364256143569946, -0.2912874221801758, 0.05026710033416748, 0.220169156789779...	2	Salvador Dali was born on 11th May, 1904. He is one of the greatest Surrealist artists known. He is considered as the modern master of the twentieth century. The critics call him eccentric genius, a self proclaimed madman. He had lived a life of fame and fortune. Following are the reasons of his success and fame: Surrealist Movement: In his early years, cubism was the most famous art movement. But by 1929 Dali had found his personal style that made him famous – the world of the unconscious that is recalled during our dreams. It was the time when traditional art was being overturned by Monet’s impressionism and Picasso’s cubism, so the new and unconventional Surrealist movement was at the right time and place to make a real splash. Dali was an influential surrealist who forced others to follow his footsteps. Dali showed the genius of surrealism in such a way that made him famous among the audiences yet a big challenge for other artists. He was hated by most of the artists of his age. Because of Dali if a young artist wished to be famous it was a medium other than surrealism. His ideas and painting skills were superior to other surrealist artists. Dali was not only notorious for genius of his work but also for his odd behaviour. His distorted dreams were not only expressed on canvas but also in his daily life. Once while giving a lecture in knights’ metal armour, he had his one foot standing in a bucket of milk. His odd acts are often considered as marketing acts. But his art work was so good that it did not need any marketing. Enthusiastic About Displaying his Work: Dali was very consistent in displaying his work. In 1917, his father arranged a display of his charcoal drawing in their home. In 1919, Dali participated in a group exhibition of the Sociedad de Conciertos in Figueres. He was praised in the local newspaper. In 1921 he designed a poster for an annual festival. In 1922, Dali displayed his works in the Catalan Students’ Association collective show. In 1927, Dali exhibited 21 paintings in his second one-man show. Because of this exhibition, Picasso’s dealer, Paul Rosenberg, expressed his interest in Dali’s work. Joan Miro and Pierre Loeb visited Dali and were impressed by his work. In 1930, Dali participated in the closing exhibition of the Goemans gallery, alongside Arp, Braque, Duchamp, Ernst, Gris, Miro, Magritte, Man Ray, Picabia, Picasso, and Tanguy. In short, Dali was persistent in getting his artworks networked and displayed. Dali’s Works in Plays ; Magazines: In 1930, Dali’s designs were featured in a play, “The Family of Harlequin”. Also Federico Garcia Lorca opened a play, Mariana Mineda, with set and costume designs by Dali. Besides creating a number of famous paintings, Dali caught the attention of media by playing the role of a surrealist clown. His art works became a popular trademark and besides painting he played active role in other activities like jewellery, fashion and film making Alfred Hitchcock. They played an important role in his success. Dali aimed at making an image of eccentric genius through his artworks. He worked hard for marketing his work, which is why he is so famous.	733	ENGLISH	1
Born in January of 1580, John Smith is most widely known as a leader of the Virginia Colony and played a major role in establishing the first permanent English settlement, Jamestown. He also led exploration parties along the rivers in Virginia and the Chesapeake Bay, and was the first English explorer to map the Chesapeake Bay area. John Smith’s experiences in England established him as an experienced soldier and a fearless explorer. He grew up on a farm at Willoughby near Lincolnshire, but left home to set off for adventures at sea at the age of sixteen after the death of his father. Smith first served as a mercenary in France’s army against the Spaniards, and later engaged in both trade and piracy in the Mediterranean Sea. He fought against the Ottoman Turks in the Long Turkish War, and was promoted to captain fighting for Austria in Hungary. Rumors spread that Smith killed and beheaded three Turkish adversaries in single combat duels, for which he received a knighthood, a horse, and a coat of arms depicting three Turkish heads. In 1602, though, he was wounded in a minor skirmish, captured, and sold as a slave. Even in such dire circumstances, John Smith’s luck held out: his master sent him as a gift to a Greek mistress in Constantinople, and she in turn fell in love with Smith. He later escaped and returned through Europe and Northern Africa to England in 1604. In 1606, Smith joined the Virginia Company of London to colonize Virginia for profit. His expedition set sail in the three small ships named the Discovery, the Susan Constant, and the Godspeed. On this lesser known voyage, John Smith was actually charged with mutiny, and Captain Christopher Newport planned to execute him upon landing; however Smith unsealed orders form the Virginia Company assigning him as one of the leaders of the new colony, which saved Smith from a death sentence at the gallows. Settlers arrived in Jamestown in the spring of 1607; after the long, grueling journey across the Atlantic Ocean, their food supplies dwindled to the point where they were forced to ration their meals: settlers received only 1-2 cups of grain each day. They were soon starving and suffering from malnutrition. A number of men died from drinking brackish water, and by September more than half of the settlers who arrived were dead. His personal practices equipped Smith with strong beliefs that he forced upon the settlers in the New World; he required settlers to farm and work, saving the colony from starvation and failure by declaring “He that will not work, shall not eat.” It was with his strong character, ruthless determination, and unflinching work ethic that allowed him to lead the colonists as they faced challenges amongst themselves, hostile Indians, and the harsh wilderness that was Virginia. Under Smith's leadership, people started working, stopped dying, and planted crops, built forts, and sent products back to England. What Smith was unsuccessful in trading for with the local Powhatans, he took by force and intimidation. In December 1607, Smith was exploring and searching for food along the Chickahominy River when he was captured by the Powhatan Indians; he credited his survival and release to the Powhatan chief’s daughter, Pocahontas, who threw herself across his body when he was to be executed. Many historians believe Smith misinterpreted a Powhatan adoption ceremony as an "execution." Either way, he was returned to Jamestown unharmed. Unfortunately, he had to return to England after an injury from a gunpowder explosion. While he never returned to Virginia, he spent his remaining years writing about his vast experiences, including his time in the New World. He died on June 21, 1631, but his legacy and contributions to the establishment of the New World still continue.	<urn:uuid:ee16485f-5df7-4a8a-83ec-b3e0be937cc9>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mrnussbaum.com/uploads/activities/13c/johnsmith.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00033.warc.gz	en	0.986451	792	3.890625	4	[ -0.027354024350643158, 0.8291738033294678, 0.5017566680908203, 0.24416445195674896, -0.4065173864364624, -0.37737783789634705, 0.4318748116493225, -0.16680888831615448, -0.45591670274734497, -0.1373443603515625, -0.3168891370296478, -0.10198754072189331, 0.29899248480796814, 0.021656857803...	2	Born in January of 1580, John Smith is most widely known as a leader of the Virginia Colony and played a major role in establishing the first permanent English settlement, Jamestown. He also led exploration parties along the rivers in Virginia and the Chesapeake Bay, and was the first English explorer to map the Chesapeake Bay area. John Smith’s experiences in England established him as an experienced soldier and a fearless explorer. He grew up on a farm at Willoughby near Lincolnshire, but left home to set off for adventures at sea at the age of sixteen after the death of his father. Smith first served as a mercenary in France’s army against the Spaniards, and later engaged in both trade and piracy in the Mediterranean Sea. He fought against the Ottoman Turks in the Long Turkish War, and was promoted to captain fighting for Austria in Hungary. Rumors spread that Smith killed and beheaded three Turkish adversaries in single combat duels, for which he received a knighthood, a horse, and a coat of arms depicting three Turkish heads. In 1602, though, he was wounded in a minor skirmish, captured, and sold as a slave. Even in such dire circumstances, John Smith’s luck held out: his master sent him as a gift to a Greek mistress in Constantinople, and she in turn fell in love with Smith. He later escaped and returned through Europe and Northern Africa to England in 1604. In 1606, Smith joined the Virginia Company of London to colonize Virginia for profit. His expedition set sail in the three small ships named the Discovery, the Susan Constant, and the Godspeed. On this lesser known voyage, John Smith was actually charged with mutiny, and Captain Christopher Newport planned to execute him upon landing; however Smith unsealed orders form the Virginia Company assigning him as one of the leaders of the new colony, which saved Smith from a death sentence at the gallows. Settlers arrived in Jamestown in the spring of 1607; after the long, grueling journey across the Atlantic Ocean, their food supplies dwindled to the point where they were forced to ration their meals: settlers received only 1-2 cups of grain each day. They were soon starving and suffering from malnutrition. A number of men died from drinking brackish water, and by September more than half of the settlers who arrived were dead. His personal practices equipped Smith with strong beliefs that he forced upon the settlers in the New World; he required settlers to farm and work, saving the colony from starvation and failure by declaring “He that will not work, shall not eat.” It was with his strong character, ruthless determination, and unflinching work ethic that allowed him to lead the colonists as they faced challenges amongst themselves, hostile Indians, and the harsh wilderness that was Virginia. Under Smith's leadership, people started working, stopped dying, and planted crops, built forts, and sent products back to England. What Smith was unsuccessful in trading for with the local Powhatans, he took by force and intimidation. In December 1607, Smith was exploring and searching for food along the Chickahominy River when he was captured by the Powhatan Indians; he credited his survival and release to the Powhatan chief’s daughter, Pocahontas, who threw herself across his body when he was to be executed. Many historians believe Smith misinterpreted a Powhatan adoption ceremony as an "execution." Either way, he was returned to Jamestown unharmed. Unfortunately, he had to return to England after an injury from a gunpowder explosion. While he never returned to Virginia, he spent his remaining years writing about his vast experiences, including his time in the New World. He died on June 21, 1631, but his legacy and contributions to the establishment of the New World still continue.	801	ENGLISH	1
Because of the attack on Lawrence and in an effort to cut the guerillas and the Rangers off from their supporters, General Thomas Ewing issued his infamous Order #11. This order forced all residents in Cass and Bates counties and parts of Vernon and Jackson counties to vacate their homes within fifteen days. (See article on Order #11). All grain, hay and food supplies were confiscated by Union troops and all homes and outbuildings were burned to the ground. These counties became known as "The Burnt District." Basically, this order was a "license to kill" for the Union army and they ravished these counties, burning everything in site and killing the men and young boys whom they suspected to be Southern Sympathizers. Woman and children were often left with nothing but the clothing on their backs and had to travel great distances to find a safe haven. Many died of starvation and exposure while in route. This action was unique during the Civil War in that it was specifically directed against a civilian population. It affected more than 20,000 individuals. It would be years before many of these families would be able to return home. When they did return home, they returned to burnt out structures and desolate land.	<urn:uuid:81613882-f013-4ac2-8f29-db00997a9454>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.history-sites.com/cgi-bin/bbs62x/nvcwmb/webbbs_config.pl?md=read;id=62830	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00244.warc.gz	en	0.989788	245	3.59375	4	[ -0.17865826189517975, 0.060554418712854385, 0.2937118709087372, -0.036204416304826736, 0.6381897926330566, -0.15722352266311646, -0.09291335195302963, 0.05726167559623718, -0.3017641603946686, -0.12733128666877747, 0.2668951749801636, -0.06146742403507233, -0.1144445613026619, 0.3544508516...	3	Because of the attack on Lawrence and in an effort to cut the guerillas and the Rangers off from their supporters, General Thomas Ewing issued his infamous Order #11. This order forced all residents in Cass and Bates counties and parts of Vernon and Jackson counties to vacate their homes within fifteen days. (See article on Order #11). All grain, hay and food supplies were confiscated by Union troops and all homes and outbuildings were burned to the ground. These counties became known as "The Burnt District." Basically, this order was a "license to kill" for the Union army and they ravished these counties, burning everything in site and killing the men and young boys whom they suspected to be Southern Sympathizers. Woman and children were often left with nothing but the clothing on their backs and had to travel great distances to find a safe haven. Many died of starvation and exposure while in route. This action was unique during the Civil War in that it was specifically directed against a civilian population. It affected more than 20,000 individuals. It would be years before many of these families would be able to return home. When they did return home, they returned to burnt out structures and desolate land.	252	ENGLISH	1
Presentation on theme: "Ancient Greek Women Lizeth Torres Destinee Zaragoza"— Presentation transcript: 1 Ancient Greek Women Lizeth Torres Destinee Zaragoza World History Block 3 2 Role of WomenA woman’s role in ancient Greek society depended on whether she was married and in which city-state she lived.Athenian married women were to stay at home, in separate quarters, away from windows. It was their job to raise children, spin wool and flax, and weave in into bedding and clothes.Spartan women participated more in society. Spartan women own land, or participate in business in the city-state of Sparta, women could own property and manage it. 3 Freedom vs. Restrictions Women in Athens could not vote, own land, or participate in businesses.FreedomsAthenian women could go out in public for a special occasion, such as a funeral, religious festival, or family visit, as long as she was accompanied by a member of her household.Women in Sparta could own property and manage it. 4 MarriageMarriage in ancient Greece was business deal between the parents of the bride and the groom.A girl left home at about 15, for married life with a much older man who was chosen by her father.A girl’s father offered the groom a dowry, which consisted of money, clothing jewelry, animals, or slaves. If he accepted, the weeding was arranged.If a girl was not married by the age of 15 she was considered a disgrace to herself and her family.If she did not get married they believed that she was worthless and considered weak, therefore no man would consider marrying her. 5 EducationSpartan girls received an education similar to that of boys. Girls participated in physical training, including running, wrestling, and throwing the javelin. The Spartans believed that if women were strong they would be able to deal with pregnancy and childbirth easier.Formal education in Athens was only for boys. Women of all classes remained at home. Girls were not allowed to go to school like boys because they were to stay at home with their mothers and learn the life of a housewife. This would make them good wives when the got older. 6 Women’s Relationship with Children In Spartan society, children were judged right at birth to see if they were going to be weak or strong later in life. If they were weak they would kill them. They were taken from their mothers at age 7 and put under control of the state.In Athens, children were nurtured by their mothers until age 7. After age 7 a pedagogue took charge and educated them. 7 Women Who Stepped Out of Line Women that would not obey their husbands were allowed to be beaten or humiliated in public by their husbands.Even their husband’s brothers were able to beat them if they felt their brothers wife was not behaving in public or not showing respect to husband.	<urn:uuid:1f1ccc36-ce52-4c97-8bb9-05707d910199>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://slideplayer.com/slide/4224588/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00147.warc.gz	en	0.991655	606	4.34375	4	[ -0.05779551714658737, 0.35424938797950745, 0.19619402289390564, -0.030663730576634407, -0.3292922377586365, -0.2226174771785736, -0.27491140365600586, 0.4935849905014038, -0.3218807876110077, -0.0845465436577797, -0.233929842710495, -0.20751145482063293, -0.06426621228456497, 0.24472320079...	1	Presentation on theme: "Ancient Greek Women Lizeth Torres Destinee Zaragoza"— Presentation transcript: 1 Ancient Greek Women Lizeth Torres Destinee Zaragoza World History Block 3 2 Role of WomenA woman’s role in ancient Greek society depended on whether she was married and in which city-state she lived.Athenian married women were to stay at home, in separate quarters, away from windows. It was their job to raise children, spin wool and flax, and weave in into bedding and clothes.Spartan women participated more in society. Spartan women own land, or participate in business in the city-state of Sparta, women could own property and manage it. 3 Freedom vs. Restrictions Women in Athens could not vote, own land, or participate in businesses.FreedomsAthenian women could go out in public for a special occasion, such as a funeral, religious festival, or family visit, as long as she was accompanied by a member of her household.Women in Sparta could own property and manage it. 4 MarriageMarriage in ancient Greece was business deal between the parents of the bride and the groom.A girl left home at about 15, for married life with a much older man who was chosen by her father.A girl’s father offered the groom a dowry, which consisted of money, clothing jewelry, animals, or slaves. If he accepted, the weeding was arranged.If a girl was not married by the age of 15 she was considered a disgrace to herself and her family.If she did not get married they believed that she was worthless and considered weak, therefore no man would consider marrying her. 5 EducationSpartan girls received an education similar to that of boys. Girls participated in physical training, including running, wrestling, and throwing the javelin. The Spartans believed that if women were strong they would be able to deal with pregnancy and childbirth easier.Formal education in Athens was only for boys. Women of all classes remained at home. Girls were not allowed to go to school like boys because they were to stay at home with their mothers and learn the life of a housewife. This would make them good wives when the got older. 6 Women’s Relationship with Children In Spartan society, children were judged right at birth to see if they were going to be weak or strong later in life. If they were weak they would kill them. They were taken from their mothers at age 7 and put under control of the state.In Athens, children were nurtured by their mothers until age 7. After age 7 a pedagogue took charge and educated them. 7 Women Who Stepped Out of Line Women that would not obey their husbands were allowed to be beaten or humiliated in public by their husbands.Even their husband’s brothers were able to beat them if they felt their brothers wife was not behaving in public or not showing respect to husband.	585	ENGLISH	1
The Hussites were a religious movement that was based on the ideas of Jan Hus in 15th century Bohemia. His death and the events that followed it sparked the Czech people for cultural and religious revolutions. The death of Jan Hus was also the trigger for the bloodshed known as the Hussite Wars (1419 - 1434). Why Was Jan Hus So Important? Jan Hus (1369–1415) was a Czech priest who was working closely with the Queen of Bohemia as he became the dean of Prague's theological faculty. At the same time, he advocated and lived by the old Scriptures principles he was familiar with. That meant Hus lived in poverty, despite his professor's status and connections with the Queen. In Bohemia, he was seen as a patriot, as he publicly protested against the Church tradition and the immorality it had embraced. Hus was also responsible for translating the Scriptures, and he is seen as one of the reformators of the Czech language. He was the one fighting for the Czech people's right to use their own language, and it did not come as a surprise; his popularity grew fast. Emperor Sigismund and the Council of Constance called for Jan Hus to join them in 1414, promising he will be safe. That promise proved to be false, as the Council and the Emperor found Hus guilty of heresy and burned him alive on July 6, 1415, together with his teachings. After the people of Bohemia heard about what happened to Hus, it led to a massive disturbance in the whole country. Even the higher class parts of society protested against his killing, and the nobility, together with knights, started offering protection to people who were of different religious beliefs. These events gave rise to the Czech national identity since they unified in the feeling that the death of Hus was a criminal act that had to be punished. Revolt against the higher Church orders just burst, and even the archbishop of Prague had to flee the town to escape the outraged mass of people. The Hussites so became the most influential force to provoke changes in Bohemia, as they split into two fractions. The first one was called Utraquists, and the other one Taborists. The Taborists were the extreme part of the now broken Hussite movement. They would later be the leaders of a new bloody event that came soon. The Hussite Wars After the King of Bohemia, Wenceslaus, died in 1419, the Hussite national movement spread throughout the whole country. The moderate Hussites, the Utraquists, eventually agreed to only part of the changes the movement brought up and rejoined the higher orders of the Catholic Church. On the other hand, the radical Hussites, the Taborists, already started destroying churches across Bohemia and seizing the Church property. King Sigismund answered this with the use of force, and so the Hussite Wars were started. Even Pope Martin V, addressed all Christians of the West to battle against the Hussites, beginning a bloody crusade that left the Bohemian land completely devastated. The Hussite movement was defeated by Utraquists fraction, and they had to surrender to the authority of the Roman Catholic Church, which allowed them to practice only a mild variation of their beliefs. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:6bc5f7e2-528d-419c-a1d3-3c08294b113f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/who-were-the-hussites.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00528.warc.gz	en	0.982968	705	4.25	4	[ -0.16963031888008118, 0.9286792278289795, -0.3769012987613678, -0.48641878366470337, -0.10264840722084045, 0.32852762937545776, 0.20439156889915466, -0.008475767448544502, 0.33938461542129517, -0.04041578248143196, -0.07102730870246887, -0.3547498285770416, 0.20409852266311646, 0.072592817...	1	The Hussites were a religious movement that was based on the ideas of Jan Hus in 15th century Bohemia. His death and the events that followed it sparked the Czech people for cultural and religious revolutions. The death of Jan Hus was also the trigger for the bloodshed known as the Hussite Wars (1419 - 1434). Why Was Jan Hus So Important? Jan Hus (1369–1415) was a Czech priest who was working closely with the Queen of Bohemia as he became the dean of Prague's theological faculty. At the same time, he advocated and lived by the old Scriptures principles he was familiar with. That meant Hus lived in poverty, despite his professor's status and connections with the Queen. In Bohemia, he was seen as a patriot, as he publicly protested against the Church tradition and the immorality it had embraced. Hus was also responsible for translating the Scriptures, and he is seen as one of the reformators of the Czech language. He was the one fighting for the Czech people's right to use their own language, and it did not come as a surprise; his popularity grew fast. Emperor Sigismund and the Council of Constance called for Jan Hus to join them in 1414, promising he will be safe. That promise proved to be false, as the Council and the Emperor found Hus guilty of heresy and burned him alive on July 6, 1415, together with his teachings. After the people of Bohemia heard about what happened to Hus, it led to a massive disturbance in the whole country. Even the higher class parts of society protested against his killing, and the nobility, together with knights, started offering protection to people who were of different religious beliefs. These events gave rise to the Czech national identity since they unified in the feeling that the death of Hus was a criminal act that had to be punished. Revolt against the higher Church orders just burst, and even the archbishop of Prague had to flee the town to escape the outraged mass of people. The Hussites so became the most influential force to provoke changes in Bohemia, as they split into two fractions. The first one was called Utraquists, and the other one Taborists. The Taborists were the extreme part of the now broken Hussite movement. They would later be the leaders of a new bloody event that came soon. The Hussite Wars After the King of Bohemia, Wenceslaus, died in 1419, the Hussite national movement spread throughout the whole country. The moderate Hussites, the Utraquists, eventually agreed to only part of the changes the movement brought up and rejoined the higher orders of the Catholic Church. On the other hand, the radical Hussites, the Taborists, already started destroying churches across Bohemia and seizing the Church property. King Sigismund answered this with the use of force, and so the Hussite Wars were started. Even Pope Martin V, addressed all Christians of the West to battle against the Hussites, beginning a bloody crusade that left the Bohemian land completely devastated. The Hussite movement was defeated by Utraquists fraction, and they had to surrender to the authority of the Roman Catholic Church, which allowed them to practice only a mild variation of their beliefs. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	719	ENGLISH	1
Chernobyl nuclear plant is one of the biggest disasters in history! It happened on April 26, 1986. It was a nuclear radiation disaster. About 4,000 people died. All the survivors suffered from the radiation side affects for the rest of there lives. This also ruined the environment! The nuclear plant exploded exactly at 1:23 A. M. The explosion killed two people. Then radiation started pouring out of the reactor. There were 134 emergency workers that got involved trying to figure out how to stop it. Firefighters got there at 1:28 A. M. All the fires were extinguished at 6:35 A. M. but that didn’t stop all the radiation. The radiation spread hundreds of miles. They finally evacuated on April 27th, 36 hours after the explosions. The radiation levels already reached all the way to Finland! Many people were already exposed to the radiation. All 237 of the workers got acute radiation sickness. There were 31 workers that died in the first three months after the explosion. The radiation not only affected humans, it also affected plants and other animals. Radiation contaminated rivers and lakes. They used some of that water for drinking so they had to find water that wasn’t contaminated. The radiation affected the fish too. The number of fish species varied from 0. 1 to 60 kbq/kg during the period 1990–92. In conclusion, if this didn’t happen then most of the people that suffered from the radiation would have lived healthy lives. They could of utilized all the water and fish that was contaminated. Unnecessary lives were lost due to the Chernobyl tradegy. Hopefully something like this never happens again.	<urn:uuid:88bee69e-04f3-4ee4-a96b-3e16383ef64f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://tbf-sa.co.za/chernobyl-disaster-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00349.warc.gz	en	0.982283	340	3.359375	3	[ 0.04080144688487053, 0.10816801339387894, 0.2849273085594177, -0.1441171020269394, 0.771966278553009, -0.3857737183570862, 0.23316895961761475, 0.14315980672836304, -0.4762665033340454, 0.23329196870326996, 0.2226816713809967, -0.47554078698158264, 0.08373365551233292, 0.05892360582947731,...	3	Chernobyl nuclear plant is one of the biggest disasters in history! It happened on April 26, 1986. It was a nuclear radiation disaster. About 4,000 people died. All the survivors suffered from the radiation side affects for the rest of there lives. This also ruined the environment! The nuclear plant exploded exactly at 1:23 A. M. The explosion killed two people. Then radiation started pouring out of the reactor. There were 134 emergency workers that got involved trying to figure out how to stop it. Firefighters got there at 1:28 A. M. All the fires were extinguished at 6:35 A. M. but that didn’t stop all the radiation. The radiation spread hundreds of miles. They finally evacuated on April 27th, 36 hours after the explosions. The radiation levels already reached all the way to Finland! Many people were already exposed to the radiation. All 237 of the workers got acute radiation sickness. There were 31 workers that died in the first three months after the explosion. The radiation not only affected humans, it also affected plants and other animals. Radiation contaminated rivers and lakes. They used some of that water for drinking so they had to find water that wasn’t contaminated. The radiation affected the fish too. The number of fish species varied from 0. 1 to 60 kbq/kg during the period 1990–92. In conclusion, if this didn’t happen then most of the people that suffered from the radiation would have lived healthy lives. They could of utilized all the water and fish that was contaminated. Unnecessary lives were lost due to the Chernobyl tradegy. Hopefully something like this never happens again.	371	ENGLISH	1
Although Sir Francis Drake was the second man - SIR FRANCIS DRAKE, the greatest of the Elizabethan mariners, is one of the fathers of British shipping and sea power. He asserted the right of English ships to sail in all the oceans; he defied the claim of the Spanish and the Portuguese to the greater part of the world; and he freed the seas from their domination. Drake was a pioneer naval strategist who acted on the principle that the enemy should be fought in enemy waters. Moreover, he was a practical seaman. He had been apprenticed to the sea, and he had a thorough knowledge of rigging and the method of navigation of those days. This enabled him to gain victories over vastly superior forces because the enemy ships were commanded by soldiers and not by sailors. DRAKE’S FLAGSHIP on his voyage round the world is represented by a fine model of the Golden Hind specially built for Navy Week displays at Plymouth. This model, built as closely as possible on the lines of Drake’s ship, sails well with a small crew. The original Golden Hind was preserved as a memorial at Deptford, on the Thames, for about a hundred years after Drake had returned from his historic voyage. The circumnavigation of the globe would be enough to place Drake among the greatest of the navigators; but Drake’s fame does not rest solely on this one voyage, important as it was. It was the second voyage of circumnavigation in the story of the sea. Magellan’s expedition, completed by the Victoria in 1522, was the first. As described in the chapter “The First Voyage Around the World”, Magellan was killed during the voyage. Drake, however, returned in 1580, alive and with a fortune in the hold of the Golden Hind. Thus he was the first admiral to sail round the world and return alive, and he gave the nation proof that English ships and mariners could go anywhere. At that time the ships of Spain and Portugal controlled the world’s sea routes. Drake proved the superiority of the smaller English ships with better seamen and better gunnery. The exact dimensions of his ship are not known. Originally known as the Pelican, she was renamed the Golden Hind. After her world voyage she was preserved for about a hundred years, at Deptford, on the Thames. Although she was riddled with shipworms when she returned, the Elizabethans preserved her, as she was to them what the Victory is to us now. The Golden Hind was a vessel of about 100 tons, probably 60 feet from stem to stern- She was armed with eighteen guns, comprising six cast iron 4½- The Revenge, Drake’s flagship in the actions against the Spanish Armada, was one of Queen Elizabeth’s ships, and was much more formidable. She was 92 feet in length, with a beam of 32 feet, a complement of 250 and a tonnage of 440. She came to a glorious end when, commanded by Sir Richard Grenville, she fought fifty- The Revenge was not the largest English ship in the fight against the Armada, for the Triumph, Frobisher’s flagship, was of 1,100 tons and carried 500 men and an armament of forty- The probable year of Drake’s birth was 1541. He was born near Tavistock, Devon, and was the eldest of the twelve children of Edmund Drake, a vigorous Protestant. Because of the struggle between Catholics and Protestants Edmund Drake left Devonshire and went to the Medway, where he was appointed Reader of Prayers to the Navy and was given an old hulk in which to live. In this floating home Drake spent part of his boyhood before his father secured a parish ashore. The father was poor, and Drake was apprenticed to the master of a vessel which traded to France and Zeeland, so that he ceased to depend upon his parents. In the Thames Estuary, the North Sea and the shoal- After a while the young, ambitious captain sold his vessel and returned to his native Devon to join in the sea ventures of his kinsmen, John and William Hawkins. He made his first voyage across the Atlantic in a ship commanded by a Captain Lovell, who was probably associated with the Hawkins family. At a town on the Spanish Main, Rio de la Hacha, there was some trouble with the Spaniards which caused loss to Drake and Lovell. When he returned to England, Drake joined John Hawkins, who was fitting out ships at Plymouth for a voyage to the Caribbean. Hawkins was then the most famous English merchant- SIR FRANCIS DRAKE was born near Tavistock, Devon, in 1541. Part of his boyhood was spent on the River Medway in Kent, where his father was Reader of Prayers to the Navy. After an apprenticeship in a trading vessel, Drake was given command and ownership of her. There followed voyages across the Atlantic, in which he experienced treachery at the hands of the Spaniards. His exploits in Central America brought him his first glimpse of the Pacific from a peak in Darien. The circumnavigation of the world was followed by exploits against Spain, the famous “singeing of the King of Spain’s beard” and the Armada. He sailed to the Caribbean on a voyage that proved to be his last. On January 23, 1596, Drake died; he was buried at sea near Nombre de Dios, the scene of his youthful adventures. The settlers needed the slaves to replace the natives whom they had exterminated, and Hawkins’s relations with the settlers were friendly. King Philip of Spain, however was furious. All the Englishmen except those who did not want to incur the anger of the Spanish king applauded Hawkins; many hastened, as Drake did, to join the next slave- Six vessels sailed from Plymouth, two of them, the Jesus of Lubeck, 700 tons, and the Minion, 250 tons, being naval ships. They were old ships that had been repaired at the expense of the shareholders in the expedition. The Jesus of Lubeck had been bought from Lubeck by Henry VIII as one of the “great ships” of his navy, and she and the Minion were obsolete when Elizabeth lent them to the expedition. The other four ships were the William and John, 150 tons, the Swallow, 100 tons, the Judith, 50 tons, and the Angel, 32 tons. Drake was only about twenty- Almost at the start of the expedition a gale badly damaged the Jesus of Lubeck. In Africa Hawkins embarked slaves; he then sailed to the Spanish Main and sold the slaves to settlers. He did not finish his transactions in time and was caught by a hurricane, suffering damage that entailed repairs in a harbour. So he put into the Mexican port of San Juan d’Ulua. Unluckily for him and for Drake, the ships were scarcely anchored before a Spanish fleet of thirteen ships, which had been warned to look for the English, appeared offshore. Hawkins seized the fort and refused to allow the Spanish fleet into harbour until the Spaniards signed an agreement not to attack him. The Spaniards agreed to this, but a few days later treacherously attacked the English. Drake, who was ashore, escaped by grabbing the bowsprit of the Judith, swinging himself on board and then working her out of the harbour. Hawkins gained the sea in the Minion and a third vessel got outside in such a condition that she had to be abandoned. The Jesus of Lubeck, with the money in her, was taken by the Spanish; other ships were sunk and many men were captured. The Judith and the Minion lost one another. Drake sailed into Plymouth with the news of the disaster and Hawkins arrived later in the Minion after a terrible voyage. Raid on Treasure Caravan This treacherous attack infuriated Drake. He vowed a private war against the Spaniards, and from then until his death he attacked them unrelentingly. The Spaniards regarded him and all the English as pirates. Drake followed the practice which allowed an English subject to recoup himself for losses due to nationals of a country not officially at war with England. He was distinguished for his chivalry to captives and not one act of cruelty can be laid against his name, whereas the Spaniards tortured or killed their English captives. The seafaring Spaniards admired his exploits as much as they resented the blunderings of their own incompetent soldiers afloat. Ruined by the treachery of the Spanish, Drake went to sea in royal ships for a time. Then he made a scouting voyage to the Caribbean with two ships, the Dragon and the Swan. He made a second voyage in the Swan, which was of only 25 tons and was handy for exploring coasts of which the Spanish held the secrets. On the coast of Darien (Panama), Drake established a base, which he called Port Pheasant. He discovered that the Spaniards shipped gold and silver from the Peruvian mines to Panama, and sent the treasure by mule train overland to Nombre de Dios, near the mouth of the Chagres River, on the Atlantic side of the isthmus. This was a much easier way than sending ships through the Strait of Magellan and up the west coast of South America to ship the gold and take it to Spain. After having captured a few Spanish vessels, Drake buried stores at Port Pheasant and returned to Plymouth to secure reinforcements. He came back to Port Pheasant in a 70- Drake arrived at Port Pheasant and saw a message written on a leaden plate fixed to a tree by a Plymouth man, warning him that some of the Spaniards he had freed had dug up his stores and taken them away. Drake built a stockade for defence, and then set up three pinnaces he had brought from England in sections. His shore adventures were numerous, and after several failures he made a successful raid on the treasure caravan. Drake joined forces with the Maroons, children of escaped negro slaves, who took him to a tree on the hills of the isthmus of Panama. There he prayed that one day he might sail an English ship in the sea he saw before him — the mighty Pacific Ocean. His lieutenant was the first Englishman to sail a vessel in the Pacific. This man, John Oxenham, later repeated Drake’s exploit of crossing the isthmus, and built two boats. He was afterwards captured and put to death by the Spaniards. Neither the Swan nor the Pasha returned to Plymouth. Drake caused the Swan to be scuttled secretly by the carpenter, Thomas Moone, so as not to hurt the feelings of John Drake, who had agreed to the destruction of his ship. John Drake and Joseph, another brother, both died during the expedition. Francis Drake afterwards broke up the Pasha and sailed home in a frigate he had captured. DRAKE’S VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD is shown on these maps, reading from right to left. He started from Plymouth in December 1577, when the ships Pelican (later the Golden Hind), Elizabeth, Marigold, Swan and Benedict sailed ostensibly for Alexandria, Egypt. Once out of sight of land, Drake told his crews the true object of their voyage. Trouble was caused by Doughty, a gentleman adventurer, who after a full trial was executed at Port St. Julian, Patagonia. Only three ships, the Golden Hind, the Marigold and the Elizabeth hazarded the Strait of Magellan. A storm arose and the Marigold was lost with all hands. The Golden Hind was driven south and continued the voyage alone, for the captain of the Elizabeth thought Drake was lost and returned home in his ship. Drake captured much treasure and many Spanish ships in the Pacific. In an attempt to find the North- From the time of Drake’s return to the beginning of his voyage round the world he developed into a courtier, able to keep his head in the complicated intrigues of the day. He returned a man of fame and fortune. The adaptability which had enabled him to get the most out of his rough seamen made it possible for him to mix on equal terms with the foremost soldiers and statesmen and to win the ear of Elizabeth. At one time Drake commanded a vessel in the fleet Elizabeth sent to Ireland, and during this period Drake became friendly with Thomas Doughty, courtier, scholar and soldier. Drake was imbued with the ambition to reach the Pacific and attack Spain in waters where she never expected to find hostile ships. To do so he would have to pass through the Strait of Magellan, and no ship was known to have done that since the pioneer Magellan had struggled through. Drake knew that he could equal or even surpass the feats of Magellan. Some of the Queen’s advisers, notably Lord Treasurer Burleigh, regarded Drake as a dangerous adventurer likely to precipitate war with Spain, as they were not convinced that the Spaniards intended to make war upon England. General of a Squadron Elizabeth, wishing to keep the secret from Burleigh, promised Drake a thousand crowns and her secret support. The Queen became a shareholder in the expedition, which was going ostensibly to Alexandria, in Egypt. Doughty, who was jealous of Drake, told Burleigh as much as he knew, and then, with his brother, joined the venture as a gentleman volunteer. For the first time in his career Drake was in command of a squadron of five vessels as general, a term also used for admiral. His flagship was the Pelican, later renamed the Golden Hind. The vessel next to her in size was the Elizabeth, 80 tons, armed with sixteen guns and commanded by John Winter. Then came the Marigold, 30 tons, and a victualling ship of 50 tons named the Swan after Drake’s previous ship, commanded by John Thomas. Thomas Moone, Drake’s former carpenter, commanded the Benedict, a pinnace of only 15 tons. There were 164 souls in the squadron, including a chaplain, Francis Fletcher. Drake’s flagship was furnished for effect as well as for efficiency. His tableware was silver, there were fiddlers to provide music when he dined, and he had a page — his nephew John Drake — to stand behind his chair. The oak furniture of his cabin is preserved in Berkeley Castle, Gloucestershire, and Drake’s drum is at Buckland Abbey, Devon, the house he bought from Sir Richard Grenville in 1581. There was policy in this elaborate furnishing; he wanted visitors and prisoners of distinction to admire the display and magnificence of the English. Late in 1577 the ships sailed from Plymouth. A storm damaged them and compelled them to put back for repairs, and they did not finally leave England until the middle of December. When the land was below the horizon Drake told his crews that they were bound for the Pacific and not for the Levant. They captured several small vessels off the African coast, discarding the tiny Benedict for a 40- A FINE MODEL of the Golden Hind in Plymouth Harbour in 1936. Originally known as the Pelican, Drake’s famous ship had three masts and a long beak bow. Accurate dimensions are not known, but she was a vessel of about 100 tons, with a length of about 60 feet and a beam of 19 feet Her normal draught was about 9 feet, or 13 feet when fully laden. She carried eighteen guns and had a complement of over eighty. Then arose a point of discipline which was of great moment. Doughty and his fellow gentlemen adventurers were soldiers, and knew little of seamanship. The master or captain of the ship was responsible for the navigation and the crew, and Doughty represented that Drake had delegated his authority to himself. The trouble was increased when Doughty and the others played a rough joke on the trumpeter whom Drake had sent to the Pelican with a message. Drake resented this interference with his messenger, and sent Doughty to the Swan; made the master of that vessel responsible for him, and resumed command of the Pelican. During the long voyage across the Atlantic and southward down the coast towards the Strait of Magellan, the ships frequently lost sight of one another. They were delayed by foul winds and bad weather, and the crews were restless. Doughty was moved from one vessel to another, followed by a trail of discontent. After they had put in at various havens the vessels reached Port St. Julian, north of the entrance to the Strait. This was where Magellan had put down a mutiny nearly sixty years before; indeed, they found the stump of the gibbet he had erected. Here Doughty was charged with mutiny and treason before a jury. Doughty believed that Drake’s commission from Elizabeth giving him power of life and death would not be applied to himself, a gentleman adventurer and not a seaman. To convince the court of his standing with the powerful Burleigh he revealed that he had been to Burleigh and told him the plans of the voyage. This was a surprise for Drake. He called the others aside and told them the whole story. The court found Doughty guilty and condemned him to death. Doughty met his death bravely. His execution did not end the trouble between the gentlemen and the sailors. The gentlemen regarded Doughty as a martyr and the affair preyed on Drake’s mind for the rest of his life. He called the entire company together and told them that the bickering must stop. “I must have the gentleman to haul and draw with the mariner and the mariner with the gentleman”, he said. “I would know him that would refuse to set his hand to a rope”. He offered the Marigold to any who wished to return to England, adding the warning, “But let them take heed that they go homeward. For if I find them in my way I will surely sink them”. Nobody wanted to return. Drake then disrated all the ships’ officers, made an appeal to their patriotism, reinstated all the officers and prepared to resume the voyage. Drake’s handling of the knotty problem of whether sailor or soldier should command at sea established a precedent in England and led to the realization that the Navy was the premier arm. Drake sailed to the entrance of the strait, where he reduced the number of his ships to three. Here he renamed the Pelican the Golden Hind, after the crest of Sir Christopher Hatton, Captain of the Queen’s Guard, who was high in her favour and had helped to secure her interest in the venture. The two other ships were the Elizabeth and the Marigold. DRAKE’S ASTROLABE was not only an indispensable navigational instrument, but also a remarkably beautiful piece of workmanship. The astrolabe was used to take altitudes and to mark the positions of the sun, moon and stars. In the eighteenth century the astrolabe was superseded by the quadrant and later by the sextant. The three ships won through the strait to the Pacific, where a long ordeal awaited them. Storms drove them south into unknown waters, and one night a cry was heard. When morning dawned the Marigold was missing; she had been overwhelmed and sunk. The two surviving ships won back to the mouth of the strait and anchored to await a fair wind. Then a gale parted the cable of the Golden Hind and she had to beat off- The ordeal of the Golden Hind continued. At one place near the shore a boat Drake sent out with eight men and one day’s provisions was caught by a storm and failed to regain the ship. The men passed through the Strait of Magellan and went up the east coat to the mouth of the River Plate, where seven of them were killed by the Indians. The eighth man, John Carter, escaped, and, helped by the Portuguese, he reached England nine years later. Storms battered the Golden Hind and drove her south farther than any ship had been before, and Drake discovered the uttermost cape, later to be named Cape Horn by the first Dutchmen who sailed round it. He proved that the Atlantic and the Pacific met and that the Strait of Magellan was not a channel through land that stretched down to the South Pole, as had been thought. Drake was the first seaman to sight the cape which was to be the most famous corner of the World and a terror to all sailors until the cutting of the Panama Canal made an alternative route. He landed on one island, went to the edge of a cliff and told his men that he had been farther south than any other explorer. He named the islands the Elizabethides. “Our troubles did make an end, the storms ceased, and all our calamities (only the absence of our friends excepted) were removed,” writes Chaplain Pletcher. Drake found two islands where the voyagers obtained birds and revictualled, they steered north- A DRAWING FROM AN OLD ATLAS illustrating Drake's last voyage to the Caribbean in 1595- This incident was the last serious mishap. After having wasted some time searching for the Elizabeth, Drake sailed up the coast. In command of one vessel unencumbered by consorts Drake was at his best. Sailing so close to the shore that any person travelling on land could be seen from the ship, Drake began a series of raids on towns and the capture of ship after ship. At first the Golden Hind was mistaken for a Spanish ship and made easy captures, but later the news spread along the coast and Drake abandoned his prizes after he had transferred their contents to the Golden Hind. Then he sailed in search of the greatest prize, the treasure ship Cacafuego, which was carrying treasure to Panama from Peru. The ship was captured and Drake sailed out into the Pacific to be sure of no interruption when the treasure was transferred from the Cacafuego to the Golden Hind. He treated the Spanish captain, Juan de Anton, with courtesy, telling him that he was recouping himself for the losses that he and Hawkins had sustained. Thinking that Winter, captain of the Elizabeth, might be in the Pacific, Drake gave de Anton a letter of safe conduct lest Winter should attack him. The letter asked Winter to pay de Anton double the value of anything he needed from his ship and to use him well. Then he released the Spaniard and allowed him to sail to Panama. From the evidence of de Anton, of Francisco Zarate and of other Spanish prisoner- The ship was exceptionally well found and carpenters and caulkers were carried for repairs. There were also men who sketched the coast so accurately that anyone who followed Drake could be sure of the course. On Sundays Drake would put on his best clothes and the ship would be decked with flags and streamers. Among the officers was a Portuguese pilot whom Drake had taken from a ship captured off Africa because the pilot knew the Brazilian coast. This man, Nuno da Silva, was put on board a ship bound for Panama when Drake put into Guatulco, Mexico, the last port which he raided. After wards da Silva wrote narratives and depositions which shed light on the incidents of the voyage. Whenever Drake captured a ship he took her charts and her pilot, as was the practice of those days when the Spaniards and Portuguese kept their knowledge of the New World to themselves. After he had left Guatulco Drake considered his route home. He did not risk returning by the way he had come because he guessed that Spanish squadrons would be searching for him, so he sailed west by north for weeks, hoping to find the North- The Red Indians at first worshipped the visitors as gods and then invited Drake to be their king, and he took possession in the name of Elizabeth of what is now part of California. He called the country New Albion; but the annexation was not confirmed by settlement. When Drake sailed, the Red Indians lit beacons on the hills and crowded round as the Golden Hind began her long passage across the Pacific. In the East Indies the Sultan of Ternate sent canoes which towed the ship to a safe anchorage, while the Golden Hind towed the Sultan’s canoe and Drake’s musicians entertained him with music. The Sultan was friendly and offered Drake a treaty giving the English the right to trade in spices. Drake again refitted the ship and rested the crew and then sailed. He tried to go northward of the large island of Celebes, but was driven south by the wind into a maze of islands and reefs. A MEDALLION from a Map of Drake’s Voyages published in 1595 is quoted by Hakluyt as being interesting because it “is probably the only representation of the famous ship (the Golden Hind) now in existence”. The ship was sailed under reduced canvas until all dangers were apparently passed. Soon after full sail had been set she ran on to a reef and stuck fast. The men threw three tons of spices, eight guns and some stores overboard in vain. The ship was lodged on a shelf on the edge of water too deep to anchor and was kept there by the wind for twenty hours. Then the wind shifted, canvas was set and she moved into deep water. Drake then sailed to Java, where he was entertained by various rajahs and was told of the presence of ships as big as the Golden Hind. Not wishing to risk an action, Drake sailed on a long passage round the Cape of Good Hope. He did not anchor once until he reached Sierra Leone, where he stopped for water. Then he pushed on for Plymouth and arrived there on November 3, 1580. Captain Winter had long before returned in the Elizabeth with the news that Drake had vanished. The Golden Hind was a lost ship that had returned with a vast fortune in her hold. The amount of the treasure is a secret known only to Elizabeth and Drake as, before the official inventory was taken, Elizabeth told him to reimburse himself and reward his crew. Drake gave Elizabeth his private log of the voyage, and afterwards it disappeared. The queen knighted Drake at a banquet on board the Golden Hind at Deptford, and he was acknowledged as the greatest of her sea- Drake’s next voyage, in 1585, was in command of a fleet which included two Navy ships. The largest of these was the Elizabeth Bonaventure, of 600 tons. The remaining nineteen ships were privately owned. This force, far larger than any Drake had previously commanded, inflicted great damage in the Caribbean and returned home in 1586. News of the huge ships which Philip of Spain was building to attack England prompted Elizabeth to lend Drake four ships for his expedition to Spain in the following year, although the two countries were officially at peace. Drake sailed again in the Elizabeth Bonaventure with three other naval ships, the Dreadnought, 400 tons, the Rainbow, 500 tons, and the Golden Lion, 550 tons. The fleet totalled twenty- Rout of the Armada The attack on Cadiz was a magnificent feat, and was described as “singeing the King of Spain’s beard”. Drake sailed into the harbour and burned thousands of tons of shipping, thereby delaying the fitting out of the Armada. He sailed up the coasts of Spain and Portugal, inflicting further damage. Drake’s attacks in Spanish home waters delayed the sailing for that year, but in 1588 the Armada put to sea. Second in command to Lord Howard of Effingham, the Lord High Admiral, Drake played a leading part in the actions in the English Channel. In the Revenge he captured a huge galleon, which was sent into Torbay (Devon), where powder was taken from her and forwarded to the English fleet. Having rejoined the fleet, Drake fought the Spanish ships, which were shattered in the main action off Gravelines, near Dunkirk, France. When the English ships had to draw off for lack of powder the wind drove the Spaniards towards the shoals. A change of wind enabled the remnant of the Armada to steer up the North Sea. Storms wrecked many ships on the coasts of Scotland and Ireland, and only 9,000 of the 30,000 Spaniards who had embarked returned to Spain. The Armada marked the peak of Drake’s career. In the following year he sailed in the Revenge with a fleet of 180 vessels, the greatest fleet that had ever left England, for a combined naval and military attack to free Portugal from the Spaniards. Although the nucleus of a new Armada was destroyed, the main object was not attained. Drake’s last voyage began in 1595. He sailed with John Hawkins to the scene of his youthful adventures in the Caribbean. The expedition was fatal to both. Hawkins died of fever, and Drake died of dysentery on January 28, 1596. He was buried at sea off Porto Bello, the new city that the Spaniards had built west of Nombre de Dios. QUEEN ELIZABETH KNIGHTED DRAKE on board his ship the Golden Hind at Deptford, on the River Thames, on April 4, 1581. This illustration, after Gilbert, gives an impression of the splendour and importance of the scene. The first Englishman to sail round the world, Sir Francis Drake was acknowledged to be the greatest of Elizabeth's sea-	<urn:uuid:03046ede-7404-493b-a0e5-8facd8589a42>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://shippingwondersoftheworld.com/drake.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00358.warc.gz	en	0.985131	6,150	3.921875	4	[ 0.034099236130714417, 0.4437416195869446, 0.29549360275268555, -0.5604355335235596, -0.20925366878509521, -0.2863779067993164, 0.19793182611465454, 0.339049756526947, -0.15769460797309875, -0.2714015245437622, -0.14705795049667358, -0.6622200012207031, -0.06683380901813507, 0.3559591472148...	1	Although Sir Francis Drake was the second man - SIR FRANCIS DRAKE, the greatest of the Elizabethan mariners, is one of the fathers of British shipping and sea power. He asserted the right of English ships to sail in all the oceans; he defied the claim of the Spanish and the Portuguese to the greater part of the world; and he freed the seas from their domination. Drake was a pioneer naval strategist who acted on the principle that the enemy should be fought in enemy waters. Moreover, he was a practical seaman. He had been apprenticed to the sea, and he had a thorough knowledge of rigging and the method of navigation of those days. This enabled him to gain victories over vastly superior forces because the enemy ships were commanded by soldiers and not by sailors. DRAKE’S FLAGSHIP on his voyage round the world is represented by a fine model of the Golden Hind specially built for Navy Week displays at Plymouth. This model, built as closely as possible on the lines of Drake’s ship, sails well with a small crew. The original Golden Hind was preserved as a memorial at Deptford, on the Thames, for about a hundred years after Drake had returned from his historic voyage. The circumnavigation of the globe would be enough to place Drake among the greatest of the navigators; but Drake’s fame does not rest solely on this one voyage, important as it was. It was the second voyage of circumnavigation in the story of the sea. Magellan’s expedition, completed by the Victoria in 1522, was the first. As described in the chapter “The First Voyage Around the World”, Magellan was killed during the voyage. Drake, however, returned in 1580, alive and with a fortune in the hold of the Golden Hind. Thus he was the first admiral to sail round the world and return alive, and he gave the nation proof that English ships and mariners could go anywhere. At that time the ships of Spain and Portugal controlled the world’s sea routes. Drake proved the superiority of the smaller English ships with better seamen and better gunnery. The exact dimensions of his ship are not known. Originally known as the Pelican, she was renamed the Golden Hind. After her world voyage she was preserved for about a hundred years, at Deptford, on the Thames. Although she was riddled with shipworms when she returned, the Elizabethans preserved her, as she was to them what the Victory is to us now. The Golden Hind was a vessel of about 100 tons, probably 60 feet from stem to stern- She was armed with eighteen guns, comprising six cast iron 4½- The Revenge, Drake’s flagship in the actions against the Spanish Armada, was one of Queen Elizabeth’s ships, and was much more formidable. She was 92 feet in length, with a beam of 32 feet, a complement of 250 and a tonnage of 440. She came to a glorious end when, commanded by Sir Richard Grenville, she fought fifty- The Revenge was not the largest English ship in the fight against the Armada, for the Triumph, Frobisher’s flagship, was of 1,100 tons and carried 500 men and an armament of forty- The probable year of Drake’s birth was 1541. He was born near Tavistock, Devon, and was the eldest of the twelve children of Edmund Drake, a vigorous Protestant. Because of the struggle between Catholics and Protestants Edmund Drake left Devonshire and went to the Medway, where he was appointed Reader of Prayers to the Navy and was given an old hulk in which to live. In this floating home Drake spent part of his boyhood before his father secured a parish ashore. The father was poor, and Drake was apprenticed to the master of a vessel which traded to France and Zeeland, so that he ceased to depend upon his parents. In the Thames Estuary, the North Sea and the shoal- After a while the young, ambitious captain sold his vessel and returned to his native Devon to join in the sea ventures of his kinsmen, John and William Hawkins. He made his first voyage across the Atlantic in a ship commanded by a Captain Lovell, who was probably associated with the Hawkins family. At a town on the Spanish Main, Rio de la Hacha, there was some trouble with the Spaniards which caused loss to Drake and Lovell. When he returned to England, Drake joined John Hawkins, who was fitting out ships at Plymouth for a voyage to the Caribbean. Hawkins was then the most famous English merchant- SIR FRANCIS DRAKE was born near Tavistock, Devon, in 1541. Part of his boyhood was spent on the River Medway in Kent, where his father was Reader of Prayers to the Navy. After an apprenticeship in a trading vessel, Drake was given command and ownership of her. There followed voyages across the Atlantic, in which he experienced treachery at the hands of the Spaniards. His exploits in Central America brought him his first glimpse of the Pacific from a peak in Darien. The circumnavigation of the world was followed by exploits against Spain, the famous “singeing of the King of Spain’s beard” and the Armada. He sailed to the Caribbean on a voyage that proved to be his last. On January 23, 1596, Drake died; he was buried at sea near Nombre de Dios, the scene of his youthful adventures. The settlers needed the slaves to replace the natives whom they had exterminated, and Hawkins’s relations with the settlers were friendly. King Philip of Spain, however was furious. All the Englishmen except those who did not want to incur the anger of the Spanish king applauded Hawkins; many hastened, as Drake did, to join the next slave- Six vessels sailed from Plymouth, two of them, the Jesus of Lubeck, 700 tons, and the Minion, 250 tons, being naval ships. They were old ships that had been repaired at the expense of the shareholders in the expedition. The Jesus of Lubeck had been bought from Lubeck by Henry VIII as one of the “great ships” of his navy, and she and the Minion were obsolete when Elizabeth lent them to the expedition. The other four ships were the William and John, 150 tons, the Swallow, 100 tons, the Judith, 50 tons, and the Angel, 32 tons. Drake was only about twenty- Almost at the start of the expedition a gale badly damaged the Jesus of Lubeck. In Africa Hawkins embarked slaves; he then sailed to the Spanish Main and sold the slaves to settlers. He did not finish his transactions in time and was caught by a hurricane, suffering damage that entailed repairs in a harbour. So he put into the Mexican port of San Juan d’Ulua. Unluckily for him and for Drake, the ships were scarcely anchored before a Spanish fleet of thirteen ships, which had been warned to look for the English, appeared offshore. Hawkins seized the fort and refused to allow the Spanish fleet into harbour until the Spaniards signed an agreement not to attack him. The Spaniards agreed to this, but a few days later treacherously attacked the English. Drake, who was ashore, escaped by grabbing the bowsprit of the Judith, swinging himself on board and then working her out of the harbour. Hawkins gained the sea in the Minion and a third vessel got outside in such a condition that she had to be abandoned. The Jesus of Lubeck, with the money in her, was taken by the Spanish; other ships were sunk and many men were captured. The Judith and the Minion lost one another. Drake sailed into Plymouth with the news of the disaster and Hawkins arrived later in the Minion after a terrible voyage. Raid on Treasure Caravan This treacherous attack infuriated Drake. He vowed a private war against the Spaniards, and from then until his death he attacked them unrelentingly. The Spaniards regarded him and all the English as pirates. Drake followed the practice which allowed an English subject to recoup himself for losses due to nationals of a country not officially at war with England. He was distinguished for his chivalry to captives and not one act of cruelty can be laid against his name, whereas the Spaniards tortured or killed their English captives. The seafaring Spaniards admired his exploits as much as they resented the blunderings of their own incompetent soldiers afloat. Ruined by the treachery of the Spanish, Drake went to sea in royal ships for a time. Then he made a scouting voyage to the Caribbean with two ships, the Dragon and the Swan. He made a second voyage in the Swan, which was of only 25 tons and was handy for exploring coasts of which the Spanish held the secrets. On the coast of Darien (Panama), Drake established a base, which he called Port Pheasant. He discovered that the Spaniards shipped gold and silver from the Peruvian mines to Panama, and sent the treasure by mule train overland to Nombre de Dios, near the mouth of the Chagres River, on the Atlantic side of the isthmus. This was a much easier way than sending ships through the Strait of Magellan and up the west coast of South America to ship the gold and take it to Spain. After having captured a few Spanish vessels, Drake buried stores at Port Pheasant and returned to Plymouth to secure reinforcements. He came back to Port Pheasant in a 70- Drake arrived at Port Pheasant and saw a message written on a leaden plate fixed to a tree by a Plymouth man, warning him that some of the Spaniards he had freed had dug up his stores and taken them away. Drake built a stockade for defence, and then set up three pinnaces he had brought from England in sections. His shore adventures were numerous, and after several failures he made a successful raid on the treasure caravan. Drake joined forces with the Maroons, children of escaped negro slaves, who took him to a tree on the hills of the isthmus of Panama. There he prayed that one day he might sail an English ship in the sea he saw before him — the mighty Pacific Ocean. His lieutenant was the first Englishman to sail a vessel in the Pacific. This man, John Oxenham, later repeated Drake’s exploit of crossing the isthmus, and built two boats. He was afterwards captured and put to death by the Spaniards. Neither the Swan nor the Pasha returned to Plymouth. Drake caused the Swan to be scuttled secretly by the carpenter, Thomas Moone, so as not to hurt the feelings of John Drake, who had agreed to the destruction of his ship. John Drake and Joseph, another brother, both died during the expedition. Francis Drake afterwards broke up the Pasha and sailed home in a frigate he had captured. DRAKE’S VOYAGE ROUND THE WORLD is shown on these maps, reading from right to left. He started from Plymouth in December 1577, when the ships Pelican (later the Golden Hind), Elizabeth, Marigold, Swan and Benedict sailed ostensibly for Alexandria, Egypt. Once out of sight of land, Drake told his crews the true object of their voyage. Trouble was caused by Doughty, a gentleman adventurer, who after a full trial was executed at Port St. Julian, Patagonia. Only three ships, the Golden Hind, the Marigold and the Elizabeth hazarded the Strait of Magellan. A storm arose and the Marigold was lost with all hands. The Golden Hind was driven south and continued the voyage alone, for the captain of the Elizabeth thought Drake was lost and returned home in his ship. Drake captured much treasure and many Spanish ships in the Pacific. In an attempt to find the North- From the time of Drake’s return to the beginning of his voyage round the world he developed into a courtier, able to keep his head in the complicated intrigues of the day. He returned a man of fame and fortune. The adaptability which had enabled him to get the most out of his rough seamen made it possible for him to mix on equal terms with the foremost soldiers and statesmen and to win the ear of Elizabeth. At one time Drake commanded a vessel in the fleet Elizabeth sent to Ireland, and during this period Drake became friendly with Thomas Doughty, courtier, scholar and soldier. Drake was imbued with the ambition to reach the Pacific and attack Spain in waters where she never expected to find hostile ships. To do so he would have to pass through the Strait of Magellan, and no ship was known to have done that since the pioneer Magellan had struggled through. Drake knew that he could equal or even surpass the feats of Magellan. Some of the Queen’s advisers, notably Lord Treasurer Burleigh, regarded Drake as a dangerous adventurer likely to precipitate war with Spain, as they were not convinced that the Spaniards intended to make war upon England. General of a Squadron Elizabeth, wishing to keep the secret from Burleigh, promised Drake a thousand crowns and her secret support. The Queen became a shareholder in the expedition, which was going ostensibly to Alexandria, in Egypt. Doughty, who was jealous of Drake, told Burleigh as much as he knew, and then, with his brother, joined the venture as a gentleman volunteer. For the first time in his career Drake was in command of a squadron of five vessels as general, a term also used for admiral. His flagship was the Pelican, later renamed the Golden Hind. The vessel next to her in size was the Elizabeth, 80 tons, armed with sixteen guns and commanded by John Winter. Then came the Marigold, 30 tons, and a victualling ship of 50 tons named the Swan after Drake’s previous ship, commanded by John Thomas. Thomas Moone, Drake’s former carpenter, commanded the Benedict, a pinnace of only 15 tons. There were 164 souls in the squadron, including a chaplain, Francis Fletcher. Drake’s flagship was furnished for effect as well as for efficiency. His tableware was silver, there were fiddlers to provide music when he dined, and he had a page — his nephew John Drake — to stand behind his chair. The oak furniture of his cabin is preserved in Berkeley Castle, Gloucestershire, and Drake’s drum is at Buckland Abbey, Devon, the house he bought from Sir Richard Grenville in 1581. There was policy in this elaborate furnishing; he wanted visitors and prisoners of distinction to admire the display and magnificence of the English. Late in 1577 the ships sailed from Plymouth. A storm damaged them and compelled them to put back for repairs, and they did not finally leave England until the middle of December. When the land was below the horizon Drake told his crews that they were bound for the Pacific and not for the Levant. They captured several small vessels off the African coast, discarding the tiny Benedict for a 40- A FINE MODEL of the Golden Hind in Plymouth Harbour in 1936. Originally known as the Pelican, Drake’s famous ship had three masts and a long beak bow. Accurate dimensions are not known, but she was a vessel of about 100 tons, with a length of about 60 feet and a beam of 19 feet Her normal draught was about 9 feet, or 13 feet when fully laden. She carried eighteen guns and had a complement of over eighty. Then arose a point of discipline which was of great moment. Doughty and his fellow gentlemen adventurers were soldiers, and knew little of seamanship. The master or captain of the ship was responsible for the navigation and the crew, and Doughty represented that Drake had delegated his authority to himself. The trouble was increased when Doughty and the others played a rough joke on the trumpeter whom Drake had sent to the Pelican with a message. Drake resented this interference with his messenger, and sent Doughty to the Swan; made the master of that vessel responsible for him, and resumed command of the Pelican. During the long voyage across the Atlantic and southward down the coast towards the Strait of Magellan, the ships frequently lost sight of one another. They were delayed by foul winds and bad weather, and the crews were restless. Doughty was moved from one vessel to another, followed by a trail of discontent. After they had put in at various havens the vessels reached Port St. Julian, north of the entrance to the Strait. This was where Magellan had put down a mutiny nearly sixty years before; indeed, they found the stump of the gibbet he had erected. Here Doughty was charged with mutiny and treason before a jury. Doughty believed that Drake’s commission from Elizabeth giving him power of life and death would not be applied to himself, a gentleman adventurer and not a seaman. To convince the court of his standing with the powerful Burleigh he revealed that he had been to Burleigh and told him the plans of the voyage. This was a surprise for Drake. He called the others aside and told them the whole story. The court found Doughty guilty and condemned him to death. Doughty met his death bravely. His execution did not end the trouble between the gentlemen and the sailors. The gentlemen regarded Doughty as a martyr and the affair preyed on Drake’s mind for the rest of his life. He called the entire company together and told them that the bickering must stop. “I must have the gentleman to haul and draw with the mariner and the mariner with the gentleman”, he said. “I would know him that would refuse to set his hand to a rope”. He offered the Marigold to any who wished to return to England, adding the warning, “But let them take heed that they go homeward. For if I find them in my way I will surely sink them”. Nobody wanted to return. Drake then disrated all the ships’ officers, made an appeal to their patriotism, reinstated all the officers and prepared to resume the voyage. Drake’s handling of the knotty problem of whether sailor or soldier should command at sea established a precedent in England and led to the realization that the Navy was the premier arm. Drake sailed to the entrance of the strait, where he reduced the number of his ships to three. Here he renamed the Pelican the Golden Hind, after the crest of Sir Christopher Hatton, Captain of the Queen’s Guard, who was high in her favour and had helped to secure her interest in the venture. The two other ships were the Elizabeth and the Marigold. DRAKE’S ASTROLABE was not only an indispensable navigational instrument, but also a remarkably beautiful piece of workmanship. The astrolabe was used to take altitudes and to mark the positions of the sun, moon and stars. In the eighteenth century the astrolabe was superseded by the quadrant and later by the sextant. The three ships won through the strait to the Pacific, where a long ordeal awaited them. Storms drove them south into unknown waters, and one night a cry was heard. When morning dawned the Marigold was missing; she had been overwhelmed and sunk. The two surviving ships won back to the mouth of the strait and anchored to await a fair wind. Then a gale parted the cable of the Golden Hind and she had to beat off- The ordeal of the Golden Hind continued. At one place near the shore a boat Drake sent out with eight men and one day’s provisions was caught by a storm and failed to regain the ship. The men passed through the Strait of Magellan and went up the east coat to the mouth of the River Plate, where seven of them were killed by the Indians. The eighth man, John Carter, escaped, and, helped by the Portuguese, he reached England nine years later. Storms battered the Golden Hind and drove her south farther than any ship had been before, and Drake discovered the uttermost cape, later to be named Cape Horn by the first Dutchmen who sailed round it. He proved that the Atlantic and the Pacific met and that the Strait of Magellan was not a channel through land that stretched down to the South Pole, as had been thought. Drake was the first seaman to sight the cape which was to be the most famous corner of the World and a terror to all sailors until the cutting of the Panama Canal made an alternative route. He landed on one island, went to the edge of a cliff and told his men that he had been farther south than any other explorer. He named the islands the Elizabethides. “Our troubles did make an end, the storms ceased, and all our calamities (only the absence of our friends excepted) were removed,” writes Chaplain Pletcher. Drake found two islands where the voyagers obtained birds and revictualled, they steered north- A DRAWING FROM AN OLD ATLAS illustrating Drake's last voyage to the Caribbean in 1595- This incident was the last serious mishap. After having wasted some time searching for the Elizabeth, Drake sailed up the coast. In command of one vessel unencumbered by consorts Drake was at his best. Sailing so close to the shore that any person travelling on land could be seen from the ship, Drake began a series of raids on towns and the capture of ship after ship. At first the Golden Hind was mistaken for a Spanish ship and made easy captures, but later the news spread along the coast and Drake abandoned his prizes after he had transferred their contents to the Golden Hind. Then he sailed in search of the greatest prize, the treasure ship Cacafuego, which was carrying treasure to Panama from Peru. The ship was captured and Drake sailed out into the Pacific to be sure of no interruption when the treasure was transferred from the Cacafuego to the Golden Hind. He treated the Spanish captain, Juan de Anton, with courtesy, telling him that he was recouping himself for the losses that he and Hawkins had sustained. Thinking that Winter, captain of the Elizabeth, might be in the Pacific, Drake gave de Anton a letter of safe conduct lest Winter should attack him. The letter asked Winter to pay de Anton double the value of anything he needed from his ship and to use him well. Then he released the Spaniard and allowed him to sail to Panama. From the evidence of de Anton, of Francisco Zarate and of other Spanish prisoner- The ship was exceptionally well found and carpenters and caulkers were carried for repairs. There were also men who sketched the coast so accurately that anyone who followed Drake could be sure of the course. On Sundays Drake would put on his best clothes and the ship would be decked with flags and streamers. Among the officers was a Portuguese pilot whom Drake had taken from a ship captured off Africa because the pilot knew the Brazilian coast. This man, Nuno da Silva, was put on board a ship bound for Panama when Drake put into Guatulco, Mexico, the last port which he raided. After wards da Silva wrote narratives and depositions which shed light on the incidents of the voyage. Whenever Drake captured a ship he took her charts and her pilot, as was the practice of those days when the Spaniards and Portuguese kept their knowledge of the New World to themselves. After he had left Guatulco Drake considered his route home. He did not risk returning by the way he had come because he guessed that Spanish squadrons would be searching for him, so he sailed west by north for weeks, hoping to find the North- The Red Indians at first worshipped the visitors as gods and then invited Drake to be their king, and he took possession in the name of Elizabeth of what is now part of California. He called the country New Albion; but the annexation was not confirmed by settlement. When Drake sailed, the Red Indians lit beacons on the hills and crowded round as the Golden Hind began her long passage across the Pacific. In the East Indies the Sultan of Ternate sent canoes which towed the ship to a safe anchorage, while the Golden Hind towed the Sultan’s canoe and Drake’s musicians entertained him with music. The Sultan was friendly and offered Drake a treaty giving the English the right to trade in spices. Drake again refitted the ship and rested the crew and then sailed. He tried to go northward of the large island of Celebes, but was driven south by the wind into a maze of islands and reefs. A MEDALLION from a Map of Drake’s Voyages published in 1595 is quoted by Hakluyt as being interesting because it “is probably the only representation of the famous ship (the Golden Hind) now in existence”. The ship was sailed under reduced canvas until all dangers were apparently passed. Soon after full sail had been set she ran on to a reef and stuck fast. The men threw three tons of spices, eight guns and some stores overboard in vain. The ship was lodged on a shelf on the edge of water too deep to anchor and was kept there by the wind for twenty hours. Then the wind shifted, canvas was set and she moved into deep water. Drake then sailed to Java, where he was entertained by various rajahs and was told of the presence of ships as big as the Golden Hind. Not wishing to risk an action, Drake sailed on a long passage round the Cape of Good Hope. He did not anchor once until he reached Sierra Leone, where he stopped for water. Then he pushed on for Plymouth and arrived there on November 3, 1580. Captain Winter had long before returned in the Elizabeth with the news that Drake had vanished. The Golden Hind was a lost ship that had returned with a vast fortune in her hold. The amount of the treasure is a secret known only to Elizabeth and Drake as, before the official inventory was taken, Elizabeth told him to reimburse himself and reward his crew. Drake gave Elizabeth his private log of the voyage, and afterwards it disappeared. The queen knighted Drake at a banquet on board the Golden Hind at Deptford, and he was acknowledged as the greatest of her sea- Drake’s next voyage, in 1585, was in command of a fleet which included two Navy ships. The largest of these was the Elizabeth Bonaventure, of 600 tons. The remaining nineteen ships were privately owned. This force, far larger than any Drake had previously commanded, inflicted great damage in the Caribbean and returned home in 1586. News of the huge ships which Philip of Spain was building to attack England prompted Elizabeth to lend Drake four ships for his expedition to Spain in the following year, although the two countries were officially at peace. Drake sailed again in the Elizabeth Bonaventure with three other naval ships, the Dreadnought, 400 tons, the Rainbow, 500 tons, and the Golden Lion, 550 tons. The fleet totalled twenty- Rout of the Armada The attack on Cadiz was a magnificent feat, and was described as “singeing the King of Spain’s beard”. Drake sailed into the harbour and burned thousands of tons of shipping, thereby delaying the fitting out of the Armada. He sailed up the coasts of Spain and Portugal, inflicting further damage. Drake’s attacks in Spanish home waters delayed the sailing for that year, but in 1588 the Armada put to sea. Second in command to Lord Howard of Effingham, the Lord High Admiral, Drake played a leading part in the actions in the English Channel. In the Revenge he captured a huge galleon, which was sent into Torbay (Devon), where powder was taken from her and forwarded to the English fleet. Having rejoined the fleet, Drake fought the Spanish ships, which were shattered in the main action off Gravelines, near Dunkirk, France. When the English ships had to draw off for lack of powder the wind drove the Spaniards towards the shoals. A change of wind enabled the remnant of the Armada to steer up the North Sea. Storms wrecked many ships on the coasts of Scotland and Ireland, and only 9,000 of the 30,000 Spaniards who had embarked returned to Spain. The Armada marked the peak of Drake’s career. In the following year he sailed in the Revenge with a fleet of 180 vessels, the greatest fleet that had ever left England, for a combined naval and military attack to free Portugal from the Spaniards. Although the nucleus of a new Armada was destroyed, the main object was not attained. Drake’s last voyage began in 1595. He sailed with John Hawkins to the scene of his youthful adventures in the Caribbean. The expedition was fatal to both. Hawkins died of fever, and Drake died of dysentery on January 28, 1596. He was buried at sea off Porto Bello, the new city that the Spaniards had built west of Nombre de Dios. QUEEN ELIZABETH KNIGHTED DRAKE on board his ship the Golden Hind at Deptford, on the River Thames, on April 4, 1581. This illustration, after Gilbert, gives an impression of the splendour and importance of the scene. The first Englishman to sail round the world, Sir Francis Drake was acknowledged to be the greatest of Elizabeth's sea-	6,168	ENGLISH	1
After I finished readingUncle Tom’s Cabin,It felt like I just finished watching a movie and I myself was a character in the movie, which clearly disclose the nature of capitalism. Meanwhile, this book reconfirmed a thought that the prosperity of some capitalist countries is based on the unknowns’ sacrifice. The story in the article is mainly about this, a slaveholder had to sell his two slaves, one of whom named Tom, to pay debt. Faced to this kind of miserable life and being a slave who is loyal to his owner, Tom never thought to run away, because he, a real believer in Christianity, had decided to pursue to be an honest man all his life. Tom’s new owner made him live a more unbearable life, what’s worse, Tom didn’t change his mind. Until the last second Tom’s last owner regretted his decision and wanted to bail Tom out, but, unfortunately, Tom died of that kind of misery. This article analyzes the characteristics of loyalty, kindness and generosity embodied in Uncle Tom who was full of kindness was the true hero in the history of American novels, it also points out that Tom was very tolerant and weak to the cruelty of slavery and that the black must fight back to gain freedom. Though died of slaveholders’ persecution, Tom was a winner in the spirit, which in defiance of the physical injure , perhaps as such, Tom got the right to enjoy his dream life in the heaven. As a white, Mrs. Stow wrote this article, the greatest anti-slavery work of America in the 19thcentury, to express her idea to appeal the people in the south to stand up to fight against the slavery sustained in the South of America, everybody in America, including the white, should sympathize with those black slaves on their miserable fate. Nowadays, people still regard Tom as a symbol of never giving up pursuing to realize his value. Tom did not give up his belief regardless of the unbearable destiny, and he proved us that the black were self-governed individualities, not born to slaves working for the white. To some extent, it is safe to draw the conclusion that Tom would be the heretical model at all events.	<urn:uuid:fb53c99c-9e89-4923-b69a-9d0388d19fed>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.lz13.cn/duhougan/49574.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00199.warc.gz	en	0.984753	463	3.53125	4	[ -0.40204450488090515, 0.58396315574646, -0.13000772893428802, -0.06405482441186905, 0.02806730568408966, 0.12654121220111847, 0.28126898407936096, -0.10889488458633423, 0.37863388657569885, -0.05122801661491394, 0.25610876083374023, 0.01658887416124344, -0.15535452961921692, 0.143714666366...	2	After I finished readingUncle Tom’s Cabin,It felt like I just finished watching a movie and I myself was a character in the movie, which clearly disclose the nature of capitalism. Meanwhile, this book reconfirmed a thought that the prosperity of some capitalist countries is based on the unknowns’ sacrifice. The story in the article is mainly about this, a slaveholder had to sell his two slaves, one of whom named Tom, to pay debt. Faced to this kind of miserable life and being a slave who is loyal to his owner, Tom never thought to run away, because he, a real believer in Christianity, had decided to pursue to be an honest man all his life. Tom’s new owner made him live a more unbearable life, what’s worse, Tom didn’t change his mind. Until the last second Tom’s last owner regretted his decision and wanted to bail Tom out, but, unfortunately, Tom died of that kind of misery. This article analyzes the characteristics of loyalty, kindness and generosity embodied in Uncle Tom who was full of kindness was the true hero in the history of American novels, it also points out that Tom was very tolerant and weak to the cruelty of slavery and that the black must fight back to gain freedom. Though died of slaveholders’ persecution, Tom was a winner in the spirit, which in defiance of the physical injure , perhaps as such, Tom got the right to enjoy his dream life in the heaven. As a white, Mrs. Stow wrote this article, the greatest anti-slavery work of America in the 19thcentury, to express her idea to appeal the people in the south to stand up to fight against the slavery sustained in the South of America, everybody in America, including the white, should sympathize with those black slaves on their miserable fate. Nowadays, people still regard Tom as a symbol of never giving up pursuing to realize his value. Tom did not give up his belief regardless of the unbearable destiny, and he proved us that the black were self-governed individualities, not born to slaves working for the white. To some extent, it is safe to draw the conclusion that Tom would be the heretical model at all events.	448	ENGLISH	1
April 2, 1979 — Anthrax began to spread through the town of Sverdlovsk (now called Yekaterinburg) in the Ural Mountains, beginning an epidemic that some would call the “biological Chernobyl.” By April 4, one died from exposure to anthrax and it was initially claimed as pneumonia — in reality, spores were beginning to wreak havoc throughout the local population. In the ensuing months, Soviets would claim the deaths of 64 people, though later journalists and other reports would indicate a number closer to 100. The last recorded death was on June 12, and several different stories regarding the cause of the outbreak began to emerge. Anthrax can occur naturally. It shows up in poorer areas, and though rare, if it does occur naturally it generally comes from working closely with animals, from spores in the ground that have been unearthed, or from contaminated meat that has not been adequately cooked. The last on that list is what the Soviets initially told the world. They said that contaminated meat from infected cattle had been circulated among the townspeople of Sverdlovsk, causing the outbreak. In 1992, Russian President Boris Yeltsin admitted that the anthrax outbreak was caused by mismanagement of the substance in a military facility that was trying to develop biological weapons. 13 years had passed, and during that time the world had criticized the Soviets, accusing them of covering something up — the unusual admission sprung forth an investigation from a team of western scientists led by Dr. Matthew Meselson (a geneticist and molecular biologist from Harvard), who would visit Russia to find the root of the outbreak. It would take them over ten years to conclude their findings. Mapping out the locations of those who fell sick, they were able to discern a pattern and confirm President Yeltsin’s statement: the casualties were all downwind from the military biological weapons facility, including livestock casualties. The wind actually blew away from the main population of Sverdlovsk, and would have caused significantly more damage had it blown in the opposite direction — some estimates say up to hundreds of thousands of people could have perished. To prevent the anthrax spores from leaking to the outside world, filters were installed in the military facility to block their escape. However, due to some mismanagement and confusion, a filter was removed and not reinstalled. This is what is generally accepted as the cause of the outbreak. Some people have some theories of their own — Pyotr Burgasov, Soviet immunologist, epidemiologist, professor and chief state sanitary doctor of the USSR, said that, “When in a secret laboratory the corpses were examined, four strains of anthrax were identified. Two of which are found only in Canada, the other two are only in South Africa … somebody brought these pathogens to Sverdlovsk and sprayed them there for a month and a half .” Others throughout the Soviet Union, and Russia later, would say that it was an act of terrorism by American intelligence personnel. However, to everyone else, the investigation was concluded and the world was reminded of the sheer, daunting power of biological weapons — and how simple mismanagement can easily cost many lives. Featured image: modern day Yekaterinburg, 900 miles east of Moscow. \| AP Photo/ Alexei Vladykin	<urn:uuid:8b9217d3-cb1c-4e5f-9f5c-c4abcfc8d3e2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://sofrep.com/news/on-this-day-in-history-russian-anthrax-outbreak/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00291.warc.gz	en	0.98532	682	3.296875	3	[ -0.05406561493873596, 0.11051197350025177, 0.07034268975257874, -0.0001389654353260994, 0.5522743463516235, -0.4307144284248352, 0.004120795987546444, 0.2639435827732086, -0.3201901912689209, -0.14594319462776184, 0.27525579929351807, -0.3224285840988159, -0.07284153997898102, 0.1718174368...	1	April 2, 1979 — Anthrax began to spread through the town of Sverdlovsk (now called Yekaterinburg) in the Ural Mountains, beginning an epidemic that some would call the “biological Chernobyl.” By April 4, one died from exposure to anthrax and it was initially claimed as pneumonia — in reality, spores were beginning to wreak havoc throughout the local population. In the ensuing months, Soviets would claim the deaths of 64 people, though later journalists and other reports would indicate a number closer to 100. The last recorded death was on June 12, and several different stories regarding the cause of the outbreak began to emerge. Anthrax can occur naturally. It shows up in poorer areas, and though rare, if it does occur naturally it generally comes from working closely with animals, from spores in the ground that have been unearthed, or from contaminated meat that has not been adequately cooked. The last on that list is what the Soviets initially told the world. They said that contaminated meat from infected cattle had been circulated among the townspeople of Sverdlovsk, causing the outbreak. In 1992, Russian President Boris Yeltsin admitted that the anthrax outbreak was caused by mismanagement of the substance in a military facility that was trying to develop biological weapons. 13 years had passed, and during that time the world had criticized the Soviets, accusing them of covering something up — the unusual admission sprung forth an investigation from a team of western scientists led by Dr. Matthew Meselson (a geneticist and molecular biologist from Harvard), who would visit Russia to find the root of the outbreak. It would take them over ten years to conclude their findings. Mapping out the locations of those who fell sick, they were able to discern a pattern and confirm President Yeltsin’s statement: the casualties were all downwind from the military biological weapons facility, including livestock casualties. The wind actually blew away from the main population of Sverdlovsk, and would have caused significantly more damage had it blown in the opposite direction — some estimates say up to hundreds of thousands of people could have perished. To prevent the anthrax spores from leaking to the outside world, filters were installed in the military facility to block their escape. However, due to some mismanagement and confusion, a filter was removed and not reinstalled. This is what is generally accepted as the cause of the outbreak. Some people have some theories of their own — Pyotr Burgasov, Soviet immunologist, epidemiologist, professor and chief state sanitary doctor of the USSR, said that, “When in a secret laboratory the corpses were examined, four strains of anthrax were identified. Two of which are found only in Canada, the other two are only in South Africa … somebody brought these pathogens to Sverdlovsk and sprayed them there for a month and a half .” Others throughout the Soviet Union, and Russia later, would say that it was an act of terrorism by American intelligence personnel. However, to everyone else, the investigation was concluded and the world was reminded of the sheer, daunting power of biological weapons — and how simple mismanagement can easily cost many lives. Featured image: modern day Yekaterinburg, 900 miles east of Moscow. \| AP Photo/ Alexei Vladykin	691	ENGLISH	1
Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, fulfilling the dream of his father. Instead, Parliament functioned as a temporary advisory committee and was summoned only if and when the monarch saw fit. Yet, in spite of this limited role, over the preceding centuries Parliament had acquired de facto powers of enough significance that monarchs could not simply ignore them indefinitely. This meant that if the king wanted to ensure a smooth collection of revenue, he needed the co-operation of the gentry. James's accession meant that the three separate kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland were now united, for the first time, under a single monarch. James was the first Stuart ruler of England. August James I ends the war with Spain One of James I's first acts of foreign policy was to end the long war with Spain, which had continued intermittently for 20 years. The resulting Treaty of London was largely favourable to Spain, but was also an acknowledgement by the Spanish that their hopes of bringing England under Spanish control were over. The end of the war greatly eased the English government's near bankrupt financial state. England and Spain were at peace for the next 50 years. The plot was discovered before it could be carried out. The conspirators, including Guy Fawkes after whom the plot is often known, were either killed resisting arrest, or captured and then executed by being hanged, drawn and quartered. But inthe new lord deputy, Arthur Chichester, began to restrict their authority. Fearing arrest, the two fled to the continent with 90 family members and followers - the 'Flight of the Earls'. Protestants from England and Scotland were encouraged to move to Ulster, cultivate the land and establish towns. These 'planters' moved onto land confiscated from its Gaelic Catholic inhabitants. The plantation was often organised through guilds and corporations. The London companies were granted the city of Derry, thereafter known as Londonderry. It became the most famous English translation of the scriptures and had a profound impact on the English language. Six years later, Frederick was elected king of Bohemia, but he and Elizabeth were driven out of the country by Catholic forces soon afterwards. It was through Elizabeth's descendants that the House of Hanover came to inherit the English throne. However, over the course of the 17th century their status gradually shifted so that more and more became slaves. Race-based slavery soon became central to the economy of the British colonies in North America. They became known as the 'Pilgrim Fathers', and are often portrayed as the founders of modern America. Jamestown was established on behalf of the London Company, which hoped to make a profit from the new colony for its shareholders. He was succeeded by his only surviving son, Charles, then years-old, who was proclaimed as king at the gates of Theobalds a few hours later. He returned two years later with a group of settlers and Barbados was developed into a sugar plantation economy using at first indentured servants and then slaves captured in West Africa. Despite his best efforts, Buckingham was eventually forced to evacuate the island amid scenes of chaos and confusion. While conferring with his officers, Buckingham was stabbed by John Felton, a discontented former soldier. The duke was immensely unpopular and few apart from the king mourned his death. Eight days later, Charles dissolved the assembly and embarked on a period of government without parliaments, known as the 'Personal Rule'. The measure backfired badly when, at St Giles church in Edinburgh, an angry crowd protested against the book, shouting: The General Assembly of the Kirk declared episcopacy bishops abolished and Charles prepared to send troops into Scotland to restore order. At first, there seemed a good chance that members of parliament might be prepared to set their resentments of the king's domestic policies aside and agree to grant him money. Yet such hopes proved illusory, and Charles was forced to dissolve the parliament within a month. Charging across the river under cover of artillery fire, the Scots swiftly put the English infantry to flight. Charles was forced to agree to a humiliating truce. But instead of providing the king with financial assistance, many of the members of parliament - some of whom were zealous Protestants, or Puritans - used it to voice angry complaints against his policies. October Rebellion breaks out in Ireland In lateIreland rebelled. The country's Catholic inhabitants were simultaneously appalled by the prospect of a Puritan parliament achieving political dominance in England, and entranced by the possibility of seizing concessions similar to those which had been won by the Scots. Several thousand English and Scottish Protestant settlers were killed and many more were forced to flee. Forewarned, they slipped away and Charles was forced to leave empty-handed. Thus a new front in the developing English Civil War was opened, with the Cornishmen becoming some of the king's toughest soldiers. The struggle that followed was bloody but indecisive, putting paid to hopes that the English Civil War might be settled by a single battle. The so-called 'cessation of arms' outraged the king's English opponents. By the terms of the treaty the Scots agreed to send a powerful army to fight Charles I, in return for church reform in England 'according to the word of God', that is, in keeping with Scottish Protestantism.The history of New England pertains to the New England region of North America in the United States. New England is the oldest clearly defined region of the United States, and it predates the American Revolution by more than years. The English Pilgrims were Puritans fleeing religious persecution in England who established Plymouth Colony in , the first colony in New England and second. Under invitation by leaders of the English Commonwealth, Charles II, the exiled king of England, lands at Dover, England, to assume the throne and end 11 years of military rule. Prince of Wales at. Elizabeth I died childless so was succeeded by her cousin, James VI of Scotland, who henceforth assumed the title of James I of England as well. Beginnings to A.D. -Leif Ericson, a Viking seaman, explores the east coast of North America and sights Newfoundland, establishing a short-lived settlement there.. - The Magna Carta document is adopted in England, guaranteeing liberties to the English people, and proclaiming basic rights and procedures which later become the foundation stone of modern democracy. Chapter 3: Revolution. Introduction. The sixteenth century had seen significant developments in the provision of education in England, brought about largely as a . The English Civil War (–) was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians ("Roundheads") and Royalists ("Cavaliers") over, principally, the manner of England's initiativeblog.comon: Kingdoms of England, Ireland and Scotland.	<urn:uuid:744770db-7766-4163-b335-cd97de3ecc53>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gerevij.initiativeblog.com/a-history-of-the-puritan-revolution-from-1640-to-1660-in-england-28438cn.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00253.warc.gz	en	0.980766	1,405	4.0625	4	[ -0.1801123321056366, 0.2288072556257248, 0.65711909532547, -0.19559267163276672, 0.013340129517018795, -0.31591421365737915, -0.20101365447044373, -0.2590630054473877, 0.2793325185775757, -0.11434878408908844, -0.05543981492519379, -0.44993728399276733, -0.021800026297569275, 0.24512018263...	3	Charles hoped to unite the kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland into a new single kingdom, fulfilling the dream of his father. Instead, Parliament functioned as a temporary advisory committee and was summoned only if and when the monarch saw fit. Yet, in spite of this limited role, over the preceding centuries Parliament had acquired de facto powers of enough significance that monarchs could not simply ignore them indefinitely. This meant that if the king wanted to ensure a smooth collection of revenue, he needed the co-operation of the gentry. James's accession meant that the three separate kingdoms of England, Scotland and Ireland were now united, for the first time, under a single monarch. James was the first Stuart ruler of England. August James I ends the war with Spain One of James I's first acts of foreign policy was to end the long war with Spain, which had continued intermittently for 20 years. The resulting Treaty of London was largely favourable to Spain, but was also an acknowledgement by the Spanish that their hopes of bringing England under Spanish control were over. The end of the war greatly eased the English government's near bankrupt financial state. England and Spain were at peace for the next 50 years. The plot was discovered before it could be carried out. The conspirators, including Guy Fawkes after whom the plot is often known, were either killed resisting arrest, or captured and then executed by being hanged, drawn and quartered. But inthe new lord deputy, Arthur Chichester, began to restrict their authority. Fearing arrest, the two fled to the continent with 90 family members and followers - the 'Flight of the Earls'. Protestants from England and Scotland were encouraged to move to Ulster, cultivate the land and establish towns. These 'planters' moved onto land confiscated from its Gaelic Catholic inhabitants. The plantation was often organised through guilds and corporations. The London companies were granted the city of Derry, thereafter known as Londonderry. It became the most famous English translation of the scriptures and had a profound impact on the English language. Six years later, Frederick was elected king of Bohemia, but he and Elizabeth were driven out of the country by Catholic forces soon afterwards. It was through Elizabeth's descendants that the House of Hanover came to inherit the English throne. However, over the course of the 17th century their status gradually shifted so that more and more became slaves. Race-based slavery soon became central to the economy of the British colonies in North America. They became known as the 'Pilgrim Fathers', and are often portrayed as the founders of modern America. Jamestown was established on behalf of the London Company, which hoped to make a profit from the new colony for its shareholders. He was succeeded by his only surviving son, Charles, then years-old, who was proclaimed as king at the gates of Theobalds a few hours later. He returned two years later with a group of settlers and Barbados was developed into a sugar plantation economy using at first indentured servants and then slaves captured in West Africa. Despite his best efforts, Buckingham was eventually forced to evacuate the island amid scenes of chaos and confusion. While conferring with his officers, Buckingham was stabbed by John Felton, a discontented former soldier. The duke was immensely unpopular and few apart from the king mourned his death. Eight days later, Charles dissolved the assembly and embarked on a period of government without parliaments, known as the 'Personal Rule'. The measure backfired badly when, at St Giles church in Edinburgh, an angry crowd protested against the book, shouting: The General Assembly of the Kirk declared episcopacy bishops abolished and Charles prepared to send troops into Scotland to restore order. At first, there seemed a good chance that members of parliament might be prepared to set their resentments of the king's domestic policies aside and agree to grant him money. Yet such hopes proved illusory, and Charles was forced to dissolve the parliament within a month. Charging across the river under cover of artillery fire, the Scots swiftly put the English infantry to flight. Charles was forced to agree to a humiliating truce. But instead of providing the king with financial assistance, many of the members of parliament - some of whom were zealous Protestants, or Puritans - used it to voice angry complaints against his policies. October Rebellion breaks out in Ireland In lateIreland rebelled. The country's Catholic inhabitants were simultaneously appalled by the prospect of a Puritan parliament achieving political dominance in England, and entranced by the possibility of seizing concessions similar to those which had been won by the Scots. Several thousand English and Scottish Protestant settlers were killed and many more were forced to flee. Forewarned, they slipped away and Charles was forced to leave empty-handed. Thus a new front in the developing English Civil War was opened, with the Cornishmen becoming some of the king's toughest soldiers. The struggle that followed was bloody but indecisive, putting paid to hopes that the English Civil War might be settled by a single battle. The so-called 'cessation of arms' outraged the king's English opponents. By the terms of the treaty the Scots agreed to send a powerful army to fight Charles I, in return for church reform in England 'according to the word of God', that is, in keeping with Scottish Protestantism.The history of New England pertains to the New England region of North America in the United States. New England is the oldest clearly defined region of the United States, and it predates the American Revolution by more than years. The English Pilgrims were Puritans fleeing religious persecution in England who established Plymouth Colony in , the first colony in New England and second. Under invitation by leaders of the English Commonwealth, Charles II, the exiled king of England, lands at Dover, England, to assume the throne and end 11 years of military rule. Prince of Wales at. Elizabeth I died childless so was succeeded by her cousin, James VI of Scotland, who henceforth assumed the title of James I of England as well. Beginnings to A.D. -Leif Ericson, a Viking seaman, explores the east coast of North America and sights Newfoundland, establishing a short-lived settlement there.. - The Magna Carta document is adopted in England, guaranteeing liberties to the English people, and proclaiming basic rights and procedures which later become the foundation stone of modern democracy. Chapter 3: Revolution. Introduction. The sixteenth century had seen significant developments in the provision of education in England, brought about largely as a . The English Civil War (–) was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians ("Roundheads") and Royalists ("Cavaliers") over, principally, the manner of England's initiativeblog.comon: Kingdoms of England, Ireland and Scotland.	1,393	ENGLISH	1
\|Warfare Home History Glossary Guides Publishers Artists Techniques Topicals Blog Contact\| Belligerents and Participants The Balkans had seen a lot of unrest for centuries, fought over between the Austrians and the Turks as various ethnic groups sought more autonomy. Serbia was one of the first to wrestle itself away from the Ottoman Empire, and in 1882 it declared itself a kingdom. It had a friendly relationship with Austria-Hungary until the ruling family was assassinated by elements of the Radical Party in May 1903. The new Serbian leadership under Prime Minister Nikola Pasic was not only openly pro-Russian; he looked aside as extreme nationalist organizations began to grow. Nationalists began to support a vision of a greater Serbia that would unite all the surrounding Serbs and people who did not yet think of themselves as Serbs. This put Serbia in direct conflict with the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which also coveted these very same lands. After the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina broke free of Ottoman rule, they fell under the administration of Austria-Hungary. Fearing both Turkish and Serbian claims over the region, Austria-Hungary decided to directly annex Bosnia and Herzegovina into their empire in October 1908. As both Serbia and Montenegro began mobilizing for war, Austria-Hungry politically isolated the Serbs who only found some eventual backing from Russia. When Germany applied pressure on the Russians they backed down and Serbia was reluctantly forced to recognize the annexation in March 1910. This however fueled radical nationalists, the most influential of these secret societies being the Black Hand that formed within the Serbian military and sought a pan-Slav empire by any means. When Serbia began seizing Ottoman territory of its own during the First Balkan War of 1912, it was Austria-Hungary’s turn to be enraged. While there were calls to militarily intervene, Russia was again supporting the position of its fellow Slavs while Germany was in the process of reorganizing its military and could not offer Austria-Hungary any assistance. Further conflict was immediately avoided but Austria-Hungary did not give up on its ambitions over the region. In June 1914 the Black Hand recruited members of a sympathetic organization, Young Bosnia to assassinate the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand. How much of this Prime Minister Pasic knew remains unclear but Serbia was blamed when the Archduke was killed in Sarajevo on June 28th. Germany had finished reorganizing its army by this time and while they publicly called for moderation they urged the Emperor Franz Joseph to put Serbia in its place. Austrian generals such as Conrad von Hotzendorf had been hoping to add Serbia to the Hapsburg Empire since the Bosnian crisis of 1908. Free to be more aggressive, Austria then placed a number of odious demands on Serbia. Hoping to divert war, Pasic agreed to all of Austria’s terms except those that directly challenged Serbia’s sovereignty. When Pasic suggested these differences be arbitrated by The Hague, Austria-Hungary declared war on July 28, 1914. Had the Austro-Hungarian Army been ready to act, this conflict might have been over fairly quickly and not expanded into the Great War. Instead Russia was given enough time to significantly mobilize to the point of worrying Germany who then declared war on August 1st. When the Austro-Hungarian army finally crossed into Serbia, it was so weakened by diverting troops to fight the Russian in Galicia that they were no longer capable of overpowering the mobilized Serbians. Not only was this first August offensive quickly thrown back, Serbia launched its own invasion of Syrmia hoping to cut the flow of enemy troops to the Russian Front. Although a new and larger Austro-Hungarian offensive forced the Serbs to evacuate Syrmia, the heavy fighting that occurred at the Battle of Jadar forced them back once more. A third offensive against Serbia was launched in November, which advanced as far as Belgrade but the Austro-Hungarian army extended itself too far. When the Serbians counterattacked the Austro-Hungarian defenses broke and they fled back across the Danube. Austria-Hungary lost interest in finishing off Serbia when it became overly involved in fighting the Russians. This posed a problem for Germany because Serbia blocked the supply route to the Ottoman Empire depriving the Germans of raw materials and the Turks of weapons. They agreed to help Austria-Hungary launch a fourth offensive against Serbia, which was to be reinforced by Bulgaria who was just persuaded to join the Central Powers. This new alliance made all the differing when they delivered an attack in October 1915. By this time the typhus epidemic that had been running through Serbia had hit its army striking down half its troops. Now unable to form a solid defense against attacks from the north and east, the Serb army finally broke. The Serbs made attempts to join up with Allied forces slowly moving up from Salonika but this failed as the Bulgarians swept in. The Central Powers however were unable to surround the Serbs as they had hoped. After a series of defeats the exhausted Serbian army chose to flee across Albania and Montenegro were they could be rescued by Allied ships in the Adriatic. The winter was particularly harsh and the retreat caused horrendous hardships to both soldiers and refugees alike. It also slowed the enemy pursuit, which failed to surround them, and they were evacuated to Italy, Sardinia, but mainly to the Greek island of Corfu that was controlled by the French. It was there that Prime Minister Pasic set up a government in exile. It would take some time for the Serb army still stricken with typhus to recover and rejoin the war effort. While Serbia was in no position to produce postcards, many German and Austro-Hungarian publishers covered the events of the Balkan Front from their perspective, which emphasized the long hard Serbian retreat over the rugged Prokletije Mountains. When the Serb army began arriving on Corfu in January 1916 t was not an end to their ordeal. So many were being ferried over that there was no way to properly take care of this unexpected flow of exiles. Lack of shelter, food, and medical supplies all contributed to many deaths. Many were stricken with contagious decease, which caused them to be quarantined on the small island of Vido at the mouth of Corfu’s harbor. Its rocky soil couldn’t accommodate all the dead, and so thousands were buried at sea. Since conditions on Corfu did not enhance the propaganda war, most postcards of life here are most likely to be found on real photo cards or charity cards issued by the Red Cross of other nations. During Serbia’s long occupation by the Central Powers, many troops were not only stationed there to keep order, many also passed through its territory on the way to other fronts. This led to the production of many postcards, both artist drawn and real photo that captured this large foreign presence. While some of these are posed shots, other just display snippets of everyday military life without much implied meaning. These primarily served as fieldpost cards for use by occupation troops. Occupation meant something entirely different for the Serbian people. With the entire country under enemy control, there were no Serbian publishers to depict the atrocities enacted against them as there were in France. Resistance in Serbia was real, and past animosities led to brutality on both sides. Partisans became a constant menace, and when they believed the French were advancing out of Salonika they rose up in an organized revolt under the leadership of Kosta Vijinovic. Serbians fighting in the Toplica Rebellion of early 1917 managed to seize territory, but the Allied offensive against Bulgarian did not begin until March, and by that time the insurrection had been suppressed with the help of Austro-Hungarian forces. Thousands were killed and a more brutal occupation followed. The Allied army, which included newly arrived Serbian forces, never broke through the Bulgarian lines; the Battle of Monastire ended in their defeat. Some images of hangings and mass executions were leaked out and produced as photo-based cards, but these are rare. More cards were probably published in Germany or Austria depicting Serbian Franktireurs being gathered up as prisoners. This reinforced the idea that the occupying troops were not safe around these uncivilized people, so they deserved all the mistreatment and violence that came their way. Even so, resistance was never presented as a large scale problem, and so the scope of the retaliation was not well publicized. Atrocities had reached near genocidal proportions duding the earlier Balkan Wars, and this ethnic violence continued into the Great War. By War’s end, Serbia suffered the largest number of casualties in proportion to the size of its population. Once Greece entered the war in June of 1917, the Serbian army in exile landed at Salonika and took part in the Allied offensives against Bulgaria. Progress on this Front was finally made in September 1918 when Bulgarian defenses were breached and an armistice was signed. By the end of the war the Serbian army had reoccupied all of Serbia and Montenegro, but they returned to a devastated kingdom. While the Allies pushed further north, there supply lines were stretched so thin they could not open a new front despite the lack of resistance. At the end of 1918 the Austrian territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina formed into the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. Despite objections to Serbian occupation, Montenegro also united with Serbia, and by December they had all united into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia) under the Serbian King Peter I. Pasic, who never wanted a partnership among equals, continued to struggle to exert exclusive Serbian control over the new entity. While postcards from the Balkan Front are not as plentiful as they are from other regions, there are many that depict activities within Serbia. Most of these were published in Austria as well as in Germany, and graphic battle scenes abound. Serbia did not have much of a postcard industry of their own before the War, so events here are usually portrayed through the biased eyes of outsiders. The Austrians in particular published many scenes of the Serbian army retreating in disarray, while the French often produced cards of the Serb evacuation onto Allied ships. It was not uncommon for the publishers of all nations to produce some cards depicting their allies, especially early in the War. Photo-based cards tend to be very generic, often showing little more than troops on the march, gathered in camp or posing with equipment such as large guns. Political cartoons exist as well but are also often little more than expressions of generic victories based more on wishful thinking than reality. The card above was printed in the United States from a photo provided by a stock news agency. Rista Marjanović already had a reputation as a war photographer from his work during the Balkan Wars when the Great War began. He became one of many to be chosen by the government to document this conflict, and he followed the army through its retreat through Albania. While the fall of Serbia to the Central Powers made it impossible to publish postcards in his homeland, his work traveled to France for an exhibition at the Paris Salon in 1916. His images of war were then published on French postcards. Marjanović also photographed atrocities committed by the Austro-Hungarians against Serbian prisoners of war. Some of these images were turned into real photo postcards but these types of cards usually lack accreditation. Sampson Tchernoff was a Russian photographer that began covering military campaigns with the First Balkan War in 1912, work that extended through the Serbian retreat through Albania in 1915 during the First World War. Many of these images were reproduced on postcards issued in a set entitled, The Five Years War. Tchernoff also put his talents toward painting, producing portraits of Serb leaders and ordinary soldiers that were reproduced on French made postcards titled in English. They were obviously made to generate Allied support for Serbia rather than for a Serbian audience that had fallen under enemy occupation.	<urn:uuid:757ef933-5c19-4d43-8b13-714abc185aae>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.metropostcard.com/war7b-serbia.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00074.warc.gz	en	0.985567	2,471	3.875	4	[ -0.3028372824192047, 0.5132733583450317, 0.14085425436496735, 0.07364235818386078, -0.04475921392440796, -0.17356543242931366, 0.3124721944332123, 0.27431708574295044, 0.2651342749595642, 0.0469302162528038, 0.2635984420776367, -0.4109915494918823, -0.2841355800628662, 0.5572277307510376, ...	2	\|Warfare Home History Glossary Guides Publishers Artists Techniques Topicals Blog Contact\| Belligerents and Participants The Balkans had seen a lot of unrest for centuries, fought over between the Austrians and the Turks as various ethnic groups sought more autonomy. Serbia was one of the first to wrestle itself away from the Ottoman Empire, and in 1882 it declared itself a kingdom. It had a friendly relationship with Austria-Hungary until the ruling family was assassinated by elements of the Radical Party in May 1903. The new Serbian leadership under Prime Minister Nikola Pasic was not only openly pro-Russian; he looked aside as extreme nationalist organizations began to grow. Nationalists began to support a vision of a greater Serbia that would unite all the surrounding Serbs and people who did not yet think of themselves as Serbs. This put Serbia in direct conflict with the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which also coveted these very same lands. After the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina broke free of Ottoman rule, they fell under the administration of Austria-Hungary. Fearing both Turkish and Serbian claims over the region, Austria-Hungary decided to directly annex Bosnia and Herzegovina into their empire in October 1908. As both Serbia and Montenegro began mobilizing for war, Austria-Hungry politically isolated the Serbs who only found some eventual backing from Russia. When Germany applied pressure on the Russians they backed down and Serbia was reluctantly forced to recognize the annexation in March 1910. This however fueled radical nationalists, the most influential of these secret societies being the Black Hand that formed within the Serbian military and sought a pan-Slav empire by any means. When Serbia began seizing Ottoman territory of its own during the First Balkan War of 1912, it was Austria-Hungary’s turn to be enraged. While there were calls to militarily intervene, Russia was again supporting the position of its fellow Slavs while Germany was in the process of reorganizing its military and could not offer Austria-Hungary any assistance. Further conflict was immediately avoided but Austria-Hungary did not give up on its ambitions over the region. In June 1914 the Black Hand recruited members of a sympathetic organization, Young Bosnia to assassinate the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand. How much of this Prime Minister Pasic knew remains unclear but Serbia was blamed when the Archduke was killed in Sarajevo on June 28th. Germany had finished reorganizing its army by this time and while they publicly called for moderation they urged the Emperor Franz Joseph to put Serbia in its place. Austrian generals such as Conrad von Hotzendorf had been hoping to add Serbia to the Hapsburg Empire since the Bosnian crisis of 1908. Free to be more aggressive, Austria then placed a number of odious demands on Serbia. Hoping to divert war, Pasic agreed to all of Austria’s terms except those that directly challenged Serbia’s sovereignty. When Pasic suggested these differences be arbitrated by The Hague, Austria-Hungary declared war on July 28, 1914. Had the Austro-Hungarian Army been ready to act, this conflict might have been over fairly quickly and not expanded into the Great War. Instead Russia was given enough time to significantly mobilize to the point of worrying Germany who then declared war on August 1st. When the Austro-Hungarian army finally crossed into Serbia, it was so weakened by diverting troops to fight the Russian in Galicia that they were no longer capable of overpowering the mobilized Serbians. Not only was this first August offensive quickly thrown back, Serbia launched its own invasion of Syrmia hoping to cut the flow of enemy troops to the Russian Front. Although a new and larger Austro-Hungarian offensive forced the Serbs to evacuate Syrmia, the heavy fighting that occurred at the Battle of Jadar forced them back once more. A third offensive against Serbia was launched in November, which advanced as far as Belgrade but the Austro-Hungarian army extended itself too far. When the Serbians counterattacked the Austro-Hungarian defenses broke and they fled back across the Danube. Austria-Hungary lost interest in finishing off Serbia when it became overly involved in fighting the Russians. This posed a problem for Germany because Serbia blocked the supply route to the Ottoman Empire depriving the Germans of raw materials and the Turks of weapons. They agreed to help Austria-Hungary launch a fourth offensive against Serbia, which was to be reinforced by Bulgaria who was just persuaded to join the Central Powers. This new alliance made all the differing when they delivered an attack in October 1915. By this time the typhus epidemic that had been running through Serbia had hit its army striking down half its troops. Now unable to form a solid defense against attacks from the north and east, the Serb army finally broke. The Serbs made attempts to join up with Allied forces slowly moving up from Salonika but this failed as the Bulgarians swept in. The Central Powers however were unable to surround the Serbs as they had hoped. After a series of defeats the exhausted Serbian army chose to flee across Albania and Montenegro were they could be rescued by Allied ships in the Adriatic. The winter was particularly harsh and the retreat caused horrendous hardships to both soldiers and refugees alike. It also slowed the enemy pursuit, which failed to surround them, and they were evacuated to Italy, Sardinia, but mainly to the Greek island of Corfu that was controlled by the French. It was there that Prime Minister Pasic set up a government in exile. It would take some time for the Serb army still stricken with typhus to recover and rejoin the war effort. While Serbia was in no position to produce postcards, many German and Austro-Hungarian publishers covered the events of the Balkan Front from their perspective, which emphasized the long hard Serbian retreat over the rugged Prokletije Mountains. When the Serb army began arriving on Corfu in January 1916 t was not an end to their ordeal. So many were being ferried over that there was no way to properly take care of this unexpected flow of exiles. Lack of shelter, food, and medical supplies all contributed to many deaths. Many were stricken with contagious decease, which caused them to be quarantined on the small island of Vido at the mouth of Corfu’s harbor. Its rocky soil couldn’t accommodate all the dead, and so thousands were buried at sea. Since conditions on Corfu did not enhance the propaganda war, most postcards of life here are most likely to be found on real photo cards or charity cards issued by the Red Cross of other nations. During Serbia’s long occupation by the Central Powers, many troops were not only stationed there to keep order, many also passed through its territory on the way to other fronts. This led to the production of many postcards, both artist drawn and real photo that captured this large foreign presence. While some of these are posed shots, other just display snippets of everyday military life without much implied meaning. These primarily served as fieldpost cards for use by occupation troops. Occupation meant something entirely different for the Serbian people. With the entire country under enemy control, there were no Serbian publishers to depict the atrocities enacted against them as there were in France. Resistance in Serbia was real, and past animosities led to brutality on both sides. Partisans became a constant menace, and when they believed the French were advancing out of Salonika they rose up in an organized revolt under the leadership of Kosta Vijinovic. Serbians fighting in the Toplica Rebellion of early 1917 managed to seize territory, but the Allied offensive against Bulgarian did not begin until March, and by that time the insurrection had been suppressed with the help of Austro-Hungarian forces. Thousands were killed and a more brutal occupation followed. The Allied army, which included newly arrived Serbian forces, never broke through the Bulgarian lines; the Battle of Monastire ended in their defeat. Some images of hangings and mass executions were leaked out and produced as photo-based cards, but these are rare. More cards were probably published in Germany or Austria depicting Serbian Franktireurs being gathered up as prisoners. This reinforced the idea that the occupying troops were not safe around these uncivilized people, so they deserved all the mistreatment and violence that came their way. Even so, resistance was never presented as a large scale problem, and so the scope of the retaliation was not well publicized. Atrocities had reached near genocidal proportions duding the earlier Balkan Wars, and this ethnic violence continued into the Great War. By War’s end, Serbia suffered the largest number of casualties in proportion to the size of its population. Once Greece entered the war in June of 1917, the Serbian army in exile landed at Salonika and took part in the Allied offensives against Bulgaria. Progress on this Front was finally made in September 1918 when Bulgarian defenses were breached and an armistice was signed. By the end of the war the Serbian army had reoccupied all of Serbia and Montenegro, but they returned to a devastated kingdom. While the Allies pushed further north, there supply lines were stretched so thin they could not open a new front despite the lack of resistance. At the end of 1918 the Austrian territories of Bosnia and Herzegovina formed into the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. Despite objections to Serbian occupation, Montenegro also united with Serbia, and by December they had all united into the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later Yugoslavia) under the Serbian King Peter I. Pasic, who never wanted a partnership among equals, continued to struggle to exert exclusive Serbian control over the new entity. While postcards from the Balkan Front are not as plentiful as they are from other regions, there are many that depict activities within Serbia. Most of these were published in Austria as well as in Germany, and graphic battle scenes abound. Serbia did not have much of a postcard industry of their own before the War, so events here are usually portrayed through the biased eyes of outsiders. The Austrians in particular published many scenes of the Serbian army retreating in disarray, while the French often produced cards of the Serb evacuation onto Allied ships. It was not uncommon for the publishers of all nations to produce some cards depicting their allies, especially early in the War. Photo-based cards tend to be very generic, often showing little more than troops on the march, gathered in camp or posing with equipment such as large guns. Political cartoons exist as well but are also often little more than expressions of generic victories based more on wishful thinking than reality. The card above was printed in the United States from a photo provided by a stock news agency. Rista Marjanović already had a reputation as a war photographer from his work during the Balkan Wars when the Great War began. He became one of many to be chosen by the government to document this conflict, and he followed the army through its retreat through Albania. While the fall of Serbia to the Central Powers made it impossible to publish postcards in his homeland, his work traveled to France for an exhibition at the Paris Salon in 1916. His images of war were then published on French postcards. Marjanović also photographed atrocities committed by the Austro-Hungarians against Serbian prisoners of war. Some of these images were turned into real photo postcards but these types of cards usually lack accreditation. Sampson Tchernoff was a Russian photographer that began covering military campaigns with the First Balkan War in 1912, work that extended through the Serbian retreat through Albania in 1915 during the First World War. Many of these images were reproduced on postcards issued in a set entitled, The Five Years War. Tchernoff also put his talents toward painting, producing portraits of Serb leaders and ordinary soldiers that were reproduced on French made postcards titled in English. They were obviously made to generate Allied support for Serbia rather than for a Serbian audience that had fallen under enemy occupation.	2,520	ENGLISH	1
Frome has always benefitted from its geographical location. The steep hills around its river, and a place where many trade routes converged have always been good for trade. Frome has been a market town since before the Norman invasion of 1066 when ‘sales’ were done primarily by exchange. By the mid eleventh century the population of Frome may have been almost 600 (the average town at that time probably had a population of between 100 and 150), which made it a busy and important centre. The Domesday Survey of 1086 recorded Frome as having three mills (for grinding grain) and a weekly market worth £2 6s 8d. Although the function of the town changed through the ages (a wool centre, a railway junction, a milk collecting centre), the market remained an important feature. Frome market stalls were always piled high with products manufactured in the town as well as countryside products. But a big draw to the market was the wandering pedlars who were selling trinkets from distant and exotic places. In the early 1700s, the population of Frome was almost 10,000, which was four times the population of nearby Bath. It became a valuable employer for the surrounding towns and villages in all areas including the market. Market Place was for centuries owned by the King as lord of the manor. Later the manor was granted to a succession of families and market rights went with it. But each transfer of ownership had to be authorised by the king and a Royal Charter had to be obtained to hold the market from 1239 when Henry III granted William Braunche rights to hold a market in Frome every Saturday. By 1494 the market day had changed to Wednesdays. This Frome story was published in the Frome Times on 11th October 2012	<urn:uuid:f9d6f613-eb58-4814-ba37-afb353fc772d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://fromediary.com/the-market-town-of-frome/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00304.warc.gz	en	0.990201	370	3.34375	3	[ 0.09047267585992813, -0.18593986332416534, 0.061739057302474976, -0.15371741354465485, 0.3879118859767914, -0.3236047625541687, 0.21452586352825165, 0.13612878322601318, -0.35872185230255127, -0.05066667124629021, 0.07169180363416672, -0.5155051350593567, 0.01633572019636631, 0.03618487715...	4	Frome has always benefitted from its geographical location. The steep hills around its river, and a place where many trade routes converged have always been good for trade. Frome has been a market town since before the Norman invasion of 1066 when ‘sales’ were done primarily by exchange. By the mid eleventh century the population of Frome may have been almost 600 (the average town at that time probably had a population of between 100 and 150), which made it a busy and important centre. The Domesday Survey of 1086 recorded Frome as having three mills (for grinding grain) and a weekly market worth £2 6s 8d. Although the function of the town changed through the ages (a wool centre, a railway junction, a milk collecting centre), the market remained an important feature. Frome market stalls were always piled high with products manufactured in the town as well as countryside products. But a big draw to the market was the wandering pedlars who were selling trinkets from distant and exotic places. In the early 1700s, the population of Frome was almost 10,000, which was four times the population of nearby Bath. It became a valuable employer for the surrounding towns and villages in all areas including the market. Market Place was for centuries owned by the King as lord of the manor. Later the manor was granted to a succession of families and market rights went with it. But each transfer of ownership had to be authorised by the king and a Royal Charter had to be obtained to hold the market from 1239 when Henry III granted William Braunche rights to hold a market in Frome every Saturday. By 1494 the market day had changed to Wednesdays. This Frome story was published in the Frome Times on 11th October 2012	398	ENGLISH	1
In this paper, I would like to discuss the conflicts between Athenians in Solon?fs time. In order to do so, I divided the paper into three sections. In thefirst section, I will discuss the conflicts between peasants and aristocrats. After that, I will talk about the conflicts between aristocrats themselves. Finally, I will discuss how the political laws at that time show these situations. For the source, I would use ?gThe Rise and Fall of Athens: Nine Greek Lives?h, written by Plutarch, and ?gThe Constitution of Athens?h, written by Aristotle (in J.M. Moore, Ed.). This is thefirst section of the paper. In this section, I will talk about the conflicts between aristocrats and peasants and the solutions Solon tried to give. I will divide the section into five parts. 1. Two classes: aristocrats and peasants In Solon?fs Athens, people were divided into two classes: one rich and one poor. The rich class is called aristocrats, and the poor class is called peasants. Aristocrats only covered two percents of the population. Most of them were big landowners and had inherited wealth. Unlike nowadays, aristocrats acted as more than one groups; they also were politicians, warriors and priests. Peasants are farmers who grow things themselves and sell goods for their families and subsistence, which means not market oriented. Some peasants had land and others had not, but both of them are free citizens. There was no middle class, which means there was no social mobility; that is, a peasant is a peasant for his whole life and could not become an aristocrat no meter how much he can earn (Tr). In fact, for more accurate speaking, there were totally four income groups in Solon?fs Athens: ?gThose who received an annual income of 500 measures or more of wet and dry produce, he placed in thefirst class and called Pentacosiomedimni. The second class consisted of men who could afford a horse, or possessed an income of 300 measures, and …	<urn:uuid:ac9e9e24-f830-42b5-a694-7cfd4ae30c54>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/conflicts-in-solon/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00371.warc.gz	en	0.982715	428	3.4375	3	[ -0.3939230144023895, 0.09976187348365784, -0.09654007852077484, -0.46746736764907837, -0.14152666926383972, -0.3825877606868744, -0.2160012125968933, 0.3728197515010834, -0.08010357618331909, 0.1680041402578354, -0.546206533908844, -0.1420077532529831, 0.1259852945804596, 0.470887541770935...	1	In this paper, I would like to discuss the conflicts between Athenians in Solon?fs time. In order to do so, I divided the paper into three sections. In thefirst section, I will discuss the conflicts between peasants and aristocrats. After that, I will talk about the conflicts between aristocrats themselves. Finally, I will discuss how the political laws at that time show these situations. For the source, I would use ?gThe Rise and Fall of Athens: Nine Greek Lives?h, written by Plutarch, and ?gThe Constitution of Athens?h, written by Aristotle (in J.M. Moore, Ed.). This is thefirst section of the paper. In this section, I will talk about the conflicts between aristocrats and peasants and the solutions Solon tried to give. I will divide the section into five parts. 1. Two classes: aristocrats and peasants In Solon?fs Athens, people were divided into two classes: one rich and one poor. The rich class is called aristocrats, and the poor class is called peasants. Aristocrats only covered two percents of the population. Most of them were big landowners and had inherited wealth. Unlike nowadays, aristocrats acted as more than one groups; they also were politicians, warriors and priests. Peasants are farmers who grow things themselves and sell goods for their families and subsistence, which means not market oriented. Some peasants had land and others had not, but both of them are free citizens. There was no middle class, which means there was no social mobility; that is, a peasant is a peasant for his whole life and could not become an aristocrat no meter how much he can earn (Tr). In fact, for more accurate speaking, there were totally four income groups in Solon?fs Athens: ?gThose who received an annual income of 500 measures or more of wet and dry produce, he placed in thefirst class and called Pentacosiomedimni. The second class consisted of men who could afford a horse, or possessed an income of 300 measures, and …	432	ENGLISH	1
My elementary school is taking a year-long look at what it means to be strong, thanks to the book Strong is the New Pretty by Kate T. Parker. Each month, we focus on a new chapter and trait. I've incorporated this into my science class by pairing each trait with a picture book biography of a woman in a S.T.E.M. field. This series of posts details each month's work. Chapter Three of Strong is the New Pretty, and November's trait, is resilient. I had to do a little word work with my students before I could introduce our featured woman and read her picture book biography. I introduced the word and asked students to raise their hand if they had never heard the word, had heard the word but didn't know what it meant, or thought they knew what the word meant. As expected, I had raised hands for each category. We discussed that resilience is the ability to bounce back or keep going during hard times. A few students shared examples of resilience from their own lives, and many connected it to perseverance, another trait we have discussed as a school. I chose to feature Caroline Herschel as an example of resilience. Not only did she live in a time where women were expected to marry and serve as housekeepers, but she also fell ill with both typhus and smallpox as a child. Her father predicted that she would never marry due to her short stature and scarred face. In fact, she did not marry and lived much of her adult life with her brother, William Herschel, who became a noted astronomer. Caroline served as his assistant and eventually became the first professional woman scientist, discovering several comets as well as other celestial objects. I read Caroline's Comets: A True Story by Emily Arnold McCully to my students to introduce them to Caroline Herschel's life and work. The book is beautifully illustrated and contains excerpts from Herschel's own memoir. This was a great opportunity to introduce that genre, as well as the importance of primary sources, to my students. The book also gave them plentiful examples of how Herschel demonstrated resilience, including a memorable scene with a large hook! After reading and discussing the book, students drew pictures and wrote about Herschel to add to our class bulletin board. Check back soon for pictures of their work!	<urn:uuid:da7d1507-c0a5-4c8f-8138-7ee08aa11180>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.jessicafriesgaither.com/single-post/2017/12/29/Strong-is-the-New-Pretty-and-Women-in-STEM-Part-3	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00386.warc.gz	en	0.984965	473	3.671875	4	[ -0.2647438943386078, -0.2536110579967499, -0.05483361706137657, -0.15193581581115723, -0.10941067337989807, 0.06632862985134125, 0.2803861200809479, 0.16297398507595062, -0.22283343970775604, -0.1761547476053238, 0.2868994474411011, -0.06472041457891464, 0.12548498809337616, 0.035432960838...	4	My elementary school is taking a year-long look at what it means to be strong, thanks to the book Strong is the New Pretty by Kate T. Parker. Each month, we focus on a new chapter and trait. I've incorporated this into my science class by pairing each trait with a picture book biography of a woman in a S.T.E.M. field. This series of posts details each month's work. Chapter Three of Strong is the New Pretty, and November's trait, is resilient. I had to do a little word work with my students before I could introduce our featured woman and read her picture book biography. I introduced the word and asked students to raise their hand if they had never heard the word, had heard the word but didn't know what it meant, or thought they knew what the word meant. As expected, I had raised hands for each category. We discussed that resilience is the ability to bounce back or keep going during hard times. A few students shared examples of resilience from their own lives, and many connected it to perseverance, another trait we have discussed as a school. I chose to feature Caroline Herschel as an example of resilience. Not only did she live in a time where women were expected to marry and serve as housekeepers, but she also fell ill with both typhus and smallpox as a child. Her father predicted that she would never marry due to her short stature and scarred face. In fact, she did not marry and lived much of her adult life with her brother, William Herschel, who became a noted astronomer. Caroline served as his assistant and eventually became the first professional woman scientist, discovering several comets as well as other celestial objects. I read Caroline's Comets: A True Story by Emily Arnold McCully to my students to introduce them to Caroline Herschel's life and work. The book is beautifully illustrated and contains excerpts from Herschel's own memoir. This was a great opportunity to introduce that genre, as well as the importance of primary sources, to my students. The book also gave them plentiful examples of how Herschel demonstrated resilience, including a memorable scene with a large hook! After reading and discussing the book, students drew pictures and wrote about Herschel to add to our class bulletin board. Check back soon for pictures of their work!	473	ENGLISH	1
Remembering Nelson Mandela On What Would Have Been His 100th Birthday Today would have been the 100th birthday of Nelson Mandela. He died five years ago in 2013, but he will forever be remembered as one of the most important figures of the 20th Century. After 27 years of imprisonment for his activism against the Apartheid regime in his native South Africa, he was released and became the first black President of South Africa. He and his government devoted their time to unravelling the legacy left by the Apartheid government that had existed in South Africa since 1948. Under Apartheid, black people were segregated and discriminated against on purely racial grounds. Black people simply did not have the same rights and opportunities as their white counterparts. This system was in place in South Africa until 1991, when the laws were repealed. Mandela played a pivotal role. Despite that, the overall legacy of Mandela doesn't always tally up with the reality of a complex man. He is often portrayed as a pacifist leader who would reject violence at all costs. But he could be divisive and controversial. After his release from prison he worked tirelessly to achieve his vision of a multiracial 'rainbow nation' and there is no doubt that his work led to a greater unity between previously divided factions of the same country, but Mandela had, in his earlier years, been an advocate of less diplomatic means. After his political party, the African National Congress (ANC) was banned by the white South African government in 1960, Mandela co-founded an organisation called uMKhonto we-Siwze (MK) which means 'spear of the nation'. African organisations had repeatedly tried to challenge racial inequality in South Africa through peaceful means but had been met with brutal violence and contempt by successive white governments. Given that they had no political means left - as black Africans had no votes and no power -they became an armed group that acted largely in response to massacres such as the Sharpeville in 1960, which left 69 people dead after police opened fire on a crowd. Over a period of around 30 years, MK carried out bombings and attacks on various targets to resist the white supremacist government and further the anti-apartheid movement. They positioned themselves as soldiers of necessity, denied the democracy that would allow them a voice for peace. In a famous speech given while on trial in 1964, Mandela said he was prepared to die to achieve his goal of a non-segregated, equal South Africa. He argued the violence was justified because all peaceful means of dissent had been taken from them. "All lawful modes of expressing opposition to this principle had been closed by legislation, and we were placed in a position in which we had either to accept a permanent state of inferiority, or to defy the government," he said. "We chose to defy the government. We first broke the law in a way which avoided any recourse to violence; when this form was legislated against, and when the government resorted to a show of force to crush opposition to its policies, only then did we decide to answer violence with violence." Whilst this sits at odds with the Mandela we are often told about, it still speaks of someone who was prepared to fight for what he believed was right. At the time, he was called a terrorist by many, and derided in his own country. He was imprisoned for nearly three decades, but emerged from his cell to become one of the most influential and important peacemakers in history. As Barack Obama said in his Mandela Lecture yesterday: "By the end of his life, (Mandela) embodied the successful struggle for human rights, but the journey was not easy, it wasn't pre-ordained. The man went to prison for almost three decades. "And yet his power actually grew during those years - and the power of his jailers diminished, because he knew that if you stick to what's true, if you know what's in your heart, and you're willing to sacrifice for it, even in the face of overwhelming odds...ultimately, the better story can win out." Featured Image Credit: PA	<urn:uuid:bfe844c4-0599-4855-b659-9e0018b38b01>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ladbible.com/news/news-remembering-nelson-mandela-on-what-would-have-been-his-100th-birthday-20180718	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00154.warc.gz	en	0.989975	847	3.796875	4	[ -0.6466977000236511, 0.9593972563743591, 0.16916529834270477, -0.4292556941509247, -0.10614380240440369, 0.17148765921592712, 0.32766568660736084, -0.28430232405662537, -0.23085954785346985, 0.42041999101638794, 0.6053494215011597, -0.11757537722587585, 0.26980075240135193, 0.6139160394668...	1	Remembering Nelson Mandela On What Would Have Been His 100th Birthday Today would have been the 100th birthday of Nelson Mandela. He died five years ago in 2013, but he will forever be remembered as one of the most important figures of the 20th Century. After 27 years of imprisonment for his activism against the Apartheid regime in his native South Africa, he was released and became the first black President of South Africa. He and his government devoted their time to unravelling the legacy left by the Apartheid government that had existed in South Africa since 1948. Under Apartheid, black people were segregated and discriminated against on purely racial grounds. Black people simply did not have the same rights and opportunities as their white counterparts. This system was in place in South Africa until 1991, when the laws were repealed. Mandela played a pivotal role. Despite that, the overall legacy of Mandela doesn't always tally up with the reality of a complex man. He is often portrayed as a pacifist leader who would reject violence at all costs. But he could be divisive and controversial. After his release from prison he worked tirelessly to achieve his vision of a multiracial 'rainbow nation' and there is no doubt that his work led to a greater unity between previously divided factions of the same country, but Mandela had, in his earlier years, been an advocate of less diplomatic means. After his political party, the African National Congress (ANC) was banned by the white South African government in 1960, Mandela co-founded an organisation called uMKhonto we-Siwze (MK) which means 'spear of the nation'. African organisations had repeatedly tried to challenge racial inequality in South Africa through peaceful means but had been met with brutal violence and contempt by successive white governments. Given that they had no political means left - as black Africans had no votes and no power -they became an armed group that acted largely in response to massacres such as the Sharpeville in 1960, which left 69 people dead after police opened fire on a crowd. Over a period of around 30 years, MK carried out bombings and attacks on various targets to resist the white supremacist government and further the anti-apartheid movement. They positioned themselves as soldiers of necessity, denied the democracy that would allow them a voice for peace. In a famous speech given while on trial in 1964, Mandela said he was prepared to die to achieve his goal of a non-segregated, equal South Africa. He argued the violence was justified because all peaceful means of dissent had been taken from them. "All lawful modes of expressing opposition to this principle had been closed by legislation, and we were placed in a position in which we had either to accept a permanent state of inferiority, or to defy the government," he said. "We chose to defy the government. We first broke the law in a way which avoided any recourse to violence; when this form was legislated against, and when the government resorted to a show of force to crush opposition to its policies, only then did we decide to answer violence with violence." Whilst this sits at odds with the Mandela we are often told about, it still speaks of someone who was prepared to fight for what he believed was right. At the time, he was called a terrorist by many, and derided in his own country. He was imprisoned for nearly three decades, but emerged from his cell to become one of the most influential and important peacemakers in history. As Barack Obama said in his Mandela Lecture yesterday: "By the end of his life, (Mandela) embodied the successful struggle for human rights, but the journey was not easy, it wasn't pre-ordained. The man went to prison for almost three decades. "And yet his power actually grew during those years - and the power of his jailers diminished, because he knew that if you stick to what's true, if you know what's in your heart, and you're willing to sacrifice for it, even in the face of overwhelming odds...ultimately, the better story can win out." Featured Image Credit: PA	865	ENGLISH	1
It appears Christmas time is not lucky for Savannah, Georgia in war time. On this date in 1778 British forces over powered the Colonials and took the city; they would hold the city, despite a seige by American and French forces, until the end of the Revolutionary War. 86 years later on Dec. 22, 1864, Union forces under William T. Sherman would take Savannah again, presenting it as a “Christmas gift” to President Lincloln during the American Civil War. The US House of Representatives passes the 13th Amendment to the Constitution, abolishing slavery in the United States. “Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude…shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.” The issue had divided the nation from its inception due to its inherent disagreement with our founding principles…. The Republican Party had been founded by break-away former members of the Whig party, who had formed the new party in the 1850’s because of their abolitionist beliefs. The Civil War had begun because of the election of the first Republican President, Abraham Lincoln; the largely Democrat South believed abolition was eminent due to his election and seceded from the Union rather than give up their slaves. Republican Lincoln did in fact enact the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, freeing slaves in southern states, an admittedly partial measure. For his efforts a Democrat radical assassinated him in 1865 before he could see the realization of the 13th Amendment. Lincoln had wanted the measure to be bi-partisan in an effort to re-unite the nation. Although he wouldn’t live to see it, he got his wish, to an extent. 7 Democrats abstained from voting rather that be a part of freeing the slaves, but the measure still passed due to a Republican majority and partial Democrat support. Angry southern Democrats would go on to form the KKK, resulting in another century of violence before civil rights measures were finally passed. The Battle of Mobile Bay. During the Civil War, Confederate “blockade runners” (Rhett Butler types) kept the South in vital supplies by running past the Union Navy blockade from Cuba to ports like Mobile Bay, Alabama. US Navy Admiral David Glasgow Farragut was tasked with closing this last Confederate source of supplies. His fleet had to fight past the Confederate fleet of ironclads and two forts that guarded the bay. As the battle progressed, the Union fleet began to fragment, until Farragut rallied his sailors with famous admonition, winning the battle. Mobile would remain in Confederate hands, but access to it was cut off for the duration. Farragut was the adopted son of US Naval Officer David Porter, who also raised his biological sons, famous Naval officers David Dixon Porter, and William Porter. One family played such a vital role in the glory of the US Navy. Can you imagine being a part of it? The New Orleans Riot. NOLA had been under Union control for most of the Civil War, although deep South in geography and sentiments. In 1864, a state convention of mostly Confederate sympathies had tried to enforce “Black Codes” to limit the rights of Freedmen. Now that the war was over, “Radical” Republicans were holding a state convention in The Mechanic’s Institute in New Orleans in hopes of gaining control of the legislature. A group of black Union veterans formed and marched to the Institute in support of the Republicans, where they were attacked by an armed group of former Confederates, including some authorities (the Mayor and others were Democrat former Confederates). 34-35 black and 3 white Republicans were killed. Other similar riots in the South occurred, convincing enough voters that more stringent Reconstruction policies were needed. In November Republicans would sweep into both houses of Congress by 77%. The next year they would force through the Fourteenth Amendment protecting citizenship rights and equal protections over the protests of Democrats in Congress. Before it could be ratified, the Reconstruction Acts were passed…requiring former states to ratify if before they could be represented in Congress. 1863 – The Union and the Confederates first clash at The Battle of Gettysburg, and both send reinforcements. The first day went badly for the Union, but the largest battle in North America had three more days to go, and would become a major turning point in the Civil War. 1898 – The Battle of San Juan Hill becomes a major victory for the US in the Spanish-American War as the US Army’s Fifth Corps takes the heights over Santiago de Cuba. It also set the stage for Colonel Theodore Roosevelt to become President as he became famous for leading his Rough Riders up Kettle Hill (not San Juan). 1916 – The Battle of the Somme in France; after a week’s bombardment with over 250,000 shells, the British launch an attack into no-man’s land. The Germans had retained many machine guns despite the bombardment, and the British soldiers were slaughtered. With 20,000 dead and 40,000 wounded in one day, it was one of the worst defeats for the British military’s history. 1942 – The Battle of El Alamein; In North Africa Erwin Rommel’s army had routed the British and their allies, driving them back so quickly that they had to leave much of their equipment behind. But on today’s date the British Army, resupplied by Americans and reorganized, turned the tide back on Rommel at El Alamein. The Confederacy was determined to protect the jewel of the South, it’s largest port and therefore source of supply from abroad. They were convinced the attack would come from the north, and placed the bulk of their army forces and naval forces in Tennessee and Mississippi. This left New Orleans to be defended by about 3,000 militia and two forts below her on the River, Ft. Jackson and Ft. St. Phillip. Union Flag Officer David Farragut took his force of Union ships and tried to silence the forts, and failing that decided to run past the batteries in a fierce battle. By the 28th his fleet lay off the city on the Mississippi. If you’ve ever been to the French Quarter and watched ships move by ABOVE you on the river, you’ll understand why the Confederate commander there told the mayor the battle was already lost and withdrew his forces. The next day, the 29th, Farragut’s childhood home surrendered to him. David Farragut was adopted by Capt. David Porter after his mother died, and began his naval career at age 9. He would become the first Rear Admiral, the first Vice Admiral, and the first Admiral in the US Navy. His adoptive brothers, David Dixon Porter and William Porter would also be naval heroes that attained flag rank. The capture of New Orleans by Union forces helped cut off the Confederacy from outside supply, and from their territories in the west. Union Army forces track down John Wilkes Booth 12 days after he assassinated President Lincoln. In the meantime, he had been hidden by Confederates, treated by Doctor Samuel Mudd (your name is mud) and hidden in a barn on the Garrett farm in Virginia, where he was found. The barn was set afire and his associate surrendered. Booth refused…a Union soldier, Boston Corbett, saw Booth inside the barn and fired his Colt revolver…causing a mortal wound to Booth. Many Confederates saw Booth as a hero. However many Southerners wept openly at Lincoln’s death, and Confederate Generals, including Lee and Johnston, denounced Booth’s actions. Fortunately, in the interim between his deed and his death, Booth was able to see news accounts that recorded his benefactor’s denunciation of his act. So when he died, he knew what he was.	<urn:uuid:815940c8-7f64-4265-94d0-1e3d5791ba77>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://markloveshistory.com/tag/confederacy/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250628549.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125011232-20200125040232-00281.warc.gz	en	0.980684	1,629	3.6875	4	[ -0.36145085096359253, 0.10741682350635529, 0.4278886914253235, -0.2710552513599396, 0.053578540682792664, -0.195344477891922, 0.037211835384368896, -0.10759347677230835, -0.17982465028762817, 0.06953850388526917, 0.06386218965053558, 0.6122496724128723, -0.06919800490140915, 0.609738886356...	1	It appears Christmas time is not lucky for Savannah, Georgia in war time. On this date in 1778 British forces over powered the Colonials and took the city; they would hold the city, despite a seige by American and French forces, until the end of the Revolutionary War. 86 years later on Dec. 22, 1864, Union forces under William T. Sherman would take Savannah again, presenting it as a “Christmas gift” to President Lincloln during the American Civil War. The US House of Representatives passes the 13th Amendment to the Constitution, abolishing slavery in the United States. “Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude…shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.” The issue had divided the nation from its inception due to its inherent disagreement with our founding principles…. The Republican Party had been founded by break-away former members of the Whig party, who had formed the new party in the 1850’s because of their abolitionist beliefs. The Civil War had begun because of the election of the first Republican President, Abraham Lincoln; the largely Democrat South believed abolition was eminent due to his election and seceded from the Union rather than give up their slaves. Republican Lincoln did in fact enact the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863, freeing slaves in southern states, an admittedly partial measure. For his efforts a Democrat radical assassinated him in 1865 before he could see the realization of the 13th Amendment. Lincoln had wanted the measure to be bi-partisan in an effort to re-unite the nation. Although he wouldn’t live to see it, he got his wish, to an extent. 7 Democrats abstained from voting rather that be a part of freeing the slaves, but the measure still passed due to a Republican majority and partial Democrat support. Angry southern Democrats would go on to form the KKK, resulting in another century of violence before civil rights measures were finally passed. The Battle of Mobile Bay. During the Civil War, Confederate “blockade runners” (Rhett Butler types) kept the South in vital supplies by running past the Union Navy blockade from Cuba to ports like Mobile Bay, Alabama. US Navy Admiral David Glasgow Farragut was tasked with closing this last Confederate source of supplies. His fleet had to fight past the Confederate fleet of ironclads and two forts that guarded the bay. As the battle progressed, the Union fleet began to fragment, until Farragut rallied his sailors with famous admonition, winning the battle. Mobile would remain in Confederate hands, but access to it was cut off for the duration. Farragut was the adopted son of US Naval Officer David Porter, who also raised his biological sons, famous Naval officers David Dixon Porter, and William Porter. One family played such a vital role in the glory of the US Navy. Can you imagine being a part of it? The New Orleans Riot. NOLA had been under Union control for most of the Civil War, although deep South in geography and sentiments. In 1864, a state convention of mostly Confederate sympathies had tried to enforce “Black Codes” to limit the rights of Freedmen. Now that the war was over, “Radical” Republicans were holding a state convention in The Mechanic’s Institute in New Orleans in hopes of gaining control of the legislature. A group of black Union veterans formed and marched to the Institute in support of the Republicans, where they were attacked by an armed group of former Confederates, including some authorities (the Mayor and others were Democrat former Confederates). 34-35 black and 3 white Republicans were killed. Other similar riots in the South occurred, convincing enough voters that more stringent Reconstruction policies were needed. In November Republicans would sweep into both houses of Congress by 77%. The next year they would force through the Fourteenth Amendment protecting citizenship rights and equal protections over the protests of Democrats in Congress. Before it could be ratified, the Reconstruction Acts were passed…requiring former states to ratify if before they could be represented in Congress. 1863 – The Union and the Confederates first clash at The Battle of Gettysburg, and both send reinforcements. The first day went badly for the Union, but the largest battle in North America had three more days to go, and would become a major turning point in the Civil War. 1898 – The Battle of San Juan Hill becomes a major victory for the US in the Spanish-American War as the US Army’s Fifth Corps takes the heights over Santiago de Cuba. It also set the stage for Colonel Theodore Roosevelt to become President as he became famous for leading his Rough Riders up Kettle Hill (not San Juan). 1916 – The Battle of the Somme in France; after a week’s bombardment with over 250,000 shells, the British launch an attack into no-man’s land. The Germans had retained many machine guns despite the bombardment, and the British soldiers were slaughtered. With 20,000 dead and 40,000 wounded in one day, it was one of the worst defeats for the British military’s history. 1942 – The Battle of El Alamein; In North Africa Erwin Rommel’s army had routed the British and their allies, driving them back so quickly that they had to leave much of their equipment behind. But on today’s date the British Army, resupplied by Americans and reorganized, turned the tide back on Rommel at El Alamein. The Confederacy was determined to protect the jewel of the South, it’s largest port and therefore source of supply from abroad. They were convinced the attack would come from the north, and placed the bulk of their army forces and naval forces in Tennessee and Mississippi. This left New Orleans to be defended by about 3,000 militia and two forts below her on the River, Ft. Jackson and Ft. St. Phillip. Union Flag Officer David Farragut took his force of Union ships and tried to silence the forts, and failing that decided to run past the batteries in a fierce battle. By the 28th his fleet lay off the city on the Mississippi. If you’ve ever been to the French Quarter and watched ships move by ABOVE you on the river, you’ll understand why the Confederate commander there told the mayor the battle was already lost and withdrew his forces. The next day, the 29th, Farragut’s childhood home surrendered to him. David Farragut was adopted by Capt. David Porter after his mother died, and began his naval career at age 9. He would become the first Rear Admiral, the first Vice Admiral, and the first Admiral in the US Navy. His adoptive brothers, David Dixon Porter and William Porter would also be naval heroes that attained flag rank. The capture of New Orleans by Union forces helped cut off the Confederacy from outside supply, and from their territories in the west. Union Army forces track down John Wilkes Booth 12 days after he assassinated President Lincoln. In the meantime, he had been hidden by Confederates, treated by Doctor Samuel Mudd (your name is mud) and hidden in a barn on the Garrett farm in Virginia, where he was found. The barn was set afire and his associate surrendered. Booth refused…a Union soldier, Boston Corbett, saw Booth inside the barn and fired his Colt revolver…causing a mortal wound to Booth. Many Confederates saw Booth as a hero. However many Southerners wept openly at Lincoln’s death, and Confederate Generals, including Lee and Johnston, denounced Booth’s actions. Fortunately, in the interim between his deed and his death, Booth was able to see news accounts that recorded his benefactor’s denunciation of his act. So when he died, he knew what he was.	1,621	ENGLISH	1
The son of a merchant, Hess served in the German army during World War I. After the war, he studied at the University of Munich, where he engaged in nationalist propaganda. Hess joined the fledgling Nazi Party in 1920 and quickly became Hitler’s friend and confidant. After participating in the abortive November 1923 Munich (Beer Hall) Putsch, he escaped to Austria but returned voluntarily to Landsberg prison, where he took down and edited much of Hitler’s dictation for Mein Kampf. Promoted to Hitler’s private secretary, Hess was charged with creating a new centralized party organization after the defection of the leftist followers of Gregor Strasser (1932). In April 1933 Hess became deputy party leader and in December entered the cabinet. In 1939 Hitler declared him second to Hermann Göring in the line of succession. Hess had a reputation for absolute loyalty to Hitler. During the later 1930s and the first years of World War II, however, when military and foreign policy preoccupied Hitler, Hess’s power waned, and his influence was further undermined by Martin Bormann and other top Nazi leaders. Hess decided in the spring of 1941 to bring the continuing military struggle between Germany and Britain to an end by means of a spectacular coup and thereby restore his flagging prestige. On May 10 he secretly flew alone from Augsburg and landed by parachute in Scotland with peace proposals, demanding a free hand for Germany in Europe and the return of former German colonies as compensation for Germany’s promise to respect the integrity of the British Empire. Hess’s proposals met with no response from the British government, which treated him as a prisoner of war and held him throughout World War II. His quixotic action was likewise rejected by Hitler himself, who accused Hess of suffering from “pacifist delusions.” After the war, Hess was tried at the Nuremberg (Nürnberg) war crimes trials, convicted, and given a life sentence. He served his sentence at Spandau prison in Berlin, where from 1966 he was the sole inmate. After his death in 1987, Hess was buried in Wunsiedel, Bavaria, and his grave later became a pilgrimage site for neo-Nazis. In 2011 it was decided that his body should be moved. Hess’s remains were subsequently cremated, and his ashes were scattered in an unidentified lake.Get unlimited access to all of Britannica’s trusted content.	<urn:uuid:7ef1d58e-09c8-4a33-af31-660dbfb16bbc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.weevl.net/10333/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00262.warc.gz	en	0.98105	507	3.390625	3	[ 0.012234481051564217, 0.556550145149231, -0.21118660271167755, -0.23997734487056732, -0.0008878260268829763, 0.15734513103961945, 0.10557981580495834, 0.021127890795469284, -0.3154251277446747, -0.28627562522888184, 0.2989831566810608, -0.13975316286087036, 0.26970890164375305, 0.394078105...	2	The son of a merchant, Hess served in the German army during World War I. After the war, he studied at the University of Munich, where he engaged in nationalist propaganda. Hess joined the fledgling Nazi Party in 1920 and quickly became Hitler’s friend and confidant. After participating in the abortive November 1923 Munich (Beer Hall) Putsch, he escaped to Austria but returned voluntarily to Landsberg prison, where he took down and edited much of Hitler’s dictation for Mein Kampf. Promoted to Hitler’s private secretary, Hess was charged with creating a new centralized party organization after the defection of the leftist followers of Gregor Strasser (1932). In April 1933 Hess became deputy party leader and in December entered the cabinet. In 1939 Hitler declared him second to Hermann Göring in the line of succession. Hess had a reputation for absolute loyalty to Hitler. During the later 1930s and the first years of World War II, however, when military and foreign policy preoccupied Hitler, Hess’s power waned, and his influence was further undermined by Martin Bormann and other top Nazi leaders. Hess decided in the spring of 1941 to bring the continuing military struggle between Germany and Britain to an end by means of a spectacular coup and thereby restore his flagging prestige. On May 10 he secretly flew alone from Augsburg and landed by parachute in Scotland with peace proposals, demanding a free hand for Germany in Europe and the return of former German colonies as compensation for Germany’s promise to respect the integrity of the British Empire. Hess’s proposals met with no response from the British government, which treated him as a prisoner of war and held him throughout World War II. His quixotic action was likewise rejected by Hitler himself, who accused Hess of suffering from “pacifist delusions.” After the war, Hess was tried at the Nuremberg (Nürnberg) war crimes trials, convicted, and given a life sentence. He served his sentence at Spandau prison in Berlin, where from 1966 he was the sole inmate. After his death in 1987, Hess was buried in Wunsiedel, Bavaria, and his grave later became a pilgrimage site for neo-Nazis. In 2011 it was decided that his body should be moved. Hess’s remains were subsequently cremated, and his ashes were scattered in an unidentified lake.Get unlimited access to all of Britannica’s trusted content.	528	ENGLISH	1
As early as 1074, when Asia Minor passed into the hands of the Seljuk Turks, Pope Gregory VII had projected a war against the Muslims, which he hoped would also lead to reunion with the Greek Church. However, the plan was thrust into the background by the conflict with the emperor Henry IV over investiture and other matters. Pope Urban II (1088-1099), who next took up the idea, was motivated not so much by the political considerations of Gregory as by actual religious impulse. The disunity in Europe in 1095 presented an opportunity for the Papacy. The calling of the Crusade was a political opportunity for Urban's pontificate, attracting loyalty from a wide range of disparate countries and asserting the Church’s role as a unifying force. From the Church came the impelling force; on the secular powers rested the actual execution of the plan. The papacy was concerned by Muslim raids on Sicily (Sicily itself was nominally Muslim). The popes were unwilling to ask the German emperor for help (as the emperors were traditionally the enemy of the Papacy), so asked the Normans to intervene. Robert Guiscard then took control of Sicily, the Pope 'granting' it to him, and it became a tightly-controlled monarchy under the Normans. At the same time, the Spanish were continuously fighting the Moors in the Iberian peninsula. Therefore, the conception of a crusade against the Muslim world was no absolute novelty to the nations of the West. The Byzantine emperor Alexius I was quite aware of this when he turned to Urban for aid against the Turks at Piacenza in 1095. His request met with a favourable response from the Church, as well as from the noble knights of Western Europe with their lust for adventure and conquest. When the Greek ambassadors arrived Urban was preparing for the Council of Clermont; there the Pope first preached the crusade on November 26, 1095 -- in words which have have been lost to history -- but which apparently stirred the crowd to a frenzied enthusiasm. Urban had domestic reasons for supporting a crusade; he was French, from Rheims, and needed to give an impression of the church militant, extending the religious mission from monks to the nobility. The aristocracy supported the Crusades: many younger sons could not inherit land, and Jerusalem was an opportunity. The Crusade was available as a religious penance as much as it was an economic opportunity. Merchants and financiers from the northern Italian towns (Genoa, Pisa, Venice) also saw opportunities in setting up trading routes and outposts in the newly conquered territories. The number of those who rose to join the Crusade increased daily, and the movement, soon exceeding papal restraint, seized upon the hunger of the lower classes. Peasants exchanged plows for arms and were joined by the dissatisfied, the oppressed, and the outcast, including members of the lower clergy, runaway monks, women, and children. This popular mob believed themselves to be led directly by God. These events led to the legend that Peter the Hermit of Amiens, not Urban, was the true representative of the crusading idea. Peter was one of the leaders of the fanatical bands, whose contribution to the enterprise was a story of an alleged personal appearance of Jesus. According to Peter, Jesus had given him a letter describing the sad condition of the Holy Land, and commanding Peter to lead an army to re-establish Christian power there. Conveniently, most of Peter's followers were at best semi-literate. Peter also had the support of the knight Walter the Penniless, who, as his name suggests, was an impoverished knight with no lord and no vassals. Their unarmed, unorganized army had little idea of the world outside their own lands, and at every city of any great size they believed they had arrived, at last, at Jerusalem. Their march was filled with wild excesses. The Jews were their principal targets, and many communities along the Rhine were slaughtered with the help of another peasant army led by Emich of Leiningen. On their way down the Danube, Peter's mob attacked Hungarians, Slavs, and anyone else they suspected of being "heathens." Most of Peter's army was massacred before they even reached Constantinople. Peter survived, however, and would later join the main Crusader army. The real armies set out in 1096. The main contingents were men of Lorraine under the brothers Godfrey of Bouillon, Eustace and Baldwin of Boulogne; Flemings under Count Robert II of Flanders; northern French under Robert of Normandy (older brother of King William II of England), Stephen of Blois, and Hugh of Vermandois (younger brother of King Philip I of France); Provencals under Raymond of Toulouse; and Normans of Italy under Bohemund of Taranto and Tancred of Hauteville. There was some dissension among the leaders, especially over who was the actual leader, though Urban himself appointed his legate Adhemar of Le Puy overall leader. The army also had to contend against the wishes of Alexius I, who was understandably suspicious of a massive army that included many of his old Norman enemies. Alexius would not let them leave until the various leaders had sworn fealty to him, and had them promise to return to the Byzantine Empire any land they recovered from the Seljuks; these oaths would quickly be broken once the Crusaders crossed into Asia Minor. Nicaea, capital of the Seljuk "Sultan of Rum" Kilij Arslan I,was taken in early 1097, and Kilij Arslan himself was defeated at Dorylaeum. The Crusaders then marched across Asia Minor. At this point Baldwin of Boulogne set off on his own towards the Armenian lands around the Euphrates. In Edessa he was adopted as heir by King Thoros, a Greek Orthodox ruler who was disliked by his Armenian subjects. Thoros was soon assassinated and Baldwin became the new ruler; the city became the County of Edessa, the first of the Crusader states. The main Crusader army, meanwhile, marched on to Antioch, which was captured after a long siege on June 3, 1098, but only by deception - a former Christian guard in the city opened one of the gates for the Crusaders. Almost immediately, an army from Mosul arrived to besiege the newly conquered city; on June 28 Antioch was successfully defended against this army thanks largely to the efforts of Bohemond, who claimed the city for himself as Prince of Antioch. According to legend, an army of Christian saints, including the martyrs who had been killed at Nicaea and Dorylaeum, helped rout the Turks outside the city, allowing for the success of the siege. The Crusaders also believed they were aided by the discovery of the Holy Lance inside the city. After a break, the rest of the Crusader army marched on to Jerusalem, which had, in the meanwhile, been recaptured by the Fatimids of Egypt. After a lengthy siege in which the Crusaders probably suffered more than the citizens of the city (with 15,000 marching in starvation on July 8), Jerusalem was taken on July 15, 1099. The Crusaders massacred the whole Muslim and Jewish population, men, women and children. The Jews were burned alive in their main synagogue where they had fled; the Muslims were slaughtered in the Al-Aqsa Mosque, and according to the accounts their blood ran ankle-deep. In the days following the massacre, Godfrey of Bouillon was made Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri (Protector of the Holy Sepulchre), refusing to be named king in the city where Christ had died. In the last action of the Crusade, he led an army which defeated an invading Fatimid army at Ascalon. Godfrey died in July, 1100, and was succeeded by his brother, Baldwin of Edessa, who took the title of "King of Jerusalem". Baldwin and his successors, Baldwin II (d. 1131), and Fulk (d. 1143), extended the boundaries of the Kingdom of Jerusalem through successful warfare. The new kingdom drew strength from the influx of new crusading forces in 1101, from the presence of the Italian merchants who established themselves in the Syrian ports, and from the religious and military orders of the Knights Templars and the Knights of St. John which were created during Baldwin I's reign. The First Crusade marks the emergence of a self-confident, aggressive and expansionist Latin society as stability in the West left a warrior aristocracy in search of new conquests and patrimony. The new prosperity of major towns also meant that money was available to equip expeditions. The seaborne towns, in particular Venice and Genoa, were interested in extending trade. The Pope saw the Crusades as a way to assert Church influence as a unifying force, with war as a religious mission. This was a new attitude to religion: it brought religious discipline, previously applicable to monks, to soldiery—-the new concept of a religious warrior and the chivalric ethos.	<urn:uuid:15bf49b1-74a7-46a7-9a0a-60165d04b9e1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.fact-index.com/f/fi/first_crusade.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00067.warc.gz	en	0.982186	1,890	3.8125	4	[ -0.5423430800437927, 0.25551754236221313, -0.17180952429771423, -0.23321303725242615, -0.41181322932243347, -0.048835668712854385, -0.24170784652233124, 0.43153688311576843, 0.07283186912536621, -0.04077726975083351, -0.2640591561794281, -0.17148086428642273, -0.1009855568408966, 0.3284987...	4	As early as 1074, when Asia Minor passed into the hands of the Seljuk Turks, Pope Gregory VII had projected a war against the Muslims, which he hoped would also lead to reunion with the Greek Church. However, the plan was thrust into the background by the conflict with the emperor Henry IV over investiture and other matters. Pope Urban II (1088-1099), who next took up the idea, was motivated not so much by the political considerations of Gregory as by actual religious impulse. The disunity in Europe in 1095 presented an opportunity for the Papacy. The calling of the Crusade was a political opportunity for Urban's pontificate, attracting loyalty from a wide range of disparate countries and asserting the Church’s role as a unifying force. From the Church came the impelling force; on the secular powers rested the actual execution of the plan. The papacy was concerned by Muslim raids on Sicily (Sicily itself was nominally Muslim). The popes were unwilling to ask the German emperor for help (as the emperors were traditionally the enemy of the Papacy), so asked the Normans to intervene. Robert Guiscard then took control of Sicily, the Pope 'granting' it to him, and it became a tightly-controlled monarchy under the Normans. At the same time, the Spanish were continuously fighting the Moors in the Iberian peninsula. Therefore, the conception of a crusade against the Muslim world was no absolute novelty to the nations of the West. The Byzantine emperor Alexius I was quite aware of this when he turned to Urban for aid against the Turks at Piacenza in 1095. His request met with a favourable response from the Church, as well as from the noble knights of Western Europe with their lust for adventure and conquest. When the Greek ambassadors arrived Urban was preparing for the Council of Clermont; there the Pope first preached the crusade on November 26, 1095 -- in words which have have been lost to history -- but which apparently stirred the crowd to a frenzied enthusiasm. Urban had domestic reasons for supporting a crusade; he was French, from Rheims, and needed to give an impression of the church militant, extending the religious mission from monks to the nobility. The aristocracy supported the Crusades: many younger sons could not inherit land, and Jerusalem was an opportunity. The Crusade was available as a religious penance as much as it was an economic opportunity. Merchants and financiers from the northern Italian towns (Genoa, Pisa, Venice) also saw opportunities in setting up trading routes and outposts in the newly conquered territories. The number of those who rose to join the Crusade increased daily, and the movement, soon exceeding papal restraint, seized upon the hunger of the lower classes. Peasants exchanged plows for arms and were joined by the dissatisfied, the oppressed, and the outcast, including members of the lower clergy, runaway monks, women, and children. This popular mob believed themselves to be led directly by God. These events led to the legend that Peter the Hermit of Amiens, not Urban, was the true representative of the crusading idea. Peter was one of the leaders of the fanatical bands, whose contribution to the enterprise was a story of an alleged personal appearance of Jesus. According to Peter, Jesus had given him a letter describing the sad condition of the Holy Land, and commanding Peter to lead an army to re-establish Christian power there. Conveniently, most of Peter's followers were at best semi-literate. Peter also had the support of the knight Walter the Penniless, who, as his name suggests, was an impoverished knight with no lord and no vassals. Their unarmed, unorganized army had little idea of the world outside their own lands, and at every city of any great size they believed they had arrived, at last, at Jerusalem. Their march was filled with wild excesses. The Jews were their principal targets, and many communities along the Rhine were slaughtered with the help of another peasant army led by Emich of Leiningen. On their way down the Danube, Peter's mob attacked Hungarians, Slavs, and anyone else they suspected of being "heathens." Most of Peter's army was massacred before they even reached Constantinople. Peter survived, however, and would later join the main Crusader army. The real armies set out in 1096. The main contingents were men of Lorraine under the brothers Godfrey of Bouillon, Eustace and Baldwin of Boulogne; Flemings under Count Robert II of Flanders; northern French under Robert of Normandy (older brother of King William II of England), Stephen of Blois, and Hugh of Vermandois (younger brother of King Philip I of France); Provencals under Raymond of Toulouse; and Normans of Italy under Bohemund of Taranto and Tancred of Hauteville. There was some dissension among the leaders, especially over who was the actual leader, though Urban himself appointed his legate Adhemar of Le Puy overall leader. The army also had to contend against the wishes of Alexius I, who was understandably suspicious of a massive army that included many of his old Norman enemies. Alexius would not let them leave until the various leaders had sworn fealty to him, and had them promise to return to the Byzantine Empire any land they recovered from the Seljuks; these oaths would quickly be broken once the Crusaders crossed into Asia Minor. Nicaea, capital of the Seljuk "Sultan of Rum" Kilij Arslan I,was taken in early 1097, and Kilij Arslan himself was defeated at Dorylaeum. The Crusaders then marched across Asia Minor. At this point Baldwin of Boulogne set off on his own towards the Armenian lands around the Euphrates. In Edessa he was adopted as heir by King Thoros, a Greek Orthodox ruler who was disliked by his Armenian subjects. Thoros was soon assassinated and Baldwin became the new ruler; the city became the County of Edessa, the first of the Crusader states. The main Crusader army, meanwhile, marched on to Antioch, which was captured after a long siege on June 3, 1098, but only by deception - a former Christian guard in the city opened one of the gates for the Crusaders. Almost immediately, an army from Mosul arrived to besiege the newly conquered city; on June 28 Antioch was successfully defended against this army thanks largely to the efforts of Bohemond, who claimed the city for himself as Prince of Antioch. According to legend, an army of Christian saints, including the martyrs who had been killed at Nicaea and Dorylaeum, helped rout the Turks outside the city, allowing for the success of the siege. The Crusaders also believed they were aided by the discovery of the Holy Lance inside the city. After a break, the rest of the Crusader army marched on to Jerusalem, which had, in the meanwhile, been recaptured by the Fatimids of Egypt. After a lengthy siege in which the Crusaders probably suffered more than the citizens of the city (with 15,000 marching in starvation on July 8), Jerusalem was taken on July 15, 1099. The Crusaders massacred the whole Muslim and Jewish population, men, women and children. The Jews were burned alive in their main synagogue where they had fled; the Muslims were slaughtered in the Al-Aqsa Mosque, and according to the accounts their blood ran ankle-deep. In the days following the massacre, Godfrey of Bouillon was made Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri (Protector of the Holy Sepulchre), refusing to be named king in the city where Christ had died. In the last action of the Crusade, he led an army which defeated an invading Fatimid army at Ascalon. Godfrey died in July, 1100, and was succeeded by his brother, Baldwin of Edessa, who took the title of "King of Jerusalem". Baldwin and his successors, Baldwin II (d. 1131), and Fulk (d. 1143), extended the boundaries of the Kingdom of Jerusalem through successful warfare. The new kingdom drew strength from the influx of new crusading forces in 1101, from the presence of the Italian merchants who established themselves in the Syrian ports, and from the religious and military orders of the Knights Templars and the Knights of St. John which were created during Baldwin I's reign. The First Crusade marks the emergence of a self-confident, aggressive and expansionist Latin society as stability in the West left a warrior aristocracy in search of new conquests and patrimony. The new prosperity of major towns also meant that money was available to equip expeditions. The seaborne towns, in particular Venice and Genoa, were interested in extending trade. The Pope saw the Crusades as a way to assert Church influence as a unifying force, with war as a religious mission. This was a new attitude to religion: it brought religious discipline, previously applicable to monks, to soldiery—-the new concept of a religious warrior and the chivalric ethos.	1,949	ENGLISH	1
The Middle Ages was a time period in Europe that spanned from 500 to 1400 A.D. This time period started because of the gradual decline of the Roman Empire. During this time period there were many devastatingly horrible things that happened but there were also many cultural, technological, religious, and architectural advancements have taken place. There are many labels that can describe this era, but the two that stand out the most are the labels: Age of Faith, and Age of Feudalism. Now these two labels will be further examined and explained throughout the duration of this essay. After the fall of the Roman Empire there was a lot of chaos and disorder. Charlemagne’s death did not help either, for it meant that soon after his children would split up and divide up the empire. The lack of strong leaders lead to a new way of governing and landowning which came to be known as Feudalism; which was a decentralized and loosely organized system of rule based on land ownership. With feudalism came a new type of organization called the Feudal System which was based on the feudal obligations between vassals and lords. This relationship was based directly on loyalty and maintaining their own end of the bargain. The vassals must provide military service, loyalty, and occasionally give money to the lord. The lord in exchange must give them land and give them protection from attacks. (Document 4)	<urn:uuid:70617062-7b45-47fe-9f36-45475c06780f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mamasstudy.com/the-middle-ages-was-a-time-period-in-europe-that-spanned-from-500-to-1400-a/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00331.warc.gz	en	0.982615	287	3.96875	4	[ -0.4588688611984253, 0.3378639817237854, 0.056673821061849594, -0.12637744843959808, -0.1734846979379654, -0.041250817477703094, -0.3071886897087097, 0.32598358392715454, 0.06277568638324738, -0.12683212757110596, 0.08155718445777893, 0.026267042383551598, 0.23573128879070282, 0.1873565465...	5	The Middle Ages was a time period in Europe that spanned from 500 to 1400 A.D. This time period started because of the gradual decline of the Roman Empire. During this time period there were many devastatingly horrible things that happened but there were also many cultural, technological, religious, and architectural advancements have taken place. There are many labels that can describe this era, but the two that stand out the most are the labels: Age of Faith, and Age of Feudalism. Now these two labels will be further examined and explained throughout the duration of this essay. After the fall of the Roman Empire there was a lot of chaos and disorder. Charlemagne’s death did not help either, for it meant that soon after his children would split up and divide up the empire. The lack of strong leaders lead to a new way of governing and landowning which came to be known as Feudalism; which was a decentralized and loosely organized system of rule based on land ownership. With feudalism came a new type of organization called the Feudal System which was based on the feudal obligations between vassals and lords. This relationship was based directly on loyalty and maintaining their own end of the bargain. The vassals must provide military service, loyalty, and occasionally give money to the lord. The lord in exchange must give them land and give them protection from attacks. (Document 4)	291	ENGLISH	1
British inventor Richard Trevithick takes seven of his friends for a test ride on his “Puffing Devil,” or “Puffer,” the first steam-powered passenger vehicle, on December 24, 1801. Unlike the steam engine pioneered by the Scotsman James Watt, Trevithick’s used “strong steam”–that is, steam at a very high pressure (145 pounds per square inch, or psi). Trevithick’s engines were extremely versatile: They could be put to work in mines, on farms, in factories, on ships and in locomotives of all kinds. Trevithick was born in 1771 in a mining village in Cornwall, England. He was a terrible student–his teachers thought he was a “disobedient, slow, obstinate, [and] spoiled boy” who would never amount to anything, and in fact he was basically illiterate his entire life–but he loved to tinker with tools and machines. In 1790, Trevithick went to work as a steam-engine repairman, first at the Wheal Treasury mine and then at the Ding Dong mine. In his off hours, he worked on an invention of his own: a steam locomotive that would be powerful enough to carry people and things but compact enough to be practical. On Christmas Eve 1801, Trevithick’s Puffer (so named because it puffed steam into the atmosphere) was ready at last. The machine had a pressure-operated piston connected to a cylindrical horizontal boiler and was large enough to seat all the onlookers who were eager to accompany Trevithick on his test run. (The car chugged steadily uphill, one of those passengers reported, “like a little bird…going faster than I could walk.”) A few days later, however, the amazing Puffer was destroyed when it overheated and caught fire. In 1804, at the Penydarren Ironworks in Wales, Trevithick built the first-ever steam locomotive to run along a track. It pulled five cars loaded with ten tons of iron and 70 ironworkers about nine miles, and chugging along at about five miles per hour. Unfortunately, it was also so heavy that it broke its rails and was retired after just three trips. In 1808, a similar locomotive–dubbed the “Catch-me-who-can”–hauled daredevil passengers in a circle around Torrington Square in London. (The rails eventually broke there, too.) Trevithick died in poverty in 1833, but his inventions lived on. Without a doubt, he was one of the most important figures of the industrial age.	<urn:uuid:2285611b-b569-4fd7-ba3d-6b6f7d43580f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/richard-trevithick-introduces-his-puffing-devil	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00326.warc.gz	en	0.98609	577	3.5	4	[ 0.019753048196434975, 0.3527003824710846, 0.43045368790626526, -0.102132648229599, -0.6641316413879395, -0.07586567848920822, 0.37883996963500977, 0.07905149459838867, -0.4222802221775055, -0.33219173550605774, -0.2965615689754486, -0.4210592806339264, 0.2860066890716553, 0.025210943073034...	15	British inventor Richard Trevithick takes seven of his friends for a test ride on his “Puffing Devil,” or “Puffer,” the first steam-powered passenger vehicle, on December 24, 1801. Unlike the steam engine pioneered by the Scotsman James Watt, Trevithick’s used “strong steam”–that is, steam at a very high pressure (145 pounds per square inch, or psi). Trevithick’s engines were extremely versatile: They could be put to work in mines, on farms, in factories, on ships and in locomotives of all kinds. Trevithick was born in 1771 in a mining village in Cornwall, England. He was a terrible student–his teachers thought he was a “disobedient, slow, obstinate, [and] spoiled boy” who would never amount to anything, and in fact he was basically illiterate his entire life–but he loved to tinker with tools and machines. In 1790, Trevithick went to work as a steam-engine repairman, first at the Wheal Treasury mine and then at the Ding Dong mine. In his off hours, he worked on an invention of his own: a steam locomotive that would be powerful enough to carry people and things but compact enough to be practical. On Christmas Eve 1801, Trevithick’s Puffer (so named because it puffed steam into the atmosphere) was ready at last. The machine had a pressure-operated piston connected to a cylindrical horizontal boiler and was large enough to seat all the onlookers who were eager to accompany Trevithick on his test run. (The car chugged steadily uphill, one of those passengers reported, “like a little bird…going faster than I could walk.”) A few days later, however, the amazing Puffer was destroyed when it overheated and caught fire. In 1804, at the Penydarren Ironworks in Wales, Trevithick built the first-ever steam locomotive to run along a track. It pulled five cars loaded with ten tons of iron and 70 ironworkers about nine miles, and chugging along at about five miles per hour. Unfortunately, it was also so heavy that it broke its rails and was retired after just three trips. In 1808, a similar locomotive–dubbed the “Catch-me-who-can”–hauled daredevil passengers in a circle around Torrington Square in London. (The rails eventually broke there, too.) Trevithick died in poverty in 1833, but his inventions lived on. Without a doubt, he was one of the most important figures of the industrial age.	565	ENGLISH	1
William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass: Racism in the Abolitionist Movement? The Liberator Started the Fight William Lloyd Garrison's anti-slavery newspaper, The Liberator, was fundamental in moving the United States towards abolishing slavery. As most Americans know, the Civil War dragged on for years without Lincoln issuing an emancipation proclamation. As the years dragged on, Garrison relentlessly published his paper, urging Lincoln and Congress to make the war about slavery and free the slaves. Famous 1850s Masthead Every week, Garrison sent a copy of The Liberator to every member of the government. Every issue of the paper laid out his clear claim that slavery was evil and should be immediately abolished with no compensation to the owners. It was the same argument he had made for over 30 years, although at the time of the war, he was not alone in believing slavery was wrong because all of the years of publishing and lecturing and organizing had changed the country. So why is Garrison's important work not studied more often? I believe the answer lies in what many critics have believed to have been prejudice on his part towards Frederick Douglass, whose slave autobiography has entered the canon of American Literature and is widely read in college classrooms. Mentor and Friend It was William Lloyd Garrison who first heard Douglass speak and tell his story. It was Garrison who took the former slave and introduced him to wealthy abolitionists in Boston and elsewhere and helped him not only publish his book but find work as an anti-slavery lecturer. Moreover, it was Garrison who promoted Douglass and helped him gain fame as the foremost of all African-American anti-slavery speakers. Why are you interested in Garrison and Douglass? However, both men were very strong personalities and both men liked their own way. Garrison had broken with other friends and he and Douglass had a falling out when Douglass started his own anti-slavery newspaper, The North Star, which ran in competition with The Liberator. Garrison was not happy, but it wasn't just because of the new paper. In fact, The Liberator actually published a very favorable review of the The North Star, praising the reporting and the editor. However, personally, Garrison was very angry with Douglass at this time because he felt betrayed. What happened was that while the two men were on a rigorous anti-slaver lecture tour in the west, Garrison became extremely ill, and, in fact, thought he was dying. Just as he was beginning to recover, Douglass left him. It isn't clear whether Garrison knew where his companion was going, but shortly afterwards, Douglass's The North Star appeared. Garrison felt betrayed and never fully trusted his former colleague again. However, in spite of the fact that the new paper threatened to take away The Liberator's always tenuous financial support, Garrison decided to take the high road and give the new paper his support in print. Was Garrison Racist? Talking about Garrison's racism has become popular. Although these two men had a long and complicated relationship, two particular quotations by Douglass have shaped the way in which literary and historical critics have viewed Garrison’s work. The first is Douglass’s comment in his Narrative of the Life and Times of Frederick Douglass (1845) that he was converted to abolitionism by reading Garrison's paper: "The paper became my meat and my drink. My soul was set all on fire. Its sympathy for my brethren in bonds—its scathing denunciations of slaveholders—its faithful exposures of slavery—and its powerful attacks upon the upholders of the institution—sent a thrill of joy through my soul, such as I had never felt before! I had not long been a reader of the “Liberator,” before I got a pretty correct idea of the principles, measures, and spirit of the anti-slavery reform. I took right hold of the cause. I could do but little; but what I could, I did with a joyful heart, and never felt happier than when in an anti-slavery meeting" ( Life and Times 118). Many literary critics have read this as implying a "paternalistic" attitude on Garrison's side. Other critics have leaped on this idea and suggested that the white abolitionist's latent prejudice kept him from recognizing Douglass as an equal and promoting his status accordingly. The second quotation by Douglass comes from his later autobiography, My Bondage and My Freedom (1855): "Tell your story, Frederick,” would whisper my then revered friend, William Lloyd Garrison, as I stepped upon the platform. I could not always obey, for I was now reading and thinking. New views of the subject were presented to my mind. It did not entirely satisfy me to narrate wrongs; I felt like denouncing them. I could not always curb my moral indignation for the perpetrators of slave-holding villainy, long enough for a circumstantial statement of the facts which I felt almost everybody must know. Besides, I was growing, and needed room" (Bondage 220). Literary critics and historians have often used this quote in to show that Garrison was both paternalistic and racist. They imply that Garrison was unwilling to believe that Douglass could or should speak anything outside of his own story. Garrison, in other words, was putting Douglass down. Moreover, they confirm this assessment by pointing out that Garrison objected to Douglass’s plan to start a newspaper and that the two men eventually “broke” their relationship when they disagreed on the interpretation of the Constitution. 1800s Printing Press The use of the quote from Bondage in one collection of essays, Frederick Douglass: New Literary and Historical Essays, edited by Eric J. Sundquist, is illuminating. In his introduction, Sundquist says, “The condescending instructions Douglass received from William Lloyd Garrison and other abolitionists required that he stick to the ‘facts’ and leave the ‘philosophy’ to others” (4). Similarly, Wilson J. Moses, in “Writing Freely? Frederick Douglass and the Constraints of Racialized Writing,” uses this quote to formulate his thesis that Douglass was confined by the Garrisonian insistence that he remain in the “literary box” of the slave narrative (67). In yet another instance, Jenny Franchot, in “The Punishment of Ester: Douglass and the Construction of the Feminine,” uses this section of the later autobiography to contend that Douglass’s relationship with Garrison went from hero-worship to appropriation of “charismatic patriarchal authority” (150). However, the most damaging evaluation of the relationship comes from John R. McKivigan. In “The Frederick Douglass-Gerrit Smith Friendship and Political Abolitionism in the 1850s.” McKiven contends “Douglass soon tired of repeating personal anecdotes about his years of a slave and began to offer a more ideological denunciation of the institutions. His white coadjutors, however, warned Douglass that his true asset to the movement was not his rhetorical skill but his status as a fugitive slave. Even though this advice might have been well intentioned, it revealed a paternalistic attitude that many white abolitionists from all factions displayed toward their black colleagues” (207). Is the Charge Fair? Are these charges of racism fair? Perhaps. Garrison may not have been completely immune to the ideas about differences between races that pervaded the air of the nineteenth century. However, the whole tenor of his life was to fight against not only slavery but also the idea that the races should be separate. For example, from the very first issue of his newspaper, he fought strongly for four concepts that were utterly unique: - Social Equality Between Races: He not only preached this, he also practiced it, even when it lead to contention and even rioting. He deliberately had his lecturers travel in mixed race groups and insisted on them being treated equally everywhere they traveled. - Blacks and Whites Should Work Together Against Slavery: He deliberately integrated his Anti-Slavery Societies at a time when that was seen as scandalous. Anti-slavery societies let not only black and white men but also black and white women work together in a common cause. - Talents of Black Men and Women Should Be Sought and Developed: He solicited black men and women to write articles for his paper in the very first year of its publication. Garrison frequently found and trained black men and women as lecturers and workers for abolitionism, giving them access to education, information and promotional opportunities for their businesses and writing. - Black Men and Women Should Speak and Whites Should Listen: Whether it was articles in his newspaper, anti-slavery meetings or lectures, Garrison made sure that black voices mattered and were given a chance to be heard. He not only encouraged former slaves to tell their story, he helped them to publish their stories and tried to get white audiences to really listen to what they heard by having his lecturers and articles instruct white audiences to imagine themselves in the place of a slave. What is the True Story? Many critics argue that the reason Douglass left Garrison was because the newspaperman's racism caused him to not allow his friend to fully develop as a writer and speaker. A leading proponent of this argument is James Olney, who led the canonization of Douglass’s Narrative and seems at the same time to have sunk the reputation of Garrison. In “The Founding Fathers—Frederick Douglass and Booker T. Washington,” Olney says: “I believe that it was his insistence that he was and would continue to be the author of the narrative of his life that caused Douglass’s quarrel and ultimate break with William Lloyd Garrison and the Garrisonians” (5). By implication, Garrison is the villain who attempted to wrest control of Douglass’ life away from him. This same attitude is pervasive in the history of African American literature. In his history of slave narratives, To Tell a Free Story: The First Century of Afro-American Autobiography, 1760-1865, William Andrews contends that in Bondage Douglass presents his rupture with Garrison as similar to his rupture with his slave master. A Complex and Evolving Relationship Similar descriptions of Garrison’s villainy have become commonplace in most discussions of Douglass's work. Unfortunately, few descriptions indicate the complexity of the relationship. Their friendship went through several stages, as might be expected between two such charismatic and opinionated individuals. - Partnership: At first they had an intense and intimate partnership and support during lecture tours. In fact, they gave supportive encouragement to one another when other abolitionists disagreed with them. - Mutual Support: Garrison supported Douglass’s acceptance of money to buy his freedom while Douglass supported Garrison during his battle against the militarism of some sides of the anti-slavery party. - Rivalry: During the time they were running competitive newspapers, they had a bitter rivalry which was well known in abolitionist circles. - Political Disagreement: At the same time they disagreed strongly over the whether or not the Constitution supported slavery, as well as differing in their approach to abolitionist tactics. - Reconciliation: Finally, after the war, they reconciled and came to peace with one another. In his eulogy for Garrison, Douglass said, “It was the glory of this man that he could stand alone with the truth and calmly await the result” (Mayer 372, 431-33, 631). How did Douglass Feel? His Respect Grows: Using the Douglass quote from Bondage as proof of Garrison’s poor treatment of his friend is not an accurate representation of how Douglass presents Garrison and his newspaper in that work. As a matter of fact, Douglass significantly expands his tribute to Garrison and The Liberator in Bondage, keeping the two paragraphs from Narrative and adding three more long paragraphs which describe his appreciation of the editor and his paper in glowing terms. He Remembers the Overall Picture: In Bondage, Douglass adds a significantly deeper description of how he felt. He notes that “I not only liked—I loved this paper, and its editor,” noting that for Garrison “The bible was his textbook,” and that this text made him believe “Prejudice against color was rebellion against God. Of all men beneath the sky, the slaves, because most neglected and despised, were nearest and dearest to his great heart” (216). Though this section is somewhat shortened and re-written in Douglass’s third autobiography, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass,” these sentences remain intact and the overall tribute to Garrison’s work as an abolitionist is undiminished (213-214). Views of Others The accusation that Garrison was racist and did not allow African-Americans to lead in the movement ignores the fact that many other African-American leaders, such as Charles Remond, William Nell and William Wells Brown, had successful and multi-faceted careers as abolitionist speakers, agitators and writers while remaining in the Garrisonian camp. Brown was also a fugitive slave, but according to Brown’s biographer, William Edward Farrison, Garrison never seems to have attempted to prevent him from lecturing on various subjects or from writing literature, history, and drama along with his narrative. Result of Misrepresentation Perhaps as a result of this misleading representation of Garrison, no book-length manuscript has been published dealing with The Liberator as a work of importance to American literature. When I began studying Garrison in 1994, the paper was only available on microfilm. Now that they are published online and are even indexed, I hope that literary critics and people interested in American history will examine this newspaper more closely to find out how the abolitionists used moral suasion to begin the process of unraveling the sin of slavery. Questions & Answers What personal and societal barriers did Douglass break in his split from William Lloyd Garrison? What risks was Douglass taking? Douglass did risk losing the support of other Garisonian abolitionists, but by the time of the split, he was a famous speaker in his own right, and probably felt he did not need Garrison's support. It was actually Garrison who broke many personal and societal barriers in order to champion Douglass as a speaker and writer. The website which has digitized parts of The Liberator includes an article which cites the articles in The Liberator which mention Douglass both before and after the split: http://theliberatorfiles.com/friendships-forged-in... How did William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass fight against slavery? In 1835, Garrison wrote in his first paper that his goal was to use words to move hearts and minds (he called it "moral suasion") to make people believe slavery was wrong. He did not believe in politics or in violence in any form. Garrison felt that no lasting change would happen unless people were persuaded to change their minds and believe not only that slavery was wrong, but that racial prejudice was wrong too. He would not have used the term "racial prejudice," but he strongly believed that there should be a social equality between the two races. Moreover, he put that belief into practice by doing all he could to have both races involved in his meetings, lectures and business enterprises. As a disciple of Garrison, Douglass also believed that the fight against slavery was first in battling against belief and prejudice. They fought through lecturing, writing, speaking to people in small groups, organizing "anti-slavery" societies where people could go to learn more, and doing non-violent activities that drew attention to their cause. For example, they would stand up in a church and start talking about anti-slavery until someone came to throw them out. Garrison was famous for burning a copy of the Constitution and the American flag as a demonstration that those symbols were corrupted by slavery. They distributed literature in the South until that literature began to be burned and banned everywhere. Even though Garrison was completely against violence, he reluctantly accepted the need for the Civil War (even accepting his son's enlistment). What he then wanted to do was to make sure the war became the instrument for freeing slaves. He sent his paper to every member of Congress throughout the war and made sure all of his anti-slavery activists remained dedicated to pushing the agenda of anti-slavery.Helpful 5 How did William Lloyd Garrison help the slavery movement to freedom? In reality, I'm not sure that slavery would have been abolished as soon as it was without William Lloyd Garrison's tenacious willingness to be a lightning rod for this cause. See my other article about this: https://hubpages.com/humanities/The-Liberator-by-W... What did William Lloyd Garrison ask Frederick Douglass to do? After hearing Douglass tell his story, Garrison asked Douglass to join his abolitionist lecturers. The lecturers traveled in pairs or small groups all around the North, giving talks in every town they could get a crowd, telling about the realities of slavery and arguing that slavery should be abolished immediately. Often, one of the lecturers was a former slave who could tell their story. Douglass was by far one of the most effective speakers. Garrison also asked Douglass to write for his newspaper, The Liberator. On one of their regular tours, Garrison got very ill and thought he was dying. Apparently, Garrison asked Douglass to stay with him, but he didn't. What national movement were Garrison and Douglass a part of? Garrison and Douglass were a part of the abolitionist movement.	<urn:uuid:09f94c0d-b0fc-4fd0-be2b-dbd89d6b7bd3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://owlcation.com/humanities/William-Lloyd-Garrison-and-Frederick-Douglass	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00255.warc.gz	en	0.983942	3,695	3.671875	4	[ -0.5456496477127075, 0.23009082674980164, -0.07943323254585266, 0.2569137215614319, -0.1183735653758049, -0.006006916053593159, 0.23643220961093903, -0.22747981548309326, -0.22347983717918396, 0.1391626000404358, 0.2613148093223572, 0.04911154508590698, -0.27074241638183594, 0.320271313190...	1	William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass: Racism in the Abolitionist Movement? The Liberator Started the Fight William Lloyd Garrison's anti-slavery newspaper, The Liberator, was fundamental in moving the United States towards abolishing slavery. As most Americans know, the Civil War dragged on for years without Lincoln issuing an emancipation proclamation. As the years dragged on, Garrison relentlessly published his paper, urging Lincoln and Congress to make the war about slavery and free the slaves. Famous 1850s Masthead Every week, Garrison sent a copy of The Liberator to every member of the government. Every issue of the paper laid out his clear claim that slavery was evil and should be immediately abolished with no compensation to the owners. It was the same argument he had made for over 30 years, although at the time of the war, he was not alone in believing slavery was wrong because all of the years of publishing and lecturing and organizing had changed the country. So why is Garrison's important work not studied more often? I believe the answer lies in what many critics have believed to have been prejudice on his part towards Frederick Douglass, whose slave autobiography has entered the canon of American Literature and is widely read in college classrooms. Mentor and Friend It was William Lloyd Garrison who first heard Douglass speak and tell his story. It was Garrison who took the former slave and introduced him to wealthy abolitionists in Boston and elsewhere and helped him not only publish his book but find work as an anti-slavery lecturer. Moreover, it was Garrison who promoted Douglass and helped him gain fame as the foremost of all African-American anti-slavery speakers. Why are you interested in Garrison and Douglass? However, both men were very strong personalities and both men liked their own way. Garrison had broken with other friends and he and Douglass had a falling out when Douglass started his own anti-slavery newspaper, The North Star, which ran in competition with The Liberator. Garrison was not happy, but it wasn't just because of the new paper. In fact, The Liberator actually published a very favorable review of the The North Star, praising the reporting and the editor. However, personally, Garrison was very angry with Douglass at this time because he felt betrayed. What happened was that while the two men were on a rigorous anti-slaver lecture tour in the west, Garrison became extremely ill, and, in fact, thought he was dying. Just as he was beginning to recover, Douglass left him. It isn't clear whether Garrison knew where his companion was going, but shortly afterwards, Douglass's The North Star appeared. Garrison felt betrayed and never fully trusted his former colleague again. However, in spite of the fact that the new paper threatened to take away The Liberator's always tenuous financial support, Garrison decided to take the high road and give the new paper his support in print. Was Garrison Racist? Talking about Garrison's racism has become popular. Although these two men had a long and complicated relationship, two particular quotations by Douglass have shaped the way in which literary and historical critics have viewed Garrison’s work. The first is Douglass’s comment in his Narrative of the Life and Times of Frederick Douglass (1845) that he was converted to abolitionism by reading Garrison's paper: "The paper became my meat and my drink. My soul was set all on fire. Its sympathy for my brethren in bonds—its scathing denunciations of slaveholders—its faithful exposures of slavery—and its powerful attacks upon the upholders of the institution—sent a thrill of joy through my soul, such as I had never felt before! I had not long been a reader of the “Liberator,” before I got a pretty correct idea of the principles, measures, and spirit of the anti-slavery reform. I took right hold of the cause. I could do but little; but what I could, I did with a joyful heart, and never felt happier than when in an anti-slavery meeting" ( Life and Times 118). Many literary critics have read this as implying a "paternalistic" attitude on Garrison's side. Other critics have leaped on this idea and suggested that the white abolitionist's latent prejudice kept him from recognizing Douglass as an equal and promoting his status accordingly. The second quotation by Douglass comes from his later autobiography, My Bondage and My Freedom (1855): "Tell your story, Frederick,” would whisper my then revered friend, William Lloyd Garrison, as I stepped upon the platform. I could not always obey, for I was now reading and thinking. New views of the subject were presented to my mind. It did not entirely satisfy me to narrate wrongs; I felt like denouncing them. I could not always curb my moral indignation for the perpetrators of slave-holding villainy, long enough for a circumstantial statement of the facts which I felt almost everybody must know. Besides, I was growing, and needed room" (Bondage 220). Literary critics and historians have often used this quote in to show that Garrison was both paternalistic and racist. They imply that Garrison was unwilling to believe that Douglass could or should speak anything outside of his own story. Garrison, in other words, was putting Douglass down. Moreover, they confirm this assessment by pointing out that Garrison objected to Douglass’s plan to start a newspaper and that the two men eventually “broke” their relationship when they disagreed on the interpretation of the Constitution. 1800s Printing Press The use of the quote from Bondage in one collection of essays, Frederick Douglass: New Literary and Historical Essays, edited by Eric J. Sundquist, is illuminating. In his introduction, Sundquist says, “The condescending instructions Douglass received from William Lloyd Garrison and other abolitionists required that he stick to the ‘facts’ and leave the ‘philosophy’ to others” (4). Similarly, Wilson J. Moses, in “Writing Freely? Frederick Douglass and the Constraints of Racialized Writing,” uses this quote to formulate his thesis that Douglass was confined by the Garrisonian insistence that he remain in the “literary box” of the slave narrative (67). In yet another instance, Jenny Franchot, in “The Punishment of Ester: Douglass and the Construction of the Feminine,” uses this section of the later autobiography to contend that Douglass’s relationship with Garrison went from hero-worship to appropriation of “charismatic patriarchal authority” (150). However, the most damaging evaluation of the relationship comes from John R. McKivigan. In “The Frederick Douglass-Gerrit Smith Friendship and Political Abolitionism in the 1850s.” McKiven contends “Douglass soon tired of repeating personal anecdotes about his years of a slave and began to offer a more ideological denunciation of the institutions. His white coadjutors, however, warned Douglass that his true asset to the movement was not his rhetorical skill but his status as a fugitive slave. Even though this advice might have been well intentioned, it revealed a paternalistic attitude that many white abolitionists from all factions displayed toward their black colleagues” (207). Is the Charge Fair? Are these charges of racism fair? Perhaps. Garrison may not have been completely immune to the ideas about differences between races that pervaded the air of the nineteenth century. However, the whole tenor of his life was to fight against not only slavery but also the idea that the races should be separate. For example, from the very first issue of his newspaper, he fought strongly for four concepts that were utterly unique: - Social Equality Between Races: He not only preached this, he also practiced it, even when it lead to contention and even rioting. He deliberately had his lecturers travel in mixed race groups and insisted on them being treated equally everywhere they traveled. - Blacks and Whites Should Work Together Against Slavery: He deliberately integrated his Anti-Slavery Societies at a time when that was seen as scandalous. Anti-slavery societies let not only black and white men but also black and white women work together in a common cause. - Talents of Black Men and Women Should Be Sought and Developed: He solicited black men and women to write articles for his paper in the very first year of its publication. Garrison frequently found and trained black men and women as lecturers and workers for abolitionism, giving them access to education, information and promotional opportunities for their businesses and writing. - Black Men and Women Should Speak and Whites Should Listen: Whether it was articles in his newspaper, anti-slavery meetings or lectures, Garrison made sure that black voices mattered and were given a chance to be heard. He not only encouraged former slaves to tell their story, he helped them to publish their stories and tried to get white audiences to really listen to what they heard by having his lecturers and articles instruct white audiences to imagine themselves in the place of a slave. What is the True Story? Many critics argue that the reason Douglass left Garrison was because the newspaperman's racism caused him to not allow his friend to fully develop as a writer and speaker. A leading proponent of this argument is James Olney, who led the canonization of Douglass’s Narrative and seems at the same time to have sunk the reputation of Garrison. In “The Founding Fathers—Frederick Douglass and Booker T. Washington,” Olney says: “I believe that it was his insistence that he was and would continue to be the author of the narrative of his life that caused Douglass’s quarrel and ultimate break with William Lloyd Garrison and the Garrisonians” (5). By implication, Garrison is the villain who attempted to wrest control of Douglass’ life away from him. This same attitude is pervasive in the history of African American literature. In his history of slave narratives, To Tell a Free Story: The First Century of Afro-American Autobiography, 1760-1865, William Andrews contends that in Bondage Douglass presents his rupture with Garrison as similar to his rupture with his slave master. A Complex and Evolving Relationship Similar descriptions of Garrison’s villainy have become commonplace in most discussions of Douglass's work. Unfortunately, few descriptions indicate the complexity of the relationship. Their friendship went through several stages, as might be expected between two such charismatic and opinionated individuals. - Partnership: At first they had an intense and intimate partnership and support during lecture tours. In fact, they gave supportive encouragement to one another when other abolitionists disagreed with them. - Mutual Support: Garrison supported Douglass’s acceptance of money to buy his freedom while Douglass supported Garrison during his battle against the militarism of some sides of the anti-slavery party. - Rivalry: During the time they were running competitive newspapers, they had a bitter rivalry which was well known in abolitionist circles. - Political Disagreement: At the same time they disagreed strongly over the whether or not the Constitution supported slavery, as well as differing in their approach to abolitionist tactics. - Reconciliation: Finally, after the war, they reconciled and came to peace with one another. In his eulogy for Garrison, Douglass said, “It was the glory of this man that he could stand alone with the truth and calmly await the result” (Mayer 372, 431-33, 631). How did Douglass Feel? His Respect Grows: Using the Douglass quote from Bondage as proof of Garrison’s poor treatment of his friend is not an accurate representation of how Douglass presents Garrison and his newspaper in that work. As a matter of fact, Douglass significantly expands his tribute to Garrison and The Liberator in Bondage, keeping the two paragraphs from Narrative and adding three more long paragraphs which describe his appreciation of the editor and his paper in glowing terms. He Remembers the Overall Picture: In Bondage, Douglass adds a significantly deeper description of how he felt. He notes that “I not only liked—I loved this paper, and its editor,” noting that for Garrison “The bible was his textbook,” and that this text made him believe “Prejudice against color was rebellion against God. Of all men beneath the sky, the slaves, because most neglected and despised, were nearest and dearest to his great heart” (216). Though this section is somewhat shortened and re-written in Douglass’s third autobiography, Life and Times of Frederick Douglass,” these sentences remain intact and the overall tribute to Garrison’s work as an abolitionist is undiminished (213-214). Views of Others The accusation that Garrison was racist and did not allow African-Americans to lead in the movement ignores the fact that many other African-American leaders, such as Charles Remond, William Nell and William Wells Brown, had successful and multi-faceted careers as abolitionist speakers, agitators and writers while remaining in the Garrisonian camp. Brown was also a fugitive slave, but according to Brown’s biographer, William Edward Farrison, Garrison never seems to have attempted to prevent him from lecturing on various subjects or from writing literature, history, and drama along with his narrative. Result of Misrepresentation Perhaps as a result of this misleading representation of Garrison, no book-length manuscript has been published dealing with The Liberator as a work of importance to American literature. When I began studying Garrison in 1994, the paper was only available on microfilm. Now that they are published online and are even indexed, I hope that literary critics and people interested in American history will examine this newspaper more closely to find out how the abolitionists used moral suasion to begin the process of unraveling the sin of slavery. Questions & Answers What personal and societal barriers did Douglass break in his split from William Lloyd Garrison? What risks was Douglass taking? Douglass did risk losing the support of other Garisonian abolitionists, but by the time of the split, he was a famous speaker in his own right, and probably felt he did not need Garrison's support. It was actually Garrison who broke many personal and societal barriers in order to champion Douglass as a speaker and writer. The website which has digitized parts of The Liberator includes an article which cites the articles in The Liberator which mention Douglass both before and after the split: http://theliberatorfiles.com/friendships-forged-in... How did William Lloyd Garrison and Frederick Douglass fight against slavery? In 1835, Garrison wrote in his first paper that his goal was to use words to move hearts and minds (he called it "moral suasion") to make people believe slavery was wrong. He did not believe in politics or in violence in any form. Garrison felt that no lasting change would happen unless people were persuaded to change their minds and believe not only that slavery was wrong, but that racial prejudice was wrong too. He would not have used the term "racial prejudice," but he strongly believed that there should be a social equality between the two races. Moreover, he put that belief into practice by doing all he could to have both races involved in his meetings, lectures and business enterprises. As a disciple of Garrison, Douglass also believed that the fight against slavery was first in battling against belief and prejudice. They fought through lecturing, writing, speaking to people in small groups, organizing "anti-slavery" societies where people could go to learn more, and doing non-violent activities that drew attention to their cause. For example, they would stand up in a church and start talking about anti-slavery until someone came to throw them out. Garrison was famous for burning a copy of the Constitution and the American flag as a demonstration that those symbols were corrupted by slavery. They distributed literature in the South until that literature began to be burned and banned everywhere. Even though Garrison was completely against violence, he reluctantly accepted the need for the Civil War (even accepting his son's enlistment). What he then wanted to do was to make sure the war became the instrument for freeing slaves. He sent his paper to every member of Congress throughout the war and made sure all of his anti-slavery activists remained dedicated to pushing the agenda of anti-slavery.Helpful 5 How did William Lloyd Garrison help the slavery movement to freedom? In reality, I'm not sure that slavery would have been abolished as soon as it was without William Lloyd Garrison's tenacious willingness to be a lightning rod for this cause. See my other article about this: https://hubpages.com/humanities/The-Liberator-by-W... What did William Lloyd Garrison ask Frederick Douglass to do? After hearing Douglass tell his story, Garrison asked Douglass to join his abolitionist lecturers. The lecturers traveled in pairs or small groups all around the North, giving talks in every town they could get a crowd, telling about the realities of slavery and arguing that slavery should be abolished immediately. Often, one of the lecturers was a former slave who could tell their story. Douglass was by far one of the most effective speakers. Garrison also asked Douglass to write for his newspaper, The Liberator. On one of their regular tours, Garrison got very ill and thought he was dying. Apparently, Garrison asked Douglass to stay with him, but he didn't. What national movement were Garrison and Douglass a part of? Garrison and Douglass were a part of the abolitionist movement.	3,593	ENGLISH	1
Chapter One Old Hickory's Boy JAMES K. POLK always had what any politician craves--the unqualified support of his era's greatest hero. To be sure, some folks vilified the very name of Andrew Jackson. But they were usually in the minority, and from his fabled victory at New Orleans in 1815 until his death in 1845, Jackson cast a huge shadow across the American political landscape. Throughout most of that time, there was never much doubt that James K. Polk was Old Hickory's boy. It was no small coincidence that the men were born within twenty miles of each other in the frontier hills of the Carolinas. Jackson was the elder by twenty-eight years. Because Jackson's recently widowed mother was traveling to join family, there is some doubt which sister's home, and hence which side of the North Carolina--South Carolina border, Elizabeth Jackson was at when her third son was born on March 15, 1767. But young Andrew grew up at his aunt Jane's on the South Carolina side and stayed there until he rode north to Salisbury, North Carolina, to study law seventeen years later. The law and a lust for adventure soon led Jackson west across the Great Smoky Mountains to Tennessee. In Jonesborough at the age of twenty-one, he fought his first duel, after taking the sarcasm of opposing counsel during a trial a little too personally. Both parties fired into the air, and Jackson left the field satisfied that his reputation was secure. Later in that same year of 1788, he arrived in Nashville. On the great Cumberland River, Nashville was still very much a fledgling frontier settlement, a town of a few hundred people that nonetheless had already managed to erect both a courthouse and a distillery. Jackson's boisterous personality attracted plenty of attention. In 1796, after helping to draft a state constitution, Andrew Jackson was elected Tennessee's first delegate to the U.S. House of Representatives. He was all of twenty-nine years old.1 By then, back in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, Samuel and Jane Polk had welcomed their firstborn. Jackson's Scots-Irish ancestors had barely reached America when Jackson was born, but the Polks were old-timers, Scots-Irish themselves. Sam's greatgreat- grandfather had arrived along the eastern shores of Chesapeake Bay in the late 1600s. The Polk clan soon migrated to south-central Pennsylvania and then to the Carolina hill country. Jane was a Knox, descended from a brother of Scottish Reformation leader John Knox. She was a no-nonsense Presbyterian, and she named the baby she delivered about noon on November 2, 1795, James Knox Polk after her father. Just about everyone else in Mecklenburg County was also Presbyterian, but there were various shades to their zeal. Sam Polk's father, Ezekiel, was a case in point. After the children he fathered with his second wife all died in infancy, Ezekiel became disillusioned with Presbyterian orthodoxy and began to espouse deism. When Sam and Jane presented Ezekiel's grandson to be baptized, a young "fire and brimstone" minister named James Wallis chose to interrogate Sam at length about the depths of his own commitment to Presbyterian doctrine. A heated argument ensued and the result was that little James Knox Polk was taken home without receiving the sacrament of baptism. Jane was mortified. Quite an uproar ensued throughout Mecklenburg County as Ezekiel voiced his views louder and louder and the Reverend Wallis preached back with equal passion. As if mortification weren't enough, Jane Polk was soon caught Excerpted from Polk: The Man Who Transformed the Presidency and America by Walter R. Borneman All rights reserved by the original copyright owners. Excerpts are provided for display purposes only and may not be reproduced, reprinted or distributed without the written permission of the publisher.	<urn:uuid:95afbc50-5bab-4b68-83a9-056102565831>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://i-share.carli.illinois.edu/all/vf-jkm/Record/392931456/Excerpt	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00164.warc.gz	en	0.983861	786	3.546875	4	[ -0.5142697095870972, 0.3618623614311218, 0.3545202612876892, -0.11132608354091644, -0.3532358407974243, -0.12263128161430359, 0.08562157303094864, -0.14451384544372559, -0.3214946389198303, 0.01237496268004179, 0.14002560079097748, 0.24737903475761414, 0.29822173714637756, 0.12111593782901...	1	Chapter One Old Hickory's Boy JAMES K. POLK always had what any politician craves--the unqualified support of his era's greatest hero. To be sure, some folks vilified the very name of Andrew Jackson. But they were usually in the minority, and from his fabled victory at New Orleans in 1815 until his death in 1845, Jackson cast a huge shadow across the American political landscape. Throughout most of that time, there was never much doubt that James K. Polk was Old Hickory's boy. It was no small coincidence that the men were born within twenty miles of each other in the frontier hills of the Carolinas. Jackson was the elder by twenty-eight years. Because Jackson's recently widowed mother was traveling to join family, there is some doubt which sister's home, and hence which side of the North Carolina--South Carolina border, Elizabeth Jackson was at when her third son was born on March 15, 1767. But young Andrew grew up at his aunt Jane's on the South Carolina side and stayed there until he rode north to Salisbury, North Carolina, to study law seventeen years later. The law and a lust for adventure soon led Jackson west across the Great Smoky Mountains to Tennessee. In Jonesborough at the age of twenty-one, he fought his first duel, after taking the sarcasm of opposing counsel during a trial a little too personally. Both parties fired into the air, and Jackson left the field satisfied that his reputation was secure. Later in that same year of 1788, he arrived in Nashville. On the great Cumberland River, Nashville was still very much a fledgling frontier settlement, a town of a few hundred people that nonetheless had already managed to erect both a courthouse and a distillery. Jackson's boisterous personality attracted plenty of attention. In 1796, after helping to draft a state constitution, Andrew Jackson was elected Tennessee's first delegate to the U.S. House of Representatives. He was all of twenty-nine years old.1 By then, back in Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, Samuel and Jane Polk had welcomed their firstborn. Jackson's Scots-Irish ancestors had barely reached America when Jackson was born, but the Polks were old-timers, Scots-Irish themselves. Sam's greatgreat- grandfather had arrived along the eastern shores of Chesapeake Bay in the late 1600s. The Polk clan soon migrated to south-central Pennsylvania and then to the Carolina hill country. Jane was a Knox, descended from a brother of Scottish Reformation leader John Knox. She was a no-nonsense Presbyterian, and she named the baby she delivered about noon on November 2, 1795, James Knox Polk after her father. Just about everyone else in Mecklenburg County was also Presbyterian, but there were various shades to their zeal. Sam Polk's father, Ezekiel, was a case in point. After the children he fathered with his second wife all died in infancy, Ezekiel became disillusioned with Presbyterian orthodoxy and began to espouse deism. When Sam and Jane presented Ezekiel's grandson to be baptized, a young "fire and brimstone" minister named James Wallis chose to interrogate Sam at length about the depths of his own commitment to Presbyterian doctrine. A heated argument ensued and the result was that little James Knox Polk was taken home without receiving the sacrament of baptism. Jane was mortified. Quite an uproar ensued throughout Mecklenburg County as Ezekiel voiced his views louder and louder and the Reverend Wallis preached back with equal passion. As if mortification weren't enough, Jane Polk was soon caught Excerpted from Polk: The Man Who Transformed the Presidency and America by Walter R. Borneman All rights reserved by the original copyright owners. Excerpts are provided for display purposes only and may not be reproduced, reprinted or distributed without the written permission of the publisher.	822	ENGLISH	1
The lives of Canadian women were enormously changed by the First and Second World Wars. They were forced to adapt to the conditions of total war in practical terms. They worked, volunteered, and served in uniform. The contributions made by the women to the war effort were very significant and their experienced changed the perception of women’s capability within the society. During the Second World War, Canadian women were not permitted to fight but they were involved in every other thing. Some joined the women’s army division and wartime industry while others were homemakers who took care of the families. Women’s Motivation To Join the War At the onset of the World War II, Canadian women felt that they needed to be directly involved in the war. In October 1938, the Canadian Women’s Volunteer Service was founded in Victoria and although only 20 women volunteers were required over 100 women arrived for the effort. Shortly after, more and more women felt that they needed to do their part, leading to the creation of the Women’s Service Corp. Similar volunteer groups were also established across the other Canadian provinces. The volunteer corps was designed after the auxiliary groups from Britain. Role of Women At Home The role of women at home was essential to the war effort. Before the World War II, women were to stay at home while the men worked and played in the public domain. However, the outbreak of the war forced the society to rethink the role of women away from home. The majority of women were involved in the unpaid voluntary work to support the war. They collected and recycled items and clothing for distribution overseas. The women also had the responsibility of maintaining the morale of the nation. They sold war saving stamps that amounted to $318 million at the end of the program. When men left their jobs to join the war, women stepped in to fill their position. The jobs were essential for the war supplies, especially when munitions became vital for the war effort. Women excelled in these male-dominated industries. The government supported the initiative by creating daycares to assist women who needed to work but had children. The women were expected to quite the jobs when men returned from war. Women’s work in the factories was perhaps the most important role in the World War II. Women Army Corps The Canadian Women Army Corps was established in 1941 and by the end of the war, it had 21,000 members. Women took up roles such as cooks, canteen helpers, telephone operators, clerks, and drivers of light vehicles. Most of the CWACs worked in Canada with only a few sent overseas. Four of the women sent overseas were wounded and none was killed in the war. Some of the Canadian women were enlisted in the Royal Canadian Naval Reserve and the Air Force. The WRCNS was established in 1942 while the Canadian Women’s Auxiliary Air Force was established in 1941. Other women served as Nursing Sisters and the young women had a chance to move away from their homes, go to parties and dance as a patriotic duty. About the Author John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:d0ee554d-1e60-4959-b3eb-7aed9214fb35>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-role-of-canadian-women-in-world-war-ii.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00025.warc.gz	en	0.986513	687	4.25	4	[ -0.24040135741233826, 0.496942400932312, 0.36074960231781006, -0.017064567655324936, -0.18313807249069214, 0.23959235846996307, 0.06551521271467209, 0.2620033919811249, -0.01475907675921917, -0.06728333979845047, 0.4694865942001343, -0.14927659928798676, 0.13022533059120178, 0.043737038969...	2	The lives of Canadian women were enormously changed by the First and Second World Wars. They were forced to adapt to the conditions of total war in practical terms. They worked, volunteered, and served in uniform. The contributions made by the women to the war effort were very significant and their experienced changed the perception of women’s capability within the society. During the Second World War, Canadian women were not permitted to fight but they were involved in every other thing. Some joined the women’s army division and wartime industry while others were homemakers who took care of the families. Women’s Motivation To Join the War At the onset of the World War II, Canadian women felt that they needed to be directly involved in the war. In October 1938, the Canadian Women’s Volunteer Service was founded in Victoria and although only 20 women volunteers were required over 100 women arrived for the effort. Shortly after, more and more women felt that they needed to do their part, leading to the creation of the Women’s Service Corp. Similar volunteer groups were also established across the other Canadian provinces. The volunteer corps was designed after the auxiliary groups from Britain. Role of Women At Home The role of women at home was essential to the war effort. Before the World War II, women were to stay at home while the men worked and played in the public domain. However, the outbreak of the war forced the society to rethink the role of women away from home. The majority of women were involved in the unpaid voluntary work to support the war. They collected and recycled items and clothing for distribution overseas. The women also had the responsibility of maintaining the morale of the nation. They sold war saving stamps that amounted to $318 million at the end of the program. When men left their jobs to join the war, women stepped in to fill their position. The jobs were essential for the war supplies, especially when munitions became vital for the war effort. Women excelled in these male-dominated industries. The government supported the initiative by creating daycares to assist women who needed to work but had children. The women were expected to quite the jobs when men returned from war. Women’s work in the factories was perhaps the most important role in the World War II. Women Army Corps The Canadian Women Army Corps was established in 1941 and by the end of the war, it had 21,000 members. Women took up roles such as cooks, canteen helpers, telephone operators, clerks, and drivers of light vehicles. Most of the CWACs worked in Canada with only a few sent overseas. Four of the women sent overseas were wounded and none was killed in the war. Some of the Canadian women were enlisted in the Royal Canadian Naval Reserve and the Air Force. The WRCNS was established in 1942 while the Canadian Women’s Auxiliary Air Force was established in 1941. Other women served as Nursing Sisters and the young women had a chance to move away from their homes, go to parties and dance as a patriotic duty. About the Author John Misachi is a seasoned writer with 5+ years of experience. His favorite topics include finance, history, geography, agriculture, legal, and sports. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	692	ENGLISH	1
Gladiator fights are definitely among the favourite subjects tackled both by professional and amateur historians. All the more that new aspects of this horrific practice come to light. Archaeologist Georges Ville believes that the phenomenon is far worse than we had imagined, explicable through reasons quite different from those that led to other horrors such as the Inquisition, the Holocaust or the gulags. Sadistic behaviour has always been a constant component of humanity, but gladiator combats exploit it in a seemingly original manner. First of all we should notice that most gladiators were actually volunteers, pretty much like the modern bullfighters. The encounters were not always fought to the death in order to see who was more powerful or wielded the most powerful weapons. This can be deduced from the relatively small number of frescoes that depict gladiators crossing their swords or piercing each other. Rapidly solving the conflict by means of weapons was not the main attraction of the public. In other depictions they do not even engage in combat, but instead one of them looks toward the ground, while the other raises his sword and does not stare at his opponent, but somewhere in the distance. The defeated stands on his feet, he is not wounded, but raises his finger as sign of defeat, because he is aware he cannot handle his enemy. Now he is merely waiting for the public to make the decision. Gladiators usually made use of really heavy equipment and more than often they would succumb to fatigue or mental breakdown. The supreme moment is represented by the decision of the public. It was less about a fair fight and more about the crowd that had the unique opportunity to manifest its omnipotence when the fate of a human being depends upon it. The looks on the faces of those who could possibly face death were probably the most intriguing ones, the way they still stood fearless, expressing their preservation of honour. In those times, but nowadays as well, gazing upon the convicted or the dead may induce a feeling of uncanny pleasure. We know that from movies, even though we may not state it overtly. In ancient Rome it was the same. The public did not take part in these shows to see people fighting, they came to see people dying. During the reign of emperor Augustus, gladiators used to perish after about ten combats, but during the reign of Marcus Aurelius they did not resist further than three encounters. A pardon was increasingly hard to gain. Those who financially supported the games, either the wealthy or the emperor, used to buy or rent gladiators and suffered great losses should their acquisitions die in the arena. However, if they did offer a display of corpses to the crowd, they would double their popularity. It was one of the ways to build up a political career. But why did gladiators choose their activity? The amount of fame was similar to that of football players or rock stars nowadays...Apart from volunteers, sometimes braver criminals could also become engaged in the arena. Nearly anyone could choose this path:free men, slaves, aristocrats, even women or transvestites. Anyway, it was somehow uncommon among the noblemen because the profession was generally considered dishonourable. When a free man desired to become a gladiator, he had to talk to a lanista, the ‘manager’, who rented the fighters to the wealthy people who would organise the shows. The slave had to persuade his master to sell him. Once gladiators, they could be rented or resold to important patrons, who sometimes could gather hordes of such ‘soldiers’ and even use them to intimidate enemies, as pope Damasus does in the year 367 when fighting against an antipope. Gladiators also represented a very profitable means to acquire wealth. Even Cicero would speculate on acquisitions and sales in order to come into a lavish fortune without too much effort, like many other noblemen. Nonetheless, gladiators represented a highly unstable merchandise, hard to control, since they were after all armed, fearless and more than often very desperate men. As such, the manager needed some kind of judicial support, put into practice by his right to brand his men. Slaves could be treated anyhow, but in what concerns free men, they used to sign a special contract named autocratio, which stated their renunciation of certain privileges. The shows usually commenced with a dramatised set-up. The hot iron was prepared for cowards, a high platform was erected for corpses, the fighters were chosen, and little by little the public was stimulated. But where does this institution actually stem from? It was initially a custom that many peoples shared. On the death of a dear one, some former servants may have used skirmishes in order to express their profound feelings of despair. Funerals may have occasioned a great variety of hysterical public manifestations, among which these duels as well. Gradually these ceremonial customs are converted into pure show, with a bit of help from the politicians. Because in ancient Rome funerals were also a great opportunity for electioneering, ever since the heirs realised they could speculate on the banquets so as to gain popular support. Feasts and games were also postponed, even with months, so that they could coincide with the hustings. The funerary guise therefore becomes a form of entertainment. Convicts get in the hands of the wealthy, who disguise them in gladiators and sent them to be butchered by the real fighters. Art, ranging from monuments and sculptures in the homes of the rich to clay recipients and oil lamps in the homes of the poor record a lot of memorable scenes from the arena. To better understand what the public may have felt at this display of blood, Paul Veyne draws a comparison to the attitude of the modern man toward erotic movies. Our feelings regarding pornography are a mixture of attraction and disgust, the same that gladiator games may have triggered. The crimes and corpses satisfied the viewer, but they also caused a lot of horror. But it was more about the preservation of his own body than it was about feeling sympathetic to the dying man. Human sacrifice was perceived as a part of a world still beyond civilisation, a barbaric realm beyond civic values, a reminder of an archaic period. The idea of a crime committed in times of peace horrified, but in the same time the passion for blood spoke otherwise. Feelings toward gladiators are ambivalent as well. The crowd cherished them as stars, but also despised them for they represented a terrifying human type:assassins, victims, walking dead, impure. Those who condemned this phenomenon are not to be suspected of charity. It is the same situation as with prostitution. One can blame it for being a temptation, or one can consider it a necessary evil. Gladiators themselves were some sort of prostitutes of death. They rejoiced a high degree of admiration, but it was very unwise to seek their company. The prude attitude did not lament their own fate, but the beholders who were faced with such monstrosities, and it was in fact limited to philosophers and Christian thinkers. If certain thinkers affirm that such shows are cruel, they do so bearing in mind that they may implant cruelty in the beholders, that they offer an example of crime in times of civil peace. The same way we fear that violent movies may cause an increase in delinquency. The Greeks too will adopt the custom, believing that the shows represented a school of courage, an opinion shared by Cicero, whose only problem appears to be the involvement of free men in the shows. The criticism against gladiator games has therefore a very selfish moralistic component. Seneca is also afraid because the crowd witnesses such outbreaks of impurity and cruelty. No one really concerned themselves with gladiators just out of empathy and the few who did were mocked as being womanized. The end of gladiatorship can be explained less by selfishness and more by the changes in the political climate at the end of antiquity, by the general fear springing from the need for self-preservation. When one sees how regular people, not only criminals or enemies, are sent to death, there arises a sentiment of threat, a return to the jungle law. Gladiatorship was one of the means by which the powerful made use of fear to their own benefit. When the emperors started to convert to Christianity, gladiator games begin to lose their frequency. It was more of an ideological change, since the emperor became the father of his subjects, he had to make sure they feel protected, and not fearful, and so obey the one that protects them. Like a good parent, he guards his children against bloody performances that may offer some pleasure at the beginning but then come back to haunt them. In the first three centuries the emperors were a different kind of shepherd, the one that leaves the herd at the mercy of instincts, guarding it against nothing, merely controlling them. Georges Ville, La gladiature en Occident, des origines a la mort de Domitien, Ecole francaise de Rome, 1981; Paul Veyne, Sexe et Pouvoir a Rome, Tallandier, 2005.	<urn:uuid:5be92af7-be18-4f5a-b981-162cc9200671>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historia.ro/sectiune/general/articol/gladiators-the-cursed-stars-of-ancient-rome	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00137.warc.gz	en	0.980765	1,879	3.28125	3	[ -0.5081788301467896, 0.7949426174163818, 0.044386666268110275, 0.20891684293746948, -0.06295953691005707, 0.020413704216480255, 0.2936464548110962, 0.24528585374355316, 0.18499606847763062, -0.17849135398864746, -0.27768492698669434, -0.24702614545822144, 0.12298548221588135, 0.53602737188...	2	Gladiator fights are definitely among the favourite subjects tackled both by professional and amateur historians. All the more that new aspects of this horrific practice come to light. Archaeologist Georges Ville believes that the phenomenon is far worse than we had imagined, explicable through reasons quite different from those that led to other horrors such as the Inquisition, the Holocaust or the gulags. Sadistic behaviour has always been a constant component of humanity, but gladiator combats exploit it in a seemingly original manner. First of all we should notice that most gladiators were actually volunteers, pretty much like the modern bullfighters. The encounters were not always fought to the death in order to see who was more powerful or wielded the most powerful weapons. This can be deduced from the relatively small number of frescoes that depict gladiators crossing their swords or piercing each other. Rapidly solving the conflict by means of weapons was not the main attraction of the public. In other depictions they do not even engage in combat, but instead one of them looks toward the ground, while the other raises his sword and does not stare at his opponent, but somewhere in the distance. The defeated stands on his feet, he is not wounded, but raises his finger as sign of defeat, because he is aware he cannot handle his enemy. Now he is merely waiting for the public to make the decision. Gladiators usually made use of really heavy equipment and more than often they would succumb to fatigue or mental breakdown. The supreme moment is represented by the decision of the public. It was less about a fair fight and more about the crowd that had the unique opportunity to manifest its omnipotence when the fate of a human being depends upon it. The looks on the faces of those who could possibly face death were probably the most intriguing ones, the way they still stood fearless, expressing their preservation of honour. In those times, but nowadays as well, gazing upon the convicted or the dead may induce a feeling of uncanny pleasure. We know that from movies, even though we may not state it overtly. In ancient Rome it was the same. The public did not take part in these shows to see people fighting, they came to see people dying. During the reign of emperor Augustus, gladiators used to perish after about ten combats, but during the reign of Marcus Aurelius they did not resist further than three encounters. A pardon was increasingly hard to gain. Those who financially supported the games, either the wealthy or the emperor, used to buy or rent gladiators and suffered great losses should their acquisitions die in the arena. However, if they did offer a display of corpses to the crowd, they would double their popularity. It was one of the ways to build up a political career. But why did gladiators choose their activity? The amount of fame was similar to that of football players or rock stars nowadays...Apart from volunteers, sometimes braver criminals could also become engaged in the arena. Nearly anyone could choose this path:free men, slaves, aristocrats, even women or transvestites. Anyway, it was somehow uncommon among the noblemen because the profession was generally considered dishonourable. When a free man desired to become a gladiator, he had to talk to a lanista, the ‘manager’, who rented the fighters to the wealthy people who would organise the shows. The slave had to persuade his master to sell him. Once gladiators, they could be rented or resold to important patrons, who sometimes could gather hordes of such ‘soldiers’ and even use them to intimidate enemies, as pope Damasus does in the year 367 when fighting against an antipope. Gladiators also represented a very profitable means to acquire wealth. Even Cicero would speculate on acquisitions and sales in order to come into a lavish fortune without too much effort, like many other noblemen. Nonetheless, gladiators represented a highly unstable merchandise, hard to control, since they were after all armed, fearless and more than often very desperate men. As such, the manager needed some kind of judicial support, put into practice by his right to brand his men. Slaves could be treated anyhow, but in what concerns free men, they used to sign a special contract named autocratio, which stated their renunciation of certain privileges. The shows usually commenced with a dramatised set-up. The hot iron was prepared for cowards, a high platform was erected for corpses, the fighters were chosen, and little by little the public was stimulated. But where does this institution actually stem from? It was initially a custom that many peoples shared. On the death of a dear one, some former servants may have used skirmishes in order to express their profound feelings of despair. Funerals may have occasioned a great variety of hysterical public manifestations, among which these duels as well. Gradually these ceremonial customs are converted into pure show, with a bit of help from the politicians. Because in ancient Rome funerals were also a great opportunity for electioneering, ever since the heirs realised they could speculate on the banquets so as to gain popular support. Feasts and games were also postponed, even with months, so that they could coincide with the hustings. The funerary guise therefore becomes a form of entertainment. Convicts get in the hands of the wealthy, who disguise them in gladiators and sent them to be butchered by the real fighters. Art, ranging from monuments and sculptures in the homes of the rich to clay recipients and oil lamps in the homes of the poor record a lot of memorable scenes from the arena. To better understand what the public may have felt at this display of blood, Paul Veyne draws a comparison to the attitude of the modern man toward erotic movies. Our feelings regarding pornography are a mixture of attraction and disgust, the same that gladiator games may have triggered. The crimes and corpses satisfied the viewer, but they also caused a lot of horror. But it was more about the preservation of his own body than it was about feeling sympathetic to the dying man. Human sacrifice was perceived as a part of a world still beyond civilisation, a barbaric realm beyond civic values, a reminder of an archaic period. The idea of a crime committed in times of peace horrified, but in the same time the passion for blood spoke otherwise. Feelings toward gladiators are ambivalent as well. The crowd cherished them as stars, but also despised them for they represented a terrifying human type:assassins, victims, walking dead, impure. Those who condemned this phenomenon are not to be suspected of charity. It is the same situation as with prostitution. One can blame it for being a temptation, or one can consider it a necessary evil. Gladiators themselves were some sort of prostitutes of death. They rejoiced a high degree of admiration, but it was very unwise to seek their company. The prude attitude did not lament their own fate, but the beholders who were faced with such monstrosities, and it was in fact limited to philosophers and Christian thinkers. If certain thinkers affirm that such shows are cruel, they do so bearing in mind that they may implant cruelty in the beholders, that they offer an example of crime in times of civil peace. The same way we fear that violent movies may cause an increase in delinquency. The Greeks too will adopt the custom, believing that the shows represented a school of courage, an opinion shared by Cicero, whose only problem appears to be the involvement of free men in the shows. The criticism against gladiator games has therefore a very selfish moralistic component. Seneca is also afraid because the crowd witnesses such outbreaks of impurity and cruelty. No one really concerned themselves with gladiators just out of empathy and the few who did were mocked as being womanized. The end of gladiatorship can be explained less by selfishness and more by the changes in the political climate at the end of antiquity, by the general fear springing from the need for self-preservation. When one sees how regular people, not only criminals or enemies, are sent to death, there arises a sentiment of threat, a return to the jungle law. Gladiatorship was one of the means by which the powerful made use of fear to their own benefit. When the emperors started to convert to Christianity, gladiator games begin to lose their frequency. It was more of an ideological change, since the emperor became the father of his subjects, he had to make sure they feel protected, and not fearful, and so obey the one that protects them. Like a good parent, he guards his children against bloody performances that may offer some pleasure at the beginning but then come back to haunt them. In the first three centuries the emperors were a different kind of shepherd, the one that leaves the herd at the mercy of instincts, guarding it against nothing, merely controlling them. Georges Ville, La gladiature en Occident, des origines a la mort de Domitien, Ecole francaise de Rome, 1981; Paul Veyne, Sexe et Pouvoir a Rome, Tallandier, 2005.	1,878	ENGLISH	1
How would American history and soceity be different if we had enslaved Australian Aborigines in lieu of West Africans? Imagine America today. Except, fast forward into slave days and the American South had Native Australian aboriginal peoples rather than West Africans? How would the substitution affect what America would look like today? - AndrewLv 74 months ago Well, firstly, most of the slaves imported to North America and the Caribbean came from West Africa - a region which is much more populous and much more densely populated than Australia, and the same was true during the era when slavery was at its height. Australia would have been a terrible place to attempt to gather slaves for several reasons. At the very top of the list is that there simply weren't that many people to enslave to begin with. Australia has never supported a very large population, and the people who lived there were nomadic and migratory, not sedentary, so it wouldn't have been as simple as just marching into a village and snatching everyone that could be found. The social system that existed in Australia was completely different from that of the one that existed in Africa at the time. Most slaves were prisoners who had been captured in wars with rival tribes or in raids conducted into rival territory, but many African chiefs were more than willing to sell their own people to Americans and Europeans for the right price. Because of the proximity of Europe to Africa, even Africans living deep in the interior knew of the existence of whites, and slavery among Africans themselves was not unknown, so the concept was understood by everyone. That wasn't the case in Australia. There were Australian Aborigines living in the early 1900s who had never seen a white man before. It would have been quite impossible to successfully enslave a group of people that didn't have any idea what slavery was. They were not farmers, so there was no real work to be done. They didn't construct permanent dwellings or herd animals or do any of the things that require repetitive labour, so it would have made little sense for Australian Aborigines to enslave anyone. What would the slave be tasked with doing? If you don't have fields to sow and plow, if you don't have animals to feed and graze, if you don't have buildings and tools that need upkeeping, then what good would a slave do you? And because Australian Aborigines inhabited a tremendously large area and were spread over the extent of an entire continent, the various tribes and bands had little in common - linguistically they were very isolated. Any two Australian Aboriginal languages would likely have had about as much in common as do Swedish and Swahili, and neither could understand European languages, so communication would have been a nightmare. And how do you enslave people that exist in some of the harshest environments known to man? Europeans had been in Australia for decades before the first successful crossing north to south was made. And the first successful east to west crossing came much later. Black Africans were much easier to enslave because there were vast numbers of them living along the coast where Americans and Europeans could bring their ships right in to the shore or take them upriver, but Australia is not blessed with many deep water ports and there are few navigable rivers. Most of the rivers that exist are seasonal. And because Australian Aborigines didn't live in permanent settlements, they would have been difficult to locate, nearly impossible to track, and wholly impossible to capture. Would Americans and Europeans have been willing to scour the deserts and arid plains and dense tropical forests looking for Australian Aborigines to capture? They'd been warring with one another since time immemorial so they knew how to defend themselves. They could find food and water in the most unlikely places and managed to survive under the unrelenting meridian sun in a land filled with dangerous creatures. There's no way that entire armies of Americans or Europeans would have been successful at capturing Australian Aborigines in great numbers if they had tried. And many whites would have been dead from the extreme temperatures, the venomous snakes and man-eating crocodiles and the lack of food and water. And even if whites had somehow managed to enslave a few, most would have died in captivity. I can't imagine that any would have made the journey back to North America and the Caribbean in the dark, airless holds of the slaveships, crammed in like sardines. They would never have survived the voyages. Not to mention how incredibly expensive an endeavour it would have been. Have a butcher's at a map. Find Australia. Now, trace a line from let's say Australia's east coast (always the most populous portion of the continent), to the places in North America and the Caribbean where slaves were in the highest demand. Do you know how long it would have taken for a slaveship to sail from Sydney to Charleston? From Sydney to Kingston? That's a long and expensive voyage. You can't take people that have lived their entire lives in open air living off the fat of the land and shove them into a rat-infested rickety slaveship and sail them thousands of miles around the globe and feed them swill and fetid water and expect them to be prized specimens ready for the auction block when they arrive. Americans tried enslaving Native Americans and it didn't work either. They were too proud to accept the life of a slave, and they were on home soil, so escape attempts could be successful. A Native American enslaved in New England could feasibly escape from a plantation in Georgia and make it home. But a Black African bought in Africa and put to work in Mississippi would not be able to get home. Australian Aborigines would never have accepted being enslaved. They would have refused to work, lay down and died. Their masters could have beaten them, tortured them, starved them, did whatever they thought might force them to obey, but it would have all been for nothing, because to a man, they would have dropped dead before they'd pick cotton or clean house or any of those things. Whites never would have been able to enslave Australian Aborigines, no matter what they might have tried. - 4 months ago For instance, would the banjo be replaced by the didgeridoo?	<urn:uuid:598fb333-44dc-45eb-92d6-2356564b04b5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20190916001039AArGEvp	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00063.warc.gz	en	0.987589	1,282	3.65625	4	[ -0.22452008724212646, 0.426758348941803, 0.09944916516542435, 0.1634785532951355, 0.0012137130834162235, 0.21164393424987793, -0.26135820150375366, -0.3124133050441742, -0.20605337619781494, 0.3461935818195343, 0.34985998272895813, -0.25441253185272217, -0.1719033122062683, 0.2954871952533...	1	How would American history and soceity be different if we had enslaved Australian Aborigines in lieu of West Africans? Imagine America today. Except, fast forward into slave days and the American South had Native Australian aboriginal peoples rather than West Africans? How would the substitution affect what America would look like today? - AndrewLv 74 months ago Well, firstly, most of the slaves imported to North America and the Caribbean came from West Africa - a region which is much more populous and much more densely populated than Australia, and the same was true during the era when slavery was at its height. Australia would have been a terrible place to attempt to gather slaves for several reasons. At the very top of the list is that there simply weren't that many people to enslave to begin with. Australia has never supported a very large population, and the people who lived there were nomadic and migratory, not sedentary, so it wouldn't have been as simple as just marching into a village and snatching everyone that could be found. The social system that existed in Australia was completely different from that of the one that existed in Africa at the time. Most slaves were prisoners who had been captured in wars with rival tribes or in raids conducted into rival territory, but many African chiefs were more than willing to sell their own people to Americans and Europeans for the right price. Because of the proximity of Europe to Africa, even Africans living deep in the interior knew of the existence of whites, and slavery among Africans themselves was not unknown, so the concept was understood by everyone. That wasn't the case in Australia. There were Australian Aborigines living in the early 1900s who had never seen a white man before. It would have been quite impossible to successfully enslave a group of people that didn't have any idea what slavery was. They were not farmers, so there was no real work to be done. They didn't construct permanent dwellings or herd animals or do any of the things that require repetitive labour, so it would have made little sense for Australian Aborigines to enslave anyone. What would the slave be tasked with doing? If you don't have fields to sow and plow, if you don't have animals to feed and graze, if you don't have buildings and tools that need upkeeping, then what good would a slave do you? And because Australian Aborigines inhabited a tremendously large area and were spread over the extent of an entire continent, the various tribes and bands had little in common - linguistically they were very isolated. Any two Australian Aboriginal languages would likely have had about as much in common as do Swedish and Swahili, and neither could understand European languages, so communication would have been a nightmare. And how do you enslave people that exist in some of the harshest environments known to man? Europeans had been in Australia for decades before the first successful crossing north to south was made. And the first successful east to west crossing came much later. Black Africans were much easier to enslave because there were vast numbers of them living along the coast where Americans and Europeans could bring their ships right in to the shore or take them upriver, but Australia is not blessed with many deep water ports and there are few navigable rivers. Most of the rivers that exist are seasonal. And because Australian Aborigines didn't live in permanent settlements, they would have been difficult to locate, nearly impossible to track, and wholly impossible to capture. Would Americans and Europeans have been willing to scour the deserts and arid plains and dense tropical forests looking for Australian Aborigines to capture? They'd been warring with one another since time immemorial so they knew how to defend themselves. They could find food and water in the most unlikely places and managed to survive under the unrelenting meridian sun in a land filled with dangerous creatures. There's no way that entire armies of Americans or Europeans would have been successful at capturing Australian Aborigines in great numbers if they had tried. And many whites would have been dead from the extreme temperatures, the venomous snakes and man-eating crocodiles and the lack of food and water. And even if whites had somehow managed to enslave a few, most would have died in captivity. I can't imagine that any would have made the journey back to North America and the Caribbean in the dark, airless holds of the slaveships, crammed in like sardines. They would never have survived the voyages. Not to mention how incredibly expensive an endeavour it would have been. Have a butcher's at a map. Find Australia. Now, trace a line from let's say Australia's east coast (always the most populous portion of the continent), to the places in North America and the Caribbean where slaves were in the highest demand. Do you know how long it would have taken for a slaveship to sail from Sydney to Charleston? From Sydney to Kingston? That's a long and expensive voyage. You can't take people that have lived their entire lives in open air living off the fat of the land and shove them into a rat-infested rickety slaveship and sail them thousands of miles around the globe and feed them swill and fetid water and expect them to be prized specimens ready for the auction block when they arrive. Americans tried enslaving Native Americans and it didn't work either. They were too proud to accept the life of a slave, and they were on home soil, so escape attempts could be successful. A Native American enslaved in New England could feasibly escape from a plantation in Georgia and make it home. But a Black African bought in Africa and put to work in Mississippi would not be able to get home. Australian Aborigines would never have accepted being enslaved. They would have refused to work, lay down and died. Their masters could have beaten them, tortured them, starved them, did whatever they thought might force them to obey, but it would have all been for nothing, because to a man, they would have dropped dead before they'd pick cotton or clean house or any of those things. Whites never would have been able to enslave Australian Aborigines, no matter what they might have tried. - 4 months ago For instance, would the banjo be replaced by the didgeridoo?	1,284	ENGLISH	1
Censorship was rampant throughout Nazi Germany. Censorship ensured that Germans could only see what the Nazi hierarchy wanted people to see, hear what they wanted them to hear and read only what the Nazis deemed acceptable. The Nazi police dealt with anyone who went outside of these boundaries. Censorship dominated the lives of the ordinary citizen in Nazi Germany. The prime mover in censorship was the Minister of Propaganda, Joseph Goebbels. It was his responsibility to see that the German people were fed with material acceptable to the Nazi state. Newspapers, radio and all forms of media were put under the control of the Nazis. Even the film industry became controlled by the Nazis where the leading light was Leni Riefenstahl– who, though favoured by Hitler, did not enjoy a good relationship with Goebbels. Music was controlled by the Nazis. Music by Gustav Mahler and Felix Mendelssohn was banned as they were both Jews. Jazz was also banned. Even telling jokes about Hitler became a serious offence – one to send you to the concentration camps and potentially death. Censorship was enforced by a number of methods. First, the secret police or the ‘normal’ police ensured that the rules were kept to. Secondly, anyone who wanted to go outside of the desired party norm faced the most serious of consequences. Third, people in general were expected to report anything unacceptable to their local party chief. Those who knew something but did not report it were deemed as guilty as those who went against the system. Censorship ensured that the Nazis had the German public in their grip as they bombarded them on a daily basis on how their lives had been improved from the day Hitler became Germany’s leader. “There was once a nanny-goat who said, The ox looked at her askance. Brecht was a left-wing writer who had his work banned. \|“The chief function of propaganda is to convince the masses, who slowness of understanding needs to be given time in order that they may absorb information; and only constant repetition will finally succeed in imprinting an idea on their mind………the slogan must of course be illustrated in many ways and from several angles, but in the end one must always return to the assertion of the same formula. The one will be rewarded by the surprising and almost incredible results that such a personal policy secures.” Adolf Hitler from “Mein Kampf” - Adolf Hitler led Germany throughout World War Two. His desire to create an aryan race was paramount in his ethos and political campaigns. Hitler had no… - Propaganda within Nazi Germany was taken to a new and frequently perverse level. Hitler was very aware of the value of good propaganda and he…	<urn:uuid:915b52bf-81fd-4ca2-bdd7-8038e7cae083>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/nazi-germany/censorship-in-nazi-germany/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00018.warc.gz	en	0.989421	572	3.453125	3	[ -0.09601525962352753, 0.5233789682388306, -0.1701572835445404, -0.21656453609466553, 0.15138089656829834, 0.29707926511764526, 0.20548447966575623, 0.21360652148723602, -0.0898408442735672, 0.017100617289543152, 0.05011794716119766, 0.06023266166448593, 0.2718607187271118, 0.16438859701156...	10	Censorship was rampant throughout Nazi Germany. Censorship ensured that Germans could only see what the Nazi hierarchy wanted people to see, hear what they wanted them to hear and read only what the Nazis deemed acceptable. The Nazi police dealt with anyone who went outside of these boundaries. Censorship dominated the lives of the ordinary citizen in Nazi Germany. The prime mover in censorship was the Minister of Propaganda, Joseph Goebbels. It was his responsibility to see that the German people were fed with material acceptable to the Nazi state. Newspapers, radio and all forms of media were put under the control of the Nazis. Even the film industry became controlled by the Nazis where the leading light was Leni Riefenstahl– who, though favoured by Hitler, did not enjoy a good relationship with Goebbels. Music was controlled by the Nazis. Music by Gustav Mahler and Felix Mendelssohn was banned as they were both Jews. Jazz was also banned. Even telling jokes about Hitler became a serious offence – one to send you to the concentration camps and potentially death. Censorship was enforced by a number of methods. First, the secret police or the ‘normal’ police ensured that the rules were kept to. Secondly, anyone who wanted to go outside of the desired party norm faced the most serious of consequences. Third, people in general were expected to report anything unacceptable to their local party chief. Those who knew something but did not report it were deemed as guilty as those who went against the system. Censorship ensured that the Nazis had the German public in their grip as they bombarded them on a daily basis on how their lives had been improved from the day Hitler became Germany’s leader. “There was once a nanny-goat who said, The ox looked at her askance. Brecht was a left-wing writer who had his work banned. \|“The chief function of propaganda is to convince the masses, who slowness of understanding needs to be given time in order that they may absorb information; and only constant repetition will finally succeed in imprinting an idea on their mind………the slogan must of course be illustrated in many ways and from several angles, but in the end one must always return to the assertion of the same formula. The one will be rewarded by the surprising and almost incredible results that such a personal policy secures.” Adolf Hitler from “Mein Kampf” - Adolf Hitler led Germany throughout World War Two. His desire to create an aryan race was paramount in his ethos and political campaigns. Hitler had no… - Propaganda within Nazi Germany was taken to a new and frequently perverse level. Hitler was very aware of the value of good propaganda and he…	549	ENGLISH	1
All the Gordon’s sons were army officers —descendants of military officers who devoted themselves to the idea that their children would inherit this tradition. And so they did. Major General and Mrs. Henry William Gordon were the parents of Charles George Gordon, Major General, British Army, Commander of the Bath (1833-1885). Owing to his father’s duty stations, Charles grew up in England, Ireland, Scotland, and Ionia. Charles’ education included the Fullande School in Taunton, the Taunton School, and the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. While still a young lad, Charles’ younger sister succumbed to consumption; her passing devastated him and for several months he withdrew from the family. An older sister named Augusta, a particularly religious young woman, embraced Charles and she influenced him for the rest of his life. It was because of Augusta, for example, that Charles grew up to become a staunchly religious person. Despite his religious beliefs, Charles was a spirited and highly intelligent young man, one who developed the (then) deplorable habit of ignoring authority whenever he believed that its rules were foolish or unjust. This was a trait that held him back for two years at the military academy,. At the same time, Gordon had marvelous talents. He developed into an accomplished cartographer and engineer. He received his commission to Second Lieutenant of Royal Engineers in June 1852, completed his training at Chatham, and advanced to First Lieutenant in February 1854. Although trained as a sapper [Note 1], he became adept at reconnaissance, leading storming parties, demolitions, and providing rearguard actions. His inclination to question or disregard orders aside, Charles Gordon evolved into a fine military officer. He had charisma, a superior leadership ability, and an unparalleled devotion to his assigned task or mission. His only problem was that in refusing to obey what he considered an unlawful or poorly conceived orders, many senior officers regarded him as rogue. Yet it was this very same trait that caused his men to love him. Over time, Gordon became even more devoted to his religious principles. He was no zealot by any measure, at least not initially, but someone who maintained the strength of his convictions —and was steadfast in living his life according to those beliefs. In many ways, Gordon was a fatalist; believing in the after-life, he was not afraid of death and some say, in time, he began to pursue it. During the Crimean War, Gordon performed his duties at the siege of Sevastopol, took part in the assault of the Redans as a sapper, and mapped the strongpoints of the city’s fortifications. What made this a particularly dangerous duty was that it subjected him to direct enemy fire from the fortress and he was wounded during one such sortie. During this war Gordon made several friends who remained so for the rest of his life; friends that would later defend him. In 1855, the British and French initiated a final assault on Sevastopol. Following a massive bombardment, sappers assaulted the fortress at Malakoff Hill. The engagement was a massacre of British and French soldiers and none of the operation’s planned objectives were achieved. As a participant, Gordon distinguished himself by his courage under fire and his tenacity as a combat leader. Following the end of hostilities in the Crimea, Gordon served the international commission charged with marking a new border between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire in Bessarabia. He later performed similar services on the frontier between Ottoman Armenia and Russian Armenia. It was during this time that Gordon became fascinated with a new American invention and took it up as a hobby: the camera. Seeking adventure, Gordon volunteered to serve in China during the Second Opium War (1860). By the time he arrived in Hong Kong, however, the fighting was over. He had heard of the Taiping Rebellion [Note 2] but didn’t understand it. En route to China, he read all he could about the Taiping and initially found sympathy for the movement. Gordon was a young man, reading one individual’s opinion, and allowed himself to be influenced by it, but what made his empathy a bit odd was that the leader of the Taiping —a man named Hong Xiuquan— believed himself to be the younger brother of Jesus of Nazareth. After disembarking in Shanghai, Gordon made a tour of the Chinese countryside. The atrocities he witnessed committed by the Taiping against local peasants appalled him and he began to see the Taiping for what they were: cold-blooded killers. During the early period of his tour in China, Gordon served under General Charles William Dunbar Staveley [Note 3], who occupied northern China until April 1862. During the war, Taiping armies came close enough to Shanghai to alarm European residents. European and Asian legations raised a militia to defend Shanghai. Legates detailed Frederick Townsend Ward [Note 4] to command this militia. Apparently, the British arrived in the nick of time. General Staveley decided to clear the rebels within 30 miles of Shanghai. He planned these operations in cooperation with Ward and a small force of French soldiers. At the time, Gordon served on Staveley’s staff as an engineer. After Ward’s death, command of his Asian army passed to another American, Henry A. Burgevine (shown right). It was an unhappy choice because Burgevine was ill-suited to the task of commanding a multi-ethnic mercenary force: he was inexperienced in leading a large body of men, lacked the necessary self-confidence of command, and consumed copious amounts of alcohol, making him unreliable. The Taiping rebellion was a civil war, of course, but unlike any other in the history of the world and Henry Burgevine was no Frederick Ward. He was much detested by the Chinese —so much, in fact, that the governor of Jiang-su Province asked General Staveley to appoint a British officer to command this largely mercenary force. The officer Staveley selected was Brevet Major Gordon. The British government approved Gordon’s appointment in December 1862. Gordon, it seems, was exactly the kind of man Governor Li Hong-Zhang was looking for: a man of good temper, clean of hands, and a steady economist. Major Gordon, unlike many (if not most) Chinese officers, was honest and incorruptible. He did not steal the money that was earmarked to pay his men, and he insisted on paying the men on time and in full. Of course, the Chinese bureaucrats did not understand why Gordon insisted on paying his men. In their view, he should have allowed his men to loot and plunder the countryside for their pay —this was the way of things in China. Gordon would not have any of that sort behavior among his men. To instill a sense of pride in his men, Gordon designed their uniforms. He dressed his regulars in green, while designating blue uniforms for his personal guard. Major Gordon assumed command of his army in March 1863 and led them at once to relieve the town of Chansu some forty miles northwest of Shanghai. Gordon quickly accomplished this first test, which was securing the respect and loyalty of his troops. As a means of encouraging the Taiping to either desert or surrender, he treated all prisoners of war with dignity and respect. As an engineer, it occurred to Major Gordon that the network of canals and rivers that flowed through the Chinese countryside would be useful for moving his troops and establishing an expedient supply line. In matters of training and rehearsing his army, Gordon’s ideas were innovative and efficient. He was vocally critical of the methods Chinese generals used in war fighting. In contrast, Gordon was sought to avoid unnecessary casualties or large battle losses. By maneuvering his forces to deny enemy retreat, he found that enemy troops would quickly withdraw from the battlefield [Note 5]. Gordon believed that frontal assaults produced unacceptably high numbers of casualties (which is true). As his subordinate commanders were Chinese, they did not object to unnecessary carnage, but Gordon insisted on attacking the enemy’s flank whenever possible. Gordon’s innovative thinking, such as his creation of a riverine force, caused the Taiping army to avoid Gordon’s army on several occasions. Of some value to Gordon, once the peasants realized that Gordon’s strategy had a telling effect on the Taiping, they were more disposed to coming to his aid, which did occur on several occasions. The peasants, tired of Taiping terrorism, attacked the retreating Taiping and hacked them to death with simple farming implements. Among Gordon’s peers, he was“thoughtful and fearless in the face of grave danger.” Because Gordon’s force was mercenary, their only loyalty was to money and the men willing to pay them. It was only Gordon’s stern disciplinary policies that kept his force from plundering the peasants, whom they were supposed to protect. At one point, Gordon ordered the execution of one of his Chinese officers who conspired to take his unit over to the Taiping. It was a distasteful duty and one that would never survive the modern evening news, but in China, it was a necessary and prudent step to avoid mass desertion. The fact is that Gordon’s mercenary force consisted of some of the worst elements of Chinese, British, and American society. Prior to Gordon’s assignment in command, it was commonplace for these mercenaries to enter a town or district, steal everything they could get their hands on, rape the women, and indiscriminately murder local citizens. It was only Gordon’s harsh discipline that changed this behavior. Any of his men who were accused of crimes against the people would very likely face a firing squad —from which there was no appeal. When Gordon defeated Burgevine’s new mercenary force, which had aligned themselves with the Taiping, he had Burgevine arrested and deported. Burgevine, however made his way back to China, was promptly arrested by the Qing secret service, and was “shot while trying to escape.” Burgevine was many things but exceedingly bright wasn’t one of them. Major Gordon was appalled by the poverty and suffering of the Chinese people. It was this hardship that strengthened his faith because, as he would frequently argue, there had to be a just and loving God who would one day redeem humanity from wretchedness and misery [Note 6]. Nevertheless, it was Gordon’s humanity that brought him the respect and friendship of those who opposed him politically. He led his mercenary army from the front, never personally armed with anything more than a rattan cane. His coolness in battle led many Chinese to believe that he possessed supernatural powers; it was only that Gordon was a fatalist and predestinate. Imperial troops joined Gordon’s force in capturing Suzhou. He had let it be known that any Taiping soldier who surrendered would be humanely treated. After pacifying surrounding towns and villages, Gordon himself entered Suzhou but, given the tendency of his men to loot, he denied them entry into the confines of the city. Only the Imperial forces [Note 7] would be allowed to enter the city, and when they did, much to Gordon’s anguish, they promptly executed every Taiping who had surrendered. Angry, he wrote, “If faith had been kept, there would have been no more fighting, as every town in China would have given in.” Of course, what Major Gordon did not understand was that while it is possible to take a Chinese man out of China; it is impossible to take China out of the Chinese man. Even today, most Chinese are devoid of a sense of humanity. As a measure of the man and his integrity, the Emperor of China, in recognition of Gordon’s achievements, subsequently awarded Gordon ten-thousand gold coins, laudatory flags, fine silk clothing, and a title equivalent to Field Marshal. All of these things Gordon refused —and all because the Imperial troops, in executing the Taiping prisoners, had made Gordon out to be a liar. Rebuffing the Chinese emperor did nothing to solidify their relationship, but it was consistent with Gordon’s sense of self. It was after his service in China that the press and his peers began to refer to him as “Chinese Gordon”. The nickname stayed with him to the end of his days. Gordon’s father did not approve of his son working in the service of the Chinese government and it was an estrangement that had not been settled before his father’s death. Charles, of course, felt guilty about his failure to reconcile with his father and deeply regretted it for the rest of his life. After Gordon’s return to England, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and placed in command of the Royal Engineers near Gravesend, Kent, and tasked to prepare fortifications in defense of the River Thames. By then, Chinese Gordon has become a press celebrity —except that Gordon wanted nothing to do with it. He promptly informed the press to leave him alone. In Gravesend, Gordon volunteered to teach at a local school, called the Ragged School [Note 8]. Tasked with constructing forts, Colonel Gordon disapproved of the notion that they were in any way necessary. He regarded them as expensive and useless. The Duke of Cambridge [Note 9], in his role as Commander in Chief of the Forces (head of the British Army) visited one of the construction sites and praised Gordon for his excellent work. Gordon answered, “I had nothing to do with it, sir. It was built regardless of my opinion, and, in fact, I entirely disapprove of its arrangement and position.” Gordon didn’t mince his words, regardless of who he was talking to. And, of course, Gordon was entirely correct. It was a waste of limited resources. Gordon was advanced to Colonel on 16 February 1872. Afterward detailed to inspect British military cemeteries in the Crimea, and when transiting through Constantinople, he made his manners to the Prime Minister of Egypt, Raghib Pasha. Pasha opened negotiations with Gordon to serve under the Khedive (Viceroy) Ismai’il Pasha. French educated, Isma’il admired Europe as a model of excellence, but favored most France and Italy. He was a devout Moslem who enjoyed Italian wine and French champaign. The language of Ismai’il’s court was French and Turkish, not Arabic. It was the Viceroy’s dream to make Turkey culturally part of Europe and he spent enormous sums of money in the modernization and Westernization of Egypt. The doing of this sent Egypt deeply into debt —even after the American Civil War had transformed Egyptian cotton into “white gold,” Ismai’il’s spending increased Egyptian debt to more than 93-million pounds sterling. Ismai’il’s love affair with western culture alienated the more conservative members of Egyptian Islamic society. Ismai’il’s grandfather, Muhammad Ali (The Great) attempted to depose the ruling Ottoman family in favor of his own, but failed due to the interference of Russia and Britain. With this knowledge, Ismai’il turned his attention south with the notion of building an Egyptian empire in Africa. Toward this end, Ismai’il hired westerners to work in his government, including Colonel Gordon, both in Egypt and the Sudan. His chief of general staff was the American brigadier general Charles P. Stone [Note 10]. He, and a number of other American Civil War veterans commanded Egyptian troops. In the opinion of some, American officers in the employ of Egypt were mostly composed of misfits in their own land. As harsh as this criticism sounds, it may be based on fact. Valentine Baker was a British officer who was dishonorably discharged after his conviction of rape. After Baker was released from prison, Ismai’il Pasha hired him to work in the Sudan. In any case, Colonel Gordon, with the consent of the British government, began working for Ismai’il Pasha in 1873—his first assignment was as governor of Equatoria Province (present-day Southern Sudan and Northern Uganda). His mission included extending Equatoria into Southern Uganda with the goal of absorbing the entire Great Lakes region of East Africa. While serving in Sudan, Colonel Gordon undertook efforts to suppress the slave trade, and doing this while struggling against a corrupt and inefficient Egyptian bureaucracy—and one with no interest in suppressing the slave trade. Gordon was later distressed to learn that his immediate superior was heavily engaged in slaving and actively countermanded many of Gordon’s efforts. Despite his lofty position in the Egyptian government, Gordon believed that the Egypt was inherently oppressive and cruel and he was soon in direct conflict with the system he was supposed to lead. What Gordon did achieve was close rapport with the African people, who had long suffered from the activities of Arab slave traders. These same people were being converted from animists to Christians by European and American missionaries, and this gave Gordon some encouragement. What made the effort a struggle was the fact that the basis of Sudan’s economy was slavery. Gordon did manage to shepherd a number of reforms that materially improved the lives of the common man, such as in abolishing torture and public floggings. (Continued next week) - Cleveland, W. And Martin Bunton. A History of the Middle East. Boulder: Westview Press, 2009 - Karsh, E. Empires of the Sand: The Struggle for Mastery in the Middle East, 1789-1923. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999. - Marlowe, J. Mission to Khartoum: Apotheosis of General Gordon. Littlehampton Press, 1968 - A sapper is a soldier responsible for the construction of roads and bridges and laying and clearing mine fields. They are combat engineers (sometimes called pioneers) who remove enemy obstacles in order to keep the attack in progress. - The Taiping Rebellion was one of the bloodiest conflicts in world history. It lasted from 1850 to 1864 with estimated dead numbering in excess of 40-million people. - General Staveley’s sister was married to Gordon’s brother. - Ward was born in Massachusetts in 1831. Because of his rebellious nature, his father consigned him to work aboard a clipper ship commanded by a friend. The ship made frequent voyages to China. While in China, Ward became a filibuster. He was killed while commanding the “Ever Victorious Army” at the Battle of Cixi on 21 September 1862. - The problem with allowing the enemy to withdraw is that they live to fight another day, perhaps under conditions or on terrain of their choosing. - It is true that there was much wretchedness in the world in Gordon’s day; to find it, he might have looked closer to home —in London, for example. - Gordon referred to the Imperial army as “Imps.” - Prior to 1870, there was no universal school system in the United Kingdom. The so-called Ragged Schools were a network of privately funded schools that offered free education to children whose parents were too poor to afford the fees associated with available schools. Unhappily, as with a few other senior British officers, 21st Century writers have used such examples of humanity to suggest, in Gordon’s and William Slim’s cases, that their compassion was likely motivated by their attraction to young boys. The claims are ludicrous, of course, but this is what revisionists do to in their attempt to destroy the reputations of men (after their death) who occupied prominent footnotes in history. - George William Frederick Charles, also known as Prince George of the House of Hanover, was a professional army officer with the rank of field marshal. He served as commander in chief for 39 years, a period of time when the British Army became a moribund and stagnant institution. I am quite sure he had something to say in response to Gordon’s caustic remark. - ‘Urabi was a serving Egyptian officer who participated in the 1879 mutiny that developed into a general revolt against the Anglo-French dominated administration of Khedive Tewfik. He was promoted to a place in Twefik’s cabinet and began reforms of Egypt’s military and civil administrations, but demonstrations in Alexandria in 1882 prompted a British naval bombardment and invasion. ‘Urabi was deposed and the British occupied Egypt.	<urn:uuid:1e2d5ae2-d964-4cca-8f42-76efd14a6ef1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://fixbayonetsusmc.blog/2020/01/10/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00274.warc.gz	en	0.984923	4,288	3.296875	3	[ -0.20067527890205383, 0.7603787779808044, 0.434009313583374, -0.5241608619689941, -0.21617117524147034, -0.3909319043159485, 0.20831850171089172, -0.10310113430023193, -0.10108067095279694, -0.19442859292030334, -0.023556040599942207, 0.3316459655761719, 0.5344352126121521, -0.002573521109...	14	All the Gordon’s sons were army officers —descendants of military officers who devoted themselves to the idea that their children would inherit this tradition. And so they did. Major General and Mrs. Henry William Gordon were the parents of Charles George Gordon, Major General, British Army, Commander of the Bath (1833-1885). Owing to his father’s duty stations, Charles grew up in England, Ireland, Scotland, and Ionia. Charles’ education included the Fullande School in Taunton, the Taunton School, and the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. While still a young lad, Charles’ younger sister succumbed to consumption; her passing devastated him and for several months he withdrew from the family. An older sister named Augusta, a particularly religious young woman, embraced Charles and she influenced him for the rest of his life. It was because of Augusta, for example, that Charles grew up to become a staunchly religious person. Despite his religious beliefs, Charles was a spirited and highly intelligent young man, one who developed the (then) deplorable habit of ignoring authority whenever he believed that its rules were foolish or unjust. This was a trait that held him back for two years at the military academy,. At the same time, Gordon had marvelous talents. He developed into an accomplished cartographer and engineer. He received his commission to Second Lieutenant of Royal Engineers in June 1852, completed his training at Chatham, and advanced to First Lieutenant in February 1854. Although trained as a sapper [Note 1], he became adept at reconnaissance, leading storming parties, demolitions, and providing rearguard actions. His inclination to question or disregard orders aside, Charles Gordon evolved into a fine military officer. He had charisma, a superior leadership ability, and an unparalleled devotion to his assigned task or mission. His only problem was that in refusing to obey what he considered an unlawful or poorly conceived orders, many senior officers regarded him as rogue. Yet it was this very same trait that caused his men to love him. Over time, Gordon became even more devoted to his religious principles. He was no zealot by any measure, at least not initially, but someone who maintained the strength of his convictions —and was steadfast in living his life according to those beliefs. In many ways, Gordon was a fatalist; believing in the after-life, he was not afraid of death and some say, in time, he began to pursue it. During the Crimean War, Gordon performed his duties at the siege of Sevastopol, took part in the assault of the Redans as a sapper, and mapped the strongpoints of the city’s fortifications. What made this a particularly dangerous duty was that it subjected him to direct enemy fire from the fortress and he was wounded during one such sortie. During this war Gordon made several friends who remained so for the rest of his life; friends that would later defend him. In 1855, the British and French initiated a final assault on Sevastopol. Following a massive bombardment, sappers assaulted the fortress at Malakoff Hill. The engagement was a massacre of British and French soldiers and none of the operation’s planned objectives were achieved. As a participant, Gordon distinguished himself by his courage under fire and his tenacity as a combat leader. Following the end of hostilities in the Crimea, Gordon served the international commission charged with marking a new border between the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire in Bessarabia. He later performed similar services on the frontier between Ottoman Armenia and Russian Armenia. It was during this time that Gordon became fascinated with a new American invention and took it up as a hobby: the camera. Seeking adventure, Gordon volunteered to serve in China during the Second Opium War (1860). By the time he arrived in Hong Kong, however, the fighting was over. He had heard of the Taiping Rebellion [Note 2] but didn’t understand it. En route to China, he read all he could about the Taiping and initially found sympathy for the movement. Gordon was a young man, reading one individual’s opinion, and allowed himself to be influenced by it, but what made his empathy a bit odd was that the leader of the Taiping —a man named Hong Xiuquan— believed himself to be the younger brother of Jesus of Nazareth. After disembarking in Shanghai, Gordon made a tour of the Chinese countryside. The atrocities he witnessed committed by the Taiping against local peasants appalled him and he began to see the Taiping for what they were: cold-blooded killers. During the early period of his tour in China, Gordon served under General Charles William Dunbar Staveley [Note 3], who occupied northern China until April 1862. During the war, Taiping armies came close enough to Shanghai to alarm European residents. European and Asian legations raised a militia to defend Shanghai. Legates detailed Frederick Townsend Ward [Note 4] to command this militia. Apparently, the British arrived in the nick of time. General Staveley decided to clear the rebels within 30 miles of Shanghai. He planned these operations in cooperation with Ward and a small force of French soldiers. At the time, Gordon served on Staveley’s staff as an engineer. After Ward’s death, command of his Asian army passed to another American, Henry A. Burgevine (shown right). It was an unhappy choice because Burgevine was ill-suited to the task of commanding a multi-ethnic mercenary force: he was inexperienced in leading a large body of men, lacked the necessary self-confidence of command, and consumed copious amounts of alcohol, making him unreliable. The Taiping rebellion was a civil war, of course, but unlike any other in the history of the world and Henry Burgevine was no Frederick Ward. He was much detested by the Chinese —so much, in fact, that the governor of Jiang-su Province asked General Staveley to appoint a British officer to command this largely mercenary force. The officer Staveley selected was Brevet Major Gordon. The British government approved Gordon’s appointment in December 1862. Gordon, it seems, was exactly the kind of man Governor Li Hong-Zhang was looking for: a man of good temper, clean of hands, and a steady economist. Major Gordon, unlike many (if not most) Chinese officers, was honest and incorruptible. He did not steal the money that was earmarked to pay his men, and he insisted on paying the men on time and in full. Of course, the Chinese bureaucrats did not understand why Gordon insisted on paying his men. In their view, he should have allowed his men to loot and plunder the countryside for their pay —this was the way of things in China. Gordon would not have any of that sort behavior among his men. To instill a sense of pride in his men, Gordon designed their uniforms. He dressed his regulars in green, while designating blue uniforms for his personal guard. Major Gordon assumed command of his army in March 1863 and led them at once to relieve the town of Chansu some forty miles northwest of Shanghai. Gordon quickly accomplished this first test, which was securing the respect and loyalty of his troops. As a means of encouraging the Taiping to either desert or surrender, he treated all prisoners of war with dignity and respect. As an engineer, it occurred to Major Gordon that the network of canals and rivers that flowed through the Chinese countryside would be useful for moving his troops and establishing an expedient supply line. In matters of training and rehearsing his army, Gordon’s ideas were innovative and efficient. He was vocally critical of the methods Chinese generals used in war fighting. In contrast, Gordon was sought to avoid unnecessary casualties or large battle losses. By maneuvering his forces to deny enemy retreat, he found that enemy troops would quickly withdraw from the battlefield [Note 5]. Gordon believed that frontal assaults produced unacceptably high numbers of casualties (which is true). As his subordinate commanders were Chinese, they did not object to unnecessary carnage, but Gordon insisted on attacking the enemy’s flank whenever possible. Gordon’s innovative thinking, such as his creation of a riverine force, caused the Taiping army to avoid Gordon’s army on several occasions. Of some value to Gordon, once the peasants realized that Gordon’s strategy had a telling effect on the Taiping, they were more disposed to coming to his aid, which did occur on several occasions. The peasants, tired of Taiping terrorism, attacked the retreating Taiping and hacked them to death with simple farming implements. Among Gordon’s peers, he was“thoughtful and fearless in the face of grave danger.” Because Gordon’s force was mercenary, their only loyalty was to money and the men willing to pay them. It was only Gordon’s stern disciplinary policies that kept his force from plundering the peasants, whom they were supposed to protect. At one point, Gordon ordered the execution of one of his Chinese officers who conspired to take his unit over to the Taiping. It was a distasteful duty and one that would never survive the modern evening news, but in China, it was a necessary and prudent step to avoid mass desertion. The fact is that Gordon’s mercenary force consisted of some of the worst elements of Chinese, British, and American society. Prior to Gordon’s assignment in command, it was commonplace for these mercenaries to enter a town or district, steal everything they could get their hands on, rape the women, and indiscriminately murder local citizens. It was only Gordon’s harsh discipline that changed this behavior. Any of his men who were accused of crimes against the people would very likely face a firing squad —from which there was no appeal. When Gordon defeated Burgevine’s new mercenary force, which had aligned themselves with the Taiping, he had Burgevine arrested and deported. Burgevine, however made his way back to China, was promptly arrested by the Qing secret service, and was “shot while trying to escape.” Burgevine was many things but exceedingly bright wasn’t one of them. Major Gordon was appalled by the poverty and suffering of the Chinese people. It was this hardship that strengthened his faith because, as he would frequently argue, there had to be a just and loving God who would one day redeem humanity from wretchedness and misery [Note 6]. Nevertheless, it was Gordon’s humanity that brought him the respect and friendship of those who opposed him politically. He led his mercenary army from the front, never personally armed with anything more than a rattan cane. His coolness in battle led many Chinese to believe that he possessed supernatural powers; it was only that Gordon was a fatalist and predestinate. Imperial troops joined Gordon’s force in capturing Suzhou. He had let it be known that any Taiping soldier who surrendered would be humanely treated. After pacifying surrounding towns and villages, Gordon himself entered Suzhou but, given the tendency of his men to loot, he denied them entry into the confines of the city. Only the Imperial forces [Note 7] would be allowed to enter the city, and when they did, much to Gordon’s anguish, they promptly executed every Taiping who had surrendered. Angry, he wrote, “If faith had been kept, there would have been no more fighting, as every town in China would have given in.” Of course, what Major Gordon did not understand was that while it is possible to take a Chinese man out of China; it is impossible to take China out of the Chinese man. Even today, most Chinese are devoid of a sense of humanity. As a measure of the man and his integrity, the Emperor of China, in recognition of Gordon’s achievements, subsequently awarded Gordon ten-thousand gold coins, laudatory flags, fine silk clothing, and a title equivalent to Field Marshal. All of these things Gordon refused —and all because the Imperial troops, in executing the Taiping prisoners, had made Gordon out to be a liar. Rebuffing the Chinese emperor did nothing to solidify their relationship, but it was consistent with Gordon’s sense of self. It was after his service in China that the press and his peers began to refer to him as “Chinese Gordon”. The nickname stayed with him to the end of his days. Gordon’s father did not approve of his son working in the service of the Chinese government and it was an estrangement that had not been settled before his father’s death. Charles, of course, felt guilty about his failure to reconcile with his father and deeply regretted it for the rest of his life. After Gordon’s return to England, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and placed in command of the Royal Engineers near Gravesend, Kent, and tasked to prepare fortifications in defense of the River Thames. By then, Chinese Gordon has become a press celebrity —except that Gordon wanted nothing to do with it. He promptly informed the press to leave him alone. In Gravesend, Gordon volunteered to teach at a local school, called the Ragged School [Note 8]. Tasked with constructing forts, Colonel Gordon disapproved of the notion that they were in any way necessary. He regarded them as expensive and useless. The Duke of Cambridge [Note 9], in his role as Commander in Chief of the Forces (head of the British Army) visited one of the construction sites and praised Gordon for his excellent work. Gordon answered, “I had nothing to do with it, sir. It was built regardless of my opinion, and, in fact, I entirely disapprove of its arrangement and position.” Gordon didn’t mince his words, regardless of who he was talking to. And, of course, Gordon was entirely correct. It was a waste of limited resources. Gordon was advanced to Colonel on 16 February 1872. Afterward detailed to inspect British military cemeteries in the Crimea, and when transiting through Constantinople, he made his manners to the Prime Minister of Egypt, Raghib Pasha. Pasha opened negotiations with Gordon to serve under the Khedive (Viceroy) Ismai’il Pasha. French educated, Isma’il admired Europe as a model of excellence, but favored most France and Italy. He was a devout Moslem who enjoyed Italian wine and French champaign. The language of Ismai’il’s court was French and Turkish, not Arabic. It was the Viceroy’s dream to make Turkey culturally part of Europe and he spent enormous sums of money in the modernization and Westernization of Egypt. The doing of this sent Egypt deeply into debt —even after the American Civil War had transformed Egyptian cotton into “white gold,” Ismai’il’s spending increased Egyptian debt to more than 93-million pounds sterling. Ismai’il’s love affair with western culture alienated the more conservative members of Egyptian Islamic society. Ismai’il’s grandfather, Muhammad Ali (The Great) attempted to depose the ruling Ottoman family in favor of his own, but failed due to the interference of Russia and Britain. With this knowledge, Ismai’il turned his attention south with the notion of building an Egyptian empire in Africa. Toward this end, Ismai’il hired westerners to work in his government, including Colonel Gordon, both in Egypt and the Sudan. His chief of general staff was the American brigadier general Charles P. Stone [Note 10]. He, and a number of other American Civil War veterans commanded Egyptian troops. In the opinion of some, American officers in the employ of Egypt were mostly composed of misfits in their own land. As harsh as this criticism sounds, it may be based on fact. Valentine Baker was a British officer who was dishonorably discharged after his conviction of rape. After Baker was released from prison, Ismai’il Pasha hired him to work in the Sudan. In any case, Colonel Gordon, with the consent of the British government, began working for Ismai’il Pasha in 1873—his first assignment was as governor of Equatoria Province (present-day Southern Sudan and Northern Uganda). His mission included extending Equatoria into Southern Uganda with the goal of absorbing the entire Great Lakes region of East Africa. While serving in Sudan, Colonel Gordon undertook efforts to suppress the slave trade, and doing this while struggling against a corrupt and inefficient Egyptian bureaucracy—and one with no interest in suppressing the slave trade. Gordon was later distressed to learn that his immediate superior was heavily engaged in slaving and actively countermanded many of Gordon’s efforts. Despite his lofty position in the Egyptian government, Gordon believed that the Egypt was inherently oppressive and cruel and he was soon in direct conflict with the system he was supposed to lead. What Gordon did achieve was close rapport with the African people, who had long suffered from the activities of Arab slave traders. These same people were being converted from animists to Christians by European and American missionaries, and this gave Gordon some encouragement. What made the effort a struggle was the fact that the basis of Sudan’s economy was slavery. Gordon did manage to shepherd a number of reforms that materially improved the lives of the common man, such as in abolishing torture and public floggings. (Continued next week) - Cleveland, W. And Martin Bunton. A History of the Middle East. Boulder: Westview Press, 2009 - Karsh, E. Empires of the Sand: The Struggle for Mastery in the Middle East, 1789-1923. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999. - Marlowe, J. Mission to Khartoum: Apotheosis of General Gordon. Littlehampton Press, 1968 - A sapper is a soldier responsible for the construction of roads and bridges and laying and clearing mine fields. They are combat engineers (sometimes called pioneers) who remove enemy obstacles in order to keep the attack in progress. - The Taiping Rebellion was one of the bloodiest conflicts in world history. It lasted from 1850 to 1864 with estimated dead numbering in excess of 40-million people. - General Staveley’s sister was married to Gordon’s brother. - Ward was born in Massachusetts in 1831. Because of his rebellious nature, his father consigned him to work aboard a clipper ship commanded by a friend. The ship made frequent voyages to China. While in China, Ward became a filibuster. He was killed while commanding the “Ever Victorious Army” at the Battle of Cixi on 21 September 1862. - The problem with allowing the enemy to withdraw is that they live to fight another day, perhaps under conditions or on terrain of their choosing. - It is true that there was much wretchedness in the world in Gordon’s day; to find it, he might have looked closer to home —in London, for example. - Gordon referred to the Imperial army as “Imps.” - Prior to 1870, there was no universal school system in the United Kingdom. The so-called Ragged Schools were a network of privately funded schools that offered free education to children whose parents were too poor to afford the fees associated with available schools. Unhappily, as with a few other senior British officers, 21st Century writers have used such examples of humanity to suggest, in Gordon’s and William Slim’s cases, that their compassion was likely motivated by their attraction to young boys. The claims are ludicrous, of course, but this is what revisionists do to in their attempt to destroy the reputations of men (after their death) who occupied prominent footnotes in history. - George William Frederick Charles, also known as Prince George of the House of Hanover, was a professional army officer with the rank of field marshal. He served as commander in chief for 39 years, a period of time when the British Army became a moribund and stagnant institution. I am quite sure he had something to say in response to Gordon’s caustic remark. - ‘Urabi was a serving Egyptian officer who participated in the 1879 mutiny that developed into a general revolt against the Anglo-French dominated administration of Khedive Tewfik. He was promoted to a place in Twefik’s cabinet and began reforms of Egypt’s military and civil administrations, but demonstrations in Alexandria in 1882 prompted a British naval bombardment and invasion. ‘Urabi was deposed and the British occupied Egypt.	4,222	ENGLISH	1
Above: One of the few early prints of the second stone bridge over the River Lea. The first Bow Bridge is said to have been the first stone bridge built in England. It was built around 1110 across the River Lea which has always been the boundary between the counties of Middlesex (to the west) and Essex (to the east). Before providing further details, some background to the bridge and the immediate area need to be understood. A short distance east of the River Lea is Stratford which was an ancient settlement, whose first recorded mention was in 1177. Its name derived from Old English meaning ‘a paved way to a ford’. Because the land between the River Lea and the village of Stratford was so marshy, there was a stone causeway across the land leading to a ford. The ford originally lay on a pre-Roman trackway at a site now known as Old Ford which was about 0.4 miles (600 metres) to the north of where Bow Bridge once stood. When the Romans decided on Colchester as the initial capital for their occupation of Britain, the road was upgraded to run from Londinium across a new fording point near the site of Bow Bridge. It became one of the first paved Roman roads in Britain. Above: Part of Cary’s map of 1786 showing the village of Bow (labelled ‘Stratford le Bow’) and Bow Bridge. Between the bridge and the village of Stratford is Bow Marsh with the road crossing several small streams. The name ‘Abbey Marsh’ shows the original site of Stratford Lanthorne Abbey. Barking Abbey stood near the village of Barking which is much further east of Stratford. Building the First Bridge In 1110 Matilda, wife of Henry I, reputedly fell into the water while using the ford across the River Lea on her way to Barking Abbey – a large abbey to the east of Stratford of which some remains can still be seen. She ordered a distinctively bow-shaped, three-arched bridge to be constructed over the River Lea. To put this bridge into context, it should be pointed out that this bridge was built 66 years before the stone bridge was started on the site of London Bridge in 1176. Such a bridge had never been seen before and it gave its name to the area on the west of the Lea which became known variously as ‘Stradford of the Bow’, ‘Stratford of the Bow’, ‘Stratford the Bow’, ‘Stratforde the Bowe’, and ‘Stratford-atte-Bow’ (meaning at the Bow). Over time the name was shortened to Bow to distinguish it from Stratford Langthorne on the Essex side of the River Lea. Land and Abbey Mill were given to Barking Abbey for maintenance of the bridge, who also maintained a chapel on the bridge dedicated to St Katherine, occupied until the 15th century by a hermit. This endowment was later administered by Stratford Langthorne Abbey. By 1549, this route had become known as ‘The Kings Way’. Responsibility for repairs to the bridge was always in dispute, especially at the time of the Dissolution of the Monasteries (1536) when local landowners who had taken over the Abbey lands were found to be responsible. The bridge was widened in 1741 and tolls were levied to defray the expense but litigation over maintenance lasted until the 19th century. Unfortunately, there are no prints of how the original bridge looked. A New Stone Bridge In 1834 the bridge needed to be rebuilt and landowners agreed to pay half of the cost, with Essex and Middlesex sharing the other half. Upkeep of the bridge was later taken over by the Middlesex and Essex Turnpike Trust. In 1866 West Ham took responsibility for its upkeep and that of the causeway and smaller bridges that formed the route across the River Lea. In 1967 this bridge was replaced by a new modern bridge by the Greater London Council (GLC) who also installed a two-lane flyover above it, designed by Andrei Tchernavin, son of Gulag escapee Vladimir V. The work involved spanning the wide Blackwall Tunnel approach road and the traffic interchange with Bow Road, in the form of a large roundabout. The project was further complicated by the fact that the River Lea and some of the Bow Back Rivers were very close to the flyover. At a later date, the Bow Road approach was expanded to a four-lane roadway. What was once a stone causeway approaching a narrow stone bridge has turned into a ‘monster’ of a highway interchange. It is not a pretty sight!	<urn:uuid:4dbaad42-56ab-4788-9531-93368269674f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://knowyourlondon.wordpress.com/2019/05/20/bow-bridge/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00238.warc.gz	en	0.980928	1,003	3.609375	4	[ 0.15305812656879425, -0.36941981315612793, 0.4900352954864502, 0.27359917759895325, -0.38687121868133545, -0.09822361916303635, -0.058547407388687134, 0.05766909196972847, 0.039751745760440826, -0.38577812910079956, 0.0033032826613634825, -0.9933404922485352, -0.28799885511398315, 0.338708...	2	Above: One of the few early prints of the second stone bridge over the River Lea. The first Bow Bridge is said to have been the first stone bridge built in England. It was built around 1110 across the River Lea which has always been the boundary between the counties of Middlesex (to the west) and Essex (to the east). Before providing further details, some background to the bridge and the immediate area need to be understood. A short distance east of the River Lea is Stratford which was an ancient settlement, whose first recorded mention was in 1177. Its name derived from Old English meaning ‘a paved way to a ford’. Because the land between the River Lea and the village of Stratford was so marshy, there was a stone causeway across the land leading to a ford. The ford originally lay on a pre-Roman trackway at a site now known as Old Ford which was about 0.4 miles (600 metres) to the north of where Bow Bridge once stood. When the Romans decided on Colchester as the initial capital for their occupation of Britain, the road was upgraded to run from Londinium across a new fording point near the site of Bow Bridge. It became one of the first paved Roman roads in Britain. Above: Part of Cary’s map of 1786 showing the village of Bow (labelled ‘Stratford le Bow’) and Bow Bridge. Between the bridge and the village of Stratford is Bow Marsh with the road crossing several small streams. The name ‘Abbey Marsh’ shows the original site of Stratford Lanthorne Abbey. Barking Abbey stood near the village of Barking which is much further east of Stratford. Building the First Bridge In 1110 Matilda, wife of Henry I, reputedly fell into the water while using the ford across the River Lea on her way to Barking Abbey – a large abbey to the east of Stratford of which some remains can still be seen. She ordered a distinctively bow-shaped, three-arched bridge to be constructed over the River Lea. To put this bridge into context, it should be pointed out that this bridge was built 66 years before the stone bridge was started on the site of London Bridge in 1176. Such a bridge had never been seen before and it gave its name to the area on the west of the Lea which became known variously as ‘Stradford of the Bow’, ‘Stratford of the Bow’, ‘Stratford the Bow’, ‘Stratforde the Bowe’, and ‘Stratford-atte-Bow’ (meaning at the Bow). Over time the name was shortened to Bow to distinguish it from Stratford Langthorne on the Essex side of the River Lea. Land and Abbey Mill were given to Barking Abbey for maintenance of the bridge, who also maintained a chapel on the bridge dedicated to St Katherine, occupied until the 15th century by a hermit. This endowment was later administered by Stratford Langthorne Abbey. By 1549, this route had become known as ‘The Kings Way’. Responsibility for repairs to the bridge was always in dispute, especially at the time of the Dissolution of the Monasteries (1536) when local landowners who had taken over the Abbey lands were found to be responsible. The bridge was widened in 1741 and tolls were levied to defray the expense but litigation over maintenance lasted until the 19th century. Unfortunately, there are no prints of how the original bridge looked. A New Stone Bridge In 1834 the bridge needed to be rebuilt and landowners agreed to pay half of the cost, with Essex and Middlesex sharing the other half. Upkeep of the bridge was later taken over by the Middlesex and Essex Turnpike Trust. In 1866 West Ham took responsibility for its upkeep and that of the causeway and smaller bridges that formed the route across the River Lea. In 1967 this bridge was replaced by a new modern bridge by the Greater London Council (GLC) who also installed a two-lane flyover above it, designed by Andrei Tchernavin, son of Gulag escapee Vladimir V. The work involved spanning the wide Blackwall Tunnel approach road and the traffic interchange with Bow Road, in the form of a large roundabout. The project was further complicated by the fact that the River Lea and some of the Bow Back Rivers were very close to the flyover. At a later date, the Bow Road approach was expanded to a four-lane roadway. What was once a stone causeway approaching a narrow stone bridge has turned into a ‘monster’ of a highway interchange. It is not a pretty sight!	1,000	ENGLISH	1
Saint of the Day for August 21 (June 2, 1835 – August 20, 1914) Post by Franciscan Media Saint Pius X’s Story Pope Pius X is perhaps best remembered for his encouragement of the frequent reception of Holy Communion, especially by children. The second of 10 children in a poor Italian family, Joseph Sarto became Pius X at age 68. He was one of the 20th century’s greatest popes. Ever mindful of his humble origin, Pope Pius stated, “I was born poor, I lived poor, I will die poor.” He was embarrassed by some of the pomp of the papal court. “Look how they have dressed me up,” he said in tears to an old friend. To another, “It is a penance to be forced to accept all these practices. They lead me around surrounded by soldiers like Jesus when he was seized in Gethsemani.” Interested in politics, Pope Pius encouraged Italian Catholics to become more politically involved. One of his first papal acts was to end the supposed right of governments to interfere by veto in papal elections—a practice that reduced the freedom of the 1903 conclave which had elected him. In 1905, when France renounced its agreement with the Holy See and threatened confiscation of Church property if governmental control of Church affairs were not granted, Pius X courageously rejected the demand. While he did not author a famous social encyclical as his predecessor had done, he denounced the ill treatment of indigenous peoples on the plantations of Peru, sent a relief commission to Messina after an earthquake, and sheltered refugees at his own expense. On the 11th anniversary of his election as pope, Europe was plunged into World War I. Pius had foreseen it, but it killed him. “This is the last affliction the Lord will visit on me. I would gladly give my life to save my poor children from this ghastly scourge.” He died a few weeks after the war began, and was canonized in 1954. His humble background was no obstacle in relating to a personal God and to people whom he loved genuinely. Pius X gained his strength, his gentleness and warmth for people from the source of all gifts, the Spirit of Jesus. In contrast, we often feel embarrassed by our backgrounds. Shame makes us prefer to remain aloof from people whom we perceive as superior. If we are in a superior position, on the other hand, we often ignore simpler people. Yet we, too, have to help “restore all things in Christ,” especially the wounded people of God.	<urn:uuid:c2028af0-c21c-42ee-8c74-70496d33c092>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://cpbcomaha.org/2019/08/saint-pius-x/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00359.warc.gz	en	0.986289	558	3.453125	3	[ -0.46600252389907837, 0.518189013004303, 0.13433684408664703, -0.12318474054336548, 0.1379414200782776, 0.31126609444618225, -0.24843823909759521, 0.35826051235198975, 0.38443416357040405, -0.22082066535949707, -0.2285623848438263, -0.01853691041469574, 0.4755316376686096, 0.41186937689781...	2	Saint of the Day for August 21 (June 2, 1835 – August 20, 1914) Post by Franciscan Media Saint Pius X’s Story Pope Pius X is perhaps best remembered for his encouragement of the frequent reception of Holy Communion, especially by children. The second of 10 children in a poor Italian family, Joseph Sarto became Pius X at age 68. He was one of the 20th century’s greatest popes. Ever mindful of his humble origin, Pope Pius stated, “I was born poor, I lived poor, I will die poor.” He was embarrassed by some of the pomp of the papal court. “Look how they have dressed me up,” he said in tears to an old friend. To another, “It is a penance to be forced to accept all these practices. They lead me around surrounded by soldiers like Jesus when he was seized in Gethsemani.” Interested in politics, Pope Pius encouraged Italian Catholics to become more politically involved. One of his first papal acts was to end the supposed right of governments to interfere by veto in papal elections—a practice that reduced the freedom of the 1903 conclave which had elected him. In 1905, when France renounced its agreement with the Holy See and threatened confiscation of Church property if governmental control of Church affairs were not granted, Pius X courageously rejected the demand. While he did not author a famous social encyclical as his predecessor had done, he denounced the ill treatment of indigenous peoples on the plantations of Peru, sent a relief commission to Messina after an earthquake, and sheltered refugees at his own expense. On the 11th anniversary of his election as pope, Europe was plunged into World War I. Pius had foreseen it, but it killed him. “This is the last affliction the Lord will visit on me. I would gladly give my life to save my poor children from this ghastly scourge.” He died a few weeks after the war began, and was canonized in 1954. His humble background was no obstacle in relating to a personal God and to people whom he loved genuinely. Pius X gained his strength, his gentleness and warmth for people from the source of all gifts, the Spirit of Jesus. In contrast, we often feel embarrassed by our backgrounds. Shame makes us prefer to remain aloof from people whom we perceive as superior. If we are in a superior position, on the other hand, we often ignore simpler people. Yet we, too, have to help “restore all things in Christ,” especially the wounded people of God.	563	ENGLISH	1
When volunteers sit down to help students with their homework, many find that the math curriculum is a bit different than they remember it. The purpose of the current math curriculum is to help students understand big math concepts rather than simply memorizing steps to problem solving. In the end, students are still learning to add, subtract, multiply and divide; however, the goal is that they will understand why they are doing each operation. In order to help volunteers learn how math is being taught in the classroom today, we offer trainings at various times throughout the year. These trainings include: pages from students' textbooks at each grade level an explanation of why math is being taught that way tools for helping students with their homework Our goal is to support our students with the current challenges they face each day and give them the tools they need to be successful. It is important to remember that they don't have anyone to help them at home, so what you do at the club is of tremendous benefit to them. We want our Super Kids and Teens to know they are not alone as they are navigating through school and life!	<urn:uuid:a937a244-da4d-4069-bb1f-a42167fd95bb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.newhorizonsofswfl.org/single-post/2017/10/17/Volunteers-Ask-How-Can-I-Become-a-Better-Math-Tutor	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00383.warc.gz	en	0.983829	228	3.40625	3	[ -0.16882328689098358, -0.38033053278923035, 0.39808085560798645, -0.5121904611587524, -0.48292049765586853, 0.07668007910251617, -0.09646874666213989, 0.10956308245658875, 0.12750688195228577, -0.08690230548381805, 0.27902138233184814, -0.13593289256095886, 0.19920194149017334, 0.211495876...	9	When volunteers sit down to help students with their homework, many find that the math curriculum is a bit different than they remember it. The purpose of the current math curriculum is to help students understand big math concepts rather than simply memorizing steps to problem solving. In the end, students are still learning to add, subtract, multiply and divide; however, the goal is that they will understand why they are doing each operation. In order to help volunteers learn how math is being taught in the classroom today, we offer trainings at various times throughout the year. These trainings include: pages from students' textbooks at each grade level an explanation of why math is being taught that way tools for helping students with their homework Our goal is to support our students with the current challenges they face each day and give them the tools they need to be successful. It is important to remember that they don't have anyone to help them at home, so what you do at the club is of tremendous benefit to them. We want our Super Kids and Teens to know they are not alone as they are navigating through school and life!	224	ENGLISH	1
Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States. He is widely considered among the top if not the top President in our history. However, he was not viewed that way during the war for many reasons, including the difficult decisions he had to make. For example, on September 28th, 1862 military officers led by Henry Sibley tried a group of Dakota Sioux Indians who were involved in an uprising. 303 of the men involved were sentenced to death. Abraham Lincoln decided to review the sentences and ultimately commuted the sentence of all but 38 of the men. He did this despite intense political pressure from members of his own party to execute all of them. Lincoln made a difficult decision he considered to be honorable despite the political risks. One of the things that made President Lincoln so interesting was his willingness to take political risks for what he believed was right. I will be continuing to post more events over the next few weeks! I look forward to sharing another historical fact with you next week. If you would like to read more, here is the website that I primarily found my information from: http://usdakotawar.org/history/aftermath/trials-hanging	<urn:uuid:49f6c9f8-9e3f-412b-952f-baefe69b17a3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.james-shipman.com/single-post/2019/10/06/1862-38-Dakota-Men-Assassinated-Under-Lincolns-Ruling	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00229.warc.gz	en	0.989985	243	3.609375	4	[ -0.2582179009914398, 0.5447498559951782, 0.06639999896287918, -0.12855646014213562, -0.06834769994020462, 0.023896731436252594, 0.3738078773021698, 0.10081774741411209, -0.08868568390607834, -0.15019147098064423, -0.03875160962343216, 0.10898320376873016, -0.21579235792160034, 0.5388087630...	4	Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States. He is widely considered among the top if not the top President in our history. However, he was not viewed that way during the war for many reasons, including the difficult decisions he had to make. For example, on September 28th, 1862 military officers led by Henry Sibley tried a group of Dakota Sioux Indians who were involved in an uprising. 303 of the men involved were sentenced to death. Abraham Lincoln decided to review the sentences and ultimately commuted the sentence of all but 38 of the men. He did this despite intense political pressure from members of his own party to execute all of them. Lincoln made a difficult decision he considered to be honorable despite the political risks. One of the things that made President Lincoln so interesting was his willingness to take political risks for what he believed was right. I will be continuing to post more events over the next few weeks! I look forward to sharing another historical fact with you next week. If you would like to read more, here is the website that I primarily found my information from: http://usdakotawar.org/history/aftermath/trials-hanging	250	ENGLISH	1
It may seem like it was ages ago since the Ebola scare took the world by storm, but it was actually only two years ago. At the beginning of the outbreak, no one could pin down the cause of the virus and how it was being spread, it got to the point where anyone who showed symptoms of the virus were forced into quarantine. But after about a year, scientists think that they have been able to pin-point how exactly the virus initially began to spread throughout Africa. From several studies, they found that there have been mutations of the virus, leaving the less communicable diseases to die off. The dying off of certain strands of the virus is a great example of the scientific principle of survival of the fittest. The original virus was found in wild animals and was then spread to humans, so it had to mutate in order to spread to humans and mutate further in order to spread more easily from person to person. This shows the survival of the fittest because it forces the virus to mutate or it will die off because it is not transmitted. These mutations were originally found through the study of the human genome. They brought in blood samples from over 400 samples in order to compare their blood types in order to observe the affects the Ebola has on a person. A genome is the code that is made up of DNA that can be found in a persons 23 pairs of chromosomes. It is essentially the basis of how we are who we are individually. So because they were able to research the genomes of the four hundred patients, they were able to see what the viruses was attacking in the body. And when they found how the virus was affecting the genome, they were able to conclude how it was being spread. Further studies showed that the second wave of the virus was much larger than the original introduction to humans. It was originally thought to be because there was a lot of passing the virus between Sierra Leone and Guinea, due to the fact that the first cases had sprung up in Guinea and then showed up in Sierra Leone. They then stated that the virus began to spread throughout the rest of the region without many influence from outside sources, but it was later hypothesized that the original Guinea strand was not fully treated and had slowly been spreading throughout the capital. This is a great example of what Andrew always emphasizes, that in science, you gain more knowledge because people question others’ work which creates more research and analysis.	<urn:uuid:d4841e1d-a41f-4403-960f-e7bc3c23db41>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://sites.psu.edu/siowfa16/2016/09/14/the-spread-of-ebola/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00296.warc.gz	en	0.990174	489	3.5625	4	[ -0.4065224528312683, 0.3374115228652954, 0.23618200421333313, 0.2176794707775116, 0.6680272221565247, -0.07250531017780304, 0.2805424928665161, 0.31549271941185, 0.018928492441773415, 0.34757915139198303, 0.3391585350036621, -0.23193393647670746, 0.22545644640922546, 0.04434242099523544, ...	2	It may seem like it was ages ago since the Ebola scare took the world by storm, but it was actually only two years ago. At the beginning of the outbreak, no one could pin down the cause of the virus and how it was being spread, it got to the point where anyone who showed symptoms of the virus were forced into quarantine. But after about a year, scientists think that they have been able to pin-point how exactly the virus initially began to spread throughout Africa. From several studies, they found that there have been mutations of the virus, leaving the less communicable diseases to die off. The dying off of certain strands of the virus is a great example of the scientific principle of survival of the fittest. The original virus was found in wild animals and was then spread to humans, so it had to mutate in order to spread to humans and mutate further in order to spread more easily from person to person. This shows the survival of the fittest because it forces the virus to mutate or it will die off because it is not transmitted. These mutations were originally found through the study of the human genome. They brought in blood samples from over 400 samples in order to compare their blood types in order to observe the affects the Ebola has on a person. A genome is the code that is made up of DNA that can be found in a persons 23 pairs of chromosomes. It is essentially the basis of how we are who we are individually. So because they were able to research the genomes of the four hundred patients, they were able to see what the viruses was attacking in the body. And when they found how the virus was affecting the genome, they were able to conclude how it was being spread. Further studies showed that the second wave of the virus was much larger than the original introduction to humans. It was originally thought to be because there was a lot of passing the virus between Sierra Leone and Guinea, due to the fact that the first cases had sprung up in Guinea and then showed up in Sierra Leone. They then stated that the virus began to spread throughout the rest of the region without many influence from outside sources, but it was later hypothesized that the original Guinea strand was not fully treated and had slowly been spreading throughout the capital. This is a great example of what Andrew always emphasizes, that in science, you gain more knowledge because people question others’ work which creates more research and analysis.	487	ENGLISH	1

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