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Walt Whitman: The Great American Bard Walt Whitman was an innovative poet who went down in history as America’s most influential bard because of his unprecedented experimentation with free-verse poetry. He was born on May 31, 1819, to a farming family that was failing financially, so his father had to move the family of 9 children from his rural birthplace in West Hill, New York to Brooklyn where his father became a carpenter. Whitman attended public school there, but because his impoverished family still struggled, Whitman, unfortunately, had to drop out of school at age twelve and go to work in order to help them. He became a printer’s apprentice, however, he liked to read and continued to educate himself in New York’s public libraries. He was eventually promoted from printer to journalist and then to the editor of one of New York’s major newspapers, but he was fired because of his antislavery views. During this self-education period of his life, Whitman began to experiment writing poetry in free-verse form using the very hypnotic cadences found in the Bible and was very much like Hebrew poetry found in the Old Testament. Much of it did not rhyme making it a revolutionary form on the current day’s literary landscape. So when the first edition of his book Leaves of Grass was anonymously self-published in 1855 it was mostly written off by the establishment as “garbage” except for Ralph Waldo Emerson who said the book was full of “wit and wisdom”. And Whitman wrote three more revised editions over his lifetime. During the Civil War Whitman was one of America’s greatest patriots and was a staunch abolitionist so he wrote his poem Beat! Beat! Drums as a call for the people to rally and fight to keep America one nation. He did not want the people to rest and become complacent with their everyday lives. “Beat! Beat! Drums! -blow bugles blow! Over the traffic of cities- over the rumble of wheels in the streets: Are beds prepared for sleepers at night in the houses? No sleepers must sleep in those beds…” So when Whitman got word that his own brother had been wounded in the war, he traveled to the South to find him and was so moved by seeing the carnage of the war that he moved to Washington DC to become a volunteer nurse in the army hospitals there and served to comfort both the wounded Confederate and Union soldiers suffering there. Whitman was a man of great compassion and love and he wrote my all-time favorite American poem O’ Captain My Captain as a heartfelt tribute to President Abraham Lincoln after his assassination. O Captain! My Captain! BY WALT WHITMAN O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done, The ship has weather’d every rack, the prize we sought is won, The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting, While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring; But O heart! heart! heart! O the bleeding drops of red, Where on the deck my Captain lies, Fallen cold and dead. O Captain! my Captain! rise up and hear the bells; Rise up—for you the flag is flung—for you the bugle trills, For you bouquets and ribbon’d wreaths—for you the shores a-crowding, For you they call, the swaying mass, their eager faces turning; Here Captain! dear father! This arm beneath your head! It is some dream that on the deck, You’ve fallen cold and dead. My Captain does not answer, his lips are pale and still, My father does not feel my arm, he has no pulse nor will, The ship is anchor’d safe and sound, its voyage closed and done, From fearful trip the victor ship comes in with object won; Exult O shores, and ring O bells! But I with mournful tread, Walk the deck my Captain lies, Fallen cold and dead After the war, Whitman became a civil servant for the US Department of the interior but was promptly fired by the director because some of the passages in Leaves of Grass were considered obscene by him and Whitman was accused of being a homosexual because some of the passages he wrote praised the beauty of the naked male body. Whitman died in 1892 as the result of a stroke and was greatly honored for his both his patriotism and poetry in a public funeral.	<urn:uuid:ecb6ff80-60cb-4572-b89a-c93917e1b4cf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.dailywisdomwords.com/walt-whitman-the-great-american-bard/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00225.warc.gz	en	0.985121	962	3.46875	3	[ -0.05670319125056267, 0.046367354691028595, 0.26764345169067383, -0.06505998969078064, -0.2204665094614029, -0.08974364399909973, 0.4184739589691162, 0.14000669121742249, -0.46778684854507446, 0.15666526556015015, 0.09396116435527802, 0.2021866887807846, -0.013200394809246063, 0.4994742870...	2	Walt Whitman: The Great American Bard Walt Whitman was an innovative poet who went down in history as America’s most influential bard because of his unprecedented experimentation with free-verse poetry. He was born on May 31, 1819, to a farming family that was failing financially, so his father had to move the family of 9 children from his rural birthplace in West Hill, New York to Brooklyn where his father became a carpenter. Whitman attended public school there, but because his impoverished family still struggled, Whitman, unfortunately, had to drop out of school at age twelve and go to work in order to help them. He became a printer’s apprentice, however, he liked to read and continued to educate himself in New York’s public libraries. He was eventually promoted from printer to journalist and then to the editor of one of New York’s major newspapers, but he was fired because of his antislavery views. During this self-education period of his life, Whitman began to experiment writing poetry in free-verse form using the very hypnotic cadences found in the Bible and was very much like Hebrew poetry found in the Old Testament. Much of it did not rhyme making it a revolutionary form on the current day’s literary landscape. So when the first edition of his book Leaves of Grass was anonymously self-published in 1855 it was mostly written off by the establishment as “garbage” except for Ralph Waldo Emerson who said the book was full of “wit and wisdom”. And Whitman wrote three more revised editions over his lifetime. During the Civil War Whitman was one of America’s greatest patriots and was a staunch abolitionist so he wrote his poem Beat! Beat! Drums as a call for the people to rally and fight to keep America one nation. He did not want the people to rest and become complacent with their everyday lives. “Beat! Beat! Drums! -blow bugles blow! Over the traffic of cities- over the rumble of wheels in the streets: Are beds prepared for sleepers at night in the houses? No sleepers must sleep in those beds…” So when Whitman got word that his own brother had been wounded in the war, he traveled to the South to find him and was so moved by seeing the carnage of the war that he moved to Washington DC to become a volunteer nurse in the army hospitals there and served to comfort both the wounded Confederate and Union soldiers suffering there. Whitman was a man of great compassion and love and he wrote my all-time favorite American poem O’ Captain My Captain as a heartfelt tribute to President Abraham Lincoln after his assassination. O Captain! My Captain! BY WALT WHITMAN O Captain! my Captain! our fearful trip is done, The ship has weather’d every rack, the prize we sought is won, The port is near, the bells I hear, the people all exulting, While follow eyes the steady keel, the vessel grim and daring; But O heart! heart! heart! O the bleeding drops of red, Where on the deck my Captain lies, Fallen cold and dead. O Captain! my Captain! rise up and hear the bells; Rise up—for you the flag is flung—for you the bugle trills, For you bouquets and ribbon’d wreaths—for you the shores a-crowding, For you they call, the swaying mass, their eager faces turning; Here Captain! dear father! This arm beneath your head! It is some dream that on the deck, You’ve fallen cold and dead. My Captain does not answer, his lips are pale and still, My father does not feel my arm, he has no pulse nor will, The ship is anchor’d safe and sound, its voyage closed and done, From fearful trip the victor ship comes in with object won; Exult O shores, and ring O bells! But I with mournful tread, Walk the deck my Captain lies, Fallen cold and dead After the war, Whitman became a civil servant for the US Department of the interior but was promptly fired by the director because some of the passages in Leaves of Grass were considered obscene by him and Whitman was accused of being a homosexual because some of the passages he wrote praised the beauty of the naked male body. Whitman died in 1892 as the result of a stroke and was greatly honored for his both his patriotism and poetry in a public funeral.	921	ENGLISH	1
The Shrewsbury and Hereford Railway was an English railway company, which obtained an Act of Parliament during the “Railway Mania” year of 1846 and built a standard gauge line between those two places. It opened its main line in 1853. Its natural ally would seem to be the broad gauge Great Western However the promotors had other ideas, and fought against building to the broad gauge. With other lines the Shrewsbury and Hereford formed a route between the mineral resources of South Wales and the industries of the north-west of England. The hope was that the London and North Western would either buy the line or offer to work it. However, when the S&H finally opened in 1853, the post -mania financial climate was very different, and the railway was leased to Thomas Brassey, the civil engineering contractor for nine years. The GWR and the LNWR jointly leased the S&HR line in 1862, later jointly acquiring ownership of it, in 1871. LNWR mineral traffic developed, and after the opening of the Severn Tunnel in in 1886, the line became an important main line for traffic from the south-west of England to the north-west. It was a great asset during the Great War and WWII. This document offers an insight into railway operating, after the era of individual pointsmen and “Policemen” stationed at individual signal posts, but bfore the itroduction of absolute block working and interlocking of points and signals.	<urn:uuid:8ba1e42a-0458-4aee-9326-cb9aedd9518c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.britishtransporttreasures.com/product/shrewsbury-and-hereford-shrewsbury-welshpool-and-shrewsbury-wellington-joint-lines-timetable-from-july-1st-1866-until-further-notice-w-patchett-superintendents-office-shrewsbury-july-1-18/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00413.warc.gz	en	0.986967	310	3.328125	3	[ -0.44767406582832336, -0.20051813125610352, 0.40746980905532837, 0.08710885047912598, 0.010647431015968323, -0.3023063838481903, -0.03521432727575302, -0.29748842120170593, -0.4426852762699127, -0.3463553190231323, 0.27557095885276794, -0.1738986074924469, 0.32350024580955505, 0.2477346509...	3	The Shrewsbury and Hereford Railway was an English railway company, which obtained an Act of Parliament during the “Railway Mania” year of 1846 and built a standard gauge line between those two places. It opened its main line in 1853. Its natural ally would seem to be the broad gauge Great Western However the promotors had other ideas, and fought against building to the broad gauge. With other lines the Shrewsbury and Hereford formed a route between the mineral resources of South Wales and the industries of the north-west of England. The hope was that the London and North Western would either buy the line or offer to work it. However, when the S&H finally opened in 1853, the post -mania financial climate was very different, and the railway was leased to Thomas Brassey, the civil engineering contractor for nine years. The GWR and the LNWR jointly leased the S&HR line in 1862, later jointly acquiring ownership of it, in 1871. LNWR mineral traffic developed, and after the opening of the Severn Tunnel in in 1886, the line became an important main line for traffic from the south-west of England to the north-west. It was a great asset during the Great War and WWII. This document offers an insight into railway operating, after the era of individual pointsmen and “Policemen” stationed at individual signal posts, but bfore the itroduction of absolute block working and interlocking of points and signals.	319	ENGLISH	1
The Romantic period was a mainly European artistic and literary movement that celebrated its peak between 1790 and 1860. The movement can be seen as a reaction to the Industrial Revolution and the Enlightment. Whereas the main point of Enlightment was a rationalistic world view, the main idea of Romantisicism is the complete opposite. Romanticists do not trust in the human ratio as a mighty power above all things, but see themselves subordinated to nature. Romanticists perceive a irrational, mysterious and incomprehensive side of reality. Humans, they believe, do rather follow their emotions instead of reason alone, and thus tend to live by their desires rather than their rational thoughts. Typical romantic book characters, like Byrons Manfred or Goethes Werther, lose themselve in their emotions completely - sense cannot keep their feet on the ground. For a romanticist, two opposite concepts were in constant incongruity with another: analogy and irony. With analogy a mythical way of thinking is depicted: the conviction that all is connected to everything: words and objects, heaven and earth, people and nature. On the other side, irony is the awareness of our own mortality and of the fact that all things come to an end. The analogy therefore can never be infinite. A romantic author is aware of this incongruity and suffers, in addition, from the feeling that he does not fit into the world. He seeks for a way out in poetry, but there finds that words are not enough to describe his feelings. And again, he must admit that he cannot form the world, but that he is a slave of nature's laws. In short, Romanticism is thus characterized by strong feelings, melancholy and a strong connection to nature. Many of the literary works written during the romantic era contain (page)long descriptions of landscapes and gardens. The often sad, melancholic emotions of the hero or heroine are being emphasized (1). Around 1900, many inventions revolutionized the world. In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell developed the telephone, one of the most world-changing inventions ever made. Thomas Edison improved the electric light bulb to a long-lasting, inexpensive device (1878), invented the phonograph (1877). Karl Benz developed the first modern motorised car, which was first built in 1885. The Lumière brothers created the first motion picture projector or cinematograph, which they patented in 1895. Guglielmo Marconi built a wireless telegraphy system based on Hertzian waves and patended the radio in 1896. Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin's ideas for an airship were developed in 1893, whereas the Wright brothers invented and flew the first airplane in 1903. "En L'An 2000" No wonder that at the turn of the 19th century, the possibilities for the future seemed endless. This influenced many artists - just think about the immensely popular science fiction novels by Jules Verne and H.G. Wells. In that time, collecting trade cards was popular among consumers. In the period 1899-1901, either a cigarette or toy company in France hired several graphic artists to create a series of illustrations called "En L'An 2000", on which they depicted what they thought everyday life would look like in the year 2000. Unfortunately, the company got out of business before the cards were distributed, leaving us with only one complete set of about 50 cards, that is now in the hands of Isaac Asimov. Luckily, he published a book about them. I found some trade cards by a chocolate company called Louit that seemed to have distributed cards with the futuristic pictures in a later year. A striking amount of the pictures feature flying vehicles, and thinking about how much happens in the sky, the people back then had a good view on the future. Even though postmen themselves don't fly, tons of mail is being distributed via air. Videoconferencing was foreseen, as well as aerial battles and breeding machines. We still can't walk on water, though water skiing comes close. I collected all the cards on a Pinterest board: Victorian Future Visions Hildebrand's trade cards In the same period, the German cacao company Hildebrand published a set of twelve trade cards depicting life in 2000. Hildebrands cards shows moving sidewalks, live broadcasting of theater performances in the living room, personal flying machines, a good weather machine (if only...!) and roofs over cities - as can be seen below. 1. In the 19th century, industry bloomed in the (rich) Northern states. Railroads and factories popped up everywhere. The main industry in the Southern states however still lay in (cotton) farming. Whereas the North had already realized that slaveholding is immoral and had abolished slavery in the late 18th century, the Southern economy was still heavily dependent of slaves. 2. Anti-slavery Abraham Lincoln was elected president of the United States in 1860 without carrying a single Southern state. The Southern states felt they were losing representation in the Union, and that in turn would mean they would lose power in the slavery question and other policies. Because their economy would fall apart when slavery would be forbidden, the only option left for them seemed to leave the Union. They all laughed at him mockingly, his fellow people from the Cherokee tribe. But Sequoyah, son of a white father and a Cherokee mother, continued on his project rigidly, with success: he ultimately presented the Cherokee syllabary, making it possible for Cherokee to write and read in their language for the first time. Sequoyah was born a son of an unidentified white (or half-white, as sources differ) father and a Cherokee mother around 1770. The young boy was raised by his mother alone, didn’t go to school and never learnt English. He spent time farming and tending cattle before he was injured and lamed, making it impossible for him to be a successful farmer or warrior. When he came in contact with white men, he learned the art of forging jewelry and became to work as a silversmith. Later he took on the profession of a blacksmith as well, repairing iron farm implements in his village. As jewelry was popular among whites, Sequoyah stood in regular contact to them. He was impressed by their ability to transmit information to people in distant places: by letters. Among Cherokees, people tend to believe that writing was sorcery, and weren’t much interested in doing it themselves. Sequoyah, however, set a goal: he wanted to be able to write down his Cherokee language. Elisabeth was born on Christmas Eve, 1837, in Munich, Kingdom of Bavaria. She was the second of two daughters of Duke Max Joseph and his wife Ludovika, a daughter of the Bavarian king Maximilian I. In her youth, Elisabeth had no obligations at the Bavarian court and spent a happy time in their castle at Lake Starnberg, where she enjoyed playing and riding in the country. Elisabeth’s nephew was the young Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph. His mother, Archduchess Sophie of Austria, was his advisor in his political as well as in his personal life, and thus in fact the real ruler of the Empire. When Franz Joseph was 23, Sophie arranged a marriage with her nice Helene, Elisabeth’s older sister. The family was invited to come to Bad Ischl in Austria, so that Franz Joseph could propose to Helene, although the two had never met before. Helene and Franz Joseph didn’t feel comfortable in each other’s presence, but Franz was immediately attracted to the fifteen-year-old Elisabeth. And so this would be the first time that Franz Joseph would disobey his mother: he wanted to marry Elisabeth, otherwise he would not marry at all. His mother was infuriated, but accepted his wish – at least he would marry a niece, and that was what she wanted in the end. But Elisabeth had not been prepared to be an Empress as Helene; she had lived her free, informal life until that moment, and she would never be able to fully adapt the royal way of life with all its rules and etiquette. Mata Hari - the name alone sounds like oriental mystery, seduction and espionage. The girl behind the name was born Margaretha Geertruida Zelle in the Frisian town of Leeuwarden, and has turned into a legend. She was born in 1876 as the first child of a hatter and oil-invester. She grew up in wealth, and being the first daughter she was shamelessly spoiled by her father. She would go around in fancy dresses, and be an outsider because of her flamboyant appearance. However, her father's company went bankrupt when Margaretha was 13, and soon after her parents separated. In 1891, Margaretha's mother died, and the family fell apart. Her father went to Amsterdam to live with his second wife and the children were sent to live with other family members. She started studying to be a kindergarten teacher in Leiden, and it was there that she learned she was sexually attractive to men: the school's headmaster helplessly fell for her. When a scandal broke out, Margaretha was dismissed from the school and went to live with her uncle in The Hague. At the age of 18, she saw an advertisement in the newspaper that was placed by friends of Rudolf MacLeod, a captain stationed in the Dutch East Indies who was - according to his friends - in desperate need of a wife. Margaretha answered the ad and enclosed a photograph, expecting that her beauty would convince him to choose her. He was twenty years her senior, but she understood that the captain would secure her the financial status she had known as a child, but had missed after her father's bankruptcy. The two got married soon after. She now was a member of the upper class, but because she had to live in the tropics, she hardly had any benefit of that. They got two children, Jeanne and Norman. The latter got poisoned at the age of 2,5, supposedly by medicines against syphilis. Because of Rudolf's rude character and Margaretha's troubles to get used to the Indies, the marriage did not work out. In 1902 they moved back to The Hague and got separated soon after; Rudolf took Jeanne with him. Margaretha was left alone without family, money or a proper education. Though not completely extinct (there are still lamplighters in London and Wroclaw), lamplighter is a typical profession of the past. Since the beginning of the 19th century, city streets are illuminated. Before that, cities were completely dark – and only those who could afford a servant or a link boy could take a night walk safely. Although is not known for sure if the word's first public gas light got into operation in London or in Germany, the 1st of April, 1814, is generally regarded as the "birth date" of gas lighting. On that day, the old oil lamps around the St. Margaret's Chruch in London-Westminster were replaced by modern gas lamps. Following London, streets all over the world lit up very quickly. Every single lamp had to be lit and put out by hand. As cities and villages got more laterns, more and more lamplighters were employed - each responsible for a certain area. The used a wooden ladder to climb up and open the glass doors of a latern. (Ever noticed a horizonal bar just below the lamp? That was for the ladder to lean against.) Then they used a long pole with a wick and a small hook attached to it to lit respectively to put out the flame. Other duties of the lamplighters were to control and renew the candles and the oil when necessary, and as a result of their job, they often acted as watchmen. During my research on this posts I found this curious bicycle you can see above, apparently used by lamplighters to ride from one latern to another. If they managed to balance 2 meter above the ground, that is. By the way, I love that older job titles just described what the person did. No modality managers, environmental maintenance officers or whatsoever back in the days. On the 27th of October 2016, an exhibition of Jan Toorop's oeuvre with over 130 works opened in museum Villa Stuck in Munich. I didn't know Toorop's works, to be honest, but a quick look into the internet made me curious to go. And I was overwhelmed with the exhibition: how could one single person paint so excellently in so many different styles? Johannes Theodorus ('Jan') Toorop was born in 1858 on the island of Java in the Dutch East Indies, where he grew up. When he was eleven years old, Jan moved to the Netherlands in order to receive better education, leaving his parents and siblings behind in the Indies. It was soon clear that Toorop wanted to do something in the arts. He followed courses by Herman Johannes van der Weele, a painter that is counted to the second generation of the Hague School. From 1880 to 1882, Toorop studied at the State Academy of Fine Arts (Rijksacademie) in Amsterdam, and moved to Brussels afterwards. In Belgium, he joined a group of artists around expressionist/surrealist painter James Ensor, 'Les XX', with whom he worked for four years. Within these early years of his career, Toorop worked with various styles. His early works were Realistic, but he also worked within the areas of Impressionism and Pointillistism. Many of his early paintings show scenes of simple country life: a farmer's family in a dark kitchen, hard-working men on the field, dunes and coastlines. ‘I want to be a second Augustus … because Augustus … made Rome a city of marble.’ - Louis Napoleon (1842) Have you ever wondered why central Paris lacks the dark and narrow passage ways you'd expect in a city old as she is? Or have you thought about how it comes there aren't any medieval houses left to see in the city center? You find it hard as me to imagine the uprising, the pursuits and the barricades as described in Victor Hugo's Les Miserables in the streets of Paris you know them today? Monsieur Haussmann is to thank - he completely changed the view of the city in less than twenty years. The change of Paris's appearance started in the middle of the nineteenth century. Only being half as large as today, Paris already was a large capital, and it was heavily overcrowded. Life in the city was dangerous due to the small and dark passages - robbers could be lurking around every corner - and due to its unsanitary conditions. The Seine spread an awful stench because sewers were emptied into the river. There was no good-working water supply system, so that fresh drinking water was a rare good. The street plan had changed little since the Middle Ages, but the population had grown immensely. In the area that now roughly forms the first four arrondissements, the population density was one inhabitant on every three square meters. Diseases spread terribly fast in these conditions. In addition, traffic circulation was difficult because many streets were too narrow for carriages to move through them - an impossible state of being for the capital of one of the mightiest countries in Europe. Chapbooks were small booklets that were sold by travelling peddlers or “chapmen” from the 17th to the 19th centuries. They were usually printed on a single sheet folded into small books of 8, 12, 16 or 24 pages and often illustrated with crude woodcuts. The paper quality was rather bad, the type was often broken and it was no exception when the illustrations had no relation to the text. Therefore, the chapbooks were very cheap (costing one penny or less). Since printing matter was expensive in the 17th - 19th centuries, the target group of chapbooks, the working class people, usually didn’t care much for the poor quality – they were happy enough to be able to buy any amusement they could get their hands on. The chapbooks covered a broad range of subjects – from manuals to romances, from crime stories to poems and from nursery rhymes to biographies of famous people. Few publishers created books especially for children. The popularity of the folded books declined from the 1860s onwards. In that time, the offer of affordable printed material had expanded extremely. The chapbooks were not the sole option anymore and lost their popularity.	<urn:uuid:863590fc-d012-4077-8b6d-0b3d6d0d2b5b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.veranijveld.com/history/category/19th-century	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00030.warc.gz	en	0.983533	3,460	3.578125	4	[ -0.015608839690685272, 0.31842827796936035, 0.3202698230743408, 0.2025929093360901, -0.47052526473999023, 0.10171186178922653, 0.06105593219399452, 0.25112777948379517, 0.11245685070753098, 0.03890572115778923, 0.07231511175632477, 0.0966947078704834, 0.45419901609420776, 0.085528731346130...	2	The Romantic period was a mainly European artistic and literary movement that celebrated its peak between 1790 and 1860. The movement can be seen as a reaction to the Industrial Revolution and the Enlightment. Whereas the main point of Enlightment was a rationalistic world view, the main idea of Romantisicism is the complete opposite. Romanticists do not trust in the human ratio as a mighty power above all things, but see themselves subordinated to nature. Romanticists perceive a irrational, mysterious and incomprehensive side of reality. Humans, they believe, do rather follow their emotions instead of reason alone, and thus tend to live by their desires rather than their rational thoughts. Typical romantic book characters, like Byrons Manfred or Goethes Werther, lose themselve in their emotions completely - sense cannot keep their feet on the ground. For a romanticist, two opposite concepts were in constant incongruity with another: analogy and irony. With analogy a mythical way of thinking is depicted: the conviction that all is connected to everything: words and objects, heaven and earth, people and nature. On the other side, irony is the awareness of our own mortality and of the fact that all things come to an end. The analogy therefore can never be infinite. A romantic author is aware of this incongruity and suffers, in addition, from the feeling that he does not fit into the world. He seeks for a way out in poetry, but there finds that words are not enough to describe his feelings. And again, he must admit that he cannot form the world, but that he is a slave of nature's laws. In short, Romanticism is thus characterized by strong feelings, melancholy and a strong connection to nature. Many of the literary works written during the romantic era contain (page)long descriptions of landscapes and gardens. The often sad, melancholic emotions of the hero or heroine are being emphasized (1). Around 1900, many inventions revolutionized the world. In 1876, Alexander Graham Bell developed the telephone, one of the most world-changing inventions ever made. Thomas Edison improved the electric light bulb to a long-lasting, inexpensive device (1878), invented the phonograph (1877). Karl Benz developed the first modern motorised car, which was first built in 1885. The Lumière brothers created the first motion picture projector or cinematograph, which they patented in 1895. Guglielmo Marconi built a wireless telegraphy system based on Hertzian waves and patended the radio in 1896. Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin's ideas for an airship were developed in 1893, whereas the Wright brothers invented and flew the first airplane in 1903. "En L'An 2000" No wonder that at the turn of the 19th century, the possibilities for the future seemed endless. This influenced many artists - just think about the immensely popular science fiction novels by Jules Verne and H.G. Wells. In that time, collecting trade cards was popular among consumers. In the period 1899-1901, either a cigarette or toy company in France hired several graphic artists to create a series of illustrations called "En L'An 2000", on which they depicted what they thought everyday life would look like in the year 2000. Unfortunately, the company got out of business before the cards were distributed, leaving us with only one complete set of about 50 cards, that is now in the hands of Isaac Asimov. Luckily, he published a book about them. I found some trade cards by a chocolate company called Louit that seemed to have distributed cards with the futuristic pictures in a later year. A striking amount of the pictures feature flying vehicles, and thinking about how much happens in the sky, the people back then had a good view on the future. Even though postmen themselves don't fly, tons of mail is being distributed via air. Videoconferencing was foreseen, as well as aerial battles and breeding machines. We still can't walk on water, though water skiing comes close. I collected all the cards on a Pinterest board: Victorian Future Visions Hildebrand's trade cards In the same period, the German cacao company Hildebrand published a set of twelve trade cards depicting life in 2000. Hildebrands cards shows moving sidewalks, live broadcasting of theater performances in the living room, personal flying machines, a good weather machine (if only...!) and roofs over cities - as can be seen below. 1. In the 19th century, industry bloomed in the (rich) Northern states. Railroads and factories popped up everywhere. The main industry in the Southern states however still lay in (cotton) farming. Whereas the North had already realized that slaveholding is immoral and had abolished slavery in the late 18th century, the Southern economy was still heavily dependent of slaves. 2. Anti-slavery Abraham Lincoln was elected president of the United States in 1860 without carrying a single Southern state. The Southern states felt they were losing representation in the Union, and that in turn would mean they would lose power in the slavery question and other policies. Because their economy would fall apart when slavery would be forbidden, the only option left for them seemed to leave the Union. They all laughed at him mockingly, his fellow people from the Cherokee tribe. But Sequoyah, son of a white father and a Cherokee mother, continued on his project rigidly, with success: he ultimately presented the Cherokee syllabary, making it possible for Cherokee to write and read in their language for the first time. Sequoyah was born a son of an unidentified white (or half-white, as sources differ) father and a Cherokee mother around 1770. The young boy was raised by his mother alone, didn’t go to school and never learnt English. He spent time farming and tending cattle before he was injured and lamed, making it impossible for him to be a successful farmer or warrior. When he came in contact with white men, he learned the art of forging jewelry and became to work as a silversmith. Later he took on the profession of a blacksmith as well, repairing iron farm implements in his village. As jewelry was popular among whites, Sequoyah stood in regular contact to them. He was impressed by their ability to transmit information to people in distant places: by letters. Among Cherokees, people tend to believe that writing was sorcery, and weren’t much interested in doing it themselves. Sequoyah, however, set a goal: he wanted to be able to write down his Cherokee language. Elisabeth was born on Christmas Eve, 1837, in Munich, Kingdom of Bavaria. She was the second of two daughters of Duke Max Joseph and his wife Ludovika, a daughter of the Bavarian king Maximilian I. In her youth, Elisabeth had no obligations at the Bavarian court and spent a happy time in their castle at Lake Starnberg, where she enjoyed playing and riding in the country. Elisabeth’s nephew was the young Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph. His mother, Archduchess Sophie of Austria, was his advisor in his political as well as in his personal life, and thus in fact the real ruler of the Empire. When Franz Joseph was 23, Sophie arranged a marriage with her nice Helene, Elisabeth’s older sister. The family was invited to come to Bad Ischl in Austria, so that Franz Joseph could propose to Helene, although the two had never met before. Helene and Franz Joseph didn’t feel comfortable in each other’s presence, but Franz was immediately attracted to the fifteen-year-old Elisabeth. And so this would be the first time that Franz Joseph would disobey his mother: he wanted to marry Elisabeth, otherwise he would not marry at all. His mother was infuriated, but accepted his wish – at least he would marry a niece, and that was what she wanted in the end. But Elisabeth had not been prepared to be an Empress as Helene; she had lived her free, informal life until that moment, and she would never be able to fully adapt the royal way of life with all its rules and etiquette. Mata Hari - the name alone sounds like oriental mystery, seduction and espionage. The girl behind the name was born Margaretha Geertruida Zelle in the Frisian town of Leeuwarden, and has turned into a legend. She was born in 1876 as the first child of a hatter and oil-invester. She grew up in wealth, and being the first daughter she was shamelessly spoiled by her father. She would go around in fancy dresses, and be an outsider because of her flamboyant appearance. However, her father's company went bankrupt when Margaretha was 13, and soon after her parents separated. In 1891, Margaretha's mother died, and the family fell apart. Her father went to Amsterdam to live with his second wife and the children were sent to live with other family members. She started studying to be a kindergarten teacher in Leiden, and it was there that she learned she was sexually attractive to men: the school's headmaster helplessly fell for her. When a scandal broke out, Margaretha was dismissed from the school and went to live with her uncle in The Hague. At the age of 18, she saw an advertisement in the newspaper that was placed by friends of Rudolf MacLeod, a captain stationed in the Dutch East Indies who was - according to his friends - in desperate need of a wife. Margaretha answered the ad and enclosed a photograph, expecting that her beauty would convince him to choose her. He was twenty years her senior, but she understood that the captain would secure her the financial status she had known as a child, but had missed after her father's bankruptcy. The two got married soon after. She now was a member of the upper class, but because she had to live in the tropics, she hardly had any benefit of that. They got two children, Jeanne and Norman. The latter got poisoned at the age of 2,5, supposedly by medicines against syphilis. Because of Rudolf's rude character and Margaretha's troubles to get used to the Indies, the marriage did not work out. In 1902 they moved back to The Hague and got separated soon after; Rudolf took Jeanne with him. Margaretha was left alone without family, money or a proper education. Though not completely extinct (there are still lamplighters in London and Wroclaw), lamplighter is a typical profession of the past. Since the beginning of the 19th century, city streets are illuminated. Before that, cities were completely dark – and only those who could afford a servant or a link boy could take a night walk safely. Although is not known for sure if the word's first public gas light got into operation in London or in Germany, the 1st of April, 1814, is generally regarded as the "birth date" of gas lighting. On that day, the old oil lamps around the St. Margaret's Chruch in London-Westminster were replaced by modern gas lamps. Following London, streets all over the world lit up very quickly. Every single lamp had to be lit and put out by hand. As cities and villages got more laterns, more and more lamplighters were employed - each responsible for a certain area. The used a wooden ladder to climb up and open the glass doors of a latern. (Ever noticed a horizonal bar just below the lamp? That was for the ladder to lean against.) Then they used a long pole with a wick and a small hook attached to it to lit respectively to put out the flame. Other duties of the lamplighters were to control and renew the candles and the oil when necessary, and as a result of their job, they often acted as watchmen. During my research on this posts I found this curious bicycle you can see above, apparently used by lamplighters to ride from one latern to another. If they managed to balance 2 meter above the ground, that is. By the way, I love that older job titles just described what the person did. No modality managers, environmental maintenance officers or whatsoever back in the days. On the 27th of October 2016, an exhibition of Jan Toorop's oeuvre with over 130 works opened in museum Villa Stuck in Munich. I didn't know Toorop's works, to be honest, but a quick look into the internet made me curious to go. And I was overwhelmed with the exhibition: how could one single person paint so excellently in so many different styles? Johannes Theodorus ('Jan') Toorop was born in 1858 on the island of Java in the Dutch East Indies, where he grew up. When he was eleven years old, Jan moved to the Netherlands in order to receive better education, leaving his parents and siblings behind in the Indies. It was soon clear that Toorop wanted to do something in the arts. He followed courses by Herman Johannes van der Weele, a painter that is counted to the second generation of the Hague School. From 1880 to 1882, Toorop studied at the State Academy of Fine Arts (Rijksacademie) in Amsterdam, and moved to Brussels afterwards. In Belgium, he joined a group of artists around expressionist/surrealist painter James Ensor, 'Les XX', with whom he worked for four years. Within these early years of his career, Toorop worked with various styles. His early works were Realistic, but he also worked within the areas of Impressionism and Pointillistism. Many of his early paintings show scenes of simple country life: a farmer's family in a dark kitchen, hard-working men on the field, dunes and coastlines. ‘I want to be a second Augustus … because Augustus … made Rome a city of marble.’ - Louis Napoleon (1842) Have you ever wondered why central Paris lacks the dark and narrow passage ways you'd expect in a city old as she is? Or have you thought about how it comes there aren't any medieval houses left to see in the city center? You find it hard as me to imagine the uprising, the pursuits and the barricades as described in Victor Hugo's Les Miserables in the streets of Paris you know them today? Monsieur Haussmann is to thank - he completely changed the view of the city in less than twenty years. The change of Paris's appearance started in the middle of the nineteenth century. Only being half as large as today, Paris already was a large capital, and it was heavily overcrowded. Life in the city was dangerous due to the small and dark passages - robbers could be lurking around every corner - and due to its unsanitary conditions. The Seine spread an awful stench because sewers were emptied into the river. There was no good-working water supply system, so that fresh drinking water was a rare good. The street plan had changed little since the Middle Ages, but the population had grown immensely. In the area that now roughly forms the first four arrondissements, the population density was one inhabitant on every three square meters. Diseases spread terribly fast in these conditions. In addition, traffic circulation was difficult because many streets were too narrow for carriages to move through them - an impossible state of being for the capital of one of the mightiest countries in Europe. Chapbooks were small booklets that were sold by travelling peddlers or “chapmen” from the 17th to the 19th centuries. They were usually printed on a single sheet folded into small books of 8, 12, 16 or 24 pages and often illustrated with crude woodcuts. The paper quality was rather bad, the type was often broken and it was no exception when the illustrations had no relation to the text. Therefore, the chapbooks were very cheap (costing one penny or less). Since printing matter was expensive in the 17th - 19th centuries, the target group of chapbooks, the working class people, usually didn’t care much for the poor quality – they were happy enough to be able to buy any amusement they could get their hands on. The chapbooks covered a broad range of subjects – from manuals to romances, from crime stories to poems and from nursery rhymes to biographies of famous people. Few publishers created books especially for children. The popularity of the folded books declined from the 1860s onwards. In that time, the offer of affordable printed material had expanded extremely. The chapbooks were not the sole option anymore and lost their popularity.	3,531	ENGLISH	1
A History Continued The Jews who celebrated the dedication of B’nai Israel’s new temple were quite different from the ones who had formed the congregation 33 years earlier. Of the twenty Jewish families who had organized B’nai Israel, virtually none remained in Columbus in the years after the Civil War. These early Jewish settlers had been replaced by a new wave of German Jewish immigrants, such as Emmanuel Kern, who came to Columbus from Bavaria in 1867. Kern was soon followed by his brother-in-law Solomon Loeb as the two became partners in a dry goods store. Later, they opened a wholesale grocery business. After Kern died, it became known as the Sol Loeb Wholesale Grocery Company, which remains in business today, run by Sol’s descendants. In the late 19th century, Columbus Jews continued to be concentrated in retail trade. According to the local newspaper, in 1891, more than fifty Jewish-owned stores closed on Yom Kippur. In 1907, the newspaper reported that it “looked odd to see so many stores closed on Monday” and that the number of closed businesses on the Jewish holiday reflected “how prominently the Jews are identified with the city’s business life.” Despite this growth in Columbus’ Jewish population, B’nai Israel soon found itself in financial trouble along with much of the rest of the country in the 1890s. They were having a hard time paying the mortgage on their new synagogue. In response, the Jewish Ladies Aid Society wrote to the widow of the great French Jewish philanthropist Baron DeHirsch to ask for financial help. The Baroness DeHirsch responded to this plea, sending almost $2000 to the congregation, which was enough to pay off the remaining debt on the synagogue. The congregation installed a memorial window in honor of the Baron and his wife and began to read the DeHirsch’s names during the Yizkor service on Yom Kippur, a practice they continue to this day. The Ladies Aid Society of B’nai Israel had other creative methods of raising money for the congregation. In 1886, as B’nai Israel was working to raise the funds for a new synagogue, the Ladies Aid Society held a week-long Jewish Fair, at which they sold food and various merchandise. Held in an empty store the week before Christmas, the fair offered “a nice line of Christmas goods, quilts, curtains, lace goods and many other articles” including cigars and donated goods. Fair goers could also have a session with a fortune teller, played by a member of the Ladies Aid Society. The local newspaper covered the fair in detail and urged its readers to support it, writing that Columbus Jews are “ever ready to extend a helping hand to others. Now…once in a lifetime, they ask the public to help them build a new synagogue, and we hope the citizens will respond liberally.” The 1886 Jewish Fair was very successful and the Ladies Aid Society was able to make a substantial donation to B’nai Israel’s building fund.	<urn:uuid:06e32b95-fb5e-4097-bd2c-1d554850f29c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.templeisraelga.com/history-5	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00446.warc.gz	en	0.980224	641	3.328125	3	[ -0.2721731662750244, 0.418377161026001, -0.22226981818675995, 0.22629885375499725, -0.0725814625620842, 0.10287922620773315, 0.10058431327342987, 0.3137701153755188, -0.04054326191544533, -0.3236948251724243, -0.14967398345470428, 0.07149574160575867, -0.127663716673851, 0.2417951226234436...	7	A History Continued The Jews who celebrated the dedication of B’nai Israel’s new temple were quite different from the ones who had formed the congregation 33 years earlier. Of the twenty Jewish families who had organized B’nai Israel, virtually none remained in Columbus in the years after the Civil War. These early Jewish settlers had been replaced by a new wave of German Jewish immigrants, such as Emmanuel Kern, who came to Columbus from Bavaria in 1867. Kern was soon followed by his brother-in-law Solomon Loeb as the two became partners in a dry goods store. Later, they opened a wholesale grocery business. After Kern died, it became known as the Sol Loeb Wholesale Grocery Company, which remains in business today, run by Sol’s descendants. In the late 19th century, Columbus Jews continued to be concentrated in retail trade. According to the local newspaper, in 1891, more than fifty Jewish-owned stores closed on Yom Kippur. In 1907, the newspaper reported that it “looked odd to see so many stores closed on Monday” and that the number of closed businesses on the Jewish holiday reflected “how prominently the Jews are identified with the city’s business life.” Despite this growth in Columbus’ Jewish population, B’nai Israel soon found itself in financial trouble along with much of the rest of the country in the 1890s. They were having a hard time paying the mortgage on their new synagogue. In response, the Jewish Ladies Aid Society wrote to the widow of the great French Jewish philanthropist Baron DeHirsch to ask for financial help. The Baroness DeHirsch responded to this plea, sending almost $2000 to the congregation, which was enough to pay off the remaining debt on the synagogue. The congregation installed a memorial window in honor of the Baron and his wife and began to read the DeHirsch’s names during the Yizkor service on Yom Kippur, a practice they continue to this day. The Ladies Aid Society of B’nai Israel had other creative methods of raising money for the congregation. In 1886, as B’nai Israel was working to raise the funds for a new synagogue, the Ladies Aid Society held a week-long Jewish Fair, at which they sold food and various merchandise. Held in an empty store the week before Christmas, the fair offered “a nice line of Christmas goods, quilts, curtains, lace goods and many other articles” including cigars and donated goods. Fair goers could also have a session with a fortune teller, played by a member of the Ladies Aid Society. The local newspaper covered the fair in detail and urged its readers to support it, writing that Columbus Jews are “ever ready to extend a helping hand to others. Now…once in a lifetime, they ask the public to help them build a new synagogue, and we hope the citizens will respond liberally.” The 1886 Jewish Fair was very successful and the Ladies Aid Society was able to make a substantial donation to B’nai Israel’s building fund.	633	ENGLISH	1
A Brief History of Quill Pens Pens are not just a tool but have become somewhat of a symbol of man’s technological progress. In the 6th century BC, the quill pen came into existence. The feathers were plucked from swans, turkeys or geese. The feather was dried so that all the fatty and oily materials cannot interfere with the ink. Feathers for right-handed people were preferably plucked from a bird left wing. This ensured that the feather would curve away from the line of sight of the writer. The Pens Australia website has comprehensive information on all the types of pens available in the market today. The writer would then sharpen the feather’s tip with a knife. The quill knife was one of the popular utensils of the time that was designed especially for cutting and sharpening the point of the quill. The knife had had a blade that was round on one side and flat on the other. This allowed the writer to shape the feather into an appropriate point for stylish writing. The feather is then ready for writing. Most people believe that the writer has to dip the tip of the quill into ink after every few words. However, what was interesting was that the tip of the quill has a hollow shaft that works as an ink reservoir.	<urn:uuid:b20d93e3-f524-4364-8896-25ecc58d753f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mazykazerooni.com/a-brief-history-of-quill-pens/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00162.warc.gz	en	0.985811	268	3.578125	4	[ -0.37865135073661804, 0.2227105051279068, 0.10021147131919861, 0.22798413038253784, -0.15057742595672607, 0.5350611805915833, 0.507034420967102, 0.39382824301719666, -0.3126402199268341, -0.06968838721513748, -0.0005739066400565207, -0.046717338263988495, 0.06958294659852982, 0.05246122926...	1	A Brief History of Quill Pens Pens are not just a tool but have become somewhat of a symbol of man’s technological progress. In the 6th century BC, the quill pen came into existence. The feathers were plucked from swans, turkeys or geese. The feather was dried so that all the fatty and oily materials cannot interfere with the ink. Feathers for right-handed people were preferably plucked from a bird left wing. This ensured that the feather would curve away from the line of sight of the writer. The Pens Australia website has comprehensive information on all the types of pens available in the market today. The writer would then sharpen the feather’s tip with a knife. The quill knife was one of the popular utensils of the time that was designed especially for cutting and sharpening the point of the quill. The knife had had a blade that was round on one side and flat on the other. This allowed the writer to shape the feather into an appropriate point for stylish writing. The feather is then ready for writing. Most people believe that the writer has to dip the tip of the quill into ink after every few words. However, what was interesting was that the tip of the quill has a hollow shaft that works as an ink reservoir.	260	ENGLISH	1
Our ancient texts say that a nation can progress only when its people are protected. This means that every citizen must feel secure and protected. It is the security forces of a nation that provides this protection. An army is necessary not only to defend a nation against invaders but also to maintain a stable administration and discipline in the society. The history of ancient India is largely a history of culture. Tribes forms societies and societies became civilizations with rich Cultural Heritage and a well organised system of governance. Pastoral society of the early vedic age got transformed into settled Agrarian society in the later vedic period. The 'King' or the leader of the tribe was called "Gopati" (lord of cattle) and later as "Bhupati" (lord of the land). Bows and arrows used for hunting became weapons of war. As societies changed so did the armies and the weapons they used. How Boundaries were formed The life of people is conditioned by the geography of their habitat. Indian history mentions Harappan civilization to be around 2600 B.C-1900 B.C, based on excavations and other evidences. The people of Harappa and Mohanjodaro settled around the 'Indus' river and did not have any boundaries around their land. But after its decline and disappearance, settlers from the West and North West started settling Tribes, being agriculturists, started cultivating land for crops and these lands were marked with boundaries called 'Janapadas'. The family was the basic unit of the Rig Vedic society. The group consisting of families was called 'Clan' and one or more Clans were called 'Jana' or tribe. As the tribes became bigger with more population the requirement of land became larger and bigger boundaries were formed. This was the first boundary created and the tribes protected their land from animals and other tribes. Some tribes migrated to different parts of India and in this process came in contact with other tribes thus resulting in conflicts and wars. Why were Armies Created? What happens when tribes migrate to other places and want to live with those already settled in those areas? It results in rivalry, conflicts and ultimately wars. The expanding and migrating tribes created larger boundaries of their land and needed separate men to protect their land, livestock and people. They formed armies from among physically strong and capable men to protect it. As tribes became bigger, they settled down and formed societies and created laws of marriage and property. They chose a leader who was named a 'Bhupati' and later called a King. Societies faced threat from burglars and others who would steal cattle among other things. It was also a custom to seek the hand of a princess in marriage by proving one's strength or ability to be superior. If marriage was denied it resulted in fights. People generally fought with each other on three major issues; of capture of territory and wealth, in retaliation to cattle lifting and on refusal of marriage with the woman of another tribe. The early vedic society did not have any caste system. Occupation was not based on birth but based on skills and natural flair for a particular activity. However, chiefs, priests and warriors existed. In early vedic period, the 'sena' or army was not a permanent fighting group but consisted of able bodied tribesmen who were mobilized at the time of conflict with others. Migration and pressures of population made them change from a peace loving agri-society to being warlike. As societies settled into larger groups they formed laws of marriage, property, etc. A settled society also witnessed a transformation of how people were assigned specific work within the society, as per their capability. To ensure social harmony the people of a Clan were divided into communities based on the work they were doing. For e.g. a farmer, carpenter, trader became Vaisyas, while a priest became a brahmin. Similarly, a man selected to be a warrior became a Kshatriya. This was called the "Varna System" of society. As laws became stricter and population grew, there was a need to have one central authority to enforce discipline. Thus was framed "Dandaniti" - laws for the society. The enforcer was the Dandadara or the King who was assisted by the army. How Armies were Formed It was logical that with Stringent laws there was a need for enforcement of the law. In the Varna system the Kshatriyas became the rulers and warriors. Our ancestors understood the value and importance of the army. Wars were fought for many reasons which were psychological in nature such as showing heroism, seeking glory on, being martyred, etc. History is full of examples of war between the strong and the weak. Therefore, the expansion of societies created conditions for fighting between tribes which in turn required the need for creation of a separate caste to be soldiers. This dual condition necessitated the thought process that even during peace time, an army had to be maintained. Thus we came across the term called 'standing army'. This standing army consisted of the 'Kshatriya' or the warrior community and fighting and dying for the King became their "swadharma". The warriors soon emerged as a special class within the society which looked upon this community as the protectors and saviours of their land. The people did not mind the high position in society for the warrior class.	<urn:uuid:aae3cafc-1fab-4cdd-9cf6-4371683b6327>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.studypage.in/military/warrior-system-in-ancient-india	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00136.warc.gz	en	0.985716	1,114	3.921875	4	[ -0.09145773202180862, 0.6714153289794922, 0.30261269211769104, 0.04040060192346573, -0.31469303369522095, -0.25704532861709595, 0.10422436147928238, -0.16267287731170654, -0.09468217939138412, -0.11649700999259949, -0.06825120747089386, -0.4563269019126892, 0.3345049023628235, 0.1794474422...	1	Our ancient texts say that a nation can progress only when its people are protected. This means that every citizen must feel secure and protected. It is the security forces of a nation that provides this protection. An army is necessary not only to defend a nation against invaders but also to maintain a stable administration and discipline in the society. The history of ancient India is largely a history of culture. Tribes forms societies and societies became civilizations with rich Cultural Heritage and a well organised system of governance. Pastoral society of the early vedic age got transformed into settled Agrarian society in the later vedic period. The 'King' or the leader of the tribe was called "Gopati" (lord of cattle) and later as "Bhupati" (lord of the land). Bows and arrows used for hunting became weapons of war. As societies changed so did the armies and the weapons they used. How Boundaries were formed The life of people is conditioned by the geography of their habitat. Indian history mentions Harappan civilization to be around 2600 B.C-1900 B.C, based on excavations and other evidences. The people of Harappa and Mohanjodaro settled around the 'Indus' river and did not have any boundaries around their land. But after its decline and disappearance, settlers from the West and North West started settling Tribes, being agriculturists, started cultivating land for crops and these lands were marked with boundaries called 'Janapadas'. The family was the basic unit of the Rig Vedic society. The group consisting of families was called 'Clan' and one or more Clans were called 'Jana' or tribe. As the tribes became bigger with more population the requirement of land became larger and bigger boundaries were formed. This was the first boundary created and the tribes protected their land from animals and other tribes. Some tribes migrated to different parts of India and in this process came in contact with other tribes thus resulting in conflicts and wars. Why were Armies Created? What happens when tribes migrate to other places and want to live with those already settled in those areas? It results in rivalry, conflicts and ultimately wars. The expanding and migrating tribes created larger boundaries of their land and needed separate men to protect their land, livestock and people. They formed armies from among physically strong and capable men to protect it. As tribes became bigger, they settled down and formed societies and created laws of marriage and property. They chose a leader who was named a 'Bhupati' and later called a King. Societies faced threat from burglars and others who would steal cattle among other things. It was also a custom to seek the hand of a princess in marriage by proving one's strength or ability to be superior. If marriage was denied it resulted in fights. People generally fought with each other on three major issues; of capture of territory and wealth, in retaliation to cattle lifting and on refusal of marriage with the woman of another tribe. The early vedic society did not have any caste system. Occupation was not based on birth but based on skills and natural flair for a particular activity. However, chiefs, priests and warriors existed. In early vedic period, the 'sena' or army was not a permanent fighting group but consisted of able bodied tribesmen who were mobilized at the time of conflict with others. Migration and pressures of population made them change from a peace loving agri-society to being warlike. As societies settled into larger groups they formed laws of marriage, property, etc. A settled society also witnessed a transformation of how people were assigned specific work within the society, as per their capability. To ensure social harmony the people of a Clan were divided into communities based on the work they were doing. For e.g. a farmer, carpenter, trader became Vaisyas, while a priest became a brahmin. Similarly, a man selected to be a warrior became a Kshatriya. This was called the "Varna System" of society. As laws became stricter and population grew, there was a need to have one central authority to enforce discipline. Thus was framed "Dandaniti" - laws for the society. The enforcer was the Dandadara or the King who was assisted by the army. How Armies were Formed It was logical that with Stringent laws there was a need for enforcement of the law. In the Varna system the Kshatriyas became the rulers and warriors. Our ancestors understood the value and importance of the army. Wars were fought for many reasons which were psychological in nature such as showing heroism, seeking glory on, being martyred, etc. History is full of examples of war between the strong and the weak. Therefore, the expansion of societies created conditions for fighting between tribes which in turn required the need for creation of a separate caste to be soldiers. This dual condition necessitated the thought process that even during peace time, an army had to be maintained. Thus we came across the term called 'standing army'. This standing army consisted of the 'Kshatriya' or the warrior community and fighting and dying for the King became their "swadharma". The warriors soon emerged as a special class within the society which looked upon this community as the protectors and saviours of their land. The people did not mind the high position in society for the warrior class.	1,098	ENGLISH	1
Love your enemies. Paul preached the gospel and established churches throughout the Roman EmpireEurope and Africa. However, the need for some form of organised spiritual guidance lead Pachomius in to organise his many followers in what was to become the first monastery. The movement never had more than minority status in Western Christianity, though it would come to exert a disproportionate impact on the Protestant Reformation, and, eventually, on the shape religious freedom took as a result. Christianity is thus both a living tradition of faith and the culture that the faith leaves behind. When this happens, the nous quite naturally grows in its spiritual understanding and in direct apprehension of God. That is to say, the believers in the church picture themselves as in a plight from which they need rescue. As in the Medieval West, Eastern Christian thought has often been centered in the work of such scholar-monks. This article first considers the nature and development of the Christian religion, its ideas, and its institutions. They were mostly concerned with Christological disputes. When he was around 30 years old, Jesus started his public ministry after being baptized in the Jordan River by the prophet known as John the Baptist.	<urn:uuid:b4497a96-f701-44d2-9b78-20c8e470adaa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://culejuzuraqysefe.usainteriordesigners.com/difference-of-christianity-between-two-periods136201038dk.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00328.warc.gz	en	0.98186	238	3.328125	3	[ 0.1323786824941635, 0.3194403350353241, 0.11837532371282578, -0.29173457622528076, 0.032542962580919266, 0.243924081325531, -0.3177621364593506, 0.08038423210382462, 0.10600966960191727, 0.3560217618942261, -0.05014191195368767, 0.21910418570041656, 0.11462020874023438, -0.0163181405514478...	2	Love your enemies. Paul preached the gospel and established churches throughout the Roman EmpireEurope and Africa. However, the need for some form of organised spiritual guidance lead Pachomius in to organise his many followers in what was to become the first monastery. The movement never had more than minority status in Western Christianity, though it would come to exert a disproportionate impact on the Protestant Reformation, and, eventually, on the shape religious freedom took as a result. Christianity is thus both a living tradition of faith and the culture that the faith leaves behind. When this happens, the nous quite naturally grows in its spiritual understanding and in direct apprehension of God. That is to say, the believers in the church picture themselves as in a plight from which they need rescue. As in the Medieval West, Eastern Christian thought has often been centered in the work of such scholar-monks. This article first considers the nature and development of the Christian religion, its ideas, and its institutions. They were mostly concerned with Christological disputes. When he was around 30 years old, Jesus started his public ministry after being baptized in the Jordan River by the prophet known as John the Baptist.	235	ENGLISH	1
Off the coast of Northern Italy is a Venetian lagoon that has at its center a small island called Poveglia. In ancient times, this place was also called Popilia. According to historical records, the history of this place begins in 421 AD, although historians think it could have been populated much earlier. In the first century, the island was inhabited by Italians who went there to avoid barbarian invasions after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. As time went on, the island began to develop. As the population grew and the economy improved, it became a full-fledged community. However, life on the island completely changed in 1379, when the war with Genoa began. Venice was attacked, and the inhabitants of the island were forced to move to another island. From 1645 onwards, Poveglia was transformed into a military outpost, boasting an octagonal fort and naval artillery. But before it became an important military asset, this tiny island had another, terrible purpose. In the Middle Ages, many cities suffered from the bubonic plague. This infamous disease did not bypass the city of Venice, which in fact is thought to have suffered from 69 instances of this disease between the 14th and 18th centuries. The first epidemic occurred in 1348. Over the course of the next six months, this disease practically wiped out almost half the population of Venice. By the time the plague came around again in 1423, the Venetians were more aware of what to do and how to deal with this disease. They founded the state hospital Lazaretto. In 1468, another hospital was established – New Lazaretto. In 1576, the plague returned to Venice, and a decision was made to isolate the infected from the healthy. Outside the city, burial grounds were created for those who had succumbed to the disease. However, soon they were overwhelmed. As a resulted, both the deceased and those infected were sent to the island of Poveglia. This happened again with the next bout of plague in the 1630s. The ownership of Poveglia moved to the Ministry of Health in 1793. Wanting to control the spread of the disease in the future, Poveglia became a checkpoint in 1777 where ships were checked for infection before being allowed to the mainland. In 1790, this policy bore fruit when two ships were found to be carrying the disease, and Poveglia once again became a quarantine island. The precise number of people who perished at Poveglia will never be known, but estimates put it between 100,000 to 160,000 people. As the plague claimed more victims, several ovens were installed on the island to burn the remains. In the 21st century, the soil of the island was analyzed, and the results showed that up to 50% of a sample consisted of the organic remains of people. Eventually, with better healthcare, the island of Poveglia became empty as the need for a checkpoint disappeared. However, the island’s association with seriously ill patients was not done yet. In 1922, works were undertaken on the island, and a sanitorium was built to house those with mental disorders. But like many asylums at the time, this institution was more a place to exile the mentally ill than to help them. Poveglia was, once again, a desolate home for anyone whom society felt was a burden. There are rumors that one of the surgeons that worked at the asylum in the 1930s conducted experiments on his patients. There is no documentation left to confirm whether this is true, but many claimed to be able to hear the screams of his victims from across the lagoon. Many patients began to report hearing voices and seeing shadows on the island. The medical staff did not believe them, seeing it as just another level of their lunacy. But if the rumors are to be believed, the ghosts were responsible for bringing the sadistic doctor’s experiments to an end. It is reported that he also claimed to hear voices and feeling something unseen brushing against him. By 1967, he was so scared that he raced up to the top of the bell tower to escape these ghosts, and when he reached the top he either jumped or was pushed. In 1968, the hospital was closed and abandoned. The island was empty, and nature began to reclaim the buildings. Many locals insist they can still hear the bell in the tower ringing some nights, even though the bell has long since been removed. Everyone is afraid to venture too close to the island. Even fishermen stay away, fearful that they might catch something other than fish and plants in their nets. In 2014, the Italian government was faced with the need to raise revenue, so it was decided to lease off some historical sites, including Poveglia. The island would remain owned by the state, but an online auction offered a 99-year lease. The government hoped to achieve 10 million euros for this lease. However, the highest bid was from an Italian businessman named Luigi Brunaro, who offered 513,000 euros. He wanted to build a private clinic for eating disorders on the island. The lease wasn’t granted to him; some claim it’s because he didn’t meet the necessary conditions, others because the government deemed his bid too low and wanted to hold out for a higher price. However, a British newspaper reported that Brunaro’s bid was actually frustrated by the non-profit organization Poveglia per tutti (which means Poveglia for all). Poveglia per tutti had raised 444,000 euros in an effort to buy the island themselves. They wanted to turn it into a place for the community to enjoy, as many residents feel that Venice is being overwhelmed by tourists. When they were outbid by Brunaro, they refused to increase their bid. Consequently, the businessman was stuck with his initial, low, and unacceptable offer since he had no one else to bid against. Although he started court proceedings, these were abandoned when the opportunity to become mayor of Venice came up. The fate of the island remains unknown. Structures such as a hospital, church, shelter, the bell tower, and some administrative buildings have survived on the island. But those places are in ruins and any artifacts inside them are covered with rust. The fort now consists only of an earthen rampart, lined with brick outside. Currently, the island of Poveglia is closed to visitors. In the past, this has made it a very attractive gathering place for local youths. Visiting the island is illegal, but that hasn’t stopped journalists and tourists from trying to get onto it. In June 2014, two Australian journalists spent the night there. Although they stated that they saw no ghosts, they did have an unsettling experience. When they woke up in the morning, they found that a hospital steel table that had been on the far right of the room was at the far left. They’d photographed the table in its original position, so they knew they were not imagining it. Another website reported how five people from Colorado tried to spend the night on Poveglia in 2016, but they ended up being picked up by the authorities after a passing sailboat heard their screams. Big thank you to Luigi Tiriticco for allowing us to share his amazing black and white photographs of Poveglia Island with our readers. Another Article From Us: Kinzua the ‘Eighth Wonder of the World’ Destroyed in 30 Seconds by a Tornado	<urn:uuid:231e41be-efdc-4a5c-a1cc-3b6085334fc8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.abandonedspaces.com/uncategorized/island.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00533.warc.gz	en	0.986721	1,576	3.6875	4	[ -0.03660580515861511, -0.15404179692268372, 0.37329208850860596, -0.09986156225204468, -0.26153165102005005, -0.13500812649726868, 0.30238208174705505, 0.27619627118110657, -0.13779741525650024, -0.13113874197006226, 0.0049036466516554356, -0.4975503981113434, 0.03325342759490013, 0.731519...	9	Off the coast of Northern Italy is a Venetian lagoon that has at its center a small island called Poveglia. In ancient times, this place was also called Popilia. According to historical records, the history of this place begins in 421 AD, although historians think it could have been populated much earlier. In the first century, the island was inhabited by Italians who went there to avoid barbarian invasions after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. As time went on, the island began to develop. As the population grew and the economy improved, it became a full-fledged community. However, life on the island completely changed in 1379, when the war with Genoa began. Venice was attacked, and the inhabitants of the island were forced to move to another island. From 1645 onwards, Poveglia was transformed into a military outpost, boasting an octagonal fort and naval artillery. But before it became an important military asset, this tiny island had another, terrible purpose. In the Middle Ages, many cities suffered from the bubonic plague. This infamous disease did not bypass the city of Venice, which in fact is thought to have suffered from 69 instances of this disease between the 14th and 18th centuries. The first epidemic occurred in 1348. Over the course of the next six months, this disease practically wiped out almost half the population of Venice. By the time the plague came around again in 1423, the Venetians were more aware of what to do and how to deal with this disease. They founded the state hospital Lazaretto. In 1468, another hospital was established – New Lazaretto. In 1576, the plague returned to Venice, and a decision was made to isolate the infected from the healthy. Outside the city, burial grounds were created for those who had succumbed to the disease. However, soon they were overwhelmed. As a resulted, both the deceased and those infected were sent to the island of Poveglia. This happened again with the next bout of plague in the 1630s. The ownership of Poveglia moved to the Ministry of Health in 1793. Wanting to control the spread of the disease in the future, Poveglia became a checkpoint in 1777 where ships were checked for infection before being allowed to the mainland. In 1790, this policy bore fruit when two ships were found to be carrying the disease, and Poveglia once again became a quarantine island. The precise number of people who perished at Poveglia will never be known, but estimates put it between 100,000 to 160,000 people. As the plague claimed more victims, several ovens were installed on the island to burn the remains. In the 21st century, the soil of the island was analyzed, and the results showed that up to 50% of a sample consisted of the organic remains of people. Eventually, with better healthcare, the island of Poveglia became empty as the need for a checkpoint disappeared. However, the island’s association with seriously ill patients was not done yet. In 1922, works were undertaken on the island, and a sanitorium was built to house those with mental disorders. But like many asylums at the time, this institution was more a place to exile the mentally ill than to help them. Poveglia was, once again, a desolate home for anyone whom society felt was a burden. There are rumors that one of the surgeons that worked at the asylum in the 1930s conducted experiments on his patients. There is no documentation left to confirm whether this is true, but many claimed to be able to hear the screams of his victims from across the lagoon. Many patients began to report hearing voices and seeing shadows on the island. The medical staff did not believe them, seeing it as just another level of their lunacy. But if the rumors are to be believed, the ghosts were responsible for bringing the sadistic doctor’s experiments to an end. It is reported that he also claimed to hear voices and feeling something unseen brushing against him. By 1967, he was so scared that he raced up to the top of the bell tower to escape these ghosts, and when he reached the top he either jumped or was pushed. In 1968, the hospital was closed and abandoned. The island was empty, and nature began to reclaim the buildings. Many locals insist they can still hear the bell in the tower ringing some nights, even though the bell has long since been removed. Everyone is afraid to venture too close to the island. Even fishermen stay away, fearful that they might catch something other than fish and plants in their nets. In 2014, the Italian government was faced with the need to raise revenue, so it was decided to lease off some historical sites, including Poveglia. The island would remain owned by the state, but an online auction offered a 99-year lease. The government hoped to achieve 10 million euros for this lease. However, the highest bid was from an Italian businessman named Luigi Brunaro, who offered 513,000 euros. He wanted to build a private clinic for eating disorders on the island. The lease wasn’t granted to him; some claim it’s because he didn’t meet the necessary conditions, others because the government deemed his bid too low and wanted to hold out for a higher price. However, a British newspaper reported that Brunaro’s bid was actually frustrated by the non-profit organization Poveglia per tutti (which means Poveglia for all). Poveglia per tutti had raised 444,000 euros in an effort to buy the island themselves. They wanted to turn it into a place for the community to enjoy, as many residents feel that Venice is being overwhelmed by tourists. When they were outbid by Brunaro, they refused to increase their bid. Consequently, the businessman was stuck with his initial, low, and unacceptable offer since he had no one else to bid against. Although he started court proceedings, these were abandoned when the opportunity to become mayor of Venice came up. The fate of the island remains unknown. Structures such as a hospital, church, shelter, the bell tower, and some administrative buildings have survived on the island. But those places are in ruins and any artifacts inside them are covered with rust. The fort now consists only of an earthen rampart, lined with brick outside. Currently, the island of Poveglia is closed to visitors. In the past, this has made it a very attractive gathering place for local youths. Visiting the island is illegal, but that hasn’t stopped journalists and tourists from trying to get onto it. In June 2014, two Australian journalists spent the night there. Although they stated that they saw no ghosts, they did have an unsettling experience. When they woke up in the morning, they found that a hospital steel table that had been on the far right of the room was at the far left. They’d photographed the table in its original position, so they knew they were not imagining it. Another website reported how five people from Colorado tried to spend the night on Poveglia in 2016, but they ended up being picked up by the authorities after a passing sailboat heard their screams. Big thank you to Luigi Tiriticco for allowing us to share his amazing black and white photographs of Poveglia Island with our readers. Another Article From Us: Kinzua the ‘Eighth Wonder of the World’ Destroyed in 30 Seconds by a Tornado	1,615	ENGLISH	1
Rome wasn’t built in a day. The city needed its insurance industry to develop first. Maritime insurance is the oldest form of insurance by centuries. But it looked very different when it was sought by sailors crossing the seas that Odysseus had found so perilous. It was much more speculative. Instead of paying a fee to insure their cargo, merchants funded their voyages with loans that also served as insurance. The loans had very high interest rates, because under the terms of the loan, if the ship sank or the voyage did not succeed, the merchant did not have to repay the loan. This practice, which dates back to at least 1800 BCE and Ancient Babylon, is known as “bottomry”—a reference to the fact that lenders could claim the ship itself if they were not paid back on time.	<urn:uuid:c282932e-89bc-4623-995a-4590a05bfce3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://amalgamated-contemplation.com/2016/03/21/how-maritime-insurance-built-ancient-rome/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00511.warc.gz	en	0.990877	171	3.453125	3	[ -0.2613166570663452, -0.03453280031681061, 0.20156624913215637, -0.02485380880534649, -0.13572990894317627, -0.45294180512428284, -0.25862330198287964, 0.365823894739151, -0.034080300480127335, -0.4802882969379425, 0.11867610365152359, -0.11070407181978226, -0.20763501524925232, 0.31065648...	12	Rome wasn’t built in a day. The city needed its insurance industry to develop first. Maritime insurance is the oldest form of insurance by centuries. But it looked very different when it was sought by sailors crossing the seas that Odysseus had found so perilous. It was much more speculative. Instead of paying a fee to insure their cargo, merchants funded their voyages with loans that also served as insurance. The loans had very high interest rates, because under the terms of the loan, if the ship sank or the voyage did not succeed, the merchant did not have to repay the loan. This practice, which dates back to at least 1800 BCE and Ancient Babylon, is known as “bottomry”—a reference to the fact that lenders could claim the ship itself if they were not paid back on time.	169	ENGLISH	1
The European and Asian empires had things in common as well as notable differences between the 15th and 18th centuries. At the start of the 15th century there were arguably only two European empires in the guise of the Byzantine Empire and the Holy Roman Empire, the former was in terminal decline (and ceased to exist by 1453), and the latter had little unity even though it lingered on until 1806. In contrast the Asian empires such as the Mughal and Ottoman Empires seemed much stronger, and were expanding. Indeed the Ottomans not only conquered Constantinople they threatened much of Europe too. There were also the more established Chinese and Persian Empires that were envied by Europeans. To a very large extent all these empires were supported by economic and trading links as much as military power, whilst the lure of profits provided the impetus for the Europeans to build their empires. It was the Portuguese who set the ball rolling with the voyages of Henry the Navigator. By that point the Chinese had already explored much of the known world with their treasure fleets and decided against setting up overseas colonies. The 1490s proved to be the pivotal decade as the Spanish and Portuguese reached the Americas, and the Portuguese reached the Far East by sailing around Africa. Perhaps the main difference was that the Europeans were prepared to travel greater distances to set up and maintain their empires. Deliberately and inadvertently the Europeans brought about profound changes, especially to the Americas. The deliberate part was changing the production patterns of the colonies to suit the economic interests of their rulers. The inadvertent part was that diseases such as small pox devastated native populations. The Europeans including the British, Dutch, and the French ruthlessly increased the slave trade to grow crops like sugar that made huge profits in Europe. The article compares the scenic beauty of Radhanagar Beach with that of Coral Beach of Coral Island and Red Skin island which are in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.. The article compares the geographical dimensions areas in Shillong and Cherrapunjee. While one place is famous for natural beauty the other part has extreme unique features.. There are a manifold of regiments in Indian Army – some of the regiments are very old and have been serving the nation redundantly from a very long period of time. In this ode, we have discussed about three of those regiments actually.	<urn:uuid:9d562df9-c28e-4636-a79b-ef527ecf5516>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://travelandculture.expertscolumn.com/similarities-and-differences-among-european-and-asian-empires-between-15th-and-18th-centurie	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00216.warc.gz	en	0.983218	477	3.4375	3	[ -0.15740546584129333, 0.14229212701320648, 0.7357701659202576, -0.06912867724895477, -0.11097954958677292, -0.376800537109375, -0.1903141587972641, 0.206363245844841, 0.16629648208618164, 0.07918976992368698, 0.2066614329814911, -0.6341797113418579, -0.24414220452308655, 0.3107719421386719...	1	The European and Asian empires had things in common as well as notable differences between the 15th and 18th centuries. At the start of the 15th century there were arguably only two European empires in the guise of the Byzantine Empire and the Holy Roman Empire, the former was in terminal decline (and ceased to exist by 1453), and the latter had little unity even though it lingered on until 1806. In contrast the Asian empires such as the Mughal and Ottoman Empires seemed much stronger, and were expanding. Indeed the Ottomans not only conquered Constantinople they threatened much of Europe too. There were also the more established Chinese and Persian Empires that were envied by Europeans. To a very large extent all these empires were supported by economic and trading links as much as military power, whilst the lure of profits provided the impetus for the Europeans to build their empires. It was the Portuguese who set the ball rolling with the voyages of Henry the Navigator. By that point the Chinese had already explored much of the known world with their treasure fleets and decided against setting up overseas colonies. The 1490s proved to be the pivotal decade as the Spanish and Portuguese reached the Americas, and the Portuguese reached the Far East by sailing around Africa. Perhaps the main difference was that the Europeans were prepared to travel greater distances to set up and maintain their empires. Deliberately and inadvertently the Europeans brought about profound changes, especially to the Americas. The deliberate part was changing the production patterns of the colonies to suit the economic interests of their rulers. The inadvertent part was that diseases such as small pox devastated native populations. The Europeans including the British, Dutch, and the French ruthlessly increased the slave trade to grow crops like sugar that made huge profits in Europe. The article compares the scenic beauty of Radhanagar Beach with that of Coral Beach of Coral Island and Red Skin island which are in Andaman and Nicobar Islands.. The article compares the geographical dimensions areas in Shillong and Cherrapunjee. While one place is famous for natural beauty the other part has extreme unique features.. There are a manifold of regiments in Indian Army – some of the regiments are very old and have been serving the nation redundantly from a very long period of time. In this ode, we have discussed about three of those regiments actually.	495	ENGLISH	1
“God could not be everywhere, and therefore he made mothers.” - Rudyard Kipling Berthe Morisot (born Jan. 14, 1841, Bourges, France - died March 2, 1895, Paris) was a French painter and printmaker. She was the first woman to join the circle of the French impressionist painters and she exhibited in all but one of their shows. Despite the protests of friends and family she continued to participate in their struggle for recognition. Born into a family of wealth and culture, Morisot received the conventional lessons in drawing and painting. She went firmly against convention, however, in choosing to take these pursuits seriously and make them her life's work. Having studied for a time under Camille Corot, she later began her long friendship with Edouard Manet, who became her brother-in-law in 1874 and was the most important single influence on the development of her style. Unlike most of the other impressionists, who were then intensely engaged in optical experiments with color, Morisot and Manet agreed on a more conservative approach, confining their use of color to a naturalistic framework. Morisot, however, did encourage Manet to adopt the impressionists' high-keyed palette and to abandon the use of black. Her own carefully composed, brightly hued canvases are often studies of women, either out-of-doors or in domestic settings. Morisot and American artist Mary Cassatt are generally considered the most important women painters of the later 19th century. Here is one of Morisot’s canvases, entitled “The Cradle” (1872), very apt for Mother’s Day. Happy Mother’s Day to all mums!	<urn:uuid:d9fe0251-92bd-4818-88cd-f60073c0714b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://nicholasjv.blogspot.com/2008/05/art-sunday-berthe-morisot.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00041.warc.gz	en	0.983525	368	3.5	4	[ 0.3501163721084595, 0.3908888101577759, 0.04599100723862648, -0.08532845228910446, -0.4055238962173462, 0.16702161729335785, 0.07306505739688873, 0.16194504499435425, -0.03709062933921814, -0.10203797370195389, 0.04743411764502525, -0.5192016959190369, 0.028629302978515625, 0.4450952708721...	2	“God could not be everywhere, and therefore he made mothers.” - Rudyard Kipling Berthe Morisot (born Jan. 14, 1841, Bourges, France - died March 2, 1895, Paris) was a French painter and printmaker. She was the first woman to join the circle of the French impressionist painters and she exhibited in all but one of their shows. Despite the protests of friends and family she continued to participate in their struggle for recognition. Born into a family of wealth and culture, Morisot received the conventional lessons in drawing and painting. She went firmly against convention, however, in choosing to take these pursuits seriously and make them her life's work. Having studied for a time under Camille Corot, she later began her long friendship with Edouard Manet, who became her brother-in-law in 1874 and was the most important single influence on the development of her style. Unlike most of the other impressionists, who were then intensely engaged in optical experiments with color, Morisot and Manet agreed on a more conservative approach, confining their use of color to a naturalistic framework. Morisot, however, did encourage Manet to adopt the impressionists' high-keyed palette and to abandon the use of black. Her own carefully composed, brightly hued canvases are often studies of women, either out-of-doors or in domestic settings. Morisot and American artist Mary Cassatt are generally considered the most important women painters of the later 19th century. Here is one of Morisot’s canvases, entitled “The Cradle” (1872), very apt for Mother’s Day. Happy Mother’s Day to all mums!	365	ENGLISH	1
Reprinted from Magnificat (www.magnificat.com) Credible Witnesses: Jean François Millet By Heather King Jean-François Millet (1814-1875), “the painter of peasants,” poured his love for the simple laborers of the French countryside into such works as The Sower, The Gleaners, and The Angelus. Millet was born on October 4, 1814, in the Norman village of Gruchy, to a family of farmers. His parents were both devout Catholics. As a youth, he worked the fields with his family: mowing, binding sheaves, spreading manure, winnowing, threshing: the “simple” activities he would later enshrine in his work. He was confirmed at the church of Gréville at the age of twelve. Urged by the vicar to learn Latin, he discovered Virgil and found himself deeply moved by the words: “It is the hour when the great shadows descend toward the plain.” As his friend and biographer Alfred Sensier observed, “the book revealed to him his own surroundings—the life in which he was growing up.” The idea of art began vaguely to form itself in his mind. One day, returning from Mass, writes Sensier, Millet “met an old man, his back bowed, and going wearily home. He was surprised at the perspective and movement of the bent figure. This was for the young peasant the discovery of foreshortening. With one glance he understood the mysteries of planes advancing, retreating, rising and falling. He came quickly home, and taking a lump of charcoal drew from memory all the lines he had noted.” Millet’s father strongly encouraged him to pursue painting, though his departure would mean one less pair of hands for the farm. He apprenticed for a time at Cherbourg under a painter named Mouchel who urged him, “Draw what you like, choose what you please here, follow your own fancy—go to the museum.” About his training, Millet later said, “You have seen my first drawing, made at home without a master, without a model, without a guide. I have never done anything different since.” His first wife died soon after they were married. His second, Catherine, would go on to bear nine children. They moved for a time to Paris and in 1849, settled in the village of Barbizon in north-central France. Mornings, Millet sowed, reaped, or planted; afternoons, he painted. In spite of his constant labor, for decades he fought off creditors, begged friends for loans, sold pictures in exchange for shoes or a bed. The critics’ response to his rustic scenes of wood-gatherers, charcoal-burners, and quarrymen ranged from disdain to rage. He would not budge on his style. By the time he had at last gained some grudging respect from the Paris Salon, his health was failing. He knew at least that he would leave the world with his light-dappled Gleaners, his weary peasant couple saying Vespers in the field, his Sower going about his consecrated work of scattering seed. But perhaps nothing exemplifies Millet’s sense of the sacred more than this: he and Catherine have been joined, twenty-two years earlier, in a civil ceremony. On January 3, 1875, they were married in accordance with the rites of the Church. He died, at sixty-two, less than three weeks later.	<urn:uuid:f5f132ab-3d45-4887-ab93-ed0cb76ba415>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://christendomalumni.com/2019/11/15/credible-witness-jean-francois-millet-by-heather-king/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00005.warc.gz	en	0.987839	763	3.296875	3	[ -0.07600747793912888, 0.5036551356315613, -0.18166640400886536, -0.09207264333963394, 0.09008251130580902, -0.2816391885280609, 0.12785407900810242, 0.2727057635784149, -0.06990110874176025, -0.28065359592437744, -0.11164972931146622, -0.26872867345809937, -0.19446447491645813, 0.232728809...	10	Reprinted from Magnificat (www.magnificat.com) Credible Witnesses: Jean François Millet By Heather King Jean-François Millet (1814-1875), “the painter of peasants,” poured his love for the simple laborers of the French countryside into such works as The Sower, The Gleaners, and The Angelus. Millet was born on October 4, 1814, in the Norman village of Gruchy, to a family of farmers. His parents were both devout Catholics. As a youth, he worked the fields with his family: mowing, binding sheaves, spreading manure, winnowing, threshing: the “simple” activities he would later enshrine in his work. He was confirmed at the church of Gréville at the age of twelve. Urged by the vicar to learn Latin, he discovered Virgil and found himself deeply moved by the words: “It is the hour when the great shadows descend toward the plain.” As his friend and biographer Alfred Sensier observed, “the book revealed to him his own surroundings—the life in which he was growing up.” The idea of art began vaguely to form itself in his mind. One day, returning from Mass, writes Sensier, Millet “met an old man, his back bowed, and going wearily home. He was surprised at the perspective and movement of the bent figure. This was for the young peasant the discovery of foreshortening. With one glance he understood the mysteries of planes advancing, retreating, rising and falling. He came quickly home, and taking a lump of charcoal drew from memory all the lines he had noted.” Millet’s father strongly encouraged him to pursue painting, though his departure would mean one less pair of hands for the farm. He apprenticed for a time at Cherbourg under a painter named Mouchel who urged him, “Draw what you like, choose what you please here, follow your own fancy—go to the museum.” About his training, Millet later said, “You have seen my first drawing, made at home without a master, without a model, without a guide. I have never done anything different since.” His first wife died soon after they were married. His second, Catherine, would go on to bear nine children. They moved for a time to Paris and in 1849, settled in the village of Barbizon in north-central France. Mornings, Millet sowed, reaped, or planted; afternoons, he painted. In spite of his constant labor, for decades he fought off creditors, begged friends for loans, sold pictures in exchange for shoes or a bed. The critics’ response to his rustic scenes of wood-gatherers, charcoal-burners, and quarrymen ranged from disdain to rage. He would not budge on his style. By the time he had at last gained some grudging respect from the Paris Salon, his health was failing. He knew at least that he would leave the world with his light-dappled Gleaners, his weary peasant couple saying Vespers in the field, his Sower going about his consecrated work of scattering seed. But perhaps nothing exemplifies Millet’s sense of the sacred more than this: he and Catherine have been joined, twenty-two years earlier, in a civil ceremony. On January 3, 1875, they were married in accordance with the rites of the Church. He died, at sixty-two, less than three weeks later.	733	ENGLISH	1
Poor was born and raised in Andover, Massachusetts. His father, Thomas Poor had been part of the 1745 expedition that captured Louisburg, Nova Scotia, during King George's War. In 1755 young Poor enlisted as a private in one of the Massachusetts units raised to accompany Jeffrey Amherst's expedition to retake it during the French and Indian War. His unit enforced the expulsion of the Acadians. After the war, he came home to Andover, but only briefly. Poor eloped with Martha Osgood, and the newlyweds settled in Exeter. Poor supported the separatists as early as the Stamp Act protests in 1765. He served on various committees for the town throughout the period of rising rebellion. In 1775 he was twice elected to the provincial Assembly. When the Battle of Lexington caused the assembly to call for three regiments of militia, Poor became the colonel of the 2nd New Hampshire Regiment. While the other regiments under colonels John Stark and James Reed were sent to Boston, the 2nd was stationed at Portsmouth and Exeter. After the Battle of Bunker Hill, they were also sent to Boston, arriving on June 25. In the summer of 1775, the unit was absorbed into the Continental Army. They were soon ordered into the Northern Department and went with General Richard Montgomery's invasion of Canada. After the disaster in Canada, Poor led the survivors of his regiment in early 1776 back to Fort Ticonderoga. After refitting and recruiting, the unit was renamed as the 8th Continental regiment and joined Washington's main army in December 1776 at winter quarters near Morristown, New Jersey. The Congress named Poor a brigadier general on February 21, 1777. That spring, his brigade of three New Hampshire (1st, 2nd and 3rd) and two New York regiments (2nd and 4th)was sent back to Ticonderoga. He withdrew with the rest of Arthur St. Clair's force of July 5. Moving south, they joined General Horatio Gates before the Battle of Saratoga, and his brigade was expanded by two regiments of Connecticut militia (Cook's and Latimer's). In the first engagement of Saratoga, the Battle of Freeman's Farm, Poor's brigade was the first to come to the aid of Daniel Morgan's attack. Poor held the American left flank, extending into the woods and even wrapping around the British position. They performed well, keeping General Simon Fraser's regulars engaged while Benedict Arnold led attacks on the central column. In the second engagement, the Battle of Bemis Heights, Poor's brigade was in General Benjamin Lincoln's division on the left (western) end of the American line. They were closest to the center of the advancing British, so they came under fire from the grenadier battalion of the British center. The fire was ineffective, so Major John Dyke Acland led the grenadiers in a bayonet charge. Poor held fire until they came very close, then opened up with the massed fire of his 1,400 men. These were the first American shots in the battle. The charge was completely broken, and Acland himself fell wounded. With this collapse of Burgoyne's center, the Americans captured the wounded Acland and Major Williams along with the column's artillery. Poor then turned to his left and gave support to Ebenezer Learned and Morgan's men. Poor's brigade again spent the winter with the main army, this time at Valley Forge. He led the last maneuvers in the Battle of Monmouth on June 28, 1778. He accompanied the Sullivan Expedition in 1779, leading a brigade in the victory at Battle of Newtown. Afterward Poor was assigned to Lafayette's division and mainly saw garrison duty in New Jersey. Some sources say Poor was shot in a duel near Hackensack, New Jersey, on September 6, 1780, and died two days later from the wound, although the Army surgeon reported that Poor died from typhus. Poor was buried in the First Reformed Dutch Church Cemetery in Hackensack. George Washington and Lafayette both attended his funeral. When Washington wrote to inform Congress of Poor's death, he noted that "He was an officer of distinguished merit, one who as a citizen and soldier had every claim to the esteem and regard of his country."	<urn:uuid:826e06dd-b010-419a-87e6-b8b6cad0d945>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://alchetron.com/Enoch-Poor	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00334.warc.gz	en	0.983738	886	3.40625	3	[ -0.06557412445545197, 0.2691238522529602, 0.10550155490636826, 0.020455311983823776, -0.2785032391548157, -0.20540888607501984, -0.09428352117538452, -0.06612448394298553, -0.1629207581281662, 0.13018614053726196, 0.06640266627073288, -0.3636426031589508, 0.32478830218315125, 0.22707340121...	1	Poor was born and raised in Andover, Massachusetts. His father, Thomas Poor had been part of the 1745 expedition that captured Louisburg, Nova Scotia, during King George's War. In 1755 young Poor enlisted as a private in one of the Massachusetts units raised to accompany Jeffrey Amherst's expedition to retake it during the French and Indian War. His unit enforced the expulsion of the Acadians. After the war, he came home to Andover, but only briefly. Poor eloped with Martha Osgood, and the newlyweds settled in Exeter. Poor supported the separatists as early as the Stamp Act protests in 1765. He served on various committees for the town throughout the period of rising rebellion. In 1775 he was twice elected to the provincial Assembly. When the Battle of Lexington caused the assembly to call for three regiments of militia, Poor became the colonel of the 2nd New Hampshire Regiment. While the other regiments under colonels John Stark and James Reed were sent to Boston, the 2nd was stationed at Portsmouth and Exeter. After the Battle of Bunker Hill, they were also sent to Boston, arriving on June 25. In the summer of 1775, the unit was absorbed into the Continental Army. They were soon ordered into the Northern Department and went with General Richard Montgomery's invasion of Canada. After the disaster in Canada, Poor led the survivors of his regiment in early 1776 back to Fort Ticonderoga. After refitting and recruiting, the unit was renamed as the 8th Continental regiment and joined Washington's main army in December 1776 at winter quarters near Morristown, New Jersey. The Congress named Poor a brigadier general on February 21, 1777. That spring, his brigade of three New Hampshire (1st, 2nd and 3rd) and two New York regiments (2nd and 4th)was sent back to Ticonderoga. He withdrew with the rest of Arthur St. Clair's force of July 5. Moving south, they joined General Horatio Gates before the Battle of Saratoga, and his brigade was expanded by two regiments of Connecticut militia (Cook's and Latimer's). In the first engagement of Saratoga, the Battle of Freeman's Farm, Poor's brigade was the first to come to the aid of Daniel Morgan's attack. Poor held the American left flank, extending into the woods and even wrapping around the British position. They performed well, keeping General Simon Fraser's regulars engaged while Benedict Arnold led attacks on the central column. In the second engagement, the Battle of Bemis Heights, Poor's brigade was in General Benjamin Lincoln's division on the left (western) end of the American line. They were closest to the center of the advancing British, so they came under fire from the grenadier battalion of the British center. The fire was ineffective, so Major John Dyke Acland led the grenadiers in a bayonet charge. Poor held fire until they came very close, then opened up with the massed fire of his 1,400 men. These were the first American shots in the battle. The charge was completely broken, and Acland himself fell wounded. With this collapse of Burgoyne's center, the Americans captured the wounded Acland and Major Williams along with the column's artillery. Poor then turned to his left and gave support to Ebenezer Learned and Morgan's men. Poor's brigade again spent the winter with the main army, this time at Valley Forge. He led the last maneuvers in the Battle of Monmouth on June 28, 1778. He accompanied the Sullivan Expedition in 1779, leading a brigade in the victory at Battle of Newtown. Afterward Poor was assigned to Lafayette's division and mainly saw garrison duty in New Jersey. Some sources say Poor was shot in a duel near Hackensack, New Jersey, on September 6, 1780, and died two days later from the wound, although the Army surgeon reported that Poor died from typhus. Poor was buried in the First Reformed Dutch Church Cemetery in Hackensack. George Washington and Lafayette both attended his funeral. When Washington wrote to inform Congress of Poor's death, he noted that "He was an officer of distinguished merit, one who as a citizen and soldier had every claim to the esteem and regard of his country."	937	ENGLISH	1
Origin of the Word Clue A clue is an insight or idea that points us towards a solution. However, originally it had a different spelling and a different meaning. ’Clew’ was the word and it meant, a ball of thread. In Greek mythology, Poseidon, the god of the sea, gifted the Cretan Bull to Minos, son of Zeus and Europa, to support him in his struggle to become the ruler of Crete. Ultimately, Minos became the king of Crete, but did not sacrifice the bull as he was meant to. Poseidon was enraged and made Pasiphae, the wife of Minos, fall in love with the bull and Minotaur was born. Minotaur was a half bull and half human creature, who eats only humans. The helpless King asked for advice from the Oracle of Delphi and was told to create a labyrinth underneath his palace and put the Minotaur there. One day, Androgeus, the son of Minos, decided to participate in some games in Athens, where he was unfortunately killed by mistake.Infuriated Minos attacked Athens and as per the consequent terms of the truce, the Athenians agreed to send seven young men and seven maidens annually to Crete as a sacrifice to the Minotaur. In the following year, Theseus, son of Aegeus, the King of Athens, volunteered to go to Crete and kill the monster. When he arrived Crete, Ariadne, daughter of Minos, fell in love with him, and offered him a sword, and a “clew”, a ball of thread. She told him to tie the thread near the entrance of the labyrinth and unroll it as he goes deeper inside, so that he could retrace his steps and come out of the labyrinth after the completion of his mission. Theseus went into the abyss of the labyrinth, managed to kill the Minotaur and then found the way out with the help of the clew. Gradually,‘clew’ took on the metaphorical meaning of something that leads to a solution. Pretty soon, the spelling was changed to ‘clue.’	<urn:uuid:94b90509-b33a-4923-8596-3f3db0693181>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.tutorialathome.in/gk/origin-of-the-word-clue	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00041.warc.gz	en	0.982611	448	3.6875	4	[ -0.11609122902154922, 0.06234195828437805, -0.021549982950091362, 0.10781058669090271, -0.4134169816970825, -0.4472692906856537, 0.8743671774864197, 0.16775473952293396, 0.057878755033016205, -0.33184558153152466, -0.048286210745573044, -0.707460880279541, 0.1300508826971054, 0.06798949837...	5	Origin of the Word Clue A clue is an insight or idea that points us towards a solution. However, originally it had a different spelling and a different meaning. ’Clew’ was the word and it meant, a ball of thread. In Greek mythology, Poseidon, the god of the sea, gifted the Cretan Bull to Minos, son of Zeus and Europa, to support him in his struggle to become the ruler of Crete. Ultimately, Minos became the king of Crete, but did not sacrifice the bull as he was meant to. Poseidon was enraged and made Pasiphae, the wife of Minos, fall in love with the bull and Minotaur was born. Minotaur was a half bull and half human creature, who eats only humans. The helpless King asked for advice from the Oracle of Delphi and was told to create a labyrinth underneath his palace and put the Minotaur there. One day, Androgeus, the son of Minos, decided to participate in some games in Athens, where he was unfortunately killed by mistake.Infuriated Minos attacked Athens and as per the consequent terms of the truce, the Athenians agreed to send seven young men and seven maidens annually to Crete as a sacrifice to the Minotaur. In the following year, Theseus, son of Aegeus, the King of Athens, volunteered to go to Crete and kill the monster. When he arrived Crete, Ariadne, daughter of Minos, fell in love with him, and offered him a sword, and a “clew”, a ball of thread. She told him to tie the thread near the entrance of the labyrinth and unroll it as he goes deeper inside, so that he could retrace his steps and come out of the labyrinth after the completion of his mission. Theseus went into the abyss of the labyrinth, managed to kill the Minotaur and then found the way out with the help of the clew. Gradually,‘clew’ took on the metaphorical meaning of something that leads to a solution. Pretty soon, the spelling was changed to ‘clue.’	444	ENGLISH	1
Didyma: oracle of Apollo near Miletus, also known as Branchidae. Didyma was the oracular shrine of Apollo at Miletus, to which it was connected by the "Sacred Road". Its priests were the Branchidae. The existence of the sanctuary antedates the Greek colonization of Ionia, and in historical times, people thought that the sacrifices were very unGreek. The name "Didyma", for example, is Anatolian in origin, although the Greeks were reminded of their word didymoi, "twins" (i.e., Apollo and Artemis.) The temple building itself was founded at the end of the eighth century. A century and a half later, it was well-known throughout the ancient world. According to Herodotus of Halicarnassus, pharaoh Necho II sent presents.note[Herodotus, Histories 2.159.] Half a century later, Croesus of Lydia did the same.note[Herodotus, Histories 1.92.] After the Persians had defeated the Ionian Greeks at Lade, they sacked Miletus and destroyed Didyma; part of the booty was brought to Susa, where it was discovered by archaeologists. The Branchidae were deported to the east; the report that Alexander the Great met and killed their descendants in Sogdia may or may not be correct. It is remarkable that later, it was claimed that the Persian king Darius I the Great, who had been responsible for the sack, had also awarded privileges to Didyma.note[Tacitus, Annals, 3.62.] It was only after Alexander had defeated the Persians, that the oracle spoke again. If we are to believe the Macedonian propaganda, Apollo's first announcement was that Alexander was the son of a god indeed. Alexander ordered the reconstruction of the temple, but it was left to Seleucus I Nicator, the founder of the Seleucid empire, to make a beginning with the project. He cannot have done this before 300, after the battle of Ipsus in which he conquered this part of Alexander's empire. His architects were Daphnis and Paionios. The temple was designed to measure 109 by 51 meter, but remained unfinished. A large hall that was to be the heart of the temple (the adyton), never had a roof, which meant that a small sanctuary was built inside the roofless hall. The adyton now became some sort of open courtyard with disproportionally high outer walls, surrounding a little temple (naiskos). Several phases of rebuilding can be indicated. The beautifully decorated columns were finished in 37 CE and the gorgons on the cornice of the temple date back to the second century CE. The altar is a bit of a problem: the circular structure in front of the temple is on the right place, but appears to be too small. A plausible alternative is that the altar was a bit to the north, where a mosque stands on an old church, which appears to be founded on a structure from Antiquity. From an inscription that can be dated to the reign of Justinian, we can deduce that Didyma was still a cultic site in the sixth century. South of Didyma was the port of Panormus, where the pilgrims disembarked.	<urn:uuid:ff59035c-8973-42b7-b6ff-4b193de840f4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.livius.org/articles/place/didyma/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00219.warc.gz	en	0.983112	697	3.265625	3	[ 0.13711076974868774, 0.09128206968307495, 0.3960335850715637, 0.0007231626659631729, -0.4052445590496063, -0.33109307289123535, 0.03408408164978027, 0.34433457255363464, 0.12571734189987183, -0.11844083666801453, -0.046699006110429764, -0.7186877727508545, -0.2033793330192566, 0.2442673146...	11	Didyma: oracle of Apollo near Miletus, also known as Branchidae. Didyma was the oracular shrine of Apollo at Miletus, to which it was connected by the "Sacred Road". Its priests were the Branchidae. The existence of the sanctuary antedates the Greek colonization of Ionia, and in historical times, people thought that the sacrifices were very unGreek. The name "Didyma", for example, is Anatolian in origin, although the Greeks were reminded of their word didymoi, "twins" (i.e., Apollo and Artemis.) The temple building itself was founded at the end of the eighth century. A century and a half later, it was well-known throughout the ancient world. According to Herodotus of Halicarnassus, pharaoh Necho II sent presents.note[Herodotus, Histories 2.159.] Half a century later, Croesus of Lydia did the same.note[Herodotus, Histories 1.92.] After the Persians had defeated the Ionian Greeks at Lade, they sacked Miletus and destroyed Didyma; part of the booty was brought to Susa, where it was discovered by archaeologists. The Branchidae were deported to the east; the report that Alexander the Great met and killed their descendants in Sogdia may or may not be correct. It is remarkable that later, it was claimed that the Persian king Darius I the Great, who had been responsible for the sack, had also awarded privileges to Didyma.note[Tacitus, Annals, 3.62.] It was only after Alexander had defeated the Persians, that the oracle spoke again. If we are to believe the Macedonian propaganda, Apollo's first announcement was that Alexander was the son of a god indeed. Alexander ordered the reconstruction of the temple, but it was left to Seleucus I Nicator, the founder of the Seleucid empire, to make a beginning with the project. He cannot have done this before 300, after the battle of Ipsus in which he conquered this part of Alexander's empire. His architects were Daphnis and Paionios. The temple was designed to measure 109 by 51 meter, but remained unfinished. A large hall that was to be the heart of the temple (the adyton), never had a roof, which meant that a small sanctuary was built inside the roofless hall. The adyton now became some sort of open courtyard with disproportionally high outer walls, surrounding a little temple (naiskos). Several phases of rebuilding can be indicated. The beautifully decorated columns were finished in 37 CE and the gorgons on the cornice of the temple date back to the second century CE. The altar is a bit of a problem: the circular structure in front of the temple is on the right place, but appears to be too small. A plausible alternative is that the altar was a bit to the north, where a mosque stands on an old church, which appears to be founded on a structure from Antiquity. From an inscription that can be dated to the reign of Justinian, we can deduce that Didyma was still a cultic site in the sixth century. South of Didyma was the port of Panormus, where the pilgrims disembarked.	702	ENGLISH	1
One of the darkest periods in biblical history is recorded in the Book of Jeremiah, chapters 40–43. They tell the story of the “aftershocks” following the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians in 586 BC. This was the greatest catastrophe that befell the Israelite people up to that time. Most of the survivors of the three-year siege were carried away as captives to the dry, sunbaked plain of Babylon. Only the poorest people received permission to stay behind, primarily to maintain the vineyards and fields of the land. One of these survivors was the prophet Jeremiah. He had long proclaimed God’s message that Jerusalem and Judah should submit to the King of Babylon. The people were to recognize that God was the One who had sent this pagan king to punish His own people for their wickedness. Jeremiah’s message to Jerusalem had made him the most hated man in town. He suffered greatly as God’s messenger. But there seemed to be some hope for the people left behind. Along with the poorest inhabitants, there was also the Babylonian-appointed governor of Judah, Gedaliah. Gedaliah seems to have been an exceptionally good and fair leader. He encouraged all the Judean army deserters, refugees, and other survivors to rally to his side. He offered them protection if they would submit to the Babylonian king and live peaceably in the land. The Babylonian king had also entrusted the princesses of Judah, women of the House of David, to Gedaliah’s care. Gedaliah also placed Jeremiah under his protection. Gedaliah assigned a very small garrison of Babylonian soldiers to serve as personal guards and to assist him in enforcing the law. Then something happened. One of the surviving military commanders from the Judean army, Johanan, came to the governor to warn him of danger. He told the governor that a man named Ishmael, who was of the Jewish nobility, was planning to assassinate him. Johanan offered to foil this plot by secretly killing Ishmael. What did the good-natured governor do with this bit of military intelligence? How did he respond to Johanan’s offer to kill the possible assassin? Gedaliah chose to dismiss this threat and reject Johanan’s offer. Why did Gedaliah make this decision? We can only speculate. Perhaps he was politically naïve and didn’t want to think evil about anyone. Maybe he feared that Johanan was trying to lure him into taking sides in a personal rivalry between him and Ishmael. I don’t know. But along with rejecting Johanan’s offer to help, he also chose not to take any precautions against the perceived threat. Just to show his trust in Ishmael’s good intentions, he received him and his guests favorably and honored them with dinner. It was a tragic mistake. At a moment when the governor and his officials let down their guard, Ishmael and his companions killed them. They also killed the small detachment of Babylonian soldiers and slaughtered many innocent people as well. Ishmael’s assassination of Gedaliah left Judah leaderless and destroyed any hope for the survivors of the Babylonian invasion. This unfortunate event spiraled out of control. Fearing a Babylonian reprisal for the assassination, Johanan and the small remnant of survivors fled to Egypt. They not only disobeyed the prophet Jeremiah’s counsel by doing this. They also forced the prophet to go with them to Egypt. What possible lesson can the believer draw from this depressing story? Tomorrow, we will answer this question. Dear Father in heaven, as a parent help me to act only in ways that will serve the needs of my spouse, children, and family. As a leader help me to act only in a way that serves those in my charge. As a citizen, help me to only choose leaders who will place the needs of our nation before all the other interests that cry out for their attention. Amen.	<urn:uuid:02e8e7da-b46b-4f1b-8fc2-6576ed2d7b0c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://thewarriorsjourney.org/ethos/look-charge-pt-1/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00191.warc.gz	en	0.980832	841	3.515625	4	[ -0.2575787305831909, 0.6121146082878113, -0.02956310100853443, -0.21996434032917023, -0.17782363295555115, -0.29871851205825806, 0.09360866248607635, 0.17972785234451294, 0.031073790043592453, 0.057205330580472946, -0.29777514934539795, 0.03619754686951637, 0.462973415851593, 0.38680848479...	1	One of the darkest periods in biblical history is recorded in the Book of Jeremiah, chapters 40–43. They tell the story of the “aftershocks” following the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians in 586 BC. This was the greatest catastrophe that befell the Israelite people up to that time. Most of the survivors of the three-year siege were carried away as captives to the dry, sunbaked plain of Babylon. Only the poorest people received permission to stay behind, primarily to maintain the vineyards and fields of the land. One of these survivors was the prophet Jeremiah. He had long proclaimed God’s message that Jerusalem and Judah should submit to the King of Babylon. The people were to recognize that God was the One who had sent this pagan king to punish His own people for their wickedness. Jeremiah’s message to Jerusalem had made him the most hated man in town. He suffered greatly as God’s messenger. But there seemed to be some hope for the people left behind. Along with the poorest inhabitants, there was also the Babylonian-appointed governor of Judah, Gedaliah. Gedaliah seems to have been an exceptionally good and fair leader. He encouraged all the Judean army deserters, refugees, and other survivors to rally to his side. He offered them protection if they would submit to the Babylonian king and live peaceably in the land. The Babylonian king had also entrusted the princesses of Judah, women of the House of David, to Gedaliah’s care. Gedaliah also placed Jeremiah under his protection. Gedaliah assigned a very small garrison of Babylonian soldiers to serve as personal guards and to assist him in enforcing the law. Then something happened. One of the surviving military commanders from the Judean army, Johanan, came to the governor to warn him of danger. He told the governor that a man named Ishmael, who was of the Jewish nobility, was planning to assassinate him. Johanan offered to foil this plot by secretly killing Ishmael. What did the good-natured governor do with this bit of military intelligence? How did he respond to Johanan’s offer to kill the possible assassin? Gedaliah chose to dismiss this threat and reject Johanan’s offer. Why did Gedaliah make this decision? We can only speculate. Perhaps he was politically naïve and didn’t want to think evil about anyone. Maybe he feared that Johanan was trying to lure him into taking sides in a personal rivalry between him and Ishmael. I don’t know. But along with rejecting Johanan’s offer to help, he also chose not to take any precautions against the perceived threat. Just to show his trust in Ishmael’s good intentions, he received him and his guests favorably and honored them with dinner. It was a tragic mistake. At a moment when the governor and his officials let down their guard, Ishmael and his companions killed them. They also killed the small detachment of Babylonian soldiers and slaughtered many innocent people as well. Ishmael’s assassination of Gedaliah left Judah leaderless and destroyed any hope for the survivors of the Babylonian invasion. This unfortunate event spiraled out of control. Fearing a Babylonian reprisal for the assassination, Johanan and the small remnant of survivors fled to Egypt. They not only disobeyed the prophet Jeremiah’s counsel by doing this. They also forced the prophet to go with them to Egypt. What possible lesson can the believer draw from this depressing story? Tomorrow, we will answer this question. Dear Father in heaven, as a parent help me to act only in ways that will serve the needs of my spouse, children, and family. As a leader help me to act only in a way that serves those in my charge. As a citizen, help me to only choose leaders who will place the needs of our nation before all the other interests that cry out for their attention. Amen.	811	ENGLISH	1
By Caroline Alavanja The diagnoses of syphilis was seen as a scarlet letter in England during the 19th and 20th centuries. This disease was strongly associated with women, specifically prostitutes. This disease was blamed on prostitutes, with some physicians and public health officials claiming that they were the only source. Because this illness was viewed as damaging to one’s reputation, many were reluctant to be diagnosed by a physician and seek treatment. For those who did seek treatment, they refused to have syphilis indicated as the main cause of their illness within their medical records or they withheld their name. However, because prostitutes were viewed as the main cause of the syphilis epidemic, they were forced to be tested against their will. According to Anna Faherty: Syphilis was first associated with prostitution and supposed depraved behaviour soon after it appeared in Europe at the end of the 1400s. Originally known as ‘the pox’, the name syphilis is derived from the title character of a Latin poem of 1530 in which a sinner is punished for betraying the god Jupiter. When it became apparent that it could be transmitted through sexual contact, it was interpreted as divine punishment for promiscuity.Anna Faherty, “The prostitute whose pox inspired feminists“ Around the early 1970s, a medical officer for Tower Hamlets, London Borough, expressed the concern of the syphilis epidemic that was occurring within the community of Pakistan visitors. These men were looking for “female companionship” as their wives were back home in Pakistan. They were soon connected with local prostitutes in a private manner in which they would not be able to identify them. As the syphilis epidemic spread, these men were contacted and asked to identify the women but were unable to. Instead the medical officer decided to round up the local prostitutes from the area that they could find and have them tested. The medical officer concluded that eight of these prostitutes were tested positive for syphilis and that they must be the soul carriers of this infectious disease. They were believed to have possibly infected hundreds of men. This was not the first time that female prostitutes were the only ones blamed for being the main cause behind a syphilis outbreak. Another case recorded in 1875, explains a syphilis diagnosis of a young 19-year-old girl. They would not list the name of this young girl but only her initials on the medical reports. This patient was listed as “A.G” and within her medical records it was noted that she was a prostitute. When A G started working as a prostitute, ‘fallen women’ were thought to have a high risk of contracting syphilis not – as might be expected – due to their increased chance of being exposed to infection, but because of their inherent immorality. If the disease was a direct result of promiscuous intercourse, prostitutes were nothing less than a festering sore on society. Like plague-infected rats or cholera-swamped sewers, women who made their living selling sex were a problem that had to be monitored and improved.(WC)Anna Faherty, “The prostitute whose pox inspired feminists“ “A.G.” as all other prostitutes, was of course blamed for her spreading of syphilis, however, why was it not decided that the men who slept with these women shouldn’t be held accountable for their spreading of syphilis as well? The Contagious Diseases Acts was first implemented in the 1860s through out England and Ireland. These acts were intended to be used to protect their military men from contracting syphilis. Police officers were then given authority that they may stop anyone that may think is a prostitute. They would then submit these women to a “voluntary” medical inspection. However, word traveled fast that there was nothing quite voluntary about it and if you did not comply you could be arrested. The women were inspected with what that they referred to as, “The government’s penis” and the “instrument of rape.” If these women were positive for syphilis they were sent to institutions where they could be isolated from society and unable to infect any others. However, no men were held accountable for their spreading of syphilis that they contracted from prostitutes. As time went on and syphilis still spread, it was clear that other carriers had to hold responsibility. According to the MOH for Islington in 1913): “In his report, Dr. Johnstone emphasizes the practical point that Syphilis is spread less by habitual or professional prostitutes, than by women who are only occasional prostitutes and by men ‘who have neglected to secure competent advice or to observe it when given.’ Hence it is impracticable to attempt to repress this disease by restrictive measures of the type of the former Contagious Diseases Acts.”MOH Islington 1913 Of course prostitutes seemed to be the easiest to blame, however, the men who interacted with these women spread it to other women and some even to their wives. This is another area in where the social judgement of syphilis shifted. Women who had only been sexually active with their husbands were contracting it and unfortunately spreading it to their children through childbirth. Faherty, Anna. The prostitute whose pox inspired feminists. Wellcome Collection Blog. 20 July 2017. McAllister, Marie E. “Stories of the Origin of Syphilis in Eighteenth-Century England: Science, Myth, and Prejudice.” Eighteenth-Century Life, vol. 24 no. 1, 2000, p. 22-44. Szreter, Simon. “The Prevalence of Syphilis in England and Wales on the Eve of the Great War: Re-visiting the Estimates of the Royal Commission on Venereal Diseases 1913-1916.” Social history of medicine : the journal of the Society for the Social History of Medicine vol. 27,3 (2014): 508-529.	<urn:uuid:ef2d8f0b-cd28-4866-b2a1-309f0a754da0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://londonspulse.org/syphilis-prostitution/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00104.warc.gz	en	0.986642	1,236	3.40625	3	[ 0.2927115857601166, 0.27469688653945923, 0.17510172724723816, -0.15516647696495056, -0.031886935234069824, -0.02172010764479637, 0.5176313519477844, 0.31996408104896545, 0.2855355739593506, 0.14705012738704681, 0.008952723816037178, -0.3573119044303894, 0.3207823634147644, -0.0132944341748...	8	By Caroline Alavanja The diagnoses of syphilis was seen as a scarlet letter in England during the 19th and 20th centuries. This disease was strongly associated with women, specifically prostitutes. This disease was blamed on prostitutes, with some physicians and public health officials claiming that they were the only source. Because this illness was viewed as damaging to one’s reputation, many were reluctant to be diagnosed by a physician and seek treatment. For those who did seek treatment, they refused to have syphilis indicated as the main cause of their illness within their medical records or they withheld their name. However, because prostitutes were viewed as the main cause of the syphilis epidemic, they were forced to be tested against their will. According to Anna Faherty: Syphilis was first associated with prostitution and supposed depraved behaviour soon after it appeared in Europe at the end of the 1400s. Originally known as ‘the pox’, the name syphilis is derived from the title character of a Latin poem of 1530 in which a sinner is punished for betraying the god Jupiter. When it became apparent that it could be transmitted through sexual contact, it was interpreted as divine punishment for promiscuity.Anna Faherty, “The prostitute whose pox inspired feminists“ Around the early 1970s, a medical officer for Tower Hamlets, London Borough, expressed the concern of the syphilis epidemic that was occurring within the community of Pakistan visitors. These men were looking for “female companionship” as their wives were back home in Pakistan. They were soon connected with local prostitutes in a private manner in which they would not be able to identify them. As the syphilis epidemic spread, these men were contacted and asked to identify the women but were unable to. Instead the medical officer decided to round up the local prostitutes from the area that they could find and have them tested. The medical officer concluded that eight of these prostitutes were tested positive for syphilis and that they must be the soul carriers of this infectious disease. They were believed to have possibly infected hundreds of men. This was not the first time that female prostitutes were the only ones blamed for being the main cause behind a syphilis outbreak. Another case recorded in 1875, explains a syphilis diagnosis of a young 19-year-old girl. They would not list the name of this young girl but only her initials on the medical reports. This patient was listed as “A.G” and within her medical records it was noted that she was a prostitute. When A G started working as a prostitute, ‘fallen women’ were thought to have a high risk of contracting syphilis not – as might be expected – due to their increased chance of being exposed to infection, but because of their inherent immorality. If the disease was a direct result of promiscuous intercourse, prostitutes were nothing less than a festering sore on society. Like plague-infected rats or cholera-swamped sewers, women who made their living selling sex were a problem that had to be monitored and improved.(WC)Anna Faherty, “The prostitute whose pox inspired feminists“ “A.G.” as all other prostitutes, was of course blamed for her spreading of syphilis, however, why was it not decided that the men who slept with these women shouldn’t be held accountable for their spreading of syphilis as well? The Contagious Diseases Acts was first implemented in the 1860s through out England and Ireland. These acts were intended to be used to protect their military men from contracting syphilis. Police officers were then given authority that they may stop anyone that may think is a prostitute. They would then submit these women to a “voluntary” medical inspection. However, word traveled fast that there was nothing quite voluntary about it and if you did not comply you could be arrested. The women were inspected with what that they referred to as, “The government’s penis” and the “instrument of rape.” If these women were positive for syphilis they were sent to institutions where they could be isolated from society and unable to infect any others. However, no men were held accountable for their spreading of syphilis that they contracted from prostitutes. As time went on and syphilis still spread, it was clear that other carriers had to hold responsibility. According to the MOH for Islington in 1913): “In his report, Dr. Johnstone emphasizes the practical point that Syphilis is spread less by habitual or professional prostitutes, than by women who are only occasional prostitutes and by men ‘who have neglected to secure competent advice or to observe it when given.’ Hence it is impracticable to attempt to repress this disease by restrictive measures of the type of the former Contagious Diseases Acts.”MOH Islington 1913 Of course prostitutes seemed to be the easiest to blame, however, the men who interacted with these women spread it to other women and some even to their wives. This is another area in where the social judgement of syphilis shifted. Women who had only been sexually active with their husbands were contracting it and unfortunately spreading it to their children through childbirth. Faherty, Anna. The prostitute whose pox inspired feminists. Wellcome Collection Blog. 20 July 2017. McAllister, Marie E. “Stories of the Origin of Syphilis in Eighteenth-Century England: Science, Myth, and Prejudice.” Eighteenth-Century Life, vol. 24 no. 1, 2000, p. 22-44. Szreter, Simon. “The Prevalence of Syphilis in England and Wales on the Eve of the Great War: Re-visiting the Estimates of the Royal Commission on Venereal Diseases 1913-1916.” Social history of medicine : the journal of the Society for the Social History of Medicine vol. 27,3 (2014): 508-529.	1,256	ENGLISH	1
What are some examples of foreshadowing from the book Night by Elie Wiesel? Foreshadowing is a literary device that hints or informs the reader about events that will occur in the future. In Night, foreshadowing has been deliberately used throughout the book to accentuate key events that shape the story. “I have a bad feeling,” said my mother. “This afternoon I saw new faces in the ghetto. Two German officers, I believe they were Gestapo.” In this instance, Eliezer’s mother noticed something odd. She had not encountered any German Gestapo officers in the ghetto, and this event led her to presume that all was not well. Later that night terrible news arrived that the Jews would be transported out of Sighet. The turn of events definitely confirmed her fears. “The yellow star? So what? It’s not lethal…” (Poor Father! Of what then did you die?) This was another clear use of foreshadowing by the author. The yellow star was used to mark and single out the Jews. It was for this reason (being Jew) that they were subjected to the atrocities. Eliezer’s father’s reasoning that the yellow star was not lethal was far from the truth because it was the motive behind the symbol that led to his death, which occurred later in the camps. In effect, the yellow star was actually a mark of death. “Jews, listen to me! That’s all I ask of you. No money. No pity. Just listen to me!” Moishe the Beadle experienced firsthand the atrocities committed by the German Nazis. He witnessed terrible things, and when he escaped, he tried to warn the Jews of Sighet about the looming danger and what was to come if they did not heed his warning. “Fire! I see a fire! I see a fire!” This statement by Mrs. Schachter was to serve as a warning of what was about to happen. The rest of the Jews on the transports did not take her seriously, instead, they became violent towards her. Her premonition finally came to pass, when on arrival some of the prisoners who were deemed unsuitable were thrown in the crematoria. “Jews, look! Look at the fire! Look at the flames!” And as the train stopped, this time we saw flames rising from a tall chimney into a black sky. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	<urn:uuid:338b19f9-ea58-4aad-9d9d-9fc3ebd2954c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-some-examples-foreshadowing-from-book-night-652897?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=hh-sidebar&en_category=internal_campaign	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00497.warc.gz	en	0.983781	529	3.40625	3	[ -0.3658982217311859, 0.20991787314414978, -0.0040337503887712955, 0.08270500600337982, 0.32542726397514343, -0.0058892942033708096, 0.6646047234535217, 0.2136962115764618, 0.010532570071518421, -0.1306980848312378, 0.08440471440553665, -0.09385747462511063, -0.5803406238555908, 0.123995043...	1	What are some examples of foreshadowing from the book Night by Elie Wiesel? Foreshadowing is a literary device that hints or informs the reader about events that will occur in the future. In Night, foreshadowing has been deliberately used throughout the book to accentuate key events that shape the story. “I have a bad feeling,” said my mother. “This afternoon I saw new faces in the ghetto. Two German officers, I believe they were Gestapo.” In this instance, Eliezer’s mother noticed something odd. She had not encountered any German Gestapo officers in the ghetto, and this event led her to presume that all was not well. Later that night terrible news arrived that the Jews would be transported out of Sighet. The turn of events definitely confirmed her fears. “The yellow star? So what? It’s not lethal…” (Poor Father! Of what then did you die?) This was another clear use of foreshadowing by the author. The yellow star was used to mark and single out the Jews. It was for this reason (being Jew) that they were subjected to the atrocities. Eliezer’s father’s reasoning that the yellow star was not lethal was far from the truth because it was the motive behind the symbol that led to his death, which occurred later in the camps. In effect, the yellow star was actually a mark of death. “Jews, listen to me! That’s all I ask of you. No money. No pity. Just listen to me!” Moishe the Beadle experienced firsthand the atrocities committed by the German Nazis. He witnessed terrible things, and when he escaped, he tried to warn the Jews of Sighet about the looming danger and what was to come if they did not heed his warning. “Fire! I see a fire! I see a fire!” This statement by Mrs. Schachter was to serve as a warning of what was about to happen. The rest of the Jews on the transports did not take her seriously, instead, they became violent towards her. Her premonition finally came to pass, when on arrival some of the prisoners who were deemed unsuitable were thrown in the crematoria. “Jews, look! Look at the fire! Look at the flames!” And as the train stopped, this time we saw flames rising from a tall chimney into a black sky. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	491	ENGLISH	1
On December 5th 1937, eight days before the invasion, orders were sent out to kill all captives and prisoners of war. The logic behind these orders were ruthless and inhumane as captives could not be fed thus meaning they were destroyed. Killing them would not only eliminate the shortage of food but as well diminish the possibility of the Chinese retaliating. However, when it came to completing the order given, the Japanese troops were vastly outnumbered, estimating over half a million civilians and ninety thousand Chinese troops compared to the fifty thousand troops they had. Nonetheless, this would not stop the Japanese from taking over the city and ruling over the civilians as the worst had yet to come. Killing the prisoners of war was one of their first initial operations because of their limited manpower. They relied heavily on deception and their strategy for the mass killings involved a number of steps before initiation. First, they would promise fair treatment between them in return for no resistance, persuading them into their own surrendence towards the Japanese. Then, victims were neglected of food or water for days, yet promised food and work. After such many days, victims wrists were bound securely with wire or rope, they were then divided into groups of one to two hundred men, and then lured to different areas around Nanking to be killed. The men who were too dehydrated and tired to rebel against followed through, believing they would be fed. By the time they reached the isolated area, filled with machine guns, blood covered swords and bayonets, the corpses of the men before and the smell of rotting flesh, it was too late to escape. All of this was easier than what the Japanese had anticipated. 1″Resistance was sporadic; indeed, it was practically nonexistent”. Chinese soldiers did not put up a fight when the Japanese closed in on them. Many believed that if they simply were to turn themselves in, they would be treated better and once a man surrendered, the rest of the task was easy. When the soldiers practically surrendered altogether, there was genuinely no one left to protect the civilians of the city. Planning for this to happen, the Japanese troops invaded into Nanking taking over banks, government buildings and warehouses, shooting at random civilians in the streets and wherever they ran, having many shot in the back because of this. The use of machine guns, revolvers and rifles towards the crowds of wounded soldiers, elders, women and children created chaos filled with their screams and moans of pain as they toppled to the ground in a lifeless state. They killed Chinese civilians in every section of the city: small alleyways, major boulevards, city squares, government buildings and mud dugouts, nowhere was safe. The city ran cold with their blood, having barely living bodies scattered around, with no more strength to get up and run away. Systematically, the Japanese troops went house-to-house in the nearby suburbs and countryside in search of any surviving civilians or Chinese Soldiers. 2″ Corpses piled up outside the city walls, along the river (which had literally turned red with blood), by ponds and lakes, and on hills and on hills and mountains.”. In nearby villages, Japanese troops would shoot down any young man who passed by them, under the belief that the man was a former Chinese Soldier. Cruelly enough they would also murder people who are evidently not a Chinese soldier such as elderly men and women. If they hesitated or failed to recognize orders, spoken in the Japanese language, they would be killed.	<urn:uuid:adf9bd6d-d23c-4c0a-966e-526e0ddc74f8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://irvinebusinessdirectory.net/on-killing-them-would-not-only-eliminate-the-shortage/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00518.warc.gz	en	0.986581	705	3.515625	4	[ -0.4907165765762329, 0.3884815573692322, 0.11376862227916718, -0.010988065972924232, 0.38153764605522156, 0.07792136818170547, 0.1051805168390274, 0.12891694903373718, 0.08475243300199509, -0.05946739390492439, 0.5105141401290894, -0.18492725491523743, 0.4011653959751129, 0.627159595489502...	1	On December 5th 1937, eight days before the invasion, orders were sent out to kill all captives and prisoners of war. The logic behind these orders were ruthless and inhumane as captives could not be fed thus meaning they were destroyed. Killing them would not only eliminate the shortage of food but as well diminish the possibility of the Chinese retaliating. However, when it came to completing the order given, the Japanese troops were vastly outnumbered, estimating over half a million civilians and ninety thousand Chinese troops compared to the fifty thousand troops they had. Nonetheless, this would not stop the Japanese from taking over the city and ruling over the civilians as the worst had yet to come. Killing the prisoners of war was one of their first initial operations because of their limited manpower. They relied heavily on deception and their strategy for the mass killings involved a number of steps before initiation. First, they would promise fair treatment between them in return for no resistance, persuading them into their own surrendence towards the Japanese. Then, victims were neglected of food or water for days, yet promised food and work. After such many days, victims wrists were bound securely with wire or rope, they were then divided into groups of one to two hundred men, and then lured to different areas around Nanking to be killed. The men who were too dehydrated and tired to rebel against followed through, believing they would be fed. By the time they reached the isolated area, filled with machine guns, blood covered swords and bayonets, the corpses of the men before and the smell of rotting flesh, it was too late to escape. All of this was easier than what the Japanese had anticipated. 1″Resistance was sporadic; indeed, it was practically nonexistent”. Chinese soldiers did not put up a fight when the Japanese closed in on them. Many believed that if they simply were to turn themselves in, they would be treated better and once a man surrendered, the rest of the task was easy. When the soldiers practically surrendered altogether, there was genuinely no one left to protect the civilians of the city. Planning for this to happen, the Japanese troops invaded into Nanking taking over banks, government buildings and warehouses, shooting at random civilians in the streets and wherever they ran, having many shot in the back because of this. The use of machine guns, revolvers and rifles towards the crowds of wounded soldiers, elders, women and children created chaos filled with their screams and moans of pain as they toppled to the ground in a lifeless state. They killed Chinese civilians in every section of the city: small alleyways, major boulevards, city squares, government buildings and mud dugouts, nowhere was safe. The city ran cold with their blood, having barely living bodies scattered around, with no more strength to get up and run away. Systematically, the Japanese troops went house-to-house in the nearby suburbs and countryside in search of any surviving civilians or Chinese Soldiers. 2″ Corpses piled up outside the city walls, along the river (which had literally turned red with blood), by ponds and lakes, and on hills and on hills and mountains.”. In nearby villages, Japanese troops would shoot down any young man who passed by them, under the belief that the man was a former Chinese Soldier. Cruelly enough they would also murder people who are evidently not a Chinese soldier such as elderly men and women. If they hesitated or failed to recognize orders, spoken in the Japanese language, they would be killed.	715	ENGLISH	1
In Greek mythology , Hades was the god of the dead and the ruler of the Underworld. Thus, he was an important god in the Greek pantheon . Nevertheless, he is not considered to be a member of the Twelve Olympians, as he resided not on Mount Olympus, but in the Underworld instead. As Hades’ domain is located beneath the earth, the Greeks also believed that he was the god of the earth’s hidden wealth. As one of the major Greek gods, Hades is featured in a number of myths, normally as a supporting character, but sometimes as a main one as well. Titanomachy Brings a New Generation of Gods The ancient Greeks believed that Hades belonged to the first generation of Olympian gods. His father was the Titan Cronus, while his mother was Rhea. Fearing that one of his own children would eventually overpower him and replace him as king of the gods, Cronus devoured his children, including Hades, as soon as they were born. Cronus’ youngest son, Zeus, however, was saved by his mother and raised in secret. When Zeus grew up, he returned to Cronus, freed his siblings, and challenged the Titans for supremacy. The resulting war between the two generations of gods is known as the Titanomachy. In the end, the younger generation of gods, who became known as the Olympians, triumphed over the Titans. During the Titanomachy, the Cyclopes, who had been freed by the Olympians, made powerful weapons for the gods. Zeus was given the lightning bolt, Poseidon the trident, and Hades the helm of darkness. This headgear allowed its wearer to become invisible. Some believe that after the Titanomachy, the helm became even more powerful and gained the ability to control the dead. Hades is known to have lent his helm of darkness to the other gods. For instance, during the Trojan War, Athena wore this helm when she aided the Greek hero Diomedes. The helm of darkness was also lent to the hero Perseus during his quest to slay the dreaded Gorgon Medusa. Following the defeat of the Titans, the three brothers, Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades, divided the universe among themselves by drawing lots. Zeus was given rulership of the sky, Poseidon the sea, and Hades the Underworld. As the ruler of the Underworld, Hades’ name is commonly said to mean ‘Unseen / Invisible One’. How Hades is Viewed As death was considered to be a taboo subject, Hades was also given several euphemistic epithets, such as Plouton, meaning ‘Of Wealth’, and Theon / Zeus Khthonios, meaning ‘God / Zeus of the Underworld’. Other epithets given to Hades include Polysemantor (Ruler of Many), Polydegmon (Host of Many), and Nekrodegmon (Receiver of the Dead). Despite being a major god, Hades does not appear as often as the other Olympians in Greek art . This is not surprising, considering that death was a subject that people would normally avoid. Hades is so infrequently depicted in art that there are no strict rules as to how this deity ought to be represented. Nevertheless, there are certain attributes that allow one to identify this god, including a scepter and key, both of which are symbols of his dominion of the Underworld, and a cornucopia (horn of plenty), which points to his role as a god of wealth. It may be mentioned that Hades’ role as a god of wealth is often overshadowed by his role as the god of the dead. Hades, god of the Underworld, the dead, and riches.( Archivist / Adobe Stock ) The Greeks believed that Hades’ rulership of the Underworld meant that the god also had access to the secret wealth that is hidden in the earth. This includes precious metals, as well as fertile soil necessary for the growing of crops. In this role, Hades is viewed as a generous and benevolent god. Hades’ Trusted Companion – Cerberus Another unmistakable attribute of Hades is Cerberus, his three-headed dog. Incidentally, the poet Hesiod mentions that Cerberus had 50 heads. Apart from his multiple heads, Cerberus is noted also for the snakes that grew on his back and his serpent tail. Cerberus was a fearsome monster indeed, though unsurprising considering his parentage. In Greek mythology, Cerberus was the offspring of the monsters Typhon and Echidna, whose other children included Orthrus (the two-headed dog who guarded the Cattle of Geryon), the Lernaean Hydra, and the Chimera. The Greeks believed that Cerberus guarded the gates of the Underworld , devouring anyone who attempted to leave, while preventing the living from entering Hades’ realm. A well-known myth in which Cerberus appears is that of the Twelve Labours of Heracles. The hero’s 12th and final labor was to capture Cerberus, and to present the creature before Eurystheus, the king of Tiryns. In most versions of the myth, the hero overpowers Cerberus with brute force. Hades’ dog Cerberus guards the Underworld. (Raul654 / Public Domain ) It was also during his journey in the Underworld that Heracles encountered the heroes Theseus and Pirithous, who were kept there as punishment by Hades. Pirithous wanted to make Persephone, the wife of Hades, his bride, and therefore traveled with Theseus to the Underworld. In one version of the myth, the two heroes sat on a rock to rest, and realized that they were not able to get up when they saw the Furies coming for them. In another version, they were outwitted by Hades himself. The god of the Underworld invited Pirithous and Theseus to sit on a special chair. Little did they know, however, that it was the Chair of Forgetfulness, which caused anyone who sat on it to forget everything. It was by this means that Hades was able to keep them in the Underworld. When Heracles traveled to the Underworld to capture Cerberus, he rescued the two heroes. In some versions, both Theseus and Pirithous were rescued, while in others, Heracles only managed to rescue Theseus. Yet in another version, Heracles could save neither and both heroes continued to be held in the Underworld. Hades’ dog Cerberus and Hercules. (Shuishouyue / Public Domain ) Cerberus could be overcome by other means as well, as seen in the myth of Orpheus and Eurydice. In this tragic tale, the hero Orpheus manages to charm Cerberus with his music, thus allowing him to enter the Underworld. The legendary musician had traveled to the land of the dead in order to bring his deceased wife, Eurydice, back to life. Orpheus made his way to Hades, and his music and grief so moved the lord of the Underworld that he was allowed to take Eurydice back to the land of the living. Nevertheless, Orpheus was warned not to look back until he and Eurydice had passed the gates of the Underworld. Unfortunately, as Orpheus stood just a few steps away from the gates of the Underworld, doubt began to fill his mind, since he did not hear his wife’s footsteps during the journey. Thus, he turned back to check if Eurydice was indeed behind him. In another version of the myth, Orpheus, as he saw the sun, was so excited that he forgot Hades’ warning, and turned back to share his delight with his wife. As a consequence, Eurydice’s shade disappeared instantly and Orpheus returned to the mortal realm alone. Orpheus and Eurydice try to escape Hades and the Underworld. (Anne-Sophie Ofrim / Public Domain ) Hades ‘Takes’ a Wife As mentioned earlier, Persephone was the wife of Hades. The queen of the Underworld was the daughter of Zeus and Demeter, the goddess of harvest and agriculture. The abduction of Persephone is arguably the best-known myth involving Hades and one of the few in which he is a major character. In this myth, Hades made a petition to his brother Zeus to grant him one of his daughters to be his wife. Zeus chose Persephone, despite knowing that Demeter would not agree to this arrangement. One day, Persephone was picking flowers in the plain of Nysa with the daughters of Okeanos. She wandered away from the group and came upon a sweet scent of a fragrant flower. As Persephone reached out to pluck the flower, the ground below her opened up, and Hades, on a gold chariot drawn by four horses, emerged. The god of the Underworld snatched Persephone and brought her to his kingdom to be his queen. Hades abduction of Persephone who became his wife. (Missinglinkantiques / CC BY-SA 3.0 ) The abduction of Persephone caused great sorrow to Demeter, who set out to search for her. For nine days, the goddess wandered over the earth with torches in her hands, though nobody would tell her what had happened to Persephone. On the 10th day, Demeter met the goddess Hekate, who told her that she had heard Persephone’s voice, but did not see what had happened. Shortly after, the two goddesses went to Helios, the god and personification of the sun, as he would have seen all that happened on earth. Having been questioned by Demeter, Helios revealed that it was Zeus who allowed Hades to take Persephone as his wife. Furious at what Zeus had done, Demeter vowed neither to set foot on Mount Olympus, nor to allow crops to grow until she had seen her daughter. When Zeus heard of this, he was worried that Demeter’s actions would spell the end for humanity, and therefore sent Hermes to bring Persephone out of the Underworld. Hermes, known for his diplomatic skills, succeeded in persuading Hades to release Persephone. Before allowing Persephone to leave, however, Hades gave her a pomegranate seed as a parting gift. As a consequence of eating this seed, which is a food of the dead, Persephone was bound to remain in the Underworld. At this point, Zeus intervened and proposed a compromise. For two thirds of the year, Persephone would remain with Demeter, while the remaining would be spent in the Underworld. All parties involved agreed to Zeus’ arrangement. Persephone is returned to Demeter but she has to go back to Hades and the Underworld every year. (Shuishouyue / Public Domain ) This has been traditionally taken to explain the changes in the seasons. It was believed that during the months when Persephone stayed with Hades, Demeter would leave Mount Olympus for her temple in Eleusia to mourn the absence of her daughter, thus causing winter in the land. Hades Was Not the Judge of the Dead While Hades was the ruler of the Underworld, he did not judge the souls of the dead. The Greeks believed that the souls of the just were rewarded with entrance to the Isles of the Blessed, while the wicked were condemned to Tartarus. During the time of Cronus, as well as the early reign of Zeus, judgment was made by living judges on the day a person breathed his/her last. Mistakes were made and the wicked were found entering the Isles of the Blessed. This was due to the fact that the wicked cladded themselves in rich clothing when they were judged, which made them look as though they had lived good lives. Therefore, Zeus decided that from that moment on, the dead were to be judged stripped of all their worldly belongings. Moreover, Zeus appointed three judges – Rhadamanthys, Aeacus, and Minos. The first tried those who came from Asia, the second those from Europe, and the third had the privilege of making the final decision. The judges of the dead, Minos, Aiakos (with the scepter), Rhadamanthys sit on the throne bench and question the shadows about their lives and their deeds. (Gerd Leibrock / Public Domain ) Lastly, it may be said that Hades was not Death either. Hades did not have the power to take people’s lives, and the personification of Death in Greek mythology was Thanatos. In the myth of Asclepius, Hades was the god most affected by the demi-god’s healing abilities. Asclepius was the son of Apollo and a mortal prince. Asclepius’ mother had died during childbirth, and Apollo rescued him by cutting him out of his mother’s womb. The child was later placed under the tutorship of the centaur Chiron and learned the art of medicine. In time, Asclepius’ medical skills surpassed even that of Chiron’s and Apollo’s. He was able to cure all people and even had the power to bring the dead back to life. While Asclepius was viewed by mankind as a hero, the gods were not pleased with him. Hades was especially angry at Asclepius, since, thanks to his healing abilities, less and less people were dying. This in turn meant that there were fewer souls entering the Underworld. Eventually, Hades brought the case up with Zeus and urged him to kill Asclepius so that the status quo could be restored. Zeus had his own grudge against Asclepius – the healer had been raising the dead without first obtaining his permission, which Zeus perceived as an insult to his position as king of the gods. Although Apollo tried to intercede for his son, Zeus refused to budge and struck Asclepius down with a bolt of lightning. After his death, Asclepius’s body was placed in the sky as the constellation Ophiuchus, meaning, ‘Serpent-bearer’. Top image: Hades, god of the underworld and Cerberus, his dog. ( rudall30 / Adobe Stock) By Wu Mingren	<urn:uuid:ac8c6f06-792e-4b84-8e73-29f76929ff6f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://epeak.info/2019/10/12/hades-god-of-the-underworld-and-his-unsung-powers/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592394.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118081234-20200118105234-00159.warc.gz	en	0.986491	2,969	3.390625	3	[ 0.1042981818318367, 0.1540222465991974, 0.17722448706626892, -0.34653228521347046, -0.5838145017623901, -0.1840556263923645, 0.4786538779735565, 0.5458859801292419, -0.05977564677596092, -0.1289549469947815, -0.2707238495349884, -0.5994614362716675, -0.04121743142604828, 0.3899917900562286...	1	In Greek mythology , Hades was the god of the dead and the ruler of the Underworld. Thus, he was an important god in the Greek pantheon . Nevertheless, he is not considered to be a member of the Twelve Olympians, as he resided not on Mount Olympus, but in the Underworld instead. As Hades’ domain is located beneath the earth, the Greeks also believed that he was the god of the earth’s hidden wealth. As one of the major Greek gods, Hades is featured in a number of myths, normally as a supporting character, but sometimes as a main one as well. Titanomachy Brings a New Generation of Gods The ancient Greeks believed that Hades belonged to the first generation of Olympian gods. His father was the Titan Cronus, while his mother was Rhea. Fearing that one of his own children would eventually overpower him and replace him as king of the gods, Cronus devoured his children, including Hades, as soon as they were born. Cronus’ youngest son, Zeus, however, was saved by his mother and raised in secret. When Zeus grew up, he returned to Cronus, freed his siblings, and challenged the Titans for supremacy. The resulting war between the two generations of gods is known as the Titanomachy. In the end, the younger generation of gods, who became known as the Olympians, triumphed over the Titans. During the Titanomachy, the Cyclopes, who had been freed by the Olympians, made powerful weapons for the gods. Zeus was given the lightning bolt, Poseidon the trident, and Hades the helm of darkness. This headgear allowed its wearer to become invisible. Some believe that after the Titanomachy, the helm became even more powerful and gained the ability to control the dead. Hades is known to have lent his helm of darkness to the other gods. For instance, during the Trojan War, Athena wore this helm when she aided the Greek hero Diomedes. The helm of darkness was also lent to the hero Perseus during his quest to slay the dreaded Gorgon Medusa. Following the defeat of the Titans, the three brothers, Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades, divided the universe among themselves by drawing lots. Zeus was given rulership of the sky, Poseidon the sea, and Hades the Underworld. As the ruler of the Underworld, Hades’ name is commonly said to mean ‘Unseen / Invisible One’. How Hades is Viewed As death was considered to be a taboo subject, Hades was also given several euphemistic epithets, such as Plouton, meaning ‘Of Wealth’, and Theon / Zeus Khthonios, meaning ‘God / Zeus of the Underworld’. Other epithets given to Hades include Polysemantor (Ruler of Many), Polydegmon (Host of Many), and Nekrodegmon (Receiver of the Dead). Despite being a major god, Hades does not appear as often as the other Olympians in Greek art . This is not surprising, considering that death was a subject that people would normally avoid. Hades is so infrequently depicted in art that there are no strict rules as to how this deity ought to be represented. Nevertheless, there are certain attributes that allow one to identify this god, including a scepter and key, both of which are symbols of his dominion of the Underworld, and a cornucopia (horn of plenty), which points to his role as a god of wealth. It may be mentioned that Hades’ role as a god of wealth is often overshadowed by his role as the god of the dead. Hades, god of the Underworld, the dead, and riches.( Archivist / Adobe Stock ) The Greeks believed that Hades’ rulership of the Underworld meant that the god also had access to the secret wealth that is hidden in the earth. This includes precious metals, as well as fertile soil necessary for the growing of crops. In this role, Hades is viewed as a generous and benevolent god. Hades’ Trusted Companion – Cerberus Another unmistakable attribute of Hades is Cerberus, his three-headed dog. Incidentally, the poet Hesiod mentions that Cerberus had 50 heads. Apart from his multiple heads, Cerberus is noted also for the snakes that grew on his back and his serpent tail. Cerberus was a fearsome monster indeed, though unsurprising considering his parentage. In Greek mythology, Cerberus was the offspring of the monsters Typhon and Echidna, whose other children included Orthrus (the two-headed dog who guarded the Cattle of Geryon), the Lernaean Hydra, and the Chimera. The Greeks believed that Cerberus guarded the gates of the Underworld , devouring anyone who attempted to leave, while preventing the living from entering Hades’ realm. A well-known myth in which Cerberus appears is that of the Twelve Labours of Heracles. The hero’s 12th and final labor was to capture Cerberus, and to present the creature before Eurystheus, the king of Tiryns. In most versions of the myth, the hero overpowers Cerberus with brute force. Hades’ dog Cerberus guards the Underworld. (Raul654 / Public Domain ) It was also during his journey in the Underworld that Heracles encountered the heroes Theseus and Pirithous, who were kept there as punishment by Hades. Pirithous wanted to make Persephone, the wife of Hades, his bride, and therefore traveled with Theseus to the Underworld. In one version of the myth, the two heroes sat on a rock to rest, and realized that they were not able to get up when they saw the Furies coming for them. In another version, they were outwitted by Hades himself. The god of the Underworld invited Pirithous and Theseus to sit on a special chair. Little did they know, however, that it was the Chair of Forgetfulness, which caused anyone who sat on it to forget everything. It was by this means that Hades was able to keep them in the Underworld. When Heracles traveled to the Underworld to capture Cerberus, he rescued the two heroes. In some versions, both Theseus and Pirithous were rescued, while in others, Heracles only managed to rescue Theseus. Yet in another version, Heracles could save neither and both heroes continued to be held in the Underworld. Hades’ dog Cerberus and Hercules. (Shuishouyue / Public Domain ) Cerberus could be overcome by other means as well, as seen in the myth of Orpheus and Eurydice. In this tragic tale, the hero Orpheus manages to charm Cerberus with his music, thus allowing him to enter the Underworld. The legendary musician had traveled to the land of the dead in order to bring his deceased wife, Eurydice, back to life. Orpheus made his way to Hades, and his music and grief so moved the lord of the Underworld that he was allowed to take Eurydice back to the land of the living. Nevertheless, Orpheus was warned not to look back until he and Eurydice had passed the gates of the Underworld. Unfortunately, as Orpheus stood just a few steps away from the gates of the Underworld, doubt began to fill his mind, since he did not hear his wife’s footsteps during the journey. Thus, he turned back to check if Eurydice was indeed behind him. In another version of the myth, Orpheus, as he saw the sun, was so excited that he forgot Hades’ warning, and turned back to share his delight with his wife. As a consequence, Eurydice’s shade disappeared instantly and Orpheus returned to the mortal realm alone. Orpheus and Eurydice try to escape Hades and the Underworld. (Anne-Sophie Ofrim / Public Domain ) Hades ‘Takes’ a Wife As mentioned earlier, Persephone was the wife of Hades. The queen of the Underworld was the daughter of Zeus and Demeter, the goddess of harvest and agriculture. The abduction of Persephone is arguably the best-known myth involving Hades and one of the few in which he is a major character. In this myth, Hades made a petition to his brother Zeus to grant him one of his daughters to be his wife. Zeus chose Persephone, despite knowing that Demeter would not agree to this arrangement. One day, Persephone was picking flowers in the plain of Nysa with the daughters of Okeanos. She wandered away from the group and came upon a sweet scent of a fragrant flower. As Persephone reached out to pluck the flower, the ground below her opened up, and Hades, on a gold chariot drawn by four horses, emerged. The god of the Underworld snatched Persephone and brought her to his kingdom to be his queen. Hades abduction of Persephone who became his wife. (Missinglinkantiques / CC BY-SA 3.0 ) The abduction of Persephone caused great sorrow to Demeter, who set out to search for her. For nine days, the goddess wandered over the earth with torches in her hands, though nobody would tell her what had happened to Persephone. On the 10th day, Demeter met the goddess Hekate, who told her that she had heard Persephone’s voice, but did not see what had happened. Shortly after, the two goddesses went to Helios, the god and personification of the sun, as he would have seen all that happened on earth. Having been questioned by Demeter, Helios revealed that it was Zeus who allowed Hades to take Persephone as his wife. Furious at what Zeus had done, Demeter vowed neither to set foot on Mount Olympus, nor to allow crops to grow until she had seen her daughter. When Zeus heard of this, he was worried that Demeter’s actions would spell the end for humanity, and therefore sent Hermes to bring Persephone out of the Underworld. Hermes, known for his diplomatic skills, succeeded in persuading Hades to release Persephone. Before allowing Persephone to leave, however, Hades gave her a pomegranate seed as a parting gift. As a consequence of eating this seed, which is a food of the dead, Persephone was bound to remain in the Underworld. At this point, Zeus intervened and proposed a compromise. For two thirds of the year, Persephone would remain with Demeter, while the remaining would be spent in the Underworld. All parties involved agreed to Zeus’ arrangement. Persephone is returned to Demeter but she has to go back to Hades and the Underworld every year. (Shuishouyue / Public Domain ) This has been traditionally taken to explain the changes in the seasons. It was believed that during the months when Persephone stayed with Hades, Demeter would leave Mount Olympus for her temple in Eleusia to mourn the absence of her daughter, thus causing winter in the land. Hades Was Not the Judge of the Dead While Hades was the ruler of the Underworld, he did not judge the souls of the dead. The Greeks believed that the souls of the just were rewarded with entrance to the Isles of the Blessed, while the wicked were condemned to Tartarus. During the time of Cronus, as well as the early reign of Zeus, judgment was made by living judges on the day a person breathed his/her last. Mistakes were made and the wicked were found entering the Isles of the Blessed. This was due to the fact that the wicked cladded themselves in rich clothing when they were judged, which made them look as though they had lived good lives. Therefore, Zeus decided that from that moment on, the dead were to be judged stripped of all their worldly belongings. Moreover, Zeus appointed three judges – Rhadamanthys, Aeacus, and Minos. The first tried those who came from Asia, the second those from Europe, and the third had the privilege of making the final decision. The judges of the dead, Minos, Aiakos (with the scepter), Rhadamanthys sit on the throne bench and question the shadows about their lives and their deeds. (Gerd Leibrock / Public Domain ) Lastly, it may be said that Hades was not Death either. Hades did not have the power to take people’s lives, and the personification of Death in Greek mythology was Thanatos. In the myth of Asclepius, Hades was the god most affected by the demi-god’s healing abilities. Asclepius was the son of Apollo and a mortal prince. Asclepius’ mother had died during childbirth, and Apollo rescued him by cutting him out of his mother’s womb. The child was later placed under the tutorship of the centaur Chiron and learned the art of medicine. In time, Asclepius’ medical skills surpassed even that of Chiron’s and Apollo’s. He was able to cure all people and even had the power to bring the dead back to life. While Asclepius was viewed by mankind as a hero, the gods were not pleased with him. Hades was especially angry at Asclepius, since, thanks to his healing abilities, less and less people were dying. This in turn meant that there were fewer souls entering the Underworld. Eventually, Hades brought the case up with Zeus and urged him to kill Asclepius so that the status quo could be restored. Zeus had his own grudge against Asclepius – the healer had been raising the dead without first obtaining his permission, which Zeus perceived as an insult to his position as king of the gods. Although Apollo tried to intercede for his son, Zeus refused to budge and struck Asclepius down with a bolt of lightning. After his death, Asclepius’s body was placed in the sky as the constellation Ophiuchus, meaning, ‘Serpent-bearer’. Top image: Hades, god of the underworld and Cerberus, his dog. ( rudall30 / Adobe Stock) By Wu Mingren	2,997	ENGLISH	1
Did you know that handwritten sheets -- called avvisi -- circulated among the cities and courts of Europe in early modern Europe after public mail routes became common? They were bought on the streets or by subscription, and had information and news from cities like Warsaw, Paris, and Madrid. They sometimes even had information from further afield such as Ireland or the American colonies. It is hard to understand now, by the once or twice weekly avvisi were a revolution in news, connecting Europeans more than ever before. One newsletter, dated March 19th, 1588, describes the famous Spanish Armada which sailed against Queen Elizabeth I of England. It was described as having "140 or more sailing ships and eight months of provisions" plus "17,000 combat soldiers and 8,000 sailors." The same avvisi also discusses the reconstruction of the Rialto Bridge in Venice, and how problems with pilings were fixed on-site rather than being replaced due to the "inconvenience" of closing the Grand Canal. The first automatic fire extinguisher was created in 1723! It was patented in England by Ambrose Godfrey, a celebrated chemist, and it used a small gunpowder explosion to scatter fire-extinguishing liquid. In 3800 BCE, the Babylonian Empire took the world’s first known census -- of farmgoods. They counted livestock and quantities of butter, honey, milk, wool, and vegetables. In 2 CE, China’s Han Dynasty took the oldest surviving census data, showing a population of 57.7 million people living in 12.4 million households. Chengdu, the largest city, had a population of 282,000. The first modern census in Britain in 1801 didn’t ask people to list their ages. The first census in the US in 1790 only cared about age if the person was a "free white male," which was sorted by “16 years and upward” and “under 16 years.” All other categories were ageless. In 1853, Chile passed the first census law in South America. Britain’s attempt to take a census in India in 1871 was difficult because there were rumors that the goal of the count is to identify girls to be sent to England to fan Queen Victoria during a heatwave. The Mamluks were a corps of slaves which went from being the elite bodyguards of the Ayyubid Caliphate founded by Saladin, to running Egypt for themselves. It lasted as an independent state for over 250 years, from 1250 to 1517 when Egypt was conquered by the Ottoman Empire. But the Mamluks survived. By the 1630s, a Mamluk emir managed to become de facto ruler of the country. By the 1700s, the importance of the pasha (Ottoman governor) was superseded by that of the Mamluk beys, and it was even made official. Two offices, those of Shaykh al-Balad and Amir al-hajj -- both offices held by Mamluks -- represented the rulers of Egypt. In the name of the Ottoman Sultan, of course. It was only with the invasion of Egypt by Napoleon in 1799 that the Mamluk power center was permanently ended. The Ottomans generally used two different terms when referring to their state, versus the territory the state ruled over. The state was called "Devlet-i Aliye-i Osmaniye" which literally translates to "the High Ottoman State." Side note: "Osman" was the founder of the Ottoman dynasty, and the English word "Ottoman" comes from his name which was sometimes translated as "Othman." The Ottomans called their territory "Memalik-i Mahruse," or "The Protected Lands." The two terms are sometimes more poetically translated to "the Sublime Ottoman State" or "the Sublime State" and "the Well-Protected Domains." Nadezhda Durova (1783-1866), was the daughter of a Russian Army officer. When Napoleon invaded Russia, she decided that the boys clearly couldn't handle this, and it was time for a woman to step up. So she disguised herself as a man, and served in a cavalry regiment. She was the first recorded Female Officer in the Russian army, and was awarded the Cross of St George for bravery under fire. Her memoir, The Cavalry Maiden, is a significant document of its era because few junior officers of the Napoleonic wars published their experiences Enjoy this posts and want to show support? Buy me a coffee or two :P By Lillian Audette This blog is a collection of the interesting, the weird, and sometimes the need-to-know about history, culled from around the internet. It has pictures, it has quotes, it occasionally has my own opinions on things. If you want to know more about anything posted, follow the link at the "source" on the bottom of each post. And if you really like my work, buy me a coffee or become a patron!	<urn:uuid:61869881-0441-457f-83ba-439612748f1a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://historical-nonfiction.com/?filter=century&value=s1700CE	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00484.warc.gz	en	0.981479	1,053	3.421875	3	[ -0.17809222638607025, -0.07605285942554474, 0.2638183832168579, -0.10330888628959656, 0.07123580574989319, -0.03381780534982681, -0.17744004726409912, 0.32571667432785034, 0.2170722633600235, -0.05205913633108139, -0.3298126459121704, -0.29832351207733154, -0.22163225710391998, 0.292379707...	1	Did you know that handwritten sheets -- called avvisi -- circulated among the cities and courts of Europe in early modern Europe after public mail routes became common? They were bought on the streets or by subscription, and had information and news from cities like Warsaw, Paris, and Madrid. They sometimes even had information from further afield such as Ireland or the American colonies. It is hard to understand now, by the once or twice weekly avvisi were a revolution in news, connecting Europeans more than ever before. One newsletter, dated March 19th, 1588, describes the famous Spanish Armada which sailed against Queen Elizabeth I of England. It was described as having "140 or more sailing ships and eight months of provisions" plus "17,000 combat soldiers and 8,000 sailors." The same avvisi also discusses the reconstruction of the Rialto Bridge in Venice, and how problems with pilings were fixed on-site rather than being replaced due to the "inconvenience" of closing the Grand Canal. The first automatic fire extinguisher was created in 1723! It was patented in England by Ambrose Godfrey, a celebrated chemist, and it used a small gunpowder explosion to scatter fire-extinguishing liquid. In 3800 BCE, the Babylonian Empire took the world’s first known census -- of farmgoods. They counted livestock and quantities of butter, honey, milk, wool, and vegetables. In 2 CE, China’s Han Dynasty took the oldest surviving census data, showing a population of 57.7 million people living in 12.4 million households. Chengdu, the largest city, had a population of 282,000. The first modern census in Britain in 1801 didn’t ask people to list their ages. The first census in the US in 1790 only cared about age if the person was a "free white male," which was sorted by “16 years and upward” and “under 16 years.” All other categories were ageless. In 1853, Chile passed the first census law in South America. Britain’s attempt to take a census in India in 1871 was difficult because there were rumors that the goal of the count is to identify girls to be sent to England to fan Queen Victoria during a heatwave. The Mamluks were a corps of slaves which went from being the elite bodyguards of the Ayyubid Caliphate founded by Saladin, to running Egypt for themselves. It lasted as an independent state for over 250 years, from 1250 to 1517 when Egypt was conquered by the Ottoman Empire. But the Mamluks survived. By the 1630s, a Mamluk emir managed to become de facto ruler of the country. By the 1700s, the importance of the pasha (Ottoman governor) was superseded by that of the Mamluk beys, and it was even made official. Two offices, those of Shaykh al-Balad and Amir al-hajj -- both offices held by Mamluks -- represented the rulers of Egypt. In the name of the Ottoman Sultan, of course. It was only with the invasion of Egypt by Napoleon in 1799 that the Mamluk power center was permanently ended. The Ottomans generally used two different terms when referring to their state, versus the territory the state ruled over. The state was called "Devlet-i Aliye-i Osmaniye" which literally translates to "the High Ottoman State." Side note: "Osman" was the founder of the Ottoman dynasty, and the English word "Ottoman" comes from his name which was sometimes translated as "Othman." The Ottomans called their territory "Memalik-i Mahruse," or "The Protected Lands." The two terms are sometimes more poetically translated to "the Sublime Ottoman State" or "the Sublime State" and "the Well-Protected Domains." Nadezhda Durova (1783-1866), was the daughter of a Russian Army officer. When Napoleon invaded Russia, she decided that the boys clearly couldn't handle this, and it was time for a woman to step up. So she disguised herself as a man, and served in a cavalry regiment. She was the first recorded Female Officer in the Russian army, and was awarded the Cross of St George for bravery under fire. Her memoir, The Cavalry Maiden, is a significant document of its era because few junior officers of the Napoleonic wars published their experiences Enjoy this posts and want to show support? Buy me a coffee or two :P By Lillian Audette This blog is a collection of the interesting, the weird, and sometimes the need-to-know about history, culled from around the internet. It has pictures, it has quotes, it occasionally has my own opinions on things. If you want to know more about anything posted, follow the link at the "source" on the bottom of each post. And if you really like my work, buy me a coffee or become a patron!	1,091	ENGLISH	1
Paper type: Analysis Pages: 5 (1069 words) Throughout history art has served as a preservation and representation of the time in which they were made. During the Ancient Greek period art was not only mare naturalistic and humanistic but also became directly affected by the events going around. Both the Marble Statue of an Old Woman and the Marble Statue of Aphrodite are sculptures that were made during the Ancient Greek era, they each tell a story of what was going on during that point in time. The Marble Statue of Aphrodite is the eldest of the two sculptures, it was sculpted between the 2nd and 3rd century B . C. During this period Greece was at its peak, the people of Greece had power and wealth. The art made at this time depicted the peace of the Greeks and power that they had attained. The Greeks believed that this greatness was due to the gods and goddesses, as they were polytheistic; keeping the gods and goddesses happy meant good things for the Greeks. Many of the buildings that were built were built as offerings to show their beliefs and to display what mattered most to the people of Greece. The marble Statue of Aphrodite is one of these artworks dedicated to the goddesses. Aphrodite was believed to be the goddess of love, lust and sexuality she was also a symbol of strength; she gave the men of the military hope and optimism when going into battle. As Aphrodite was the goddess of love and lust her statues and sculptures were almost always nude or partially nude. As in this marble sculpture where Aphrodite is pictured fully nude, her face expressionless which is a key attribute to the events going in Greece at the time. Almost all sculptures during this time were expressionless as a symbol that Greece had no major worries, there was no pain or suffering amongst the people and there was a general sense of peace and stability. She is in a contro- postal pose, her feet shifted and most of her weight distributed into one leg. Her arms are now missing as they have fallen off due to the fact that the sculpture is over 3000 years old and aging has worn out the material. Another reason why the arms have fallen off is because, unlike the major societies before them, Greeks believed in humanistic art. Societies before the Greeks, such as the Egyptians, used to keep the material between what would be spaces between arms and body and the legs. This form of art was not humanistic not realistic enough for the Greeks so most of their artwork follows the ideals of humanism. Artists would break off the extra material that would remain after the statue was fully sculpted. To further the realistic look of the Aphrodite sculpture the artist, who is unknown at this time, detailed the curves of her body. You can view the lines of her stomach and breasts which are simple and uncomplicated and create an image that looks like a real woman. Greeks continued with the ideas of humanism and realism even as their society aged and changed. Like many great societies before them Greeks hit a climactic point in their era that had people uneasy and artist evolving away from the artistic norms that had been practiced for years; this new era was known as the Hellenistic Period. The Sculpture of an Old Woman is an example of this radical change in art; still loyal to the idea of humanism this sculpture is not of a goddess or soldier, as many arts were based on before, it was of a normal average, everyday elder woman who could have simply been walking down the street. Not only did the artist stray away from the norms of subject matter but they also stepped away from the expressionless simplistic art that had been around for centuries. The old woman sculpted was not in the traditional contro-postal pose instead she is hovered almost as if she is being weighed down by something or perhaps just the sad truth of aging when your body is no longer as strong as it once was. Her face, which is not almost completely fallen off from the statue, may have been in some sort of realistic expression, as opposed to the Aphrodite sculpture. I can imagine her face being in pain or perhaps sadness; I came to that conclusion based on the body language of the art. She is hovered strained from a lifetime of work and deteriorating from signs of age, similarly to Greece at the time. Like many of its time the sculpture can be seen as a metaphor for what the Greeks were going through during the Hellenistic period. No longer was the empire in control and in power instead Greece was now falling due to the Roman Empire. The people and cities within Greece were now in chaos because the extravagant lifestyle they had grown accustomed to was being torn away more and more as each day passed. Both pieces of art were originally sculpted during the Greek period but the images that now remain were actually sculpted during the Roman era, making both pieces remakes of original pieces. Similarly, both pieces were also made out of marble, as it is a resource that is of great quantity in that area of Europe. They are also lifelike statues not overbearingly tall nor extremely short each does fall upon approximately 5 feet or so. Although both pieces are not equally dedications to higher beings the Sculpture of the Old Woman has artifacts sculpted within it that can be attributed to the idea that the old woman is making offerings to a higher being in order to help her through difficult times. It is most interesting to see how the current events of ones lifetimes can affect the art that is made. Most people believe that the only way to tell these stories is through books and other forms of writing. Personally it is more amazing to see how creative an artistic can get to convey a message from a visual aspect rather than clearly writing what the art was based on. Looking at both sculptures side to side I could not help but to feel for the people living during these times, going from a peaceful and prospering power to having everything torn away and having to live through the chaos. Cite this page Comparative Analysis of Art. (2016, Nov 12). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/comparative-analysis-of-art-essay	<urn:uuid:a676f4f9-1ddc-421b-9185-6845ccbdda4b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studymoose.com/comparative-analysis-of-art-essay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00544.warc.gz	en	0.98996	1,275	3.578125	4	[ -0.07603318244218826, 0.45957231521606445, 0.5728536248207092, -0.07248979061841965, -0.7688882350921631, -0.25891247391700745, 0.22970092296600342, 0.16675567626953125, -0.20002007484436035, 0.051893725991249084, -0.3598979115486145, -0.3774598240852356, -0.07982658594846725, 0.4306601583...	1	Paper type: Analysis Pages: 5 (1069 words) Throughout history art has served as a preservation and representation of the time in which they were made. During the Ancient Greek period art was not only mare naturalistic and humanistic but also became directly affected by the events going around. Both the Marble Statue of an Old Woman and the Marble Statue of Aphrodite are sculptures that were made during the Ancient Greek era, they each tell a story of what was going on during that point in time. The Marble Statue of Aphrodite is the eldest of the two sculptures, it was sculpted between the 2nd and 3rd century B . C. During this period Greece was at its peak, the people of Greece had power and wealth. The art made at this time depicted the peace of the Greeks and power that they had attained. The Greeks believed that this greatness was due to the gods and goddesses, as they were polytheistic; keeping the gods and goddesses happy meant good things for the Greeks. Many of the buildings that were built were built as offerings to show their beliefs and to display what mattered most to the people of Greece. The marble Statue of Aphrodite is one of these artworks dedicated to the goddesses. Aphrodite was believed to be the goddess of love, lust and sexuality she was also a symbol of strength; she gave the men of the military hope and optimism when going into battle. As Aphrodite was the goddess of love and lust her statues and sculptures were almost always nude or partially nude. As in this marble sculpture where Aphrodite is pictured fully nude, her face expressionless which is a key attribute to the events going in Greece at the time. Almost all sculptures during this time were expressionless as a symbol that Greece had no major worries, there was no pain or suffering amongst the people and there was a general sense of peace and stability. She is in a contro- postal pose, her feet shifted and most of her weight distributed into one leg. Her arms are now missing as they have fallen off due to the fact that the sculpture is over 3000 years old and aging has worn out the material. Another reason why the arms have fallen off is because, unlike the major societies before them, Greeks believed in humanistic art. Societies before the Greeks, such as the Egyptians, used to keep the material between what would be spaces between arms and body and the legs. This form of art was not humanistic not realistic enough for the Greeks so most of their artwork follows the ideals of humanism. Artists would break off the extra material that would remain after the statue was fully sculpted. To further the realistic look of the Aphrodite sculpture the artist, who is unknown at this time, detailed the curves of her body. You can view the lines of her stomach and breasts which are simple and uncomplicated and create an image that looks like a real woman. Greeks continued with the ideas of humanism and realism even as their society aged and changed. Like many great societies before them Greeks hit a climactic point in their era that had people uneasy and artist evolving away from the artistic norms that had been practiced for years; this new era was known as the Hellenistic Period. The Sculpture of an Old Woman is an example of this radical change in art; still loyal to the idea of humanism this sculpture is not of a goddess or soldier, as many arts were based on before, it was of a normal average, everyday elder woman who could have simply been walking down the street. Not only did the artist stray away from the norms of subject matter but they also stepped away from the expressionless simplistic art that had been around for centuries. The old woman sculpted was not in the traditional contro-postal pose instead she is hovered almost as if she is being weighed down by something or perhaps just the sad truth of aging when your body is no longer as strong as it once was. Her face, which is not almost completely fallen off from the statue, may have been in some sort of realistic expression, as opposed to the Aphrodite sculpture. I can imagine her face being in pain or perhaps sadness; I came to that conclusion based on the body language of the art. She is hovered strained from a lifetime of work and deteriorating from signs of age, similarly to Greece at the time. Like many of its time the sculpture can be seen as a metaphor for what the Greeks were going through during the Hellenistic period. No longer was the empire in control and in power instead Greece was now falling due to the Roman Empire. The people and cities within Greece were now in chaos because the extravagant lifestyle they had grown accustomed to was being torn away more and more as each day passed. Both pieces of art were originally sculpted during the Greek period but the images that now remain were actually sculpted during the Roman era, making both pieces remakes of original pieces. Similarly, both pieces were also made out of marble, as it is a resource that is of great quantity in that area of Europe. They are also lifelike statues not overbearingly tall nor extremely short each does fall upon approximately 5 feet or so. Although both pieces are not equally dedications to higher beings the Sculpture of the Old Woman has artifacts sculpted within it that can be attributed to the idea that the old woman is making offerings to a higher being in order to help her through difficult times. It is most interesting to see how the current events of ones lifetimes can affect the art that is made. Most people believe that the only way to tell these stories is through books and other forms of writing. Personally it is more amazing to see how creative an artistic can get to convey a message from a visual aspect rather than clearly writing what the art was based on. Looking at both sculptures side to side I could not help but to feel for the people living during these times, going from a peaceful and prospering power to having everything torn away and having to live through the chaos. Cite this page Comparative Analysis of Art. (2016, Nov 12). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/comparative-analysis-of-art-essay	1,263	ENGLISH	1
Although there was no law of segregation in the US until the 1960s, black citizens were not adopted as equal partners in public life. This situation was reflected in many community pools around the country, in which whites prevented blacks from sharing water with them. It was in this atmosphere that Fred Rogers performed a simple yet meaningful act in episode 1065 of Mr. Rogers Neighborhood, which aired on May 9, 1969. Rogers invited Clemmons, a black police officer on the show, to join him and cool him down. Legs in a small plastic wading pool. When Clemmons sat and put his feet in the water, right next to Rogers, the two men broke a famous color barrier. Despite the Civil Rights Act of 1964, pools across the country were still kept separate. In the 20th century, many communities in the United States built pools for children and adults to swim and splatter. However, some of these places were welcomed by black people. Many whites thought of pools as thoughtless because they fueled the racist notion that African Americans were more likely to spread the disease. Pool-goers were also stripped of color due to great fear about the need to protect the trait of white women from predatory black men. There was a law of secession throughout the South. And although Jim Crow laws were not often on the books in northern locations, there was discriminatory behavior there. Isolation in the pool was sometimes enforced by intimidation and violence, such as beating any black swimmer who tried to get in the water. Like buses and lunch counters, pools became places of protest during the civil rights fight. In 1964, a group of blacks and whites leaped into an isolated pool at a motel in St. Augustine, Florida. This enraged the manager that he had added acid to the water (fortunately, the acid in the pool water was dilute and no one was injured). The Civil Rights Act of 1964 ended the accepted segregation of various races in public areas. But many white people opposed the rapport, including pools. In 1969, pools around the country were still shutting down black people. Mr. Rogers and Officer Kleiman shared not only a pool, but also a towel Rogers knew that the pool continued to prohibit black people from entering in 1969 and racial tensions were rising – Martin Luther King Jr. was murdered a year earlier. So he sent a deliberate message in the episode of Mr. Rogers Neighborhood on May 9, 1969. During the show, Rogers asks Officer Clemmons if he wants to cool his feet with Rogers in the children’s wading pool, a black police officer played by François Clemmons. Clemmons initially declined the invitation, noting that he did not have a towel – but Rogers said Clemons could share his. The action in the 1065 episode was not complicated: two men took off their shoes and socks, took off their pants and then swung their feet together in a shallow pool on a hot day. But Rogers and Clemons demonstrated that a black man and a white man can share water in peace. When Clemmons was to go, he used Rogers’ towel to dry his feet, as promised. Rogers left the pool directly after Clemson and proceeded to use the same towel. Their casual intimacy highlighted the possibility of black citizens being denied access to pools, or any other place in society. After the episode, Kleiman hoped ‘the world would change’ An episode of Mr. Rogers Neighborhood could not possibly erase the long history of discrimination at the pool and elsewhere. But Rogers’ task was a step towards freeing blacks and whites to splatter, swim, and live together. As Clemmons told the Pittsburgh City Paper in 2018, “I instilled in me the hope that, one day, the world will change. And I think the world still hasn’t changed completely, but it’s changing. We.” .. getting there.” Rogers’ own life reflects how attitudes can change. In the 1960s and ’70s he asked Gay Clemons to hide his sexuality for the sake of the show; Clemmons, realizing that homosexuality was widely condemned at the time, followed suit. However, Rogers personally came to accept Kleiman. The pair recreated the pool scene after 24 years Both Clemmons and Rogers understood the importance of their pool scene. In 2018, Clemmons told a Vermont news website, “It was a definite call for social action on Fred’s behalf. It was his way of speaking about race relations in America.” There remains a reconciliation of the messages of love, kindness, and acceptance that Rogers was trying to share with his show’s audience. In 1993, when Clemmons made his final appearance on the show, he and Rogers recreated the pool scene, during which Clemmons sang “Many Ways to Say I Love You”. But this time Clemmons didn’t just use Rogers ‘towel – Rogers took the towel and dried Clemens’ feet himself.	<urn:uuid:89154fe8-7616-4959-83ef-3aa1f5b3ff82>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://digiktech.com/fred-rogers-took-a-stand-against-racial-inequality/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00311.warc.gz	en	0.983276	1,044	3.59375	4	[ -0.14287564158439636, 0.08819416165351868, 0.028726737946271896, 0.009310867637395859, 0.024327589198946953, 0.2411845177412033, 0.3021266758441925, -0.0380360409617424, 0.12698745727539062, 0.35738909244537354, 0.16689270734786987, 0.062807597219944, 0.0110027976334095, 0.3440691828727722...	2	Although there was no law of segregation in the US until the 1960s, black citizens were not adopted as equal partners in public life. This situation was reflected in many community pools around the country, in which whites prevented blacks from sharing water with them. It was in this atmosphere that Fred Rogers performed a simple yet meaningful act in episode 1065 of Mr. Rogers Neighborhood, which aired on May 9, 1969. Rogers invited Clemmons, a black police officer on the show, to join him and cool him down. Legs in a small plastic wading pool. When Clemmons sat and put his feet in the water, right next to Rogers, the two men broke a famous color barrier. Despite the Civil Rights Act of 1964, pools across the country were still kept separate. In the 20th century, many communities in the United States built pools for children and adults to swim and splatter. However, some of these places were welcomed by black people. Many whites thought of pools as thoughtless because they fueled the racist notion that African Americans were more likely to spread the disease. Pool-goers were also stripped of color due to great fear about the need to protect the trait of white women from predatory black men. There was a law of secession throughout the South. And although Jim Crow laws were not often on the books in northern locations, there was discriminatory behavior there. Isolation in the pool was sometimes enforced by intimidation and violence, such as beating any black swimmer who tried to get in the water. Like buses and lunch counters, pools became places of protest during the civil rights fight. In 1964, a group of blacks and whites leaped into an isolated pool at a motel in St. Augustine, Florida. This enraged the manager that he had added acid to the water (fortunately, the acid in the pool water was dilute and no one was injured). The Civil Rights Act of 1964 ended the accepted segregation of various races in public areas. But many white people opposed the rapport, including pools. In 1969, pools around the country were still shutting down black people. Mr. Rogers and Officer Kleiman shared not only a pool, but also a towel Rogers knew that the pool continued to prohibit black people from entering in 1969 and racial tensions were rising – Martin Luther King Jr. was murdered a year earlier. So he sent a deliberate message in the episode of Mr. Rogers Neighborhood on May 9, 1969. During the show, Rogers asks Officer Clemmons if he wants to cool his feet with Rogers in the children’s wading pool, a black police officer played by François Clemmons. Clemmons initially declined the invitation, noting that he did not have a towel – but Rogers said Clemons could share his. The action in the 1065 episode was not complicated: two men took off their shoes and socks, took off their pants and then swung their feet together in a shallow pool on a hot day. But Rogers and Clemons demonstrated that a black man and a white man can share water in peace. When Clemmons was to go, he used Rogers’ towel to dry his feet, as promised. Rogers left the pool directly after Clemson and proceeded to use the same towel. Their casual intimacy highlighted the possibility of black citizens being denied access to pools, or any other place in society. After the episode, Kleiman hoped ‘the world would change’ An episode of Mr. Rogers Neighborhood could not possibly erase the long history of discrimination at the pool and elsewhere. But Rogers’ task was a step towards freeing blacks and whites to splatter, swim, and live together. As Clemmons told the Pittsburgh City Paper in 2018, “I instilled in me the hope that, one day, the world will change. And I think the world still hasn’t changed completely, but it’s changing. We.” .. getting there.” Rogers’ own life reflects how attitudes can change. In the 1960s and ’70s he asked Gay Clemons to hide his sexuality for the sake of the show; Clemmons, realizing that homosexuality was widely condemned at the time, followed suit. However, Rogers personally came to accept Kleiman. The pair recreated the pool scene after 24 years Both Clemmons and Rogers understood the importance of their pool scene. In 2018, Clemmons told a Vermont news website, “It was a definite call for social action on Fred’s behalf. It was his way of speaking about race relations in America.” There remains a reconciliation of the messages of love, kindness, and acceptance that Rogers was trying to share with his show’s audience. In 1993, when Clemmons made his final appearance on the show, he and Rogers recreated the pool scene, during which Clemmons sang “Many Ways to Say I Love You”. But this time Clemmons didn’t just use Rogers ‘towel – Rogers took the towel and dried Clemens’ feet himself.	1,045	ENGLISH	1
Researchers have found a common disease in honey bees could be transmitted to native bees through flowers, causing them to die about three times the rate of the normal mortality. Nosema ceranae is a parasite that has been known to cause honey bees to become less active and die prematurely. James Cook University's Lori Lach said it was common for native bees to pick up the disease from flowers honey bees had visited. "In 100 per cent of the cases where they left spores from the pathogen on the flower, we had our native stingless bees pick up the pathogen and become sick," Associate Professor Lach said. "What we found was that caused the bees to die about three times the rate of the normal mortality." Associate Professor Lach said more research was needed to determine the impact the disease was having on native bee populations. "We are stopping short of saying that it means that across the landscape bees are going to be dying early," she said. "They still might have some defences that would be preventing them from having this pathogen have a really devastating effect." Research to look next at hive structure James Cook University honours student Anna Genge has started following up the research. She has been looking at the impacts the native bee hive structure could have on protecting the species from the disease. "They have this really neat stuff — propolis — which they build their nest out of and it's a mixture of plant resins and wax," Ms Genge said. "My work is looking at if this is going to help them against this pathogen." While the European honey bees were visible and loud, Associate Professor Lach said native bees were more common than most people realised. "Often our native stingless bees will nest in houses, in your door frames," she said. "They're perfectly harmless and I think it's a really great opportunity for people to engage with nature. "They [native bees] don't sting, they do a lot of pollination, and they're really wonderful to have a look at — don't be so quick to run around with fly spray and to swat things that land on you."	<urn:uuid:a4ead955-b227-42a4-b0e4-4f72e86a4a88>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mobile.abc.net.au/news/2019-08-08/native-bee-honey-bee-disease-parasite-research-qld/11392606	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00082.warc.gz	en	0.986053	446	3.296875	3	[ 0.09678242355585098, -0.49282264709472656, 0.3649822175502777, -0.21980193257331848, 0.6058624982833862, 0.021394027397036552, 0.46711626648902893, 0.494342178106308, -0.01325246226042509, 0.12914519011974335, -0.11083682626485825, -0.16903673112392426, 0.08544020354747772, 0.0198543649166...	1	Researchers have found a common disease in honey bees could be transmitted to native bees through flowers, causing them to die about three times the rate of the normal mortality. Nosema ceranae is a parasite that has been known to cause honey bees to become less active and die prematurely. James Cook University's Lori Lach said it was common for native bees to pick up the disease from flowers honey bees had visited. "In 100 per cent of the cases where they left spores from the pathogen on the flower, we had our native stingless bees pick up the pathogen and become sick," Associate Professor Lach said. "What we found was that caused the bees to die about three times the rate of the normal mortality." Associate Professor Lach said more research was needed to determine the impact the disease was having on native bee populations. "We are stopping short of saying that it means that across the landscape bees are going to be dying early," she said. "They still might have some defences that would be preventing them from having this pathogen have a really devastating effect." Research to look next at hive structure James Cook University honours student Anna Genge has started following up the research. She has been looking at the impacts the native bee hive structure could have on protecting the species from the disease. "They have this really neat stuff — propolis — which they build their nest out of and it's a mixture of plant resins and wax," Ms Genge said. "My work is looking at if this is going to help them against this pathogen." While the European honey bees were visible and loud, Associate Professor Lach said native bees were more common than most people realised. "Often our native stingless bees will nest in houses, in your door frames," she said. "They're perfectly harmless and I think it's a really great opportunity for people to engage with nature. "They [native bees] don't sting, they do a lot of pollination, and they're really wonderful to have a look at — don't be so quick to run around with fly spray and to swat things that land on you."	428	ENGLISH	1
The Story of King Stephen H ENRY I. died in 1135 A.D., and the barons, instead of keeping their promise to him and making his daughter queen, chose his nephew Stephen to be their king. Stephen was the son of Adela, William the Conqueror's daughter. The barons chose Stephen for several reasons. They were so proud that they hated the thought of being ruled by a woman, and that woman, too, not even a Norman. For you remember Matilda's mother was a great-granddaughter of Edmund Ironside, and as she had been born in England and lived a great part of her life there she was far more English than Norman. Matilda's husband was Geoffrey, Count of Anjou. He was also called Geoffrey Plantagenet, because when he went into battle he used to wear a sprig of yellow broom in his helmet, so that his friends might know him when his face was covered with his visor. The Latin name for broom is planta genista, and gradually it came to be pronounced Plantagenet. Although Geoffrey was French he was not a Norman, and the Normans looked upon him as quite as much a stranger as an Englishman, and they did not wish to be ruled by him, as would happen if his wife Matilda were made queen. Besides this, the barons knew that Stephen was kind and gentle, and they thought he would be a king who would allow them to do just what they liked. And so he did. Stephen was too gentle to rule the wild barons. Some one stern and harsh was needed to keep them in check, and Stephen was neither. He allowed the barons to build strong castles all over the country. These castles had dark and fearful dungeons, which were used as prisons. There such deeds of cruelty were done by the barons that the people said the castles were filled, not with men, but with evil spirits. "God has forgotten England," they said. "Christ sleeps and His holy ones." Not even at the time of the conquest had there been such misery in England. Then there had been one stern ruler who had forced every one to bend to his will. Now each baron set himself up as a king and tyrant. His castle was his kingdom, where he tortured and killed according to his own wicked will. Stephen was a courteous knight and gentleman, but during the nineteen years of his reign there was only lawlessness and sorrow in England. When the barons made Stephen King of England, Matilda and her husband Geoffrey fled to Normandy. But there, too, the barons rebelled against them and chose Stephen for their duke. Then David, the King of Scotland, gathered an army and came to fight for his niece Matilda. Ever since the days of the Romans, the Scots and English had been enemies, and the Scots were still almost as wild and fierce as they had been then. They marched through England as far as Yorkshire, doing dreadful deeds of cruelty as they went. At a place called Northallerton a great battle was fought. It was called the Battle of the Standard because the sacred banners of four saints were hung upon a pole, which was fixed to a cart, and round this the English gathered their forces. The Scots were fiercely brave, but they wore no armour, and, although they rushed to battle with splendid courage, they could not break through the line of Later on Matilda came back from France, and, until the death of Stephen, England was filled with civil war. Civil war means war within a country itself—the people of that country, instead of fighting against a foreign nation, fighting among themselves. This is the most terrible kind of war, for often friends and brothers fight on different sides, killing and wounding each other. In this civil war those who wished Matilda to be queen fought against those who wished Stephen to remain king. For a time Matilda's army was successful, but she was so proud and haughty that she soon made enemies even of those who had at first fought for her. Then came a time when she was shut up in Oxford, while the army of Stephen lay around. The King's soldiers kept so strict a watch that no food could be taken into the town, and no person could escape from it. This is called a siege. The people in Oxford began to starve, for they had eaten up all the food they had, and Stephen's soldiers took good care that no more was allowed to be taken into the town. It was the middle of winter. The river Thames was frozen over. Snow lay everywhere around. The cold was terrible, and the people had no wood for fires. At last Matilda could bear it no longer. She made up her mind to run away. One night four figures dressed in white crept silently through the streets of Oxford. They reached the gate. In silence it was opened, for those guarding it knew who the Although Matilda fled, the war still went on until at length her son Henry landed in England, determined to fight for the crown. But Stephen was weary of war, and all the land longed for rest. So listening to the advice of a wise priest, Stephen and Henry made peace. Their first meeting was on the banks of the Thames where it runs still as a little stream. They stood one on one bank, and one on the other—Stephen a broken, ruined man, worn and aged with wars and troubles, Henry young, handsome, and hopeful. And there they made a treaty called the Peace of Wallingford. By this treaty it was agreed, that Stephen should keep the crown while he lived; that he should acknowledge Henry as his adopted son; that Henry should reign after the death of Stephen; and that the dreadful castles which Stephen had allowed the wicked barons to build and which they used as dark and horrible prisons, should be destroyed. So the land had rest. Soon afterward Stephen died, and in	<urn:uuid:755727ae-d348-4bd4-984f-bee32e86b2e8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=marshall&book=island&story=stephen	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00083.warc.gz	en	0.99284	1,240	3.40625	3	[ -0.16978055238723755, 0.5708656311035156, 0.25411373376846313, -0.1701997071504593, -0.11640496551990509, 0.07563283294439316, 0.6543326377868652, -0.18450917303562164, 0.0045426576398313046, 0.047083355486392975, -0.20550402998924255, -0.282947838306427, 0.25843292474746704, 0.19315919280...	7	The Story of King Stephen H ENRY I. died in 1135 A.D., and the barons, instead of keeping their promise to him and making his daughter queen, chose his nephew Stephen to be their king. Stephen was the son of Adela, William the Conqueror's daughter. The barons chose Stephen for several reasons. They were so proud that they hated the thought of being ruled by a woman, and that woman, too, not even a Norman. For you remember Matilda's mother was a great-granddaughter of Edmund Ironside, and as she had been born in England and lived a great part of her life there she was far more English than Norman. Matilda's husband was Geoffrey, Count of Anjou. He was also called Geoffrey Plantagenet, because when he went into battle he used to wear a sprig of yellow broom in his helmet, so that his friends might know him when his face was covered with his visor. The Latin name for broom is planta genista, and gradually it came to be pronounced Plantagenet. Although Geoffrey was French he was not a Norman, and the Normans looked upon him as quite as much a stranger as an Englishman, and they did not wish to be ruled by him, as would happen if his wife Matilda were made queen. Besides this, the barons knew that Stephen was kind and gentle, and they thought he would be a king who would allow them to do just what they liked. And so he did. Stephen was too gentle to rule the wild barons. Some one stern and harsh was needed to keep them in check, and Stephen was neither. He allowed the barons to build strong castles all over the country. These castles had dark and fearful dungeons, which were used as prisons. There such deeds of cruelty were done by the barons that the people said the castles were filled, not with men, but with evil spirits. "God has forgotten England," they said. "Christ sleeps and His holy ones." Not even at the time of the conquest had there been such misery in England. Then there had been one stern ruler who had forced every one to bend to his will. Now each baron set himself up as a king and tyrant. His castle was his kingdom, where he tortured and killed according to his own wicked will. Stephen was a courteous knight and gentleman, but during the nineteen years of his reign there was only lawlessness and sorrow in England. When the barons made Stephen King of England, Matilda and her husband Geoffrey fled to Normandy. But there, too, the barons rebelled against them and chose Stephen for their duke. Then David, the King of Scotland, gathered an army and came to fight for his niece Matilda. Ever since the days of the Romans, the Scots and English had been enemies, and the Scots were still almost as wild and fierce as they had been then. They marched through England as far as Yorkshire, doing dreadful deeds of cruelty as they went. At a place called Northallerton a great battle was fought. It was called the Battle of the Standard because the sacred banners of four saints were hung upon a pole, which was fixed to a cart, and round this the English gathered their forces. The Scots were fiercely brave, but they wore no armour, and, although they rushed to battle with splendid courage, they could not break through the line of Later on Matilda came back from France, and, until the death of Stephen, England was filled with civil war. Civil war means war within a country itself—the people of that country, instead of fighting against a foreign nation, fighting among themselves. This is the most terrible kind of war, for often friends and brothers fight on different sides, killing and wounding each other. In this civil war those who wished Matilda to be queen fought against those who wished Stephen to remain king. For a time Matilda's army was successful, but she was so proud and haughty that she soon made enemies even of those who had at first fought for her. Then came a time when she was shut up in Oxford, while the army of Stephen lay around. The King's soldiers kept so strict a watch that no food could be taken into the town, and no person could escape from it. This is called a siege. The people in Oxford began to starve, for they had eaten up all the food they had, and Stephen's soldiers took good care that no more was allowed to be taken into the town. It was the middle of winter. The river Thames was frozen over. Snow lay everywhere around. The cold was terrible, and the people had no wood for fires. At last Matilda could bear it no longer. She made up her mind to run away. One night four figures dressed in white crept silently through the streets of Oxford. They reached the gate. In silence it was opened, for those guarding it knew who the Although Matilda fled, the war still went on until at length her son Henry landed in England, determined to fight for the crown. But Stephen was weary of war, and all the land longed for rest. So listening to the advice of a wise priest, Stephen and Henry made peace. Their first meeting was on the banks of the Thames where it runs still as a little stream. They stood one on one bank, and one on the other—Stephen a broken, ruined man, worn and aged with wars and troubles, Henry young, handsome, and hopeful. And there they made a treaty called the Peace of Wallingford. By this treaty it was agreed, that Stephen should keep the crown while he lived; that he should acknowledge Henry as his adopted son; that Henry should reign after the death of Stephen; and that the dreadful castles which Stephen had allowed the wicked barons to build and which they used as dark and horrible prisons, should be destroyed. So the land had rest. Soon afterward Stephen died, and in	1,230	ENGLISH	1
History of Gobabis Like many other towns in Namibia, Gobabis developed around a mission station and its apartheid history which and that was established in 1856 by Friederich Eggert of the Rhenish Missionary Society. Gobabis is a small town situated on the route from Windhoek to Botswana. Gobabis is situated some 110 km from the Buitepos Border post with Botswana and around 205km from the capital city. The town is in the heart of the cattle framing area, and is considered to be the capital of eastern Namibia. Its is also known as the ''Little Texas'' of Namibia, Gobabis is so proud of its cattle farming, that a statue of a large bull with the iscription "Welcome to Cattle Country'' greets visitors. In the latter half of the 1800s and the early 1900s several conflicts flared up between the Mbanderu and the Khauas Khoikhoi, as well as between the settlers and the indigenous people. The Gobabis district was proclaimed by the German authorities in February 1894 and in June the following year Gobabis was occupied by a German garrison. While the military fort, built in 1896/7, has long since disappeared, one of the few buildings dating back to that era is the field hospital, or Lazarette, which has been declared a national monument. The Gobabis Locations According to Father Dohren of the Roman Catholic Mission at Gobabis, the first native huts to be erected in what could be described as the first location at the town of Gobabis were build near Spitskop around 1910. These huts were subsequently demolished and a new native area was established near the creamery, but the area was cleared in 1920 and the residents moved to a new area south of the town. When that area, in turn, was required as a landing site for private aeroplane, the location for Blacks was moved to a new site approximately 2,5 km south of the town. Certain provisions of the Urban Areas Proclamation (Proc. 34 of 1924) were applied to the Gobabis urban area by three government notices in 1935, and location regulations were promulgated on 2 July the same year. Special compounds were established for contract workers employed by the municipality, the railways and the creamery, while the location itself was subdivided along the ethnic lines. An Advisory Board consisting of six residents was appointed in 1949. The old location eventually made way for Epako ("narrow defile", place at which the rivers runs between the koppies), which was established north-east of the town at a later stage. Köhler is the only published source to provide employment statistics for the residents of the black location. According to him, most were employed by various government departments, the municipality, and private businesses and as domestic servants. Furthermore, there were three general dealers, one butcher, one café owner, four shoemakers and a few firewood dealers in the location in 1956. A small number of stock (which declined over the years) was kept on the commonage. A separate township for Coloureds known as Nossobville was also established; this township had 415 inhabitants in 1973. Locations and Reserves The initially somewhat informal arrangements regarding segregated urban settlement and native reserves introduced during the German colonial period became increasingly rigid as apartheid policies were enforced under the South African administration. Movement of the greater part of the population had been restricted by the introduction of the pass system during the German period already. Non-Europeans were allocated certain sections of towns outside which they could live without permission, and outside the towns they were confined to reserves created by the white administration - unless, of course, they worked on White-owned farms. Gobabis, too, had its locations, which resorted under the municipality (assisted by Advisory Boards), while three native reserves, Aminuis, Epukiro and the Eastern Native Reserve, were situated in the district. serves fell under the control of first the magistrate and then the native commissioner stationed at Gobabis, and were administrated by welfare officers in the reserves themselves. Sossusvlei Safari - 3 Days This safari is designed to offer a quick “snapshot” of the Namib-Naukluft National Park and the giant sand dunes at Sossusvlei. This safari has a guaranteed departure every Saturday (Accommodated Safari) and Tuesday (Camping Safari) with a minimum of two people. - From N$ 5200 pp (Camping) - From N$ 9500 pp (Accommodated) Go-Wild Stay-Wild San-Bushmen Kalahari Experience - 1 Night We realize that visitors to Namibia are usually short on time but still want to experience local life and culture, sights and sounds which our bush has to offer. For those who are short on time the 24hrs/1 night San experience is an interesting offer, as you will experience hands-on one of the oldest tradition and cultural practices in southern Africa of the Kalahari San and other Communities. This truly is a very unique and unforgettable Namibian adventure. From N$ 4780 pp (Bush Camp) or N$ 1800 (self-drive camping)	<urn:uuid:1cf68e9a-7a53-48c8-abdf-ef4adfa316b8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gobabis.net/info/history-of-gobabis	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00087.warc.gz	en	0.983357	1,086	3.265625	3	[ 0.2732452154159546, 0.4747700095176697, 0.07676036655902863, 0.06286937743425369, -0.030912432819604874, -0.11396203190088272, 0.1867985725402832, -0.43590736389160156, -0.5839157104492188, 0.248031347990036, 0.5166124105453491, -0.7475026845932007, 0.29462286829948425, 0.1237654834985733,...	1	History of Gobabis Like many other towns in Namibia, Gobabis developed around a mission station and its apartheid history which and that was established in 1856 by Friederich Eggert of the Rhenish Missionary Society. Gobabis is a small town situated on the route from Windhoek to Botswana. Gobabis is situated some 110 km from the Buitepos Border post with Botswana and around 205km from the capital city. The town is in the heart of the cattle framing area, and is considered to be the capital of eastern Namibia. Its is also known as the ''Little Texas'' of Namibia, Gobabis is so proud of its cattle farming, that a statue of a large bull with the iscription "Welcome to Cattle Country'' greets visitors. In the latter half of the 1800s and the early 1900s several conflicts flared up between the Mbanderu and the Khauas Khoikhoi, as well as between the settlers and the indigenous people. The Gobabis district was proclaimed by the German authorities in February 1894 and in June the following year Gobabis was occupied by a German garrison. While the military fort, built in 1896/7, has long since disappeared, one of the few buildings dating back to that era is the field hospital, or Lazarette, which has been declared a national monument. The Gobabis Locations According to Father Dohren of the Roman Catholic Mission at Gobabis, the first native huts to be erected in what could be described as the first location at the town of Gobabis were build near Spitskop around 1910. These huts were subsequently demolished and a new native area was established near the creamery, but the area was cleared in 1920 and the residents moved to a new area south of the town. When that area, in turn, was required as a landing site for private aeroplane, the location for Blacks was moved to a new site approximately 2,5 km south of the town. Certain provisions of the Urban Areas Proclamation (Proc. 34 of 1924) were applied to the Gobabis urban area by three government notices in 1935, and location regulations were promulgated on 2 July the same year. Special compounds were established for contract workers employed by the municipality, the railways and the creamery, while the location itself was subdivided along the ethnic lines. An Advisory Board consisting of six residents was appointed in 1949. The old location eventually made way for Epako ("narrow defile", place at which the rivers runs between the koppies), which was established north-east of the town at a later stage. Köhler is the only published source to provide employment statistics for the residents of the black location. According to him, most were employed by various government departments, the municipality, and private businesses and as domestic servants. Furthermore, there were three general dealers, one butcher, one café owner, four shoemakers and a few firewood dealers in the location in 1956. A small number of stock (which declined over the years) was kept on the commonage. A separate township for Coloureds known as Nossobville was also established; this township had 415 inhabitants in 1973. Locations and Reserves The initially somewhat informal arrangements regarding segregated urban settlement and native reserves introduced during the German colonial period became increasingly rigid as apartheid policies were enforced under the South African administration. Movement of the greater part of the population had been restricted by the introduction of the pass system during the German period already. Non-Europeans were allocated certain sections of towns outside which they could live without permission, and outside the towns they were confined to reserves created by the white administration - unless, of course, they worked on White-owned farms. Gobabis, too, had its locations, which resorted under the municipality (assisted by Advisory Boards), while three native reserves, Aminuis, Epukiro and the Eastern Native Reserve, were situated in the district. serves fell under the control of first the magistrate and then the native commissioner stationed at Gobabis, and were administrated by welfare officers in the reserves themselves. Sossusvlei Safari - 3 Days This safari is designed to offer a quick “snapshot” of the Namib-Naukluft National Park and the giant sand dunes at Sossusvlei. This safari has a guaranteed departure every Saturday (Accommodated Safari) and Tuesday (Camping Safari) with a minimum of two people. - From N$ 5200 pp (Camping) - From N$ 9500 pp (Accommodated) Go-Wild Stay-Wild San-Bushmen Kalahari Experience - 1 Night We realize that visitors to Namibia are usually short on time but still want to experience local life and culture, sights and sounds which our bush has to offer. For those who are short on time the 24hrs/1 night San experience is an interesting offer, as you will experience hands-on one of the oldest tradition and cultural practices in southern Africa of the Kalahari San and other Communities. This truly is a very unique and unforgettable Namibian adventure. From N$ 4780 pp (Bush Camp) or N$ 1800 (self-drive camping)	1,154	ENGLISH	1
Geb is the Egyptian god of the Earth, fertility and farming. The oldest known depiction of Geb is found in Heliopolis, and is dated to approximately 2600 B.C. His parents were Tefnut, known as the moisture goddess, and Shu, the god of sunlight, wind and air. Geb also had a twin sister, Nut, who was goddess of the sky. Geb and Nut produced four offspring – Seth, god of storms and disorder, and Osiris, Isis, and Nephthys who eventually became gods or goddesses of the Underworld. At times they were said to have a fifth child, Horus. According to the Heliopolitan Ennead system, Geb had an important place in the creation story. At some time after he and his sister were born, they began to have a relationship that was incestual. Their father, Shu, was not pleased with them and separated them. Shu held Nut up above his head in the sky, and kept Geb on the earth below him. In the space between them, Shu created and gave life to nature.1 Even though they were separated, the siblings still had four (or five) children together. Narratives between cities and regions may have differed from this, but many of them had the father Shu holding or supporting Nut and standing on top of Geb. As a result, Geb became very important to matters relating to the earth. It was said that earthquakes were the result of his laughter. Because of this relation to the earth, he became an important god in farming. Animals associated with him included geese, snakes, rabbits, bulls. Other symbols associated with him included plants such as grain or reeds. In hieroglyphic writings, Geb was often portrayed in a purely human or anthropomorphic form. In these scenes he can be seen covered with plants or vegetation to symbolize fertility in farming. He was sometimes depicted as having green hair or skin, and also at times shown with a goose sitting on top of his head. He was generally shown lying on the ground underneath Nut who was arched high above and covered with stars, or underneath Shu who was between him and Nut.2 One example of this is found on the Papyrus of Tentamun, and can be found in other papyrus writings as well. Geb canalso, at times, be found in scenes in a zoomorphic or hybrid form, such as having a snake’s head and human body. There was not a major cult center associated with Geb, but the god did have a high number of appearances in hieroglyphics throughout Egyptian temples, tombs and pyramids.2 Facts about Geb - Depending on the belief system, Geb had four or five siblings, and they were born from Shu and Tefnut. He was one of the nine gods of the Heliopolitan Ennead system. - One narrative has Atum becoming angry at Nut and Geb. He curses them so that they can’t have any children in any month. Thoth, the god of knowledge, cunningly adds five days to the lunar calendar to form a new calendar, and the two siblings then had 5 children. This mythological story explained why there were 365 days in a calendar year.1 - An Egyptian Pharoah or king was known as an ‘heir of Geb’. The god was important during the transfer of power from one Pharoah or king to the next.2 - 1. Schomp, Virginia. “The Ancient Egyptians”, 2007. Marshall Cavendish Publishing. - 2. Wilkinson, Toby. “The Egyptian World”, 2007. Routledge. Link/cite this page If you reference any of the content on this page on your own website, please use the code below to cite this page as the original source. Link will appear as Geb: https://www.gods-and-goddesses.com - Gods & Goddesses, January 17, 2020	<urn:uuid:df25176c-bbba-467b-88b4-90023a285935>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.gods-and-goddesses.com/egyptian/geb/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00409.warc.gz	en	0.985576	842	3.609375	4	[ 0.14557912945747375, 0.7447999715805054, 0.26151224970817566, -0.1625412106513977, -0.09881878644227982, -0.0612509548664093, 0.3950595259666443, -0.15671727061271667, -0.07037119567394257, 0.3844856023788452, -0.5028783679008484, -1.0253868103027344, 0.26469606161117554, 0.167729437351226...	1	Geb is the Egyptian god of the Earth, fertility and farming. The oldest known depiction of Geb is found in Heliopolis, and is dated to approximately 2600 B.C. His parents were Tefnut, known as the moisture goddess, and Shu, the god of sunlight, wind and air. Geb also had a twin sister, Nut, who was goddess of the sky. Geb and Nut produced four offspring – Seth, god of storms and disorder, and Osiris, Isis, and Nephthys who eventually became gods or goddesses of the Underworld. At times they were said to have a fifth child, Horus. According to the Heliopolitan Ennead system, Geb had an important place in the creation story. At some time after he and his sister were born, they began to have a relationship that was incestual. Their father, Shu, was not pleased with them and separated them. Shu held Nut up above his head in the sky, and kept Geb on the earth below him. In the space between them, Shu created and gave life to nature.1 Even though they were separated, the siblings still had four (or five) children together. Narratives between cities and regions may have differed from this, but many of them had the father Shu holding or supporting Nut and standing on top of Geb. As a result, Geb became very important to matters relating to the earth. It was said that earthquakes were the result of his laughter. Because of this relation to the earth, he became an important god in farming. Animals associated with him included geese, snakes, rabbits, bulls. Other symbols associated with him included plants such as grain or reeds. In hieroglyphic writings, Geb was often portrayed in a purely human or anthropomorphic form. In these scenes he can be seen covered with plants or vegetation to symbolize fertility in farming. He was sometimes depicted as having green hair or skin, and also at times shown with a goose sitting on top of his head. He was generally shown lying on the ground underneath Nut who was arched high above and covered with stars, or underneath Shu who was between him and Nut.2 One example of this is found on the Papyrus of Tentamun, and can be found in other papyrus writings as well. Geb canalso, at times, be found in scenes in a zoomorphic or hybrid form, such as having a snake’s head and human body. There was not a major cult center associated with Geb, but the god did have a high number of appearances in hieroglyphics throughout Egyptian temples, tombs and pyramids.2 Facts about Geb - Depending on the belief system, Geb had four or five siblings, and they were born from Shu and Tefnut. He was one of the nine gods of the Heliopolitan Ennead system. - One narrative has Atum becoming angry at Nut and Geb. He curses them so that they can’t have any children in any month. Thoth, the god of knowledge, cunningly adds five days to the lunar calendar to form a new calendar, and the two siblings then had 5 children. This mythological story explained why there were 365 days in a calendar year.1 - An Egyptian Pharoah or king was known as an ‘heir of Geb’. The god was important during the transfer of power from one Pharoah or king to the next.2 - 1. Schomp, Virginia. “The Ancient Egyptians”, 2007. Marshall Cavendish Publishing. - 2. Wilkinson, Toby. “The Egyptian World”, 2007. Routledge. Link/cite this page If you reference any of the content on this page on your own website, please use the code below to cite this page as the original source. Link will appear as Geb: https://www.gods-and-goddesses.com - Gods & Goddesses, January 17, 2020	832	ENGLISH	1
Jewish Ghetto Theresienstadt – Rabbi Leo Baeck On November 24, 1941, Terezín became the Theresienstadt ghetto, to which the Nazis expelled 140,000 Jews, the majority of whom eventually perished in death camps. Cultural life flourished in the ghetto even as residents were being dispatched to the gas chambers of Auschwitz, and living conditions were more humane there than at any of the other Jewish ghettos established by the Nazis. Theresienstadt was the only ghetto that permitted foreign visitors, albeit under carefully managed conditions. The most prominent inmate was Rabbi Leo Baeck, the philosopher and theologian who had been chairman of the General Association of German Rabbis in the 1920s. Under the Nazis he was president of the Reich Representation of German Jews and its successor organization, the Reich Association of Jews in Germany, until it was dissolved in June 1943. Rabbi Baeck refused opportunities to leave Germany, believing it was his duty to stay, to serve the Jewish community in its time of greatest need. He was deported to Theresienstadt in 1943; after liberation in May 1945, he settled in London, where he served as chairman of the Council for Jews from Germany. Pictured Above: Until this post card was discovered in 1999, Rabbi Baeck’s family and colleagues believed that no correspondence from his incarceration at Theresienstadt had survived. Rabbi Baeck had written to Rabbi Emil Kronheim of Stockholm on January 23, 1944, but the card was evidently held by the Nazis for more than five months without explanation before being posted on July 6 from Berlin Charlottenburg. It expresses gratitude for a November 5 card or letter, and for parcels received from Rabbi Kronheim’s congregation, but elliptical wording has led one of Rabbi Baeck’s assistants at Theresienstadt to suggest that it may have contained an informally coded message as well. The straight line marking on the front states, “Reply only by postcard written in German.” As a German Jew, Rabbi Baeck was required to call himself Leo Israel Baeck as the sender. Download Frame 5 – Page 1 as a PDF	<urn:uuid:6a355217-fd38-47ac-9a93-d63a71264132>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://spungenfoundation.org/collection/en/frame-5/page-1/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00288.warc.gz	en	0.981406	446	3.6875	4	[ -0.34808477759361267, 0.558811604976654, -0.11060867458581924, 0.19477994740009308, 0.0492430105805397, 0.1954900324344635, 0.18688872456550598, 0.08122937381267548, -0.34424659609794617, -0.42605355381965637, 0.005319738294929266, -0.11257616430521011, -0.23205895721912384, 0.111184976994...	7	Jewish Ghetto Theresienstadt – Rabbi Leo Baeck On November 24, 1941, Terezín became the Theresienstadt ghetto, to which the Nazis expelled 140,000 Jews, the majority of whom eventually perished in death camps. Cultural life flourished in the ghetto even as residents were being dispatched to the gas chambers of Auschwitz, and living conditions were more humane there than at any of the other Jewish ghettos established by the Nazis. Theresienstadt was the only ghetto that permitted foreign visitors, albeit under carefully managed conditions. The most prominent inmate was Rabbi Leo Baeck, the philosopher and theologian who had been chairman of the General Association of German Rabbis in the 1920s. Under the Nazis he was president of the Reich Representation of German Jews and its successor organization, the Reich Association of Jews in Germany, until it was dissolved in June 1943. Rabbi Baeck refused opportunities to leave Germany, believing it was his duty to stay, to serve the Jewish community in its time of greatest need. He was deported to Theresienstadt in 1943; after liberation in May 1945, he settled in London, where he served as chairman of the Council for Jews from Germany. Pictured Above: Until this post card was discovered in 1999, Rabbi Baeck’s family and colleagues believed that no correspondence from his incarceration at Theresienstadt had survived. Rabbi Baeck had written to Rabbi Emil Kronheim of Stockholm on January 23, 1944, but the card was evidently held by the Nazis for more than five months without explanation before being posted on July 6 from Berlin Charlottenburg. It expresses gratitude for a November 5 card or letter, and for parcels received from Rabbi Kronheim’s congregation, but elliptical wording has led one of Rabbi Baeck’s assistants at Theresienstadt to suggest that it may have contained an informally coded message as well. The straight line marking on the front states, “Reply only by postcard written in German.” As a German Jew, Rabbi Baeck was required to call himself Leo Israel Baeck as the sender. Download Frame 5 – Page 1 as a PDF	478	ENGLISH	1
The Census of Quirinius was a census of Judaea taken by Publius Sulpicius Quirinius, Roman governor of Syria, upon the imposition of direct Roman rule in 6 CE. The Jewish historian Josephus portrays the annexation and census as the cause of an uprising which later became identified with the Zealot movement. The author of the Gospel of Luke uses it as the narrative means by which Jesus was born in Bethlehem (Luke 2:1-5), and places the census within the reign of Herod the Great, who actually died 10 years earlier in 4 BCE. No satisfactory explanation has been put forward so far to resolve the contradiction, and most scholars think that the author of the gospel made a mistake. Census of Quirinius Wikipedia In 6 CE Publius Sulpicius Quirinius (51 BCE-21 CE), a distinguished soldier and former Consul, was appointed Imperial Legate (governor) of the province of Roman Syria. In the same year Judea was declared a Roman province, and Quirinius was tasked to carry out a census of the new territory for tax purposes. The new territory was one of the three portions into which the kingdom of Herod the Great had been divided on his death in 4 BCE; his son Herod Archelaus was given Judea but complaints of misrule prompted his removal and Judea and Samaria were placed under direct Roman rule, although Galilee and other areas remained autonomous. The Gospel of Luke places the birth of Jesus under the reign of Herod (37 BCE - 4 BCE) - "In the days of King Herod of Judea..." (Luke 1:5) and links it to the census of Quirinius: In those days a decree went out from Emperor Augustus that all the world should be registered. This was the first registration and was taken while Quirinius was governor of Syria. All went to their own towns to be registered. Joseph also went from the town of Nazareth in Galilee to Judea, to the city of David called Bethlehem, because he was descended from the house and family of David. He went to be registered with Mary, to whom he was engaged and who was expecting a child. (Luke 2:1–5) There are major difficulties in accepting Luke's account: the census in fact took place in AD 6, ten years after Herod's death in 4 BCE; there was no single census of the entire empire under Augustus; no Roman census required people to travel from their own homes to those of distant ancestors; and the census of Judea would not have affected Joseph and his family, living in Galilee; most scholars have therefore concluded that the author of Luke's gospel made an error.	<urn:uuid:d0ec80da-6dd0-4dc8-9950-74ac0e201b31>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://alchetron.com/Census-of-Quirinius	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00221.warc.gz	en	0.985251	550	3.4375	3	[ 0.19831718504428864, -0.039498116821050644, 0.3180571496486664, 0.1964612454175949, -0.21696093678474426, -0.2168603092432022, 0.04253755137324333, 0.6804537773132324, 0.29425621032714844, 0.02868366613984108, -0.09021330624818802, -0.47984713315963745, 0.09053263068199158, 0.2543776035308...	2	The Census of Quirinius was a census of Judaea taken by Publius Sulpicius Quirinius, Roman governor of Syria, upon the imposition of direct Roman rule in 6 CE. The Jewish historian Josephus portrays the annexation and census as the cause of an uprising which later became identified with the Zealot movement. The author of the Gospel of Luke uses it as the narrative means by which Jesus was born in Bethlehem (Luke 2:1-5), and places the census within the reign of Herod the Great, who actually died 10 years earlier in 4 BCE. No satisfactory explanation has been put forward so far to resolve the contradiction, and most scholars think that the author of the gospel made a mistake. Census of Quirinius Wikipedia In 6 CE Publius Sulpicius Quirinius (51 BCE-21 CE), a distinguished soldier and former Consul, was appointed Imperial Legate (governor) of the province of Roman Syria. In the same year Judea was declared a Roman province, and Quirinius was tasked to carry out a census of the new territory for tax purposes. The new territory was one of the three portions into which the kingdom of Herod the Great had been divided on his death in 4 BCE; his son Herod Archelaus was given Judea but complaints of misrule prompted his removal and Judea and Samaria were placed under direct Roman rule, although Galilee and other areas remained autonomous. The Gospel of Luke places the birth of Jesus under the reign of Herod (37 BCE - 4 BCE) - "In the days of King Herod of Judea..." (Luke 1:5) and links it to the census of Quirinius: In those days a decree went out from Emperor Augustus that all the world should be registered. This was the first registration and was taken while Quirinius was governor of Syria. All went to their own towns to be registered. Joseph also went from the town of Nazareth in Galilee to Judea, to the city of David called Bethlehem, because he was descended from the house and family of David. He went to be registered with Mary, to whom he was engaged and who was expecting a child. (Luke 2:1–5) There are major difficulties in accepting Luke's account: the census in fact took place in AD 6, ten years after Herod's death in 4 BCE; there was no single census of the entire empire under Augustus; no Roman census required people to travel from their own homes to those of distant ancestors; and the census of Judea would not have affected Joseph and his family, living in Galilee; most scholars have therefore concluded that the author of Luke's gospel made an error.	580	ENGLISH	1
First of all, the three witches. The story is supposed to be a stereotypical, a reactionary of the medieval times where men would have the dominant role over women. In this case, it seems to be true in the beginning and as it proceeds through the story. But somehow, it switches and the turning point would be established there when Macbeth becomes independent and takes all matter into his own hands leaving Lady Macbeth stranded, as these two very important characters develop throughout the whole story. The way Macbeth is developed is dependent on Lady Macbeth influences and how he reacts to it. This best describes him as a noble warrior and a loyal subject to Duncan, king of Scotland. He remains to be what has been described of him but when he encounters the witches, his characteristics begin to change. This encounter with the witches when they spoke of the prophecies that will happen to Macbeth and this triggers the bad side of him, which begins to develop slowly. And so this is the beginning where Macbeth starts to change, moving from this loyal and noble warrior to an ambitious but weary man. He is surrounded with suspicion as he begins to plot something sinister but he is weak as he lets temptations overcome him. The play shows how his symptoms, develop throughout the play until there is no hope of a cure and so the man has to die. This summarises of what is happening and will happen to these characters. Lady Macbeth at this point has read the letter and she understands her husband very well and she knows that he has great ambitions, but she knows he is a honourable person. She knows she will have to urge her husband on to become king, and she calls for evil spirits to help her. Macbeth seems to be glad that his wife is taking control and the responsibility and so it appears that she has the dominant role. He seems to understand that murdering the king would be a crime that must be punished as the king is Gods appointed one on Earth and murdering the king would be questioning Gods judgement. These are profound reasons that intervenes his ambition, If he was not a kinsmen, subject and host to defend Duncan, it would be a huge sin to kill him rather than harm him. And to be more than what you were, you would be so much more than the man. Nor time, nor place did then adhere, and yet you would make both. He yields and is persuaded by her encouragement, which suggest Macbeth is weak, and not as strong as she is mentally and so Macbeth agrees to murder his king. This confirms that the dominant character would be Lady Macbeth as she is psychologically stronger, and Macbeth submits to her guidance. Lady Macbeth has become a bad influence to her husband but she will do anything to get in her own way. Macbeth still petrified by the wrath of his wife as he shows signs of stress and the imminent crime waiting for him, as he speaks few words when he replies to Banquo in the courtyard. It could be either way and is not revealed in the story. This is a good use of language as it lets the reader know that death awaits Duncan. After the murder, Macbeth and Lady Macbeth react differently to it. Macbeth is disgusted and horrified to think of what he has done as he emerges from the murder and Lady Macbeth greets him and Macbeth has proven that he is a man to her. While Lady Macbeth is bold and confident, because she does not understand that the deed is morally wrong and her only concern is to destroy the evidence which Macbeth carries with him. I would thou couldst. Macbeth is increasingly becoming more independent as he begins to take everything into his own hands while Lady Macbeth is beginning to show signs of strain. Duncan is in his grave. He wishes he could be like Duncan and be dead, so there are worries rather than be alive and have worries. He alarms his wife by conjuring up an atmosphere of evil and he seems to enjoy his dreadful imaginings jut like he did when he went to murder Duncan. But this is a mistake, as this is the beginning of the break in their relationship as he begins to move away from Lady Macbeth and be independent.The letter ‘I’ gets repeated 4 times. The purpose of this is to tell the readers how Macbeth is feeling and no one else, another of its purpose is to show that Macbeth is saying it which he is saying is more exact and that no one else is saying it. I am writing to you as I know that you will keep the contents of this letter a secret. The last few days have been very strange and unreal to me. Welcome. Anti Essays offers essay examples to help students with their essay writing. Our collection includes thousands of sample research papers so you can find almost any essay you want. The Role of Good and Evil in Macbeth Essay; Essay on macbeths descent into evil Words \| 4 Pages. between Good and Evil in The Scarlet Letter and Macbeth It is said that “all conflict in literature is, in its simplest form, a struggle between good and evil.” Indeed, the fundamental conflict of human nature is that of darkness and. Lady Macbeth Essay. In Act 1 Scene 5 Macbeth and Lady Macbeth are very close he addresses her in the letter as, Â‘my dearest partner of greatnessÂ’ Lady Macbeth is keen to see Macbeth to discuss the murder with him, but fears he is, Â‘too full ofÂ’ the milk of human kindnessÂ’. The Hallucination of the Macbeths Essay. This is the hardest letter that I have ever written. For once in my life my head is so full of things I can’t think straight. I feel like how you used to be WEAK.	<urn:uuid:ab0c8a76-8367-414c-bbc5-b970216ffbe8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://reguhiryluqal.mtb15.com/macbeths-letter-essay-50gv.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687725.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126043644-20200126073644-00215.warc.gz	en	0.98401	1,249	3.265625	3	[ -0.15842513740062714, 0.23633384704589844, 0.17005161941051483, 0.03462602198123932, -0.20364558696746826, -0.1500891000032425, 0.4947242736816406, 0.07804100960493088, 0.013524076901376247, -0.042251404374837875, -0.21182763576507568, -0.16768640279769897, -0.4503129720687866, -0.06989993...	2	First of all, the three witches. The story is supposed to be a stereotypical, a reactionary of the medieval times where men would have the dominant role over women. In this case, it seems to be true in the beginning and as it proceeds through the story. But somehow, it switches and the turning point would be established there when Macbeth becomes independent and takes all matter into his own hands leaving Lady Macbeth stranded, as these two very important characters develop throughout the whole story. The way Macbeth is developed is dependent on Lady Macbeth influences and how he reacts to it. This best describes him as a noble warrior and a loyal subject to Duncan, king of Scotland. He remains to be what has been described of him but when he encounters the witches, his characteristics begin to change. This encounter with the witches when they spoke of the prophecies that will happen to Macbeth and this triggers the bad side of him, which begins to develop slowly. And so this is the beginning where Macbeth starts to change, moving from this loyal and noble warrior to an ambitious but weary man. He is surrounded with suspicion as he begins to plot something sinister but he is weak as he lets temptations overcome him. The play shows how his symptoms, develop throughout the play until there is no hope of a cure and so the man has to die. This summarises of what is happening and will happen to these characters. Lady Macbeth at this point has read the letter and she understands her husband very well and she knows that he has great ambitions, but she knows he is a honourable person. She knows she will have to urge her husband on to become king, and she calls for evil spirits to help her. Macbeth seems to be glad that his wife is taking control and the responsibility and so it appears that she has the dominant role. He seems to understand that murdering the king would be a crime that must be punished as the king is Gods appointed one on Earth and murdering the king would be questioning Gods judgement. These are profound reasons that intervenes his ambition, If he was not a kinsmen, subject and host to defend Duncan, it would be a huge sin to kill him rather than harm him. And to be more than what you were, you would be so much more than the man. Nor time, nor place did then adhere, and yet you would make both. He yields and is persuaded by her encouragement, which suggest Macbeth is weak, and not as strong as she is mentally and so Macbeth agrees to murder his king. This confirms that the dominant character would be Lady Macbeth as she is psychologically stronger, and Macbeth submits to her guidance. Lady Macbeth has become a bad influence to her husband but she will do anything to get in her own way. Macbeth still petrified by the wrath of his wife as he shows signs of stress and the imminent crime waiting for him, as he speaks few words when he replies to Banquo in the courtyard. It could be either way and is not revealed in the story. This is a good use of language as it lets the reader know that death awaits Duncan. After the murder, Macbeth and Lady Macbeth react differently to it. Macbeth is disgusted and horrified to think of what he has done as he emerges from the murder and Lady Macbeth greets him and Macbeth has proven that he is a man to her. While Lady Macbeth is bold and confident, because she does not understand that the deed is morally wrong and her only concern is to destroy the evidence which Macbeth carries with him. I would thou couldst. Macbeth is increasingly becoming more independent as he begins to take everything into his own hands while Lady Macbeth is beginning to show signs of strain. Duncan is in his grave. He wishes he could be like Duncan and be dead, so there are worries rather than be alive and have worries. He alarms his wife by conjuring up an atmosphere of evil and he seems to enjoy his dreadful imaginings jut like he did when he went to murder Duncan. But this is a mistake, as this is the beginning of the break in their relationship as he begins to move away from Lady Macbeth and be independent.The letter ‘I’ gets repeated 4 times. The purpose of this is to tell the readers how Macbeth is feeling and no one else, another of its purpose is to show that Macbeth is saying it which he is saying is more exact and that no one else is saying it. I am writing to you as I know that you will keep the contents of this letter a secret. The last few days have been very strange and unreal to me. Welcome. Anti Essays offers essay examples to help students with their essay writing. Our collection includes thousands of sample research papers so you can find almost any essay you want. The Role of Good and Evil in Macbeth Essay; Essay on macbeths descent into evil Words \| 4 Pages. between Good and Evil in The Scarlet Letter and Macbeth It is said that “all conflict in literature is, in its simplest form, a struggle between good and evil.” Indeed, the fundamental conflict of human nature is that of darkness and. Lady Macbeth Essay. In Act 1 Scene 5 Macbeth and Lady Macbeth are very close he addresses her in the letter as, Â‘my dearest partner of greatnessÂ’ Lady Macbeth is keen to see Macbeth to discuss the murder with him, but fears he is, Â‘too full ofÂ’ the milk of human kindnessÂ’. The Hallucination of the Macbeths Essay. This is the hardest letter that I have ever written. For once in my life my head is so full of things I can’t think straight. I feel like how you used to be WEAK.	1,178	ENGLISH	1
IN an age where tuning into your emotions and being willing to talk about feelings are held up as the panacea for modern woes, one young scientist believes the benefits should extend to cattle. University of NSW PhD student Alexandra Green has spent the past four years listening to dairy cattle and has determined cows have idiosyncratic voices and give different cues through their voices - effectively they 'talk' to one another and retain identity through their lowing. Her work with Holstein Friesian heifers found these individual voice cues in a variety of positive and negative situations helps them to maintain contact with the herd and express excitement, arousal, engagement or distress. The duration of the call, the pitch and the loudness is individualised, she said. Ms Green believes there is potential for farmers to use that knowledge to assess welfare in a non-invasive manner. She is hoping technology around call monitoring can be developed which will alert producers when a cow is in need of something. "Ultimately, we hope to be able to understand to the degree that a cow can tell us how urgent the situation is for them," she said. Ms Green spent time this year working in a French laboratory which specialises in bioacoustics. She said scientists were working on talking to many different species, including crocodiles, dear and goats and the principles in cattle were similar. Anecdotally, many farmers say they recognise their own stock based on the lowing of their cattle and can intuitively tell when they are in distress. "This is about putting science behind that," Ms Green said. The next step she'd like to take is research involving farmers, where lowing is played back to them to determine how accurately they can pinpoint individual animals and messages. Ms Green has just published a paper on her work in Scientific Reports, which concludes farmers should integrate knowledge of individual cow voices into their daily farming practices. "We know that cattle vocals are relatively stable across different emotionally-loaded farming contexts," Ms Green said. Positive contexts were during oestrus and anticipation of feeding. Negative contexts were when cows were denied feed access and during physical and visual isolation from the rest of the herd. "Cows are gregarious, social animals. In one sense it isn't surprising they assert their individual identity throughout their life and not just during mother-calf imprinting," Ms Green said. "But this is the first time we have been able to analyse voice to have conclusive evidence of this trait."	<urn:uuid:6a21b9a5-2c15-4c69-b145-40b4711cb6d0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.farmonline.com.au/story/6551783/chatting-with-the-girls-science-paves-way-to-talk-to-cows/?cs=14139	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00157.warc.gz	en	0.981298	512	3.515625	4	[ 0.12653863430023193, 0.11789778620004654, 0.2385256290435791, 0.2078278362751007, 0.01370533462613821, -0.057202376425266266, 0.15973074734210968, 0.1893008053302765, 0.21430419385433197, 0.30892089009284973, -0.2200334519147873, -0.5743875503540039, 0.05453615263104439, 0.2368907481431961...	2	IN an age where tuning into your emotions and being willing to talk about feelings are held up as the panacea for modern woes, one young scientist believes the benefits should extend to cattle. University of NSW PhD student Alexandra Green has spent the past four years listening to dairy cattle and has determined cows have idiosyncratic voices and give different cues through their voices - effectively they 'talk' to one another and retain identity through their lowing. Her work with Holstein Friesian heifers found these individual voice cues in a variety of positive and negative situations helps them to maintain contact with the herd and express excitement, arousal, engagement or distress. The duration of the call, the pitch and the loudness is individualised, she said. Ms Green believes there is potential for farmers to use that knowledge to assess welfare in a non-invasive manner. She is hoping technology around call monitoring can be developed which will alert producers when a cow is in need of something. "Ultimately, we hope to be able to understand to the degree that a cow can tell us how urgent the situation is for them," she said. Ms Green spent time this year working in a French laboratory which specialises in bioacoustics. She said scientists were working on talking to many different species, including crocodiles, dear and goats and the principles in cattle were similar. Anecdotally, many farmers say they recognise their own stock based on the lowing of their cattle and can intuitively tell when they are in distress. "This is about putting science behind that," Ms Green said. The next step she'd like to take is research involving farmers, where lowing is played back to them to determine how accurately they can pinpoint individual animals and messages. Ms Green has just published a paper on her work in Scientific Reports, which concludes farmers should integrate knowledge of individual cow voices into their daily farming practices. "We know that cattle vocals are relatively stable across different emotionally-loaded farming contexts," Ms Green said. Positive contexts were during oestrus and anticipation of feeding. Negative contexts were when cows were denied feed access and during physical and visual isolation from the rest of the herd. "Cows are gregarious, social animals. In one sense it isn't surprising they assert their individual identity throughout their life and not just during mother-calf imprinting," Ms Green said. "But this is the first time we have been able to analyse voice to have conclusive evidence of this trait."	493	ENGLISH	1
The main goals of EISP are conservation and research of the Moai statues. The organization has spent years cataloguing about 1,000 statues of the Eastern Island. No one really paid attention to their peculiar finds, until fresh photos of two Moai ‘bodies’ were posted on the EISP homepage. The Internet finally acknowledged the stunning results of their work! Among the photos there were depictions of some really peculiar ‘tattoos’ on the backs of the statues. They were preserved due to being hidden deep underground, safe from the destructive powers of the elements. Intricate designs and unusual symbols, known as petroglyphs, covered the backs of the statues. What baffled archaeologists the most were the special engineering techniques used by Rapa Nui to erect and install the statues that could weigh up to 4 tons or more! Each statue was erected on a stone pavement which had numerous holes for tree trunks to support the construction. The statues were raised upright with the help of posts, ropes, stones, and various stone tools.	<urn:uuid:dde41a84-c64a-41a2-b2ad-4c4ac0332b69>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://zestradar.com/curiosities/easter-island-statues-new-excavation-reveals-mind-bending-facts/2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00306.warc.gz	en	0.981361	218	3.34375	3	[ -0.21265839040279388, 0.45449143648147583, 0.7346992492675781, -0.07457635551691055, -0.1655793935060501, 0.13476571440696716, 0.3248599171638489, -0.06232813745737076, -0.2034578025341034, 0.5600513219833374, -0.1145058199763298, -0.32329827547073364, 0.015061929821968079, 0.5165925025939...	1	The main goals of EISP are conservation and research of the Moai statues. The organization has spent years cataloguing about 1,000 statues of the Eastern Island. No one really paid attention to their peculiar finds, until fresh photos of two Moai ‘bodies’ were posted on the EISP homepage. The Internet finally acknowledged the stunning results of their work! Among the photos there were depictions of some really peculiar ‘tattoos’ on the backs of the statues. They were preserved due to being hidden deep underground, safe from the destructive powers of the elements. Intricate designs and unusual symbols, known as petroglyphs, covered the backs of the statues. What baffled archaeologists the most were the special engineering techniques used by Rapa Nui to erect and install the statues that could weigh up to 4 tons or more! Each statue was erected on a stone pavement which had numerous holes for tree trunks to support the construction. The statues were raised upright with the help of posts, ropes, stones, and various stone tools.	215	ENGLISH	1
Above: A plaque inside the church of St Mary, Rotherhithe. This is a story about far-away islands and how remote it must have felt to be sailing around the world in the 18th century. It also concerns the East India Company whose large fleet of ships sailed to all parts of the world. The story arises because of an impressive memorial on the north wall of the church of St Mary Rotherhithe. In 1782 three men – Captain Henry Wilson 1750-1810) from Rotherhithe, his son (also called Henry) and his brother Mathias Wilson – sailed out of Falmouth Harbour aboard the ‘Antelope’, owned by the East India Company. The voyage was a secret one, possibly the first voyage of an East India Company ship to round the Horn and cross the Pacific Ocean from east to west. They were carrying vital dispatches – messages for the Company’s agents at Canton, China, and wartime intelligence concerning the Company’s shipping operations. Wilson reached China in 1783 after a voyage of nine months and, having delivered the dispatches, he headed for England on a course north of the Philippine Islands due to the start of the monsoon season. Less than three weeks after leaving China there was a violent storm on the night of 9 August 1783. The ‘Antelope’ was wrecked off what Captain Wilson called the Pelew Islands but only one man was drowned. The Captain and his men had saved themselves in two small boats. They took refuge on a nearby island called Ulong, spelt in English as ‘Oroolong’. They were found by the natives, whose chief was called Abba Thule. One of the ships’ party was a man from Macao and one of the Islanders came from Malay, so, by good fortune, the two parties could converse in Malay, using interpreters, thus establishing a friendly relationship. The Pelew Islands are now called the Palaus, known by the islanders as the Republic of Belau. Papua New Guinea now encompasses this group of islands, one of which was Coo-Roo-Raa, about 600 miles north of Papua New Guinea and about 600 miles due east of Mindanao, in the Philippine Islands. The men were allowed to stay on the island of Ulong and they cut down trees to make a shelter. They also began to construct a vessel, which they called the ‘Oroolong’, to enable them to return to China. Abba Thule asked Wilson and his men to help in subduing rival islanders which he did by firing a few shots from his guns – the first guns these islanders had ever seen. The men were well treated during their stay and quite enjoyed the island. They spent three months on the island and set sail, in November 1783, for China, a journey of just eighteen days. Just before they left, the King asked Captain Wilson to take his second son, Lee Boo, back with him to England. Having seen the Englishmen at work salvaging their wrecked ship and building a new one, the king was very impressed with their knowledge and was keen for his son to learn their many skills when back in England. Lee Boo was sea-sick on the voyage and had to be looked after by the ship’s surgeon. The ship stayed at Macao and then at Canton. Lee Boo impressed everyone with his warm and friendly manner. There were many things he had never seen before – cows, sheep, goats and best of all the horse. He had never seen a mirror before and stood before it in amazement. The return journey to England took about six months. The ship arrived at Portsmouth on 14 July 1784. Lee Boo had studied English during the trip and was able to describe his ride by coach to London as “a little house which was run away with by horses”. Captain Wilson took Lee Boo to stay in his home which was at Rotherhithe. Sadly, it was only a matter of weeks before Lee Boo caught smallpox and died on 27 December 1784, aged 20. His father, Abba Thule, did not learn of his son’s death until 1791. On 29 December 1784 Prince Lee Boo was buried in a grave which is just to the left of the path leading to the door of St Mary, Rotherhithe. On top of the tomb is a long inscription ‘To the memory of Prince Lee Boo a native of the Pelew or Palos Islands and son to Abba Thulle Rupack or King of the Island Coo’roo’raa who departed this life on the 27 December 1784, aged 20 years. This stone is inscribed by the Honourable United East India Company as a testimony of esteem for the humane and kind treatment afforded by his father to the crew of their ship the Antelope, Capt Wilson which was wrecked off that island on the night of the 9th August 1783.’ Below the inscription are the lines ‘Stop reader. Stop. Let nature claim a tear. A prince of mine LEE BOO lies buried here.’ Captain Wilson retired to Colyton, Devon, near Axminster, where he died on 11 May 1810, aged 70 and was buried at the parish church. That should be the end of the story but there is more. In 1984 a commemoration service was held to mark the 200th anniversary of Lee Boo’s death, to which some of the Islanders came. A gingko tree has been planted beside the tomb in the churchyard. Inside the church is a plaque on the wall, whose photograph is shown at the top of this article. The memorial was placed inside the church in 1892 and reads ‘In the adjacent churchyard lies the body of Prince Lee Boo, Son of Abba Thule, Rupack or King of the Island of Coorooraa, one of the Pelew or Palos islands who departed this life at the house of Captain Henry Wilson in Paradise Row in this Parish on the 27th day of December, 1784 aged 20 years. This tablet is erected by the Secretary of State for India in Council to keep alive the memory of the humane treatment shewn by the natives to the crew of the Honourable East India Company’s ship Antelope which was wrecked off the island of Coorooraa on the 9th August 1783. The barbarous people showed us no little kindness. Acts XXVII, 2’ Prince Lee Boo is known to the people of Rotherhithe simply as the ‘Black Prince’ – because he was black. Since in English history there is a member of the royal family (the builder of Kennington Palace and resident there) who also acquired that name, be warned, they are two separate people! In their own way, both deserve a place in the history of London.	<urn:uuid:3529b645-1bc2-4671-9646-e5cc8a982367>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://knowyourlondon.wordpress.com/2018/07/16/lee-boo-prince/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00057.warc.gz	en	0.985228	1,447	3.296875	3	[ 0.2833152115345001, 0.10551834106445312, 0.06777480989694595, -0.4129585921764374, -0.045438334345817566, -0.22307351231575012, 0.0117948642000556, 0.1012546718120575, -0.07576832920312881, 0.18166038393974304, -0.1461753398180008, -0.3010958731174469, 0.016831137239933014, 0.5931317210197...	2	Above: A plaque inside the church of St Mary, Rotherhithe. This is a story about far-away islands and how remote it must have felt to be sailing around the world in the 18th century. It also concerns the East India Company whose large fleet of ships sailed to all parts of the world. The story arises because of an impressive memorial on the north wall of the church of St Mary Rotherhithe. In 1782 three men – Captain Henry Wilson 1750-1810) from Rotherhithe, his son (also called Henry) and his brother Mathias Wilson – sailed out of Falmouth Harbour aboard the ‘Antelope’, owned by the East India Company. The voyage was a secret one, possibly the first voyage of an East India Company ship to round the Horn and cross the Pacific Ocean from east to west. They were carrying vital dispatches – messages for the Company’s agents at Canton, China, and wartime intelligence concerning the Company’s shipping operations. Wilson reached China in 1783 after a voyage of nine months and, having delivered the dispatches, he headed for England on a course north of the Philippine Islands due to the start of the monsoon season. Less than three weeks after leaving China there was a violent storm on the night of 9 August 1783. The ‘Antelope’ was wrecked off what Captain Wilson called the Pelew Islands but only one man was drowned. The Captain and his men had saved themselves in two small boats. They took refuge on a nearby island called Ulong, spelt in English as ‘Oroolong’. They were found by the natives, whose chief was called Abba Thule. One of the ships’ party was a man from Macao and one of the Islanders came from Malay, so, by good fortune, the two parties could converse in Malay, using interpreters, thus establishing a friendly relationship. The Pelew Islands are now called the Palaus, known by the islanders as the Republic of Belau. Papua New Guinea now encompasses this group of islands, one of which was Coo-Roo-Raa, about 600 miles north of Papua New Guinea and about 600 miles due east of Mindanao, in the Philippine Islands. The men were allowed to stay on the island of Ulong and they cut down trees to make a shelter. They also began to construct a vessel, which they called the ‘Oroolong’, to enable them to return to China. Abba Thule asked Wilson and his men to help in subduing rival islanders which he did by firing a few shots from his guns – the first guns these islanders had ever seen. The men were well treated during their stay and quite enjoyed the island. They spent three months on the island and set sail, in November 1783, for China, a journey of just eighteen days. Just before they left, the King asked Captain Wilson to take his second son, Lee Boo, back with him to England. Having seen the Englishmen at work salvaging their wrecked ship and building a new one, the king was very impressed with their knowledge and was keen for his son to learn their many skills when back in England. Lee Boo was sea-sick on the voyage and had to be looked after by the ship’s surgeon. The ship stayed at Macao and then at Canton. Lee Boo impressed everyone with his warm and friendly manner. There were many things he had never seen before – cows, sheep, goats and best of all the horse. He had never seen a mirror before and stood before it in amazement. The return journey to England took about six months. The ship arrived at Portsmouth on 14 July 1784. Lee Boo had studied English during the trip and was able to describe his ride by coach to London as “a little house which was run away with by horses”. Captain Wilson took Lee Boo to stay in his home which was at Rotherhithe. Sadly, it was only a matter of weeks before Lee Boo caught smallpox and died on 27 December 1784, aged 20. His father, Abba Thule, did not learn of his son’s death until 1791. On 29 December 1784 Prince Lee Boo was buried in a grave which is just to the left of the path leading to the door of St Mary, Rotherhithe. On top of the tomb is a long inscription ‘To the memory of Prince Lee Boo a native of the Pelew or Palos Islands and son to Abba Thulle Rupack or King of the Island Coo’roo’raa who departed this life on the 27 December 1784, aged 20 years. This stone is inscribed by the Honourable United East India Company as a testimony of esteem for the humane and kind treatment afforded by his father to the crew of their ship the Antelope, Capt Wilson which was wrecked off that island on the night of the 9th August 1783.’ Below the inscription are the lines ‘Stop reader. Stop. Let nature claim a tear. A prince of mine LEE BOO lies buried here.’ Captain Wilson retired to Colyton, Devon, near Axminster, where he died on 11 May 1810, aged 70 and was buried at the parish church. That should be the end of the story but there is more. In 1984 a commemoration service was held to mark the 200th anniversary of Lee Boo’s death, to which some of the Islanders came. A gingko tree has been planted beside the tomb in the churchyard. Inside the church is a plaque on the wall, whose photograph is shown at the top of this article. The memorial was placed inside the church in 1892 and reads ‘In the adjacent churchyard lies the body of Prince Lee Boo, Son of Abba Thule, Rupack or King of the Island of Coorooraa, one of the Pelew or Palos islands who departed this life at the house of Captain Henry Wilson in Paradise Row in this Parish on the 27th day of December, 1784 aged 20 years. This tablet is erected by the Secretary of State for India in Council to keep alive the memory of the humane treatment shewn by the natives to the crew of the Honourable East India Company’s ship Antelope which was wrecked off the island of Coorooraa on the 9th August 1783. The barbarous people showed us no little kindness. Acts XXVII, 2’ Prince Lee Boo is known to the people of Rotherhithe simply as the ‘Black Prince’ – because he was black. Since in English history there is a member of the royal family (the builder of Kennington Palace and resident there) who also acquired that name, be warned, they are two separate people! In their own way, both deserve a place in the history of London.	1,482	ENGLISH	1
Richard Trevithick's First Steam Carriage The 'puffing devil', the first passenger-carrying vehicle powered by steam, made its debut on a road outside Redruth in Cornwall on December 24th, 1801. The ‘puffing devil’ or ‘Captain Dick’s puffer’, the first passenger-carrying vehicle powered by steam, made its debut on a road outside Redruth in Cornwall on the nineteenth century’s first Christmas Eve. Cornish mine managers were known as captains and Captain Dick was the prodigious thirty-year-old inventor Richard Trevithick. The ‘giant of steam’ in more senses than one – he was a big man and a formidable wrestler – he grew up near Redruth. As a schoolboy, his ability to solve sums rapidly using the ‘wrong’ methods irritated his schoolmaster, who thought far more slowly, and he soon followed his father as a mine engineer. The idea of using steam to draw a wheeled road vehicle had already been suggested to James Watt, and although he sketched one (which Anthony Burton, Trevithick’s biographer, describes as looking like a mobile garden shed), he dismissed it as a nonsense. His associate William Murdock, who moved to Redruth to install mine engines, built a three-wheeler in 1786 and road-tested it late one night, to the horror of a local clergyman who thought he was seeing the Evil One in person. Watt still considered high-pressure steam too dangerous and Murdock deferred to him. Instead he succeeded in lighting his home with coal gas in 1792. Watt’s patent ran out at the end of the decade, which set rival engineers free. Richard Trevithick’s engine was cast at Harvey’s foundry in Hayle and assembled at a blacksmith’s shop near Redruth. A cooper named Stephen Williams was there that Christmas Eve when Captain Dick got up steam in the road outside, and he and six or seven others jumped up on the engine. ‘Twas a stiffish hill going from the Weith up to Camborne Beacon,’ he remembered, ‘but she went off like a little bird. When she had gone about a quarter of a mile, there was a roughish piece of road covered with loose stones; she didn’t go quite so fast, and as it was flood of rain and we were very squeezed together, I jumped off. She was going faster than I could walk, and went on up the hill about a quarter or half a mile farther, when they turned her and came back again to the shop.’ A few days later, unfortunately, the engine caught fire and was destroyed. Trevithick designed another, which made several runs in London, but he failed to raise financing for more vehicles. Impetuous, reckless and eternally hopeful, Trevithick was always so bursting with new ideas that he failed to carry projects patiently through and turned eagerly away to fresh challenges. In 1804, as engineer at the Penydarren iron works at Merthyr Tydfil, he ran a steam engine on a railway. Hauling five wagons, ten tons of iron and seventy men, it travelled more than nine miles at an average speed of about 5mph. It won a 500-guinea bet for Samuel Homfray, the ironmaster, and was the direct ancestor of the great steam railway locomotives of the coming age. In 1808 Trevithick’s ‘Catch-me-who-can’ locomotive ran round and round a circular track at 12mph on open ground in London where Euston Square is now. Rdes were offered to courageous bystanders at a shilling a head until a rail broke and the machine fell over. Trevithick turned to other projects, including an attempt to build a tunnel under the Thames at Rotherhithe. Almost nothing went right and he and his wife and children were reduced to near destitution. In 1816 he sailed for Peru, to install his engines in the silver mines, but the war of independence broke out and South American patriots began destroying his machines. After years of ups and downs, in 1826 he went to Costa Rica, where he proposed to build a railway from the Atlantic across to the Pacific. He was broke and close to starving when he was rescued by Robert Stephenson, who paid for his voyage home to Falmouth. His last years were spent in poverty and disappointment and he died at the Bull Inn in Dartford, Kent, in 1833, aged sixty-two.	<urn:uuid:a6311f89-3cbe-4137-a1fe-afd092814fc2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historytoday.com/archive/richard-trevithicks-first-steam-carriage	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00422.warc.gz	en	0.986621	973	3.265625	3	[ 0.09236665070056915, 0.21863587200641632, 0.3472591042518616, -0.4188784956932068, -0.5370042324066162, -0.118080735206604, 0.39132189750671387, 0.020473990589380264, -0.24099469184875488, -0.38673603534698486, -0.07258039712905884, -0.17706680297851562, 0.18462952971458435, 0.223314419388...	4	Richard Trevithick's First Steam Carriage The 'puffing devil', the first passenger-carrying vehicle powered by steam, made its debut on a road outside Redruth in Cornwall on December 24th, 1801. The ‘puffing devil’ or ‘Captain Dick’s puffer’, the first passenger-carrying vehicle powered by steam, made its debut on a road outside Redruth in Cornwall on the nineteenth century’s first Christmas Eve. Cornish mine managers were known as captains and Captain Dick was the prodigious thirty-year-old inventor Richard Trevithick. The ‘giant of steam’ in more senses than one – he was a big man and a formidable wrestler – he grew up near Redruth. As a schoolboy, his ability to solve sums rapidly using the ‘wrong’ methods irritated his schoolmaster, who thought far more slowly, and he soon followed his father as a mine engineer. The idea of using steam to draw a wheeled road vehicle had already been suggested to James Watt, and although he sketched one (which Anthony Burton, Trevithick’s biographer, describes as looking like a mobile garden shed), he dismissed it as a nonsense. His associate William Murdock, who moved to Redruth to install mine engines, built a three-wheeler in 1786 and road-tested it late one night, to the horror of a local clergyman who thought he was seeing the Evil One in person. Watt still considered high-pressure steam too dangerous and Murdock deferred to him. Instead he succeeded in lighting his home with coal gas in 1792. Watt’s patent ran out at the end of the decade, which set rival engineers free. Richard Trevithick’s engine was cast at Harvey’s foundry in Hayle and assembled at a blacksmith’s shop near Redruth. A cooper named Stephen Williams was there that Christmas Eve when Captain Dick got up steam in the road outside, and he and six or seven others jumped up on the engine. ‘Twas a stiffish hill going from the Weith up to Camborne Beacon,’ he remembered, ‘but she went off like a little bird. When she had gone about a quarter of a mile, there was a roughish piece of road covered with loose stones; she didn’t go quite so fast, and as it was flood of rain and we were very squeezed together, I jumped off. She was going faster than I could walk, and went on up the hill about a quarter or half a mile farther, when they turned her and came back again to the shop.’ A few days later, unfortunately, the engine caught fire and was destroyed. Trevithick designed another, which made several runs in London, but he failed to raise financing for more vehicles. Impetuous, reckless and eternally hopeful, Trevithick was always so bursting with new ideas that he failed to carry projects patiently through and turned eagerly away to fresh challenges. In 1804, as engineer at the Penydarren iron works at Merthyr Tydfil, he ran a steam engine on a railway. Hauling five wagons, ten tons of iron and seventy men, it travelled more than nine miles at an average speed of about 5mph. It won a 500-guinea bet for Samuel Homfray, the ironmaster, and was the direct ancestor of the great steam railway locomotives of the coming age. In 1808 Trevithick’s ‘Catch-me-who-can’ locomotive ran round and round a circular track at 12mph on open ground in London where Euston Square is now. Rdes were offered to courageous bystanders at a shilling a head until a rail broke and the machine fell over. Trevithick turned to other projects, including an attempt to build a tunnel under the Thames at Rotherhithe. Almost nothing went right and he and his wife and children were reduced to near destitution. In 1816 he sailed for Peru, to install his engines in the silver mines, but the war of independence broke out and South American patriots began destroying his machines. After years of ups and downs, in 1826 he went to Costa Rica, where he proposed to build a railway from the Atlantic across to the Pacific. He was broke and close to starving when he was rescued by Robert Stephenson, who paid for his voyage home to Falmouth. His last years were spent in poverty and disappointment and he died at the Bull Inn in Dartford, Kent, in 1833, aged sixty-two.	956	ENGLISH	1
Performing Women in English Books of Ayres The account of John Bull's meeting with the musician at St. Omer's is likely apocryphal. Yet despite its fantastical nature, the story encapsulates many aspects of Bull's reputation in England at the turn of the seventeenth century. Bull himself often helped to bolster his own reputation as a "superstitious" figure by imbuing his work with a sense of mysticism, and, when he later fell out of favor with King James, he attributed royal persecution of himself to the fact that he was an avowed Catholic. Samuel Rowley's When You See Me, You Know Me was first performed in 1604, shortly after the accession of James and the reopening of the public theaters, which had been closed for over a year following the death of Queen Elizabeth and then during an outbreak of the plague. Rowley's representation of music in When You See Me initially seems unambiguously to reinforce the play's endorsement of Protestant theology.	<urn:uuid:47dd7479-c964-4524-89c5-cdb96b1e4f87>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/e/9781315583952/chapters/10.4324/9781315583952-7	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00274.warc.gz	en	0.981265	203	3.3125	3	[ 0.44263648986816406, 0.022801700979471207, 0.5149996876716614, -0.02286960743367672, -0.2369559407234192, 0.2259971797466278, 0.08854460716247559, -0.11166077852249146, 0.3200661540031433, -0.384182870388031, -0.4007143974304199, -0.02084788866341114, 0.220572829246521, -0.0856522172689437...	1	Performing Women in English Books of Ayres The account of John Bull's meeting with the musician at St. Omer's is likely apocryphal. Yet despite its fantastical nature, the story encapsulates many aspects of Bull's reputation in England at the turn of the seventeenth century. Bull himself often helped to bolster his own reputation as a "superstitious" figure by imbuing his work with a sense of mysticism, and, when he later fell out of favor with King James, he attributed royal persecution of himself to the fact that he was an avowed Catholic. Samuel Rowley's When You See Me, You Know Me was first performed in 1604, shortly after the accession of James and the reopening of the public theaters, which had been closed for over a year following the death of Queen Elizabeth and then during an outbreak of the plague. Rowley's representation of music in When You See Me initially seems unambiguously to reinforce the play's endorsement of Protestant theology.	207	ENGLISH	1
Samuel Pepys is one of the greatest writers in British literary history—and all because he kept a diary. Today, Pepys’ Diary is considered to be the greatest personal account of life and events in 17th Century England. It is a work revered both by literary and historical scholars as a first-hand account of such important moments as the Great Fire of London, the Second Dutch War, and the Great Plague of 1665-1666. Spanning a ten-year period, there’s much more to Pepys live that the journal he kept from 1660 to 1670. Pepys was born 23 February 1633 in Salisbury Court off of Fleet Street to John (a tailor) and Margaret (a butcher’s daughter). However, such seemingly humble beginnings belie a family that was deeply embedded in the nation’s politics. His great uncle was once an MP for Cambridge and his first cousin, Sir Richard Pepys, was an MP for Sudbury, then Baron of the Exchequer, and finally Lord Chief Justice of Ireland. At the age of 9, Samuel was sent to live with his uncle in Huntingdonshire in part because of fears from the Plague. While there, he enrolled in grammar school and moved back to London in 1646 to attend St. Paul’s School. It was during this time that Pepys was able to attend the beheading of King Charles I during the English Civil War. A year later, he was off to Cambridge University where he received his bachelor’s degree in 1654. It was after this that he went to work for Edward Montagu. Montagu had been a commander in the parliamentary army but fell out with Parliament over King Charles’ execution. In 1655, Pepys married Elisabeth de St. Michel. Two years later, the bladder stones he had suffered with from childhood had become so severe that he had surgery to remove them. Not too long after, Montagu’s efforts to aid the Restoration ended up with him becoming the Earl of Sandwich and First Lord of the Admiralty under King Charles II. Pepys’ work for Montagu afforded him many great political connections, and his influence grew within Charles’ court. It was starting on 1 January 1660 during the Restoration that Samuel Pepys began to keep his famous diary. He wrote out his entries in shorthand while keeping the names in longhand. In the same year, he became the clerk of the acts to the navy board under Montagu and attended the coronation for Charles II, an event that was recorded in his diary. Over the course of the next ten years, he recorded many of the most important events of 17th Century London. Additionally, Pepys also wrote much about his personal life, including a number of affairs that his wife eventually discovered. However, about the same time that Samuel Pepys stopped writing in his diary over concerns that writing in low light would make him go blind as it had Milton, Elisabeth grew ill and died in 1669. He never remarried, though was often thought to be in a relationship with his housekeeper. Eventually, Pepys’ extremely good organisation and efficiency led him to ultimately become Secretary of the Admiralty as well as an MP for Castle Rising in 1672 and 1673. However, a scandalous rumour that he sold military secrets to the French forced him to resign from the Admiralty in 1679. Charges of treason were eventually dropped, and Pepys continued to be involved with the Admiralty and the government in a less prominent capacity. Some years previous, Samuel Pepys was elected to the Royal Society in 1665 and became its president from 1684 to 1686. At the same time, Charles II was succeeded by King James II, and Pepys held an influential position in the new king’s court. However, with William of Orange becoming King William III in 1689, Pepys was accused of Jacobite sympathies in the same year, though those charges were also dropped in 1690. By 1701, his health was beginning to fail, and he moved to Clapham in a house owned by his friend and former employee, William Hewer. Interestingly enough, Clapham was actually considered outside London and in the country at the time. It was there that he died in 1703.	<urn:uuid:7a6d9897-6b6c-4062-8550-3203c5056f34>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://londontopia.net/history/great-londoners-samuel-pepys-the-scribe-of-london/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00405.warc.gz	en	0.991714	893	3.40625	3	[ 0.2494560182094574, 0.06679485738277435, 0.3342832326889038, -0.3931981027126312, -0.31900498270988464, -0.25933122634887695, 0.1375684291124344, -0.0819273293018341, -0.019499264657497406, -0.31481078267097473, -0.44017720222473145, -0.3374774158000946, 0.1462411880493164, 0.0976780205965...	20	Samuel Pepys is one of the greatest writers in British literary history—and all because he kept a diary. Today, Pepys’ Diary is considered to be the greatest personal account of life and events in 17th Century England. It is a work revered both by literary and historical scholars as a first-hand account of such important moments as the Great Fire of London, the Second Dutch War, and the Great Plague of 1665-1666. Spanning a ten-year period, there’s much more to Pepys live that the journal he kept from 1660 to 1670. Pepys was born 23 February 1633 in Salisbury Court off of Fleet Street to John (a tailor) and Margaret (a butcher’s daughter). However, such seemingly humble beginnings belie a family that was deeply embedded in the nation’s politics. His great uncle was once an MP for Cambridge and his first cousin, Sir Richard Pepys, was an MP for Sudbury, then Baron of the Exchequer, and finally Lord Chief Justice of Ireland. At the age of 9, Samuel was sent to live with his uncle in Huntingdonshire in part because of fears from the Plague. While there, he enrolled in grammar school and moved back to London in 1646 to attend St. Paul’s School. It was during this time that Pepys was able to attend the beheading of King Charles I during the English Civil War. A year later, he was off to Cambridge University where he received his bachelor’s degree in 1654. It was after this that he went to work for Edward Montagu. Montagu had been a commander in the parliamentary army but fell out with Parliament over King Charles’ execution. In 1655, Pepys married Elisabeth de St. Michel. Two years later, the bladder stones he had suffered with from childhood had become so severe that he had surgery to remove them. Not too long after, Montagu’s efforts to aid the Restoration ended up with him becoming the Earl of Sandwich and First Lord of the Admiralty under King Charles II. Pepys’ work for Montagu afforded him many great political connections, and his influence grew within Charles’ court. It was starting on 1 January 1660 during the Restoration that Samuel Pepys began to keep his famous diary. He wrote out his entries in shorthand while keeping the names in longhand. In the same year, he became the clerk of the acts to the navy board under Montagu and attended the coronation for Charles II, an event that was recorded in his diary. Over the course of the next ten years, he recorded many of the most important events of 17th Century London. Additionally, Pepys also wrote much about his personal life, including a number of affairs that his wife eventually discovered. However, about the same time that Samuel Pepys stopped writing in his diary over concerns that writing in low light would make him go blind as it had Milton, Elisabeth grew ill and died in 1669. He never remarried, though was often thought to be in a relationship with his housekeeper. Eventually, Pepys’ extremely good organisation and efficiency led him to ultimately become Secretary of the Admiralty as well as an MP for Castle Rising in 1672 and 1673. However, a scandalous rumour that he sold military secrets to the French forced him to resign from the Admiralty in 1679. Charges of treason were eventually dropped, and Pepys continued to be involved with the Admiralty and the government in a less prominent capacity. Some years previous, Samuel Pepys was elected to the Royal Society in 1665 and became its president from 1684 to 1686. At the same time, Charles II was succeeded by King James II, and Pepys held an influential position in the new king’s court. However, with William of Orange becoming King William III in 1689, Pepys was accused of Jacobite sympathies in the same year, though those charges were also dropped in 1690. By 1701, his health was beginning to fail, and he moved to Clapham in a house owned by his friend and former employee, William Hewer. Interestingly enough, Clapham was actually considered outside London and in the country at the time. It was there that he died in 1703.	929	ENGLISH	1
Eoraptor (meaning 'dawn thief') is another one of the early dinosaurs that lived during the Triassic period, around 228 million years ago. It belonged to a group called Saurischians, or lizard-hipped dinosaurs. Their hips were similar to that of the modern lizards. Eoraptor was a small dinosaur, about 3ft long (1m), and weighed around 22 pounds (10kg). It had a thin body with a long tail and a long head full of teeth. Scientists aren’t really sure if it had scales or feathers. They know it walked on two legs and they believe it was an omnivore, meaning it ate everything. Some of its teeth were long and sharp for cutting meat and some of its teeth were blunt and leaf-shaped for grinding plants. Its front legs had 5 fingers with claws on three of its fingers. The other two fingers were very small. Did you know? - Many Eoraptor fossils have been found in Argentina in the ‘Valley of the Moon’. - Some scientists believe that the skeletons found of Eoraptors are only of juveniles and that an adult Eoraptor still hasn’t been discovered yet.	<urn:uuid:25c11ea4-23ce-4a8d-94b3-92e710654f5b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://primaryleap.co.uk/activity/eoraptor	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00325.warc.gz	en	0.9855	257	3.90625	4	[ -0.5503561496734619, -0.03608762472867966, 0.5498014092445374, -0.18294067680835724, -0.48425284028053284, -0.43421342968940735, 0.16591012477874756, 0.2628418505191803, -0.35188794136047363, 0.4243462383747101, -0.11589615046977997, -0.21049030125141144, 0.1039123609662056, 0.244360029697...	2	Eoraptor (meaning 'dawn thief') is another one of the early dinosaurs that lived during the Triassic period, around 228 million years ago. It belonged to a group called Saurischians, or lizard-hipped dinosaurs. Their hips were similar to that of the modern lizards. Eoraptor was a small dinosaur, about 3ft long (1m), and weighed around 22 pounds (10kg). It had a thin body with a long tail and a long head full of teeth. Scientists aren’t really sure if it had scales or feathers. They know it walked on two legs and they believe it was an omnivore, meaning it ate everything. Some of its teeth were long and sharp for cutting meat and some of its teeth were blunt and leaf-shaped for grinding plants. Its front legs had 5 fingers with claws on three of its fingers. The other two fingers were very small. Did you know? - Many Eoraptor fossils have been found in Argentina in the ‘Valley of the Moon’. - Some scientists believe that the skeletons found of Eoraptors are only of juveniles and that an adult Eoraptor still hasn’t been discovered yet.	248	ENGLISH	1
Pope St. Cornelius (Feast: September 16) Cornelius was elected to the papal dignity during a time in which both the Church and civil society were in great turmoil. About the year 250, Rome was ruled by the Emperor Decius, who savagely persecuted Christians. He ordered all Christians to deny Christ by offering incense to idols or through some other pagan ritual. Many Christians refused and were martyred, among them St. Fabian, the Pope, while others burnt the sacrificial incense in order to save their own lives. In hopes that Christianity would fade away, Decius prevented the election of a new pope. However, he was soon compelled to leave Rome to fight the invading Goths and, in his absence, the papal election was held. By 251, the Church had endured fourteen months without a pope when Cornelius was elected, much against his will. After the persecution, the Church became divided in two. One side, led by the Roman priest Novatian, believed that those who had stopped practicing Christianity during the persecution could not be accepted back into the Church even if they repented. Under this philosophy, the only way to re-enter the Church would be re-baptism. The opposing side, headed by Pope Cornelius, did not believe in the need for re-baptism. Instead, he believed the sinners should only need to show contrition and perform penance to be welcomed back into the Church. Novatian resisted Cornelius and declared himself Pope – thus becoming History's first antipope. Later, during that same year, a synod of western bishops supported Cornelius, condemned the teachings of Novatian, and excommunicated him and his followers. When another persecution began in 253 under Emperor Gallus, Pope Cornelius was first exiled and then died as a martyr. DAILY QUOTE for January 26, 2020 SAINT OF THE DAY Sts. Timothy and Titus Many centuries ago, three young nuns lived together in a convent. Day after day, they took their meals together, they went to chapel together, and they prayed and sang together.	<urn:uuid:24cfbd2b-e9ed-42eb-87a8-ac9731db313a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.americaneedsfatima.org/Saints-Heroes/pope-st-cornelius.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00191.warc.gz	en	0.986345	445	3.546875	4	[ -0.15105284750461578, 0.7200722694396973, 0.30486875772476196, -0.042071133852005005, -0.2998696267604828, 0.12884046137332916, -0.005371063947677612, 0.1302991509437561, 0.35005083680152893, -0.014050536789000034, -0.09122991561889648, 0.03609922155737877, -0.11657162010669708, -0.0525633...	1	Pope St. Cornelius (Feast: September 16) Cornelius was elected to the papal dignity during a time in which both the Church and civil society were in great turmoil. About the year 250, Rome was ruled by the Emperor Decius, who savagely persecuted Christians. He ordered all Christians to deny Christ by offering incense to idols or through some other pagan ritual. Many Christians refused and were martyred, among them St. Fabian, the Pope, while others burnt the sacrificial incense in order to save their own lives. In hopes that Christianity would fade away, Decius prevented the election of a new pope. However, he was soon compelled to leave Rome to fight the invading Goths and, in his absence, the papal election was held. By 251, the Church had endured fourteen months without a pope when Cornelius was elected, much against his will. After the persecution, the Church became divided in two. One side, led by the Roman priest Novatian, believed that those who had stopped practicing Christianity during the persecution could not be accepted back into the Church even if they repented. Under this philosophy, the only way to re-enter the Church would be re-baptism. The opposing side, headed by Pope Cornelius, did not believe in the need for re-baptism. Instead, he believed the sinners should only need to show contrition and perform penance to be welcomed back into the Church. Novatian resisted Cornelius and declared himself Pope – thus becoming History's first antipope. Later, during that same year, a synod of western bishops supported Cornelius, condemned the teachings of Novatian, and excommunicated him and his followers. When another persecution began in 253 under Emperor Gallus, Pope Cornelius was first exiled and then died as a martyr. DAILY QUOTE for January 26, 2020 SAINT OF THE DAY Sts. Timothy and Titus Many centuries ago, three young nuns lived together in a convent. Day after day, they took their meals together, they went to chapel together, and they prayed and sang together.	455	ENGLISH	1
- "Another legend claims that we descended from wolves and that the wolves are our brothers still. It's against tribal law to kill them." - ―Jacob explaining the Quileutes to Bella[src] The Quileute tribe are a Native American people, currently numbering approximately 750. The Quileute (also spelled Quillayute) people settled onto the Quileute Indian Reservation after signing the Treaty of Quinault River of 1855 (later reauthorized as the treaty of Olympia in 1856) with the United States of America. The reservation is located near the southwest corner of Clallam County, Washington at the mouth of the Quileute River on the Pacific coast. The reservation's main population center is the community of La Push, Washington. The 2000 census reported an official resident population of 371 persons on the reservation, which has a land area of 4.061 km² (1.5678 sq mi, or 1,003.4 acres). They have their own government that consists of a Tribal council with staggered terms. The Quileute tribe linguistically belongs to the Chimakuan family of languages among Northwest Coast indigenous peoples. The Quileute language is one of a kind, as the only related aboriginal people to the Quileute, the Chemakum, were wiped out by Chief Seattle and the Suquamish people during the 1860s. The Quileute language is one of only five known languages that do not have any nasal sounds (m, n). Like many other Northwest Coast groups, in pre-Colonial times the Quileute relied on fishing from local rivers and the Pacific Ocean for food and built plank houses (longhouses) to protect themselves from the harsh, wet winters west of the Cascade Mountains. The Quileutes, along with the people of the Makah tribe, were once great whalers. According to Quileute legend, the spirit warriors were the first to shift from humans into wolves. Quileute population was always small, but they never disappeared since it was believed they had magic in their bloodlines. The Quileute tribe settled in La Push and became efficient fishermen and shipbuilders. As time passed, other peoples coveted their land and moved against them for it. The tribe was small and could not defend themselves, so they took their ships and left the land. At sea, Kaheleha used the magic in their blood to defend it. He was the first Spirit Chief in Quileute history. He and all the men left the ships in spirit only, using the original power of Quileute Astral Projection, leaving their bodies behind under the care of the women. Though they could not physically hurt the enemy, the warriors had other ways. They blew fierce winds into enemy camps; they could make great screaming in the wind and could manipulate animals to do their bidding. Animals were the only ones that could see them and help. The invading tribe had packs of thick-furred dogs to pull their sleds in the north, and which were set against them. Bats were brought out of the cliff caverns. As a result, the dogs and bats won and the survivors of the invaders scattered thinking the harbor cursed. The Quileutes released the dogs, who ran wild, and returned to their bodies victorious. The Hohs and the Makahs made treaties with the Quileutes because they wanted nothing to do with their magic. Chief Taha AkiEdit Generations passed and the last of the great Spirit Chiefs came to be. Taha Aki was a man of peace and was known for his wisdom. However, there was one man named Utlapa who believed that they should use their magic to expand their control over the Hohs and the Makahs, building an empire. When the spirit warriors left their bodies their minds were all connected with each other. Taha Aki did not like what Utlapa wanted and banned him from the tribe. Utlapa left and hid in the nearby forest. Taha Aki was vigilant and protected his people even when there was no danger. Every so often, the Spirit Chief would leave the village to a sacred and secret place in the mountains. He would leave his body behind and searched the surrounding areas for any dangers or threats. One day, Utlapa followed Taha Aki planning to kill him, but as he waited for him to leave his body he hatched another plan. Utlapa left his body, took Taha Aki's body, and killed his own. Taha Aki knew immediately what was happening when Utlapa joined him in the spirit world. He raced back to his sacred place but was too late. He followed his body in his spirit self down to the tribe. For weeks he watched with despair as Utlapa made sure everyone believed he was Taha Aki. Then Utlapa's first edict came: no warrior was to enter the spirit world because he had a vision of danger, but in truth he was afraid of Taha Aki. Utlapa took liberties with the tribe that no one ever dreamed of. He took a second and a third wife, even though Taha Aki's wife still lived. Eventually, Taha Aki brought a great wolf down the mountains to kill Utlapa and free the tribe, but Utlapa only hid from it behind his warriors. The wolf ended up killing a young man, making Taha Aki's grief greater. Taha Aki had been away from his body long enough to be in agony. He felt doomed of never being ever to cross the line between life and death. The great wolf followed him through the forest and Taha Aki felt jealous of the animal; at least it had a body and a life. At that moment the Spirit Chief had an idea that changed the future of the Quileutes. He asked the animal if he could share his body with him and the wolf complied. As a single being, the wolf and the man went to the village. The people feared the wolf, shouting for the warriors' help. The warriors came with spears in their hands, but they stopped in surprise of what the wolf was doing: the wolf was retreating from the warriors and trying to yelp the songs of their people. The warriors realized what it was doing and could only think that it was being influenced by a spirit. An old warrior, Yut, disobeyed the orders of the false chief and left his body. Yut gathered the truth in an instant and welcomed Taha Aki. Almost instantly, Utlapa realized what had happened and raced towards Yut's body with his knife. The other warriors were confused. Yut went back into his body but could not fight Utlapa off before warning the others, as he was too old. Taha Aki watched as Yut's spirit left the world and he returned to the wolf's body feeling a great rage. The wolf shuddered and transformed into a man before the eyes of the warriors. The man did not look like Taha Aki's body, but like his spirit self, which the warriors recognized instantly. Utlapa tried to run but Taha Aki had the strength of the wolf and killed him. Upon realization of what had happened, everything returned to normal. The only change he kept in place was the forbidding of spirit travel. From then on he was known as the Great Wolf or the Spirit Man. He led the tribe for many years because he did not age. He fathered many sons, who in time found that they too could turn into wolves on reaching manhood. However, they were all different because the wolf form reflected the spirit of the man. Some became warriors like Taha Aki and did not age, others did not like to transform, and started to age. The Third Wife's sacrificeEdit After Taha Aki gave up his spirit self, trouble began in the North with the Makahs. Several young women had disappeared and they believed the neighboring wolves were to blame. However, all the wolves knew it was none of them because their minds were still connected with each other. Taha Aki did not want a war, especially since he could not lead his people any longer. He gave his eldest son, Taha Wi, the responsibility of finding who was to blame. Taha Wi led five wolves in search through mountains looking for evidence but they only found a strange, sweet scent. They followed it and the journey took them so far north that Taha Wi sent the two younger brothers back to inform the chief. Taha Wi and the other two never returned. A year later, two Makah maidens were taken from their homes on the same night and the Makahs called upon the wolves. The Quileutes found the same sweet scent and went on the hunt once more. Only one of them returned. Yaha Uta, the eldest son of Taha Aki's third wife, returned carrying strange cold pieces of a corpse. He described what had happened to his brothers. One of them underestimated the strength of the creature and became a victim. Yaha Uta and his other brother were more careful but the creature matched their movements and got his hands on one of them. Yaha Uta found an opening on the creature's throat and began tearing at him desperately trying to save his brother. It was too late but he succeeded in ripping his enemy apart. Yaha Uta laid the remains of the creature on the ground to be examined. Suddenly the corpse began to attach itself together and so the elders set fire to it. They spread the ashes far and wide, except a small bag which Taha Aki wore around his neck to be warned if the creature ever decided to get himself together again. The creature was called the Cold One and the Blood Drinker. They feared there were others like it since they only had one wolf protector left. Then came the Cold Woman, its mate. She was the most beautiful creature to be seen, though one small boy claimed the smell hurt his nose. An elder heard this and yelled for them to get away. He was the first to die at the mercy of the woman. She then proceeded to the other people until Yaha Uta arrived, followed by Taha Aki, his third wife, and the elders. When Yaha Uta was defeated, Taha Aki turned into an old gray wolf with the strength given by his anger alone. He began fighting the Cold Woman, when his third wife came to a conclusion. She had just seen her son killed and now her husband ran a terrible danger, along with the rest of her sons and tribe. She heard every word the witnesses told the council and heard Yaha Uta's version of events the night the other one was beaten. She knew that his brother's divergence had saved him. She grabbed a knife from one of her sons, ran towards the blood drinker and stabbed herself in the heart. The Cold Woman could not turn away from the fresh blood and gave in to the thirst. Taha Aki bit her throat and finished her off along with two of his sons who felt such rage at seeing their mother dead that they turned into wolves. After that, Taha Aki never returned to his human self, staying to protect his wife's body and leaving to the forest never to return to the tribe. Taha Aki's descendants no longer turned to wolves when they reached manhood. Only when a cold one was near would they return. The cold ones always came in one or two so the pack stayed small with 3 wolves until a bigger coven came. The leader of the coven spoke to Ephraim Black as if he were a man and promised not to harm the Quileutes. His strange yellow eyes gave proof of this, and a treaty was offered to the tribe even though there was no need—they outnumbered the wolves and could have won easily if they fought. Ephraim accepted and the coven's numbers forced a larger pack than before. Over the years, the coven left and returned to Forks but always kept true to their word and did not harm the tribe. It was said that Carlisle Cullen was the one who talked to Ephraim and made the promise. The new packsEdit In the latest generation, the new pack was formed after the descendants encountered vampires and consisted of 10 wolves. In late 2006, the pack split in two after the rightful successor, Jacob Black, broke from the pack and formed one of his own. At the end of the year, due to a fateful gathering of vampires who visited the nearby lands, new wolves unintentionally emerged, increasing the packs' numbers to 17 wolves. This made the biggest packs in Quileute history. Life and Death: Twilight ReimaginedEdit In Life and Death: Twilight Reimagined—the alternate story of Twilight, the tribe's history is altered to consisting of female warriors. Notable Quileutes include Julie Black and her mother, Bonnie Black. In the latest generation, the new pack was formed after the descendants encountered vampires and consisted of 3 wolves, but is expected to expand.	<urn:uuid:0f92d38b-3c1d-450e-866c-aba25a832e8e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://twilightsaga.fandom.com/wiki/Quileute_tribe	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00111.warc.gz	en	0.987391	2,673	3.671875	4	[ -0.05966499447822571, 0.22778473794460297, -0.05471789836883545, 0.11589092016220093, -0.4973341226577759, -0.016378365457057953, 0.3134118318557739, -0.04966191202402115, -0.0048757633194327354, -0.08139923214912415, 0.4699776768684387, -0.35567617416381836, 0.07072941213846207, 0.1407511...	4	- "Another legend claims that we descended from wolves and that the wolves are our brothers still. It's against tribal law to kill them." - ―Jacob explaining the Quileutes to Bella[src] The Quileute tribe are a Native American people, currently numbering approximately 750. The Quileute (also spelled Quillayute) people settled onto the Quileute Indian Reservation after signing the Treaty of Quinault River of 1855 (later reauthorized as the treaty of Olympia in 1856) with the United States of America. The reservation is located near the southwest corner of Clallam County, Washington at the mouth of the Quileute River on the Pacific coast. The reservation's main population center is the community of La Push, Washington. The 2000 census reported an official resident population of 371 persons on the reservation, which has a land area of 4.061 km² (1.5678 sq mi, or 1,003.4 acres). They have their own government that consists of a Tribal council with staggered terms. The Quileute tribe linguistically belongs to the Chimakuan family of languages among Northwest Coast indigenous peoples. The Quileute language is one of a kind, as the only related aboriginal people to the Quileute, the Chemakum, were wiped out by Chief Seattle and the Suquamish people during the 1860s. The Quileute language is one of only five known languages that do not have any nasal sounds (m, n). Like many other Northwest Coast groups, in pre-Colonial times the Quileute relied on fishing from local rivers and the Pacific Ocean for food and built plank houses (longhouses) to protect themselves from the harsh, wet winters west of the Cascade Mountains. The Quileutes, along with the people of the Makah tribe, were once great whalers. According to Quileute legend, the spirit warriors were the first to shift from humans into wolves. Quileute population was always small, but they never disappeared since it was believed they had magic in their bloodlines. The Quileute tribe settled in La Push and became efficient fishermen and shipbuilders. As time passed, other peoples coveted their land and moved against them for it. The tribe was small and could not defend themselves, so they took their ships and left the land. At sea, Kaheleha used the magic in their blood to defend it. He was the first Spirit Chief in Quileute history. He and all the men left the ships in spirit only, using the original power of Quileute Astral Projection, leaving their bodies behind under the care of the women. Though they could not physically hurt the enemy, the warriors had other ways. They blew fierce winds into enemy camps; they could make great screaming in the wind and could manipulate animals to do their bidding. Animals were the only ones that could see them and help. The invading tribe had packs of thick-furred dogs to pull their sleds in the north, and which were set against them. Bats were brought out of the cliff caverns. As a result, the dogs and bats won and the survivors of the invaders scattered thinking the harbor cursed. The Quileutes released the dogs, who ran wild, and returned to their bodies victorious. The Hohs and the Makahs made treaties with the Quileutes because they wanted nothing to do with their magic. Chief Taha AkiEdit Generations passed and the last of the great Spirit Chiefs came to be. Taha Aki was a man of peace and was known for his wisdom. However, there was one man named Utlapa who believed that they should use their magic to expand their control over the Hohs and the Makahs, building an empire. When the spirit warriors left their bodies their minds were all connected with each other. Taha Aki did not like what Utlapa wanted and banned him from the tribe. Utlapa left and hid in the nearby forest. Taha Aki was vigilant and protected his people even when there was no danger. Every so often, the Spirit Chief would leave the village to a sacred and secret place in the mountains. He would leave his body behind and searched the surrounding areas for any dangers or threats. One day, Utlapa followed Taha Aki planning to kill him, but as he waited for him to leave his body he hatched another plan. Utlapa left his body, took Taha Aki's body, and killed his own. Taha Aki knew immediately what was happening when Utlapa joined him in the spirit world. He raced back to his sacred place but was too late. He followed his body in his spirit self down to the tribe. For weeks he watched with despair as Utlapa made sure everyone believed he was Taha Aki. Then Utlapa's first edict came: no warrior was to enter the spirit world because he had a vision of danger, but in truth he was afraid of Taha Aki. Utlapa took liberties with the tribe that no one ever dreamed of. He took a second and a third wife, even though Taha Aki's wife still lived. Eventually, Taha Aki brought a great wolf down the mountains to kill Utlapa and free the tribe, but Utlapa only hid from it behind his warriors. The wolf ended up killing a young man, making Taha Aki's grief greater. Taha Aki had been away from his body long enough to be in agony. He felt doomed of never being ever to cross the line between life and death. The great wolf followed him through the forest and Taha Aki felt jealous of the animal; at least it had a body and a life. At that moment the Spirit Chief had an idea that changed the future of the Quileutes. He asked the animal if he could share his body with him and the wolf complied. As a single being, the wolf and the man went to the village. The people feared the wolf, shouting for the warriors' help. The warriors came with spears in their hands, but they stopped in surprise of what the wolf was doing: the wolf was retreating from the warriors and trying to yelp the songs of their people. The warriors realized what it was doing and could only think that it was being influenced by a spirit. An old warrior, Yut, disobeyed the orders of the false chief and left his body. Yut gathered the truth in an instant and welcomed Taha Aki. Almost instantly, Utlapa realized what had happened and raced towards Yut's body with his knife. The other warriors were confused. Yut went back into his body but could not fight Utlapa off before warning the others, as he was too old. Taha Aki watched as Yut's spirit left the world and he returned to the wolf's body feeling a great rage. The wolf shuddered and transformed into a man before the eyes of the warriors. The man did not look like Taha Aki's body, but like his spirit self, which the warriors recognized instantly. Utlapa tried to run but Taha Aki had the strength of the wolf and killed him. Upon realization of what had happened, everything returned to normal. The only change he kept in place was the forbidding of spirit travel. From then on he was known as the Great Wolf or the Spirit Man. He led the tribe for many years because he did not age. He fathered many sons, who in time found that they too could turn into wolves on reaching manhood. However, they were all different because the wolf form reflected the spirit of the man. Some became warriors like Taha Aki and did not age, others did not like to transform, and started to age. The Third Wife's sacrificeEdit After Taha Aki gave up his spirit self, trouble began in the North with the Makahs. Several young women had disappeared and they believed the neighboring wolves were to blame. However, all the wolves knew it was none of them because their minds were still connected with each other. Taha Aki did not want a war, especially since he could not lead his people any longer. He gave his eldest son, Taha Wi, the responsibility of finding who was to blame. Taha Wi led five wolves in search through mountains looking for evidence but they only found a strange, sweet scent. They followed it and the journey took them so far north that Taha Wi sent the two younger brothers back to inform the chief. Taha Wi and the other two never returned. A year later, two Makah maidens were taken from their homes on the same night and the Makahs called upon the wolves. The Quileutes found the same sweet scent and went on the hunt once more. Only one of them returned. Yaha Uta, the eldest son of Taha Aki's third wife, returned carrying strange cold pieces of a corpse. He described what had happened to his brothers. One of them underestimated the strength of the creature and became a victim. Yaha Uta and his other brother were more careful but the creature matched their movements and got his hands on one of them. Yaha Uta found an opening on the creature's throat and began tearing at him desperately trying to save his brother. It was too late but he succeeded in ripping his enemy apart. Yaha Uta laid the remains of the creature on the ground to be examined. Suddenly the corpse began to attach itself together and so the elders set fire to it. They spread the ashes far and wide, except a small bag which Taha Aki wore around his neck to be warned if the creature ever decided to get himself together again. The creature was called the Cold One and the Blood Drinker. They feared there were others like it since they only had one wolf protector left. Then came the Cold Woman, its mate. She was the most beautiful creature to be seen, though one small boy claimed the smell hurt his nose. An elder heard this and yelled for them to get away. He was the first to die at the mercy of the woman. She then proceeded to the other people until Yaha Uta arrived, followed by Taha Aki, his third wife, and the elders. When Yaha Uta was defeated, Taha Aki turned into an old gray wolf with the strength given by his anger alone. He began fighting the Cold Woman, when his third wife came to a conclusion. She had just seen her son killed and now her husband ran a terrible danger, along with the rest of her sons and tribe. She heard every word the witnesses told the council and heard Yaha Uta's version of events the night the other one was beaten. She knew that his brother's divergence had saved him. She grabbed a knife from one of her sons, ran towards the blood drinker and stabbed herself in the heart. The Cold Woman could not turn away from the fresh blood and gave in to the thirst. Taha Aki bit her throat and finished her off along with two of his sons who felt such rage at seeing their mother dead that they turned into wolves. After that, Taha Aki never returned to his human self, staying to protect his wife's body and leaving to the forest never to return to the tribe. Taha Aki's descendants no longer turned to wolves when they reached manhood. Only when a cold one was near would they return. The cold ones always came in one or two so the pack stayed small with 3 wolves until a bigger coven came. The leader of the coven spoke to Ephraim Black as if he were a man and promised not to harm the Quileutes. His strange yellow eyes gave proof of this, and a treaty was offered to the tribe even though there was no need—they outnumbered the wolves and could have won easily if they fought. Ephraim accepted and the coven's numbers forced a larger pack than before. Over the years, the coven left and returned to Forks but always kept true to their word and did not harm the tribe. It was said that Carlisle Cullen was the one who talked to Ephraim and made the promise. The new packsEdit In the latest generation, the new pack was formed after the descendants encountered vampires and consisted of 10 wolves. In late 2006, the pack split in two after the rightful successor, Jacob Black, broke from the pack and formed one of his own. At the end of the year, due to a fateful gathering of vampires who visited the nearby lands, new wolves unintentionally emerged, increasing the packs' numbers to 17 wolves. This made the biggest packs in Quileute history. Life and Death: Twilight ReimaginedEdit In Life and Death: Twilight Reimagined—the alternate story of Twilight, the tribe's history is altered to consisting of female warriors. Notable Quileutes include Julie Black and her mother, Bonnie Black. In the latest generation, the new pack was formed after the descendants encountered vampires and consisted of 3 wolves, but is expected to expand.	2,718	ENGLISH	1
Happy Saturnalia to all! December 17 marked the beginning of Saturnalia, one of the most popular festivals in Ancient Rome. The midwinter celebrations lasted for several days (the number changed through the Roman era) and it was a time of feasting, partying, playing games, gift-giving and role-reversal. It was the merriest festival of the year and all work and business were suspended. Long awaited, the seven Saturnalia are now at hand. (Macrobius, Saturnalia, I.10.3) Saturnalia originated as a farmer’s festival to mark the end of the autumn planting season in honour of Saturnus and, despite Livy’s claim that the festival was established in 496 BC, there is evidence that it began much earlier. Originally the festival was celebrated on a single day, on the fourteenth before the Kalends of January (December 19), but it was later extended to three days. With the Julian reform of the calendar, Saturnalia was celebrated sixteen days before the Kalends of January (December 17). However, by the end of the Republic the festival was so popular that it expanded to cover a week. The emperor Augustus would shorten it to a three-day holiday during his reign but Caligula later extended it to five days. According to the author Macrobius, the celebration of Saturnalia was extended with the Sigallaria on the 10th day before the Kalends (December 23) so named for the small terracotta figurines which were sold in Roman shops and given as gifts to children. Saturnalia was described by 1st century AD poet Gaius Valerius Catullus as “the best of days”. It was certainly the most popular holiday in the Roman calendar. The god Saturnus, who gave his name to the festival, was regarded as chief of the Roman gods. The Romans equated him with the Greek agricultural deity Kronos. Exiled from Olympus by Zeus, Saturnus ruled Latium in a happy and innocent “golden age”, a time when peace, harmony and prosperity prevailed. Depictions of the god in surviving art show him as a bearded man wearing a veil and brandishing a sickle or a scythe (the symbols of his agricultural function). In Rome, the celebrations began with a sacrifice at the Temple of Saturnus located at the western end of the Forum Romanum and thought to be the oldest Roman temple. Following the sacrifice, a lectisternium was held by placing the deity’s image on a sumptuous couch (lectus) with tables and offerings before him, as if Saturnus was really partaking of the things offered in sacrifice and participating in the festivities. The cult statue of Saturnus was usually tied together with wool throughout the year but during his festival it was freed from his chains as an act of liberation. A public banquet followed (convivium publicum). After the official rituals, the celebrants would go out to the streets and shout the holiday greeting ‘IO Saturnalia’. It was followed by several days of feasting and fun. To celebrate the festive season in style, I made my own Saturnalia altar. Hadrian is wearing the pilleum, as was the tradition during the festival. These pointy hats were traditionally worn by freedmen but during Saturnalia all men, regardless of status, wore the pilleum. Hadrian is set among foliage, holly (sacred to Saturn), pine leaves, candles and images of the god Saturn. During the winter festival, the Romans decorated their homes with greenery. Garlands and evergreen wreaths bearing red berries were hung over doorways and windows. Images of the god Saturn were placed around the altar, candles were lit and a suckling pig was sacrificed to the god. In addition to the large-scale public feasts at the Temple of Saturnus, there was lots of eating and drinking at home and slaves were allowed to join in. All schools were closed and most businesses were suspended. Dress codes were relaxed and the whole population ditch the traditional toga in favour of something more relax and comfortable. Men and women would dress in brightly coloured tunics called synthesis (meaning “put together”), creating a carnivalesque atmosphere. Children could play at home and received toys as gifts. Saturnalia also saw the inversion of social roles. For example, slaves were permitted to dine with their masters and even demand to be served by them. Adults would also serve children. People would wear a cap of freedom (the pilleum) which was usually worn by slaves who had been set free. Slaves, who ordinarily were not entitled to wear the pilleum, wore it as well, so that everyone enjoyed the same status. It was a time of free speech -the poet Horace calls it “December liberty”- and slaves were even allowed to disobey a command without being punished. Instead of working, slaves could spend their time playing dice and other games, drinking, feasting and enjoying themselves. Gambling and dice-playing in public, normally forbidden, were permitted for all during Saturnalia. Children usually used nuts as gambling tokens. …during my week the serious is barred; no business allowed. Drinking and being drunk, noise and games and dice, appointing of kings and feasting of slaves, singing naked, clapping of tremulous hands, an occasional ducking of corked faces in icy water,–such are the functions over which I preside. Lucian, Vol. IV: Saturnalia On the first day of Saturnalia, a Princeps Saturnalia was appointed among the whole household by throwing the dice. The King of Saturnalia presided over and could command people to do things like to prepare a banquet or sing a song. According to Tacitus (Annals 13.15), the young Nero played that role and mockingly commanded his younger step-brother Britannicus to sing. The last day of Saturnalia (23rd December) was a day of gift-giving when candles as well as small clay or wax figurines (sigillariae) were exchanged as gifts. Other presents could be given too. In his many poems about Saturnalia, Martial names both expensive and cheap gifts, including writing tablets, dice, knucklebones, moneyboxes, combs, toothpicks, a hat, a lyre, a hunting knife, oil lamps, perfumes, pipes, a pig, a parrot, a Priapus made of pastry, wine cups and spoons. The Emperor Augustus was particularly fond of gag gifts while Hadrian often surprised his friends with presents. At the Saturnalia and Sigillaria he [Hadrian] often surprised his friends with presents, and he gladly received gifts from them and again gave others in return. Historia Augusta – The Life of Hadrian Not everyone embraced the spirit of Saturnalia! Pliny the Younger revealed in a letter that he was not such a merrymaker and said “when I retire to this garden summer-house, I fancy myself a hundred miles away from my villa, and take special pleasure in it at the feast of the Saturnalia, when, by the license of that festive season, every other part of my house resounds with my servants’ mirth: thus I neither interrupt their amusement nor they my studies.” Two days after the end of Saturnalia, on December 25th, the Romans observed the birthday of the major imperial deity Sol Invictus, the Unconquered Sun-god, whose resurgence on the winter solstice initiated the daily increase in the hours of sunlight. In the last few years, the tradition at home has been to organise a small banquet on the occasion. I love ancient Roman food and at these banquets I served ancient Roman dishes. Everything has been so delicious so far! Here are some photos of my 2017 Saturnalia feast.	<urn:uuid:7d9a3e0b-f559-4ef1-bf13-00edc8cae13d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://followinghadrian.com/2017/12/17/io-saturnalia-2/?like_comment=11041&_wpnonce=71821e847a	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00151.warc.gz	en	0.981632	1,647	3.359375	3	[ 0.21790963411331177, 0.4593755006790161, 0.417272686958313, -0.17585819959640503, -0.7224069833755493, -0.08002477884292603, 0.17436139285564423, 0.24457360804080963, -0.2712787389755249, -0.16130369901657104, 0.10576758533716202, 0.13114580512046814, 0.053398147225379944, 0.50557029247283...	6	Happy Saturnalia to all! December 17 marked the beginning of Saturnalia, one of the most popular festivals in Ancient Rome. The midwinter celebrations lasted for several days (the number changed through the Roman era) and it was a time of feasting, partying, playing games, gift-giving and role-reversal. It was the merriest festival of the year and all work and business were suspended. Long awaited, the seven Saturnalia are now at hand. (Macrobius, Saturnalia, I.10.3) Saturnalia originated as a farmer’s festival to mark the end of the autumn planting season in honour of Saturnus and, despite Livy’s claim that the festival was established in 496 BC, there is evidence that it began much earlier. Originally the festival was celebrated on a single day, on the fourteenth before the Kalends of January (December 19), but it was later extended to three days. With the Julian reform of the calendar, Saturnalia was celebrated sixteen days before the Kalends of January (December 17). However, by the end of the Republic the festival was so popular that it expanded to cover a week. The emperor Augustus would shorten it to a three-day holiday during his reign but Caligula later extended it to five days. According to the author Macrobius, the celebration of Saturnalia was extended with the Sigallaria on the 10th day before the Kalends (December 23) so named for the small terracotta figurines which were sold in Roman shops and given as gifts to children. Saturnalia was described by 1st century AD poet Gaius Valerius Catullus as “the best of days”. It was certainly the most popular holiday in the Roman calendar. The god Saturnus, who gave his name to the festival, was regarded as chief of the Roman gods. The Romans equated him with the Greek agricultural deity Kronos. Exiled from Olympus by Zeus, Saturnus ruled Latium in a happy and innocent “golden age”, a time when peace, harmony and prosperity prevailed. Depictions of the god in surviving art show him as a bearded man wearing a veil and brandishing a sickle or a scythe (the symbols of his agricultural function). In Rome, the celebrations began with a sacrifice at the Temple of Saturnus located at the western end of the Forum Romanum and thought to be the oldest Roman temple. Following the sacrifice, a lectisternium was held by placing the deity’s image on a sumptuous couch (lectus) with tables and offerings before him, as if Saturnus was really partaking of the things offered in sacrifice and participating in the festivities. The cult statue of Saturnus was usually tied together with wool throughout the year but during his festival it was freed from his chains as an act of liberation. A public banquet followed (convivium publicum). After the official rituals, the celebrants would go out to the streets and shout the holiday greeting ‘IO Saturnalia’. It was followed by several days of feasting and fun. To celebrate the festive season in style, I made my own Saturnalia altar. Hadrian is wearing the pilleum, as was the tradition during the festival. These pointy hats were traditionally worn by freedmen but during Saturnalia all men, regardless of status, wore the pilleum. Hadrian is set among foliage, holly (sacred to Saturn), pine leaves, candles and images of the god Saturn. During the winter festival, the Romans decorated their homes with greenery. Garlands and evergreen wreaths bearing red berries were hung over doorways and windows. Images of the god Saturn were placed around the altar, candles were lit and a suckling pig was sacrificed to the god. In addition to the large-scale public feasts at the Temple of Saturnus, there was lots of eating and drinking at home and slaves were allowed to join in. All schools were closed and most businesses were suspended. Dress codes were relaxed and the whole population ditch the traditional toga in favour of something more relax and comfortable. Men and women would dress in brightly coloured tunics called synthesis (meaning “put together”), creating a carnivalesque atmosphere. Children could play at home and received toys as gifts. Saturnalia also saw the inversion of social roles. For example, slaves were permitted to dine with their masters and even demand to be served by them. Adults would also serve children. People would wear a cap of freedom (the pilleum) which was usually worn by slaves who had been set free. Slaves, who ordinarily were not entitled to wear the pilleum, wore it as well, so that everyone enjoyed the same status. It was a time of free speech -the poet Horace calls it “December liberty”- and slaves were even allowed to disobey a command without being punished. Instead of working, slaves could spend their time playing dice and other games, drinking, feasting and enjoying themselves. Gambling and dice-playing in public, normally forbidden, were permitted for all during Saturnalia. Children usually used nuts as gambling tokens. …during my week the serious is barred; no business allowed. Drinking and being drunk, noise and games and dice, appointing of kings and feasting of slaves, singing naked, clapping of tremulous hands, an occasional ducking of corked faces in icy water,–such are the functions over which I preside. Lucian, Vol. IV: Saturnalia On the first day of Saturnalia, a Princeps Saturnalia was appointed among the whole household by throwing the dice. The King of Saturnalia presided over and could command people to do things like to prepare a banquet or sing a song. According to Tacitus (Annals 13.15), the young Nero played that role and mockingly commanded his younger step-brother Britannicus to sing. The last day of Saturnalia (23rd December) was a day of gift-giving when candles as well as small clay or wax figurines (sigillariae) were exchanged as gifts. Other presents could be given too. In his many poems about Saturnalia, Martial names both expensive and cheap gifts, including writing tablets, dice, knucklebones, moneyboxes, combs, toothpicks, a hat, a lyre, a hunting knife, oil lamps, perfumes, pipes, a pig, a parrot, a Priapus made of pastry, wine cups and spoons. The Emperor Augustus was particularly fond of gag gifts while Hadrian often surprised his friends with presents. At the Saturnalia and Sigillaria he [Hadrian] often surprised his friends with presents, and he gladly received gifts from them and again gave others in return. Historia Augusta – The Life of Hadrian Not everyone embraced the spirit of Saturnalia! Pliny the Younger revealed in a letter that he was not such a merrymaker and said “when I retire to this garden summer-house, I fancy myself a hundred miles away from my villa, and take special pleasure in it at the feast of the Saturnalia, when, by the license of that festive season, every other part of my house resounds with my servants’ mirth: thus I neither interrupt their amusement nor they my studies.” Two days after the end of Saturnalia, on December 25th, the Romans observed the birthday of the major imperial deity Sol Invictus, the Unconquered Sun-god, whose resurgence on the winter solstice initiated the daily increase in the hours of sunlight. In the last few years, the tradition at home has been to organise a small banquet on the occasion. I love ancient Roman food and at these banquets I served ancient Roman dishes. Everything has been so delicious so far! Here are some photos of my 2017 Saturnalia feast.	1,624	ENGLISH	1
Matthew Seligmann, Brunel University London, revisits the fine lines that were drawn between commercial vessel and war ship by both sides in WWI When the United Kingdom went to war in August, 1914, the British Admiralty immediately notified the Cunard shipping company of its intention to requisition the fast luxury liners, Lusitania and Mauretania. This was no spur-of-the-moment decision, but reflected policy of a decade previously. In 1903, under the terms of the so-called Cunard agreement, the British government had lent funds at preferential rates to Cunard and had paid them a large annual subsidy, so they would build and run two transatlantic liners to Admiralty requirements. The ships had to be capable of a speed in excess of 24 knots. Cunard accepted this generous offer. As a result, its fleet was enhanced with two high-profile vessels, both of which set new standards of luxury and both of which vied for the Blue Riband, the accolade awarded for the fastest transatlantic crossing. But what did the British government get out of this arrangement? Seemingly very little, with the result that many commentators have concluded that the Cunard Agreement was little more than a government subsidy to give a British company a competitive advantage in the cut-throat Atlantic shipping business. The reality was somewhat different. While there was satisfaction in official circles that Cunard stole a march on international rivals, such as the American-owned International Mercantile Marine and the German-run Hamburg America company and the Norddeutsche Lloyd, this was not the prime motivation for the agreement, which was rooted in military considerations. In 1901, Britain’s Naval Intelligence Department had begun to focus on the threat to Britain of the rise of German maritime power The expansion of the German battle fleet played a major part in this, but so, too, did the size and shape of the German merchant marine. In 1901, Germany’s merchant navy was second to Britain’s in terms of total tonnage, but it was ahead of Britain’s in the number of very fast vessels. Nothing made this clearer than ownership of the Blue Riband. Apart from a brief interlude in the early 1850s, this award had been held continuously by British-flagged vessels since 1838. However, this all ended in 1898, when the riband was won by the NDL liner, Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse. In the years thereafter, competition for this prestigious prize was solely between German vessels. This was a blow to British prestige, but it also had a military dimension. Germany’s express steamers, although unarmed in peacetime, were designed and built to mount guns. Consequently, on the outbreak of war, all that it would take to turn one of these ‘ocean greyhounds’ into an auxiliary cruiser was a document commissioning the vessel as a warship — this could be held in a sealed envelope in the ship’s safe, ready to be opened upon need; a naval officer ready to take command — hardly problematic, as many German merchant naval officers had reserve commissions in the Imperial Navy; and some guns to mount — which could easily be transferred from a warship after a secret rendezvous in some isolated spot. The new addition to the Kaiser’s navy could then begin operations. In the case of a converted liner, this meant commerce raiding, in particular the hunting of British-flagged merchant vessels to capture and sink. Given that the German liners were the fastest transatlantic merchant ships afloat, this was no idle threat. As one anxious Admiralty official advised in early 1902, if armed the fast German liners would be able to ‘destroy everything weaker than herself, i.e., the whole of the British Mercantile Marine’. And, worse still, the Royal Navy had no warships fast enough to catch them. This was where the Cunard Agreement came in. In 1902, foreign competition was pushing Cunard hard and making an upgrade of its fleet desirable. However, while fast liners had a certain cache, the higher cost of building them, and then running them at the fastest speeds, was not a good commercial proposition. Left to its own devices, Cunard was not going to build a rival to the German express steamers. However, it was not left to its own devices. In July, 1902, the First Lord of the Admiralty, aware that ‘we have no ships existing or projected … which could catch these four German steamers’, decided there was only one practical solution: ‘subsidising merchant cruisers to be specially built to match these German boats, and slightly improve upon their speed.’ Cunard’s need was thus the Admiralty’s opportunity. After protracted negotiations and a hefty financial incentive, Cunard agreed to build two new ships for rapid conversion into auxiliary cruisers that, being faster than their German counterparts, could run them down. The ships were Lusitania and Mauretania. Thus, when war came in August, 1914, these vessels, which had been designed from the first for rapid conversion into auxiliary cruisers, were promptly called up by the Royal Navy. Yet, although the Germans did convert some of their liners into commerce raiders — the Kronprinz Wilhelm managing an impressive 250-day, 37,666-mile voyage, during which it sank 15 allied vessels — by 1914 ships such as Lusitania were no longer the best answer. Before her transformation into a warship could be completed, the Admiralty decided that what it needed was not fast liners, but ones with high endurance. Accordingly, Lusitania was released back into merchant service. Even more ironically, this ship, purpose-built to combat a German threat to British commerce, would then become the most high-profile victim of a new threat to British commerce, the submarine. When the war came, these fast vessels were called up by the Royal Navy © Irish Examiner Ltd. All rights reserved	<urn:uuid:fffe408d-eac5-4108-8910-465c7c05876a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.irishexaminer.com/lusitania/was-it-a-warship-or-a-passenger-ship-328205.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00338.warc.gz	en	0.981375	1,269	3.328125	3	[ 0.16411593556404114, 0.06060232222080231, 0.12200072407722473, -0.3888431787490845, -0.02562992088496685, -0.11018028855323792, -0.20665103197097778, -0.040735162794589996, 0.06839922070503235, -0.21724635362625122, 0.10059136152267456, -0.49633121490478516, -0.007334315683692694, 0.263024...	1	Matthew Seligmann, Brunel University London, revisits the fine lines that were drawn between commercial vessel and war ship by both sides in WWI When the United Kingdom went to war in August, 1914, the British Admiralty immediately notified the Cunard shipping company of its intention to requisition the fast luxury liners, Lusitania and Mauretania. This was no spur-of-the-moment decision, but reflected policy of a decade previously. In 1903, under the terms of the so-called Cunard agreement, the British government had lent funds at preferential rates to Cunard and had paid them a large annual subsidy, so they would build and run two transatlantic liners to Admiralty requirements. The ships had to be capable of a speed in excess of 24 knots. Cunard accepted this generous offer. As a result, its fleet was enhanced with two high-profile vessels, both of which set new standards of luxury and both of which vied for the Blue Riband, the accolade awarded for the fastest transatlantic crossing. But what did the British government get out of this arrangement? Seemingly very little, with the result that many commentators have concluded that the Cunard Agreement was little more than a government subsidy to give a British company a competitive advantage in the cut-throat Atlantic shipping business. The reality was somewhat different. While there was satisfaction in official circles that Cunard stole a march on international rivals, such as the American-owned International Mercantile Marine and the German-run Hamburg America company and the Norddeutsche Lloyd, this was not the prime motivation for the agreement, which was rooted in military considerations. In 1901, Britain’s Naval Intelligence Department had begun to focus on the threat to Britain of the rise of German maritime power The expansion of the German battle fleet played a major part in this, but so, too, did the size and shape of the German merchant marine. In 1901, Germany’s merchant navy was second to Britain’s in terms of total tonnage, but it was ahead of Britain’s in the number of very fast vessels. Nothing made this clearer than ownership of the Blue Riband. Apart from a brief interlude in the early 1850s, this award had been held continuously by British-flagged vessels since 1838. However, this all ended in 1898, when the riband was won by the NDL liner, Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse. In the years thereafter, competition for this prestigious prize was solely between German vessels. This was a blow to British prestige, but it also had a military dimension. Germany’s express steamers, although unarmed in peacetime, were designed and built to mount guns. Consequently, on the outbreak of war, all that it would take to turn one of these ‘ocean greyhounds’ into an auxiliary cruiser was a document commissioning the vessel as a warship — this could be held in a sealed envelope in the ship’s safe, ready to be opened upon need; a naval officer ready to take command — hardly problematic, as many German merchant naval officers had reserve commissions in the Imperial Navy; and some guns to mount — which could easily be transferred from a warship after a secret rendezvous in some isolated spot. The new addition to the Kaiser’s navy could then begin operations. In the case of a converted liner, this meant commerce raiding, in particular the hunting of British-flagged merchant vessels to capture and sink. Given that the German liners were the fastest transatlantic merchant ships afloat, this was no idle threat. As one anxious Admiralty official advised in early 1902, if armed the fast German liners would be able to ‘destroy everything weaker than herself, i.e., the whole of the British Mercantile Marine’. And, worse still, the Royal Navy had no warships fast enough to catch them. This was where the Cunard Agreement came in. In 1902, foreign competition was pushing Cunard hard and making an upgrade of its fleet desirable. However, while fast liners had a certain cache, the higher cost of building them, and then running them at the fastest speeds, was not a good commercial proposition. Left to its own devices, Cunard was not going to build a rival to the German express steamers. However, it was not left to its own devices. In July, 1902, the First Lord of the Admiralty, aware that ‘we have no ships existing or projected … which could catch these four German steamers’, decided there was only one practical solution: ‘subsidising merchant cruisers to be specially built to match these German boats, and slightly improve upon their speed.’ Cunard’s need was thus the Admiralty’s opportunity. After protracted negotiations and a hefty financial incentive, Cunard agreed to build two new ships for rapid conversion into auxiliary cruisers that, being faster than their German counterparts, could run them down. The ships were Lusitania and Mauretania. Thus, when war came in August, 1914, these vessels, which had been designed from the first for rapid conversion into auxiliary cruisers, were promptly called up by the Royal Navy. Yet, although the Germans did convert some of their liners into commerce raiders — the Kronprinz Wilhelm managing an impressive 250-day, 37,666-mile voyage, during which it sank 15 allied vessels — by 1914 ships such as Lusitania were no longer the best answer. Before her transformation into a warship could be completed, the Admiralty decided that what it needed was not fast liners, but ones with high endurance. Accordingly, Lusitania was released back into merchant service. Even more ironically, this ship, purpose-built to combat a German threat to British commerce, would then become the most high-profile victim of a new threat to British commerce, the submarine. When the war came, these fast vessels were called up by the Royal Navy © Irish Examiner Ltd. All rights reserved	1,266	ENGLISH	1
Overlooked by most histories of the era of early armor, Robert Macfie was a visionary who first pressed the use of tracks to the Landships Committee at a time when ‘big-wheel’ machines were seen as the solution to the problems on the Western Front, namely barbed wire and machine guns. Almost unknown today, Robert Macfie designed what was to be one of the first tracked Landships. Born on 11th November 1881 in San Francisco, the American-born son of a sugar baron, Macfie took an early interest in military matters outside of the family sugar business. Aged just 17 or 18 years old, he enrolled in the Royal Naval Engineering College, at Davenport, England studying naval design. After this, he went back to help with the family’s sugar business before settling in Chicago in 1902. Around this time, he began an interest in aviation and was back in Britain by 1909 building his own aircraft and testing them at Fambridge in Essex. It was during his endeavours in the then brand-new field of aviation that he met Thomas Hetherington, a man later connected with landships in his own right. His attempts at getting into the aviation business, however, were not a success. He was back on the family sugar plantations in the years before the outbreak of war and it was there that he became acquainted with the Holt agricultural tractor. When war was declared in August 1914, Macfie returned to Britain once more. He immediately sought out his contacts from his aviation days advocating for the use of Holt-based tracked vehicles, and was referred on to Commodore Murray Sueter, in charge of the Royal Naval Air Service (R.N.A.S.), which at the time was operating armored cars, the primary mobile armored force for the Army. Macfie had a design for a tracked vehicle sketched out and, even without official sanction or support, was seeking a manufacturer. As such, he approached Mr. Arthur Lang, a well-known manufacturer of propellers, who gave Macfie an introduction to Captain Swann, Director of the Air Department. Armed with the previous referral and a recommendation from Mr. Swann, Macfie got to see Commodore Sueter and presented to him a design for an armored vehicle based upon the Holt agricultural tractor, identified as a ‘caterpillar’. Despite his engineering training and education, he was still an outsider in military terms. Wanting his designs and ideas to be taken seriously, Macfie made what could easily be his greatest professional error. He enlisted in the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve (R.N.V.R.) under a temporary commission as a Sub-Lieutenant in the belief that doing so would provide him with the contacts and credibility or ‘standing’ he might need. What it did though was to stymie his work and pigeon-hole him into armored car work and within a rigid military command hierarchy. On the plus side though, within this hierarchy, his immediate superior officer was his old friend Captain Thomas Hetherington, who he knew from his days with aircraft at Brooklands before the war. The original sketch presented to Sueter in 1914 by Macfie was described as: “triangular in side elevation, with a long base on the ground and a cocked-up nose to help it get a grip on banks or parapets. It even had a pair of trailing wheels aft, to keep it from swinging – just as our tanks had when they went into action two years later” and with a “comparatively long track and a comparatively short nose, and the nose is of such a nature as to give a climb…. There are three wheels, and the caterpillar goes round the third so that you get a flat base and a nose” The vehicle was of a simple outline, being a rectangular box with a flat rear and sides and a wedge shape at the front. Hanging from the front was a large armored panel that descended at the same angle as the glacis until approximately two-thirds of the way down the height of the body. Below this, panel was a hinged flap allowing the tracks to be protected but flexible so as to not interfere with obstacle crossing. At the back of the vehicle was a single fixed propellor intended to provide drive in the water and connected directly to a power take-off from the drive shaft. Drive for the tracks was provided by a single-engine located centrally inside the hull, with the driving position directly behind. Steering for the driver was affected by means of a large steering wheel to his front but connected via a linkage to a pair of retractable trailing wheels at the back fitted with an Ackermann steering system. The vehicle itself was fabricated from a framework to which panels of armor plate were fastened, presumably by means of bolts and rivets but creating a watertight body. This body was buoyant in water and the drawing identifies the metacentric height as very slightly below the centre-line of the vehicle’s body. The most unusual element of the design though was the tracks. Despite being based on the Holt system, the track system designed by Macfie did not use wheels. Instead, it used a unique system whereby the tracklinks were a flattened ‘U’ shape with a square base. The base fitted onto a single smooth track guide running the full circumference of the track unit which was supported by spars, much in the same style of an aircraft. The track was driven though in a similar manner to the Holt system with a large 12-tooth drive sprocket at the back driven by a chain from the transmission located at the back of the vehicle. No armament was specified for the Experimental Armoured Caterpillar, possibly because it was intended to be an experimental vehicle on which a future landship-of-war would be developed. As it stood though, with the driver at the back, it would have required a minimum of at least two men, a driver and a commander (who could see where to go, to operate the vehicle) and then more men for any weapons being carried. Macfie had no success at persuading the authorities to accept his Holt-based caterpillar design, but on 2nd November 1914, whilst working as a Field Repair Officer at Wormwood Scrubs and then the nearby Clement Talbot Works, he saw a clipping from that day’s Daily Mail newspaper. The newspaper had an image showing a Holt Caterpillar in use headed ‘German Convoy entering Antwerp’ with the caterpillars hauling heavy naval guns. This article inspired a report from Macfie on 5th November 1914 to Sueter, once more pressing Macfie’s conviction over the use of tracked vehicles, albeit this time for hauling guns. The plan was not armored though. Effectively, it was a train of 6 Holt tractors working together to haul a 85-ton (86.4 tonnes) load (the weight of a 12-inch naval gun and limber). Further to the gun-hauling idea was that one of these Holt tractors could be gainfully employed in recovering the armored cars of the R.N.A.S., which had a habit of getting stuck when off-road or on what still passed as roads. Sueter, however, had no interest in either option for the Holt tractor, but the die had been cast by Macfie and he had succeeded in convincing Hetherington of the validity of his ideas, although Hetherington too had his own ideas quite apart from those of Macfie. Holt Redux to the Committee Despite having discounted the idea of the Holt tractor for any use regarding an armored vehicle, a gun-hauler, or as a recovery vehicle, Sueter, in January 1915, asked for a report on Holt tractors. When he got the report back at the end of January 1915, Sueter must have been interested in the potential of the Holt track idea at least in principle, as he records in his own memoir that he saw Churchill several times bemoaning the problems of the tyres of his armored cars off-road and suggested that tracks might be more suitable. It was then perhaps Macfie’s prior badgering about the merits of the Holt that proved most influential then, because when, in February 1915, a Landships Committee was being formed, Macfie was invited to attend at the behest of Hetherington. The 22nd February 1915 meeting was the first official meeting of the Landships Committee and it was to be the only time Macfie was in front of the committee. The most significant person there other than Macfie with relevant experience to the problem of traction off-road and in mud was Colonel Rookes Crompton, a leading expert in wheeled traction. Crompton brought an idea for a giant wheeled machine and he would not be the last to suggest such a wheeled scheme, but Macfie was different. Macfie once more suggested the advantages of a tracked vehicle and was persuasive enough that Crompton acknowledged the advantages of tracks over wheels. Thus the die was cast, tracks were to be the primary solution to off-road traction for an armored vehicle and the man primarily responsible for this was Macfie. The meeting was also a split between Hetherington and Macfie. Hetherington had his own wheeled battleship scheme he wanted to pursue and Macfie was wedded to tracks. Macfie then took his plans to Commander Boothby (R.N.A.S.). Bootby was also won over by the idea of tracks and via Sueter arranged for Macfie to pursue a tracked vehicle as a test. Not a landship as originally planned, but the conversion of an old lorry into a tracked vehicle following a report from Macfie in April 1915. Macfie had no success with his traction schemes other than in persuading the Landships Committee of their virtue. He did have a task with the tracked truck but his mind was still on a tracked landship. To this end, on 13th April 1915, via Boothby, he made yet another submission, this time envisaging how the as yet non-existent landships could be used in combat suggesting: “One form of attack I would suggest is as follows: At dawn two columns of caterpillars would seize a zone of the enemy’s trenches – previously surveyed by Aeroplane – by getting astride them and killing everything in Zone A by enfilading fire. Immediately after this a horde of cavalry and horse artillery could pour through and seize the enemy’s base… I am aware that machines are proposed which will be armoured against rifle and Maxim fire which are to carry parties of soldiers to the trenches whereupon doors are to be opened and the men pour out. I would submit that this plan fails to deal effectively with the enemy’s artillery and that further only the front line of enemy’ can be dealt with in this way. Again caterpillar construction and operation like other branches of engineering is not as easy as it looks. Engineers without any experience of this work, no matter how distinguished in their own fields, are no more likely to succeed at it than a locomotive expert would be likely to succeed at hydroplane construction at the first attempt, or vice versa, without previous study or experience” As well as this theory of attack, Macfie had also given serious consideration to the problems of steering saying: “steering with wheels is easy, because a wheel touches the ground at one point, whereas a caterpillar presents a whole surface to the ground. Again, in a wheel the only rubbing surfaces are at the centre, well away from grit and dirt, which is also thrown away from the hub by centrifugal force” Macfie was presenting his idea for a tracked and armored vehicle steered by wheels at the back and the truck conversion was as much a test of tracks as technology as they were to consider the issues of steering a tracked vehicle. The work on the tracked truck took place at Messrs. Nesfield and Mackenzie along with the works director there, Mr. Albert Nesfield. The relationship between Nesfield and Macfie though was a thoroughly dysfunctional one and was the subject of acrimony during the post-war enquiry into the invention of the tank. The primary cause of the dysfunction seems to have a relatively straightforward clash of ideas. Macfie had to construct a tracked truck at the Nesfield and Mackenzie works and at the same time he was working on his landship idea. At the same time, Nesfield, with no previous involvement in matters, created his own ideas for a tracked vehicle borrowing extensively from Macfie. When Macfie finished his model of his landship in June 1915, he took in to Sueter to show him. To his dismay, Macfie found that the very same model had already been brought to his offices on 30th June and shown to the Landships Committee (a fact disputed during the post-war commission). Two models were in fact made, a wooden one, and an aluminium one made on Macfie’s orders, and for security reasons, according to Macfie, these were later destroyed. Another model, powered by a pair of electric motors, was presented to the Royal Commission in 1919/1920. Macfie explained exactly why this model, even without trailing wheels was his: “the model was never finished at Messrs. Nesfield and Mackenzie’s… but the state into which it had finally got when it disappeared was a body, open at the top, to represent the armoured body and two triangular tracks on either side made out of ordinary bicycle chain. Each track was driven by a small electric motor…I adopted that form of steering [one electric motor for each track] because it made a good demonstration form of steering. It would be very difficult to make a model which would be an effective demonstration model by using any other form of steering” On or about 2nd or 3rd July, Macfie came to speak with senior officers at the Admiralty about his tracked vehicle ideas and asking for them to be taken over under the Defence of the Realm Act (D.O.R.A.). When he walked into the room to speak with them he found senior officers examining his model and sternly rebuked them saying: “where on earth does this come from; this is mine, and I spent the last week looking for it” Macfie was informed that the model brought there by some representative of Messrs. F.W. Berwick and Company, (colleagues of Mr. Nesfield) but Macfie’s anger was understandable. This unfinished model, still missing the trailing wheels, had been locked in a safe beforehand in Mr. Nesfield’s office and now had, after vanishing from there, mysteriously turned up at the Admiralty, delivered by colleagues of Nesfield. Macfie promptly seized the model back. Macfie took this model back to the Clement-Talbot Works, the Headquarters for the Armoured Car Squadron and complained directly to Commander Boothby about what had happened. Boothby then sanctioned and approved for all work at Messrs. Nesfield and Mackenzie to cease immediately and Macfie set about finding a new site to finish his project. The working relationship between Macfie and Messrs. Nesfield and Mackenzie was to be dissolved. Boothby was thus in absolutely no doubt as to what was going on and acted decisively. Macfie, with an armed guard to accompany him, then seized all of the remaining elements of the tracked work, and the as-yet unifinished tracked truck from Messrs. Nesfield and Mackenzie. For security reasons, all of the remaining drawings and models which were not handed in were burned, although in hindsight, this move, whilst efficient to maintain operational security, left Macfie with very little evidence in the post-war enquiry to refute the claims of Mr. Nesfield. The important element of Macfie’s design and the one over which Mr. Nesfield was claiming invention was referred to as ‘angularization’. This term referred to the shape of the track at the front of the vehicle. On the Holt track system, the track was effectively flat with the leading section close to the ground, but Macfie’s design had a raised front end. This raised front end would permit the vehicle to climb a higher parapet or cross a trench which was wider than that which could be crossed by a low-fronted track. This development was later summed up by Sueter during the enquiry into the invention of tanks saying: “No one regretted it more than I did that Lieutenant Macfie failed me in producing an experimental landship, but the angularized track invention I am certain made the Tank the great success it became on active service. What an opportunity Lieutenant Macfie and Mr. Nesfield had. It was no fault of mine that they did not become as successful as my other Armoured Car Officer Lieutenant Wilson and Mr. Tritton of Messrs. Foster and Company were with their tank work” Sueter refused to take any blame for the problems between Macfie and Nesfield, but Macfie was also undoubtedly an abrasive man in his own right and had rubbed Alfred Stern (the growing power within the Landships Committee) up the wrong way. He would not see his unfinished tracked truck again, and in December 1915, his commission was ended. Macfie was to have nothing more to do with the official development of Landships or tracked vehicles of any kind during the war. Despite the failure of Macfie to have the Landships Committee adopt his original design, he did have one significant success, namely convincing the authorities to pursue tracked vehicles instead of wheeled schemes for a landship albeit basing his ideas on the Holt chassis at the time. His design was not a success and the plans he burned for security purposes could have provided him with the evidence he needed to properly submit his claim in 1919 to the subsequent Royal Commission. As it was, he was awarded just a fraction of the money he may have been properly entitled to which Nesfield had also laid claim. Despite being denied the chance to finish his tracked truck or to see his landship come to fruition, Macfie was not finished with tracked vehicles. In fact, he would go on to design more tracked vehicles, but sadly for him, these too were failures. Macfie returned to America after the war and died in New York on 9th February 1948. Illustrtion of Macfie’s 1915 design, produced by Mr. R.Cargill \|Crew\|\|2 (driver and commander) and weapons crew as required\| \|Armament\|\|At least 2 Machine guns\| Hills, A. (2019). Robert Macfie, Pioneers of Armour Vol.1. FWD Publishing, USA (Available on Amazon) Proceedings of the Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors: tank 1918-1920 Service Record Royal Naval Air Service 1914-1916: Robert Macfie The foundations and principles of modern armoured warfare did not appear out of a vacuum, and nor did the machines of WW1 and WW2. Their development was full of false starts, failed ideas, and missed opportunities. Robert Macfie was a pioneer in aviation at the turn of the century followed by work with the Landships Committee on tracked vehicles to break the stalemate of trench warfare. Although his tank designs never saw combat the work he started was carried on by other pioneers and helped to usher in a dawn of armoured and mechanised warfare.	<urn:uuid:47e20412-fd31-47f7-9df0-63a9a734b7de>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://tanks-encyclopedia.com/ww1/gb/macfies-landship-1914-15/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00116.warc.gz	en	0.984523	4,117	3.28125	3	[ -0.10708162933588028, 0.24009546637535095, 0.2748034596443176, -0.14974233508110046, 0.09195370972156525, -0.20308741927146912, 0.14476865530014038, 0.217010036110878, -0.2600242495536804, -0.3585381805896759, 0.027341071516275406, -0.2502363324165344, 0.16700047254562378, 0.37360781431198...	8	Overlooked by most histories of the era of early armor, Robert Macfie was a visionary who first pressed the use of tracks to the Landships Committee at a time when ‘big-wheel’ machines were seen as the solution to the problems on the Western Front, namely barbed wire and machine guns. Almost unknown today, Robert Macfie designed what was to be one of the first tracked Landships. Born on 11th November 1881 in San Francisco, the American-born son of a sugar baron, Macfie took an early interest in military matters outside of the family sugar business. Aged just 17 or 18 years old, he enrolled in the Royal Naval Engineering College, at Davenport, England studying naval design. After this, he went back to help with the family’s sugar business before settling in Chicago in 1902. Around this time, he began an interest in aviation and was back in Britain by 1909 building his own aircraft and testing them at Fambridge in Essex. It was during his endeavours in the then brand-new field of aviation that he met Thomas Hetherington, a man later connected with landships in his own right. His attempts at getting into the aviation business, however, were not a success. He was back on the family sugar plantations in the years before the outbreak of war and it was there that he became acquainted with the Holt agricultural tractor. When war was declared in August 1914, Macfie returned to Britain once more. He immediately sought out his contacts from his aviation days advocating for the use of Holt-based tracked vehicles, and was referred on to Commodore Murray Sueter, in charge of the Royal Naval Air Service (R.N.A.S.), which at the time was operating armored cars, the primary mobile armored force for the Army. Macfie had a design for a tracked vehicle sketched out and, even without official sanction or support, was seeking a manufacturer. As such, he approached Mr. Arthur Lang, a well-known manufacturer of propellers, who gave Macfie an introduction to Captain Swann, Director of the Air Department. Armed with the previous referral and a recommendation from Mr. Swann, Macfie got to see Commodore Sueter and presented to him a design for an armored vehicle based upon the Holt agricultural tractor, identified as a ‘caterpillar’. Despite his engineering training and education, he was still an outsider in military terms. Wanting his designs and ideas to be taken seriously, Macfie made what could easily be his greatest professional error. He enlisted in the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve (R.N.V.R.) under a temporary commission as a Sub-Lieutenant in the belief that doing so would provide him with the contacts and credibility or ‘standing’ he might need. What it did though was to stymie his work and pigeon-hole him into armored car work and within a rigid military command hierarchy. On the plus side though, within this hierarchy, his immediate superior officer was his old friend Captain Thomas Hetherington, who he knew from his days with aircraft at Brooklands before the war. The original sketch presented to Sueter in 1914 by Macfie was described as: “triangular in side elevation, with a long base on the ground and a cocked-up nose to help it get a grip on banks or parapets. It even had a pair of trailing wheels aft, to keep it from swinging – just as our tanks had when they went into action two years later” and with a “comparatively long track and a comparatively short nose, and the nose is of such a nature as to give a climb…. There are three wheels, and the caterpillar goes round the third so that you get a flat base and a nose” The vehicle was of a simple outline, being a rectangular box with a flat rear and sides and a wedge shape at the front. Hanging from the front was a large armored panel that descended at the same angle as the glacis until approximately two-thirds of the way down the height of the body. Below this, panel was a hinged flap allowing the tracks to be protected but flexible so as to not interfere with obstacle crossing. At the back of the vehicle was a single fixed propellor intended to provide drive in the water and connected directly to a power take-off from the drive shaft. Drive for the tracks was provided by a single-engine located centrally inside the hull, with the driving position directly behind. Steering for the driver was affected by means of a large steering wheel to his front but connected via a linkage to a pair of retractable trailing wheels at the back fitted with an Ackermann steering system. The vehicle itself was fabricated from a framework to which panels of armor plate were fastened, presumably by means of bolts and rivets but creating a watertight body. This body was buoyant in water and the drawing identifies the metacentric height as very slightly below the centre-line of the vehicle’s body. The most unusual element of the design though was the tracks. Despite being based on the Holt system, the track system designed by Macfie did not use wheels. Instead, it used a unique system whereby the tracklinks were a flattened ‘U’ shape with a square base. The base fitted onto a single smooth track guide running the full circumference of the track unit which was supported by spars, much in the same style of an aircraft. The track was driven though in a similar manner to the Holt system with a large 12-tooth drive sprocket at the back driven by a chain from the transmission located at the back of the vehicle. No armament was specified for the Experimental Armoured Caterpillar, possibly because it was intended to be an experimental vehicle on which a future landship-of-war would be developed. As it stood though, with the driver at the back, it would have required a minimum of at least two men, a driver and a commander (who could see where to go, to operate the vehicle) and then more men for any weapons being carried. Macfie had no success at persuading the authorities to accept his Holt-based caterpillar design, but on 2nd November 1914, whilst working as a Field Repair Officer at Wormwood Scrubs and then the nearby Clement Talbot Works, he saw a clipping from that day’s Daily Mail newspaper. The newspaper had an image showing a Holt Caterpillar in use headed ‘German Convoy entering Antwerp’ with the caterpillars hauling heavy naval guns. This article inspired a report from Macfie on 5th November 1914 to Sueter, once more pressing Macfie’s conviction over the use of tracked vehicles, albeit this time for hauling guns. The plan was not armored though. Effectively, it was a train of 6 Holt tractors working together to haul a 85-ton (86.4 tonnes) load (the weight of a 12-inch naval gun and limber). Further to the gun-hauling idea was that one of these Holt tractors could be gainfully employed in recovering the armored cars of the R.N.A.S., which had a habit of getting stuck when off-road or on what still passed as roads. Sueter, however, had no interest in either option for the Holt tractor, but the die had been cast by Macfie and he had succeeded in convincing Hetherington of the validity of his ideas, although Hetherington too had his own ideas quite apart from those of Macfie. Holt Redux to the Committee Despite having discounted the idea of the Holt tractor for any use regarding an armored vehicle, a gun-hauler, or as a recovery vehicle, Sueter, in January 1915, asked for a report on Holt tractors. When he got the report back at the end of January 1915, Sueter must have been interested in the potential of the Holt track idea at least in principle, as he records in his own memoir that he saw Churchill several times bemoaning the problems of the tyres of his armored cars off-road and suggested that tracks might be more suitable. It was then perhaps Macfie’s prior badgering about the merits of the Holt that proved most influential then, because when, in February 1915, a Landships Committee was being formed, Macfie was invited to attend at the behest of Hetherington. The 22nd February 1915 meeting was the first official meeting of the Landships Committee and it was to be the only time Macfie was in front of the committee. The most significant person there other than Macfie with relevant experience to the problem of traction off-road and in mud was Colonel Rookes Crompton, a leading expert in wheeled traction. Crompton brought an idea for a giant wheeled machine and he would not be the last to suggest such a wheeled scheme, but Macfie was different. Macfie once more suggested the advantages of a tracked vehicle and was persuasive enough that Crompton acknowledged the advantages of tracks over wheels. Thus the die was cast, tracks were to be the primary solution to off-road traction for an armored vehicle and the man primarily responsible for this was Macfie. The meeting was also a split between Hetherington and Macfie. Hetherington had his own wheeled battleship scheme he wanted to pursue and Macfie was wedded to tracks. Macfie then took his plans to Commander Boothby (R.N.A.S.). Bootby was also won over by the idea of tracks and via Sueter arranged for Macfie to pursue a tracked vehicle as a test. Not a landship as originally planned, but the conversion of an old lorry into a tracked vehicle following a report from Macfie in April 1915. Macfie had no success with his traction schemes other than in persuading the Landships Committee of their virtue. He did have a task with the tracked truck but his mind was still on a tracked landship. To this end, on 13th April 1915, via Boothby, he made yet another submission, this time envisaging how the as yet non-existent landships could be used in combat suggesting: “One form of attack I would suggest is as follows: At dawn two columns of caterpillars would seize a zone of the enemy’s trenches – previously surveyed by Aeroplane – by getting astride them and killing everything in Zone A by enfilading fire. Immediately after this a horde of cavalry and horse artillery could pour through and seize the enemy’s base… I am aware that machines are proposed which will be armoured against rifle and Maxim fire which are to carry parties of soldiers to the trenches whereupon doors are to be opened and the men pour out. I would submit that this plan fails to deal effectively with the enemy’s artillery and that further only the front line of enemy’ can be dealt with in this way. Again caterpillar construction and operation like other branches of engineering is not as easy as it looks. Engineers without any experience of this work, no matter how distinguished in their own fields, are no more likely to succeed at it than a locomotive expert would be likely to succeed at hydroplane construction at the first attempt, or vice versa, without previous study or experience” As well as this theory of attack, Macfie had also given serious consideration to the problems of steering saying: “steering with wheels is easy, because a wheel touches the ground at one point, whereas a caterpillar presents a whole surface to the ground. Again, in a wheel the only rubbing surfaces are at the centre, well away from grit and dirt, which is also thrown away from the hub by centrifugal force” Macfie was presenting his idea for a tracked and armored vehicle steered by wheels at the back and the truck conversion was as much a test of tracks as technology as they were to consider the issues of steering a tracked vehicle. The work on the tracked truck took place at Messrs. Nesfield and Mackenzie along with the works director there, Mr. Albert Nesfield. The relationship between Nesfield and Macfie though was a thoroughly dysfunctional one and was the subject of acrimony during the post-war enquiry into the invention of the tank. The primary cause of the dysfunction seems to have a relatively straightforward clash of ideas. Macfie had to construct a tracked truck at the Nesfield and Mackenzie works and at the same time he was working on his landship idea. At the same time, Nesfield, with no previous involvement in matters, created his own ideas for a tracked vehicle borrowing extensively from Macfie. When Macfie finished his model of his landship in June 1915, he took in to Sueter to show him. To his dismay, Macfie found that the very same model had already been brought to his offices on 30th June and shown to the Landships Committee (a fact disputed during the post-war commission). Two models were in fact made, a wooden one, and an aluminium one made on Macfie’s orders, and for security reasons, according to Macfie, these were later destroyed. Another model, powered by a pair of electric motors, was presented to the Royal Commission in 1919/1920. Macfie explained exactly why this model, even without trailing wheels was his: “the model was never finished at Messrs. Nesfield and Mackenzie’s… but the state into which it had finally got when it disappeared was a body, open at the top, to represent the armoured body and two triangular tracks on either side made out of ordinary bicycle chain. Each track was driven by a small electric motor…I adopted that form of steering [one electric motor for each track] because it made a good demonstration form of steering. It would be very difficult to make a model which would be an effective demonstration model by using any other form of steering” On or about 2nd or 3rd July, Macfie came to speak with senior officers at the Admiralty about his tracked vehicle ideas and asking for them to be taken over under the Defence of the Realm Act (D.O.R.A.). When he walked into the room to speak with them he found senior officers examining his model and sternly rebuked them saying: “where on earth does this come from; this is mine, and I spent the last week looking for it” Macfie was informed that the model brought there by some representative of Messrs. F.W. Berwick and Company, (colleagues of Mr. Nesfield) but Macfie’s anger was understandable. This unfinished model, still missing the trailing wheels, had been locked in a safe beforehand in Mr. Nesfield’s office and now had, after vanishing from there, mysteriously turned up at the Admiralty, delivered by colleagues of Nesfield. Macfie promptly seized the model back. Macfie took this model back to the Clement-Talbot Works, the Headquarters for the Armoured Car Squadron and complained directly to Commander Boothby about what had happened. Boothby then sanctioned and approved for all work at Messrs. Nesfield and Mackenzie to cease immediately and Macfie set about finding a new site to finish his project. The working relationship between Macfie and Messrs. Nesfield and Mackenzie was to be dissolved. Boothby was thus in absolutely no doubt as to what was going on and acted decisively. Macfie, with an armed guard to accompany him, then seized all of the remaining elements of the tracked work, and the as-yet unifinished tracked truck from Messrs. Nesfield and Mackenzie. For security reasons, all of the remaining drawings and models which were not handed in were burned, although in hindsight, this move, whilst efficient to maintain operational security, left Macfie with very little evidence in the post-war enquiry to refute the claims of Mr. Nesfield. The important element of Macfie’s design and the one over which Mr. Nesfield was claiming invention was referred to as ‘angularization’. This term referred to the shape of the track at the front of the vehicle. On the Holt track system, the track was effectively flat with the leading section close to the ground, but Macfie’s design had a raised front end. This raised front end would permit the vehicle to climb a higher parapet or cross a trench which was wider than that which could be crossed by a low-fronted track. This development was later summed up by Sueter during the enquiry into the invention of tanks saying: “No one regretted it more than I did that Lieutenant Macfie failed me in producing an experimental landship, but the angularized track invention I am certain made the Tank the great success it became on active service. What an opportunity Lieutenant Macfie and Mr. Nesfield had. It was no fault of mine that they did not become as successful as my other Armoured Car Officer Lieutenant Wilson and Mr. Tritton of Messrs. Foster and Company were with their tank work” Sueter refused to take any blame for the problems between Macfie and Nesfield, but Macfie was also undoubtedly an abrasive man in his own right and had rubbed Alfred Stern (the growing power within the Landships Committee) up the wrong way. He would not see his unfinished tracked truck again, and in December 1915, his commission was ended. Macfie was to have nothing more to do with the official development of Landships or tracked vehicles of any kind during the war. Despite the failure of Macfie to have the Landships Committee adopt his original design, he did have one significant success, namely convincing the authorities to pursue tracked vehicles instead of wheeled schemes for a landship albeit basing his ideas on the Holt chassis at the time. His design was not a success and the plans he burned for security purposes could have provided him with the evidence he needed to properly submit his claim in 1919 to the subsequent Royal Commission. As it was, he was awarded just a fraction of the money he may have been properly entitled to which Nesfield had also laid claim. Despite being denied the chance to finish his tracked truck or to see his landship come to fruition, Macfie was not finished with tracked vehicles. In fact, he would go on to design more tracked vehicles, but sadly for him, these too were failures. Macfie returned to America after the war and died in New York on 9th February 1948. Illustrtion of Macfie’s 1915 design, produced by Mr. R.Cargill \|Crew\|\|2 (driver and commander) and weapons crew as required\| \|Armament\|\|At least 2 Machine guns\| Hills, A. (2019). Robert Macfie, Pioneers of Armour Vol.1. FWD Publishing, USA (Available on Amazon) Proceedings of the Royal Commission on Awards to Inventors: tank 1918-1920 Service Record Royal Naval Air Service 1914-1916: Robert Macfie The foundations and principles of modern armoured warfare did not appear out of a vacuum, and nor did the machines of WW1 and WW2. Their development was full of false starts, failed ideas, and missed opportunities. Robert Macfie was a pioneer in aviation at the turn of the century followed by work with the Landships Committee on tracked vehicles to break the stalemate of trench warfare. Although his tank designs never saw combat the work he started was carried on by other pioneers and helped to usher in a dawn of armoured and mechanised warfare.	4,078	ENGLISH	1
Happy birthday to electrical pioneer and futurist Nikola Tesla, who was born on this day in 1856. From the 1890s through 1906, Tesla spent a great deal of his time and fortune on a series of projects trying to develop the transmission of electrical power without wires. It was an expansion of his idea of using coils to transmit power that he had been demonstrating in wireless lighting. He saw this as not only a way to transmit large amounts of power around the world but also, as he had pointed out in his earlier lectures, a way to transmit worldwide communications. At the time Tesla was formulating his ideas, there was no feasible way to wirelessly transmit communication signals over long distances, let alone large amounts of power. Tesla had studied radio waves early on, and came to the conclusion that part of existing study on them, by Hertz, was incorrect. Also, this new form of radiation was widely considered at the time to be a short-distance phenomenon that seemed to die out in less than a mile.Tesla noted that, even if theories on radio waves were true, they were totally worthless for his intended purposes since this form of “invisible light” would diminish over distance just like any other radiation and would travel in straight lines right out into space, becoming “hopelessly lost”. By the mid-1890s, Tesla was working on the idea that he might be able to conduct electricity long distance through the Earth or the atmosphere, and began working on experiments to test this idea including setting up a large resonance transformer magnifying transmitter in his East Houston Street lab. Seeming to borrow from a common idea at the time that the Earth’s atmosphere was conductive, he proposed a system composed of balloons suspending, transmitting, and receiving, electrodes in the air above 30,000 feet (9,100 m) in altitude, where he thought the lower pressure would allow him to send high voltages (millions of volts) long distances.	<urn:uuid:fa33d2ba-7682-4b87-93f1-f6587066cdb4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ghz-europe.com/2019/07/10/happy-birthday-nikola-tesla/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00441.warc.gz	en	0.982356	404	4.1875	4	[ -0.31278732419013977, 0.35383662581443787, 0.40336862206459045, 0.2813279330730438, -0.37682169675827026, -0.17378346621990204, -0.04191015288233757, 0.6293016076087952, 0.0026940826792269945, -0.0774892121553421, 0.2363354116678238, 0.029170531779527664, -0.21850350499153137, 0.5738636851...	2	Happy birthday to electrical pioneer and futurist Nikola Tesla, who was born on this day in 1856. From the 1890s through 1906, Tesla spent a great deal of his time and fortune on a series of projects trying to develop the transmission of electrical power without wires. It was an expansion of his idea of using coils to transmit power that he had been demonstrating in wireless lighting. He saw this as not only a way to transmit large amounts of power around the world but also, as he had pointed out in his earlier lectures, a way to transmit worldwide communications. At the time Tesla was formulating his ideas, there was no feasible way to wirelessly transmit communication signals over long distances, let alone large amounts of power. Tesla had studied radio waves early on, and came to the conclusion that part of existing study on them, by Hertz, was incorrect. Also, this new form of radiation was widely considered at the time to be a short-distance phenomenon that seemed to die out in less than a mile.Tesla noted that, even if theories on radio waves were true, they were totally worthless for his intended purposes since this form of “invisible light” would diminish over distance just like any other radiation and would travel in straight lines right out into space, becoming “hopelessly lost”. By the mid-1890s, Tesla was working on the idea that he might be able to conduct electricity long distance through the Earth or the atmosphere, and began working on experiments to test this idea including setting up a large resonance transformer magnifying transmitter in his East Houston Street lab. Seeming to borrow from a common idea at the time that the Earth’s atmosphere was conductive, he proposed a system composed of balloons suspending, transmitting, and receiving, electrodes in the air above 30,000 feet (9,100 m) in altitude, where he thought the lower pressure would allow him to send high voltages (millions of volts) long distances.	413	ENGLISH	1
Invention of the Voting Machine Early in his career, Thomas Edison invented a vote-recording machine for use in legislative chambers. By moving a switch to the right or left, an official could vote for or against a proposal without leaving his desk. The machine would replace the tedious business of marking ballots, counting them, etc. Elated with the prospects, Edison obtained a patenthis firstand headed for Washington. Eagerly he demonstrated his machine to the Chairman of Congressional Committees. This gentleman, while complimenting Edison on his ingenuity, promptly turned it down. “Filibustering and delay in the tabulation of votes are often the only means we have for defeating bad or improper legislation.” he told Edison. The young inventor was stunned. The invention was good; he knew it and the chairman knew it. Still, it wasnt wanted. Said Edison later: “There and then I made a vow that I would never again invent anything which was not wanted.”	<urn:uuid:36ff409b-a565-413b-afeb-1c91221a2a18>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://bible.org/illustration/invention-voting-machine	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00186.warc.gz	en	0.981276	205	3.5625	4	[ -0.3146716058254242, 0.1227903962135315, 0.40523800253868103, -0.1326858550310135, -0.410563200712204, 0.2997046113014221, 0.503211259841919, 0.5426958203315735, 0.1734706610441208, 0.26035401225090027, -0.08260594308376312, 0.5319743752479553, 0.2410142719745636, -0.08904735743999481, -...	8	Invention of the Voting Machine Early in his career, Thomas Edison invented a vote-recording machine for use in legislative chambers. By moving a switch to the right or left, an official could vote for or against a proposal without leaving his desk. The machine would replace the tedious business of marking ballots, counting them, etc. Elated with the prospects, Edison obtained a patenthis firstand headed for Washington. Eagerly he demonstrated his machine to the Chairman of Congressional Committees. This gentleman, while complimenting Edison on his ingenuity, promptly turned it down. “Filibustering and delay in the tabulation of votes are often the only means we have for defeating bad or improper legislation.” he told Edison. The young inventor was stunned. The invention was good; he knew it and the chairman knew it. Still, it wasnt wanted. Said Edison later: “There and then I made a vow that I would never again invent anything which was not wanted.”	196	ENGLISH	1
Essay PreviewMore ↓ In ancient times, the Greeks had absolute and undeniable respect for their gods. They demonstrated their admiration by putting in place many rituals and celebrations to reverence the gods that they loved and feared in order to ensure harmony with them. In particular, the focus will be on the religious beliefs of the Greeks, including prayer and sacrifice, as well as on festivals and the arts, such as the ancient Olympic games and theatre. These aspects of their culture made a significant contribution to their quality of life. Moreover, these topics will be examined in relation to the twelve Olympian gods and their associates. The ancient Greeks practiced a religion that was in effect, a building block to many ensuing pagan religions. This religion revolved around their reverence to the gods. Essentially, the Greeks worshipped numerous gods, making their religion polytheistic. They believed that exercising the opportunity to choose between a wide array of gods to worship offered them a great sense of freedom that they treasured. After all, the Greeks were known for their intellectual distinction of which their means of worship played a huge part. Each city-state, or polis, thus had an affiliated god who protected and guided its residents. Within a given polis, the belief in common gods unified the people. Ultimately, the Greeks yearned for this unity and order in the universe, which is a characteristic that is not unlike that of people today. It might seem contradictory that they believed in many gods and sought organization at the same time, for larger numbers are inherently unstable. But, to the god-fearing Greeks, each god represented a different facet of life that together upheld an organized universe if each of these gods was properly appeased. To satisfy these gods, the Greeks participated in activities such as prayer and sacrifice and erected divine temples and centers for oracles in honor of specific gods. There is evidence of this institutionalization early on in the reign of the Olympian gods, thus forming the Olympian religion. The Olympian religion lacked the presence of true sentimentality, and the gods were not seen as forgiving or "flawless" as the Christian God is often portrayed. The Greek gods were portrayed as humans, which meant that they were not perfect. That is, the gods made mistakes, felt pain (e.g. Aphrodite in love with the mortal Adonis), and succumbed to anger and their tempers (e. How to Cite this Page "How the Greek Revered Their Gods." 123HelpMe.com. 21 Jan 2020 Need Writing Help? Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper » - Aphrodite and Athena were both great powerful women who were revered as goddesses in greek mythology. They both were greatly worshipped, however due to their distinct personality traits they were worshipped and spoken about and very different ways. Both goddesses are immortal and female, and both seem to distinguish the incongruous gender roles between men and women throughout ancient Greece. What makes these two goddesses interesting, however, is their differences, which will determine how they will be reflected in myth.... [tags: Greek mythology, Aphrodite, Athena, Zeus] 1450 words (4.1 pages) - ... Critic Robert mentions that “the loss of [a] brother is irreparable to [a] sister and her duty towards him is the highest” (422). Although she must remain loyal to the city and her family, Antigone consistently settles to align her morals and desires to venerate her family. Along with her good intentions, Antigone possess moral courage as she follows her heart and full heartedly decides to accept the future consequences. Overall, Antigone’s family nobility and dignified values work to help classify her as a tragic heroine.... [tags: courage, morals, compromise] 1616 words (4.6 pages) - Ancient Greek Medicine While Greek Medicine particularly from the 5th century B.C onwards, increasingly used scientific method to develop cures, there still however remained people that considered medicine to be a religion. The ancient Greeks (Hellenic) made important discoveries about the human body and health, so by the sixth century BC, medicinal practices focused largely on a more clinical approach involving observation. Their discoveries were made by firstly studying the human anatomy using dissection and vivisection, finding ways to heal using things such as plants and herbs, then finally practising surgery on the human body using different instruments.... [tags: Greek History] 1520 words (4.3 pages) - Zeus: King of the Gods Zeus, Lord of the Skies, King of the Gods, was the last sibling of the Titan Kronos and the Titaness Rhea. He would have suffered the same fate as his other five Olympian siblings, Demeter, Hestia, Poseidon, Hades, and Hera, being swallowed alive, if it had not been for his mother hiding him and tricking Kronos into eating a large stone instead. He was raised in a cave with nine spirits, the Kouretes, and a goat, Amaltheia, that nursed him with her milk and the bees of the mountain provided honey.... [tags: Hera, tinaness rhea, olympia siblings] 546 words (1.6 pages) - Influence of Greek Culture Back in the days of Homer’s Writings, Greek culture had a huge influence on the way of life and the style of writing. In this epic Greek culture also played a huge roll in the outcome of the story. The three traits of Greek culture that are evident in this story are, marriage is permanent, gods are revered and intelligence is valued. The first one of these traits that stands out in this epic is marriage is permanent. Penelope is faced with many suitors who wish to marry her and rule Ithica, yet she remained loyal and had faith that her husband, Odysseus would return to her side.... [tags: essays research papers] 564 words (1.6 pages) - The Era of Greek Tragedy In Athens, during the final thirty years of sixth century B.C. playwrights began creating the earliest drama in all of Europe, Greek tragedy (Sifakis, “Greek Tragedy”). Though now the products of the movement are seen as pieces of literature to be read, they originated as theatrical pieces meant to be performed on the stage. The tragedies were mostly derived from stories about their gods, such as Hades, Zeus and Nyx. In that time period, tales of these immortals were passed down from generation to generation as history, not fairy tales.... [tags: Literary Analysis ] 2502 words (7.1 pages) - 1. What was unique/different/strange about Greek culture as compared to other civilizations at the time. The things that were unlike about the Greek culture compared to others could start with their idea that theft was ok if it was something they desired. When the Greeks took to the seas they almost became pirates when they wanted something and in their eyes it was ok to do this. The Greeks also lived without Kings and even divided their land into Polets (Cities), which today does not seem bizarre or different, but in those days that was very different for the cultures to live by.... [tags: Roman Empire, Ancient Rome, Ancient Greece] 1461 words (4.2 pages) - Athena When people hear the words “Greek gods” they immediately think of Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades. While those three play a big role in Greek mythology, there are many other gods and goddesses who are also very important and highly worshipped (C. Hemingway, S. Hemingway). Another highly worshipped goddess is the goddess of wisdom, Athena. Born from the head of Zeus, Athena is his favorite daughter and is highly respected by the other gods. She is one of three virgin goddesses and has many temples dedicated to her worship (“The Goddess Athena”).... [tags: greek gods, mythology, religion] 923 words (2.6 pages) - The Human Body in Ancient Greek Sculptures The primary focus of ancient Greek sculptures was that of the human body. Almost all Greek sculptures are of nude subjects. As the first society to focus on nude subjects, Greek sculptors attempted to "depict man in what they believed was the image of the gods and so would come to celebrate the body by striving for verisimilitude or true – likeness (realism and naturalism!)."(Riffert) Not only did the Greeks celebrate the human form in their art but also in everyday life.... [tags: Art History Essays] 1006 words (2.9 pages) - The philosopher Aristotle was a highly intellectual man who loved to reason. One of his ideas was his structured analysis of the “tragic hero” of Greek drama. In his work, Poetics, he defines a tragic hero as “...The man who on the one hand is not pre-eminent in virtue and justice, and yet on the other hand does not fall into misfortune through vice or depravity, but falls because of some mistake; one among the number of the highly renowned and prosperous.” Aristotle’s definition of a tragic hero is clearly shown by the main character in the Greek tragedy Oedipus the King by Sophocles.... [tags: Oedipus Rex, Sophocles] 522 words (1.5 pages) In the myths that have survived through the ages, the Greeks used the gods as a means to justify anything that they could not understand or scientifically explain. For example, when thunder and lightning fell from the sky accompanied by rain, it was believed that Zeus, the god of the sky, was responsible for it. And, it was potentially a sign that he was irate with the humans for some wrongdoing or inadequate worship (Hesiod, Works and Days, 42-105, and Kitto, p.19). In that respect, the Greeks believed that Zeus and his Olympian gods (or the Pantheon) were of the greatest importance. There were constant reminders (temples, shrines, etc.) everywhere of the unseen, but ever-present powers of the gods. The Olympians were in fact the most powerful. They overthrew the Titans who overthrew the first generation, and were themselves never overthrown. Nevertheless, the Greeks also worshipped the lesser divinities, oracles, demi-gods, and heroes as well. The major form of worship occurred through prayer and sacrifice at temples, at the oracles or in the homes of the Greeks. In that respect, religion was both a public and private function. Most praying occurred in the home with the family, but sacrifices and offerings were done at the temple or oracle of the god they were seeking to please. When prayers were said, an offering, usually of wine, was made. An example of a prayer said to Zeus is: "Lead me, O Zeus, and lead me, Destiny, Whether ordained is by your decree. I'll follow, doubting not, or if with will Recreant I falter - I shall follow still." (Hadas, p.203) During the course of their normal daily routine, the Greeks would also think about the gods as they went on with their business. However, if they had a specific request, the worshipper would take an offering directly to a god's temple. The Greeks went to these places of worship to make offerings or present sacrifices to maintain protection from the gods and keep order, or to ask for the will of the gods. According to the Greeks, the gods had total control over natural and social forces, and therefore, they needed to call upon the gods to be bestowed with favorable outcomes. They believed that if they pleased the gods, good fortune would surely ensue, be it in the harvest, politics, or family affairs. After all, the Greeks concluded that the divine played an indispensable role in all areas of life such as society, agriculture, civic duties, domestic issues, gender relations and war. Each God had their own temple, and within these temples the priests or priestesses made sure that the rules of offering were being observed. They were there to make sure that the temples, which were designed after palaces, were seen as the gods' second home on Earth. The temples were built with a high regard for nature, as the Greeks' was an earth-based culture, and never drastically changed the environment in which they were constructed. They were a sign of the Greeks' pride in their gods and took a great deal of time to build, re-build, beautify and preserve the temples. The door of the temple generally faced east and the divine image, a large, central statue of the god to whom the temple was dedicated, stood at the west end of the temple. In addition, there were many other smaller statues and idols of the god all around that were previously offered as gifts. Usually, at the temple entrance stood an altar, which may have been a brick or stone table, a pillar, a heap of stones, a stack of sod cut for the particular occasion, or simply a pile of the remnants of previous sacrifices. It may have been from a few inches to several feet high and it possibly had steps if it was very high. The altar was required to have a place (usually metal) for the sacred fire, and once it had been used, the altar was not to be moved. This is where the worshippers would bring offerings such as wheat, wine, honey, water, first fruits of the harvest, stone statues, or gold vessels. Offerings were presents "made to a deity, in order to secure some favour for the future, to avert anger for a past offence, or to express gratitude for a favour received" from the deity. (Walters, p. 40) As mentioned before, the gods had human qualities, and were easily angered. Plato said "the sole concern of every rite of sacrifice and divination - that is to say, the means of communion between Gods and mortals - is either the preservation or the repair of Love." (Plato's Symposium 188b5-c2) A common offering that was given to the god Dionysus would be wine, as he was the god of wine and revelry. Also, "it was the custom of women after childbirth to dedicate garments to Artemis," (Walters, p. 41) who was the goddess of the moon and the hunt but more importantly, protector of women in childbirth and of children. As for sacrifice, it was most often an animal such as a sheep, cow, goat, pig or bull, but on occasion, a human being would also be taken to the priest or priestess to be sacrificed. It was especially appropriate to return a token of what the God had given them. In any case, the sacrifice should be perfect and have no blemishes. The sacrifice was a communal event through which the Greeks believed that they were bound together with the gods. Washing and dressing in clean garments was crucial, typically in a white or purple tunic or a white one with purple borders. For this sacrifice, the Greeks had an elaborate ritual. The sacrifice would be taken along in a procession led by a maiden, preferably, or a basket-carrier, with a knife concealed by barley in the basket and a jug of holy water held at the side. The sacrifice was crowned and adorned, then purified by water and sprinkled with barley. It was then placed on the altar or in a marked sacred circle, where the priest or priestess would sacrifice it. Sacrifice was such a meaningful event that oftentimes temples were built solely for the purpose of sacrifice. The Greeks also went to the oracles because communication through a deity was possible there to seek advice or guidance. At the oracle, a special priest or priestess who could interpret the messages, which were often cryptic, would pass on the message of the god in answer to a question. From time to time, the gods would also communicate their messages to the Greeks by means of signs. In such cases, there were gifted ones who were also blessed with the power to foretell the will of the gods and the future. The most famous of the oracles was Apollo's temple at Delphi. It was a very influential oracle who made predictions and announcements there. The Priestess of Apollo was named Pythia. After a goat was sacrificed, she would sit and breathe in intoxicating smoke while awaiting divine inspiration. When she entered a trance the priests would interpret the oracles from Pythia and then relay the answers to the seeker. The main Oracle of Zeus was at Dondana where a sacred Oak tree rustled in the wind to pass on the words of Zeus. Another aspect of life that included reverence to the gods was marriage. A Greek wedding ceremony was not held in a church or temple as weddings are today. Rather, it was performed in a succession of places. The ceremony can be divided into these four parts: "(a) the preparation of the bride; (b) the removal of the bride from the house of her father to that of her husband; (c) the reception at that house; and (d) the presents given on the day following the marriage." (Walters, p. 216) In preparation, the bride often sacrificed her childhood toys to Artemis, the virgin goddess, on the day before the wedding. (Jenkins, p.38) This would signify her transition into being a woman and not a child any further. In addition, the wedding process was most likely a terrifying experience for the bride because she seldom knew her husband before the wedding night, as marriages were frequently business arrangements between families. The marital journey from one house to the other happened at night by torchlight. When the bride and groom entered the groom's house, the place of the bride's future domestic life, they were showered with nuts and sweetmeats, which were tokens of expectant prosperity, and were received in a special ceremony that placed them under the protection of the household gods. (Jenkins, p.39) These prayers and rituals were a converging force for the Greeks that united them in a common goal and gave their life meaning. After all, Thomas Carlyle once said that "a man without a purpose is like a ship without a rudder." Just as a rudder guides a ship, these ideals guided the Greeks. These rituals, prayers, offerings and sacrifices, as well as the prospect of a better afterlife provided the Greeks with hope and stability. The belief in a greater afterlife allowed them to live a fuller life without the fear of death. The Greeks also esteemed numerous festivals, athletic games and the arts that were a part of daily life. The festivals and athletic games were held in honour of the gods and the honorary god's statue was often brought out and carried among the worshippers. The purpose was to please the gods so that they would act favorably on up-coming undertakings, such as the next harvest. The main four athletic games that comprised the Panhellenic Games were: the Olympic games (every four years); the Pythian games held at Delphi in honor of Apollo (every four years); the Nemean games at Nemea in honor of Zeus (every two years); and the Isthmian games at the sanctuary of Poseidon on the Isthmus of Corinth (every two years). The festivals were organised so that at least one of them fell each year, constituting a circuit of games. The oldest and most prominent of these were the Olympic games held in honour of Zeus at his temple in Olympia. Olympia was one of the oldest religious centers in the ancient Greek world. Since athletic contests were one way that the ancient Greeks honored their gods, it was logical to hold a recurring athletic competition at the site of a major temple. Messengers were sent out to announce the dates of a given festival so that everyone could partake. Even wars often came to a cease during these glorious festivals. The first Olympic games are said to have started in 776 BC, and included only one competition, the foot race. One myth says that the guardians of the infant god Zeus held the first footrace, or that Zeus himself started the Games to celebrate his victory over his father Cronus for control of the world. The footrace, that was 600 feet long, was the sole event for the first 13 Olympiads. Over time, however, the Greeks added longer footraces, and then additional events, such as the pentathlon (5 contests: discus, javelin, long jump, wrestling, and foot race), boxing, wrestling and equestrian contests. The ancient Olympic Games were played within the context of a religious festival. The Games, held in honor of Zeus, the king of the Greek gods, included a sacrifice of 100 oxen that was made to him on the middle day of the festival. Athletes who participated prayed to the gods for victory, and made gifts of animals, produce, or small cakes, in thanks for their successes. The Olympic games were played every four years and continued for nearly twelve centuries after their commencement. Over time, the Olympic Games flourished, and Olympia became a principal site for the worship of Zeus. Individuals and communities donated buildings, statues, altars and other dedications to the god. The most amazing sight at Olympia was the divine gold and ivory statue of Zeus enthroned, which was made by the sculptor Pheidias and placed inside the temple. Standing over 42 feet high, the statue was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. A spiral staircase took visitors to an upper floor of the temple, for a better view of the statue. Competition in the Olympic Games was restricted to Greeks only; people who were not Greek could not compete in the Games. Greek athletes traveled hundreds of miles, from colonies of the Greek city-states to come to Olympia. These colonies were as far away as modern-day Spain, Italy, Libya, Egypt, the Ukraine, and Turkey would be. Ancient athletes competed as individuals, not on national teams, as in today's Olympic Games. The emphasis on individual athletic accomplishment through public competition was connected to the Greek ideal of excellence. Aristocratic men who attained this ideal, through their outstanding words or deeds, won everlasting glory and fame. Those who failed to uphold this code were ascertained public shame and disgrace. Not all athletes lived up to the code of excellence. Those who were discovered cheating were fined, and the money was used to make bronze statues of Zeus, which were constructed on the road to the stadium. The statues were inscribed with accounts of the offenses, warning others not to cheat, reminding athletes that victory was won by skill and not by money, and emphasizing the Olympic spirit of devotion towards the gods and fair competition. The earliest recorded cheater was Eupolus of Thessaly, who bribed boxers in the 98th Olympiad. The Olympic festivals were so revered that before and during each one, a truce was announced to allow visitors and athletes to travel safely to Olympia. An engraving describing the truce was written on a bronze discus, which was displayed at Olympia. During the truce, wars were suspended, armies were prohibited from entering Elis or threatening the Games, and legal disputes and the carrying out of death penalties were forbidden. For the most part, the truce was conscientiously observed, even in the most inharmonious political times, but there were some who did not comply. In such cases, a fine was imposed and the people in question would be banned from the games. There were also several non-athletic festivals throughout the year associated with different gods. Spring was the beginning of the Greek year, and one of the first festivals for the gods was called Anthesteria. Participants wore garlands, and perfume and competed in contests, and consequently thanked Dionysos by pouring a libation for him of the last of the wine. Mounukhia was a festival that occurred mid-spring and honored Artemis as Moon Goddess and Lady of the Beasts. There was a procession in which the people carried round cakes with little torches stuck in them, and eventually offered them to the goddess. It is believed that April is under the protection of Aphrodite and that the month's name was derived from hers. Also, the name month of May, under the protection of Apollo, most likely emerged from Maia, mother of Apollo and Artemis. There were separate hymn-singing contests for men's and boys' choirs in the spring; the winners received a tripod, which they then dedicated to the god. In the summer solstice, there was a festival called Plunteria around the month of June. This was the festival for washing the ancient statue of Athena. Bathing sacred images was a common custom in Greece. Women had cleaned the temple a few days earlier for the festival, in a rite called the Kallunteria, which means, "to beautify by sweeping." At this time, the priestess also refilled and re-lit Athena's eternal flame in the temple. Skiraphoria, a festival also in June, occurred at the time of the cutting and threshing of the grain. The Priestess of Athena, the Priest of Poseidon and the Priest of Helios went to the Skiron. The Skiron was where, according to tradition, the first sowing took place. A large, white canopy was carried over the priests' and priestess' heads during the procession, which mainly women celebrated. To bring fertility, they abstained from intercourse on this day, and to this end they ate garlic to keep the men away. They also threw offerings into the sacred caves of Demeter. Panathenaia was the celebration of Athena's birthday, for according to tradition this was the day she burst from Zeus's head. Though it was her day, all the Olympians attended the festivities as well, for they were also all present at her birth. This was a sacred feast at which gods and mortals celebrated Athena's birthday together. Every fourth year, the Greater Panathenaia was held, for which a new robe was woven for the goddess, whose middle stripe of panels displayed the Gigantomachy (the battle of the Giants and the Olympians) which symbolized the triumph of civilization over savagery. In the Greater Panathenaia, the three or four days following the procession were occupied by contests of sport and art. Traditionally, the prize for athletes was a "Panathenaic amphora" (Jenkins, p. 46) containing olive oil from the Goddess's sacred grove, and the prize for artists was a gilded crown of wild olives and sometimes money. Next, Aphrodisia was the bathing festival of Aphrodite and Peitho (Persuasion), her helper, who had been considered powerful goddesses since the archaic period. They are goddesses of war and statecraft as well as love. During autumn, there was a minor thanksgiving festival for Apollo called Boedromia, celebrated in gratitude to him as a rescuer in war. Later in autumn, was Puanepsia, a festival of fruit gathering that sought divine blessings for the autumn sowing. This very ancient festival was primarily in honor of Apollo as sun god, but also for Helios and the Horai (Hours). At the end of autumn, Thesmophoria was a celebration of the autumn sowing dedicated to Demeter and restricted to women. This was unusual in the Greek world for festivals were usually open to both men and women. Finally, in the wintertime, came a time of rest and celebration after the last sowing, and agricultural deities were especially honored. December (mid-Dec.-mid-Jan.) was under the protection of Poseidon. Generally speaking, festivals of this season were more concerned with raising human spirits and reviving the crops than with the return of the sun. Many of the festivals and religious activities included some form of artistic entertainment as well to further impress the gods. Oftentimes, music and hymns, which were closely related to poetry, as well as theatrical tragedies and comedies, were performed. Religious festivals and rituals were frequently accompanied by hymns to the specific god, often with a musical accompaniment, and seasonal festivals included singing and dancing. From the dance, evolved Greek tragedy, which honored the wine god Dionysos. Comedy ensued, with a similar development process as tragedy. Throughout the ages, there is extensive evidence of the many ways the Greeks reverenced their gods. They sought to ensure that the gods were always content in order to keep a harmonious relationship with them. They knew the gods were continuously present and could give guidance, hope and comfort if properly approached. To the Greeks, interaction and worship of the gods was not just a part of life, it was a way of life. Burkert, Walter. Greek Religion. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985. Dowden, Ken. The Uses of Greek Mythology. New York: Routledge, 1992. Hadas, Moses. Hellenistic Culture. New York: Columbia University Press, 1959. Hesiod. Works and Days. ? Jenkins, Ian. Greek and Roman Life. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986. Kitto, H.D.F. The Greeks. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1951. Perseus Project at Tufts University: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ Plato. Symposium. ? Quotes page: http://www.allaboutsuccess.com/quotes.htm Walters, H.B. A Guide To The Exhibition Illustrating Greek and Roman Life. London: British Museum Order of the Trustees, 1929.	<urn:uuid:9dd5b0a8-5486-420f-bb83-2ced4d76d62f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.123helpme.com/view.asp?id=22660	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00288.warc.gz	en	0.98256	6,163	3.6875	4	[ 0.23611286282539368, 0.27911576628685, 0.12782464921474457, -0.38274145126342773, -0.565294623374939, -0.006015500985085964, 0.12055709958076477, 0.4940614402294159, 0.1523018181324005, -0.19825202226638794, -0.5967588424682617, -0.2777198851108551, 0.09590296447277069, 0.2791507840156555,...	1	Essay PreviewMore ↓ In ancient times, the Greeks had absolute and undeniable respect for their gods. They demonstrated their admiration by putting in place many rituals and celebrations to reverence the gods that they loved and feared in order to ensure harmony with them. In particular, the focus will be on the religious beliefs of the Greeks, including prayer and sacrifice, as well as on festivals and the arts, such as the ancient Olympic games and theatre. These aspects of their culture made a significant contribution to their quality of life. Moreover, these topics will be examined in relation to the twelve Olympian gods and their associates. The ancient Greeks practiced a religion that was in effect, a building block to many ensuing pagan religions. This religion revolved around their reverence to the gods. Essentially, the Greeks worshipped numerous gods, making their religion polytheistic. They believed that exercising the opportunity to choose between a wide array of gods to worship offered them a great sense of freedom that they treasured. After all, the Greeks were known for their intellectual distinction of which their means of worship played a huge part. Each city-state, or polis, thus had an affiliated god who protected and guided its residents. Within a given polis, the belief in common gods unified the people. Ultimately, the Greeks yearned for this unity and order in the universe, which is a characteristic that is not unlike that of people today. It might seem contradictory that they believed in many gods and sought organization at the same time, for larger numbers are inherently unstable. But, to the god-fearing Greeks, each god represented a different facet of life that together upheld an organized universe if each of these gods was properly appeased. To satisfy these gods, the Greeks participated in activities such as prayer and sacrifice and erected divine temples and centers for oracles in honor of specific gods. There is evidence of this institutionalization early on in the reign of the Olympian gods, thus forming the Olympian religion. The Olympian religion lacked the presence of true sentimentality, and the gods were not seen as forgiving or "flawless" as the Christian God is often portrayed. The Greek gods were portrayed as humans, which meant that they were not perfect. That is, the gods made mistakes, felt pain (e.g. Aphrodite in love with the mortal Adonis), and succumbed to anger and their tempers (e. How to Cite this Page "How the Greek Revered Their Gods." 123HelpMe.com. 21 Jan 2020 Need Writing Help? Get feedback on grammar, clarity, concision and logic instantly.Check your paper » - Aphrodite and Athena were both great powerful women who were revered as goddesses in greek mythology. They both were greatly worshipped, however due to their distinct personality traits they were worshipped and spoken about and very different ways. Both goddesses are immortal and female, and both seem to distinguish the incongruous gender roles between men and women throughout ancient Greece. What makes these two goddesses interesting, however, is their differences, which will determine how they will be reflected in myth.... [tags: Greek mythology, Aphrodite, Athena, Zeus] 1450 words (4.1 pages) - ... Critic Robert mentions that “the loss of [a] brother is irreparable to [a] sister and her duty towards him is the highest” (422). Although she must remain loyal to the city and her family, Antigone consistently settles to align her morals and desires to venerate her family. Along with her good intentions, Antigone possess moral courage as she follows her heart and full heartedly decides to accept the future consequences. Overall, Antigone’s family nobility and dignified values work to help classify her as a tragic heroine.... [tags: courage, morals, compromise] 1616 words (4.6 pages) - Ancient Greek Medicine While Greek Medicine particularly from the 5th century B.C onwards, increasingly used scientific method to develop cures, there still however remained people that considered medicine to be a religion. The ancient Greeks (Hellenic) made important discoveries about the human body and health, so by the sixth century BC, medicinal practices focused largely on a more clinical approach involving observation. Their discoveries were made by firstly studying the human anatomy using dissection and vivisection, finding ways to heal using things such as plants and herbs, then finally practising surgery on the human body using different instruments.... [tags: Greek History] 1520 words (4.3 pages) - Zeus: King of the Gods Zeus, Lord of the Skies, King of the Gods, was the last sibling of the Titan Kronos and the Titaness Rhea. He would have suffered the same fate as his other five Olympian siblings, Demeter, Hestia, Poseidon, Hades, and Hera, being swallowed alive, if it had not been for his mother hiding him and tricking Kronos into eating a large stone instead. He was raised in a cave with nine spirits, the Kouretes, and a goat, Amaltheia, that nursed him with her milk and the bees of the mountain provided honey.... [tags: Hera, tinaness rhea, olympia siblings] 546 words (1.6 pages) - Influence of Greek Culture Back in the days of Homer’s Writings, Greek culture had a huge influence on the way of life and the style of writing. In this epic Greek culture also played a huge roll in the outcome of the story. The three traits of Greek culture that are evident in this story are, marriage is permanent, gods are revered and intelligence is valued. The first one of these traits that stands out in this epic is marriage is permanent. Penelope is faced with many suitors who wish to marry her and rule Ithica, yet she remained loyal and had faith that her husband, Odysseus would return to her side.... [tags: essays research papers] 564 words (1.6 pages) - The Era of Greek Tragedy In Athens, during the final thirty years of sixth century B.C. playwrights began creating the earliest drama in all of Europe, Greek tragedy (Sifakis, “Greek Tragedy”). Though now the products of the movement are seen as pieces of literature to be read, they originated as theatrical pieces meant to be performed on the stage. The tragedies were mostly derived from stories about their gods, such as Hades, Zeus and Nyx. In that time period, tales of these immortals were passed down from generation to generation as history, not fairy tales.... [tags: Literary Analysis ] 2502 words (7.1 pages) - 1. What was unique/different/strange about Greek culture as compared to other civilizations at the time. The things that were unlike about the Greek culture compared to others could start with their idea that theft was ok if it was something they desired. When the Greeks took to the seas they almost became pirates when they wanted something and in their eyes it was ok to do this. The Greeks also lived without Kings and even divided their land into Polets (Cities), which today does not seem bizarre or different, but in those days that was very different for the cultures to live by.... [tags: Roman Empire, Ancient Rome, Ancient Greece] 1461 words (4.2 pages) - Athena When people hear the words “Greek gods” they immediately think of Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades. While those three play a big role in Greek mythology, there are many other gods and goddesses who are also very important and highly worshipped (C. Hemingway, S. Hemingway). Another highly worshipped goddess is the goddess of wisdom, Athena. Born from the head of Zeus, Athena is his favorite daughter and is highly respected by the other gods. She is one of three virgin goddesses and has many temples dedicated to her worship (“The Goddess Athena”).... [tags: greek gods, mythology, religion] 923 words (2.6 pages) - The Human Body in Ancient Greek Sculptures The primary focus of ancient Greek sculptures was that of the human body. Almost all Greek sculptures are of nude subjects. As the first society to focus on nude subjects, Greek sculptors attempted to "depict man in what they believed was the image of the gods and so would come to celebrate the body by striving for verisimilitude or true – likeness (realism and naturalism!)."(Riffert) Not only did the Greeks celebrate the human form in their art but also in everyday life.... [tags: Art History Essays] 1006 words (2.9 pages) - The philosopher Aristotle was a highly intellectual man who loved to reason. One of his ideas was his structured analysis of the “tragic hero” of Greek drama. In his work, Poetics, he defines a tragic hero as “...The man who on the one hand is not pre-eminent in virtue and justice, and yet on the other hand does not fall into misfortune through vice or depravity, but falls because of some mistake; one among the number of the highly renowned and prosperous.” Aristotle’s definition of a tragic hero is clearly shown by the main character in the Greek tragedy Oedipus the King by Sophocles.... [tags: Oedipus Rex, Sophocles] 522 words (1.5 pages) In the myths that have survived through the ages, the Greeks used the gods as a means to justify anything that they could not understand or scientifically explain. For example, when thunder and lightning fell from the sky accompanied by rain, it was believed that Zeus, the god of the sky, was responsible for it. And, it was potentially a sign that he was irate with the humans for some wrongdoing or inadequate worship (Hesiod, Works and Days, 42-105, and Kitto, p.19). In that respect, the Greeks believed that Zeus and his Olympian gods (or the Pantheon) were of the greatest importance. There were constant reminders (temples, shrines, etc.) everywhere of the unseen, but ever-present powers of the gods. The Olympians were in fact the most powerful. They overthrew the Titans who overthrew the first generation, and were themselves never overthrown. Nevertheless, the Greeks also worshipped the lesser divinities, oracles, demi-gods, and heroes as well. The major form of worship occurred through prayer and sacrifice at temples, at the oracles or in the homes of the Greeks. In that respect, religion was both a public and private function. Most praying occurred in the home with the family, but sacrifices and offerings were done at the temple or oracle of the god they were seeking to please. When prayers were said, an offering, usually of wine, was made. An example of a prayer said to Zeus is: "Lead me, O Zeus, and lead me, Destiny, Whether ordained is by your decree. I'll follow, doubting not, or if with will Recreant I falter - I shall follow still." (Hadas, p.203) During the course of their normal daily routine, the Greeks would also think about the gods as they went on with their business. However, if they had a specific request, the worshipper would take an offering directly to a god's temple. The Greeks went to these places of worship to make offerings or present sacrifices to maintain protection from the gods and keep order, or to ask for the will of the gods. According to the Greeks, the gods had total control over natural and social forces, and therefore, they needed to call upon the gods to be bestowed with favorable outcomes. They believed that if they pleased the gods, good fortune would surely ensue, be it in the harvest, politics, or family affairs. After all, the Greeks concluded that the divine played an indispensable role in all areas of life such as society, agriculture, civic duties, domestic issues, gender relations and war. Each God had their own temple, and within these temples the priests or priestesses made sure that the rules of offering were being observed. They were there to make sure that the temples, which were designed after palaces, were seen as the gods' second home on Earth. The temples were built with a high regard for nature, as the Greeks' was an earth-based culture, and never drastically changed the environment in which they were constructed. They were a sign of the Greeks' pride in their gods and took a great deal of time to build, re-build, beautify and preserve the temples. The door of the temple generally faced east and the divine image, a large, central statue of the god to whom the temple was dedicated, stood at the west end of the temple. In addition, there were many other smaller statues and idols of the god all around that were previously offered as gifts. Usually, at the temple entrance stood an altar, which may have been a brick or stone table, a pillar, a heap of stones, a stack of sod cut for the particular occasion, or simply a pile of the remnants of previous sacrifices. It may have been from a few inches to several feet high and it possibly had steps if it was very high. The altar was required to have a place (usually metal) for the sacred fire, and once it had been used, the altar was not to be moved. This is where the worshippers would bring offerings such as wheat, wine, honey, water, first fruits of the harvest, stone statues, or gold vessels. Offerings were presents "made to a deity, in order to secure some favour for the future, to avert anger for a past offence, or to express gratitude for a favour received" from the deity. (Walters, p. 40) As mentioned before, the gods had human qualities, and were easily angered. Plato said "the sole concern of every rite of sacrifice and divination - that is to say, the means of communion between Gods and mortals - is either the preservation or the repair of Love." (Plato's Symposium 188b5-c2) A common offering that was given to the god Dionysus would be wine, as he was the god of wine and revelry. Also, "it was the custom of women after childbirth to dedicate garments to Artemis," (Walters, p. 41) who was the goddess of the moon and the hunt but more importantly, protector of women in childbirth and of children. As for sacrifice, it was most often an animal such as a sheep, cow, goat, pig or bull, but on occasion, a human being would also be taken to the priest or priestess to be sacrificed. It was especially appropriate to return a token of what the God had given them. In any case, the sacrifice should be perfect and have no blemishes. The sacrifice was a communal event through which the Greeks believed that they were bound together with the gods. Washing and dressing in clean garments was crucial, typically in a white or purple tunic or a white one with purple borders. For this sacrifice, the Greeks had an elaborate ritual. The sacrifice would be taken along in a procession led by a maiden, preferably, or a basket-carrier, with a knife concealed by barley in the basket and a jug of holy water held at the side. The sacrifice was crowned and adorned, then purified by water and sprinkled with barley. It was then placed on the altar or in a marked sacred circle, where the priest or priestess would sacrifice it. Sacrifice was such a meaningful event that oftentimes temples were built solely for the purpose of sacrifice. The Greeks also went to the oracles because communication through a deity was possible there to seek advice or guidance. At the oracle, a special priest or priestess who could interpret the messages, which were often cryptic, would pass on the message of the god in answer to a question. From time to time, the gods would also communicate their messages to the Greeks by means of signs. In such cases, there were gifted ones who were also blessed with the power to foretell the will of the gods and the future. The most famous of the oracles was Apollo's temple at Delphi. It was a very influential oracle who made predictions and announcements there. The Priestess of Apollo was named Pythia. After a goat was sacrificed, she would sit and breathe in intoxicating smoke while awaiting divine inspiration. When she entered a trance the priests would interpret the oracles from Pythia and then relay the answers to the seeker. The main Oracle of Zeus was at Dondana where a sacred Oak tree rustled in the wind to pass on the words of Zeus. Another aspect of life that included reverence to the gods was marriage. A Greek wedding ceremony was not held in a church or temple as weddings are today. Rather, it was performed in a succession of places. The ceremony can be divided into these four parts: "(a) the preparation of the bride; (b) the removal of the bride from the house of her father to that of her husband; (c) the reception at that house; and (d) the presents given on the day following the marriage." (Walters, p. 216) In preparation, the bride often sacrificed her childhood toys to Artemis, the virgin goddess, on the day before the wedding. (Jenkins, p.38) This would signify her transition into being a woman and not a child any further. In addition, the wedding process was most likely a terrifying experience for the bride because she seldom knew her husband before the wedding night, as marriages were frequently business arrangements between families. The marital journey from one house to the other happened at night by torchlight. When the bride and groom entered the groom's house, the place of the bride's future domestic life, they were showered with nuts and sweetmeats, which were tokens of expectant prosperity, and were received in a special ceremony that placed them under the protection of the household gods. (Jenkins, p.39) These prayers and rituals were a converging force for the Greeks that united them in a common goal and gave their life meaning. After all, Thomas Carlyle once said that "a man without a purpose is like a ship without a rudder." Just as a rudder guides a ship, these ideals guided the Greeks. These rituals, prayers, offerings and sacrifices, as well as the prospect of a better afterlife provided the Greeks with hope and stability. The belief in a greater afterlife allowed them to live a fuller life without the fear of death. The Greeks also esteemed numerous festivals, athletic games and the arts that were a part of daily life. The festivals and athletic games were held in honour of the gods and the honorary god's statue was often brought out and carried among the worshippers. The purpose was to please the gods so that they would act favorably on up-coming undertakings, such as the next harvest. The main four athletic games that comprised the Panhellenic Games were: the Olympic games (every four years); the Pythian games held at Delphi in honor of Apollo (every four years); the Nemean games at Nemea in honor of Zeus (every two years); and the Isthmian games at the sanctuary of Poseidon on the Isthmus of Corinth (every two years). The festivals were organised so that at least one of them fell each year, constituting a circuit of games. The oldest and most prominent of these were the Olympic games held in honour of Zeus at his temple in Olympia. Olympia was one of the oldest religious centers in the ancient Greek world. Since athletic contests were one way that the ancient Greeks honored their gods, it was logical to hold a recurring athletic competition at the site of a major temple. Messengers were sent out to announce the dates of a given festival so that everyone could partake. Even wars often came to a cease during these glorious festivals. The first Olympic games are said to have started in 776 BC, and included only one competition, the foot race. One myth says that the guardians of the infant god Zeus held the first footrace, or that Zeus himself started the Games to celebrate his victory over his father Cronus for control of the world. The footrace, that was 600 feet long, was the sole event for the first 13 Olympiads. Over time, however, the Greeks added longer footraces, and then additional events, such as the pentathlon (5 contests: discus, javelin, long jump, wrestling, and foot race), boxing, wrestling and equestrian contests. The ancient Olympic Games were played within the context of a religious festival. The Games, held in honor of Zeus, the king of the Greek gods, included a sacrifice of 100 oxen that was made to him on the middle day of the festival. Athletes who participated prayed to the gods for victory, and made gifts of animals, produce, or small cakes, in thanks for their successes. The Olympic games were played every four years and continued for nearly twelve centuries after their commencement. Over time, the Olympic Games flourished, and Olympia became a principal site for the worship of Zeus. Individuals and communities donated buildings, statues, altars and other dedications to the god. The most amazing sight at Olympia was the divine gold and ivory statue of Zeus enthroned, which was made by the sculptor Pheidias and placed inside the temple. Standing over 42 feet high, the statue was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. A spiral staircase took visitors to an upper floor of the temple, for a better view of the statue. Competition in the Olympic Games was restricted to Greeks only; people who were not Greek could not compete in the Games. Greek athletes traveled hundreds of miles, from colonies of the Greek city-states to come to Olympia. These colonies were as far away as modern-day Spain, Italy, Libya, Egypt, the Ukraine, and Turkey would be. Ancient athletes competed as individuals, not on national teams, as in today's Olympic Games. The emphasis on individual athletic accomplishment through public competition was connected to the Greek ideal of excellence. Aristocratic men who attained this ideal, through their outstanding words or deeds, won everlasting glory and fame. Those who failed to uphold this code were ascertained public shame and disgrace. Not all athletes lived up to the code of excellence. Those who were discovered cheating were fined, and the money was used to make bronze statues of Zeus, which were constructed on the road to the stadium. The statues were inscribed with accounts of the offenses, warning others not to cheat, reminding athletes that victory was won by skill and not by money, and emphasizing the Olympic spirit of devotion towards the gods and fair competition. The earliest recorded cheater was Eupolus of Thessaly, who bribed boxers in the 98th Olympiad. The Olympic festivals were so revered that before and during each one, a truce was announced to allow visitors and athletes to travel safely to Olympia. An engraving describing the truce was written on a bronze discus, which was displayed at Olympia. During the truce, wars were suspended, armies were prohibited from entering Elis or threatening the Games, and legal disputes and the carrying out of death penalties were forbidden. For the most part, the truce was conscientiously observed, even in the most inharmonious political times, but there were some who did not comply. In such cases, a fine was imposed and the people in question would be banned from the games. There were also several non-athletic festivals throughout the year associated with different gods. Spring was the beginning of the Greek year, and one of the first festivals for the gods was called Anthesteria. Participants wore garlands, and perfume and competed in contests, and consequently thanked Dionysos by pouring a libation for him of the last of the wine. Mounukhia was a festival that occurred mid-spring and honored Artemis as Moon Goddess and Lady of the Beasts. There was a procession in which the people carried round cakes with little torches stuck in them, and eventually offered them to the goddess. It is believed that April is under the protection of Aphrodite and that the month's name was derived from hers. Also, the name month of May, under the protection of Apollo, most likely emerged from Maia, mother of Apollo and Artemis. There were separate hymn-singing contests for men's and boys' choirs in the spring; the winners received a tripod, which they then dedicated to the god. In the summer solstice, there was a festival called Plunteria around the month of June. This was the festival for washing the ancient statue of Athena. Bathing sacred images was a common custom in Greece. Women had cleaned the temple a few days earlier for the festival, in a rite called the Kallunteria, which means, "to beautify by sweeping." At this time, the priestess also refilled and re-lit Athena's eternal flame in the temple. Skiraphoria, a festival also in June, occurred at the time of the cutting and threshing of the grain. The Priestess of Athena, the Priest of Poseidon and the Priest of Helios went to the Skiron. The Skiron was where, according to tradition, the first sowing took place. A large, white canopy was carried over the priests' and priestess' heads during the procession, which mainly women celebrated. To bring fertility, they abstained from intercourse on this day, and to this end they ate garlic to keep the men away. They also threw offerings into the sacred caves of Demeter. Panathenaia was the celebration of Athena's birthday, for according to tradition this was the day she burst from Zeus's head. Though it was her day, all the Olympians attended the festivities as well, for they were also all present at her birth. This was a sacred feast at which gods and mortals celebrated Athena's birthday together. Every fourth year, the Greater Panathenaia was held, for which a new robe was woven for the goddess, whose middle stripe of panels displayed the Gigantomachy (the battle of the Giants and the Olympians) which symbolized the triumph of civilization over savagery. In the Greater Panathenaia, the three or four days following the procession were occupied by contests of sport and art. Traditionally, the prize for athletes was a "Panathenaic amphora" (Jenkins, p. 46) containing olive oil from the Goddess's sacred grove, and the prize for artists was a gilded crown of wild olives and sometimes money. Next, Aphrodisia was the bathing festival of Aphrodite and Peitho (Persuasion), her helper, who had been considered powerful goddesses since the archaic period. They are goddesses of war and statecraft as well as love. During autumn, there was a minor thanksgiving festival for Apollo called Boedromia, celebrated in gratitude to him as a rescuer in war. Later in autumn, was Puanepsia, a festival of fruit gathering that sought divine blessings for the autumn sowing. This very ancient festival was primarily in honor of Apollo as sun god, but also for Helios and the Horai (Hours). At the end of autumn, Thesmophoria was a celebration of the autumn sowing dedicated to Demeter and restricted to women. This was unusual in the Greek world for festivals were usually open to both men and women. Finally, in the wintertime, came a time of rest and celebration after the last sowing, and agricultural deities were especially honored. December (mid-Dec.-mid-Jan.) was under the protection of Poseidon. Generally speaking, festivals of this season were more concerned with raising human spirits and reviving the crops than with the return of the sun. Many of the festivals and religious activities included some form of artistic entertainment as well to further impress the gods. Oftentimes, music and hymns, which were closely related to poetry, as well as theatrical tragedies and comedies, were performed. Religious festivals and rituals were frequently accompanied by hymns to the specific god, often with a musical accompaniment, and seasonal festivals included singing and dancing. From the dance, evolved Greek tragedy, which honored the wine god Dionysos. Comedy ensued, with a similar development process as tragedy. Throughout the ages, there is extensive evidence of the many ways the Greeks reverenced their gods. They sought to ensure that the gods were always content in order to keep a harmonious relationship with them. They knew the gods were continuously present and could give guidance, hope and comfort if properly approached. To the Greeks, interaction and worship of the gods was not just a part of life, it was a way of life. Burkert, Walter. Greek Religion. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985. Dowden, Ken. The Uses of Greek Mythology. New York: Routledge, 1992. Hadas, Moses. Hellenistic Culture. New York: Columbia University Press, 1959. Hesiod. Works and Days. ? Jenkins, Ian. Greek and Roman Life. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1986. Kitto, H.D.F. The Greeks. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1951. Perseus Project at Tufts University: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/ Plato. Symposium. ? Quotes page: http://www.allaboutsuccess.com/quotes.htm Walters, H.B. A Guide To The Exhibition Illustrating Greek and Roman Life. London: British Museum Order of the Trustees, 1929.	6,175	ENGLISH	1
Episode 17: A Bitter Peace The defeat of Vercingetorix and the amassed forces of Gaul sent a clear message that Rome could not be defeated in pitched battle, no matter the circumstances. Yet, a handful of Gallic leaders still dreamt of independence and led their states into rebellion under the belief that if state after state engaged in simultaneous guerrilla war tactics it would wear down the Roman occupiers. In response, Caesar amassed an army of two legions and marched against the Biturigies and his forces came upon them while they were foraging, forcing them to flee. Caesar offered clemency to neighboring states if they turned over those Gauls in rebellion. Since the previous wars devastated them, they agreed, and the Biturigies rebellion was crushed not by a Roman army but by their fellow Gauls who feared another apocalyptic war. After dealing with the Biturigies Caesar marched to the Carnutes’ territory. Just as they approached a terrible storm rolled in and Caesar and his men sheltered in the abandoned town of Genabum, while the Carnutes were literally left in the cold. As the storm calmed Caesar left a guard in Genabum and turned his men loose in Carnutes territory where they razed and sack town after town, driving out most of the tribe. As soon as he was finished with the Carnutes, he learned the Bellovaci were in rebellion and marched out to meet them, in a year that was quickly turning into a game of whack-a-mole. As he approached, Caesar then sent his cavalry out in cohorts to capture prisoners and learn the location of the Bellovaci. He then learned the Bellovaci were leading other tribes to create a massive army to oppose Caesar and drawing out every man who could hold a sword. Caesar then stationed three legions at the head of his army, with the baggage behind and a fourth legion in the rear, disguising his numbers from the enemy. At this point Gauls and Germans were integrating into the legions and Caesar may have had more Gauls fighting for him than any one tribe could muster against him. Then he ordered fortifications to be built in order to trick the Gauls into thinking he feared an engagement. Caesar then ordered reinforcements, which the Bellovaci learned of, putting a timer on them. Despite this the Bellovaci were terrified of Caesar and fled before him, even burning their camp to put distance between themselves and the Romans, before fortifying a hill. As the Romans approached they captured a spy who told them a party of 7,000 Bellovaci were waiting to ambush foragers. In response, Caesar sent out a great number of elite guards to join the foragers. A battle ensued and when the Bellovaci tried to retreat they became trapped by the thick woods and rivers and most were killed. Seeing their doom, the entrenched Bellovaci blamed the entire rebellion on the leader of the ambush the Romans had just killed. In response, Caesar berated them, saying no one man could be so influential (pretty ironic for someone so narcissistic). Despite this he knew their forces were diminished so he gave them clemency while taking more hostages. This show of strength and mercy meant other Gallic states sent emissaries and hostages to Caesar. But Comius of the Bellovaci refused to give hostages, so Caesar attempted to have him assassinated in a council. A Roman centurion drew a sword and struck him in the head, but amazingly Comius survived and fled. This attempted assassination caused fear among the Gauls of Roman treachery. Caesar then split up his army to deal with potential pockets of resistance, realizing no general revolt was possible. He then marched to the country of Ambiorix with orders to his men to leave it in utter ruin. He then sent his trusted lieutenant Labienus to fight the Treveri who frequently rebelled and who he considered as savage as the Germans who they bordered. Meanwhile the Pictones tribe was in a civil war between the pro and anti-Roman faction, with a large anti-Roman army assaulting the town of Limonium. Caesar sent two lieutenants to aid the pro-Roman Pictones and the rebel leader Dumnacus fled. As he did the Roman cavalry seized his baggage trains and slew much of his forces. Dumnacus ordered his men to stand in line for a last stand, but when the legions arrived they broke in terror and fled, leaving the cavalry to cut them down. Caesar spent the year travelling from tribe to tribe offering clemency except for those who instigated the revolts. By this manner he turned the Gauls against each other, and the Carnutes turned over their rebel leader who was whipped to death and had his head cut off to add to a growing list of Gallic leaders who had lost their heads fighting Rome. Caesar then heard that an army of Pictones numbering only in the thousands were holding out on a rocky hill town and decided to make a show of them. He marched with his legions and fortified the area around the town. This denied the Pictones access to the nearby springs and rivers, leaving those inside to slowly die of thirst. After a few days Caesar’s tunnellers sapped the water from the spring from underneath them, causing their last source of water to dry up. The Gauls despaired thinking that the gods did this and they submitted. But the Pictones had surrendered too late. Caesar was done with leniency and ordered the hands of all those who had raised arms against him to be cut off to provide living examples of what happens to those who oppose Rome. For the rest of the year Caesar and his commanders engaged in mop-up operations across Gaul and there was no hope for them of a general revolt. Caesar dealt kindly with those who submitted and gave them friendship, as he genuinely wanted to avoid another war, because he knew that a greater war was about to begin between himself and Pompey and he wanted to draw on the strength of Gaul to help him win. Thus the Gallic Wars ended in one final year of quiet capitulation and utterly ruinous revolts. The preceding years had been so utterly devastating that when revolts broke out they were so small that the Roman garrisons could do away with them, though they were hardly needed as more often than not fellow Gallic leaders would put down the revolts themselves so as not to incur the wrath of Rome. The peace that settled over Gaul was a bitter one. Caesar’s wars and Vercingetorix’s scorched earth policy lead to mass deaths. It’s estimated that of the roughly 5 million Celts who lived in Gaul in 58 BCE, 1 million were killed while another million were sold into slavery. The remaining 3 million didn’t live as before as much of their great cities had been razed. The new large cities were made as Roman garrisons, meaning that the Gauls often lived under the watch of Roman armies, and were subjected to Roman law and custom. Those that didn’t lived in small towns in the countryside, and were incapable of organizing serious revolts. After the Gallic Wars, Gaul remained relatively peaceful. No doubt most Gauls were tired of fighting the Romans who at this point appeared unbeatable. Before the Gallic Wars, Gaul was undergoing a period of creeping Romanization as Roman trade, language and political patronage entered Gaul. Military occupation meant that Romanization occurred rapidly as Rome exercised direct control over the Gauls and forcefully imposed their way of life upon the Celts. In retrospect we must ask: what did the Gallic Wars mean for Gaul and for Rome? For Gaul this was the end of their independence and a fundamental reordering of their identity. The Celts identified themselves largely by tribal affiliation while the Romans went by citizenship. While tribes would not disappear entirely, their status as Roman subjects and later citizens became far more important. For the Romans, success in Gaul fundamentally changed the Roman Republic and soon the Roman Empire. To explain why this was so momentous we need to use a new historical tool and that is environmental history. While human thoughts and cultures may change the world around it, especially in our current age of machines, the farther back we go through history the more the environment shapes humans. Thousands of years ago, most cultures in the Eastern Hemisphere with large populations lived in and competed for territory within an environmental zone. This zone straddled a latitudinal line stretching from Spain and Morocco in the west all the way through India and China in the east. This environmental zone is the largest of its kind on Earth and due to the relatively similar climate many plants and animals in southern Spain can be transported all the way from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific coast and still survive. The Earth was significantly colder 5,000 years ago when Egypt and Sumeria first emerged and this zone was ideal for early human habitation. This led to the far largest concentration of people and trade across this zone than any other. There were of course natural boundaries to this zone. In Africa the Sahara desert divided Mediterranean Africa from Sub-Saharan Africa. In Europe the Alps, the Pyrenees and the Balkan mountains divided Mediterranean Europe from northern Europe. Finally the Himalayas divided the subcontinent of India from the rest of Asia, much to the chagrin of Alexander the Great. Thus a human community developed, though it was segmented between the Mediterranean world, Greater Persia, India and East Asia, and goods, people and ideas flowed across it. Throughout antiquity the bent of empires bordering the Mediterranean has been to conquer along a latitudinal line correlating with the Mediterranean environment. The Achaemenid Persian Empire stretched from northern Greece in the northwest, Egypt in the southwest and through to Iran and what is today Afghanistan and Pakistan in the east. This was a vast geographic landscape but had a relatively similar environment. Likewise, when Alexander the Great built his empire it stretched from Greece and Egypt into northern India. By all accounts, Rome was set to follow this trend of expanding along a similar environmental biome. Before the Gallic Wars Rome was a wholly Mediterranean civilization, controlling Italy, Spain, Northern Africa, Greece, Anatolia, the Levant and Syria. But then two events occurred that produced a remarkable shift in world history: first: Gaius Julius Caesar led one of the most successful wars in Roman history and subdued an Atlantic country. The Celts inhabited a separate eco-space from the Romans. But southern Gaul with its warm Mediterranean coasts served as a gateway for trade and the exchange of culture, peoples and ideas. This, combined with Caesar’s own military genius meant that this large Atlantic nation was now brought into a Mediterranean system. But just as Rome brought Gaul into the Mediterranean world, Gaul pulled Rome toward Europe, as Rome invaded Britannia, Helvetia (or modern-day Switzerland), western Germania and the northern Balkans. While Caesar conquered Gaul, Marcus Licinius Crassus led one of the most disastrous Roman invasions into Persia. This weakened the Roman ability to wage wars in the east, and warned the Persians and divided Arab tribes to Roman ambitions and the weaknesses of their armies. In summation, something incredible happened in the 50s BCE that had unimaginable consequences for world history. Centuries of cultural exchange between Rome and Gaul, Caesar’s legendary military genius and finally Crassus’ legendary stupidity meant that Rome was expanding in a way that was completely unlike previous empires. The Gallic Wars united the Atlantic World with the Mediterranean World to wholly reshape the geo-cultural landscape, creating something far similar to the ‘Europe’ we think of today, as Rome expanded into Continental Europe while largely foregoing expansion into western Asia. Rome was becoming less of a Mediterranean civilization and more of a European one. But this was only occurring very slowly; for a century Gaul was an impoverished part of the empire, and soon Rome would conquer its last major non-European territory of Egypt. So, for the time being, Rome remained a Mediterranean-based civilization. But change was coming as Rome continued its successful expansions across the temperate zones of Europe and failed to invade eastward. Thus a momentous change occurred as human interactions overcame environmental determinism and this Mediterranean people found it easier to put on coats and march northward than to take their normal clothes and march eastward. That might not sound like the biggest deal, but for ancient peoples, who largely lived and died within a hundred miles of where they were born, to travel from warm, sandy beaches lined by cypress trees and march into snow-covered forests of pine trees is a huge shift in human behavior. While the Romans thought the conquest of Gaul was incredible because it meant final Roman victory over the barbarian peoples who sacked their capital three hundred years before, in hindsight the biggest change Gaul brought was that it pushed Rome northward and began the slow transformation of a Mediterranean power into a European power. Though this process would take a few more centuries. In the meantime, it’s time to end our tale of Caesar, because after this episode he won’t play much of a part in the history of Gaul, though in fairness he has done enough. With Gaul finally pacified it was time for Caesar to leave as winter was approaching. Since this was the last year Caesar was governor and consul he proceeded slowly to Italy. As was his custom he visited many towns on his way back, held festivals, uplifted priests and made himself well-known and maybe even admired by the town-dwelling Gauls who received him. Caesar had spent 8 years giving them the stick, and by all accounts the Gauls were grateful for the carrot. As Caesar left he decided to make Labienus governor of Gaul, which was illegal, in order to ensure he had a supporter in power in a province that was now loyal to him personally. Caesar camped with an army in northern Italy while Pompey and the Senate waited tensely in Rome. Pompey made the first move and had the Senate order Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome since his term as governor and consul had ended. Caesar knew he would be prosecuted or assassinated if he entered Rome and refused to disband his legions, leading Pompey to accuse him of treason. On the 10th of January, 49 BCE, Caesar crossed the Rubicon river and started a civil war. In our next episode we will examine Gaul as it became a Roman province and the process of Romanization over this conquered Celtic nation. Commentary on the Gallic Wars by Julius Caesar Various historical critiques of the Commentary on the Gallic Wars.	<urn:uuid:9d96c7d6-c2cd-4d78-b20a-fa9fff7bf9db>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thefrenchhistorypodcast.com/podcast/17-a-bitter-peace/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00474.warc.gz	en	0.98053	2,995	3.5625	4	[ -0.30770179629325867, 0.5338944792747498, 0.1047263965010643, 0.04493826627731323, -0.3946842849254608, -0.21699143946170807, -0.04361885040998459, 0.3643064796924591, 0.32299911975860596, 0.18865007162094116, -0.15310823917388916, -0.2982714772224426, 0.07775382697582245, 0.13699662685394...	2	Episode 17: A Bitter Peace The defeat of Vercingetorix and the amassed forces of Gaul sent a clear message that Rome could not be defeated in pitched battle, no matter the circumstances. Yet, a handful of Gallic leaders still dreamt of independence and led their states into rebellion under the belief that if state after state engaged in simultaneous guerrilla war tactics it would wear down the Roman occupiers. In response, Caesar amassed an army of two legions and marched against the Biturigies and his forces came upon them while they were foraging, forcing them to flee. Caesar offered clemency to neighboring states if they turned over those Gauls in rebellion. Since the previous wars devastated them, they agreed, and the Biturigies rebellion was crushed not by a Roman army but by their fellow Gauls who feared another apocalyptic war. After dealing with the Biturigies Caesar marched to the Carnutes’ territory. Just as they approached a terrible storm rolled in and Caesar and his men sheltered in the abandoned town of Genabum, while the Carnutes were literally left in the cold. As the storm calmed Caesar left a guard in Genabum and turned his men loose in Carnutes territory where they razed and sack town after town, driving out most of the tribe. As soon as he was finished with the Carnutes, he learned the Bellovaci were in rebellion and marched out to meet them, in a year that was quickly turning into a game of whack-a-mole. As he approached, Caesar then sent his cavalry out in cohorts to capture prisoners and learn the location of the Bellovaci. He then learned the Bellovaci were leading other tribes to create a massive army to oppose Caesar and drawing out every man who could hold a sword. Caesar then stationed three legions at the head of his army, with the baggage behind and a fourth legion in the rear, disguising his numbers from the enemy. At this point Gauls and Germans were integrating into the legions and Caesar may have had more Gauls fighting for him than any one tribe could muster against him. Then he ordered fortifications to be built in order to trick the Gauls into thinking he feared an engagement. Caesar then ordered reinforcements, which the Bellovaci learned of, putting a timer on them. Despite this the Bellovaci were terrified of Caesar and fled before him, even burning their camp to put distance between themselves and the Romans, before fortifying a hill. As the Romans approached they captured a spy who told them a party of 7,000 Bellovaci were waiting to ambush foragers. In response, Caesar sent out a great number of elite guards to join the foragers. A battle ensued and when the Bellovaci tried to retreat they became trapped by the thick woods and rivers and most were killed. Seeing their doom, the entrenched Bellovaci blamed the entire rebellion on the leader of the ambush the Romans had just killed. In response, Caesar berated them, saying no one man could be so influential (pretty ironic for someone so narcissistic). Despite this he knew their forces were diminished so he gave them clemency while taking more hostages. This show of strength and mercy meant other Gallic states sent emissaries and hostages to Caesar. But Comius of the Bellovaci refused to give hostages, so Caesar attempted to have him assassinated in a council. A Roman centurion drew a sword and struck him in the head, but amazingly Comius survived and fled. This attempted assassination caused fear among the Gauls of Roman treachery. Caesar then split up his army to deal with potential pockets of resistance, realizing no general revolt was possible. He then marched to the country of Ambiorix with orders to his men to leave it in utter ruin. He then sent his trusted lieutenant Labienus to fight the Treveri who frequently rebelled and who he considered as savage as the Germans who they bordered. Meanwhile the Pictones tribe was in a civil war between the pro and anti-Roman faction, with a large anti-Roman army assaulting the town of Limonium. Caesar sent two lieutenants to aid the pro-Roman Pictones and the rebel leader Dumnacus fled. As he did the Roman cavalry seized his baggage trains and slew much of his forces. Dumnacus ordered his men to stand in line for a last stand, but when the legions arrived they broke in terror and fled, leaving the cavalry to cut them down. Caesar spent the year travelling from tribe to tribe offering clemency except for those who instigated the revolts. By this manner he turned the Gauls against each other, and the Carnutes turned over their rebel leader who was whipped to death and had his head cut off to add to a growing list of Gallic leaders who had lost their heads fighting Rome. Caesar then heard that an army of Pictones numbering only in the thousands were holding out on a rocky hill town and decided to make a show of them. He marched with his legions and fortified the area around the town. This denied the Pictones access to the nearby springs and rivers, leaving those inside to slowly die of thirst. After a few days Caesar’s tunnellers sapped the water from the spring from underneath them, causing their last source of water to dry up. The Gauls despaired thinking that the gods did this and they submitted. But the Pictones had surrendered too late. Caesar was done with leniency and ordered the hands of all those who had raised arms against him to be cut off to provide living examples of what happens to those who oppose Rome. For the rest of the year Caesar and his commanders engaged in mop-up operations across Gaul and there was no hope for them of a general revolt. Caesar dealt kindly with those who submitted and gave them friendship, as he genuinely wanted to avoid another war, because he knew that a greater war was about to begin between himself and Pompey and he wanted to draw on the strength of Gaul to help him win. Thus the Gallic Wars ended in one final year of quiet capitulation and utterly ruinous revolts. The preceding years had been so utterly devastating that when revolts broke out they were so small that the Roman garrisons could do away with them, though they were hardly needed as more often than not fellow Gallic leaders would put down the revolts themselves so as not to incur the wrath of Rome. The peace that settled over Gaul was a bitter one. Caesar’s wars and Vercingetorix’s scorched earth policy lead to mass deaths. It’s estimated that of the roughly 5 million Celts who lived in Gaul in 58 BCE, 1 million were killed while another million were sold into slavery. The remaining 3 million didn’t live as before as much of their great cities had been razed. The new large cities were made as Roman garrisons, meaning that the Gauls often lived under the watch of Roman armies, and were subjected to Roman law and custom. Those that didn’t lived in small towns in the countryside, and were incapable of organizing serious revolts. After the Gallic Wars, Gaul remained relatively peaceful. No doubt most Gauls were tired of fighting the Romans who at this point appeared unbeatable. Before the Gallic Wars, Gaul was undergoing a period of creeping Romanization as Roman trade, language and political patronage entered Gaul. Military occupation meant that Romanization occurred rapidly as Rome exercised direct control over the Gauls and forcefully imposed their way of life upon the Celts. In retrospect we must ask: what did the Gallic Wars mean for Gaul and for Rome? For Gaul this was the end of their independence and a fundamental reordering of their identity. The Celts identified themselves largely by tribal affiliation while the Romans went by citizenship. While tribes would not disappear entirely, their status as Roman subjects and later citizens became far more important. For the Romans, success in Gaul fundamentally changed the Roman Republic and soon the Roman Empire. To explain why this was so momentous we need to use a new historical tool and that is environmental history. While human thoughts and cultures may change the world around it, especially in our current age of machines, the farther back we go through history the more the environment shapes humans. Thousands of years ago, most cultures in the Eastern Hemisphere with large populations lived in and competed for territory within an environmental zone. This zone straddled a latitudinal line stretching from Spain and Morocco in the west all the way through India and China in the east. This environmental zone is the largest of its kind on Earth and due to the relatively similar climate many plants and animals in southern Spain can be transported all the way from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific coast and still survive. The Earth was significantly colder 5,000 years ago when Egypt and Sumeria first emerged and this zone was ideal for early human habitation. This led to the far largest concentration of people and trade across this zone than any other. There were of course natural boundaries to this zone. In Africa the Sahara desert divided Mediterranean Africa from Sub-Saharan Africa. In Europe the Alps, the Pyrenees and the Balkan mountains divided Mediterranean Europe from northern Europe. Finally the Himalayas divided the subcontinent of India from the rest of Asia, much to the chagrin of Alexander the Great. Thus a human community developed, though it was segmented between the Mediterranean world, Greater Persia, India and East Asia, and goods, people and ideas flowed across it. Throughout antiquity the bent of empires bordering the Mediterranean has been to conquer along a latitudinal line correlating with the Mediterranean environment. The Achaemenid Persian Empire stretched from northern Greece in the northwest, Egypt in the southwest and through to Iran and what is today Afghanistan and Pakistan in the east. This was a vast geographic landscape but had a relatively similar environment. Likewise, when Alexander the Great built his empire it stretched from Greece and Egypt into northern India. By all accounts, Rome was set to follow this trend of expanding along a similar environmental biome. Before the Gallic Wars Rome was a wholly Mediterranean civilization, controlling Italy, Spain, Northern Africa, Greece, Anatolia, the Levant and Syria. But then two events occurred that produced a remarkable shift in world history: first: Gaius Julius Caesar led one of the most successful wars in Roman history and subdued an Atlantic country. The Celts inhabited a separate eco-space from the Romans. But southern Gaul with its warm Mediterranean coasts served as a gateway for trade and the exchange of culture, peoples and ideas. This, combined with Caesar’s own military genius meant that this large Atlantic nation was now brought into a Mediterranean system. But just as Rome brought Gaul into the Mediterranean world, Gaul pulled Rome toward Europe, as Rome invaded Britannia, Helvetia (or modern-day Switzerland), western Germania and the northern Balkans. While Caesar conquered Gaul, Marcus Licinius Crassus led one of the most disastrous Roman invasions into Persia. This weakened the Roman ability to wage wars in the east, and warned the Persians and divided Arab tribes to Roman ambitions and the weaknesses of their armies. In summation, something incredible happened in the 50s BCE that had unimaginable consequences for world history. Centuries of cultural exchange between Rome and Gaul, Caesar’s legendary military genius and finally Crassus’ legendary stupidity meant that Rome was expanding in a way that was completely unlike previous empires. The Gallic Wars united the Atlantic World with the Mediterranean World to wholly reshape the geo-cultural landscape, creating something far similar to the ‘Europe’ we think of today, as Rome expanded into Continental Europe while largely foregoing expansion into western Asia. Rome was becoming less of a Mediterranean civilization and more of a European one. But this was only occurring very slowly; for a century Gaul was an impoverished part of the empire, and soon Rome would conquer its last major non-European territory of Egypt. So, for the time being, Rome remained a Mediterranean-based civilization. But change was coming as Rome continued its successful expansions across the temperate zones of Europe and failed to invade eastward. Thus a momentous change occurred as human interactions overcame environmental determinism and this Mediterranean people found it easier to put on coats and march northward than to take their normal clothes and march eastward. That might not sound like the biggest deal, but for ancient peoples, who largely lived and died within a hundred miles of where they were born, to travel from warm, sandy beaches lined by cypress trees and march into snow-covered forests of pine trees is a huge shift in human behavior. While the Romans thought the conquest of Gaul was incredible because it meant final Roman victory over the barbarian peoples who sacked their capital three hundred years before, in hindsight the biggest change Gaul brought was that it pushed Rome northward and began the slow transformation of a Mediterranean power into a European power. Though this process would take a few more centuries. In the meantime, it’s time to end our tale of Caesar, because after this episode he won’t play much of a part in the history of Gaul, though in fairness he has done enough. With Gaul finally pacified it was time for Caesar to leave as winter was approaching. Since this was the last year Caesar was governor and consul he proceeded slowly to Italy. As was his custom he visited many towns on his way back, held festivals, uplifted priests and made himself well-known and maybe even admired by the town-dwelling Gauls who received him. Caesar had spent 8 years giving them the stick, and by all accounts the Gauls were grateful for the carrot. As Caesar left he decided to make Labienus governor of Gaul, which was illegal, in order to ensure he had a supporter in power in a province that was now loyal to him personally. Caesar camped with an army in northern Italy while Pompey and the Senate waited tensely in Rome. Pompey made the first move and had the Senate order Caesar to disband his army and return to Rome since his term as governor and consul had ended. Caesar knew he would be prosecuted or assassinated if he entered Rome and refused to disband his legions, leading Pompey to accuse him of treason. On the 10th of January, 49 BCE, Caesar crossed the Rubicon river and started a civil war. In our next episode we will examine Gaul as it became a Roman province and the process of Romanization over this conquered Celtic nation. Commentary on the Gallic Wars by Julius Caesar Various historical critiques of the Commentary on the Gallic Wars.	2,997	ENGLISH	1
The book of Shemot tells the story of the enslavement of the Jewish people in Egypt and the beginning of their liberation. The Midrash points out that the Jewish people have sunk to the penultimate level of impurity, a nation that had strayed from the path of their forefathers. According to the Midrash, even circumcision had been abandoned, which is why Moshe had to force it upon them prior to the exodus. Yet there was still room for help. Certain aspects of tradition did remain in tact. The rabbis inform us that the Jews retained distinct names dress and language. It is fascinating to note that Moshe Rabbeinu himself seems to be deficient in these very three areas: His name, his dress and his language. The Torah stipulates that Pharaoh’s daughter gave Moshe his Egyptian name “For from the water I drew him out” (Shemot 2: 10). The saviour of the Jewish community, one that was careful to retain its Hebrew names, has an Egyptian name. It is implicit that Moshe was deficient in Jewish clothing. When it was revealed to Pharaoh that Moshe had killed an Egyptian, Moshe was forced to escape and make his way to Midyan where he is described as an Ish Mitzri – an Egyptian man. What was it about Moshe that made him appear Egyptian? The Rabbis point out that his clothes were Egyptian but he was a Hebrew. Fascinatingly, Moshe not only lacks a Jewish name but he also lacks Jewish dress, hardly a candidate for redeeming the Jewish people. It seems that Moshe lacked even a third credential for redemption – language. Whilst the Jewish people preserved Hebrew as their mother tongue despite their long years in exile, in contrast, Moshe declares, “I am not an eloquent man; I am slow of speech and slow of tongue.” He also declares that he has “uncircumcised lips”. It seems that Moshe is deficient in this most important trait. Why would Moshe be chosen to redeem the Jewish people when he is lacking in the very three traits that made them still deserving? The answer lies in the Torah verses themselves. After leaving Egypt we are told, “Moshe was the shepherd of his father-in-law’s flock.” It is worthwhile noting that Yosef at the beginning of Egyptian exile informed his brothers that they should not publicly declare their occupation, “for every shepherd is considered an abomination in Egypt.” Moshe Rabbeinu is the ultimate redeemer as he is able to reject Egyptian culture. Moshe the shepherd shows his affiliation with his Jewish brothers and his absolute rejection of Egyptian values. This is the power that allows him to fight for the disenfranchised slaves and lead the people to the receiving of the Torah. It seems the Torah is emphasizing the deficiencies of Moshe because they were needed for the absolute redemption of the Jewish people. Moshe with his Egyptian name, dress code and language, with his aristocratic upbringing, has shown that Egyptian culture can be and should be completely rejected. Similarly, there is a very powerful message to the Egyptian foe. A prince of the Pharaoh dynasty, perhaps even heir to the throne, a man in the public spotlight has defected and has shown that Egyptian culture is bankrupt of any meaning. There is a message for each and every one of us. We should never underestimate the value and importance of each and every one of our fellow Jews. It is easy for us to alienate those who seen to wear different clothes, speak a different language and have foreign names. Our parasha teaches us that form these humble beginnings redemption arises.	<urn:uuid:1b8707fd-0a32-4b59-9233-45ec48c70d71>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://torahmitzion.org/learn/the-unlikely-hero/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00477.warc.gz	en	0.986544	758	3.34375	3	[ -0.24253177642822266, 0.5776236057281494, -0.2126678228378296, 0.017215577885508537, -0.6794952750205994, 0.2324412763118744, 0.2063501477241516, -0.00275990879163146, -0.17450541257858276, 0.3099120557308197, -0.056224972009658813, -0.22994855046272278, -0.006781286094337702, -0.008129237...	7	The book of Shemot tells the story of the enslavement of the Jewish people in Egypt and the beginning of their liberation. The Midrash points out that the Jewish people have sunk to the penultimate level of impurity, a nation that had strayed from the path of their forefathers. According to the Midrash, even circumcision had been abandoned, which is why Moshe had to force it upon them prior to the exodus. Yet there was still room for help. Certain aspects of tradition did remain in tact. The rabbis inform us that the Jews retained distinct names dress and language. It is fascinating to note that Moshe Rabbeinu himself seems to be deficient in these very three areas: His name, his dress and his language. The Torah stipulates that Pharaoh’s daughter gave Moshe his Egyptian name “For from the water I drew him out” (Shemot 2: 10). The saviour of the Jewish community, one that was careful to retain its Hebrew names, has an Egyptian name. It is implicit that Moshe was deficient in Jewish clothing. When it was revealed to Pharaoh that Moshe had killed an Egyptian, Moshe was forced to escape and make his way to Midyan where he is described as an Ish Mitzri – an Egyptian man. What was it about Moshe that made him appear Egyptian? The Rabbis point out that his clothes were Egyptian but he was a Hebrew. Fascinatingly, Moshe not only lacks a Jewish name but he also lacks Jewish dress, hardly a candidate for redeeming the Jewish people. It seems that Moshe lacked even a third credential for redemption – language. Whilst the Jewish people preserved Hebrew as their mother tongue despite their long years in exile, in contrast, Moshe declares, “I am not an eloquent man; I am slow of speech and slow of tongue.” He also declares that he has “uncircumcised lips”. It seems that Moshe is deficient in this most important trait. Why would Moshe be chosen to redeem the Jewish people when he is lacking in the very three traits that made them still deserving? The answer lies in the Torah verses themselves. After leaving Egypt we are told, “Moshe was the shepherd of his father-in-law’s flock.” It is worthwhile noting that Yosef at the beginning of Egyptian exile informed his brothers that they should not publicly declare their occupation, “for every shepherd is considered an abomination in Egypt.” Moshe Rabbeinu is the ultimate redeemer as he is able to reject Egyptian culture. Moshe the shepherd shows his affiliation with his Jewish brothers and his absolute rejection of Egyptian values. This is the power that allows him to fight for the disenfranchised slaves and lead the people to the receiving of the Torah. It seems the Torah is emphasizing the deficiencies of Moshe because they were needed for the absolute redemption of the Jewish people. Moshe with his Egyptian name, dress code and language, with his aristocratic upbringing, has shown that Egyptian culture can be and should be completely rejected. Similarly, there is a very powerful message to the Egyptian foe. A prince of the Pharaoh dynasty, perhaps even heir to the throne, a man in the public spotlight has defected and has shown that Egyptian culture is bankrupt of any meaning. There is a message for each and every one of us. We should never underestimate the value and importance of each and every one of our fellow Jews. It is easy for us to alienate those who seen to wear different clothes, speak a different language and have foreign names. Our parasha teaches us that form these humble beginnings redemption arises.	747	ENGLISH	1
What was the extent of Islamic expansion one century after Muhammad's death? The prophet Muhammad died in 632 CE. Within 100 years of his death, the Muslim empire had expanded to a great degree, reaching as far east as what is now Iran and as far west as Spain. By 100 years after Muhammad's death, Islam's expansion was at a high point. In the west, Islam had spread across all of Northern Africa. It had even crossed the Straits of Gibraltar and Muslims dominated the Iberian Peninsula. This was as far as Islam was to penetrate into Europe as Muslim armies were defeated at the Battle of Tours in France in 732. By that time, Islam dominated everything from Morocco across Northern Africa to the Levant, the Arabian Peninsula, and the Persian Empire. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	<urn:uuid:cd597792-c84e-4962-a506-c579ca5d38f5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-was-extent-islamic-expansion-one-century-296966	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00125.warc.gz	en	0.988518	166	3.71875	4	[ -0.4395647346973419, 0.6182218790054321, 0.3064565360546112, 0.01750843971967697, -0.3423764407634735, 0.12029979377985, -0.11189224570989609, 0.18351908028125763, 0.30982261896133423, -0.010621600784361362, 0.11427787691354752, -0.18990369141101837, -0.0605739951133728, 0.0624557025730609...	2	What was the extent of Islamic expansion one century after Muhammad's death? The prophet Muhammad died in 632 CE. Within 100 years of his death, the Muslim empire had expanded to a great degree, reaching as far east as what is now Iran and as far west as Spain. By 100 years after Muhammad's death, Islam's expansion was at a high point. In the west, Islam had spread across all of Northern Africa. It had even crossed the Straits of Gibraltar and Muslims dominated the Iberian Peninsula. This was as far as Islam was to penetrate into Europe as Muslim armies were defeated at the Battle of Tours in France in 732. By that time, Islam dominated everything from Morocco across Northern Africa to the Levant, the Arabian Peninsula, and the Persian Empire. check Approved by eNotes Editorial	173	ENGLISH	1
Something we ought to consider in the controversy over the Confederate (battle) flag: The United States defeated the Confederacy on the battlefield, but eventually gave in to the political principles that the Confederacy stood for. In the years leading up to and through the Civil War, Abraham Lincoln called upon the American people to rededicate themselves to the principles of the Declaration of Independence. As Lincoln said, “I have never had a feeling politically that did not spring from the sentiments embodied in the Declaration of Independence,” particularly that freedom and democracy derived from the natural fact of human equality. Slavery violated this principle, and the Republican Party was founded to restore slavery to the place where the founders had placed it, he said, “in the course of ultimate extinction.” Lincoln had to fight off efforts by slavery advocates to prove that the founders did not mean the Declaration to apply to blacks — or that, if they did think it applied to blacks, that they were mistaken. The first argument was most prominent in the debates with Stephen Douglas in 1858, and in Chief Justice Roger B. Taney’s opinion in the Dred Scott case. As Douglas put it, “The signers of the Declaration of Independence never dreamed of the negro when they were writing that document. They referred to white men, to men of European birth and European descent, when they declared the equality of all men…. When that Declaration was put forth every one of the 13 colonies were slaveholding colonies, and every man who signed that instrument represented a slaveholding constituency.” Douglas was echoing what Taney claimed a year earlier in Dred Scott, that it was “too clear for dispute, that the enslaved African race were not intended to be included, and formed no part of the people who framed and adopted this Declaration; for if the language, as understood in that day, would embrace them, the conduct of the distinguished men who framed the Declaration of Independence would have been utterly and flagrantly inconsistent with the principles they asserted; and instead of the sympathy of mankind, to which they so confidently appealed, they would have deserved and received universal rebuke and reprobation.” In short, to claim that the founders believed that all men were created equal was to condemn them as hypocrites. Lincoln replied that “I believe the entire records of the world, from the date of the Declaration of Independence up to within three years ago, may be searched in vain for one single affirmation, from one single man, that the negro was not included in the Declaration of Independence.” He rejected “the staple argument of both the Chief Justice and the Senator, for doing this obvious violence to the plain unmistakable language of the Declaration. I think the authors of that notable instrument intended to include all men, but they did not intend to declare all men equal in all respects.” But they were equal in “certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. This they said, and this they meant. They did not mean to assert the obvious untruth, that all were then actually enjoying that equality, nor yet, that they were about to confer it immediately upon them. In fact they had no power to confer such a boon. They meant simply to declare the right, so that the enforcement of it might follow as fast as circumstances should permit. They meant to set up a standard maxim for free society, which should be familiar to all, and revered by all; constantly looked to, constantly labored for, and even though never perfectly attained, constantly approximated, and thereby constantly spreading and deepening its influence, and augmenting the happiness and value of life to all people of all colors everywhere.” Some slavery partisans were more forthright. They agreed with Lincoln that the founders meant what they said, but concluded that they had been mistaken. When Alexander H. Stephens was inaugurated as the first (and last) vice president of the Confederate States of America, he observed that the founders all believed that slavery was “in violation of the laws of nature… wrong in principle, socially, morally and politically.” They hoped that it would “be evanescent and pass away.” Their ideas, however, were “fundamentally wrong,” he said. “They rested upon the assumption of the equality of the races. This was an error.” The Confederate Constitution was “founded upon the opposite idea; its foundations are laid, its cornerstone rests, upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery — subordination to the superior race — is his natural and normal condition.” It was, he said, the first government ever “based on this physical, philosophical and moral truth.” In this sense, the Confederates were the “progressives” of their day. Their legal and political philosophy was ahead of its time, anticipating the legal “realism” of the next century. As one scholar has more recently noted, “Retrograde though it was in its consequences, slavery had given rise to a remarkable and little-appreciated strain of legal realism in the South: to a recognition that judges made law and did not discover it; that economic self-interest was the cement of the Union, and that the Constitution was a manipulable artifact.” The Civil War ended slavery and seemed to vindicate the principles of the Declaration, as Lincoln so ably articulated them in the Gettysburg Address. But it was only a few decades before a new generation, the “progressives,” renewed the war on the Declaration and succeeded where the Confederates failed. The progressives aspired to give America a European-style welfare state, and they knew that the principles of natural rights found in the Declaration and the Constitution stood in their way. Woodrow Wilson was more explicit than most progressives on this point. The progressives were all “historicists,” who believed that political and constitutional principles could not be fixed, but had to change — to evolve, in the Darwinian idiom — along with changing times and conditions. Thus Wilson argued that “we are not bound to adhere to the doctrines held by the signers of the Declaration.” If we did read the document, he said, we should focus on the list of particular grievances that were germane to 1776, but not to our times. The principles of equality, consent and natural rights he dismissed as “the rhetorical introduction of the Declaration of Independence,” adding that “If you want to understand the real Declaration, do not repeat the preface.” Wilson complained that too many Americans “have never gotten beyond the Declaration of Independence.” The 20th century was largely the story of Americans “getting beyond the Declaration of Independence.” We no longer take seriously the idea that individuals have pre-existing rights by nature, and that we form governments to secure these rights. Rather, we have embraced the idea that government is the provider of what we call rights, but are in fact the benefits of an entitlement state. By all means, let’s get rid of the Confederate flag. And let’s restore the American flag to the principles of the Founding.	<urn:uuid:2e76d426-8839-4b88-8dc9-7fa01875b2bc>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://spectator.org/the-declaration-of-independence-vindication-and-defeat/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00407.warc.gz	en	0.980328	1,503	3.421875	3	[ -0.5249575972557068, 0.501630425453186, 0.08646058291196823, 0.10482756793498993, -0.49623894691467285, 0.36116981506347656, 0.3631969094276428, 0.07093527913093567, -0.1475764960050583, -0.22195841372013092, 0.06471214443445206, -0.03487975150346756, -0.0743599683046341, 0.321792274713516...	4	Something we ought to consider in the controversy over the Confederate (battle) flag: The United States defeated the Confederacy on the battlefield, but eventually gave in to the political principles that the Confederacy stood for. In the years leading up to and through the Civil War, Abraham Lincoln called upon the American people to rededicate themselves to the principles of the Declaration of Independence. As Lincoln said, “I have never had a feeling politically that did not spring from the sentiments embodied in the Declaration of Independence,” particularly that freedom and democracy derived from the natural fact of human equality. Slavery violated this principle, and the Republican Party was founded to restore slavery to the place where the founders had placed it, he said, “in the course of ultimate extinction.” Lincoln had to fight off efforts by slavery advocates to prove that the founders did not mean the Declaration to apply to blacks — or that, if they did think it applied to blacks, that they were mistaken. The first argument was most prominent in the debates with Stephen Douglas in 1858, and in Chief Justice Roger B. Taney’s opinion in the Dred Scott case. As Douglas put it, “The signers of the Declaration of Independence never dreamed of the negro when they were writing that document. They referred to white men, to men of European birth and European descent, when they declared the equality of all men…. When that Declaration was put forth every one of the 13 colonies were slaveholding colonies, and every man who signed that instrument represented a slaveholding constituency.” Douglas was echoing what Taney claimed a year earlier in Dred Scott, that it was “too clear for dispute, that the enslaved African race were not intended to be included, and formed no part of the people who framed and adopted this Declaration; for if the language, as understood in that day, would embrace them, the conduct of the distinguished men who framed the Declaration of Independence would have been utterly and flagrantly inconsistent with the principles they asserted; and instead of the sympathy of mankind, to which they so confidently appealed, they would have deserved and received universal rebuke and reprobation.” In short, to claim that the founders believed that all men were created equal was to condemn them as hypocrites. Lincoln replied that “I believe the entire records of the world, from the date of the Declaration of Independence up to within three years ago, may be searched in vain for one single affirmation, from one single man, that the negro was not included in the Declaration of Independence.” He rejected “the staple argument of both the Chief Justice and the Senator, for doing this obvious violence to the plain unmistakable language of the Declaration. I think the authors of that notable instrument intended to include all men, but they did not intend to declare all men equal in all respects.” But they were equal in “certain inalienable rights, among which are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. This they said, and this they meant. They did not mean to assert the obvious untruth, that all were then actually enjoying that equality, nor yet, that they were about to confer it immediately upon them. In fact they had no power to confer such a boon. They meant simply to declare the right, so that the enforcement of it might follow as fast as circumstances should permit. They meant to set up a standard maxim for free society, which should be familiar to all, and revered by all; constantly looked to, constantly labored for, and even though never perfectly attained, constantly approximated, and thereby constantly spreading and deepening its influence, and augmenting the happiness and value of life to all people of all colors everywhere.” Some slavery partisans were more forthright. They agreed with Lincoln that the founders meant what they said, but concluded that they had been mistaken. When Alexander H. Stephens was inaugurated as the first (and last) vice president of the Confederate States of America, he observed that the founders all believed that slavery was “in violation of the laws of nature… wrong in principle, socially, morally and politically.” They hoped that it would “be evanescent and pass away.” Their ideas, however, were “fundamentally wrong,” he said. “They rested upon the assumption of the equality of the races. This was an error.” The Confederate Constitution was “founded upon the opposite idea; its foundations are laid, its cornerstone rests, upon the great truth that the negro is not equal to the white man; that slavery — subordination to the superior race — is his natural and normal condition.” It was, he said, the first government ever “based on this physical, philosophical and moral truth.” In this sense, the Confederates were the “progressives” of their day. Their legal and political philosophy was ahead of its time, anticipating the legal “realism” of the next century. As one scholar has more recently noted, “Retrograde though it was in its consequences, slavery had given rise to a remarkable and little-appreciated strain of legal realism in the South: to a recognition that judges made law and did not discover it; that economic self-interest was the cement of the Union, and that the Constitution was a manipulable artifact.” The Civil War ended slavery and seemed to vindicate the principles of the Declaration, as Lincoln so ably articulated them in the Gettysburg Address. But it was only a few decades before a new generation, the “progressives,” renewed the war on the Declaration and succeeded where the Confederates failed. The progressives aspired to give America a European-style welfare state, and they knew that the principles of natural rights found in the Declaration and the Constitution stood in their way. Woodrow Wilson was more explicit than most progressives on this point. The progressives were all “historicists,” who believed that political and constitutional principles could not be fixed, but had to change — to evolve, in the Darwinian idiom — along with changing times and conditions. Thus Wilson argued that “we are not bound to adhere to the doctrines held by the signers of the Declaration.” If we did read the document, he said, we should focus on the list of particular grievances that were germane to 1776, but not to our times. The principles of equality, consent and natural rights he dismissed as “the rhetorical introduction of the Declaration of Independence,” adding that “If you want to understand the real Declaration, do not repeat the preface.” Wilson complained that too many Americans “have never gotten beyond the Declaration of Independence.” The 20th century was largely the story of Americans “getting beyond the Declaration of Independence.” We no longer take seriously the idea that individuals have pre-existing rights by nature, and that we form governments to secure these rights. Rather, we have embraced the idea that government is the provider of what we call rights, but are in fact the benefits of an entitlement state. By all means, let’s get rid of the Confederate flag. And let’s restore the American flag to the principles of the Founding.	1,433	ENGLISH	1
These naturalization papers were issued to German native Pangratz Boll in 1860, granting him American citizenship. Boll immigrated to the United States in 1854 at age 28 with his wife and three children, one of whom died at sea on the voyage over. He eventually settled in Greenville, where he worked for a boot manufacturer until he was appointed postman in 1870 by President Grant. When he died in 1907 at age 80, he owned considerable property and was regarded as “a man of sterling worth and strict integrity, alike true to every public and private trust.” Before the Civil War, U.S. citizenship was open to free, white, adult aliens over the age of 21 who had lived in the United States for at least five years, could prove good moral character, and who took an oath of allegiance to the Constitution. Children of successful applicants automatically became citizens. Naturalization could be granted by local, state, or federal courts.	<urn:uuid:b697512f-4e12-41f5-9b57-f4d1c3f61817>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://story.illinoisstatemuseum.org/content/naturalization-papers	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00200.warc.gz	en	0.991122	195	3.578125	4	[ -0.20279191434383392, 0.5320040583610535, -0.01136228907853365, -0.18565820157527924, -0.19153065979480743, 0.20360417664051056, 0.2685600817203522, 0.03458132967352867, -0.1627516895532608, 0.03107033669948578, 0.013646732084453106, 0.07617349177598953, 0.10064425319433212, -0.09592107683...	8	These naturalization papers were issued to German native Pangratz Boll in 1860, granting him American citizenship. Boll immigrated to the United States in 1854 at age 28 with his wife and three children, one of whom died at sea on the voyage over. He eventually settled in Greenville, where he worked for a boot manufacturer until he was appointed postman in 1870 by President Grant. When he died in 1907 at age 80, he owned considerable property and was regarded as “a man of sterling worth and strict integrity, alike true to every public and private trust.” Before the Civil War, U.S. citizenship was open to free, white, adult aliens over the age of 21 who had lived in the United States for at least five years, could prove good moral character, and who took an oath of allegiance to the Constitution. Children of successful applicants automatically became citizens. Naturalization could be granted by local, state, or federal courts.	211	ENGLISH	1
Editor’s note: The following is extracted from Enemy In Sight!, by Stanley Rogers (published 1943). At the beginning of the war Great Britain possessed six aircraft carriers — Ark Royal, Courageous, Glorious, Furious, Eagle, and Hermes—with another, Argus, used as a training ship. There were six others besides, building, their names given in Jane’s Fighting Ships as Illustrious, Victorious, Formidable, Indomitable, Implacable, and Indefatigable, all big ships. The first four were laid down in 1937 and were due for completion in 1940–41. Since Illustrious and Victorious and Formidable figured in the news before June 1941, it was then known that the first three of these four were completed and on active service. Courageous, sister-ship of Glorious, was the first major naval casualty of the war. She was torpedoed in September 1939 by an enemy submarine. Glorious was sunk by shell-fire from the German battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau off Norway in June 1940. They were both designed as cruisers during the World War of 1914–18 for operations in the Baltic — hence their shallow draught. After the war the cruisers were converted to aircraft carriers and were ready for their new role in 1930. The first aircraft carriers, commissioned during the World War of 1914–18, were called ‘the hush-hush ships’ as their building was kept secret. They were converted from cruisers and were the original Furious and Argus. The first carrier to be built expressly for that purpose was HMS Hermes. She was fitted to carry twenty airplanes, and was the first carrier to have a flight deck extending the full length of the ship without a break. Her superstructure — funnel, bridge, and signaling mast — was built on the starboard side, a practice that was adopted in all subsequent vessels of this type. In 1913 there was laid down at Armstrong Whitworth’s yard at Tyneside a battleship for the Chilean government to be named Almirante Cochrane, but all work on the ship ceased in August 1914. In 1917 the British government purchased her from Chile for £1,334,358, and put the half-built ship in hand at Portsmouth Dockyard for conversion to an aircraft carrier. As HMS Eagle (22,600 tons displacement, and the largest vessel of its kind in the world) she was finally completed in 1924. Two more hush-hush cruisers, HMS Courageous and HMS Glorious, as we have said, were converted into aircraft carriers and completed in 1928 and 1930. Illustrious was laid down in the yards of Vickers Armstrong at Barrow-in-Furness on April 4, 1937, as one of the big carriers budgeted for in the rearmament programme following the long sleep of the British government after the Treaty of Versailles. With a displacement of 23,000 tons, she was bigger than Ark Royal, which was completed in November 1938. Her length was 753 feet, and the width of the flight-deck 95 3/4 feet. Like her sister ships, her full complement was 1600 men. Space for seventy airplanes was provided for, though sixty was accepted as a more practical figure for operational purposes. Her defensive armament consisted of sixteen 4.5 dual purpose guns mounted on sponsons along either side, flush with the flight deck. Besides these guns she carried the usual batteries of multiple pom-poms. Japan and the United States equipped their carriers with 8-inch guns, but the Admiralty, moved by the principle that aircraft carriers should not be risked in offensive operations, had adhered to the policy of defensive armament only. Put into commission in the autumn of 1940, Illustrious was sent almost before her paint was dry to assist the overworked Mediterranean Fleet. Her commander, Captain D. W. Boyd, C.B.E., D.S.C., was a naval officer of long experience, and before this cruise was over the wisdom of the Admiralty’s choice was to be amply justified. Under sealed orders the biggest and newest of the Royal Navy’s aircraft carriers left Britain, and after an uneventful voyage through the ‘Bay’ passed the Straits of Gibraltar and entered the Mediterranean, where her captain had instructions to keep his planes busy watching the skies and the seas for Axis aircraft and surface craft. Up to then the Navy had been unable to spare a modern carrier for these waters, and the arrival of Illustrious was a great relief to every British naval officer and rating in the Mediterranean. Axis planes had done much mischief among convoys, and at any moment the home-keeping Italian Navy might come out of their bases and challenge the Royal Navy. The presence of Illustrious soon began to be felt by the enemy, for her planes swept the skies and gave the Navy the freedom of movement it so desperately needed to protect convoys and the Suez Canal. But this was not spectacular work, and very few people in Britain were even aware that such a ship as Illustrious existed. Then came the famous raid on Taranto harbor, and her name appeared for the first time in the news. On the night of November 11–12, 1940, the great naval base inside the heel of Italy was raided by torpedo-carrying aircraft from HMS Illustrious and HMS Eagle, an old ship. It was no coincidence that this most determined attack was carried out on the anniversary of the Armistice after the World War of 1914–18. In the harbor lay the main Italian battle fleet, comprising the two new battleships Littorio and Vittorio Veneto and four others of the Cavour class as well as a number of cruisers and auxiliary craft. The attack was so carefully planned that the enemy was caught off his guard with such successful results for the Royal Navy that the balance of naval power was decisively altered in favor of Britain. In one night torpedo carrying Swordfish and Skua dive-bombers flying from Illustrious and Eagle at sea forty miles away wrought fearful destruction. The Swordfishes, coming in low over the water, dropped their torpedoes at point-blank range, leaving two battleships (one of 35,000 tons and the other of 23,000 tons) severely handled and half submerged in the harbor. Another battleship was badly damaged, and two cruisers had taken a heavy list to starboard. A daylight reconnaissance carried out the next day showed two of the Cavour class battleships to be aground, another partly submerged and abandoned, and a big 35,000-ton Littorio battleship with her stern underwater and surrounded by salvage craft. Several smaller vessels could be detected lying underwater in the inner harbor. This single raid had put out of action half the Italian battle fleet at the cost of two British planes. For the first time in war the aircraft carrier had scored a major victory, and in doing so she had thoroughly justified herself. So incensed were the German and Italian High Commands at this audacious raid that they issued orders that at any cost the aircraft carrier Illustrious must be destroyed. All other operations in the Mediterranean were to take second place in importance to this urgent and supreme necessity. For weeks German and Italian bomber planes searched for her, but it was not until January 10 that they caught her, south of Malta, and with all the pent-up fury of thwarted hunters did their best to sink the giant ship. Illustrious was part of a squadron covering the passage of a convoy of ships taking supplies to Greece. The attack took place in the Sicilian Channel, the bottle neck of the Mediterranean which lies between the island of Sicily and Cape Bon, on the African coast. Almost midway in the channel lies the small Italian island-fortress of Pantelleria, which had a small aerodrome and a base for U-boats. As the narrowest part of the Mediterranean it was the danger spot for convoys—a fact that the enemy did not fail to take advantage of. The first news of the attack published in the more moderate British newspapers was a masterpiece of understatement. After announcing that a sea and air action had taken place in the Mediterranean, in which three British ships had been hit and damaged and twelve Axis planes had been brought down, and that the destroyer Gallant had been damaged but reached port, the London Times stated that the aircraft carrier had been hit and had received some damage. War-time censorship of necessity waters down spectacular news, and for weeks, if not months, the story of the hell Illustrious had been through was suppressed. But, piecing together the events of that dramatic day from official communiqués and from eye witness accounts, we can get a whole picture. The convoy, escorted by warships, was half-way through the Sicilian Channel and heading eastward at dawn on January 10. Just as the first streaks of dawn were rising from the eastern horizon a star shell was seen curving up from a British destroyer which had sighted the dark shapes of two Italian destroyers several miles away. At the signal British cruisers and destroyers raced to overtake the enemy, firing salvos as they took up the chase. One of the enemy destroyers managed to escape to the north, but the other, a Spica class destroyer, crippled by the British guns, slowed down and was sent to the bottom by a British destroyer, which went in and finished her with a torpedo. As the escorting destroyers were tearing about, the drone of enemy aircraft was heard, and high up in the winter sky unidentified enemy planes were seen approaching, Illustrious at once sent off a squadron of her own planes, which roared up and chased the enemy away. These planes turned out to be Italian machines from Sicily, and though they were driven off, it was not before they had radioed a report of the presence of the British convoy and its size. One hour later — at 12.15 P.M. – two Italian torpedo-bombers, coming out of the sun, dived at Illustrious and dropped their tin fish. The vicious anti-aircraft fire from Illustrious and other ships undoubtedly upset their aim, for both torpedoes missed, but one passed too close astern for comfort. The carrier had eighteen of her own planes in the air during this attack, but no others were able to leave her spacious flight deck that day, for a quarter of an hour later a large force (as many as forty-five were counted) of German and Italian dive bombers appeared and dived straight at Illustrious, leaving no doubt at all that their instructions were to concentrate on this ship and destroy her at whatever the cost. With reckless courage they came straight in, ignoring the almost solid wall of anti-aircraft shells that screamed up to stop them. With daring and skill the attack was pressed home, though planes fell out of the sky like winged ducks. Hell broke loose over and around the victim of their fury. The sea was churned up into spouting columns of water and plumed spray as the Stukas rained down a torrent of bursting steel. Goggled pilots frowning down at the oblong shape of the carrier a thousand feet below, fatalistically ignoring the vicious, spitting anti-aircraft guns, were bent almost impersonally on one relentless purpose — to destroy that hated symbol of Britain’s sea-power. Hammering her implacably with showers of heavy high explosives, indifferent to the wholesale slaughter of those British sailors, human beings like themselves, but turned enemies by the accident of war, the Nazi pilots pressed their attack with all the concentrated fury of their fanatical desire to destroy without mercy. They had been told that it was the planes of this ship that had caused the greatest destruction among the ships of their Italian ally at Taranto. Other naval ships in the vicinity did what they could to protect the giant carrier, filling the blue Mediterranean sky with the dirty smudges of bursting A.A. shells. Watchers from the ships could see that Illustrious was taking terrible punishment and had received at least one direct hit on the flight deck by a bomb of heavy caliber. Some times the carrier was entirely blotted out by the columns of water and smoke from bursting bombs, but she was still fighting back gamely, her gunners remaining at their posts on the exposed gun platforms in spite of appalling casualties. Wave after wave of Stukas roared down on her, screaming like shells as they dived with their throttles wide open. With jagged fragments of steel flying in every direction it was impossible for any of her crew to appear on deck. Still the gunners remained at their stations, though the crew of a multiple pom-pom were all killed when the gun received a direct hit from a bomb. A 1250-pound bomb, hitting the rear elevator hatch which was open and bringing up more planes, destroyed the planes and killed the crews. At 1:30 P.M. a second wave of thirty-five Stukas approached, flying high, and when over the carrier broke into flights of three, and with throttles wide open dived to attack. Good bomb sights or good luck got them another direct hit on the unfortunate ship. This time the after-part of the flight deck was hit, and a huge, ragged hole torn in the steel. The bomb burst in the hangar deck below, utterly destroying the closely packed planes and blowing the wreckage into a chaotic mess at one end of the vast hangar. Thousands of gallons of escaping gasoline from burst tanks caught fire, and the burning spirit running down openings in the deck started numerous fires below. Bomb splinters which penetrated steam pipes filled the engine room with scalding steam. Although half the men there were wounded, superhuman efforts were made to quench the fires and suppress the escaping steam. These men, imprisoned in a flaming inferno, fought with selfless valor to save their ship — and succeeded. Dragging the dead aside, they rigged and manned the firefighting apparatus, and, while the great ship rocked with the titanic concussion of explosions, they remained at their posts in the face of what appeared certain death. As the electric generating system was disabled and cables cut, all lights went out, and the heroic firefighters worked by the light of the flames. To add to the hell between decks, bombs bursting below the water line buckled plating and let in torrents of seawater which flooded the holds. During action collision mats were dragged over the hole by men struggling up to their waists in water. Above the crash of gunfire and bursting bombs outside the men could hear from loud-speakers throughout the ship the calm and measured words of the chaplain, who was describing the battle. He stood on the exposed bridge with a microphone to his lips all that day, telling the men below what was happening. For the first time in naval warfare the engine room staff were given a minute-to-minute account of what was happening outside. The heroic chaplain was afterwards awarded the Distinguished Service Order. At four in the afternoon another wave of dive-bombers attacked, and it was then that a direct hit on an octuple pom-pom killed the entire crew, blowing the bodies overboard. Immediately afterwards a large bomb penetrated the overhanging flight deck at the bows, ripping up the thick steel deck as though it were a tin can, leaving a vast hole with edges curling up like the petals of some fabulous flower. The design of aircraft carriers permits of little protection to the gun crews, but for six hours the heroic gunners remained at their stations. Though blackened by smoke and deaf from concussion, they fought back, firing from their high-angle A.A. guns thousands of rounds of 4.5 shell and pom-pom ammunition. A direct hit on a pom-pom station drove the body of one of the gunners through the deck. The enemy dived to the level of the flight deck and, sweeping along the full length of the ship in the face of terrific fire, machine-gunned the pom-pom stations, killing many of the crews. Observers on other ships, appalled at the terrible battering Illustrious was getting, abandoned hope for her. Aircraft carriers, without the armored decks of battleships, are not built to withstand direct vertical hits, but Illustrious had received three such hits and still floated. She had also sustained several of those near-misses which, bursting in the water alongside, put a pressure on the hull that buckles the heaviest plating, and hurls jagged fragments of steel into the ship. Over a thousand such splinters, some making holes big enough for a man to crawl into, pierced the carrier’s sides, cutting and ripping through electric cables, voice pipes, and steam and water pipes, and killing members of the crew. A direct hit on the stern had put the steering gear out, and for the rest of the action she steered with her engines — that is to say, by the alternate use of her propellers. At times the 750-foot hull was completely hidden in clouds of smoke and fountains of spray. A photograph taken from the deck of a cruiser less than a mile away at the moment she received a direct hit shows nothing but a mushrooming cloud of smoke billowing darkly over the sea. On board Illustrious the undaunted defenders of their ship were still manning the guns, still fighting the fires and the inrush of water below, removing the dead and attending to the wounded. The hospital deep in the interior of the ship was crowded with wounded men, and the surgeon and his assistants were working without rest in the sickening atmosphere of ether and cordite fumes. Wounded men lay on the decks in rows waiting their turn for emergency operations. Above on the island — the bridge and control-tower — Captain Boyd and his officers remained directing the ship. Many missed death by the narrowest margin of chance, but many lost their lives. The heavy bronze ship’s bell was perforated and ripped by shell fragments, till it resembled rat-eaten cheese, and the bride-island plating was holed in a hundred places. A bomb fragment weighing ten pounds pierced the control-tower, missing seven men stationed there. Though the gallant ship seemed to be taking all the punishment, she was making the enemy pay heavily for it. Her gunners are believed to have shot down nearly fifty of the attacking bombers, and at least one Stuka was blown to pieces by the upward blast of the bomb it had just dropped on the flight deck of the carrier. The fight of Illustrious, as bloody and brave as any in the history of the British Navy, can be compared to the fight of Sir Richard Grenville’s Revenge. At half-past five, in the fading light, the enemy returned to make his last attack. About thirty-five Stukas roared down one after another to within a hundred feet before leveling off to drop their bombs, but so fierce was the anti-aircraft fire from Illustrious and other ships that, the enemy’s aim being persistently obstructed, the bombs fell wide and the battered ship escaped further damage. But she had had enough. In the savage all-day bombardments she had absorbed more punishment, still floating, than any ship in the war to that date. Her flight deck was torn up by four great jagged craters; her hangar deck was burned out and all her planes destroyed; her steering gear was disabled and her engine room in chaos. Her funnel and bridge-island superstructure were perforated with a hundred holes; searchlights, rail stanchions, steam pipes, Carley floats, ladders, and all the complicated mass of gear belonging to the superstructure were twisted and bent into a ghastly tangle of scrap steel. When the roll was called her casualties were found to be 14 officers and 107 men killed and over 400 wounded. During the attack the convoy had scattered, though some of the escorting warships had remained with Illustrious and had not escaped damage. Although the enemy had failed to achieve their main purpose — to sink the carrier — they had put her out of action for months, and so damaged the 9000-ton cruiser Southampton that she be came a total loss. Heroic efforts were made to save her, on fire and out of control, but after hours of titanic effort the survivors of her crew were taken off and she was sunk by British forces. Most of the crew were saved. Illustrious, though still afloat, was too badly hurt to continue at sea, and her captain decided to make under cover of darkness for the refuge of Malta, about 150 miles away. This naval base, close to enemy territory and subject to frequent bombing, was not an ideal sanctuary for the battered ship. Alexandria would have been far preferable, but Illustrious was in no condition to withstand the 1000 mile voyage, and so Malta was the inevitable choice, though the enemy was bound to find her there and make further attacks. The crippled ship, escorted by screening destroyers, limped into Valetta naval harbor the next morning. At Valetta were well-equipped machine shops, heavy cranes, and everything necessary to carry out extensive repairs to the damaged carrier, but the enemy had no intention of permitting their victim to recover, and after a search of the Sicilian Channel they found her in the naval dock. Her dead and wounded had already been taken ashore, and scores of mechanics had invaded the ship to begin temporary repairs. Towering over her swung the giant crane ready to lift out damaged machinery and torn plating. The work had already begun when the first enemy planes, flying at a great height, came over. The sound of air raid sirens had scarcely died away when the first bombs fell. As usual in enemy raids on ports and dock yards, most of the bombs fell on the town, but some fell on the dockyard, one stick blowing up a row of warehouses and workshops close to Illustrious. Towering clouds of dark smoke rolled up from the town, and falling fragments of A.A. shells kicked up spurts of water on the sunlit harbor. The bombers, coming over in waves, roared across like angry hornets, twisting and climbing to avoid the A.A. fire from the harbor defences. The enemy’s aim was, under the circumstances, very good. Within the space of ten minutes bombs had hit the dock sheds, the dock, and the ship herself. The bomb that fell on the quay did some superficial damage to the ship from flying fragments, but a moment later a direct hit down the rear elevator hatch rocked the vast hull as in an earthquake, and caused further destruction to the interior of the already wrecked ‘tween decks. After the enemy had gone and the new dead and wounded were removed it seemed as though Illustrious was damaged beyond hope of repair. The German pilots, seeing the direct hit, must have thought so, but with Teutonic thoroughness they came again and again. In two weeks Illustrious was attacked four times as she lay along side the dock at Valetta. The enemy caused wanton destruction in the town and considerable damage on the dock, but they failed to destroy Illustrious. They came over and took photographs, and when their expert annotators studied the results they had to admit that the ship was still upright, though she was certainly full of water and resting on the harbor bed. She could not conceivably be of any further use to the British Navy. Meanwhile down in the battered interior of the ship the engine room staff, ignoring the falling bombs, had struggled night and day to carry out temporary repairs. New sections were put in broken steam pipes, electric cables were spliced, the smashed steering gear repaired and steel plates riveted over the holes in the hull. Thus patched up, and with steam again in her boilers, she slipped out of the harbor under cover of night and put to sea under her own power on a course for Alexandria. It was the Navy’s only hope of saving the ship, but a hard choice, for the 1000-mile voyage for a crippled ship crawling along at half-speed in waters infested with enemy submarines was not a comforting alternative. But if Illustrious could get to the Egyptian base she would be comparatively safe, as it was too far from Axis airfields to be in any danger from heavy air raids. Steaming eastward with an escorting destroyer screen, the wounded giant slowly crawled towards the sanctuary. She had got away from Malta in such secrecy that even the people of Valetta were surprised when they woke up and found her gone. So, too, was the enemy when one of his reconnaissance planes discovered the empty dock. When photographs disclosed that Illustrious had not sunk but had actually departed the Luftwaffe was ordered to find and destroy her. She could not have got far away in her crippled condition, nor were the enemy long in finding her. But she was well protected by escorts, and now, some hundreds of miles from Malta, she was slowly drawing out of effective bombing range. The enemy attacked her, but without the ferocious persistence of that dreadful day when they all but put an end to her career, and as she drew farther away from the land the attacks ceased, and she was permitted to reach Alexandria without any damage. At once the dockyard repair gangs took her over and began further temporary repairs. Captain Boyd, who had brought Illustrious through her bloody ordeal, was promoted to the rank of Rear-Admiral, and he was succeeded in command by Captain G. Seymour Tuck, late executive officer of the ship. Meanwhile the British government, gratefully taking advantage of an agreement with the United States permitting ships of the Royal Navy to be repaired in American yards, was in touch with Washington about getting the damaged carrier repaired in a United States navy yard. While temporary repairs to her were being done at Alexandria her captain received orders to take her to Norfolk, Virginia, as soon as she was ready to put to sea. The route was, of course, a secret, as also was her departure from Alexandria. With her flight deck patched up, and a few planes for self-defense, she slipped out of the Egyptian port one morning in the early spring bound on her long and perilous voyage. Steaming at reduced speed, she turned east for Suez and the Red Sea, since the shorter voyage westward through the whole length of the Mediterranean would have been suicidal in the ship’s crippled condition. Through the Straits of Bab-el Mandeb (the Arab “Gate of Tears”) Illustrious turned eastward to Cape Guardafui and thence south along the coast of Somaliland and Portuguese East Africa to Cape Town. From there she limped up the South Atlantic to her destination, the great United States navy yard at Norfolk, Virginia, where she arrived in the middle of May 1941, four months after the bloody battle in the Sicilian Straits. At Portsmouth navy yard American workmen began stripping out the damaged machinery and plating while her crew, with well-earned shore leave, fraternized with the hospitable people of Norfolk. The Americans gave them a wholehearted welcome. Three months after the arrival of the ship at Norfolk Captain Tuck, who had received the D.S.O. for his part in the battle, was promoted to a higher command, and Captain Lord Louis Mountbatten, who had commanded the torpedoed destroyer Kelly, took over the rebuilt carrier in a formal navy ceremony on the flight deck. In dazzling sunlight and in white tropical duck the surviving officers and crew watched Captain Tuck hand over his command to their new commander, the tall and handsome cousin of the King. The deafening clamor of riveting hammers and all the accompanying noises of the shipyard were stilled while the brief ceremony was carried out, and when this was over the work on the ship proceeded, for there was no time to lose. With the Royal Navy spread dangerously thin over the Seven Seas every ship was needed, and before the winter came Illustrious was at sea again and as good as new. The enemy had failed in his sworn resolve to sink the hated ship which was mainly responsible for the Italian disaster at Taranto….	<urn:uuid:c396c847-420c-4bc6-b236-2220660a3c07>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.menofthewest.net/the-immortal-story-of-hms-illustrious/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00123.warc.gz	en	0.982434	5,823	3.84375	4	[ 0.15053421258926392, 0.2869494557380676, 0.15987440943717957, -0.4645535349845886, 0.044219329953193665, -0.11956832557916641, -0.033160097897052765, 0.35909318923950195, -0.03977777063846588, -0.2395373433828354, 0.42050862312316895, -0.31053853034973145, 0.1577168107032776, 0.12553884088...	7	Editor’s note: The following is extracted from Enemy In Sight!, by Stanley Rogers (published 1943). At the beginning of the war Great Britain possessed six aircraft carriers — Ark Royal, Courageous, Glorious, Furious, Eagle, and Hermes—with another, Argus, used as a training ship. There were six others besides, building, their names given in Jane’s Fighting Ships as Illustrious, Victorious, Formidable, Indomitable, Implacable, and Indefatigable, all big ships. The first four were laid down in 1937 and were due for completion in 1940–41. Since Illustrious and Victorious and Formidable figured in the news before June 1941, it was then known that the first three of these four were completed and on active service. Courageous, sister-ship of Glorious, was the first major naval casualty of the war. She was torpedoed in September 1939 by an enemy submarine. Glorious was sunk by shell-fire from the German battleships Scharnhorst and Gneisenau off Norway in June 1940. They were both designed as cruisers during the World War of 1914–18 for operations in the Baltic — hence their shallow draught. After the war the cruisers were converted to aircraft carriers and were ready for their new role in 1930. The first aircraft carriers, commissioned during the World War of 1914–18, were called ‘the hush-hush ships’ as their building was kept secret. They were converted from cruisers and were the original Furious and Argus. The first carrier to be built expressly for that purpose was HMS Hermes. She was fitted to carry twenty airplanes, and was the first carrier to have a flight deck extending the full length of the ship without a break. Her superstructure — funnel, bridge, and signaling mast — was built on the starboard side, a practice that was adopted in all subsequent vessels of this type. In 1913 there was laid down at Armstrong Whitworth’s yard at Tyneside a battleship for the Chilean government to be named Almirante Cochrane, but all work on the ship ceased in August 1914. In 1917 the British government purchased her from Chile for £1,334,358, and put the half-built ship in hand at Portsmouth Dockyard for conversion to an aircraft carrier. As HMS Eagle (22,600 tons displacement, and the largest vessel of its kind in the world) she was finally completed in 1924. Two more hush-hush cruisers, HMS Courageous and HMS Glorious, as we have said, were converted into aircraft carriers and completed in 1928 and 1930. Illustrious was laid down in the yards of Vickers Armstrong at Barrow-in-Furness on April 4, 1937, as one of the big carriers budgeted for in the rearmament programme following the long sleep of the British government after the Treaty of Versailles. With a displacement of 23,000 tons, she was bigger than Ark Royal, which was completed in November 1938. Her length was 753 feet, and the width of the flight-deck 95 3/4 feet. Like her sister ships, her full complement was 1600 men. Space for seventy airplanes was provided for, though sixty was accepted as a more practical figure for operational purposes. Her defensive armament consisted of sixteen 4.5 dual purpose guns mounted on sponsons along either side, flush with the flight deck. Besides these guns she carried the usual batteries of multiple pom-poms. Japan and the United States equipped their carriers with 8-inch guns, but the Admiralty, moved by the principle that aircraft carriers should not be risked in offensive operations, had adhered to the policy of defensive armament only. Put into commission in the autumn of 1940, Illustrious was sent almost before her paint was dry to assist the overworked Mediterranean Fleet. Her commander, Captain D. W. Boyd, C.B.E., D.S.C., was a naval officer of long experience, and before this cruise was over the wisdom of the Admiralty’s choice was to be amply justified. Under sealed orders the biggest and newest of the Royal Navy’s aircraft carriers left Britain, and after an uneventful voyage through the ‘Bay’ passed the Straits of Gibraltar and entered the Mediterranean, where her captain had instructions to keep his planes busy watching the skies and the seas for Axis aircraft and surface craft. Up to then the Navy had been unable to spare a modern carrier for these waters, and the arrival of Illustrious was a great relief to every British naval officer and rating in the Mediterranean. Axis planes had done much mischief among convoys, and at any moment the home-keeping Italian Navy might come out of their bases and challenge the Royal Navy. The presence of Illustrious soon began to be felt by the enemy, for her planes swept the skies and gave the Navy the freedom of movement it so desperately needed to protect convoys and the Suez Canal. But this was not spectacular work, and very few people in Britain were even aware that such a ship as Illustrious existed. Then came the famous raid on Taranto harbor, and her name appeared for the first time in the news. On the night of November 11–12, 1940, the great naval base inside the heel of Italy was raided by torpedo-carrying aircraft from HMS Illustrious and HMS Eagle, an old ship. It was no coincidence that this most determined attack was carried out on the anniversary of the Armistice after the World War of 1914–18. In the harbor lay the main Italian battle fleet, comprising the two new battleships Littorio and Vittorio Veneto and four others of the Cavour class as well as a number of cruisers and auxiliary craft. The attack was so carefully planned that the enemy was caught off his guard with such successful results for the Royal Navy that the balance of naval power was decisively altered in favor of Britain. In one night torpedo carrying Swordfish and Skua dive-bombers flying from Illustrious and Eagle at sea forty miles away wrought fearful destruction. The Swordfishes, coming in low over the water, dropped their torpedoes at point-blank range, leaving two battleships (one of 35,000 tons and the other of 23,000 tons) severely handled and half submerged in the harbor. Another battleship was badly damaged, and two cruisers had taken a heavy list to starboard. A daylight reconnaissance carried out the next day showed two of the Cavour class battleships to be aground, another partly submerged and abandoned, and a big 35,000-ton Littorio battleship with her stern underwater and surrounded by salvage craft. Several smaller vessels could be detected lying underwater in the inner harbor. This single raid had put out of action half the Italian battle fleet at the cost of two British planes. For the first time in war the aircraft carrier had scored a major victory, and in doing so she had thoroughly justified herself. So incensed were the German and Italian High Commands at this audacious raid that they issued orders that at any cost the aircraft carrier Illustrious must be destroyed. All other operations in the Mediterranean were to take second place in importance to this urgent and supreme necessity. For weeks German and Italian bomber planes searched for her, but it was not until January 10 that they caught her, south of Malta, and with all the pent-up fury of thwarted hunters did their best to sink the giant ship. Illustrious was part of a squadron covering the passage of a convoy of ships taking supplies to Greece. The attack took place in the Sicilian Channel, the bottle neck of the Mediterranean which lies between the island of Sicily and Cape Bon, on the African coast. Almost midway in the channel lies the small Italian island-fortress of Pantelleria, which had a small aerodrome and a base for U-boats. As the narrowest part of the Mediterranean it was the danger spot for convoys—a fact that the enemy did not fail to take advantage of. The first news of the attack published in the more moderate British newspapers was a masterpiece of understatement. After announcing that a sea and air action had taken place in the Mediterranean, in which three British ships had been hit and damaged and twelve Axis planes had been brought down, and that the destroyer Gallant had been damaged but reached port, the London Times stated that the aircraft carrier had been hit and had received some damage. War-time censorship of necessity waters down spectacular news, and for weeks, if not months, the story of the hell Illustrious had been through was suppressed. But, piecing together the events of that dramatic day from official communiqués and from eye witness accounts, we can get a whole picture. The convoy, escorted by warships, was half-way through the Sicilian Channel and heading eastward at dawn on January 10. Just as the first streaks of dawn were rising from the eastern horizon a star shell was seen curving up from a British destroyer which had sighted the dark shapes of two Italian destroyers several miles away. At the signal British cruisers and destroyers raced to overtake the enemy, firing salvos as they took up the chase. One of the enemy destroyers managed to escape to the north, but the other, a Spica class destroyer, crippled by the British guns, slowed down and was sent to the bottom by a British destroyer, which went in and finished her with a torpedo. As the escorting destroyers were tearing about, the drone of enemy aircraft was heard, and high up in the winter sky unidentified enemy planes were seen approaching, Illustrious at once sent off a squadron of her own planes, which roared up and chased the enemy away. These planes turned out to be Italian machines from Sicily, and though they were driven off, it was not before they had radioed a report of the presence of the British convoy and its size. One hour later — at 12.15 P.M. – two Italian torpedo-bombers, coming out of the sun, dived at Illustrious and dropped their tin fish. The vicious anti-aircraft fire from Illustrious and other ships undoubtedly upset their aim, for both torpedoes missed, but one passed too close astern for comfort. The carrier had eighteen of her own planes in the air during this attack, but no others were able to leave her spacious flight deck that day, for a quarter of an hour later a large force (as many as forty-five were counted) of German and Italian dive bombers appeared and dived straight at Illustrious, leaving no doubt at all that their instructions were to concentrate on this ship and destroy her at whatever the cost. With reckless courage they came straight in, ignoring the almost solid wall of anti-aircraft shells that screamed up to stop them. With daring and skill the attack was pressed home, though planes fell out of the sky like winged ducks. Hell broke loose over and around the victim of their fury. The sea was churned up into spouting columns of water and plumed spray as the Stukas rained down a torrent of bursting steel. Goggled pilots frowning down at the oblong shape of the carrier a thousand feet below, fatalistically ignoring the vicious, spitting anti-aircraft guns, were bent almost impersonally on one relentless purpose — to destroy that hated symbol of Britain’s sea-power. Hammering her implacably with showers of heavy high explosives, indifferent to the wholesale slaughter of those British sailors, human beings like themselves, but turned enemies by the accident of war, the Nazi pilots pressed their attack with all the concentrated fury of their fanatical desire to destroy without mercy. They had been told that it was the planes of this ship that had caused the greatest destruction among the ships of their Italian ally at Taranto. Other naval ships in the vicinity did what they could to protect the giant carrier, filling the blue Mediterranean sky with the dirty smudges of bursting A.A. shells. Watchers from the ships could see that Illustrious was taking terrible punishment and had received at least one direct hit on the flight deck by a bomb of heavy caliber. Some times the carrier was entirely blotted out by the columns of water and smoke from bursting bombs, but she was still fighting back gamely, her gunners remaining at their posts on the exposed gun platforms in spite of appalling casualties. Wave after wave of Stukas roared down on her, screaming like shells as they dived with their throttles wide open. With jagged fragments of steel flying in every direction it was impossible for any of her crew to appear on deck. Still the gunners remained at their stations, though the crew of a multiple pom-pom were all killed when the gun received a direct hit from a bomb. A 1250-pound bomb, hitting the rear elevator hatch which was open and bringing up more planes, destroyed the planes and killed the crews. At 1:30 P.M. a second wave of thirty-five Stukas approached, flying high, and when over the carrier broke into flights of three, and with throttles wide open dived to attack. Good bomb sights or good luck got them another direct hit on the unfortunate ship. This time the after-part of the flight deck was hit, and a huge, ragged hole torn in the steel. The bomb burst in the hangar deck below, utterly destroying the closely packed planes and blowing the wreckage into a chaotic mess at one end of the vast hangar. Thousands of gallons of escaping gasoline from burst tanks caught fire, and the burning spirit running down openings in the deck started numerous fires below. Bomb splinters which penetrated steam pipes filled the engine room with scalding steam. Although half the men there were wounded, superhuman efforts were made to quench the fires and suppress the escaping steam. These men, imprisoned in a flaming inferno, fought with selfless valor to save their ship — and succeeded. Dragging the dead aside, they rigged and manned the firefighting apparatus, and, while the great ship rocked with the titanic concussion of explosions, they remained at their posts in the face of what appeared certain death. As the electric generating system was disabled and cables cut, all lights went out, and the heroic firefighters worked by the light of the flames. To add to the hell between decks, bombs bursting below the water line buckled plating and let in torrents of seawater which flooded the holds. During action collision mats were dragged over the hole by men struggling up to their waists in water. Above the crash of gunfire and bursting bombs outside the men could hear from loud-speakers throughout the ship the calm and measured words of the chaplain, who was describing the battle. He stood on the exposed bridge with a microphone to his lips all that day, telling the men below what was happening. For the first time in naval warfare the engine room staff were given a minute-to-minute account of what was happening outside. The heroic chaplain was afterwards awarded the Distinguished Service Order. At four in the afternoon another wave of dive-bombers attacked, and it was then that a direct hit on an octuple pom-pom killed the entire crew, blowing the bodies overboard. Immediately afterwards a large bomb penetrated the overhanging flight deck at the bows, ripping up the thick steel deck as though it were a tin can, leaving a vast hole with edges curling up like the petals of some fabulous flower. The design of aircraft carriers permits of little protection to the gun crews, but for six hours the heroic gunners remained at their stations. Though blackened by smoke and deaf from concussion, they fought back, firing from their high-angle A.A. guns thousands of rounds of 4.5 shell and pom-pom ammunition. A direct hit on a pom-pom station drove the body of one of the gunners through the deck. The enemy dived to the level of the flight deck and, sweeping along the full length of the ship in the face of terrific fire, machine-gunned the pom-pom stations, killing many of the crews. Observers on other ships, appalled at the terrible battering Illustrious was getting, abandoned hope for her. Aircraft carriers, without the armored decks of battleships, are not built to withstand direct vertical hits, but Illustrious had received three such hits and still floated. She had also sustained several of those near-misses which, bursting in the water alongside, put a pressure on the hull that buckles the heaviest plating, and hurls jagged fragments of steel into the ship. Over a thousand such splinters, some making holes big enough for a man to crawl into, pierced the carrier’s sides, cutting and ripping through electric cables, voice pipes, and steam and water pipes, and killing members of the crew. A direct hit on the stern had put the steering gear out, and for the rest of the action she steered with her engines — that is to say, by the alternate use of her propellers. At times the 750-foot hull was completely hidden in clouds of smoke and fountains of spray. A photograph taken from the deck of a cruiser less than a mile away at the moment she received a direct hit shows nothing but a mushrooming cloud of smoke billowing darkly over the sea. On board Illustrious the undaunted defenders of their ship were still manning the guns, still fighting the fires and the inrush of water below, removing the dead and attending to the wounded. The hospital deep in the interior of the ship was crowded with wounded men, and the surgeon and his assistants were working without rest in the sickening atmosphere of ether and cordite fumes. Wounded men lay on the decks in rows waiting their turn for emergency operations. Above on the island — the bridge and control-tower — Captain Boyd and his officers remained directing the ship. Many missed death by the narrowest margin of chance, but many lost their lives. The heavy bronze ship’s bell was perforated and ripped by shell fragments, till it resembled rat-eaten cheese, and the bride-island plating was holed in a hundred places. A bomb fragment weighing ten pounds pierced the control-tower, missing seven men stationed there. Though the gallant ship seemed to be taking all the punishment, she was making the enemy pay heavily for it. Her gunners are believed to have shot down nearly fifty of the attacking bombers, and at least one Stuka was blown to pieces by the upward blast of the bomb it had just dropped on the flight deck of the carrier. The fight of Illustrious, as bloody and brave as any in the history of the British Navy, can be compared to the fight of Sir Richard Grenville’s Revenge. At half-past five, in the fading light, the enemy returned to make his last attack. About thirty-five Stukas roared down one after another to within a hundred feet before leveling off to drop their bombs, but so fierce was the anti-aircraft fire from Illustrious and other ships that, the enemy’s aim being persistently obstructed, the bombs fell wide and the battered ship escaped further damage. But she had had enough. In the savage all-day bombardments she had absorbed more punishment, still floating, than any ship in the war to that date. Her flight deck was torn up by four great jagged craters; her hangar deck was burned out and all her planes destroyed; her steering gear was disabled and her engine room in chaos. Her funnel and bridge-island superstructure were perforated with a hundred holes; searchlights, rail stanchions, steam pipes, Carley floats, ladders, and all the complicated mass of gear belonging to the superstructure were twisted and bent into a ghastly tangle of scrap steel. When the roll was called her casualties were found to be 14 officers and 107 men killed and over 400 wounded. During the attack the convoy had scattered, though some of the escorting warships had remained with Illustrious and had not escaped damage. Although the enemy had failed to achieve their main purpose — to sink the carrier — they had put her out of action for months, and so damaged the 9000-ton cruiser Southampton that she be came a total loss. Heroic efforts were made to save her, on fire and out of control, but after hours of titanic effort the survivors of her crew were taken off and she was sunk by British forces. Most of the crew were saved. Illustrious, though still afloat, was too badly hurt to continue at sea, and her captain decided to make under cover of darkness for the refuge of Malta, about 150 miles away. This naval base, close to enemy territory and subject to frequent bombing, was not an ideal sanctuary for the battered ship. Alexandria would have been far preferable, but Illustrious was in no condition to withstand the 1000 mile voyage, and so Malta was the inevitable choice, though the enemy was bound to find her there and make further attacks. The crippled ship, escorted by screening destroyers, limped into Valetta naval harbor the next morning. At Valetta were well-equipped machine shops, heavy cranes, and everything necessary to carry out extensive repairs to the damaged carrier, but the enemy had no intention of permitting their victim to recover, and after a search of the Sicilian Channel they found her in the naval dock. Her dead and wounded had already been taken ashore, and scores of mechanics had invaded the ship to begin temporary repairs. Towering over her swung the giant crane ready to lift out damaged machinery and torn plating. The work had already begun when the first enemy planes, flying at a great height, came over. The sound of air raid sirens had scarcely died away when the first bombs fell. As usual in enemy raids on ports and dock yards, most of the bombs fell on the town, but some fell on the dockyard, one stick blowing up a row of warehouses and workshops close to Illustrious. Towering clouds of dark smoke rolled up from the town, and falling fragments of A.A. shells kicked up spurts of water on the sunlit harbor. The bombers, coming over in waves, roared across like angry hornets, twisting and climbing to avoid the A.A. fire from the harbor defences. The enemy’s aim was, under the circumstances, very good. Within the space of ten minutes bombs had hit the dock sheds, the dock, and the ship herself. The bomb that fell on the quay did some superficial damage to the ship from flying fragments, but a moment later a direct hit down the rear elevator hatch rocked the vast hull as in an earthquake, and caused further destruction to the interior of the already wrecked ‘tween decks. After the enemy had gone and the new dead and wounded were removed it seemed as though Illustrious was damaged beyond hope of repair. The German pilots, seeing the direct hit, must have thought so, but with Teutonic thoroughness they came again and again. In two weeks Illustrious was attacked four times as she lay along side the dock at Valetta. The enemy caused wanton destruction in the town and considerable damage on the dock, but they failed to destroy Illustrious. They came over and took photographs, and when their expert annotators studied the results they had to admit that the ship was still upright, though she was certainly full of water and resting on the harbor bed. She could not conceivably be of any further use to the British Navy. Meanwhile down in the battered interior of the ship the engine room staff, ignoring the falling bombs, had struggled night and day to carry out temporary repairs. New sections were put in broken steam pipes, electric cables were spliced, the smashed steering gear repaired and steel plates riveted over the holes in the hull. Thus patched up, and with steam again in her boilers, she slipped out of the harbor under cover of night and put to sea under her own power on a course for Alexandria. It was the Navy’s only hope of saving the ship, but a hard choice, for the 1000-mile voyage for a crippled ship crawling along at half-speed in waters infested with enemy submarines was not a comforting alternative. But if Illustrious could get to the Egyptian base she would be comparatively safe, as it was too far from Axis airfields to be in any danger from heavy air raids. Steaming eastward with an escorting destroyer screen, the wounded giant slowly crawled towards the sanctuary. She had got away from Malta in such secrecy that even the people of Valetta were surprised when they woke up and found her gone. So, too, was the enemy when one of his reconnaissance planes discovered the empty dock. When photographs disclosed that Illustrious had not sunk but had actually departed the Luftwaffe was ordered to find and destroy her. She could not have got far away in her crippled condition, nor were the enemy long in finding her. But she was well protected by escorts, and now, some hundreds of miles from Malta, she was slowly drawing out of effective bombing range. The enemy attacked her, but without the ferocious persistence of that dreadful day when they all but put an end to her career, and as she drew farther away from the land the attacks ceased, and she was permitted to reach Alexandria without any damage. At once the dockyard repair gangs took her over and began further temporary repairs. Captain Boyd, who had brought Illustrious through her bloody ordeal, was promoted to the rank of Rear-Admiral, and he was succeeded in command by Captain G. Seymour Tuck, late executive officer of the ship. Meanwhile the British government, gratefully taking advantage of an agreement with the United States permitting ships of the Royal Navy to be repaired in American yards, was in touch with Washington about getting the damaged carrier repaired in a United States navy yard. While temporary repairs to her were being done at Alexandria her captain received orders to take her to Norfolk, Virginia, as soon as she was ready to put to sea. The route was, of course, a secret, as also was her departure from Alexandria. With her flight deck patched up, and a few planes for self-defense, she slipped out of the Egyptian port one morning in the early spring bound on her long and perilous voyage. Steaming at reduced speed, she turned east for Suez and the Red Sea, since the shorter voyage westward through the whole length of the Mediterranean would have been suicidal in the ship’s crippled condition. Through the Straits of Bab-el Mandeb (the Arab “Gate of Tears”) Illustrious turned eastward to Cape Guardafui and thence south along the coast of Somaliland and Portuguese East Africa to Cape Town. From there she limped up the South Atlantic to her destination, the great United States navy yard at Norfolk, Virginia, where she arrived in the middle of May 1941, four months after the bloody battle in the Sicilian Straits. At Portsmouth navy yard American workmen began stripping out the damaged machinery and plating while her crew, with well-earned shore leave, fraternized with the hospitable people of Norfolk. The Americans gave them a wholehearted welcome. Three months after the arrival of the ship at Norfolk Captain Tuck, who had received the D.S.O. for his part in the battle, was promoted to a higher command, and Captain Lord Louis Mountbatten, who had commanded the torpedoed destroyer Kelly, took over the rebuilt carrier in a formal navy ceremony on the flight deck. In dazzling sunlight and in white tropical duck the surviving officers and crew watched Captain Tuck hand over his command to their new commander, the tall and handsome cousin of the King. The deafening clamor of riveting hammers and all the accompanying noises of the shipyard were stilled while the brief ceremony was carried out, and when this was over the work on the ship proceeded, for there was no time to lose. With the Royal Navy spread dangerously thin over the Seven Seas every ship was needed, and before the winter came Illustrious was at sea again and as good as new. The enemy had failed in his sworn resolve to sink the hated ship which was mainly responsible for the Italian disaster at Taranto….	5,921	ENGLISH	1
The Valley of the Kings The Valley of the Kings was a place in Ancient Egypt that was located in the Southern part of Egypt and it was located west of the Nile River. This was a place where many important people were buried. Along the Valley of the Kings there were tombs that were built that would house important kings and pharaohs. These kings ruled from the year 1500 B.C. to 1000 B.C. This was a time when pyramids were not being built to house pharaohs and so many of them were buried in the tombs instead of having their own pyramid. There are over 60 tombs that are found in the Valley of the Kings. Some of these tombs are very small and just a hole in the ground while others of them are very large and have over 100 different rooms or areas. Even though many of these tombs are still in the Valley of the Kings, most of them have been looted from thieves which means that things were stolen. Though there were things that were stolen, there are still things such as paintings and other art works that allows historians a way to study the people during that time period. King Tutankhamun was one of the tombs that was not looted and so it holds many treasures and is still there so that historians are able to study it and learn more about him. One of the most important tombs, one that is still there is the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun. Many people call him King Tut for short. King Tuts tomb was found by an archeologist by the name of Howard Carter. He discovered the tomb in 1922 and found it under some huts where workers lived. Because the tomb was under the ground and because there were other things on top of it, the thieves were not able to find it so many of the artifacts were still there and in perfect shape. Some of the things discovered in King Tuts tomb was his mummy, a gold mask, a coffin and much gold. His tomb had many different rooms or chambers in it including a burial chamber, a treasure chamber and an annex. The Curse of King Tut King Tuts tomb was said to be cursed and it was thought that anyone who entered into the tomb would have a curse on it. The curse was written on a stone tablet and Howard Carver hid this because he was afraid that his workers would not go into the tomb. Even though the curse was written on the stone, nothing bad happened to the people that opened or went into the tomb, so it is said that the curse was made up to scare thieves away. Kings of the Valley of the Kings There are many kings that were buried in the Valley of the Kings including: - Tuthmosis I - Ramses I - Ramses II - Ramses III - Ramses IV - Ramses V - Ramses VI - Ramsis VII - Ramsis IX - Ramses X - Amenhotep I More Facts About the Valley of the Kings: - Different cultures have been known to write on the tomb and historians found that some of these cultures included the Greeks and the Phoenician. - When someone worked in a tomb, they lived in the city called Deir El Medina. - Another thing found inside King Tuts tomb was a lock of hair that is said to have belonged to his grandmother. - People can now go to the Valley of the Kings and visit the tombs there. - Many pharaohs from different times were buried at the Valley of the Kings but historians do not know all the people buried there. What Did You Learn? - What is the Valley of the Kings? The Valley of the Kings is a place where many kings and pharaohs are buried. - Where is the Valley of the Kings located? The Valley of the Kings is located in Southern Egypt and west of the Nile River. - What is one of the famous pharaohs that was buried in the Valley of the Kings? King Tut was one of the most famous pharaohs that was buried at the Valley of the Kings. - Why was King Tuts tomb not looted or stolen from? King Tuts tomb was not looted because the tomb was found under the ground and things were built on top of it. - How many tombs were found in the Valley of the Kings? There were over 60 tombs found in the Valley of the Kings.	<urn:uuid:d07d2529-1fa9-428d-9c3f-d7185aa56169>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historyforkids.net/the-valley-of-the-kings.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00148.warc.gz	en	0.992334	916	3.421875	3	[ -0.06554467231035233, 0.7012948989868164, 0.40531229972839355, -0.1351526379585266, -0.5365171432495117, -0.26261255145072937, 0.3972266912460327, 0.15502631664276123, 0.07725575566291809, 0.24298039078712463, 0.10306207835674286, -0.5590254664421082, -0.03392283618450165, 0.13751776516437...	13	The Valley of the Kings The Valley of the Kings was a place in Ancient Egypt that was located in the Southern part of Egypt and it was located west of the Nile River. This was a place where many important people were buried. Along the Valley of the Kings there were tombs that were built that would house important kings and pharaohs. These kings ruled from the year 1500 B.C. to 1000 B.C. This was a time when pyramids were not being built to house pharaohs and so many of them were buried in the tombs instead of having their own pyramid. There are over 60 tombs that are found in the Valley of the Kings. Some of these tombs are very small and just a hole in the ground while others of them are very large and have over 100 different rooms or areas. Even though many of these tombs are still in the Valley of the Kings, most of them have been looted from thieves which means that things were stolen. Though there were things that were stolen, there are still things such as paintings and other art works that allows historians a way to study the people during that time period. King Tutankhamun was one of the tombs that was not looted and so it holds many treasures and is still there so that historians are able to study it and learn more about him. One of the most important tombs, one that is still there is the tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun. Many people call him King Tut for short. King Tuts tomb was found by an archeologist by the name of Howard Carter. He discovered the tomb in 1922 and found it under some huts where workers lived. Because the tomb was under the ground and because there were other things on top of it, the thieves were not able to find it so many of the artifacts were still there and in perfect shape. Some of the things discovered in King Tuts tomb was his mummy, a gold mask, a coffin and much gold. His tomb had many different rooms or chambers in it including a burial chamber, a treasure chamber and an annex. The Curse of King Tut King Tuts tomb was said to be cursed and it was thought that anyone who entered into the tomb would have a curse on it. The curse was written on a stone tablet and Howard Carver hid this because he was afraid that his workers would not go into the tomb. Even though the curse was written on the stone, nothing bad happened to the people that opened or went into the tomb, so it is said that the curse was made up to scare thieves away. Kings of the Valley of the Kings There are many kings that were buried in the Valley of the Kings including: - Tuthmosis I - Ramses I - Ramses II - Ramses III - Ramses IV - Ramses V - Ramses VI - Ramsis VII - Ramsis IX - Ramses X - Amenhotep I More Facts About the Valley of the Kings: - Different cultures have been known to write on the tomb and historians found that some of these cultures included the Greeks and the Phoenician. - When someone worked in a tomb, they lived in the city called Deir El Medina. - Another thing found inside King Tuts tomb was a lock of hair that is said to have belonged to his grandmother. - People can now go to the Valley of the Kings and visit the tombs there. - Many pharaohs from different times were buried at the Valley of the Kings but historians do not know all the people buried there. What Did You Learn? - What is the Valley of the Kings? The Valley of the Kings is a place where many kings and pharaohs are buried. - Where is the Valley of the Kings located? The Valley of the Kings is located in Southern Egypt and west of the Nile River. - What is one of the famous pharaohs that was buried in the Valley of the Kings? King Tut was one of the most famous pharaohs that was buried at the Valley of the Kings. - Why was King Tuts tomb not looted or stolen from? King Tuts tomb was not looted because the tomb was found under the ground and things were built on top of it. - How many tombs were found in the Valley of the Kings? There were over 60 tombs found in the Valley of the Kings.	918	ENGLISH	1
King Lear and Madness I. Character before trauma King Lear’s character suffers a number of major setbacks throughout the play. He is known as a man, who was demoted from a position of great power to complete impoverishment and desolation. The trauma was triggered by the desertion of his daughters, who at first had affirmed their loyalty and love for their father, which Lear was naïve enough for believing it. He was described as forgetful, attributed to his age that rendered him incapable of governing his kingdom. His character was very volatile and often passed down harsh judgment without rational analyses of a particular situation and made illogical demands. He may have had delusions of grandeur and a tendency to behave juvenile manner. He asked his daughters to declare their love for him and if they gave him an answer that he did not want then his reaction was even more unreasonable. His treatment of his youngest daughter, Cordelia and his servant, Kent is proof enough of his callous nature. He quickly made the decision to step down from the throne and divide his kingdom. Though, he may have appeared foolish and impulsive, but he did possess the insight to finally see the true colors of his daughters. His daughter’s mistreatment was the final blow that then triggered his descent into insanity. II. Effects of trauma After his traumatic leave from his daughter’s residence, Lear’s only companion had been the fool, who had been giving him bitter insight in to the foolishness of his choices and regarding the true colors of his daughters. The fool describes Lear position in the following words: “The hedge sparrow fed the cuckoo so long that it had it head bit off by it young” (Shakespeare, 1.4) The realization and enormity of his desolation actually led to his mental breakdown. He exhibited full-blown symptoms of paranoia that caused him to isolate himself from the rest of society. He lost all his memory prior to the incident and his speech had become incoherent; in fact he was found babbling things about storms and wicked fiends. He is reduced to a pitiful condition that when Gloucester sees him he hushes him up like an adult to a child by saying, “No words. No words. Hush!”. The death of his daughter Cordelia is yet another traumatic event for him, but the incident seemed to have caused him to gain some semblance order. However, at that point Lear exhibits melancholia rather than madness, along with suicidal ideation. As mentioned earlier, Lear had been a proud man who may have had a predisposition that caused him to end up the way he did. His age was a prime factor and it can be postulated that Lear suffered from a classic case of senile dementia but closer inspection of his case shows much greater complexity of his symptoms. Lear suffered from hallucinations that ranged from visual to auditory. His exhibited signs of psychosis and due to the episodic nature of his disorder, it further points towards schizophrenia as well. Hence, it can be assumed that Lear’s case was triggered by the co-morbidity of a number of disorders that in turn caused him to behave as he did, throughout the play (Hess, 1987, p. 60). IV. Treatment Regimen With the symptoms and mental condition as precarious as that of Lear, a combination treatment seems ideal to provide relief and rapid alleviation of his symptoms. Generally, drugs are supposed to tranquilize the individual and Lear was given soporific medication to help him calm down. The doctor advises Cordelia, “He is scarce awake: let him alone awhile… to make him o’er the time he has lost. Desire him to go in; trouble him no more till further settling”.(Shakespeare, 4.7) However, besides drug therapy Lear was also in dire need of social support that would help him rebuild his social skills. The desertion of his daughter had debilitated his sense of security, which needed to be restored. He needed counseling to help him articulate his feelings, manage his emotions well and distinguish between reality and fantasy. Rage was also one of the factors that contributed to his lunacy, which is why anger management also seems like a viable plan to improve his condition and even reinstate his former mental condition. Hess, N. 1987. King Lear and some anxieties of old age. Brigham Journal of Medicine and Psychology: 60, 209-215 Shakespeare, W. 1967. King Lear. Forgotten Books.	<urn:uuid:ed2c180e-bc56-4f6c-a1e1-9cc73bcd8487>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://summarystory.com/king-lear/king-lear-and-madness/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00007.warc.gz	en	0.992339	934	3.390625	3	[ 0.053447283804416656, 0.33261680603027344, 0.5290781259536743, 0.11649525165557861, -0.1647016406059265, 0.0813562422990799, 0.8086104393005371, 0.0415017269551754, -0.015022394247353077, -0.589423418045044, -0.11920640617609024, -0.3059692084789276, -0.10024256259202957, 0.129554972052574...	10	King Lear and Madness I. Character before trauma King Lear’s character suffers a number of major setbacks throughout the play. He is known as a man, who was demoted from a position of great power to complete impoverishment and desolation. The trauma was triggered by the desertion of his daughters, who at first had affirmed their loyalty and love for their father, which Lear was naïve enough for believing it. He was described as forgetful, attributed to his age that rendered him incapable of governing his kingdom. His character was very volatile and often passed down harsh judgment without rational analyses of a particular situation and made illogical demands. He may have had delusions of grandeur and a tendency to behave juvenile manner. He asked his daughters to declare their love for him and if they gave him an answer that he did not want then his reaction was even more unreasonable. His treatment of his youngest daughter, Cordelia and his servant, Kent is proof enough of his callous nature. He quickly made the decision to step down from the throne and divide his kingdom. Though, he may have appeared foolish and impulsive, but he did possess the insight to finally see the true colors of his daughters. His daughter’s mistreatment was the final blow that then triggered his descent into insanity. II. Effects of trauma After his traumatic leave from his daughter’s residence, Lear’s only companion had been the fool, who had been giving him bitter insight in to the foolishness of his choices and regarding the true colors of his daughters. The fool describes Lear position in the following words: “The hedge sparrow fed the cuckoo so long that it had it head bit off by it young” (Shakespeare, 1.4) The realization and enormity of his desolation actually led to his mental breakdown. He exhibited full-blown symptoms of paranoia that caused him to isolate himself from the rest of society. He lost all his memory prior to the incident and his speech had become incoherent; in fact he was found babbling things about storms and wicked fiends. He is reduced to a pitiful condition that when Gloucester sees him he hushes him up like an adult to a child by saying, “No words. No words. Hush!”. The death of his daughter Cordelia is yet another traumatic event for him, but the incident seemed to have caused him to gain some semblance order. However, at that point Lear exhibits melancholia rather than madness, along with suicidal ideation. As mentioned earlier, Lear had been a proud man who may have had a predisposition that caused him to end up the way he did. His age was a prime factor and it can be postulated that Lear suffered from a classic case of senile dementia but closer inspection of his case shows much greater complexity of his symptoms. Lear suffered from hallucinations that ranged from visual to auditory. His exhibited signs of psychosis and due to the episodic nature of his disorder, it further points towards schizophrenia as well. Hence, it can be assumed that Lear’s case was triggered by the co-morbidity of a number of disorders that in turn caused him to behave as he did, throughout the play (Hess, 1987, p. 60). IV. Treatment Regimen With the symptoms and mental condition as precarious as that of Lear, a combination treatment seems ideal to provide relief and rapid alleviation of his symptoms. Generally, drugs are supposed to tranquilize the individual and Lear was given soporific medication to help him calm down. The doctor advises Cordelia, “He is scarce awake: let him alone awhile… to make him o’er the time he has lost. Desire him to go in; trouble him no more till further settling”.(Shakespeare, 4.7) However, besides drug therapy Lear was also in dire need of social support that would help him rebuild his social skills. The desertion of his daughter had debilitated his sense of security, which needed to be restored. He needed counseling to help him articulate his feelings, manage his emotions well and distinguish between reality and fantasy. Rage was also one of the factors that contributed to his lunacy, which is why anger management also seems like a viable plan to improve his condition and even reinstate his former mental condition. Hess, N. 1987. King Lear and some anxieties of old age. Brigham Journal of Medicine and Psychology: 60, 209-215 Shakespeare, W. 1967. King Lear. Forgotten Books.	932	ENGLISH	1
the Pioneers of Johnson County In 1673 the first white men entered the region that is now Johnson County with eight Indian guides. These white men named James Needham and Gabriel Arthur were sent by Abraham Wood to establish a trading post with the Cherokee Indians. To reach this area Needham and Arthur traveled the well-worn Indian trail through a gap in the mountains between what is now Zionville, North Carolina and Trade, Tennessee. Scene from Trade Days In 1749 the British Parliament sent a survey party to establish the boundary lines between the colonies of North Carolina and Virginia. The leader of the survey party was Peter Jefferson, father of President Thomas Jefferson. Peter Jefferson traveled as far west as Steep Creek which is now called Laurel Creek on the top of Pond Mountain. He wrote in his journal that he would go no farther since, “this is as far in the wilderness as any white man will ever go.” In 1761 Daniel Boone came through the area that is now Johnson County. He wrote in his diary that he met Mr. Honeycutt. Honeycutt was a long hunter and and an Indian trader. Honeycutt built a cabin in 1769 near Roan Creek. Boone also met Andrew Greer and Julius Dugger. They were long hunters as well. John Rogers is given credit for building the first cabin in the Gentry's Creek area. These men are the first white men to settle in the area that is now Johnson County. In 1770 John Honeycutt was visited by James Robertson, later know as the Father of Tennessee. Robertson lived in the area that is now Johnson County for one year to raise crops. He was on his way to the newly established Watauga Settlement near what is now Elizabethton, Tennessee. In the early 1770's Joseph Gentry move to the area. He opened an iron ore business on Roan Creek. His neighbors were Jesse, John, and Josiah Hoskins settled in the area just two years after Andrew Greer and Julius Dugger. In the mid 1770's a settlement was established in the area called "The Trade Gap". This area was a swapping ground for Indians and fur traders. It was located on an old buffalo trail between Snake and Rich Mountains. This was the easiest route through the mountains to the West. The settlement became a community and a stopping point for travelers. Trade is the oldest community in Tennessee. After 1771 more and more settlers began to move into what is now East Tennessee looking for affordable land. At this time Johnson County was part of the North Carolina Colony, which went all the way to the Mississippi River. By 1970 the Trade community had grown. You could find a country store, post office, blacksmith shop and several log cabins. By 1778 the area that is now Johnson County had a population of around 150. Some of the leading citizens included the following: George and Samuel Heatherby Thomas, John, and Charles Acher Richard and Benjamin Wilson near Roan Creek Leonard Shoun (which Shoun's Crossroads is named.) Note: father of 20 children John and David Wagner David and Michael Slimp Daniel Baker and John Vaught (owners of a mill and still-house) John and Henry Grimes By 1794 enough settlers had come to the area that is now Johnson County to establish a church. The church was called the Roan Creek Church of Christ. The church was located at the foot of Rainbow Mountain between where Mountain City and Shouns are now. The church began with a membership of 65. Its name was changed several times. It moved to Mountain City in 1843. This church is now the First Baptist Church of Mountain City. One of the first communities was Wards Forge. It was named after Major John Ward who fought in the War of 1812. He went into the iron ore business. In 1882 the community was named Laurel Bloomery by Joseph H. Grace. reprinted by permission from Mountain City Elementary Home Page	<urn:uuid:4e1c84e8-9001-4c0f-9459-0f4f2a5648bb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.jctcuzins.org/pioneer	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00043.warc.gz	en	0.980544	820	3.890625	4	[ -0.3555585741996765, 0.0252192635089159, 0.2756084203720093, -0.014433871023356915, -0.07343233376741409, 0.06283419579267502, 0.45884519815444946, -0.05413305014371872, -0.28196218609809875, 0.12287832051515579, 0.3426523208618164, -0.0434378907084465, 0.23338036239147186, 0.2533219754695...	14	the Pioneers of Johnson County In 1673 the first white men entered the region that is now Johnson County with eight Indian guides. These white men named James Needham and Gabriel Arthur were sent by Abraham Wood to establish a trading post with the Cherokee Indians. To reach this area Needham and Arthur traveled the well-worn Indian trail through a gap in the mountains between what is now Zionville, North Carolina and Trade, Tennessee. Scene from Trade Days In 1749 the British Parliament sent a survey party to establish the boundary lines between the colonies of North Carolina and Virginia. The leader of the survey party was Peter Jefferson, father of President Thomas Jefferson. Peter Jefferson traveled as far west as Steep Creek which is now called Laurel Creek on the top of Pond Mountain. He wrote in his journal that he would go no farther since, “this is as far in the wilderness as any white man will ever go.” In 1761 Daniel Boone came through the area that is now Johnson County. He wrote in his diary that he met Mr. Honeycutt. Honeycutt was a long hunter and and an Indian trader. Honeycutt built a cabin in 1769 near Roan Creek. Boone also met Andrew Greer and Julius Dugger. They were long hunters as well. John Rogers is given credit for building the first cabin in the Gentry's Creek area. These men are the first white men to settle in the area that is now Johnson County. In 1770 John Honeycutt was visited by James Robertson, later know as the Father of Tennessee. Robertson lived in the area that is now Johnson County for one year to raise crops. He was on his way to the newly established Watauga Settlement near what is now Elizabethton, Tennessee. In the early 1770's Joseph Gentry move to the area. He opened an iron ore business on Roan Creek. His neighbors were Jesse, John, and Josiah Hoskins settled in the area just two years after Andrew Greer and Julius Dugger. In the mid 1770's a settlement was established in the area called "The Trade Gap". This area was a swapping ground for Indians and fur traders. It was located on an old buffalo trail between Snake and Rich Mountains. This was the easiest route through the mountains to the West. The settlement became a community and a stopping point for travelers. Trade is the oldest community in Tennessee. After 1771 more and more settlers began to move into what is now East Tennessee looking for affordable land. At this time Johnson County was part of the North Carolina Colony, which went all the way to the Mississippi River. By 1970 the Trade community had grown. You could find a country store, post office, blacksmith shop and several log cabins. By 1778 the area that is now Johnson County had a population of around 150. Some of the leading citizens included the following: George and Samuel Heatherby Thomas, John, and Charles Acher Richard and Benjamin Wilson near Roan Creek Leonard Shoun (which Shoun's Crossroads is named.) Note: father of 20 children John and David Wagner David and Michael Slimp Daniel Baker and John Vaught (owners of a mill and still-house) John and Henry Grimes By 1794 enough settlers had come to the area that is now Johnson County to establish a church. The church was called the Roan Creek Church of Christ. The church was located at the foot of Rainbow Mountain between where Mountain City and Shouns are now. The church began with a membership of 65. Its name was changed several times. It moved to Mountain City in 1843. This church is now the First Baptist Church of Mountain City. One of the first communities was Wards Forge. It was named after Major John Ward who fought in the War of 1812. He went into the iron ore business. In 1882 the community was named Laurel Bloomery by Joseph H. Grace. reprinted by permission from Mountain City Elementary Home Page	861	ENGLISH	1
Hitler hated and envied the Jews. The Jews at that time were successful; there were scholars, scientists and doctors as Jews. He described them as evil and cowardly, and Germans as hardworking, courageous, and honest. He blamed the Jews for Germany’s defeat in World War 1. He brainwashed the Germans into hating them. He believed that the German race was better than any other race and that Germans deserve to live. Blonde hair and blue eyes was also the master race to Hitler, even though he had dark hair and dark eyes. Hitler wanted to kill off all the “imperfect” people, who were non-Germanic. Some of the victims were the Jews, Gypsies, and people with physical and mental disabilities, homosexuals and Jehovah’s Witnesses. These victims were selected simply because they were disliked by Hitler and the other Germans. German Jews weren’t allowed to go to theaters, swimming pools, and resorts. They were forced to wear a Star of David badge everywhere they went, to indicate that they On the night of November 9, 1938, gangs of Nazi officers barged on the streets of Germany and attacked the Jews. Thousands of synagogues, Jewish businesses and homes were destroyed. Many Jews were tortured, sent to concentration camps and many were killed. This event came to be called Kristallnacht, the Night of Broken Glass because of the shattered store windowpanes that covered Germany’s streets. This was the beginning of the Holocaust. All Jews, Gypsies, and many others were taken to the concentration camps. Men and women were separated. The doctors of Auschwitz, which was the largest extermination camps, separated the strong, who were mostly men, from the weak, who were the women, children, the sick and the elderly. The weak were sent to a gas chamber. Deadly…	<urn:uuid:8c72945a-41a3-4002-9d9f-d739109cd70d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/The-Holocaust-610537.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00155.warc.gz	en	0.992279	383	3.578125	4	[ -0.0916021317243576, 0.8674396872520447, -0.045870110392570496, 0.23402179777622223, 0.09507638961076736, 0.299462229013443, 0.30531033873558044, 0.2299213707447052, 0.055995482951402664, -0.0920472964644432, 0.08184666186571121, -0.14529041945934296, -0.0678856372833252, 0.411858707666397...	1	Hitler hated and envied the Jews. The Jews at that time were successful; there were scholars, scientists and doctors as Jews. He described them as evil and cowardly, and Germans as hardworking, courageous, and honest. He blamed the Jews for Germany’s defeat in World War 1. He brainwashed the Germans into hating them. He believed that the German race was better than any other race and that Germans deserve to live. Blonde hair and blue eyes was also the master race to Hitler, even though he had dark hair and dark eyes. Hitler wanted to kill off all the “imperfect” people, who were non-Germanic. Some of the victims were the Jews, Gypsies, and people with physical and mental disabilities, homosexuals and Jehovah’s Witnesses. These victims were selected simply because they were disliked by Hitler and the other Germans. German Jews weren’t allowed to go to theaters, swimming pools, and resorts. They were forced to wear a Star of David badge everywhere they went, to indicate that they On the night of November 9, 1938, gangs of Nazi officers barged on the streets of Germany and attacked the Jews. Thousands of synagogues, Jewish businesses and homes were destroyed. Many Jews were tortured, sent to concentration camps and many were killed. This event came to be called Kristallnacht, the Night of Broken Glass because of the shattered store windowpanes that covered Germany’s streets. This was the beginning of the Holocaust. All Jews, Gypsies, and many others were taken to the concentration camps. Men and women were separated. The doctors of Auschwitz, which was the largest extermination camps, separated the strong, who were mostly men, from the weak, who were the women, children, the sick and the elderly. The weak were sent to a gas chamber. Deadly…	380	ENGLISH	1
Muhammad Yunus is one of the pioneers and founders of microcredit and financing. Muhammad Yunus was born on June 28, 1940, and as the founder of the Grameen Bank, he received a Nobel Prize for his contribution to the global community. In 1983, Muhammad Yunus worked as a researcher in Bangladesh and wanted to know whether he could fight against poverty among families with microcredits. The story is that one day he wanted to give a disadvantaged mother the opportunity to start a business with a very small loan. The bank he asked for did not want to know anything about it, so he decided to use his own money. The bank's reasoning was that disadvantaged people are not reliable when it comes to paying back a loan. The reasoning of Muhammad Yunus was that because of the urge to build up a right to exist for her family and because of social control within the community, there was a greater chance of getting a loan repaid. His personal loan was repaid so quickly that he decided to do this several times with other mothers. After he proved himself to be right, he once again asked for support from the various banks. When, after factual evidence, he received no approval, he decided to set up his own bank in 1976. The Grameen bank became one of the larger banks in the world and by far the largest in the field of micro-credits. What is special is that the average loan amount is around 100 dollars and 97% is borrowed by women. In addition, 95% of the loan amounts are repaid in full and on time. That is higher than many a traditional bank can and will claim. 7S model McKinsey29-03-20139 mins read BCG Matrix25-03-20197 mins read Balanced Scorecard25-03-20194 mins read Socio-cultural factors14-01-20142 mins read	<urn:uuid:e2f5004a-9669-4244-9316-f6b815a8e7a4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.calltheone.com/en/financelegal-services/muhammad-yunus	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00142.warc.gz	en	0.987306	386	3.375	3	[ -0.12621963024139404, 0.20641058683395386, 0.23387648165225983, 0.11101765185594559, 0.2578660547733307, -0.11982806026935577, -0.04464838281273842, -0.06922292709350586, -0.14532814919948578, -0.2386341243982315, 0.06820187717676163, -0.34107786417007446, -0.20973041653633118, 0.050440926...	2	Muhammad Yunus is one of the pioneers and founders of microcredit and financing. Muhammad Yunus was born on June 28, 1940, and as the founder of the Grameen Bank, he received a Nobel Prize for his contribution to the global community. In 1983, Muhammad Yunus worked as a researcher in Bangladesh and wanted to know whether he could fight against poverty among families with microcredits. The story is that one day he wanted to give a disadvantaged mother the opportunity to start a business with a very small loan. The bank he asked for did not want to know anything about it, so he decided to use his own money. The bank's reasoning was that disadvantaged people are not reliable when it comes to paying back a loan. The reasoning of Muhammad Yunus was that because of the urge to build up a right to exist for her family and because of social control within the community, there was a greater chance of getting a loan repaid. His personal loan was repaid so quickly that he decided to do this several times with other mothers. After he proved himself to be right, he once again asked for support from the various banks. When, after factual evidence, he received no approval, he decided to set up his own bank in 1976. The Grameen bank became one of the larger banks in the world and by far the largest in the field of micro-credits. What is special is that the average loan amount is around 100 dollars and 97% is borrowed by women. In addition, 95% of the loan amounts are repaid in full and on time. That is higher than many a traditional bank can and will claim. 7S model McKinsey29-03-20139 mins read BCG Matrix25-03-20197 mins read Balanced Scorecard25-03-20194 mins read Socio-cultural factors14-01-20142 mins read	423	ENGLISH	1
The Civil War happened due to the many differences between the North and the South. For example economic, social, cultural and political differences. These all helped lead America to a Civil War. But to an extent, the most important cause was the fact there were many disagreements with states’ rights versus federal rights. It was clear that there was always going to be a conflict between the federal government and the state governments because the federal government has the power to discuss bills and proposals for new laws. Whereas the state governments only has power to deal with policing, education and health care. And issues like slavery created tension between the two because the federal government wanted to abolish slavery but the southern states disagreed with this as this was their way of life and it should be their decision to abolish it or not. “Southerners believed that state laws carried more weight than Federal laws, and they should abide by the state regulations first. ” (http://americancivilwar.com/kids_zone/causes.html) It was mostly the southern states that didn’t want to abolish slavery and most of the northern states went along with the federal government, so this caused a clash between the North and South and divided the whole nation. In addition, the South claimed that because of the Tenth Amendment, which declares that any power that is not granted to the federal government in the constitution is given to the individual states in the Union. So this means that any state is free to make laws outside the constitution for their own area of authority. Therefore the federal government has no right to abolish slavery in every state against their will. But then again the federal government has to maintain the authority so they can overrule the state laws, so they can make sure that everyone is treated equally. As the historians Sean Wilentz and John Ashworth describe, the North’s commitment to capitalism and modernisation it was the context for abolitionism and for the free labour ideology of Abrahams Lincoln’s Republican Party. And the South’s commitment to essential production of goods and slave labour was reflected in the region0s distinctive cult of honour, and its defence of social inequality. The South heavily relied on slavery to keep their economy stable, although not their only source of money, but by abolishing slavery and making it illegal it would damage their economy quite badly. And so this caused a lot of tension between the North and South because they were very different economically. The South is much more agricultural, and is reliant upon exports as well. The North on the other hand is in complete contrast to the South. The North industrialised very fast and many people of poor background and some African-American succeeded and made a lot of money. It isn’t very clear that if they had lived in the South if they could have achieved this much success, but those in the North faced a lot less discrimination compared to the South. “Because the economics of the dynamic industrializing North and the static agrarian South were incompatible, the two societies were on a collision course that led inexorably to war” (http://civilwartalk.com/threads/historians-evolving-views-of-civil-war-causality.21223/) Many historians agree that this was not a major cause. According to economic historian Lee A. Craig, “In fact, numerous studies by economic historians over the past several decades reveal that economic conflict was not an inherent condition of North-South relations during the antebellum era and did not cause the Civil War.” Charles A. Beard a historian, had said in the 1920s, that because of these differences between the North and South it had caused the war rather than slavery, states’ right versus federal rights and all the other causes for the civil war. Due to the fact that trade in the North was more successful made it intense between the North and South because it meant they would have to compete and instead of working together to the make the United States of America a better place there was a clear division. There was a lot of tension between the North and South and this emphasised the separation of the nation’s political parties. The two major parties within the nation, the Whigs and Democrats started to disagree with each other and slowly started to divide. The northerners favoured the Whigs, who became the Republicans. The Republicans were anti-slavery, and they really wanted to focus on education and industrialising the nation. However, the southerners disliked the Republican Party and saw it as a “divisive element and one that could lead to conflict.” (http://www.historynet.com/causes-of-the-civil-war) When Abraham Lincoln had won the elections it was a big thing because he was the first Republican to become president. The South were not entirely happy when Abraham Lincoln became president, this was because they were afraid that he was going to abolish slavery as he was a Republican and mostly the northerners favoured him and they were all anti-slavery. This is the reason that there was a massive division between the nation which created the tension. Therefore is a stepping stone towards the civil war, although not a major cause of it, it could be considered to be an important cause that showed the differences of the nation as a whole. As soon as Abraham Lincoln became president, South Carolina seceded. This showed that the state didn’t feel part of the Union because it believed that the president was going to want to abolish slavery and South Carolina was reliant on slavery. So, because they seceded more states after them, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina and Tennessee. Already before the war it was clear that the United States were dividing into the North and South. Historian Arthur Cole wrote, ” Lincoln was pictured in many quarters not only as a black Republican but as an Abolitionist, a fanatic of the John Brown type.” Fundamentally, this means that the South saw Lincoln as a “black Republican” who is definitely going to break up the Union, and so this is what it led to, the secession of 11 states. The southerners believed that Lincoln was an Abolitionist because of the John Brown raid, who was from the North. He was against slavery, and was extremely violent compared to the other Abolitionists. Him and 18 other men attempted to raid the government armoury at Harper’s Ferry. He was captured and hung. This just shows the hatred that there was towards the northerners, and that because of this, it helped build up the tension between the North and South and then lead to the secession of the southern states. As the historian Walter Edgar says, that when Lincoln did come to power, it was a shock for the southerners, and that they because of this the nation began dividing and causing war. The secession of the states, led to the battle of Fort Sumter. It could be considered as the last straw, but not as the main cause of the civil war. Although some people do believe that it was the main cause of the civil war. However, it had not been, because before the civil war broke out, some events occurred that led to the civil war. All the events that happened before built tension with the nation which made it extremely hard for everyone to work together and sort the problems out. When Fort Sumter was attacked, there were strikes within the South so that the commander that was stationed at Sumter would surrender. And so troops were sent down to sort things out and causing the civil war to begin. In order for the civil war to break out all the North and South needed was that last straw to be pulled. Some historians suggest that the North and South deprecated war, and that either the South or the North would cause the war or accept it. Additionally, because the states seceded, they created their own Union, which intensified the situation because Abraham Lincoln wanted to maintain the Union and keep all the states in one whole nation so they could work together and have a strong economy. Overall, most historians suggest that slavery was a cause for the civil war, but it is clear that it was not the main cause, even though it all fell back on slavery, for example the economic differences, the South relied heavily on slavery. Also the issue of slavery was important, because the South feared that Abraham Lincoln was going to abolish slavery, so that is why they seceded as he did not appeal to the southerners. In addition, the state governments believed that they had the right to decide whether to abolish slavery or not within their state. This was because they depended on slavery and it was their way of life, and it was clear that it was not up to the federal government to abolish it. It was also due to the fact that the Tenth Amendment stated that the states have the power to make new laws in the Constitution as they wish. According to Dubois, the civil war was not only a war of the economic systems of the North and South but also a war of ideas and ideologies. Cite this page What Were the Causes of the American Civil War?. (2016, Mar 30). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/what-were-the-causes-of-the-american-civil-war-essay	<urn:uuid:e5d2f594-fbc1-4a5e-b43f-631480c3f813>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studymoose.com/what-were-the-causes-of-the-american-civil-war-essay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00197.warc.gz	en	0.985204	1,935	4.3125	4	[ -0.35317888855934143, -0.11823255568742752, 0.04761449247598648, -0.3150583505630493, 0.17329561710357666, 0.40346449613571167, -0.025970233604311943, -0.10502558946609497, -0.2394714653491974, 0.014148285612463951, 0.12141046673059464, 0.27187633514404297, -0.10378946363925934, 0.42783170...	1	The Civil War happened due to the many differences between the North and the South. For example economic, social, cultural and political differences. These all helped lead America to a Civil War. But to an extent, the most important cause was the fact there were many disagreements with states’ rights versus federal rights. It was clear that there was always going to be a conflict between the federal government and the state governments because the federal government has the power to discuss bills and proposals for new laws. Whereas the state governments only has power to deal with policing, education and health care. And issues like slavery created tension between the two because the federal government wanted to abolish slavery but the southern states disagreed with this as this was their way of life and it should be their decision to abolish it or not. “Southerners believed that state laws carried more weight than Federal laws, and they should abide by the state regulations first. ” (http://americancivilwar.com/kids_zone/causes.html) It was mostly the southern states that didn’t want to abolish slavery and most of the northern states went along with the federal government, so this caused a clash between the North and South and divided the whole nation. In addition, the South claimed that because of the Tenth Amendment, which declares that any power that is not granted to the federal government in the constitution is given to the individual states in the Union. So this means that any state is free to make laws outside the constitution for their own area of authority. Therefore the federal government has no right to abolish slavery in every state against their will. But then again the federal government has to maintain the authority so they can overrule the state laws, so they can make sure that everyone is treated equally. As the historians Sean Wilentz and John Ashworth describe, the North’s commitment to capitalism and modernisation it was the context for abolitionism and for the free labour ideology of Abrahams Lincoln’s Republican Party. And the South’s commitment to essential production of goods and slave labour was reflected in the region0s distinctive cult of honour, and its defence of social inequality. The South heavily relied on slavery to keep their economy stable, although not their only source of money, but by abolishing slavery and making it illegal it would damage their economy quite badly. And so this caused a lot of tension between the North and South because they were very different economically. The South is much more agricultural, and is reliant upon exports as well. The North on the other hand is in complete contrast to the South. The North industrialised very fast and many people of poor background and some African-American succeeded and made a lot of money. It isn’t very clear that if they had lived in the South if they could have achieved this much success, but those in the North faced a lot less discrimination compared to the South. “Because the economics of the dynamic industrializing North and the static agrarian South were incompatible, the two societies were on a collision course that led inexorably to war” (http://civilwartalk.com/threads/historians-evolving-views-of-civil-war-causality.21223/) Many historians agree that this was not a major cause. According to economic historian Lee A. Craig, “In fact, numerous studies by economic historians over the past several decades reveal that economic conflict was not an inherent condition of North-South relations during the antebellum era and did not cause the Civil War.” Charles A. Beard a historian, had said in the 1920s, that because of these differences between the North and South it had caused the war rather than slavery, states’ right versus federal rights and all the other causes for the civil war. Due to the fact that trade in the North was more successful made it intense between the North and South because it meant they would have to compete and instead of working together to the make the United States of America a better place there was a clear division. There was a lot of tension between the North and South and this emphasised the separation of the nation’s political parties. The two major parties within the nation, the Whigs and Democrats started to disagree with each other and slowly started to divide. The northerners favoured the Whigs, who became the Republicans. The Republicans were anti-slavery, and they really wanted to focus on education and industrialising the nation. However, the southerners disliked the Republican Party and saw it as a “divisive element and one that could lead to conflict.” (http://www.historynet.com/causes-of-the-civil-war) When Abraham Lincoln had won the elections it was a big thing because he was the first Republican to become president. The South were not entirely happy when Abraham Lincoln became president, this was because they were afraid that he was going to abolish slavery as he was a Republican and mostly the northerners favoured him and they were all anti-slavery. This is the reason that there was a massive division between the nation which created the tension. Therefore is a stepping stone towards the civil war, although not a major cause of it, it could be considered to be an important cause that showed the differences of the nation as a whole. As soon as Abraham Lincoln became president, South Carolina seceded. This showed that the state didn’t feel part of the Union because it believed that the president was going to want to abolish slavery and South Carolina was reliant on slavery. So, because they seceded more states after them, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina and Tennessee. Already before the war it was clear that the United States were dividing into the North and South. Historian Arthur Cole wrote, ” Lincoln was pictured in many quarters not only as a black Republican but as an Abolitionist, a fanatic of the John Brown type.” Fundamentally, this means that the South saw Lincoln as a “black Republican” who is definitely going to break up the Union, and so this is what it led to, the secession of 11 states. The southerners believed that Lincoln was an Abolitionist because of the John Brown raid, who was from the North. He was against slavery, and was extremely violent compared to the other Abolitionists. Him and 18 other men attempted to raid the government armoury at Harper’s Ferry. He was captured and hung. This just shows the hatred that there was towards the northerners, and that because of this, it helped build up the tension between the North and South and then lead to the secession of the southern states. As the historian Walter Edgar says, that when Lincoln did come to power, it was a shock for the southerners, and that they because of this the nation began dividing and causing war. The secession of the states, led to the battle of Fort Sumter. It could be considered as the last straw, but not as the main cause of the civil war. Although some people do believe that it was the main cause of the civil war. However, it had not been, because before the civil war broke out, some events occurred that led to the civil war. All the events that happened before built tension with the nation which made it extremely hard for everyone to work together and sort the problems out. When Fort Sumter was attacked, there were strikes within the South so that the commander that was stationed at Sumter would surrender. And so troops were sent down to sort things out and causing the civil war to begin. In order for the civil war to break out all the North and South needed was that last straw to be pulled. Some historians suggest that the North and South deprecated war, and that either the South or the North would cause the war or accept it. Additionally, because the states seceded, they created their own Union, which intensified the situation because Abraham Lincoln wanted to maintain the Union and keep all the states in one whole nation so they could work together and have a strong economy. Overall, most historians suggest that slavery was a cause for the civil war, but it is clear that it was not the main cause, even though it all fell back on slavery, for example the economic differences, the South relied heavily on slavery. Also the issue of slavery was important, because the South feared that Abraham Lincoln was going to abolish slavery, so that is why they seceded as he did not appeal to the southerners. In addition, the state governments believed that they had the right to decide whether to abolish slavery or not within their state. This was because they depended on slavery and it was their way of life, and it was clear that it was not up to the federal government to abolish it. It was also due to the fact that the Tenth Amendment stated that the states have the power to make new laws in the Constitution as they wish. According to Dubois, the civil war was not only a war of the economic systems of the North and South but also a war of ideas and ideologies. Cite this page What Were the Causes of the American Civil War?. (2016, Mar 30). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/what-were-the-causes-of-the-american-civil-war-essay	1,886	ENGLISH	1
Theater Arts – French Opera French opera is the traditional opera of France and was spread from Italy. It was Cardinal Mazarin a reagent of King Louis XIV who presented the first opera named “La Finta Pazza” in the year 1645. This inspired King Louis XIV and he was the one behind the flourishing of opera in France. The father of French opera was Jean-Baptiste Lully; he presented “Cadmus et Hermione” in the king’s court. After seeing that performance, the king’s interest increased even more. This encouraged Lully to make “Tragedie En Musique”, also known as tragedies en musique, along with Philippe Quinault. It was the tragic story of Corneille and Racine and it was a dance musical with choral writing. Lully was famous for composing music for plays meant for court as well as many other theaters. Cadmus et Hermione was the first French opera of Lully in Paris. This pair was also known for altering the complex and detailed Baroque plot. They made a five-act structure instead. Before the performance praises were sung for King Louis XIV this was inspired from Italy who sung allegorical prologue instead. It then started with an aria which was followed by recitative and a short aria which was elaborately modeled keeping the French taste in mind and was appreciated many times. It then ended with divertissement. It was the most important factor as it involved lots of singing, dancing, and lots of entertainment which was the main attraction for the audience. In the mid of eighteenth century “opera Comique” another opera genre caught the fancy of the people in which dialogues and arias music were used. Huge efforts were put in to make the performance a success and especially to win the heart of the king. The stage was set with lots of details and special effects known as machinery in which Olivet did the choreography and Quinault wrote the phrases. Lully had acquired the whole market by befriending the king. It was only after his death that the other composers got a chance to show their talents. Marc-Antoine Charpentier was one such opera composer who wrote and presented his first “Tragedie en mMusique”, “Medee” in the year 1693. As he had some Italian connection this disappointed Lully’s fans and hence it received a mixed reaction. Andre Campra and Marin Marais also made their attempts at Tragedie en Musique. Campra later created a new type of opera known as opera ballet. It had more dance and musical element in it. A lot of comedy was also included with a light storyline. This was different from what Lully used to compose and it proved to be a good change for the audience with it’s over whelming response. This gave the idea of involving comedy completely into the performance. This was done by Mouret who used this style in his work Les amours de Ragonde. Another composer, Jean-Philippe Rameau became a very important part of the history of French opera after Lully. His first work Hippolyte et Aricie was at the age of fifty. He used a lot of experimentation which created a stir in the audience. Although Campra appreciated it most of the fans of Lully were shocked. This created a clear line of separation between the audiences. This made Rameau to follow the existing rules. But this time he was opposed by the Italian counterparts who called him old-fashioned. This was when Rameau created a new opera genre known as opera Comique. Theater De I’Opera-Comique worked on this idea and became very famous in the eighteenth century. Even in the twentieth century composers such as Reynaldo Hahn and Andre Messager wrote many works in opera Comique. Even to this day the French Opera is alive and popular in many quarters of the country.	<urn:uuid:e5f13530-1572-4eb0-a40d-dcc3e1f610f3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://hasenchat.com/french-opera/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00542.warc.gz	en	0.986297	828	3.546875	4	[ 0.15373477339744568, 0.2914239764213562, 0.18574972450733185, -0.10256530344486237, -0.6512863636016846, 0.19246432185173035, -0.10917076468467712, 0.44921189546585083, 0.6120460033416748, -0.4665612578392029, -0.062048718333244324, 0.30981066823005676, 0.21140392124652863, 0.3492062091827...	1	Theater Arts – French Opera French opera is the traditional opera of France and was spread from Italy. It was Cardinal Mazarin a reagent of King Louis XIV who presented the first opera named “La Finta Pazza” in the year 1645. This inspired King Louis XIV and he was the one behind the flourishing of opera in France. The father of French opera was Jean-Baptiste Lully; he presented “Cadmus et Hermione” in the king’s court. After seeing that performance, the king’s interest increased even more. This encouraged Lully to make “Tragedie En Musique”, also known as tragedies en musique, along with Philippe Quinault. It was the tragic story of Corneille and Racine and it was a dance musical with choral writing. Lully was famous for composing music for plays meant for court as well as many other theaters. Cadmus et Hermione was the first French opera of Lully in Paris. This pair was also known for altering the complex and detailed Baroque plot. They made a five-act structure instead. Before the performance praises were sung for King Louis XIV this was inspired from Italy who sung allegorical prologue instead. It then started with an aria which was followed by recitative and a short aria which was elaborately modeled keeping the French taste in mind and was appreciated many times. It then ended with divertissement. It was the most important factor as it involved lots of singing, dancing, and lots of entertainment which was the main attraction for the audience. In the mid of eighteenth century “opera Comique” another opera genre caught the fancy of the people in which dialogues and arias music were used. Huge efforts were put in to make the performance a success and especially to win the heart of the king. The stage was set with lots of details and special effects known as machinery in which Olivet did the choreography and Quinault wrote the phrases. Lully had acquired the whole market by befriending the king. It was only after his death that the other composers got a chance to show their talents. Marc-Antoine Charpentier was one such opera composer who wrote and presented his first “Tragedie en mMusique”, “Medee” in the year 1693. As he had some Italian connection this disappointed Lully’s fans and hence it received a mixed reaction. Andre Campra and Marin Marais also made their attempts at Tragedie en Musique. Campra later created a new type of opera known as opera ballet. It had more dance and musical element in it. A lot of comedy was also included with a light storyline. This was different from what Lully used to compose and it proved to be a good change for the audience with it’s over whelming response. This gave the idea of involving comedy completely into the performance. This was done by Mouret who used this style in his work Les amours de Ragonde. Another composer, Jean-Philippe Rameau became a very important part of the history of French opera after Lully. His first work Hippolyte et Aricie was at the age of fifty. He used a lot of experimentation which created a stir in the audience. Although Campra appreciated it most of the fans of Lully were shocked. This created a clear line of separation between the audiences. This made Rameau to follow the existing rules. But this time he was opposed by the Italian counterparts who called him old-fashioned. This was when Rameau created a new opera genre known as opera Comique. Theater De I’Opera-Comique worked on this idea and became very famous in the eighteenth century. Even in the twentieth century composers such as Reynaldo Hahn and Andre Messager wrote many works in opera Comique. Even to this day the French Opera is alive and popular in many quarters of the country.	797	ENGLISH	1
What are the fundamental rights which every human being has, and the free exercise of which must be guaranteed to him or her by society? There was a time when man was supposed to have very few rights, and almost every department of his life was open to check the interference by the State, by the tribal chief or by the priesthood. The result of this was that the individual had no will or choice of his own, and was completely subordinated to the ruling class of the group or society of which he was a member. But since the rise of democracy, there has been a move in the direction of respecting the freedom of the individual, which had not existed before. The liberal thought, which took rise in the eighteenth century in Europe as a result of the thinking and reasoning of men like Voltaire and the French encyclopedists, the unlimited exercise of authority over the individual by Church or State was seriously questioned, and it came to he recognized that some limits should be set to the power of society, and man should be given some rights and a measure of freedom consistent with the well-being of his fellow-citizens and the State of which he was a member. When the American colonies fought their War of Independence against England. they drew up a document in which the rights of the individual were defined. It was declared that all men were born free and that no interference with their liberty could be brooked, and the War of Independence was being fought to vindicate this right to liberty. When the French Revolution came in 1789, it set forth a threefold principle as the basis of the people’s struggle against their rulers. This principle was the principle of Liberty. Equality and Fraternity. Interpreted, this means that all men are free, and no one has the right to undue interference with them in their private life. Secondly, that all men are equal in the eyes of the law and the constitution, and that no one can claim privilege over anyone else on the score of birth, position or for any other reason. The fraternity is an emphasized form of this concept of Equality ; it means that all men are like brothers. Democracy was established in Europe in the nineteenth century, though it has been fully successful only in Great Britain and France in Europe, and in the U.S.A.	<urn:uuid:0890c98a-7bb3-471d-ac87-c0cba3c5ff25>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thecollegestudy.net/2019/03/short-paragraph-on-the-rights-of-man.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00242.warc.gz	en	0.990271	469	3.609375	4	[ -0.19127483665943146, 0.3145125210285187, -0.14777714014053345, -0.4904817044734955, -0.24754367768764496, 0.14196501672267914, 0.7494282126426697, 0.15532101690769196, 0.34776806831359863, 0.10201600193977356, -0.08853168040513992, 0.15596209466457367, 0.18681420385837555, 0.0431875847280...	7	What are the fundamental rights which every human being has, and the free exercise of which must be guaranteed to him or her by society? There was a time when man was supposed to have very few rights, and almost every department of his life was open to check the interference by the State, by the tribal chief or by the priesthood. The result of this was that the individual had no will or choice of his own, and was completely subordinated to the ruling class of the group or society of which he was a member. But since the rise of democracy, there has been a move in the direction of respecting the freedom of the individual, which had not existed before. The liberal thought, which took rise in the eighteenth century in Europe as a result of the thinking and reasoning of men like Voltaire and the French encyclopedists, the unlimited exercise of authority over the individual by Church or State was seriously questioned, and it came to he recognized that some limits should be set to the power of society, and man should be given some rights and a measure of freedom consistent with the well-being of his fellow-citizens and the State of which he was a member. When the American colonies fought their War of Independence against England. they drew up a document in which the rights of the individual were defined. It was declared that all men were born free and that no interference with their liberty could be brooked, and the War of Independence was being fought to vindicate this right to liberty. When the French Revolution came in 1789, it set forth a threefold principle as the basis of the people’s struggle against their rulers. This principle was the principle of Liberty. Equality and Fraternity. Interpreted, this means that all men are free, and no one has the right to undue interference with them in their private life. Secondly, that all men are equal in the eyes of the law and the constitution, and that no one can claim privilege over anyone else on the score of birth, position or for any other reason. The fraternity is an emphasized form of this concept of Equality ; it means that all men are like brothers. Democracy was established in Europe in the nineteenth century, though it has been fully successful only in Great Britain and France in Europe, and in the U.S.A.	467	ENGLISH	1
Feast Day of St. Cecilia Although Cecilia is one of the most famous of the Roman martyrs, the familiar stories about her are apparently not founded on authentic material. There is no trace of honor being paid her in early times. A fragmentary inscription of the late fourth century refers to a church named after her, and her feast was celebrated at least in 545. According to legend, Cecilia was a young Christian of high rank betrothed to a Roman named Valerian. Through her influence, Valerian was converted, and was martyred along with his brother. The legend about Cecilia’s death says that after being struck three times on the neck with a sword, she lived for three days, and asked the pope to convert her home into a church. Since the time of the Renaissance she has usually been portrayed with a viola or a small organ. Like any good Christian, Cecilia sang in her heart, and sometimes with her voice. She has become a symbol of the Church’s conviction that good music is an integral part of the liturgy, of greater value to the Church than any other art. St. Cecilia, pray for us.	<urn:uuid:3ffb0e27-dad4-4f58-99d4-37eac92b6233>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.dailybeatitude.com/index.php?archive=2019-11-22	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00301.warc.gz	en	0.982143	249	3.65625	4	[ 0.3356505334377289, 0.17928816378116608, 0.06434553861618042, 0.27120324969291687, -0.28880682587623596, -0.10486827045679092, -0.2957102060317993, 0.33522602915763855, 0.5409183502197266, 0.006454942747950554, 0.330685555934906, -0.1633412092924118, 0.32342904806137085, -0.069127179682254...	3	Feast Day of St. Cecilia Although Cecilia is one of the most famous of the Roman martyrs, the familiar stories about her are apparently not founded on authentic material. There is no trace of honor being paid her in early times. A fragmentary inscription of the late fourth century refers to a church named after her, and her feast was celebrated at least in 545. According to legend, Cecilia was a young Christian of high rank betrothed to a Roman named Valerian. Through her influence, Valerian was converted, and was martyred along with his brother. The legend about Cecilia’s death says that after being struck three times on the neck with a sword, she lived for three days, and asked the pope to convert her home into a church. Since the time of the Renaissance she has usually been portrayed with a viola or a small organ. Like any good Christian, Cecilia sang in her heart, and sometimes with her voice. She has become a symbol of the Church’s conviction that good music is an integral part of the liturgy, of greater value to the Church than any other art. St. Cecilia, pray for us.	242	ENGLISH	1
African-American Women Inventors In 1966 an African-American woman named Marie Van Brittan Brown, along with her partner, Albert Brown, developed what is known as the precursor to the home security system. It was a closed-circuit television system that also utilized a remote control to unlock a door. Brown’s closed circuit system utilized a set of four peep holes and a camera that could slide up and down to peer out each one and anything the camera picked up would then appear on a monitor. This kind of security system was unheard of at the time and she applied for an invention patent for the system. This system was the first in a series of home security systems that continue to inundate the market today. Sarah Boone was another African-American inventor who applied for and received a patent for the ironing board. Ms. Boone was one of the first African-American women ever to receive a patent for an invention. In her patent application, she wrote, “to produce a simple, cheap, convenient and highly effective device, particularly adapted to be used in the ironing the sleeves and bodies of ladies’ garments.” Born in the deep south during the mid-1800’s, Sarah Boone was living in New Haven, Connecticut when she received her patent. Ms. Boone died in 1900. Eight years after receiving the patent. Although the previously mentioned Sarah Boone is listed as “one of the first African-American women to receive a patent”, another African-American woman named Sarah was the absolute first to receive a patent by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office for an invention. Sarah E. Goode applied for and received a patent for what many call the precursor to the Murphy bed. That is the bed that folded up into a wall in small apartments. Sarah Goode was born into slavery in 1850 and then moved to Chicago at the end of the Civil War when she was granted her freedom. She would then become an entrepreneur as she owned a furniture store along with her husband, Archibald, who was a carpenter. However, many of her customers were working-class folks and lived in small apartments. These apartments didn’t have much room for furniture and beds. Sarah Goode then developed a possible solution to the problem. She invented a cabinet bed in which she called a “folding bed”. When the bed was not being used it simply folded up into the cabinet and then provided a desk top complete with compartments to keep stationary in as well as other supplies. Sarah Goode received her patent for the cabinet bed in 1885 and she passed away in 1905. So have a look around your house and at your beauty products and think about pioneering African-American women and men who may have invented them. Editor's Picks Articles Top Ten Articles Content copyright © 2019 by Vance Rowe. All rights reserved. This content was written by Vance Rowe. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Clare Stubbs for details.	<urn:uuid:98cb15c0-bb39-4197-b1cc-cdc6ddbc9ae8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art3158.asp	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00181.warc.gz	en	0.984184	626	3.515625	4	[ -0.2866356670856476, 0.2853865623474121, 0.21640637516975403, 0.11029129475355148, -0.3970957398414612, 0.1795438975095749, 0.3458390235900879, 0.05259474739432335, -0.22016975283622742, 0.5230422616004944, 0.12297071516513824, 0.02328730933368206, -0.121522918343544, -0.12380576133728027,...	2	African-American Women Inventors In 1966 an African-American woman named Marie Van Brittan Brown, along with her partner, Albert Brown, developed what is known as the precursor to the home security system. It was a closed-circuit television system that also utilized a remote control to unlock a door. Brown’s closed circuit system utilized a set of four peep holes and a camera that could slide up and down to peer out each one and anything the camera picked up would then appear on a monitor. This kind of security system was unheard of at the time and she applied for an invention patent for the system. This system was the first in a series of home security systems that continue to inundate the market today. Sarah Boone was another African-American inventor who applied for and received a patent for the ironing board. Ms. Boone was one of the first African-American women ever to receive a patent for an invention. In her patent application, she wrote, “to produce a simple, cheap, convenient and highly effective device, particularly adapted to be used in the ironing the sleeves and bodies of ladies’ garments.” Born in the deep south during the mid-1800’s, Sarah Boone was living in New Haven, Connecticut when she received her patent. Ms. Boone died in 1900. Eight years after receiving the patent. Although the previously mentioned Sarah Boone is listed as “one of the first African-American women to receive a patent”, another African-American woman named Sarah was the absolute first to receive a patent by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office for an invention. Sarah E. Goode applied for and received a patent for what many call the precursor to the Murphy bed. That is the bed that folded up into a wall in small apartments. Sarah Goode was born into slavery in 1850 and then moved to Chicago at the end of the Civil War when she was granted her freedom. She would then become an entrepreneur as she owned a furniture store along with her husband, Archibald, who was a carpenter. However, many of her customers were working-class folks and lived in small apartments. These apartments didn’t have much room for furniture and beds. Sarah Goode then developed a possible solution to the problem. She invented a cabinet bed in which she called a “folding bed”. When the bed was not being used it simply folded up into the cabinet and then provided a desk top complete with compartments to keep stationary in as well as other supplies. Sarah Goode received her patent for the cabinet bed in 1885 and she passed away in 1905. So have a look around your house and at your beauty products and think about pioneering African-American women and men who may have invented them. Editor's Picks Articles Top Ten Articles Content copyright © 2019 by Vance Rowe. All rights reserved. This content was written by Vance Rowe. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Clare Stubbs for details.	618	ENGLISH	1
On January 14, 1895, trolley workers in Brooklyn walk off the job. The largest and most violent strike in Brooklyn’s history to that point, it was in many ways a typical story of the Gilded Age where employers and the state combined to crush the reasonable demands of oppressed workers, often over public sympathy to the workers. Brooklyn was a rapidly growing city in the late 19th century. While it was very much the nation’s first suburb, it also was the nation’s fourth largest city in its own right. It doubled in population between 1880 and 1900 and had almost 980,000 residents in 1895. Not surprisingly then, it really needed an expanded transportation system. A huge increase in the city’s trolley system resulted. But the workers were treated horribly. A common day was a mere 17 hours long, all for less than a dollar. In 1886, the New York Commissioner of Labor wrote, “in no other trade or occupation do I believe there exist grievances approximating in the slightest degree, in number and gravity, to those resulting from general management of the street roads in this state. In many instances these grievances are more than ordinary abuses…they amount to outright outrages.” We don’t usually think of streetcar workers at the forefront of oppressed labor in the Gilded Age, but indeed they were. The streetcar workers started organizing within the Knights of Labor in 1883 and by 1886 they had won a union contract that included a 12-hour day, a $2 minimum wage, and the principle of seniority. The contract also set up how the companies would use extra cars needed for peak times, with the Knights wanting fewer temporary employees and the companies more of them. Over time, the companies began winning that battle. Moreover, with the state of New York passing an 1887 law limiting the work on railway lines to 10 hours of active work over a 12 hour day, the employees and employers fought over how to count that. The workers wanted 10 hours total, the employers did not want to count anything but actual driving the cars. The Knights local did well up to 1895, even as that union was declining nationwide. By that year, it had about 4,000 members in at least 20 different assemblies. It was one of Brooklyn’s largest unions and the only streetcar union in New York. As it was a Knights organization, it did not like to strike, with approval from the larger organization needed before any such action took place. But two things happened in 1893 to change the conditions of work. One was the Panic of 1893, which didn’t affect the companies directly but did reduce revenues. Second was the replacement of horse-drawn cars with electric cars, which had the strong potential of reducing employment as they could hold twice as many riders. The work got harder, not easier, with electricity and the workers felt they could not finish the job, stay on time, and stick to the 10 mph speed limit. They wanted concessions on this. There were several different companies in Brooklyn and each had a different contract. When the contracts neared their end in 1894, the Knights had three major demands: a 25 cent raise for employees, including the part-time guys, a reduction of trips each day so that they could actually do their work in 10 hours, and finally that more of the workers be full-time. Daniel Lewis was president of the Atlantic Avenue Railroad Company. And he had no intent of granting the Knights any of this. He was one of the most important of the streetcar operators and it didn’t take much to get the others to follow him in an attempt to bust the union. The Knights saw the writing on the wall and backed down on the bigger demands, but it was unionbusting time. A few of the smaller companies did acquiesce, but that’s it. On January 11, the union voted to go on strike by a 3997-133 vote. On January 14, they did. The companies advertised nationally for scabs. A tiny number of cars ran on January 17 and slowly a few more did as well, as desperate workers sought any job they could get and there were plenty of unemployed trolley drivers across the nation. Moreover, this was not a profession with a strong union culture generally so unlike the railroad brotherhoods, scabbing was a real possibility. This strike did not cover the elevated rail lines so there was some transportation in Brooklyn, but it was a real hardship for many people. But in general, the community was in support of the workers and there were many large demonstrations denouncing the companies and the scabs. Moreover, the electric wires of the new cars were incredibly easy to cut and thus it was really easy for strikers to shut down the lines over and over again. While it is difficult to really know what was going on in the community, and newspapers are really not reliable on this given their propensity to create stories that were anti-worker, it is clear that as the days passed, the pro-union crowds grew to be 5-6,000. There were big benefits to raise funds too. That the streetcars were forced to go as fast as 30 mph, often killing citizens of Brooklyn, certainly did not lead the people of the city to favor the companies. But the city government was on the side of the employers. Brooklyn’s mayor, Charles Schieren, said he sympathized with the workers, but provided police protection for the streetcar lines and when the City Council, which was in fact in favor of the workers, passed bills to revoke the charters of the recalcitrant streetcar companies, he vetoed it. The police wasn’t completely solid on crushing the workers, but discipline held more or less. There were also not enough policemen to guard the lines effectively, especially in the face of large protests. The National Guard of New York State was called up. These less well-trained units caused the two deaths in the strike, one when a militiaman fired a warning shot and it accidentally hit a guy doing roofing work and a second when a man refused to halt. Given that the Knights struggled to act like a union operating in conditions of unremitting hostility, it didn’t know how to respond to the militiaman and sometimes even embraced it, helping feed them for instance. This served their interests in being seen as peaceful law-abiding citizens, but also did not help their cause. In the end, the militia simply wore the workers down, as so often happens in strikes. The militia remained on duty until February 1 and while the strike was officially on for another two weeks and some arrests took place throughout February, the workers had lost. Few of the workers were rehired. It was another defeat for workers in the Gilded Age, though the Knights did remain around in a less robust capacity for another decade, when the AFL replaced it. I borrowed from Sarah M. Henry’s “The Strikers and Their Sympathizers: Brooklyn in the Trolley Strike of 1895,” published in Labor History in 1991, to write this post. This is the 344th post in this series. Previous posts are archived here.	<urn:uuid:38d0f7f1-4746-4463-8812-3951d9dd1419>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.lawyersgunsmoneyblog.com/2020/01/this-day-in-labor-history-january-14-1895	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00237.warc.gz	en	0.987406	1,474	3.65625	4	[ -0.22760558128356934, -0.31002575159072876, 0.36061030626296997, 0.07023609429597855, -0.20667043328285217, -0.0015865713357925415, -0.08577056229114532, 0.07067545503377914, -0.24801017343997955, -0.20087015628814697, 0.20043793320655823, 0.6452978849411011, -0.2691376805305481, 0.1278539...	10	On January 14, 1895, trolley workers in Brooklyn walk off the job. The largest and most violent strike in Brooklyn’s history to that point, it was in many ways a typical story of the Gilded Age where employers and the state combined to crush the reasonable demands of oppressed workers, often over public sympathy to the workers. Brooklyn was a rapidly growing city in the late 19th century. While it was very much the nation’s first suburb, it also was the nation’s fourth largest city in its own right. It doubled in population between 1880 and 1900 and had almost 980,000 residents in 1895. Not surprisingly then, it really needed an expanded transportation system. A huge increase in the city’s trolley system resulted. But the workers were treated horribly. A common day was a mere 17 hours long, all for less than a dollar. In 1886, the New York Commissioner of Labor wrote, “in no other trade or occupation do I believe there exist grievances approximating in the slightest degree, in number and gravity, to those resulting from general management of the street roads in this state. In many instances these grievances are more than ordinary abuses…they amount to outright outrages.” We don’t usually think of streetcar workers at the forefront of oppressed labor in the Gilded Age, but indeed they were. The streetcar workers started organizing within the Knights of Labor in 1883 and by 1886 they had won a union contract that included a 12-hour day, a $2 minimum wage, and the principle of seniority. The contract also set up how the companies would use extra cars needed for peak times, with the Knights wanting fewer temporary employees and the companies more of them. Over time, the companies began winning that battle. Moreover, with the state of New York passing an 1887 law limiting the work on railway lines to 10 hours of active work over a 12 hour day, the employees and employers fought over how to count that. The workers wanted 10 hours total, the employers did not want to count anything but actual driving the cars. The Knights local did well up to 1895, even as that union was declining nationwide. By that year, it had about 4,000 members in at least 20 different assemblies. It was one of Brooklyn’s largest unions and the only streetcar union in New York. As it was a Knights organization, it did not like to strike, with approval from the larger organization needed before any such action took place. But two things happened in 1893 to change the conditions of work. One was the Panic of 1893, which didn’t affect the companies directly but did reduce revenues. Second was the replacement of horse-drawn cars with electric cars, which had the strong potential of reducing employment as they could hold twice as many riders. The work got harder, not easier, with electricity and the workers felt they could not finish the job, stay on time, and stick to the 10 mph speed limit. They wanted concessions on this. There were several different companies in Brooklyn and each had a different contract. When the contracts neared their end in 1894, the Knights had three major demands: a 25 cent raise for employees, including the part-time guys, a reduction of trips each day so that they could actually do their work in 10 hours, and finally that more of the workers be full-time. Daniel Lewis was president of the Atlantic Avenue Railroad Company. And he had no intent of granting the Knights any of this. He was one of the most important of the streetcar operators and it didn’t take much to get the others to follow him in an attempt to bust the union. The Knights saw the writing on the wall and backed down on the bigger demands, but it was unionbusting time. A few of the smaller companies did acquiesce, but that’s it. On January 11, the union voted to go on strike by a 3997-133 vote. On January 14, they did. The companies advertised nationally for scabs. A tiny number of cars ran on January 17 and slowly a few more did as well, as desperate workers sought any job they could get and there were plenty of unemployed trolley drivers across the nation. Moreover, this was not a profession with a strong union culture generally so unlike the railroad brotherhoods, scabbing was a real possibility. This strike did not cover the elevated rail lines so there was some transportation in Brooklyn, but it was a real hardship for many people. But in general, the community was in support of the workers and there were many large demonstrations denouncing the companies and the scabs. Moreover, the electric wires of the new cars were incredibly easy to cut and thus it was really easy for strikers to shut down the lines over and over again. While it is difficult to really know what was going on in the community, and newspapers are really not reliable on this given their propensity to create stories that were anti-worker, it is clear that as the days passed, the pro-union crowds grew to be 5-6,000. There were big benefits to raise funds too. That the streetcars were forced to go as fast as 30 mph, often killing citizens of Brooklyn, certainly did not lead the people of the city to favor the companies. But the city government was on the side of the employers. Brooklyn’s mayor, Charles Schieren, said he sympathized with the workers, but provided police protection for the streetcar lines and when the City Council, which was in fact in favor of the workers, passed bills to revoke the charters of the recalcitrant streetcar companies, he vetoed it. The police wasn’t completely solid on crushing the workers, but discipline held more or less. There were also not enough policemen to guard the lines effectively, especially in the face of large protests. The National Guard of New York State was called up. These less well-trained units caused the two deaths in the strike, one when a militiaman fired a warning shot and it accidentally hit a guy doing roofing work and a second when a man refused to halt. Given that the Knights struggled to act like a union operating in conditions of unremitting hostility, it didn’t know how to respond to the militiaman and sometimes even embraced it, helping feed them for instance. This served their interests in being seen as peaceful law-abiding citizens, but also did not help their cause. In the end, the militia simply wore the workers down, as so often happens in strikes. The militia remained on duty until February 1 and while the strike was officially on for another two weeks and some arrests took place throughout February, the workers had lost. Few of the workers were rehired. It was another defeat for workers in the Gilded Age, though the Knights did remain around in a less robust capacity for another decade, when the AFL replaced it. I borrowed from Sarah M. Henry’s “The Strikers and Their Sympathizers: Brooklyn in the Trolley Strike of 1895,” published in Labor History in 1991, to write this post. This is the 344th post in this series. Previous posts are archived here.	1,539	ENGLISH	1
During the late 1800s, 19th and early 20th centuries, the shocking display of human beings of various African ethnicities was in vogue in the West, especially in the colonial empires of Great Britain, France, and Germany. In the era before cinema, these displays – human zoos) allowed westerners to see the foreigners – or as they were popularly called then ‘exotic peoples‘ – they’d only heard of from explorers. These displays later became so popular that they attracted thousands of people every day. The performers were given costumes to wear as they performed non-stop for the audience: Terrible living conditions, foreign diseases, and the cold killed dozens of the performers, who were then buried in the gardens. Human Zoos started During the Age of Exploration, then Spanish and Portuguese explorers would often bring back foreign plants, animals, and even people, to prove that their voyages to Africa were a success and not a facade. These displays, however, were accessible only to the elites, as they were only exhibited at the royal courts. As the European powers began to establish colonies across the world, especially in Africa, there was growing appetite among westerners back home for displays of the conquered peoples, who were perceived as savages and less civilized than themselves. This huge demand led to the establishment of the first human zoos’ native villages were featured at most international fairs and expositions held during that period. In the United States, St. Louis World’s Fair held in 1904 also boasted a number of ‘living African exhibits’. This Shows and exhibitions held across the Western world and were designed to emphasise the cultural difference between Europeans and people who were deemed primitive. A caricature of Saartjie Baartman, Born to a Khoisan family, she was displayed in London in the early 19th century. Sara Baartman’s large buttocks and unusual colouring made her the object of fascination by the colonial Europeans who presumed that they were racially superior. Englishmen and women paid to see Sara’s half naked body displayed in a cage that was about a metre and half high. She became an attraction for people from various parts of Europe. In September 1814, she was transported from England to France, and upon arrival was sold to a man who showcased animals. He exhibited her around Paris and reaped financial benefits from the public’s fascination with Sara’s body. At a point he began exhibiting her in a cage alongside a baby rhinoceros. Her “trainer” would order her to sit or stand in a similar way that circus animals are ordered. At times Baartman was displayed almost completely naked, wearing little more than a tan loincloth, and she was only allowed that due to her insistence that she cover what was culturally sacred. She was nicknamed “Hottentot Venus”. Sara Baartman died in France in 1816 at the age of 26. But even death couldn’t stop the French from displaying her. After her death, George Cuvier, a naturalist dissected her body. He made a plaster cast of her body, pickled her brain and genitals and placed them into jars which were then placed on display at the Musée de l’Homme (Museum of Man) until 1974. Her remains remained in France until the South African government negotiated their return in 2002. Her body was finally brought to South Africa where she was buried On 9 August 2002, the ceremony coincided with national Women’s Day. “The story of Sarah Baartman is the story of the African people,″ President Thabo Mbeki said at the funeral. “It is the story of the loss of our ancient freedom … It is the story of our reduction to the state of objects who could be owned, used and discarded by others.″ Hundreds of people attended the funeral in the rural town of Hankey, about 470 miles east of Cape Town, where Baartman was born in 1789. Ota Benga (pictured above), a Congolese man exhibited in the New York’s Bronx Zoo in 1906. He was often subject to mocking from the crowd His teeth were filed to points, as was customary in his tribe, and the floor of his cage was littered with bones placed there by zookeepers to make him look more threatening. He played the role of the savage and in time was displayed in a cage with apes. More than 40,000 people came to see him every day and he was often subject to mocking from the crowd. The continued exhibit of Ota Benga sparked growing concern and then outrage, alarms were sounded at the Colored Baptist Ministers’ Conference, and a number of prominent pastors were outspoken about what they viewed as a monstrous disrespect. Rev. James H. Gordon, superintendent of the Howard Colored Orphan Asylum in Brooklyn was one of the most vocal opponents of the exhibit. “Our race, we think, is depressed enough, without exhibiting one of us with the apes,” he wrote. “We think we are worthy of being considered human beings, with souls.” Ota Benga was eventually released. But six years later In 1916, he he tragically shot himself in the heart. after being unable to assimilate into American life. Unidentified African man displayed as an exhibit at the 1904 St. Louis World’s Fair in Missouri, USA A small African girl in western dress. She’s fed by a white woman as others watch in amazement. The African girl above was shown at the 1958 Expo in Brussels, Belgium. The exhibition featured a ‘Congo Village’ with visitors watching her from behind wooden fences. The image above, displays indigenous African people participating in archery in 1904 in St Louis, Missouri, USA at an event shockingly named the ‘Savage Olympics Exhibition’. German zoologist Professor Lutz Heck (left) is pictured above with an elephant and an African family he brought to the Berlin Zoo, in Germany in 1931. The World’s Fair in Brussels, Belgium in 1958 featured this mocked-up Senegalese village The End of Human Zoos Human zoos began to lose their popularity as the 20th century progressed. One of the last instances of the phenomenon occurred in 1958, at the World’s Fair in Brussels, Belgium where a Congolese Village was featured. Although it was said that towards their end, human zoos were criticized as degrading, racist, and unethical, and that was what led to their demise. It is still believed by many that the only thing that caused the ‘human zoos’ to lose its appeal was the appearance of motion pictures. Apparently it drew the masses away from these zoos and into the cinemas. Join the conversation.. Follow us on Facebook or Twitter So you don't miss out on our posts. You can also Subscribe to receive daily updates.	<urn:uuid:7342bed5-4e74-4131-99db-3e5e6049c7f8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://listwand.com/history-of-human-zoos-how-exotic-africans-were-displayed-in-zoos-in-the-west/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00219.warc.gz	en	0.983834	1,463	3.703125	4	[ 0.10681735724210739, 0.6271976828575134, 0.5549468994140625, 0.178371399641037, -0.02286147139966488, 0.24981795251369476, 0.20824722945690155, 0.030464250594377518, -0.08388987183570862, 0.0242917537689209, 0.4311434030532837, -0.33538925647735596, 0.04988062381744385, 0.3661183714866638,...	2	During the late 1800s, 19th and early 20th centuries, the shocking display of human beings of various African ethnicities was in vogue in the West, especially in the colonial empires of Great Britain, France, and Germany. In the era before cinema, these displays – human zoos) allowed westerners to see the foreigners – or as they were popularly called then ‘exotic peoples‘ – they’d only heard of from explorers. These displays later became so popular that they attracted thousands of people every day. The performers were given costumes to wear as they performed non-stop for the audience: Terrible living conditions, foreign diseases, and the cold killed dozens of the performers, who were then buried in the gardens. Human Zoos started During the Age of Exploration, then Spanish and Portuguese explorers would often bring back foreign plants, animals, and even people, to prove that their voyages to Africa were a success and not a facade. These displays, however, were accessible only to the elites, as they were only exhibited at the royal courts. As the European powers began to establish colonies across the world, especially in Africa, there was growing appetite among westerners back home for displays of the conquered peoples, who were perceived as savages and less civilized than themselves. This huge demand led to the establishment of the first human zoos’ native villages were featured at most international fairs and expositions held during that period. In the United States, St. Louis World’s Fair held in 1904 also boasted a number of ‘living African exhibits’. This Shows and exhibitions held across the Western world and were designed to emphasise the cultural difference between Europeans and people who were deemed primitive. A caricature of Saartjie Baartman, Born to a Khoisan family, she was displayed in London in the early 19th century. Sara Baartman’s large buttocks and unusual colouring made her the object of fascination by the colonial Europeans who presumed that they were racially superior. Englishmen and women paid to see Sara’s half naked body displayed in a cage that was about a metre and half high. She became an attraction for people from various parts of Europe. In September 1814, she was transported from England to France, and upon arrival was sold to a man who showcased animals. He exhibited her around Paris and reaped financial benefits from the public’s fascination with Sara’s body. At a point he began exhibiting her in a cage alongside a baby rhinoceros. Her “trainer” would order her to sit or stand in a similar way that circus animals are ordered. At times Baartman was displayed almost completely naked, wearing little more than a tan loincloth, and she was only allowed that due to her insistence that she cover what was culturally sacred. She was nicknamed “Hottentot Venus”. Sara Baartman died in France in 1816 at the age of 26. But even death couldn’t stop the French from displaying her. After her death, George Cuvier, a naturalist dissected her body. He made a plaster cast of her body, pickled her brain and genitals and placed them into jars which were then placed on display at the Musée de l’Homme (Museum of Man) until 1974. Her remains remained in France until the South African government negotiated their return in 2002. Her body was finally brought to South Africa where she was buried On 9 August 2002, the ceremony coincided with national Women’s Day. “The story of Sarah Baartman is the story of the African people,″ President Thabo Mbeki said at the funeral. “It is the story of the loss of our ancient freedom … It is the story of our reduction to the state of objects who could be owned, used and discarded by others.″ Hundreds of people attended the funeral in the rural town of Hankey, about 470 miles east of Cape Town, where Baartman was born in 1789. Ota Benga (pictured above), a Congolese man exhibited in the New York’s Bronx Zoo in 1906. He was often subject to mocking from the crowd His teeth were filed to points, as was customary in his tribe, and the floor of his cage was littered with bones placed there by zookeepers to make him look more threatening. He played the role of the savage and in time was displayed in a cage with apes. More than 40,000 people came to see him every day and he was often subject to mocking from the crowd. The continued exhibit of Ota Benga sparked growing concern and then outrage, alarms were sounded at the Colored Baptist Ministers’ Conference, and a number of prominent pastors were outspoken about what they viewed as a monstrous disrespect. Rev. James H. Gordon, superintendent of the Howard Colored Orphan Asylum in Brooklyn was one of the most vocal opponents of the exhibit. “Our race, we think, is depressed enough, without exhibiting one of us with the apes,” he wrote. “We think we are worthy of being considered human beings, with souls.” Ota Benga was eventually released. But six years later In 1916, he he tragically shot himself in the heart. after being unable to assimilate into American life. Unidentified African man displayed as an exhibit at the 1904 St. Louis World’s Fair in Missouri, USA A small African girl in western dress. She’s fed by a white woman as others watch in amazement. The African girl above was shown at the 1958 Expo in Brussels, Belgium. The exhibition featured a ‘Congo Village’ with visitors watching her from behind wooden fences. The image above, displays indigenous African people participating in archery in 1904 in St Louis, Missouri, USA at an event shockingly named the ‘Savage Olympics Exhibition’. German zoologist Professor Lutz Heck (left) is pictured above with an elephant and an African family he brought to the Berlin Zoo, in Germany in 1931. The World’s Fair in Brussels, Belgium in 1958 featured this mocked-up Senegalese village The End of Human Zoos Human zoos began to lose their popularity as the 20th century progressed. One of the last instances of the phenomenon occurred in 1958, at the World’s Fair in Brussels, Belgium where a Congolese Village was featured. Although it was said that towards their end, human zoos were criticized as degrading, racist, and unethical, and that was what led to their demise. It is still believed by many that the only thing that caused the ‘human zoos’ to lose its appeal was the appearance of motion pictures. Apparently it drew the masses away from these zoos and into the cinemas. Join the conversation.. Follow us on Facebook or Twitter So you don't miss out on our posts. You can also Subscribe to receive daily updates.	1,466	ENGLISH	1
By the turn of the 20th century the role and public image of the hospital was changing. A number of developments made hospitals less unpleasant for patients. The discovery of anaesthesia in the 1840s made patients more willing to undergo operations and reduced the risk of dying of shock during surgery. However, anaesthesia did not dramatically improve the prognosis for the patient. Hospitals were still often unhygienic, which caused a high rate of post-operative infections. From the 1860s antisepsis (use of antiseptic substances such as carbolic acid) and asepsis (exclusion of bacteria and viruses) were used during operations. Sterile hospital environments made operations safer for patients. Laboratory and diagnostic facilities such as X-rays were not available in most New Zealand hospitals until well into the 20th century. Nevertheless, by the late 19th century scientific developments meant that more people were willing to enter hospitals. The first medical school in New Zealand opened in Dunedin in 1875. Initially, the course was limited and students had to study overseas to qualify. The first student to complete a full course at Dunedin graduated in 1887. New Zealand’s second medical school (Auckland) did not open until 1968. As in Britain, hospitals were integral to medical education. This altered their function – no longer solely places of refuge, they became the site of scientific training and research. Under the influence of the medical profession, hospitals increasingly admitted only cases which were deemed curable. Complaints about ‘incurables’ occupying beds around the turn of the century made it clear who was prioritised in hospital care. Nursing has often been described in highly moral, almost religious terms. In 1910 Matron Thurston of Christchurch Hospital called it ‘the noblest profession … Self must be put aside; jealousy and disloyalty unknown. Instead of looking on each other as individuals setting forth on our task alone, let us remember we are members of the same family … and the training school our mother, ready to go forth, armed only with high ideals, banded together for the good and comfort of the sufferers; loyal to the traditions of nursing as shown us by the self-sacrificing life of Florence Nightingale.’1 Nursing training and registration The nursing reform movement led by Florence Nightingale, which originated in Britain in the 1860s, was significant in the transformation of hospitals. This produced a new style of nurse who was efficient, obedient, clean, hard-working and sober. Nursing leaders (matrons) were posted around the British Empire and took ideas about cleanliness and discipline within hospitals with them. Auckland Hospital appointed its first matron in 1865, but it was not until 1883 that the first Nightingale-trained matron, Annie Crisp, transformed the hospital environment. Nursing was feminised – the trained male nurses who had previously dominated hospitals now mainly worked in mental hospitals. However, the orderlies who performed physical tasks such as moving patients around remained mostly male. To encourage respectable young women to become nurses, supervised nurses’ homes were set up on hospital premises. The Nurses Registration Act 1901 was the first legislation covering nursing training and registration in the world. This act formalised the hospital-based nature of nurse training through a system of apprenticeship, involving three years of training and a state examination. From the 1970s nurses were trained in tertiary institutions rather than in hospitals. Donating blood in the 1920s was not for the faint-hearted. A donor recalled his experience when he first gave blood in Auckland in 1925: ‘The needle used to draw blood seemed like a 2 ½ [inch] nail and about as blunt … Often the blood was taken in an operating theatre where a local anaesthetic was sometimes used and the patient [being operated on] lay beside you.’2 Medical science advanced significantly in the 20th century and hospitals were central to these developments. The discovery of blood types in 1901 made blood transfusion safer and helped prevent death from haemorrhage following surgery and childbirth. Techniques were devised between the world wars to store blood products. Blood banks were established, which increased the number of operations that could be performed. New drugs to fight infections discovered in the 1920s reduced deaths in childbirth. Penicillin was developed during the Second World War and other antibiotics followed. Surgery expanded in the post-war period to include organ transplantation, such as kidney transplants and later heart transplants. These procedures were assisted by the discovery of immunosuppressant drugs (which prevent organ and tissue rejection) from the 1960s. Specialist units such as coronary care, intensive care and neonatal special care units were established in major hospitals.	<urn:uuid:a918ce5d-7c7a-45df-afa8-8a32e62f2690>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://teara.govt.nz/en/hospitals/page-2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00326.warc.gz	en	0.980443	980	3.46875	3	[ 0.026849545538425446, 0.20132601261138916, 0.2240486443042755, -0.03555974364280701, -0.040147580206394196, 0.29208070039749146, 0.1251339316368103, 0.3721421957015991, -0.21785074472427368, 0.09334851801395416, 0.02385740913450718, -0.23571473360061646, -0.017867185175418854, 0.3642076849...	14	By the turn of the 20th century the role and public image of the hospital was changing. A number of developments made hospitals less unpleasant for patients. The discovery of anaesthesia in the 1840s made patients more willing to undergo operations and reduced the risk of dying of shock during surgery. However, anaesthesia did not dramatically improve the prognosis for the patient. Hospitals were still often unhygienic, which caused a high rate of post-operative infections. From the 1860s antisepsis (use of antiseptic substances such as carbolic acid) and asepsis (exclusion of bacteria and viruses) were used during operations. Sterile hospital environments made operations safer for patients. Laboratory and diagnostic facilities such as X-rays were not available in most New Zealand hospitals until well into the 20th century. Nevertheless, by the late 19th century scientific developments meant that more people were willing to enter hospitals. The first medical school in New Zealand opened in Dunedin in 1875. Initially, the course was limited and students had to study overseas to qualify. The first student to complete a full course at Dunedin graduated in 1887. New Zealand’s second medical school (Auckland) did not open until 1968. As in Britain, hospitals were integral to medical education. This altered their function – no longer solely places of refuge, they became the site of scientific training and research. Under the influence of the medical profession, hospitals increasingly admitted only cases which were deemed curable. Complaints about ‘incurables’ occupying beds around the turn of the century made it clear who was prioritised in hospital care. Nursing has often been described in highly moral, almost religious terms. In 1910 Matron Thurston of Christchurch Hospital called it ‘the noblest profession … Self must be put aside; jealousy and disloyalty unknown. Instead of looking on each other as individuals setting forth on our task alone, let us remember we are members of the same family … and the training school our mother, ready to go forth, armed only with high ideals, banded together for the good and comfort of the sufferers; loyal to the traditions of nursing as shown us by the self-sacrificing life of Florence Nightingale.’1 Nursing training and registration The nursing reform movement led by Florence Nightingale, which originated in Britain in the 1860s, was significant in the transformation of hospitals. This produced a new style of nurse who was efficient, obedient, clean, hard-working and sober. Nursing leaders (matrons) were posted around the British Empire and took ideas about cleanliness and discipline within hospitals with them. Auckland Hospital appointed its first matron in 1865, but it was not until 1883 that the first Nightingale-trained matron, Annie Crisp, transformed the hospital environment. Nursing was feminised – the trained male nurses who had previously dominated hospitals now mainly worked in mental hospitals. However, the orderlies who performed physical tasks such as moving patients around remained mostly male. To encourage respectable young women to become nurses, supervised nurses’ homes were set up on hospital premises. The Nurses Registration Act 1901 was the first legislation covering nursing training and registration in the world. This act formalised the hospital-based nature of nurse training through a system of apprenticeship, involving three years of training and a state examination. From the 1970s nurses were trained in tertiary institutions rather than in hospitals. Donating blood in the 1920s was not for the faint-hearted. A donor recalled his experience when he first gave blood in Auckland in 1925: ‘The needle used to draw blood seemed like a 2 ½ [inch] nail and about as blunt … Often the blood was taken in an operating theatre where a local anaesthetic was sometimes used and the patient [being operated on] lay beside you.’2 Medical science advanced significantly in the 20th century and hospitals were central to these developments. The discovery of blood types in 1901 made blood transfusion safer and helped prevent death from haemorrhage following surgery and childbirth. Techniques were devised between the world wars to store blood products. Blood banks were established, which increased the number of operations that could be performed. New drugs to fight infections discovered in the 1920s reduced deaths in childbirth. Penicillin was developed during the Second World War and other antibiotics followed. Surgery expanded in the post-war period to include organ transplantation, such as kidney transplants and later heart transplants. These procedures were assisted by the discovery of immunosuppressant drugs (which prevent organ and tissue rejection) from the 1960s. Specialist units such as coronary care, intensive care and neonatal special care units were established in major hospitals.	1,012	ENGLISH	1
After the overthrow of Lobengula, king of the Matebeles inn 1893, there was less hostility from the natives. The land was acclaimed by the British government and thereby making it easier for the missionary work ti begin. A T Robinson, secured a grant of 12,000 acres lying thirty five miles west of Bulawayo for the establishment of a mission. He interviewed Cecil Rhodes, the then prime minister of Cape Colony and the director of the charter company which controlled the territory of Southern Rhodesia. Fred Sparrow was left to develop the station, and the next year a mission party sent from North America arrived. This group was headed by G. B. Tripp, who was to be superintendent of the new mission, and included Dr. A. S. Carmichael and W. H. Anderson. The Matabele Mission, as it was first called, was renamed a few years later after Solusi, a local chief who had his kraal nearby and who had assisted in the establishment of the early mission. The Matebele rebellion broke out just eight month after the arrival of the missionaries posing challenges to the workers at the mission. They had to live in the road in the single wagon that carried them forth to Bulawayo. Soon, they had exhausted food and supplies and thus had to buy their own food at exaggerated prices by reason of the war. They had to make trips at night and on foot because of the hostile natives who besieged the city. After the war, came famine. Malaria was a threat too. In 1898, Dr A. S Carmichael G.B Tripp, his son George, Fred Sparrow’s daughter and Mrs Armitage all succumbed to Malaria. F.L Mead too passed on two years later while travelling to the Cape. G. W Reaser organized the first mission church in Africa in 1902 at Solusi with a membership of 24.In 1902, Mr and Mrs C. M Sturdevant went to Solusi to join W.H Anderson in developing a near self sufficient mission center. M.C Sturdevant succeeded W.H Anderson as the superintendent of the mission and when he also left with his family to open mission at Mashonaland, he was succeeded by Mr and Mrs W.C Walston.	<urn:uuid:b24b157c-8f66-4d86-a429-3e6ea9844c7b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.africansdahistory.org/solusi-mission/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00413.warc.gz	en	0.980084	470	3.421875	3	[ -0.13734835386276245, 0.6927586197853088, 0.13400188088417053, -0.10463042557239532, -0.09759791195392609, -0.24837712943553925, -0.00978892296552658, 0.30643442273139954, -0.22913402318954468, 0.45709559321403503, 0.2245052009820938, -0.3658266067504883, 0.4785488545894623, 0.197282463312...	1	After the overthrow of Lobengula, king of the Matebeles inn 1893, there was less hostility from the natives. The land was acclaimed by the British government and thereby making it easier for the missionary work ti begin. A T Robinson, secured a grant of 12,000 acres lying thirty five miles west of Bulawayo for the establishment of a mission. He interviewed Cecil Rhodes, the then prime minister of Cape Colony and the director of the charter company which controlled the territory of Southern Rhodesia. Fred Sparrow was left to develop the station, and the next year a mission party sent from North America arrived. This group was headed by G. B. Tripp, who was to be superintendent of the new mission, and included Dr. A. S. Carmichael and W. H. Anderson. The Matabele Mission, as it was first called, was renamed a few years later after Solusi, a local chief who had his kraal nearby and who had assisted in the establishment of the early mission. The Matebele rebellion broke out just eight month after the arrival of the missionaries posing challenges to the workers at the mission. They had to live in the road in the single wagon that carried them forth to Bulawayo. Soon, they had exhausted food and supplies and thus had to buy their own food at exaggerated prices by reason of the war. They had to make trips at night and on foot because of the hostile natives who besieged the city. After the war, came famine. Malaria was a threat too. In 1898, Dr A. S Carmichael G.B Tripp, his son George, Fred Sparrow’s daughter and Mrs Armitage all succumbed to Malaria. F.L Mead too passed on two years later while travelling to the Cape. G. W Reaser organized the first mission church in Africa in 1902 at Solusi with a membership of 24.In 1902, Mr and Mrs C. M Sturdevant went to Solusi to join W.H Anderson in developing a near self sufficient mission center. M.C Sturdevant succeeded W.H Anderson as the superintendent of the mission and when he also left with his family to open mission at Mashonaland, he was succeeded by Mr and Mrs W.C Walston.	481	ENGLISH	1
In the Elizabethan era version of Hamlet by William Shakespeare, many characters' actions have an effect on the audience viewing the play. In Act I Scene IV King Claudius discovers that Hamlet has killed Polonius, his chief counselor. This enrages Claudius and he expresses anger, fear and disappointment. These actions shown by Claudius effect the audience of the Elizabethan era because it shows that a King feels authority, humanity and inefficacy. Authority has always been a principle part of society. All rulers have used authority as control over people and their lives. King Claudius became King only shortly after the death of King Hamlet yet he already feels so powerful and has abused his authority with no regrets. Upon hearing about the death of Polonius, he becomes enraged and believes that Hamlet is a danger to all society. He wants Hamlet to be jailed for the crime he committed. This expression of anger and authority by the King would have a great effect on the Elizabethan audience. They would feel that the King in the play is most likely similar to their current reigning King. This would probably make the audience fearful of committing any crime, no matter how small. It would also make them respect their King more because they would not want to do anything to anger him. Humanity is the quality of being human. The ability to think of things on a normal level. Shortly after Claudius' burst of anger, he begins to express fear about the death of Polonius. He is scared that he will be blamed and held responsible for his death and he does not know how he could explain it. This presents an interesting dichotomy that would definitely affect the audience of the Elizabethan era. For a King to go so quickly from authoritative and powerful to fearful and humane would confuse the audience because they expect a King to always be powerful and unrelenting. They only know their King as being a superior being that is always in control. To see a King in a confused state would cause the audience to wonder if their own King has similar experiences while ruling. Inefficacy is the feeling of lack of power and the lack of ability to produce a desired effect. As King Claudius feels authority followed by humanity, he begins to change and feel inadequate and ineffective. He feels that he's made mistakes in his actions and is unsure of what to do next. He also feels that he should have had the foresight to lock up Hamlet before he had the opportunity to murder Polonius. He explains that he may have been too blinded by his love for Gertrude to see what was going on. Claudius then compares his situation to someone with a contagious disease and asks about the location of Hamlet. These actions would cause a very unusual effect for the Elizabethan era audience. To see such a powerful figure displaying such feelings would be alarming and the audience may feel confused and wonder how a King could feel that way because Kings have always been portrayed as being confident in everything they do. They would also see the inadequacy of the King when he asks about the location of Hamlet. The audience would expect that a King would know everything (like a God) and would be surprised to hear that he asks someone else such a question. The Elizabethan era was an interesting time period. Kings were rulers of the free world and all people had to follow him. No one could oppose any of this wishes. For the audience in this era to witness King Claudius showing so many emotions would cause them to feel different about their reigning King. They would see that a King can be authoritative, humane and inadequate. This new found knowledge may have changed the audience's opinion of their ruler. Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. MIT. 15 Jan. 2009 .	<urn:uuid:782a74d1-415a-4c46-a771-63520979a486>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.studymode.com/essays/Cause-And-Effect-Essay-Of-Hamlet-63617080.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00224.warc.gz	en	0.983419	778	4.0625	4	[ 0.11634927242994308, 0.1735071986913681, 0.7512605786323547, -0.005223394837230444, -0.2870498299598694, -0.04922572150826454, 0.749726414680481, 0.1659298986196518, -0.05226901173591614, -0.3147149384021759, 0.2024456411600113, 0.0030797081999480724, -0.01643572561442852, 0.19787120819091...	1	In the Elizabethan era version of Hamlet by William Shakespeare, many characters' actions have an effect on the audience viewing the play. In Act I Scene IV King Claudius discovers that Hamlet has killed Polonius, his chief counselor. This enrages Claudius and he expresses anger, fear and disappointment. These actions shown by Claudius effect the audience of the Elizabethan era because it shows that a King feels authority, humanity and inefficacy. Authority has always been a principle part of society. All rulers have used authority as control over people and their lives. King Claudius became King only shortly after the death of King Hamlet yet he already feels so powerful and has abused his authority with no regrets. Upon hearing about the death of Polonius, he becomes enraged and believes that Hamlet is a danger to all society. He wants Hamlet to be jailed for the crime he committed. This expression of anger and authority by the King would have a great effect on the Elizabethan audience. They would feel that the King in the play is most likely similar to their current reigning King. This would probably make the audience fearful of committing any crime, no matter how small. It would also make them respect their King more because they would not want to do anything to anger him. Humanity is the quality of being human. The ability to think of things on a normal level. Shortly after Claudius' burst of anger, he begins to express fear about the death of Polonius. He is scared that he will be blamed and held responsible for his death and he does not know how he could explain it. This presents an interesting dichotomy that would definitely affect the audience of the Elizabethan era. For a King to go so quickly from authoritative and powerful to fearful and humane would confuse the audience because they expect a King to always be powerful and unrelenting. They only know their King as being a superior being that is always in control. To see a King in a confused state would cause the audience to wonder if their own King has similar experiences while ruling. Inefficacy is the feeling of lack of power and the lack of ability to produce a desired effect. As King Claudius feels authority followed by humanity, he begins to change and feel inadequate and ineffective. He feels that he's made mistakes in his actions and is unsure of what to do next. He also feels that he should have had the foresight to lock up Hamlet before he had the opportunity to murder Polonius. He explains that he may have been too blinded by his love for Gertrude to see what was going on. Claudius then compares his situation to someone with a contagious disease and asks about the location of Hamlet. These actions would cause a very unusual effect for the Elizabethan era audience. To see such a powerful figure displaying such feelings would be alarming and the audience may feel confused and wonder how a King could feel that way because Kings have always been portrayed as being confident in everything they do. They would also see the inadequacy of the King when he asks about the location of Hamlet. The audience would expect that a King would know everything (like a God) and would be surprised to hear that he asks someone else such a question. The Elizabethan era was an interesting time period. Kings were rulers of the free world and all people had to follow him. No one could oppose any of this wishes. For the audience in this era to witness King Claudius showing so many emotions would cause them to feel different about their reigning King. They would see that a King can be authoritative, humane and inadequate. This new found knowledge may have changed the audience's opinion of their ruler. Shakespeare, William. Hamlet. The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark. MIT. 15 Jan. 2009 .	778	ENGLISH	1
The New American by James J. Drummey Jesus Christ, whose birthday is celebrated throughout the world on Christmas, has had a greater impact on human history than any person who ever lived. Though he died at the age of 33, the year in which we live is dated from his birth. Though he lived in an obscure corner of the Roman Empire 2,000 years ago, more than one billion people today call themselves followers of Christ. Though he never wrote a book, tens of thousands of books have been written about his life and teachings. Jesus Christ was born in Bethlehem, a town in Roman-occupied Palestine. After a flight into Egypt to escape the murderous wrath of King Herod, Jesus returned to Palestine with Mary and Joseph and grew up in the village of Nazareth, where he worked in Joseph’s carpenter shop. At the age of 30 Jesus left Nazareth, gathered around him 12 men who became known as his apostles, and traveled throughout Palestine preaching love of God and love of neighbor and attracting followers by the thousands. He was a marvelous storyteller, illustrating his teachings with examples and parables about persons, places, and things that were familiar to his listeners. Christ’s parables (e.g., The Good Samaritan, The Prodigal Son) are often cited even by non-Christians as literary and moral masterpieces for their simple yet profound messages. The Way of the Cross The core of Jesus’ moral code was love, not only of God and neighbor, but even of enemies because “this will prove that you are sons of your heavenly Father, for his sun rises on the bad and the good.” He adhered to this difficult standard himself on the cross by asking forgiveness for those who had crucified him. Jesus urged his followers personally to help those in need — the hungry, the thirsty, the sick, the imprisoned, saying that whatever they did “for one of my least brothers, you did it for me.” He asked them to forgive the faults of others and laid down the Golden Rule: “Treat others the way you would have them treat you.” He forbade murder and adultery, anger and hatred, and encouraged prayer and fasting and sacrifice, saying that “if a man wishes to come after me, he must deny his very self, take up his cross, and follow in my steps.” Thousands of people were drawn to Jesus by his tenderness and compassion for the sick and the suffering (“Come to me, all you who are weary and find life burdensome, and I will refresh you”), by his mercy and forgiveness toward sinners (When the Pharisees criticized him for associating with sinners, Jesus said, “People who are healthy do not need a doctor; sick people do”), and by his courage and fearlessness (He chased the moneychangers out of the temple and condemned the hypocrisy of the Scribes and Pharisees, calling them “white-washed tombs — beautiful to look at on the outside but inside full of filth and dead men’s bones”). The Pharisees, angry at Jesus’ criticism of them and jealous of the crowds that followed him, sent clever men out to question Jesus while he was speaking, in the hope of tripping him up. But he confounded them time and again, as when they asked him if it was lawful to pay taxes to the hated Romans, and he replied: “Give to Caesar what is Caesar’s, but give to God what is God’s.” Or when they asked if a woman caught in adultery should be stoned to death, and Christ said: “Let the man among you who has no sin be the first to cast a stone at her.” More Than a Man But Christians throughout the world believe that Jesus was more than just a good and holy man; they believe that he was the Son of God, the Messiah promised in the Old Testament. As evidence of their belief, Christians cite the fulfillment in Jesus of Old Testament prophecies regarding the place and circumstances of the Messiah’s birth, the betrayal and suffering he endured, and the manner of his death. But the most convincing evidence of Jesus’ claim to be God was the spectacular miracles he performed before hundreds and even thousands of eyewitnesses (“These very works which I perform testify on my behalf that the Father has sent me”). He changed water into wine; cured the blind, deaf, and lame; exorcised demons from people; fed thousands with only a few loaves of bread and fishes; and raised three people from the dead, including his friend Lazarus. The raising of Lazarus four days after he had died was the last straw as far as the chief priests and Pharisees were concerned, and they wove a plot to kill Jesus, getting unexpected help from one of Christ’s own apostles, Judas, who was willing to betray his master for 30 pieces of silver. Jesus was arrested late at night, put through the mockery of a trial, beaten and tortured, and then put to death on the orders of Pontius Pilate. The Greatest Miracle The followers of Jesus thought they had seen the last of him when his body was taken down from the cross and placed in a borrowed grave outside Jerusalem nearly 2,000 years ago. But, three days later, the tomb was found to be empty and more than a dozen people reported having seen Jesus alive that Sunday. Over the next 40 days, Jesus was seen in different places at different times by small groups of people and by large groups, including a crowd of 500. On the 40th day, according to reliable eyewitness accounts, he gave his apostles their final instructions, to carry his teachings “to the ends of the earth,” and then rose up into the heavens, not to return until the end of the world. Whatever attitude people hold toward Jesus Christ, whether they believe him to be God or not, there is no question that if his teachings were followed faithfully by everyone, the world would be a better and more peaceful place in which to live. Merry Christmas! This article originally appeared in the December 23, 1981 issue of The Review of the News, a predecessor of The New American.	<urn:uuid:fe743bbe-2b34-4091-a208-8235fd4bb647>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://conspiracyanalyst.org/2019/12/25/the-prince-of-peace-jesus-of-nazareth/?shared=email&msg=fail	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00122.warc.gz	en	0.98507	1,303	3.3125	3	[ -0.1767231822013855, 0.15939182043075562, 0.5160331726074219, -0.15961705148220062, -0.17986373603343964, 0.12236470729112625, -0.04721851646900177, 0.23799002170562744, 0.24338653683662415, 0.1973780244588852, 0.34333840012550354, 0.38520514965057373, -0.04528369382023811, -0.024072682484...	14	The New American by James J. Drummey Jesus Christ, whose birthday is celebrated throughout the world on Christmas, has had a greater impact on human history than any person who ever lived. Though he died at the age of 33, the year in which we live is dated from his birth. Though he lived in an obscure corner of the Roman Empire 2,000 years ago, more than one billion people today call themselves followers of Christ. Though he never wrote a book, tens of thousands of books have been written about his life and teachings. Jesus Christ was born in Bethlehem, a town in Roman-occupied Palestine. After a flight into Egypt to escape the murderous wrath of King Herod, Jesus returned to Palestine with Mary and Joseph and grew up in the village of Nazareth, where he worked in Joseph’s carpenter shop. At the age of 30 Jesus left Nazareth, gathered around him 12 men who became known as his apostles, and traveled throughout Palestine preaching love of God and love of neighbor and attracting followers by the thousands. He was a marvelous storyteller, illustrating his teachings with examples and parables about persons, places, and things that were familiar to his listeners. Christ’s parables (e.g., The Good Samaritan, The Prodigal Son) are often cited even by non-Christians as literary and moral masterpieces for their simple yet profound messages. The Way of the Cross The core of Jesus’ moral code was love, not only of God and neighbor, but even of enemies because “this will prove that you are sons of your heavenly Father, for his sun rises on the bad and the good.” He adhered to this difficult standard himself on the cross by asking forgiveness for those who had crucified him. Jesus urged his followers personally to help those in need — the hungry, the thirsty, the sick, the imprisoned, saying that whatever they did “for one of my least brothers, you did it for me.” He asked them to forgive the faults of others and laid down the Golden Rule: “Treat others the way you would have them treat you.” He forbade murder and adultery, anger and hatred, and encouraged prayer and fasting and sacrifice, saying that “if a man wishes to come after me, he must deny his very self, take up his cross, and follow in my steps.” Thousands of people were drawn to Jesus by his tenderness and compassion for the sick and the suffering (“Come to me, all you who are weary and find life burdensome, and I will refresh you”), by his mercy and forgiveness toward sinners (When the Pharisees criticized him for associating with sinners, Jesus said, “People who are healthy do not need a doctor; sick people do”), and by his courage and fearlessness (He chased the moneychangers out of the temple and condemned the hypocrisy of the Scribes and Pharisees, calling them “white-washed tombs — beautiful to look at on the outside but inside full of filth and dead men’s bones”). The Pharisees, angry at Jesus’ criticism of them and jealous of the crowds that followed him, sent clever men out to question Jesus while he was speaking, in the hope of tripping him up. But he confounded them time and again, as when they asked him if it was lawful to pay taxes to the hated Romans, and he replied: “Give to Caesar what is Caesar’s, but give to God what is God’s.” Or when they asked if a woman caught in adultery should be stoned to death, and Christ said: “Let the man among you who has no sin be the first to cast a stone at her.” More Than a Man But Christians throughout the world believe that Jesus was more than just a good and holy man; they believe that he was the Son of God, the Messiah promised in the Old Testament. As evidence of their belief, Christians cite the fulfillment in Jesus of Old Testament prophecies regarding the place and circumstances of the Messiah’s birth, the betrayal and suffering he endured, and the manner of his death. But the most convincing evidence of Jesus’ claim to be God was the spectacular miracles he performed before hundreds and even thousands of eyewitnesses (“These very works which I perform testify on my behalf that the Father has sent me”). He changed water into wine; cured the blind, deaf, and lame; exorcised demons from people; fed thousands with only a few loaves of bread and fishes; and raised three people from the dead, including his friend Lazarus. The raising of Lazarus four days after he had died was the last straw as far as the chief priests and Pharisees were concerned, and they wove a plot to kill Jesus, getting unexpected help from one of Christ’s own apostles, Judas, who was willing to betray his master for 30 pieces of silver. Jesus was arrested late at night, put through the mockery of a trial, beaten and tortured, and then put to death on the orders of Pontius Pilate. The Greatest Miracle The followers of Jesus thought they had seen the last of him when his body was taken down from the cross and placed in a borrowed grave outside Jerusalem nearly 2,000 years ago. But, three days later, the tomb was found to be empty and more than a dozen people reported having seen Jesus alive that Sunday. Over the next 40 days, Jesus was seen in different places at different times by small groups of people and by large groups, including a crowd of 500. On the 40th day, according to reliable eyewitness accounts, he gave his apostles their final instructions, to carry his teachings “to the ends of the earth,” and then rose up into the heavens, not to return until the end of the world. Whatever attitude people hold toward Jesus Christ, whether they believe him to be God or not, there is no question that if his teachings were followed faithfully by everyone, the world would be a better and more peaceful place in which to live. Merry Christmas! This article originally appeared in the December 23, 1981 issue of The Review of the News, a predecessor of The New American.	1,275	ENGLISH	1
Adequate artificial light was one of man's most slowly developed technologies. From ancient times, candles and crude lamps were the chief sources of light. Early lamps simply consisted of dish-shaped containers for a burning fluid into which crudely constructed wicks were laid. Little improvement in lighting was made until 1784 when a Swiss chemist, Amie Argand, patented the first lamp constructed on principles of scientific combustion. The Argand lamp produced a light which was six to 12 times brighter than a candle. The closely woven cylindrical wick was placed around a hollow wick holder with another metal cylinder around it. When ignited, the wick burned brightly because air could circulate around it and combustion was increased. A glass chimney was placed around the burner to further intensify the light and protect the flame. The principal burning fluid for these lamps was a refined oil taken from the sperm whale. On this side of the Atlantic, two well-known manufacturers of Argand lamps were Baldwin Gardiner and Christian Cornelius. Both firms originated in Philadelphia, but Gardiner later moved to New York. Their early lamps reflected ancient Greek and Roman shapes, motifs and designs. The firms continued to manufacture other styles of lamps long into the 19th century. Today, several types of such pre-Civil War oil lamps have become attractive to collectors. They are representative of the technology of the early Industrial Revolution in the United States and are decorated with motifs from the classical Greek and Roman, Gothic and rococo revival. In the 1830's and 40's the lamp that was most often seen in elegant American rooms was called the astral, from the Greek word for star. This lamp utilized an Argand burner with the oil reservoir placed beneath it and air holes around its base. Often such a reservoir rested on a classical column made of bronze or brass with a metal or marble base. Elaborate, etched and cut-glass shades defused the light and prisms added lustrous decorative affect. A variant of this type was the sinumbra lamp - literally without a shadow. In this type, the reservoir was ring-shaped and open in the center and thus allowed the light to fall directly on the surface below it. Astral shades were used on these lamps and often the names were used interchangeably. Lamps of a simpler type were made of pressed glass. The factory technology of glass manufacture was well developed by the 1830's and it was possible to mass-produce lamp bases. The Boston and Sandwich Glass Company produced outstanding lamps in flint or lead-based glass during this period. Many of these bases, in clear or colored glass, reflect the popular pressed-glass patterns of the day. An Agitable burner, first patented in 1787 by John Miles of Birmingham, England, could be screwed into the metal collar affixed to such glass bases. This burner was a simple device which consisted of one or two cylindrical metal tubes in which wicks were placed. Whale oil was so commonly used that lamps of this type today are called whale-oil lamps. Patented lamps continued to be made in great number. Cornelius and Co. patented a lamp in 1843 which it called the solar. It was related to the astral lamp and they appear to be almost identical. However, in the solar lamp a modified Argand burner used lard as its fuel. A round deflector placed above the wick shaded the flame so that a beam of light was produced. This aided in reading or doing other close work and it was a highly popular innovation. Glass chimneys and shades were used on solar lamps. One of the most fascinating lamps was the Carcel or mechanical lamp. Named for its inventor, it was patented in France in 1800. It did not become popular in the United States until about 1850. It used an Argand burner and its chief innovation was a a clockwork mechanism that controlled a spring-driven pump which forced oil to the top of the burner. In other words, it was wound like a clock to keep the supply of oil steady. The flame it produced burned with a bright intensity. Such lamps were fitted with chimneys and ball-shaped shades that were etched or cut. Shades of this type were to dominate lamp design throughout the remainder of the century. The so-called ''Gone With the Wind'' shades of the end of the century are the eventual outgrowth of this type of shade. By the time of the outbreak of the Civil War many oil fields were opened in Pennsylvania. Kerosene, which was known of early in the century, now became popular because of the availability of oil. It replaced whale oil and was to revolutionize artificial lighting. Today, early 19th-century lamps provide an opportunity to add special decorative effects to a room. Because of their elaborate design, some of these lamps can serve as sculptural objects by themselves. Some purists demand that all of the original working parts should actually burn oil. Others wire such lamps for electricity. Great care should be taken in the wiring of such pieces as they can be permanently damaged. The wiring should intrude as little as possible on the original parts of the lamp. Good supplies of these elegant 19th-century lamps can be found in the New York area in the shop of Joan Bogart in Rockville Center, L.I., and with such Westchester dealers as Richard McGeehan, in Bedford Hills, and Leon Traeger, in Tarrytown.	<urn:uuid:75e9a008-3ef4-4fa9-9d57-9dd4032d669e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nytimes.com/1986/03/23/arts/antiques-elegant-old-oil-lamps-lure-collectors.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00209.warc.gz	en	0.9801	1,112	3.71875	4	[ -0.18294015526771545, 0.5181366801261902, 0.1743258535861969, -0.02529662847518921, -0.19226783514022827, 0.1512732207775116, 0.02306511253118515, 0.11747333407402039, -0.4327254295349121, 0.2444348782300949, -0.33056333661079407, -0.21442681550979614, -0.2681085765361786, 0.26695910096168...	1	Adequate artificial light was one of man's most slowly developed technologies. From ancient times, candles and crude lamps were the chief sources of light. Early lamps simply consisted of dish-shaped containers for a burning fluid into which crudely constructed wicks were laid. Little improvement in lighting was made until 1784 when a Swiss chemist, Amie Argand, patented the first lamp constructed on principles of scientific combustion. The Argand lamp produced a light which was six to 12 times brighter than a candle. The closely woven cylindrical wick was placed around a hollow wick holder with another metal cylinder around it. When ignited, the wick burned brightly because air could circulate around it and combustion was increased. A glass chimney was placed around the burner to further intensify the light and protect the flame. The principal burning fluid for these lamps was a refined oil taken from the sperm whale. On this side of the Atlantic, two well-known manufacturers of Argand lamps were Baldwin Gardiner and Christian Cornelius. Both firms originated in Philadelphia, but Gardiner later moved to New York. Their early lamps reflected ancient Greek and Roman shapes, motifs and designs. The firms continued to manufacture other styles of lamps long into the 19th century. Today, several types of such pre-Civil War oil lamps have become attractive to collectors. They are representative of the technology of the early Industrial Revolution in the United States and are decorated with motifs from the classical Greek and Roman, Gothic and rococo revival. In the 1830's and 40's the lamp that was most often seen in elegant American rooms was called the astral, from the Greek word for star. This lamp utilized an Argand burner with the oil reservoir placed beneath it and air holes around its base. Often such a reservoir rested on a classical column made of bronze or brass with a metal or marble base. Elaborate, etched and cut-glass shades defused the light and prisms added lustrous decorative affect. A variant of this type was the sinumbra lamp - literally without a shadow. In this type, the reservoir was ring-shaped and open in the center and thus allowed the light to fall directly on the surface below it. Astral shades were used on these lamps and often the names were used interchangeably. Lamps of a simpler type were made of pressed glass. The factory technology of glass manufacture was well developed by the 1830's and it was possible to mass-produce lamp bases. The Boston and Sandwich Glass Company produced outstanding lamps in flint or lead-based glass during this period. Many of these bases, in clear or colored glass, reflect the popular pressed-glass patterns of the day. An Agitable burner, first patented in 1787 by John Miles of Birmingham, England, could be screwed into the metal collar affixed to such glass bases. This burner was a simple device which consisted of one or two cylindrical metal tubes in which wicks were placed. Whale oil was so commonly used that lamps of this type today are called whale-oil lamps. Patented lamps continued to be made in great number. Cornelius and Co. patented a lamp in 1843 which it called the solar. It was related to the astral lamp and they appear to be almost identical. However, in the solar lamp a modified Argand burner used lard as its fuel. A round deflector placed above the wick shaded the flame so that a beam of light was produced. This aided in reading or doing other close work and it was a highly popular innovation. Glass chimneys and shades were used on solar lamps. One of the most fascinating lamps was the Carcel or mechanical lamp. Named for its inventor, it was patented in France in 1800. It did not become popular in the United States until about 1850. It used an Argand burner and its chief innovation was a a clockwork mechanism that controlled a spring-driven pump which forced oil to the top of the burner. In other words, it was wound like a clock to keep the supply of oil steady. The flame it produced burned with a bright intensity. Such lamps were fitted with chimneys and ball-shaped shades that were etched or cut. Shades of this type were to dominate lamp design throughout the remainder of the century. The so-called ''Gone With the Wind'' shades of the end of the century are the eventual outgrowth of this type of shade. By the time of the outbreak of the Civil War many oil fields were opened in Pennsylvania. Kerosene, which was known of early in the century, now became popular because of the availability of oil. It replaced whale oil and was to revolutionize artificial lighting. Today, early 19th-century lamps provide an opportunity to add special decorative effects to a room. Because of their elaborate design, some of these lamps can serve as sculptural objects by themselves. Some purists demand that all of the original working parts should actually burn oil. Others wire such lamps for electricity. Great care should be taken in the wiring of such pieces as they can be permanently damaged. The wiring should intrude as little as possible on the original parts of the lamp. Good supplies of these elegant 19th-century lamps can be found in the New York area in the shop of Joan Bogart in Rockville Center, L.I., and with such Westchester dealers as Richard McGeehan, in Bedford Hills, and Leon Traeger, in Tarrytown.	1,124	ENGLISH	1
The Russian Peasant in Pre-Revolutionary Times Russia in the late 19th and early 20th century was riddled with social and economic hardships throughout the countryside and inner cities. The Russian peasant was faced with widespread poverty and poor living conditions throughout their entire life. The economic situation and the living conditions drove the peasants and working class to rebel and begin the Russian revolution that would change the face of the country and impact the world forever. The peasants were the lowest ranking social group in Russia. Some peasants owned tracks of land that they farmed, while others worked nobles’ land for money and food. Peasants had literally no rights under czarist rule. The nobles bought and sold the peasants as needed. The women usually cooked the food, while the men served the nobles and all of their guests. The peasants ate only a few basic foods, which consisted mainly of dark bread, porridge, cereal, or meal boiled in water. Peasant families who owned land normally owned strip farms. In strip farming, tracks of land were divided up into different parcels. Each peasant family in a village had control over a certain number of parcels and they could farm it as necessary. This type of farming was ineffective because the different tracks of land were spread about, sometimes at a distance of miles. This resulted in peasants wasting time “needless journeys-to-work, consumed land in boundary furrows and headlands, resulted in fields that were too remote to cultivate properly and prevented innovation” (Pallot, 276). This also created tension between neighbors in disputes over confusing land boundaries. Peasants being forced to live together in small villages also increased the risk of the spread of disease or other safety hazards. The Ukraine, located in Eastern Russia, was the main agricultural center of Russia. The Ukraine was divided into three different farmable sections. They consisted of the steppe provinces, the left bank, and the right bank. Ninety percent of Ukraine’s arable land was devoted to different types of grains that were exported across rail systems through the port cities on the Black Sea (Edelman, 41). Other crops that were grown were sugar beets, tobacco, hops, and potatoes. Poorer peasant families grew mostly grains whereas plantations had greater success with sugar and other cash crops alongside the grains. A typical peasant household consisted of immediate and extended family ranging from children to grandparents in the same house. Since the setting up of new households was discouraged, a son would bring his new wife to live with his parents until he inherited the land. The patriarch and landowner of the family was always the oldest male, but upon his death, the land was divided among the sons. The size of the family was also positively proportional to the general income. Children were a drain on the household economy due to their inability to contribute to the work...	<urn:uuid:a05964bf-89e7-4231-97d4-411129b43299>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/the-russian-peasant-in-pre-revolutionary-times	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00374.warc.gz	en	0.982971	577	3.96875	4	[ 0.06251469254493713, -0.12096130102872849, 0.1641126573085785, 0.1682717502117157, 0.6122536659240723, -0.30185195803642273, -0.4239042103290558, 0.3058145046234131, -0.2551642060279846, 0.17996226251125336, -0.12903310358524323, -0.21720866858959198, 0.16394463181495667, 0.173879504203796...	1	The Russian Peasant in Pre-Revolutionary Times Russia in the late 19th and early 20th century was riddled with social and economic hardships throughout the countryside and inner cities. The Russian peasant was faced with widespread poverty and poor living conditions throughout their entire life. The economic situation and the living conditions drove the peasants and working class to rebel and begin the Russian revolution that would change the face of the country and impact the world forever. The peasants were the lowest ranking social group in Russia. Some peasants owned tracks of land that they farmed, while others worked nobles’ land for money and food. Peasants had literally no rights under czarist rule. The nobles bought and sold the peasants as needed. The women usually cooked the food, while the men served the nobles and all of their guests. The peasants ate only a few basic foods, which consisted mainly of dark bread, porridge, cereal, or meal boiled in water. Peasant families who owned land normally owned strip farms. In strip farming, tracks of land were divided up into different parcels. Each peasant family in a village had control over a certain number of parcels and they could farm it as necessary. This type of farming was ineffective because the different tracks of land were spread about, sometimes at a distance of miles. This resulted in peasants wasting time “needless journeys-to-work, consumed land in boundary furrows and headlands, resulted in fields that were too remote to cultivate properly and prevented innovation” (Pallot, 276). This also created tension between neighbors in disputes over confusing land boundaries. Peasants being forced to live together in small villages also increased the risk of the spread of disease or other safety hazards. The Ukraine, located in Eastern Russia, was the main agricultural center of Russia. The Ukraine was divided into three different farmable sections. They consisted of the steppe provinces, the left bank, and the right bank. Ninety percent of Ukraine’s arable land was devoted to different types of grains that were exported across rail systems through the port cities on the Black Sea (Edelman, 41). Other crops that were grown were sugar beets, tobacco, hops, and potatoes. Poorer peasant families grew mostly grains whereas plantations had greater success with sugar and other cash crops alongside the grains. A typical peasant household consisted of immediate and extended family ranging from children to grandparents in the same house. Since the setting up of new households was discouraged, a son would bring his new wife to live with his parents until he inherited the land. The patriarch and landowner of the family was always the oldest male, but upon his death, the land was divided among the sons. The size of the family was also positively proportional to the general income. Children were a drain on the household economy due to their inability to contribute to the work...	582	ENGLISH	1
In the Orthodox calendar, Tisha Be'av, which we observed on Sunday, is the culmination of three weeks of mourning that started with the 17th of Tammuz, when the Babylonians made the first breach in the walls of Jerusalem. After the ninth of Av, we relax and some celebrate the festival of the 15th, when the daughters of Israel were first permitted to marry outside their tribe, and which also counts as the annual wine harvest festival. But should we not remember the great suffering that must have followed the terrible events of Tisha Be'av? In the case of the Roman destruction of Jerusalem, we have been assured that life went on in Israel outside Jerusalem, and Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai was able to set up a new center of learning at Yavne. It became a powerhouse of scholarship and the beginning of the talmudic period of Jewish Orthodoxy, when the ideas of the Pharisees became enshrined in Halacha, or Jewish law. Thousands of Jews had been killed in the revolt and hundreds taken into slavery to Rome, but Jewish life continued in Israel and indeed intensified when the Sanhedrin reconvened at Yavne. BUT WHAT of the aftermath of the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem and the First Temple, what happened then to Jewish life? There are conflicting accounts of the numbers taken into exile: the Book of Kings says it was 10,000, while Jeremiah counts a total of 4,600 in three waves. But both agree it was the cream of society that was deported. The peasants struggled on, taking over the fields of the departed middle-class under a Babylon-appointed governor, Gedaliah ben Ahikam. A well-meaning and fair-minded civil servant, he lacked royal charisma, was hated by the jealous royalist party and was murdered by them. As a result turmoil was expected, and many Jews fled to the relative safety of Egypt, taking Jeremiah with them. But anarchy did not ensue, and direct rule from Babylon restored some sense of order and economic stability. But the Temple had gone and so had the kohanim, its priests. Jeremiah, who always opposed rebellion against the Babylonians, advised the exiles to accept their fate in Babylon, "Build yourself houses... plant garden... take wives... have children... multiply there and do not succumb" (29:5). He had predicted a stay of 70 years, but it was only to be 50 for those who came back at the earliest opportunity, when Cyrus II issued his cylinder of "human rights" in 538 BCE. For others who only came back with Ezra, it was to be 100 years longer, and for many there was to be no return at all. THE FIRST thing that must have happened to the unfortunate exiles was a forced march of 1,300 kilometers. Their path was along the Fertile Crescent, north to Syria, then east to the Euphrates and south down the river to the heart of Babylonia. It must have been a heartbreaking march, the march of the barely living, harassed on all sides by guards and hostile locals. Their transport may have been camels and horses for the lucky few, and some may have ridden on donkeys and asses, carrying their few goods on rough carts drawn by oxen; but the majority would have trudged on foot. One can get a picture of such exiles from the wall reliefs of the Assyrian capture of Lachish, whose refugees were deported from their city 100 years earlier than those of Jerusalem. They carry their pathetic bundles on their shoulders and their babies balance on kitchen pots on the carts. The route taken by the exiles may well have been the main caravan trail, with regular way stations, but their numbers would have been overwhelming, causing great food shortages. Fights would have broken out over water from wells controlled by others. Women would have been abducted on the way for immoral imprisonment and children captured for abuse and slavery. Many hundreds must have died of starvation and exhaustion. To have attempted to escape would have meant certain death in the desert. It may be that the numbers in the Book of Kings were of those who left, and those recorded by Jeremiah - less than half - were those that arrived. Arrival at Babylon, after months of trekking, would have been a relief. We can imagine that the first set of exiles, who had been deported 11 years earlier and included King Jehoiachin, could have prepared some kind of accommodation for the second wave of refugees. We know from the Babylonian annals that Jehoiachin was released from prison and given rations from the royal table. The Babylonians treated our royals with respect, and hopefully they in turn gave help to the later arrivals. We presume that they took Jeremiah's advice and settled down to marry and to build. Judean women would have been in short supply, as not many would have survived. Taking local wives was the norm, as we know from Ezra many years later, who frowned on the practice. But in Babylon it was necessary for survival, and it would have been considered that the act of marriage, in whatever form, was equivalent to conversion of the woman, as it had been for the Patriarchs. AND THAT leads us to ask, what was the status of the Jewish religion during the first 50 years of exile? There can be little doubt that the exiles kept alive the hope of seeing the Temple rebuilt in Jerusalem. But what was there in Babylon, when they wept by its waters, to keep them focused on the Temple? The traditionalists claim that in Babylon the exiles created the synagogue, without sacrifice and priests, to compensate for the lost Temple. But there is no evidence for that, and little likelihood, as the priests and the sacrifices persisted and appeared again 50 years later in Jerusalem. The synagogue as such was not known until the third century BCE in the Egyptian exile. It developed as a new form of community center and prayer and continued without the benefit of priest and sacrifice. But Babylon was different; it had legitimate priests and they were ready to practice their skills for a future Temple. It is likely that there was a form of temple in Babylon that trained the kohanim and the Levites in their duties in readiness for the return, and it would have served, as any temple did, to unite the people in the worship of their God. Such a situation had applied in Egypt, when the military colony of Jews built their small temple on Elephantine Island in the sixth century BCE. It had an altar for sacrifices and a small shrine for the Shehina, the presence of God. Such a building was considered necessary for the small community on the island near Aswan, and so too it would have been for the much larger and more educated group of Jews in Babylon. The prophet Ezekiel ben Buzi, himself a kohen of the Zadokite line, who came with the first deportees in 597 BCE, told his people of the abominations being performed in Jerusalem and showed them, by his vision of the heavenly chariot, that God had accompanied them to the waters of the Khebar, a tributary of the Euphrates. In his own words he describes how the Lord had provided them with a mikdash me'at, or miniature temple (11:16). That is exactly what the shrine at Elephantine was, at this same period, more like the Tabernacle than the Temple, and that is probably how it was in Babylon. EZEKIEL TALKS about the Levites who went astray, having to bear their iniquity (44:10). Where did they go astray except in a temple in Babylon? In the eyes of Ezekiel, they went astray because they usurped the posts of the kohanim, of the line of Zadok, and that must have been in the service of some form of temple. The famous passage in Zechariah, the prophet of the return, accuses Joshua the high priest of wearing filthy clothes (3:4), which sounds mightily like his performing, without the correct ritual garments, in a temple away from Jerusalem. Zechariah also alludes to the unorthodox building of "a house in the land of Shinar" (5:11). The word "house" stands for temple and Shinar is Sumer, the ancient name for Babylon. The evidence from Ezra is more positive. He mentions that Levites for the Temple in Jerusalem should be brought from Casiphia "hamakom" (the temple?), a village near Babylon, where they were serving under a Levite called Iddo (8:17). It seems that Casiphia was the site of a Jewish temple, and Ezra was happy to bring Levites from there to serve in Jerusalem. The evidence is inconclusive and ambivalent as is to be expected when it might have embarrassed later readers. Thus the temple at Elephantine was never recorded in our sources and only came to light from local papyri documents and, 100 years later (10 years ago), by the turn of the spade. Could a Jewish temple in Babylon ever be excavated in our time? That is unlikely in the present state of war-torn Iraq, but inscriptions abound. The great museums of the world house hundreds of unread cuneiform tablets from Mesopotamia. One day surely, one will be deciphered that will give us the necessary evidence, and then we will have something to celebrate as the aftermath of Tisha Be'av. The writer is a fellow of the W.F. Albright Institute of Archeological Research in Jerusalem.	<urn:uuid:9d4259b5-b323-475f-8a86-c9de53cb7a33>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.jpost.com/Opinion/Op-Ed-Contributors/Tisha-Beav-the-aftermath	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00504.warc.gz	en	0.983188	1,970	3.578125	4	[ 0.19372539222240448, 0.3111170530319214, 0.044312067329883575, -0.18587684631347656, -0.09990684688091278, 0.17216457426548004, 0.045595210045576096, 0.3434668183326721, 0.08712534606456757, 0.26260921359062195, -0.3342891335487366, -0.04300874099135399, 0.1728474348783493, 0.3832226991653...	3	In the Orthodox calendar, Tisha Be'av, which we observed on Sunday, is the culmination of three weeks of mourning that started with the 17th of Tammuz, when the Babylonians made the first breach in the walls of Jerusalem. After the ninth of Av, we relax and some celebrate the festival of the 15th, when the daughters of Israel were first permitted to marry outside their tribe, and which also counts as the annual wine harvest festival. But should we not remember the great suffering that must have followed the terrible events of Tisha Be'av? In the case of the Roman destruction of Jerusalem, we have been assured that life went on in Israel outside Jerusalem, and Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai was able to set up a new center of learning at Yavne. It became a powerhouse of scholarship and the beginning of the talmudic period of Jewish Orthodoxy, when the ideas of the Pharisees became enshrined in Halacha, or Jewish law. Thousands of Jews had been killed in the revolt and hundreds taken into slavery to Rome, but Jewish life continued in Israel and indeed intensified when the Sanhedrin reconvened at Yavne. BUT WHAT of the aftermath of the Babylonian destruction of Jerusalem and the First Temple, what happened then to Jewish life? There are conflicting accounts of the numbers taken into exile: the Book of Kings says it was 10,000, while Jeremiah counts a total of 4,600 in three waves. But both agree it was the cream of society that was deported. The peasants struggled on, taking over the fields of the departed middle-class under a Babylon-appointed governor, Gedaliah ben Ahikam. A well-meaning and fair-minded civil servant, he lacked royal charisma, was hated by the jealous royalist party and was murdered by them. As a result turmoil was expected, and many Jews fled to the relative safety of Egypt, taking Jeremiah with them. But anarchy did not ensue, and direct rule from Babylon restored some sense of order and economic stability. But the Temple had gone and so had the kohanim, its priests. Jeremiah, who always opposed rebellion against the Babylonians, advised the exiles to accept their fate in Babylon, "Build yourself houses... plant garden... take wives... have children... multiply there and do not succumb" (29:5). He had predicted a stay of 70 years, but it was only to be 50 for those who came back at the earliest opportunity, when Cyrus II issued his cylinder of "human rights" in 538 BCE. For others who only came back with Ezra, it was to be 100 years longer, and for many there was to be no return at all. THE FIRST thing that must have happened to the unfortunate exiles was a forced march of 1,300 kilometers. Their path was along the Fertile Crescent, north to Syria, then east to the Euphrates and south down the river to the heart of Babylonia. It must have been a heartbreaking march, the march of the barely living, harassed on all sides by guards and hostile locals. Their transport may have been camels and horses for the lucky few, and some may have ridden on donkeys and asses, carrying their few goods on rough carts drawn by oxen; but the majority would have trudged on foot. One can get a picture of such exiles from the wall reliefs of the Assyrian capture of Lachish, whose refugees were deported from their city 100 years earlier than those of Jerusalem. They carry their pathetic bundles on their shoulders and their babies balance on kitchen pots on the carts. The route taken by the exiles may well have been the main caravan trail, with regular way stations, but their numbers would have been overwhelming, causing great food shortages. Fights would have broken out over water from wells controlled by others. Women would have been abducted on the way for immoral imprisonment and children captured for abuse and slavery. Many hundreds must have died of starvation and exhaustion. To have attempted to escape would have meant certain death in the desert. It may be that the numbers in the Book of Kings were of those who left, and those recorded by Jeremiah - less than half - were those that arrived. Arrival at Babylon, after months of trekking, would have been a relief. We can imagine that the first set of exiles, who had been deported 11 years earlier and included King Jehoiachin, could have prepared some kind of accommodation for the second wave of refugees. We know from the Babylonian annals that Jehoiachin was released from prison and given rations from the royal table. The Babylonians treated our royals with respect, and hopefully they in turn gave help to the later arrivals. We presume that they took Jeremiah's advice and settled down to marry and to build. Judean women would have been in short supply, as not many would have survived. Taking local wives was the norm, as we know from Ezra many years later, who frowned on the practice. But in Babylon it was necessary for survival, and it would have been considered that the act of marriage, in whatever form, was equivalent to conversion of the woman, as it had been for the Patriarchs. AND THAT leads us to ask, what was the status of the Jewish religion during the first 50 years of exile? There can be little doubt that the exiles kept alive the hope of seeing the Temple rebuilt in Jerusalem. But what was there in Babylon, when they wept by its waters, to keep them focused on the Temple? The traditionalists claim that in Babylon the exiles created the synagogue, without sacrifice and priests, to compensate for the lost Temple. But there is no evidence for that, and little likelihood, as the priests and the sacrifices persisted and appeared again 50 years later in Jerusalem. The synagogue as such was not known until the third century BCE in the Egyptian exile. It developed as a new form of community center and prayer and continued without the benefit of priest and sacrifice. But Babylon was different; it had legitimate priests and they were ready to practice their skills for a future Temple. It is likely that there was a form of temple in Babylon that trained the kohanim and the Levites in their duties in readiness for the return, and it would have served, as any temple did, to unite the people in the worship of their God. Such a situation had applied in Egypt, when the military colony of Jews built their small temple on Elephantine Island in the sixth century BCE. It had an altar for sacrifices and a small shrine for the Shehina, the presence of God. Such a building was considered necessary for the small community on the island near Aswan, and so too it would have been for the much larger and more educated group of Jews in Babylon. The prophet Ezekiel ben Buzi, himself a kohen of the Zadokite line, who came with the first deportees in 597 BCE, told his people of the abominations being performed in Jerusalem and showed them, by his vision of the heavenly chariot, that God had accompanied them to the waters of the Khebar, a tributary of the Euphrates. In his own words he describes how the Lord had provided them with a mikdash me'at, or miniature temple (11:16). That is exactly what the shrine at Elephantine was, at this same period, more like the Tabernacle than the Temple, and that is probably how it was in Babylon. EZEKIEL TALKS about the Levites who went astray, having to bear their iniquity (44:10). Where did they go astray except in a temple in Babylon? In the eyes of Ezekiel, they went astray because they usurped the posts of the kohanim, of the line of Zadok, and that must have been in the service of some form of temple. The famous passage in Zechariah, the prophet of the return, accuses Joshua the high priest of wearing filthy clothes (3:4), which sounds mightily like his performing, without the correct ritual garments, in a temple away from Jerusalem. Zechariah also alludes to the unorthodox building of "a house in the land of Shinar" (5:11). The word "house" stands for temple and Shinar is Sumer, the ancient name for Babylon. The evidence from Ezra is more positive. He mentions that Levites for the Temple in Jerusalem should be brought from Casiphia "hamakom" (the temple?), a village near Babylon, where they were serving under a Levite called Iddo (8:17). It seems that Casiphia was the site of a Jewish temple, and Ezra was happy to bring Levites from there to serve in Jerusalem. The evidence is inconclusive and ambivalent as is to be expected when it might have embarrassed later readers. Thus the temple at Elephantine was never recorded in our sources and only came to light from local papyri documents and, 100 years later (10 years ago), by the turn of the spade. Could a Jewish temple in Babylon ever be excavated in our time? That is unlikely in the present state of war-torn Iraq, but inscriptions abound. The great museums of the world house hundreds of unread cuneiform tablets from Mesopotamia. One day surely, one will be deciphered that will give us the necessary evidence, and then we will have something to celebrate as the aftermath of Tisha Be'av. The writer is a fellow of the W.F. Albright Institute of Archeological Research in Jerusalem.	2,013	ENGLISH	1
Fort Utah and Battle Creek 1849-50 by Phillip B Gottfredson Historian Timpanogos Nation The following three stories about Battle Creek, Old Bishop, and Fort Utah all occurred in the year 1849 and were between the Timpanogos Tribe and the Mormon militia. They all contributed significantly to the cause of the Black Hawk War that followed. The murders at Battle Creek were senseless, as young Antonga Black Hawk was taken captive along with over twenty-one women and children, and they were all taken to Salt Lake City. Then the cold -blooded murder of Old Bishop made matters worse and precipitated a bloody battle at Fort Utah and the beheading of some fifty Timpanogos Indians. Their only crime was that they were Indian. On January 31, 1850, Wells drafted orders for Captain George D. Grant to "exterminate the Timpanogos," known as "Special Order No. 2". Isaac Higbee was the bishop of Fort Utah and he met with the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles at the Fort when they agreed the only way to keep Fort Utah would be to exterminate the Timpanogos. Timpanogos Chief Walkara was in leadership at this time, and these three terrifying events sent the Timpanogos scattering in all directions . This event helped set the stage for the Walker War in 1853, eventually culminating into all out war with the Mormons that peaked in 1865 . The historians would later call this war The Black Hawk War. The plaque reads: The original settlement at Provo (Fort Utah) was established March 12, 1849 by President John S. Higbee, with Issac Higbee, and Dimmick Huntington, counselors and about 30 families or 150 persons, sent from Salt Lake City by President Brigham Young. Several log houses were erected, surrounded by a 14 foot palisade 20 by 40 rods in size, with gates in the east and west ends, and a middle deck for a cannon. The fort was first located at about 1200 North 500 West in what is now Provo, but was moved to Sowette Park in Provo during the month of April, 1850. Artists rendering of the old Fort Utah 1850 Original buildings that were in Fort Utah. Now Located at Sowiette Park in Provo, Utah on 2nd north and 500 west. The park gets it's name from the Timpanogos Chief Sowiette. BATTLE CREEK - FORT UTAH - Murder of Old Bishop 1849-50 Battle Creek Artist Carol Pettit Harding In the twilight moments of a cold winter morning, smoke from the lingering fires inside the teepees curled softly into the frosty air. All was silent as the people lay asleep, warm in the comfort of their shelters. Only the occasional breeze sent ice crystals from the trees into the air, drifting lightly upon the snow-covered ground below . The only sound was that of the nearby stream softly winding its way along. Emerging from one of the teepees, a woman carrying some sticks in her arms to start the morning fire paused a moment. Looking about, she had an eerie feeling that something was not right. The silence became quieter as the sound of the stream grew louder. The dogs in the camp became agitated and awakened those still sleeping. Two Timpanogos warriors by the names of Kone and Blue Shirt stepped from the teepee. Kone saw that they were surrounded by forty-four armed Mormon militia. An argument ensued, and a shot was fired. It hit Kone in the back of his neck, the bullet blowing off the top of his head. Another man fell while the besieged, armed only with one gun and a bow and some arrows, dove into the nearby ravine to take cover in the thick brush. Seventeen men, women, and children ran screaming. Blood spattered across the snow. People ran, jumping into the thick brush in shock as bullets whizzed at them from every direction. The shattered air was filled with smoke from the guns as two Timpanogos lay dead. For a moment, there was silence. Then Captain John Scott gave the order to his men to throw rocks into the ravine. The voices of those being hit cried out in pain . More gunfire echoed off the steep cliffs above. When a nearby band led by Opecarry heard the guns, they took position on the top of a hill directly above the scene. Opecarry could see his brothers trapped in the ravine, and he began signaling to them where the best route to take to safety was. Blue Shirt, unarmed, made a break from the cover of the ravine on the east end and began to climb the hill where Opecarry stood, but he was peppered with bullets hitting him sixteen times, killing him. It is said that the so-called battle continued for a couple of hours . Perhaps, but it is highly unlikely since those trapped in the ravine, standing in freezing water, had only the one gun. A brave girl about the age of 16 emerged from cover and pleaded with Captain John Scott to not harm her brother. Scott ordered her to bring her brother to him. Trusting in Scott, she brought her brother from the thicket. He stood dignified in front of Scott and said, "Go away, what are you here for? Go away ... you kill my father, my brother ... for what? Go away, let us alone. What are you here for?" According to witnesses, Dimmick Huntington grabbed the boy by his ear and, putting a gun to his face, shouted, "We are here to open your ears, so you will hear. We said to you a long time ago, don't kill our cattle. You kill them all the time now ... you will hear good. How many guns Indian got down there?" pointing to the ravine. The boy answered, "One." Dimmick told the boy to go back and get it. The young man answered, "You go get it if you want it." Again Dimmick grabbed the boy by the ear and raised his gun to his head and shouted, "You have no good ears to hear. Get me that gun, or I will open your ears and you will hear." The young boy got the gun, and when he returned he threw it on the ground breaking the stock. Nine women, a few children, and the young boy, numbering 12 in all were then marched down the canyon at gun-point leaving behind their loved ones, all lying dead in the snow. "Joshua Terry, a pioneer of 1847, and a mountain man who married into an Indian tribe, once told the writer ( Howard R. Driggs) that this Indian boy became the warring leader Black Hawk. When peace came, after the Black Hawk War of the late 1860s, this Chief, Terry declared, told him that he was this same boy taken after the fight on Battle Creek. He could never understand why the white men had shot down his people. It put bitterness in his heart; and though he lived for some time with the white people, his mind was ever set on avenging the wrong. That is why he later made war against them." (Story of Old Battle Creek and Pleasant Grove, Utah, Howard R. Driggs, 1948) The date was February 28, 1849. A company of forty-four Mormon militia, under the leadership of Captain John Scott, left Salt Lake City in pursuit of a so called “renegade band of Indians” who, it was alleged, had taken horses belonging to Brigham Young. According to reliable accounts, Brigham gave the order for Captain Scott and his men to find and punish the perpetrators. But before the troops reached the valley where the Timpanogos were camped, Captain Scott had received word from Brigham "three times" that the horses had been found and to return to Salt Lake. Captain Scott ignored Brigham's order. It is recorded that Scott and his men met up on the Provo River with a Timpanogos Indian by the name of Little Chief whose son led Scott to an encampment of Indians who allegedly had been doing some stealing. The trail took the company of soldiers to the mouth of a canyon above Pleasant Grove. Scott and his men split into four groups and surrounded the camp . They opened fire on the unsuspecting people sleeping there. The terrorized captives who survived the attack were taken thirty miles north to Salt Lake City. The young boy would later become known as Black Hawk. It is said he put up a good fight, but shook with fear when taken captive. This event became known as the “first battle with the Indians” that took place beside a creek that runs through the canyon, and that creek became known as Battle Creek. But there is a lot of ambiguity that surrounds this event. It seems unlikely that Little Chief would lead Scott to his own people unless he was being threatened. It was also alleged Scott and his men found thirteen cow hides near the camp, which the attackers deemed proof these were the Indians who had taken their cattle . Scott's credibility is put into question because he defied orders from Brigham Young to return to Salt Lake. "When the firing had ceased it was perhaps 8 o'clock, the sun was high up, and Little Chief had come from his home (on the Provo) on horseback, since he first heard our guns. The morning was clear and calm as God ever made, and the volleys of our guns rolled down the mountain (to) Little Chief's ears ... (so) he mounted his best horse and dashed up the mountainsides for ten miles ... His horse, a noble animal with large extended nostrils, was as wet as the poor squaws who had laid in the creek. Little Chief was wet with tears and his horse wet with sweat. The old man howled, cried, moaned, hollowed, screamed, and smote his breast in the greatest agony of mind when he came to us. He blamed himself and cursed the whites, and said it would not be good medicine for two or three to come up there alone as they had done before." [Source: Hosea Stout Journal] Historic records give little information why Black Hawk, along with the women and their children were taken captive at Battle Creek and transported to Salt Lake. Incredibly, the children were taken from their mothers and placed in the care of Mormon families . Why would they have not been returned to their people instead? Members of the Timpanogos Nation gave me an explanation saying, “Brigham often took our children and held them captive knowing that we would not attack fearing our children would be hurt.” No one recorded the names of the women or how many children or their ages. It is easy to conclude the survivors were not allowed to mourn the death of their families or attend to their burial (assuming they were buried or were simply left behind for the animals to feed upon as was so often the case.) Hosea Stout gave a partial list of the soldiers who took part in the massacre: Colonel John Scott, Commander Alexander Williams, Aide Sorenus Taylor, Frank Woodard, George Boyd, Hosea Stout, David Fulmer , John Brown, Oliver B. Huntington, William G. Pettey, John S. Fullmer, John Lowry, Dick Stoddard, Judson Stoddard, Shell Stoddard, Irwin Stoddard, Dimick B. Huntington (Interpreter), and Barney Ward (Interpreter). [Source: Wikipedia] THE BUILDING OF FORT UTAH Within a year after the Battle Creek Massacre, the Higbee brothers and Dimmick Huntington were made presidency of the soon-to-be Provo Branch of the LDS Church, and they led a party of thirty saints to the Provo River to erect Fort Utah. Apostle George A. Smith gave the command to "remove the Indian people from their land," and he said Indian people have "no rights to their land." When they were a few miles north of the Provo River, they were stopped by An-kar-tewets, a warrior of the Timpanogos, who stood before the men telling them to go back where they came from, that they were not going to make any settlement on their land. Allegedly they argued for some time, until Dimmick pleaded with An-kar-tewets that they wanted to live in peace with the Timpanogos, and he made promises of gifts. According to the victors’ accounts, following a long discussion, An-kar-tewets made Dimmick raise his hand to swear to the sun that no harm would come to the Timpanogos, that they would never take away their lands or rights . As before, Dimmick and the others swore, signifying nothing. Members of the Timpanogos Nation dispute this account saying it would be highly unlikely that a warrior such as An-kar-tewets would have made any concession to accommodate Dimmick and his party because of what had happened earlier. First of all, he would not have the authority to speak on behalf of the Timpanogos community nor make a decision that potentially put the entire tribe and its most precious resources at risk . And we do not swear to the sun. They said it would be more in character of An-kar-tewets to have firmly denied Dimmick and his party any access and that the Mormons simply bullied their way into Timpanogos territory. Dimmick and the rest of the party then immediately began building the fort, for they knew they were in danger. Little did Dimmick and the others know that the land they were building the fort on was a traditional and sacred meeting place for the Shoshone who came from hundreds of miles around during the spring and summer months. There were twenty-seven bands of Shoshoni who would gather in sacred ceremonies to honor the Creator. On the other hand, if Dimmick knew it was sacred land, they didn't care . They were not honoring their sworn oath made earlier . At first, the occupants at the fort attempted to turn the place into a trading post between the Timpanogos and the whites. Trading buffalo hides to the Timpanogos could have been seen as a sacrilege to the Shoshoni. After all, why should they have to now pay for something they had hunted in freedom for centuries? And what kind of person would barter something as sacred as the buffalo to the Natives. In less than a year, one of the bloodiest battles in Utah history would unfold at Fort Utah. THE MURDER OF OLD BISHOP On a warm spring day, three men were riding along the Provo River on their horses when they came upon a "friendly Indian" who the whites called Old Bishop. The whites called him by this name because his mannerisms reminded them of a white man by the name of Bishop Whitney. The three men, Rufus Stoddard, Richard Ivie, and Gerome Zabrisky, began to heckle the man. They accused him of stealing the shirt he was wearing off a clothes line. Old Bishop denied having stolen the shirt from anyone, saying he had made a fair trade for it. Ivie pulled his gun on Old Bishop and told him to take it off. The old Indian man stood his ground and refused. Ivie murdered the Indian in cold blood. Concerned that what they had done would spark retribution from the Timpanogos, the men then gutted the old man. They then filled his body cavity with rocks and threw him in the Provo River. Quoting from History of Utah Sta te, by James Goff, one of the colonists, "The men who killed the Indian ripped his bowels open and filled them with stones preparatory to sinking the body." Then making mockery of the murder, he writes, "The Indians assert that, annually, on the anniversary of his death the Old Bishop appears on the bank of the river and slowly takes the rocks one by one out of his bowels and throws them into the river, then disappears. Some (white) fishermen have watched in hopes of having an interview with the Bishop's ghost. " Satisfied, the men returned to the fort and boasted of having taken Old Bishop's life. Thinking they had committed the perfect murder, they relaxed and fell back into their routines. So much for the promises—empty words, in fact— made by Dimmick Huntington and the Higbee brothers to An-kar-tewets. Demands were made by the Timpanogos band that was camped near Fort Utah that the whites at the fort turn over the one guilty of killing Old Bishop, but their demands fell on deaf ears. The Timpanogos demanded compensation for the death of Old Bishop in cattle and horses, and again their demands where ignored. Meanwhile, measles had begun to spread epidemically among the Timpanogos, and the Mormon saints had succeeded in driving most of the Timpanogos from the valley into the nearby mountains. On a cold winter day, Chief Pareyarts, better known as Old Elk, also known as Big Elk, came to the fort asking for medicine for his people who were sick from the disease. A soldier took the chief by the nap of his neck and threw him out of the fort. Pareyarts was also of the same bloodline as Walkara. Now that Fort Utah had been established on land that was essential to the Timpanogos, as it provided ample food for them and their horses, about 120 settlers were living in and around the fort. Of course, they brought with them horses and cattle, and in a short time the Timpanogos were competing with the Mormon saints for food for man and horse alike. It wasn't long before the people at the fort found their cattle and horses shot full of arrows. The Timpanogos' only logical answer to their plight was to reduce the numbers of cattle and horses overgrazing their land, and to drive out the settlers. Large numbers of cattle began to disappear. For several months, tensions grew between the people at Fort Utah and the Timpanogos . A dispatch was sent to Salt Lake to Brigham Young requesting military support. Brigham made conciliatory efforts to calm the people at the fort. He said, “It’s our duty to feed these poor ignorant Indians.” Brigham gave the Natives the choice to either surrender to the Mormons and eat, or continue to resist and be killed or starve. The saints recklessly fished the Provo River that ran near the fort. It was a major food source for the Timpanogos, but the white man fished with gill nets . It is said they took over 6,000 fish in just one day, none of which was shared with the starving Timpanogos. The young boy taken captive at Battle Creek later came to the fort oddly dressed in a military shirt. He asked the militia if there was anything he could do to help them in exchange for shelter for himself and several of his kin who accompanied him. He and the others were given scanty shelter underneath the fort’s cannon platform in the bitter cold. BATTLE AT FORT UTAH FEBRUARY 29, 1850 Just before the spring in 1850, confrontations had occurred between the settlers at Fort Utah and the Timpanogos. A government officer by the name of Captain Howard Stansbury convinced Brigham that all conciliatory efforts had failed and the only recourse was to take action against the Natives. In contradiction to his "feed them not fight them" policy, Brigham wholeheartedly agreed with Stansbury and supplied his vigilante army with arms, ammunition, tents, and camp equipage for the soldiers. It followed that on January 31, 1850, Lieutenant General Daniel H. Wells of the all Mormon Nauvoo Legion sent orders to Captain George D. Grant to "exterminate the Timpanogos," known as "Special Order No. 2". Isaac Higbee was the bishop of Fort Utah and he met with the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles at the Fort when they agreed that the only way to keep Fort Utah would be to exterminate the Timpanogos. Source: Utah State Archives, State Capitol, Salt Lake City, Utah Territorial Militia Correspondence, 1849-1863, ST-27, Microfilm reel 1, Document No. 5. Eugene E. Campbell. Establishing Zion “I say go [and] kill them…" said Brigham Young, "Tell Dimmick Huntington to go and kill them—also Barney Ward—let the women and children live if they behave themselves… We have no peace until the men [are] killed off—never treat the Indian as your equal.” Source: BYC, Microfilm reel 80, box 47, folder 6. Farmer, Jared (2008). On Zion’s Mount: Mormons, Indians, and the American Landscape. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674027671 Under the leadership of Colonel George D. Grant, fifty troops were sent to Fort Utah in the late winter of 1850. Captain Grant’s caval ry left Salt Lake. They traveled all night through deep snow and the bitter cold so that they could take the Timpanogos, who were camped along the river near the fort, by surprise. There were about seventy or more Timpanogos warriors along with women and children in the camp. While under the cover of darkness and in the twilight of that bitter cold morning, Grant and his men surrounded the camp and opened fire on the sleeping Timpanogos. Field cannons boomed as they fired chain-shot at the unsuspecting camp, ripping open the teepees, sending women and little children running in all directions screaming in terror as the surrounding troops shot them down one by one. It is said that the chain shot ripped off the limbs of its victims leaving them to die an agonizing death. The air filled with smoke from the guns as Timpanogos warriors, led by Chief Old Elk and Opecarry, put up a good fight. The battle lasted for two days. Two young Timpanogos children named Pernetta and Pick were among the survivors. Pernetta was the daughter of Arapeen, Chief Walkara's brother During this time, General Wells was directed by Brigham Young to give the young boy taken captive at Battle Creek the name Black Hawk. The general told Black Hawk that he must lead his people and do all that he was told to do. Then they would be set free and their horses would be returned to them. Two days after the battle, General H. Wells who had arrived from Salt Lake, ordered young Black Hawk to lead a serial killer by the name of Bill Hickman and his men up Rock Canyon to pursue the survivors. In freezing temperatures and deep snow, Black Hawk, having no choice in the matter, did as he was ordered and led the men up Rock Canyon. Lookouts scaled the steep walls of the canyon as Wells and his men slowly made their way up the rugged canyon . Black Hawk reluctantly followed behind. When they reached the camp of the survivors, terrified women and children were scattering about. Black Hawk was ordered to look in side the teepees. There Black Hawk saw his beloved relative Old Elk frozen to death, and many others who had died of their wounds lay frozen stiff in the cold. The Mormon vigilantes greedily helped themselves taking the belongings from the dead , while Bill Hickman, with knife in hand, hacked Old Elk's head off his frozen body. He said Jim Bridger had offered him a hundred dollars for the head. Old Elk's wife refused to be taken captive . She broke free and ran for her life. She scaled the steep cliffs, but while doing so, she either jumped or slipped and fell to her death. Hence the Mormon s disrespectfully dubbed the canyon Squaw Peak which is located above the Provo LDS Temple . It is a name that endures to this day. Hickman and his men returned to Fort Utah where Hickman showed off his trophy, the head of Old Elk. Of the seventy or so warriors, only about thirteen had escaped while only one life was lost among the Mormons. One of the warriors who managed to survive was taken captive. This was An-kar-tewets, the same one to which the Church leaders Dimmick and the Higbee brothers had earlier sworn an oath that no harm would come to the Natives, that their land and rights would not be taken away, and that they would be given many gifts. One more loathsome act remained to unfold which would haunt the Mormons for many decades to follow, even to the present day. Hickman hung the head of Old Elk from the eves of his cabin. A witness at Fort Utah told reporters, "...it was hung pendant by its long hair from the willows of the roof of one of the houses. I well remember how horrible was the sight." - Robert Carter, Fort Utah. Dr. James Blake, a surgeon among the Stansbury company, was greatly influenced by Hickman's trophy of Old Elk's head. Dr. Blake then ordered troops Abner Blackburn and James Orr to go out and behead each of the frozen corpses lying about in the snow, following the two-day battle that resulted in the deaths of nearly seventy Indian people. Dr. Blake told the men he "wanted to have the heads shipped to Washington to a medical institution." The men hacked the heads from as many as fifty frozen corpses . They piled them in open boxes, along with a dozen or so Mallard ducks that Blake had shot while his men performed their chore. The heads and ducks were taken to the fort and placed in view of Black Hawk, who was barely in his twenties, and his traumatized kin. Innocent of any wrongdoing, the captives were thus tortured as they were forced to view the grizzly remains placed before them for a period of two long and excruciating weeks. Abner, keeping the agreement, delivered the rotting heads and ducks to Blake in Salt Lake. Dr. Blake settled up, and invited Abner to dinner. Abner Blackburn declined, saying he had lost his appetite.	<urn:uuid:ebea7242-8bb6-4e86-b28b-a96ec5183c22>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://blackhawkproductions.com/fortutah.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00033.warc.gz	en	0.986103	5,462	3.328125	3	[ -0.024809595197439194, 0.33923104405403137, 0.3034062683582306, 0.07130396366119385, -0.31791749596595764, -0.10633249580860138, 0.0404118075966835, 0.14149871468544006, -0.3717689514160156, -0.0889921635389328, 0.1656639277935028, -0.013838192448019981, 0.17694944143295288, 0.380001068115...	1	Fort Utah and Battle Creek 1849-50 by Phillip B Gottfredson Historian Timpanogos Nation The following three stories about Battle Creek, Old Bishop, and Fort Utah all occurred in the year 1849 and were between the Timpanogos Tribe and the Mormon militia. They all contributed significantly to the cause of the Black Hawk War that followed. The murders at Battle Creek were senseless, as young Antonga Black Hawk was taken captive along with over twenty-one women and children, and they were all taken to Salt Lake City. Then the cold -blooded murder of Old Bishop made matters worse and precipitated a bloody battle at Fort Utah and the beheading of some fifty Timpanogos Indians. Their only crime was that they were Indian. On January 31, 1850, Wells drafted orders for Captain George D. Grant to "exterminate the Timpanogos," known as "Special Order No. 2". Isaac Higbee was the bishop of Fort Utah and he met with the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles at the Fort when they agreed the only way to keep Fort Utah would be to exterminate the Timpanogos. Timpanogos Chief Walkara was in leadership at this time, and these three terrifying events sent the Timpanogos scattering in all directions . This event helped set the stage for the Walker War in 1853, eventually culminating into all out war with the Mormons that peaked in 1865 . The historians would later call this war The Black Hawk War. The plaque reads: The original settlement at Provo (Fort Utah) was established March 12, 1849 by President John S. Higbee, with Issac Higbee, and Dimmick Huntington, counselors and about 30 families or 150 persons, sent from Salt Lake City by President Brigham Young. Several log houses were erected, surrounded by a 14 foot palisade 20 by 40 rods in size, with gates in the east and west ends, and a middle deck for a cannon. The fort was first located at about 1200 North 500 West in what is now Provo, but was moved to Sowette Park in Provo during the month of April, 1850. Artists rendering of the old Fort Utah 1850 Original buildings that were in Fort Utah. Now Located at Sowiette Park in Provo, Utah on 2nd north and 500 west. The park gets it's name from the Timpanogos Chief Sowiette. BATTLE CREEK - FORT UTAH - Murder of Old Bishop 1849-50 Battle Creek Artist Carol Pettit Harding In the twilight moments of a cold winter morning, smoke from the lingering fires inside the teepees curled softly into the frosty air. All was silent as the people lay asleep, warm in the comfort of their shelters. Only the occasional breeze sent ice crystals from the trees into the air, drifting lightly upon the snow-covered ground below . The only sound was that of the nearby stream softly winding its way along. Emerging from one of the teepees, a woman carrying some sticks in her arms to start the morning fire paused a moment. Looking about, she had an eerie feeling that something was not right. The silence became quieter as the sound of the stream grew louder. The dogs in the camp became agitated and awakened those still sleeping. Two Timpanogos warriors by the names of Kone and Blue Shirt stepped from the teepee. Kone saw that they were surrounded by forty-four armed Mormon militia. An argument ensued, and a shot was fired. It hit Kone in the back of his neck, the bullet blowing off the top of his head. Another man fell while the besieged, armed only with one gun and a bow and some arrows, dove into the nearby ravine to take cover in the thick brush. Seventeen men, women, and children ran screaming. Blood spattered across the snow. People ran, jumping into the thick brush in shock as bullets whizzed at them from every direction. The shattered air was filled with smoke from the guns as two Timpanogos lay dead. For a moment, there was silence. Then Captain John Scott gave the order to his men to throw rocks into the ravine. The voices of those being hit cried out in pain . More gunfire echoed off the steep cliffs above. When a nearby band led by Opecarry heard the guns, they took position on the top of a hill directly above the scene. Opecarry could see his brothers trapped in the ravine, and he began signaling to them where the best route to take to safety was. Blue Shirt, unarmed, made a break from the cover of the ravine on the east end and began to climb the hill where Opecarry stood, but he was peppered with bullets hitting him sixteen times, killing him. It is said that the so-called battle continued for a couple of hours . Perhaps, but it is highly unlikely since those trapped in the ravine, standing in freezing water, had only the one gun. A brave girl about the age of 16 emerged from cover and pleaded with Captain John Scott to not harm her brother. Scott ordered her to bring her brother to him. Trusting in Scott, she brought her brother from the thicket. He stood dignified in front of Scott and said, "Go away, what are you here for? Go away ... you kill my father, my brother ... for what? Go away, let us alone. What are you here for?" According to witnesses, Dimmick Huntington grabbed the boy by his ear and, putting a gun to his face, shouted, "We are here to open your ears, so you will hear. We said to you a long time ago, don't kill our cattle. You kill them all the time now ... you will hear good. How many guns Indian got down there?" pointing to the ravine. The boy answered, "One." Dimmick told the boy to go back and get it. The young man answered, "You go get it if you want it." Again Dimmick grabbed the boy by the ear and raised his gun to his head and shouted, "You have no good ears to hear. Get me that gun, or I will open your ears and you will hear." The young boy got the gun, and when he returned he threw it on the ground breaking the stock. Nine women, a few children, and the young boy, numbering 12 in all were then marched down the canyon at gun-point leaving behind their loved ones, all lying dead in the snow. "Joshua Terry, a pioneer of 1847, and a mountain man who married into an Indian tribe, once told the writer ( Howard R. Driggs) that this Indian boy became the warring leader Black Hawk. When peace came, after the Black Hawk War of the late 1860s, this Chief, Terry declared, told him that he was this same boy taken after the fight on Battle Creek. He could never understand why the white men had shot down his people. It put bitterness in his heart; and though he lived for some time with the white people, his mind was ever set on avenging the wrong. That is why he later made war against them." (Story of Old Battle Creek and Pleasant Grove, Utah, Howard R. Driggs, 1948) The date was February 28, 1849. A company of forty-four Mormon militia, under the leadership of Captain John Scott, left Salt Lake City in pursuit of a so called “renegade band of Indians” who, it was alleged, had taken horses belonging to Brigham Young. According to reliable accounts, Brigham gave the order for Captain Scott and his men to find and punish the perpetrators. But before the troops reached the valley where the Timpanogos were camped, Captain Scott had received word from Brigham "three times" that the horses had been found and to return to Salt Lake. Captain Scott ignored Brigham's order. It is recorded that Scott and his men met up on the Provo River with a Timpanogos Indian by the name of Little Chief whose son led Scott to an encampment of Indians who allegedly had been doing some stealing. The trail took the company of soldiers to the mouth of a canyon above Pleasant Grove. Scott and his men split into four groups and surrounded the camp . They opened fire on the unsuspecting people sleeping there. The terrorized captives who survived the attack were taken thirty miles north to Salt Lake City. The young boy would later become known as Black Hawk. It is said he put up a good fight, but shook with fear when taken captive. This event became known as the “first battle with the Indians” that took place beside a creek that runs through the canyon, and that creek became known as Battle Creek. But there is a lot of ambiguity that surrounds this event. It seems unlikely that Little Chief would lead Scott to his own people unless he was being threatened. It was also alleged Scott and his men found thirteen cow hides near the camp, which the attackers deemed proof these were the Indians who had taken their cattle . Scott's credibility is put into question because he defied orders from Brigham Young to return to Salt Lake. "When the firing had ceased it was perhaps 8 o'clock, the sun was high up, and Little Chief had come from his home (on the Provo) on horseback, since he first heard our guns. The morning was clear and calm as God ever made, and the volleys of our guns rolled down the mountain (to) Little Chief's ears ... (so) he mounted his best horse and dashed up the mountainsides for ten miles ... His horse, a noble animal with large extended nostrils, was as wet as the poor squaws who had laid in the creek. Little Chief was wet with tears and his horse wet with sweat. The old man howled, cried, moaned, hollowed, screamed, and smote his breast in the greatest agony of mind when he came to us. He blamed himself and cursed the whites, and said it would not be good medicine for two or three to come up there alone as they had done before." [Source: Hosea Stout Journal] Historic records give little information why Black Hawk, along with the women and their children were taken captive at Battle Creek and transported to Salt Lake. Incredibly, the children were taken from their mothers and placed in the care of Mormon families . Why would they have not been returned to their people instead? Members of the Timpanogos Nation gave me an explanation saying, “Brigham often took our children and held them captive knowing that we would not attack fearing our children would be hurt.” No one recorded the names of the women or how many children or their ages. It is easy to conclude the survivors were not allowed to mourn the death of their families or attend to their burial (assuming they were buried or were simply left behind for the animals to feed upon as was so often the case.) Hosea Stout gave a partial list of the soldiers who took part in the massacre: Colonel John Scott, Commander Alexander Williams, Aide Sorenus Taylor, Frank Woodard, George Boyd, Hosea Stout, David Fulmer , John Brown, Oliver B. Huntington, William G. Pettey, John S. Fullmer, John Lowry, Dick Stoddard, Judson Stoddard, Shell Stoddard, Irwin Stoddard, Dimick B. Huntington (Interpreter), and Barney Ward (Interpreter). [Source: Wikipedia] THE BUILDING OF FORT UTAH Within a year after the Battle Creek Massacre, the Higbee brothers and Dimmick Huntington were made presidency of the soon-to-be Provo Branch of the LDS Church, and they led a party of thirty saints to the Provo River to erect Fort Utah. Apostle George A. Smith gave the command to "remove the Indian people from their land," and he said Indian people have "no rights to their land." When they were a few miles north of the Provo River, they were stopped by An-kar-tewets, a warrior of the Timpanogos, who stood before the men telling them to go back where they came from, that they were not going to make any settlement on their land. Allegedly they argued for some time, until Dimmick pleaded with An-kar-tewets that they wanted to live in peace with the Timpanogos, and he made promises of gifts. According to the victors’ accounts, following a long discussion, An-kar-tewets made Dimmick raise his hand to swear to the sun that no harm would come to the Timpanogos, that they would never take away their lands or rights . As before, Dimmick and the others swore, signifying nothing. Members of the Timpanogos Nation dispute this account saying it would be highly unlikely that a warrior such as An-kar-tewets would have made any concession to accommodate Dimmick and his party because of what had happened earlier. First of all, he would not have the authority to speak on behalf of the Timpanogos community nor make a decision that potentially put the entire tribe and its most precious resources at risk . And we do not swear to the sun. They said it would be more in character of An-kar-tewets to have firmly denied Dimmick and his party any access and that the Mormons simply bullied their way into Timpanogos territory. Dimmick and the rest of the party then immediately began building the fort, for they knew they were in danger. Little did Dimmick and the others know that the land they were building the fort on was a traditional and sacred meeting place for the Shoshone who came from hundreds of miles around during the spring and summer months. There were twenty-seven bands of Shoshoni who would gather in sacred ceremonies to honor the Creator. On the other hand, if Dimmick knew it was sacred land, they didn't care . They were not honoring their sworn oath made earlier . At first, the occupants at the fort attempted to turn the place into a trading post between the Timpanogos and the whites. Trading buffalo hides to the Timpanogos could have been seen as a sacrilege to the Shoshoni. After all, why should they have to now pay for something they had hunted in freedom for centuries? And what kind of person would barter something as sacred as the buffalo to the Natives. In less than a year, one of the bloodiest battles in Utah history would unfold at Fort Utah. THE MURDER OF OLD BISHOP On a warm spring day, three men were riding along the Provo River on their horses when they came upon a "friendly Indian" who the whites called Old Bishop. The whites called him by this name because his mannerisms reminded them of a white man by the name of Bishop Whitney. The three men, Rufus Stoddard, Richard Ivie, and Gerome Zabrisky, began to heckle the man. They accused him of stealing the shirt he was wearing off a clothes line. Old Bishop denied having stolen the shirt from anyone, saying he had made a fair trade for it. Ivie pulled his gun on Old Bishop and told him to take it off. The old Indian man stood his ground and refused. Ivie murdered the Indian in cold blood. Concerned that what they had done would spark retribution from the Timpanogos, the men then gutted the old man. They then filled his body cavity with rocks and threw him in the Provo River. Quoting from History of Utah Sta te, by James Goff, one of the colonists, "The men who killed the Indian ripped his bowels open and filled them with stones preparatory to sinking the body." Then making mockery of the murder, he writes, "The Indians assert that, annually, on the anniversary of his death the Old Bishop appears on the bank of the river and slowly takes the rocks one by one out of his bowels and throws them into the river, then disappears. Some (white) fishermen have watched in hopes of having an interview with the Bishop's ghost. " Satisfied, the men returned to the fort and boasted of having taken Old Bishop's life. Thinking they had committed the perfect murder, they relaxed and fell back into their routines. So much for the promises—empty words, in fact— made by Dimmick Huntington and the Higbee brothers to An-kar-tewets. Demands were made by the Timpanogos band that was camped near Fort Utah that the whites at the fort turn over the one guilty of killing Old Bishop, but their demands fell on deaf ears. The Timpanogos demanded compensation for the death of Old Bishop in cattle and horses, and again their demands where ignored. Meanwhile, measles had begun to spread epidemically among the Timpanogos, and the Mormon saints had succeeded in driving most of the Timpanogos from the valley into the nearby mountains. On a cold winter day, Chief Pareyarts, better known as Old Elk, also known as Big Elk, came to the fort asking for medicine for his people who were sick from the disease. A soldier took the chief by the nap of his neck and threw him out of the fort. Pareyarts was also of the same bloodline as Walkara. Now that Fort Utah had been established on land that was essential to the Timpanogos, as it provided ample food for them and their horses, about 120 settlers were living in and around the fort. Of course, they brought with them horses and cattle, and in a short time the Timpanogos were competing with the Mormon saints for food for man and horse alike. It wasn't long before the people at the fort found their cattle and horses shot full of arrows. The Timpanogos' only logical answer to their plight was to reduce the numbers of cattle and horses overgrazing their land, and to drive out the settlers. Large numbers of cattle began to disappear. For several months, tensions grew between the people at Fort Utah and the Timpanogos . A dispatch was sent to Salt Lake to Brigham Young requesting military support. Brigham made conciliatory efforts to calm the people at the fort. He said, “It’s our duty to feed these poor ignorant Indians.” Brigham gave the Natives the choice to either surrender to the Mormons and eat, or continue to resist and be killed or starve. The saints recklessly fished the Provo River that ran near the fort. It was a major food source for the Timpanogos, but the white man fished with gill nets . It is said they took over 6,000 fish in just one day, none of which was shared with the starving Timpanogos. The young boy taken captive at Battle Creek later came to the fort oddly dressed in a military shirt. He asked the militia if there was anything he could do to help them in exchange for shelter for himself and several of his kin who accompanied him. He and the others were given scanty shelter underneath the fort’s cannon platform in the bitter cold. BATTLE AT FORT UTAH FEBRUARY 29, 1850 Just before the spring in 1850, confrontations had occurred between the settlers at Fort Utah and the Timpanogos. A government officer by the name of Captain Howard Stansbury convinced Brigham that all conciliatory efforts had failed and the only recourse was to take action against the Natives. In contradiction to his "feed them not fight them" policy, Brigham wholeheartedly agreed with Stansbury and supplied his vigilante army with arms, ammunition, tents, and camp equipage for the soldiers. It followed that on January 31, 1850, Lieutenant General Daniel H. Wells of the all Mormon Nauvoo Legion sent orders to Captain George D. Grant to "exterminate the Timpanogos," known as "Special Order No. 2". Isaac Higbee was the bishop of Fort Utah and he met with the First Presidency and the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles at the Fort when they agreed that the only way to keep Fort Utah would be to exterminate the Timpanogos. Source: Utah State Archives, State Capitol, Salt Lake City, Utah Territorial Militia Correspondence, 1849-1863, ST-27, Microfilm reel 1, Document No. 5. Eugene E. Campbell. Establishing Zion “I say go [and] kill them…" said Brigham Young, "Tell Dimmick Huntington to go and kill them—also Barney Ward—let the women and children live if they behave themselves… We have no peace until the men [are] killed off—never treat the Indian as your equal.” Source: BYC, Microfilm reel 80, box 47, folder 6. Farmer, Jared (2008). On Zion’s Mount: Mormons, Indians, and the American Landscape. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674027671 Under the leadership of Colonel George D. Grant, fifty troops were sent to Fort Utah in the late winter of 1850. Captain Grant’s caval ry left Salt Lake. They traveled all night through deep snow and the bitter cold so that they could take the Timpanogos, who were camped along the river near the fort, by surprise. There were about seventy or more Timpanogos warriors along with women and children in the camp. While under the cover of darkness and in the twilight of that bitter cold morning, Grant and his men surrounded the camp and opened fire on the sleeping Timpanogos. Field cannons boomed as they fired chain-shot at the unsuspecting camp, ripping open the teepees, sending women and little children running in all directions screaming in terror as the surrounding troops shot them down one by one. It is said that the chain shot ripped off the limbs of its victims leaving them to die an agonizing death. The air filled with smoke from the guns as Timpanogos warriors, led by Chief Old Elk and Opecarry, put up a good fight. The battle lasted for two days. Two young Timpanogos children named Pernetta and Pick were among the survivors. Pernetta was the daughter of Arapeen, Chief Walkara's brother During this time, General Wells was directed by Brigham Young to give the young boy taken captive at Battle Creek the name Black Hawk. The general told Black Hawk that he must lead his people and do all that he was told to do. Then they would be set free and their horses would be returned to them. Two days after the battle, General H. Wells who had arrived from Salt Lake, ordered young Black Hawk to lead a serial killer by the name of Bill Hickman and his men up Rock Canyon to pursue the survivors. In freezing temperatures and deep snow, Black Hawk, having no choice in the matter, did as he was ordered and led the men up Rock Canyon. Lookouts scaled the steep walls of the canyon as Wells and his men slowly made their way up the rugged canyon . Black Hawk reluctantly followed behind. When they reached the camp of the survivors, terrified women and children were scattering about. Black Hawk was ordered to look in side the teepees. There Black Hawk saw his beloved relative Old Elk frozen to death, and many others who had died of their wounds lay frozen stiff in the cold. The Mormon vigilantes greedily helped themselves taking the belongings from the dead , while Bill Hickman, with knife in hand, hacked Old Elk's head off his frozen body. He said Jim Bridger had offered him a hundred dollars for the head. Old Elk's wife refused to be taken captive . She broke free and ran for her life. She scaled the steep cliffs, but while doing so, she either jumped or slipped and fell to her death. Hence the Mormon s disrespectfully dubbed the canyon Squaw Peak which is located above the Provo LDS Temple . It is a name that endures to this day. Hickman and his men returned to Fort Utah where Hickman showed off his trophy, the head of Old Elk. Of the seventy or so warriors, only about thirteen had escaped while only one life was lost among the Mormons. One of the warriors who managed to survive was taken captive. This was An-kar-tewets, the same one to which the Church leaders Dimmick and the Higbee brothers had earlier sworn an oath that no harm would come to the Natives, that their land and rights would not be taken away, and that they would be given many gifts. One more loathsome act remained to unfold which would haunt the Mormons for many decades to follow, even to the present day. Hickman hung the head of Old Elk from the eves of his cabin. A witness at Fort Utah told reporters, "...it was hung pendant by its long hair from the willows of the roof of one of the houses. I well remember how horrible was the sight." - Robert Carter, Fort Utah. Dr. James Blake, a surgeon among the Stansbury company, was greatly influenced by Hickman's trophy of Old Elk's head. Dr. Blake then ordered troops Abner Blackburn and James Orr to go out and behead each of the frozen corpses lying about in the snow, following the two-day battle that resulted in the deaths of nearly seventy Indian people. Dr. Blake told the men he "wanted to have the heads shipped to Washington to a medical institution." The men hacked the heads from as many as fifty frozen corpses . They piled them in open boxes, along with a dozen or so Mallard ducks that Blake had shot while his men performed their chore. The heads and ducks were taken to the fort and placed in view of Black Hawk, who was barely in his twenties, and his traumatized kin. Innocent of any wrongdoing, the captives were thus tortured as they were forced to view the grizzly remains placed before them for a period of two long and excruciating weeks. Abner, keeping the agreement, delivered the rotting heads and ducks to Blake in Salt Lake. Dr. Blake settled up, and invited Abner to dinner. Abner Blackburn declined, saying he had lost his appetite.	5,517	ENGLISH	1
\|Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba\| \|Queen of Mbande\| \|Reign\|\|1623 - 1663\| Nzinga, was born to Ngola Kiluanji and Kangela in 1581, 1582 or 1583 in the village of Costa de Caparique. According to tradition, she was named Nzinga because her umbilical cord was wrapped around her neck (the Kimbundu verb kujinga means to twist or turn). It was said to be an indication that the person who had this characteristic would be proud and haughty (and a wise women said to her mother that Nzingha will become queen one day.) According to her recollections later in life, she was greatly favoured by her father, who allowed her to witness as he governed his kingdom, and who carried her with him to war. She also had a brother, Ngola Mbandi and two sisters Kifunji and Mukambu. She lived during a period when the Atlantic slave trade and the consolidation of power by the Portuguese in the region were growing rapidly. In the 16th Century, the Portuguese position in the slave trade was threatened by England and France. As a result, the Portuguese shifted their slave-trading activities to The Congo and South West Africa. Mistaking the title of the ruler (ngola) for the name of the country, the Portuguese called the land of the Mbundu people "Angola"—the name by which it is still known today. Nzinga came to power, in the midst of the Portuguese trying to put out the light of her civilization. Her brother, King Mbandi passed away. She took the reins and ruled the kingdom. Implementing many programs directed at keeping her lands out of Portuguese hands. The first thing she did when she came into power was organize a meeting with Portuguese officials, drawing out detailed demands for the invaders to follow, under threat of all out war. She called a conference and it was to be held at the Portuguese stronghold of Luanda.	<urn:uuid:f5445132-ab61-46bc-a9f6-1d287229fd11>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://worldafropedia.com/afropedia/Nzinga_of_Mbande	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00362.warc.gz	en	0.988151	425	3.34375	3	[ -0.18525059521198273, 0.6704744696617126, 0.13227173686027527, -0.19218355417251587, -0.12260981649160385, 0.190471351146698, 0.33469629287719727, -0.10771344602108002, -0.1995934396982193, -0.056457940489053726, 0.21753564476966858, -0.8912624716758728, 0.1948477327823639, 0.3786495923995...	1	\|Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba\| \|Queen of Mbande\| \|Reign\|\|1623 - 1663\| Nzinga, was born to Ngola Kiluanji and Kangela in 1581, 1582 or 1583 in the village of Costa de Caparique. According to tradition, she was named Nzinga because her umbilical cord was wrapped around her neck (the Kimbundu verb kujinga means to twist or turn). It was said to be an indication that the person who had this characteristic would be proud and haughty (and a wise women said to her mother that Nzingha will become queen one day.) According to her recollections later in life, she was greatly favoured by her father, who allowed her to witness as he governed his kingdom, and who carried her with him to war. She also had a brother, Ngola Mbandi and two sisters Kifunji and Mukambu. She lived during a period when the Atlantic slave trade and the consolidation of power by the Portuguese in the region were growing rapidly. In the 16th Century, the Portuguese position in the slave trade was threatened by England and France. As a result, the Portuguese shifted their slave-trading activities to The Congo and South West Africa. Mistaking the title of the ruler (ngola) for the name of the country, the Portuguese called the land of the Mbundu people "Angola"—the name by which it is still known today. Nzinga came to power, in the midst of the Portuguese trying to put out the light of her civilization. Her brother, King Mbandi passed away. She took the reins and ruled the kingdom. Implementing many programs directed at keeping her lands out of Portuguese hands. The first thing she did when she came into power was organize a meeting with Portuguese officials, drawing out detailed demands for the invaders to follow, under threat of all out war. She called a conference and it was to be held at the Portuguese stronghold of Luanda.	432	ENGLISH	1
On Friday 15th November all of year six went to Stonehenge. We went to this historic place to find out some information about the ancient stones and see how they were built compared to a particular Egyptian pyramid. We found out lots of interesting facts such as: The arrangement of the stones seems to be specifically in that order so they could tell the movement of the sun and therefore the time of year; the first metal object appeared in 2400BC and the first major construction at Stonehenge was the ‘Curcus’. At the stones, the guides answered any questions we had about Stonehenge and gave us pieces of information that we needed for our workbooks. Another way we found out facts is by walking round and looking at the noticeboards around the stones. There was huts from the Neolithic period, which were built by staff from the ATC here in Cranborne. The houses had thatch rooves and small brown doors. Inside the buildings, there were weaved beds of wood, shelves, a dip in the floor for a fire and different types of tools for example, arrows and spears. Inside the expedition, they had clay models of Stonehenge alongside details of probably why it was built and perhaps how it was constructed; nobody knows for sure. We are now using all of this information at school to compare this four thousand five hundred year old monument with the Great Pyramid of Giza, in Egypt, which was built at about the same time in history. By Katie D and Katy HM in 6JG	<urn:uuid:64879439-0e4c-4165-837f-ccd98c2b2aaf>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.cranbornemid.dorset.sch.uk/whole-school-news/amazing-archaeologists-ask-and-answer	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00101.warc.gz	en	0.983916	314	3.75	4	[ 0.0376259945333004, 0.657600462436676, 0.5663232207298279, 0.1442275047302246, -0.39446261525154114, -0.01899384707212448, 0.12642087042331696, -0.09742036461830139, -0.24711817502975464, -0.013227776624262333, 0.13270020484924316, -0.5265420079231262, -0.49964702129364014, 0.5064712762832...	13	On Friday 15th November all of year six went to Stonehenge. We went to this historic place to find out some information about the ancient stones and see how they were built compared to a particular Egyptian pyramid. We found out lots of interesting facts such as: The arrangement of the stones seems to be specifically in that order so they could tell the movement of the sun and therefore the time of year; the first metal object appeared in 2400BC and the first major construction at Stonehenge was the ‘Curcus’. At the stones, the guides answered any questions we had about Stonehenge and gave us pieces of information that we needed for our workbooks. Another way we found out facts is by walking round and looking at the noticeboards around the stones. There was huts from the Neolithic period, which were built by staff from the ATC here in Cranborne. The houses had thatch rooves and small brown doors. Inside the buildings, there were weaved beds of wood, shelves, a dip in the floor for a fire and different types of tools for example, arrows and spears. Inside the expedition, they had clay models of Stonehenge alongside details of probably why it was built and perhaps how it was constructed; nobody knows for sure. We are now using all of this information at school to compare this four thousand five hundred year old monument with the Great Pyramid of Giza, in Egypt, which was built at about the same time in history. By Katie D and Katy HM in 6JG	316	ENGLISH	1
Women's Failure to Gain the Vote Between 1900-1914 There are many reasons why women failed to gain the right to vote between 1900 and 1914, these different reasons did not just appear overnight some were had been institutionalised into the very core of British society over a great length of time. The other reasons were public responses to, the then, recent actions of the groups looking to gain the vote for women. For the purpose of this coursework I will separate these reasons into three major factors that explain why women failed to gain the vote between 1900 and 1914. 1. Long-term factors: First I am going to study the long-term causes, as it is with these that the climate of the situation at the time in question can be viewed in its entirety. At the start of the 20th century Britain was a patriarchal society, one dominated by males with women considered as lower class citizens. Most women were seen as their husbands’ property and were there to meet all their requirements, these requirements included doing all domestic work, bringing up any children they may have and being there to please them sexually. Another long-term reason that caused those who wished to have the vote for women an uphill struggle was the general consensus, in the government, that women did not deserve the vote or in fact want the vote. This particular view would prove to be a very stubborn obstacle for those who would want the vote for women, as it was sexism at its most institutionalised. Also there was no major request for change within the country before 1900, the country was in a good period of stability, the empire was at its strongest and Britain was one of the, if not thee, most influential countries in the worlds markets. The people who were demanding the vote for women were named the suffragettes; this name came from the word suffrage, which means having the right to vote. The Women’s Social and Political Union was the major group of suffragettes, the Pankhurst family set this group. The Pankhurst family set up the WSPU because they felt that the suffragists (women who used peaceful methods to get their point across) tactics had failed to gain any ground in the fight for a During the early twentieth centaury, the social position of women was very different. The role of a woman was very domestic. They were expected simply to marry, bear children and look after the home. Women were seen as unintelligent, indecisive, emotional creatures that could not cope with politics. William Randall Cramer commented that if women got the vote, they would become masculine and domineering and consequently neglect their household and marital duties. There were also those that thought that if women had the vote, they would stop having children, and eventually the human race would die...	<urn:uuid:1714bee7-049a-4232-8554-203580f718a7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/women-s-failure-to-achieve-the-vote-between-1900-1914	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00361.warc.gz	en	0.982724	615	3.71875	4	[ -0.11560797691345215, -0.018081465736031532, -0.16381502151489258, 0.008444488979876041, -0.35883408784866333, 0.6291415095329285, -0.10470695793628693, 0.2325829267501831, -0.061172015964984894, -0.0486106239259243, 0.2498747706413269, -0.5670849680900574, 0.23138773441314697, 0.207706764...	1	Women's Failure to Gain the Vote Between 1900-1914 There are many reasons why women failed to gain the right to vote between 1900 and 1914, these different reasons did not just appear overnight some were had been institutionalised into the very core of British society over a great length of time. The other reasons were public responses to, the then, recent actions of the groups looking to gain the vote for women. For the purpose of this coursework I will separate these reasons into three major factors that explain why women failed to gain the vote between 1900 and 1914. 1. Long-term factors: First I am going to study the long-term causes, as it is with these that the climate of the situation at the time in question can be viewed in its entirety. At the start of the 20th century Britain was a patriarchal society, one dominated by males with women considered as lower class citizens. Most women were seen as their husbands’ property and were there to meet all their requirements, these requirements included doing all domestic work, bringing up any children they may have and being there to please them sexually. Another long-term reason that caused those who wished to have the vote for women an uphill struggle was the general consensus, in the government, that women did not deserve the vote or in fact want the vote. This particular view would prove to be a very stubborn obstacle for those who would want the vote for women, as it was sexism at its most institutionalised. Also there was no major request for change within the country before 1900, the country was in a good period of stability, the empire was at its strongest and Britain was one of the, if not thee, most influential countries in the worlds markets. The people who were demanding the vote for women were named the suffragettes; this name came from the word suffrage, which means having the right to vote. The Women’s Social and Political Union was the major group of suffragettes, the Pankhurst family set this group. The Pankhurst family set up the WSPU because they felt that the suffragists (women who used peaceful methods to get their point across) tactics had failed to gain any ground in the fight for a During the early twentieth centaury, the social position of women was very different. The role of a woman was very domestic. They were expected simply to marry, bear children and look after the home. Women were seen as unintelligent, indecisive, emotional creatures that could not cope with politics. William Randall Cramer commented that if women got the vote, they would become masculine and domineering and consequently neglect their household and marital duties. There were also those that thought that if women had the vote, they would stop having children, and eventually the human race would die...	631	ENGLISH	1
Highly desireable early map of Michigan by David Burrk, which appeared in his Universal Atlas, first issued in 1836. The UP is now part of Michigan, with a massive Michilimacinac County covering the upper part of the state and much of the UP. A large Green Bay is shown in what is described as Huron Territory. Large Sanilac, Saginaw and Lapeer Counties are shown, and many counties are yet to be divided. The Indian Boundary Line from the Saginaw Treaty is shown. A massive Township of Michillimackinac is shown, one of its only appearances on a map. The region west of the Lake is also extremely fascinating. Includes the disputed southern strip between Indiana and Illinois. An especially fine example of this highly sought after map. Burr's Atlas was perhaps the most elegant American commercially published atlas of its time, with an elegant engraving style. Burr studied under Simeon DeWitt in New York. His first atlas was an Atlas of New York State, the second state atlas to be issued in the US (after Mills Atlas of South Carolina in 1826). In the 1830s, he served as topographer for the US Post Office, producing a series of rare and highly sought after large format state maps during this period. Later, he was appointed as the Geographer of the House of Representatives, where he served during the later part of the 1830s. Burr is widely regarded as one of the most important names in American Cartographic history.	<urn:uuid:a3e73f22-01c4-4390-8911-c0f6dc5b0a6b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.raremaps.com/gallery/detail/1821/michigan-drawn-published-by-david-h-burr-burr	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00536.warc.gz	en	0.980817	315	3.421875	3	[ -0.32885560393333435, -0.45516565442085266, 0.21931889653205872, 0.006217876449227333, -0.03024301491677761, -0.04468810558319092, 0.08624067157506943, 0.0579802580177784, -0.4465186595916748, -0.05473063141107559, 0.09180837124586105, -0.5001377463340759, -0.2545594274997711, 0.4852674901...	2	Highly desireable early map of Michigan by David Burrk, which appeared in his Universal Atlas, first issued in 1836. The UP is now part of Michigan, with a massive Michilimacinac County covering the upper part of the state and much of the UP. A large Green Bay is shown in what is described as Huron Territory. Large Sanilac, Saginaw and Lapeer Counties are shown, and many counties are yet to be divided. The Indian Boundary Line from the Saginaw Treaty is shown. A massive Township of Michillimackinac is shown, one of its only appearances on a map. The region west of the Lake is also extremely fascinating. Includes the disputed southern strip between Indiana and Illinois. An especially fine example of this highly sought after map. Burr's Atlas was perhaps the most elegant American commercially published atlas of its time, with an elegant engraving style. Burr studied under Simeon DeWitt in New York. His first atlas was an Atlas of New York State, the second state atlas to be issued in the US (after Mills Atlas of South Carolina in 1826). In the 1830s, he served as topographer for the US Post Office, producing a series of rare and highly sought after large format state maps during this period. Later, he was appointed as the Geographer of the House of Representatives, where he served during the later part of the 1830s. Burr is widely regarded as one of the most important names in American Cartographic history.	322	ENGLISH	1
Who Won the War of 1812? The War of 1812, although it was officially declared in 1812, actually began in 1776. That was when the Americans declared their independence from Britain. The war of independence which led up to the declaration split the American colonists along the lines of those who wanted to remain British and those who did not. This was a wound that was not healed by 1812. As we discussed in an early part of this series, American thinking had a lot to do with the War of 1812, including: 1. They had a President who eyed Canada as a northern state for his union. 2. They had a right-wing faction, the War Hawks, within their Congress who wanted a fight. 3. They were convinced that the British were an easy target for their military because they were also fighting with France, and thus a quick conquest was assured. 4. They were concerned that the American Indians were coalescing under the leadership of a Shawnee leader, Tecumseh, and they sought to crush them. That is not to say that the Americans did not have a beef that drove them to war. The British, with their acts of Impressments, forced sailors, including Americans, to essentially become slaves in their navy, by attacking American (and other) ships on the open seas. The British were also blockading European ports thus affecting trade for the Americans, and trade was the lifeblood of America. So the politicians bellowed, the cannons boomed, blood was spilled, major settlements and cities were burned and destroyed and precious resources were wasted… to what end? Who won and who lost? Did anyone win? Did the outcome have any effect on the fortunes of any party? Historians are split on who won the war. Some Americans count the number of battle they won versus those they lost and decide that they won more than they lost – so they that they were the winners. The British on the other hand point to the fact that, with a small army spread across a large land mass, they defeated the Americans. Canadians, in large number, declare that since the Americans did not conquer Canada, that Canada was victorious. And many Canadians have the view that there were no winners… the war was fought to a draw But where, in all this bravado, are the First Nations peoples of Canada and the Indians of the United States? They fought in all the battles and were, in my estimation, the tipping point in favour of the British and Canadians, but were they winners or losers? While I cannot definitively tell you who won the War of 1812, I can suggest that the big losers were the American Indians. The Indians were persecuted by the American government and the commercial interests that represented them. They were continuously driven across the country and, when defeated, put onto reserves that consisted of some the most inhospitable land in the country. They were stripped of their lands, their rights, their culture and their traditions. But let’s not gloat here in Canada. We really did not do any better for our friends from the First Nations. Without them we would be singing a different national anthem and what did we thank them with? Empty treaties, the Indian Act, residential schools and on and on. Who won the War of 1812? Nobody! As in all wars… there are no winners.	<urn:uuid:74138887-7fd2-4ded-be41-c648e58b7986>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://canadiansatarms.ca/who-won-the-war-of-1812/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00021.warc.gz	en	0.993295	697	3.546875	4	[ -0.15922273695468903, -0.000356968492269516, 0.7023357152938843, 0.08916202187538147, -0.4332719147205353, -0.3746453523635864, 0.2925707697868347, 0.325800359249115, -0.12658214569091797, 0.269193172454834, 0.17998594045639038, -0.22851859033107758, -0.26603466272354126, 0.194659620523452...	7	Who Won the War of 1812? The War of 1812, although it was officially declared in 1812, actually began in 1776. That was when the Americans declared their independence from Britain. The war of independence which led up to the declaration split the American colonists along the lines of those who wanted to remain British and those who did not. This was a wound that was not healed by 1812. As we discussed in an early part of this series, American thinking had a lot to do with the War of 1812, including: 1. They had a President who eyed Canada as a northern state for his union. 2. They had a right-wing faction, the War Hawks, within their Congress who wanted a fight. 3. They were convinced that the British were an easy target for their military because they were also fighting with France, and thus a quick conquest was assured. 4. They were concerned that the American Indians were coalescing under the leadership of a Shawnee leader, Tecumseh, and they sought to crush them. That is not to say that the Americans did not have a beef that drove them to war. The British, with their acts of Impressments, forced sailors, including Americans, to essentially become slaves in their navy, by attacking American (and other) ships on the open seas. The British were also blockading European ports thus affecting trade for the Americans, and trade was the lifeblood of America. So the politicians bellowed, the cannons boomed, blood was spilled, major settlements and cities were burned and destroyed and precious resources were wasted… to what end? Who won and who lost? Did anyone win? Did the outcome have any effect on the fortunes of any party? Historians are split on who won the war. Some Americans count the number of battle they won versus those they lost and decide that they won more than they lost – so they that they were the winners. The British on the other hand point to the fact that, with a small army spread across a large land mass, they defeated the Americans. Canadians, in large number, declare that since the Americans did not conquer Canada, that Canada was victorious. And many Canadians have the view that there were no winners… the war was fought to a draw But where, in all this bravado, are the First Nations peoples of Canada and the Indians of the United States? They fought in all the battles and were, in my estimation, the tipping point in favour of the British and Canadians, but were they winners or losers? While I cannot definitively tell you who won the War of 1812, I can suggest that the big losers were the American Indians. The Indians were persecuted by the American government and the commercial interests that represented them. They were continuously driven across the country and, when defeated, put onto reserves that consisted of some the most inhospitable land in the country. They were stripped of their lands, their rights, their culture and their traditions. But let’s not gloat here in Canada. We really did not do any better for our friends from the First Nations. Without them we would be singing a different national anthem and what did we thank them with? Empty treaties, the Indian Act, residential schools and on and on. Who won the War of 1812? Nobody! As in all wars… there are no winners.	705	ENGLISH	1
Mitchell v. Helms Not all Supreme Court cases result in a majority opinion. While historically, Chief Justices have tried to get justices to agree, the Rehnquist Court was often quite divided and would issue complicated combinations of concurrences and dissents. In some cases, like Mitchell v. Helms, a plurality opinion as well as a concurrence created the 5-4 ruling. This 2000 case involved a dispute over whether Catholic schools should be allotted public funds for education. The decision would have an impact on parochial school funding throughout the United States, and would pave the way for voucher programs to be ruled constitutional by the courts. The ECIA of 1981 The Education Consolidation and Improvement Act of 1981 created a type of funding (commonly referred to as “Chapter 2 funding”) in order to help both public and private schools obtain and use new instructional and reference materials. Local and state educational agencies were required to distribute these funds to any non-profit school, whether public or private. Chapter 2 aid was also to be distributed in a way that was proportional with how many children were attending each individual school. Local school districts and state educational agencies were not allowed to discriminate against private schools in these allocations. However, the law also specified that Chapter 2 funds used in private schools, even religious schools, were only to be used for non-ideological, secular materials rather than religious ones. Jefferson Parish's Implementation of ECIA The case of Mitchell v. Helms began in Jefferson Parish, Louisiana (parishes are the local units in Louisiana that are equivalent to counties in most other U.S. states). In Jefferson Parish, approximately 30 percent of Chapter 2 funds were allocated to private schools—the vast majority of which were Roman Catholic. While Mitchell v. Helms was decided in 2000, the lawsuit leading to the Supreme Court case was actually filed in 1985. The plaintiff in the suit argued that the distribution of federal funds to religious schools was a violation of the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. The Supreme Court's Ruling In order to decide this case, the Supreme Court applied the so-called “Lemon test,” a three part test for whether a statute violates the Establishment Clause. The test requires the court to look at whether the law had a secular purpose, whether its effect was positive, negative, or neutral for religion, and whether it creates “excessive entanglement” between church and state. The Court ruled in a plurality opinion authored by Justice Clarence Thomas that Chapter 2 funding to parochial schools was constitutional according to the Lemon test. According to the court, the statute clearly had a secular purpose, and did not have the effect of either advancing or inhibiting religious practice because materials purchased through the program were required to be secular and neutral. The court noted that it had moved on from its previous position, which had held that any funds advancing the educational mission of religious schools were not constitutional. The change had occurred in Agostini v. Felton, a case that had been decided three years earlier.	<urn:uuid:295ee650-fd10-4eea-bb6d-1018c5b90f9a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://cases.laws.com/mitchell-v-helms	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00073.warc.gz	en	0.981576	635	3.59375	4	[ -0.4426724910736084, -0.3203955292701721, -0.32854342460632324, -0.32972875237464905, -0.21733026206493378, 0.20831742882728577, -0.2092735469341278, -0.07678569108247757, 0.2639188766479492, -0.186859130859375, 0.0012486251071095467, 0.4648934006690979, 0.12258049845695496, -0.10596784949...	14	Mitchell v. Helms Not all Supreme Court cases result in a majority opinion. While historically, Chief Justices have tried to get justices to agree, the Rehnquist Court was often quite divided and would issue complicated combinations of concurrences and dissents. In some cases, like Mitchell v. Helms, a plurality opinion as well as a concurrence created the 5-4 ruling. This 2000 case involved a dispute over whether Catholic schools should be allotted public funds for education. The decision would have an impact on parochial school funding throughout the United States, and would pave the way for voucher programs to be ruled constitutional by the courts. The ECIA of 1981 The Education Consolidation and Improvement Act of 1981 created a type of funding (commonly referred to as “Chapter 2 funding”) in order to help both public and private schools obtain and use new instructional and reference materials. Local and state educational agencies were required to distribute these funds to any non-profit school, whether public or private. Chapter 2 aid was also to be distributed in a way that was proportional with how many children were attending each individual school. Local school districts and state educational agencies were not allowed to discriminate against private schools in these allocations. However, the law also specified that Chapter 2 funds used in private schools, even religious schools, were only to be used for non-ideological, secular materials rather than religious ones. Jefferson Parish's Implementation of ECIA The case of Mitchell v. Helms began in Jefferson Parish, Louisiana (parishes are the local units in Louisiana that are equivalent to counties in most other U.S. states). In Jefferson Parish, approximately 30 percent of Chapter 2 funds were allocated to private schools—the vast majority of which were Roman Catholic. While Mitchell v. Helms was decided in 2000, the lawsuit leading to the Supreme Court case was actually filed in 1985. The plaintiff in the suit argued that the distribution of federal funds to religious schools was a violation of the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. The Supreme Court's Ruling In order to decide this case, the Supreme Court applied the so-called “Lemon test,” a three part test for whether a statute violates the Establishment Clause. The test requires the court to look at whether the law had a secular purpose, whether its effect was positive, negative, or neutral for religion, and whether it creates “excessive entanglement” between church and state. The Court ruled in a plurality opinion authored by Justice Clarence Thomas that Chapter 2 funding to parochial schools was constitutional according to the Lemon test. According to the court, the statute clearly had a secular purpose, and did not have the effect of either advancing or inhibiting religious practice because materials purchased through the program were required to be secular and neutral. The court noted that it had moved on from its previous position, which had held that any funds advancing the educational mission of religious schools were not constitutional. The change had occurred in Agostini v. Felton, a case that had been decided three years earlier.	644	ENGLISH	1
Sandford Fleming was born on January 7, 1827 in Scotland. He emigrated to Quebec in 1845 at the age of seventeen. Fleming began work in Canada as a surveyor and worked as a Chief Engineer for the construction of the Intercolonial Railway. Later, he held that same title for the Canadian Pacific Railway. His greatest contribution to railroading was the introduction of Standard Time. Previously, watches were set to the sun, and when the sun was directly overhead it was 12 noon. However, under that system, 12 noon in Kingston was twelve minutes later than noon in Montreal and thirteen minutes before noon in Toronto. Travellers had to reset their watches in each new town they visited to be on the correct local time. With the advent of the transcontinental railway, this way of keeping time became increasingly problematic for station managers who could not deal with train schedules that were based on local time. Sandford Fleming devised a solution to the problem which was a universal system of time that would work not only for Canada, but for all countries across the globe. He devised a world map and divided it into 24 time zones. There would be one hour difference in between each of these zones, and all the clocks in these zones would read the same time. Despite negative feedback from some, Standard Time was implemented on January 1, 1885. Fleming died on July 22, 1915 in Halifax, Canada.	<urn:uuid:1bc521f7-6be5-4f75-a270-1e20d0225a71>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.nrrhof.org/sandford-fleming	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00423.warc.gz	en	0.987273	283	3.875	4	[ -0.014405897818505764, 0.09874533116817474, 0.1999240666627884, 0.001944469171576202, -0.05782672390341759, -0.000800813315436244, 0.12883248925209045, -0.10555171221494675, -0.05476072058081627, -0.08348537981510162, 0.1315910816192627, -0.18048632144927979, 0.29346632957458496, 0.2573230...	1	Sandford Fleming was born on January 7, 1827 in Scotland. He emigrated to Quebec in 1845 at the age of seventeen. Fleming began work in Canada as a surveyor and worked as a Chief Engineer for the construction of the Intercolonial Railway. Later, he held that same title for the Canadian Pacific Railway. His greatest contribution to railroading was the introduction of Standard Time. Previously, watches were set to the sun, and when the sun was directly overhead it was 12 noon. However, under that system, 12 noon in Kingston was twelve minutes later than noon in Montreal and thirteen minutes before noon in Toronto. Travellers had to reset their watches in each new town they visited to be on the correct local time. With the advent of the transcontinental railway, this way of keeping time became increasingly problematic for station managers who could not deal with train schedules that were based on local time. Sandford Fleming devised a solution to the problem which was a universal system of time that would work not only for Canada, but for all countries across the globe. He devised a world map and divided it into 24 time zones. There would be one hour difference in between each of these zones, and all the clocks in these zones would read the same time. Despite negative feedback from some, Standard Time was implemented on January 1, 1885. Fleming died on July 22, 1915 in Halifax, Canada.	305	ENGLISH	1
Germany - Dachau Concentration Camp This Concentration camp was the first of the Nazi concentration camps opened in 1933, intended to hold political prisoners. It is located on the grounds of an abandoned munitions factory northeast of the medieval town of Dachau, about 16 km (10 mi) northwest of Munich in the state of Bavaria, in southern Germany. Opened by Heinrich Himmler, its purpose was enlarged to include forced labor, and eventually, the imprisonment of Jews, German and Austrian criminals, and eventually foreign nationals from countries that Germany occupied or invaded. The SS had affixed the motto "Arbeit Macht Frei", meaning "Work will make you free" to the camp gate. The motto reflected the Nazi propaganda meant to trivialize the concentration camp for outsiders as a "labor and re-education camp." The motto also characterized the cynical mentality of the SS, who implemented forced labor as a method of torture and as an extension of the terror of concentration life. Between the International Monument and the two barracks is the area that was once covered by the roll call square. he area was able to hold forty to fifty thousand persons and served mainly as the assembly point for the prisoner roll calls, during which the prisoners were counted every morning and evening, or for carrying out punishments. The Shunt Room The admission procedure to the Dachau concentration camp was completed in the shunt room; this procedure was brutal and meant for the prisoners the loss of personal rights, liberty and human autonomy. Generally the procedure for interning the prisoners in the camp began in the rooms of the political department, whose buildings were still located in the SS compound to the southwest in front of the Jourhaus The current exhibition shows the former shunt room in its original spatial division. Tables were set up along the axis of the pillars, dividing the room into two parts. Behind the tables stood the SS men and the prisoners assigned to work there; they completed registration for all of the newly arrived prisoners, and collected their clothes and personal possessions. Here are some of the Photos inside the Shunt Room: As I continued to wander around this room, I noticed a man looking out the this small window. For some reason, I couldn't shift my eyes away from him, there was something about his emotion that took me from that painful moment of the history: "The prisoners got off in front of the Jourhaus and entered the barracks of the political department. There their personal details were recorded. The protective custody order had meanwhile arrived, stating why one had been arrested and so on. Your profile was photographed through the famous system: a needle was inserted in the chair, the SS man did not want to always have to say: “Next!” He simply pressed a button. The needle pricked up into your ass. The prisoner jumped up – no need to explain any further – then it was the turn of the next prisoner. Then one entered the camp through the Jourhaus. (…) After that off to the Schubraum. There we were stripped of all our clothes. Everything had to be handed over: money, rings, watches. One was now stark naked." Exhibition panel with photographs of former prisoners, whose destinies are presentated in the exhibition. The Prisoner Bath The baths were the last station of the admission procedure. This is where newly arrived prisoners had their heads shaved, were disinfected, showered and then sent to the barracks dressed in their prisoner clothing. Those already imprisoned came here once a week at the beginning - later less frequently - to "bathe," a procedure that according to the recollection of many survivors often involved harassment. At the same time though, many also tell of the relief at being able to finally wash themselves with a piece of soap or to feel briefly the luxury of warm water after the frequently long transports or weeks of imprisonment.	<urn:uuid:9e3f6dc4-c596-4a2a-954b-c48fd04a23f1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.marialigaya.com/dachau	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00084.warc.gz	en	0.983271	799	3.703125	4	[ -0.17054134607315063, 0.8283485174179077, -0.10741819441318512, 0.056401386857032776, -0.12695130705833435, 0.1335081160068512, 0.16223128139972687, -0.04215558245778084, -0.012626182287931442, -0.5599785447120667, 0.29042699933052063, -0.7490984201431274, 0.09173282980918884, 0.5090281963...	1	Germany - Dachau Concentration Camp This Concentration camp was the first of the Nazi concentration camps opened in 1933, intended to hold political prisoners. It is located on the grounds of an abandoned munitions factory northeast of the medieval town of Dachau, about 16 km (10 mi) northwest of Munich in the state of Bavaria, in southern Germany. Opened by Heinrich Himmler, its purpose was enlarged to include forced labor, and eventually, the imprisonment of Jews, German and Austrian criminals, and eventually foreign nationals from countries that Germany occupied or invaded. The SS had affixed the motto "Arbeit Macht Frei", meaning "Work will make you free" to the camp gate. The motto reflected the Nazi propaganda meant to trivialize the concentration camp for outsiders as a "labor and re-education camp." The motto also characterized the cynical mentality of the SS, who implemented forced labor as a method of torture and as an extension of the terror of concentration life. Between the International Monument and the two barracks is the area that was once covered by the roll call square. he area was able to hold forty to fifty thousand persons and served mainly as the assembly point for the prisoner roll calls, during which the prisoners were counted every morning and evening, or for carrying out punishments. The Shunt Room The admission procedure to the Dachau concentration camp was completed in the shunt room; this procedure was brutal and meant for the prisoners the loss of personal rights, liberty and human autonomy. Generally the procedure for interning the prisoners in the camp began in the rooms of the political department, whose buildings were still located in the SS compound to the southwest in front of the Jourhaus The current exhibition shows the former shunt room in its original spatial division. Tables were set up along the axis of the pillars, dividing the room into two parts. Behind the tables stood the SS men and the prisoners assigned to work there; they completed registration for all of the newly arrived prisoners, and collected their clothes and personal possessions. Here are some of the Photos inside the Shunt Room: As I continued to wander around this room, I noticed a man looking out the this small window. For some reason, I couldn't shift my eyes away from him, there was something about his emotion that took me from that painful moment of the history: "The prisoners got off in front of the Jourhaus and entered the barracks of the political department. There their personal details were recorded. The protective custody order had meanwhile arrived, stating why one had been arrested and so on. Your profile was photographed through the famous system: a needle was inserted in the chair, the SS man did not want to always have to say: “Next!” He simply pressed a button. The needle pricked up into your ass. The prisoner jumped up – no need to explain any further – then it was the turn of the next prisoner. Then one entered the camp through the Jourhaus. (…) After that off to the Schubraum. There we were stripped of all our clothes. Everything had to be handed over: money, rings, watches. One was now stark naked." Exhibition panel with photographs of former prisoners, whose destinies are presentated in the exhibition. The Prisoner Bath The baths were the last station of the admission procedure. This is where newly arrived prisoners had their heads shaved, were disinfected, showered and then sent to the barracks dressed in their prisoner clothing. Those already imprisoned came here once a week at the beginning - later less frequently - to "bathe," a procedure that according to the recollection of many survivors often involved harassment. At the same time though, many also tell of the relief at being able to finally wash themselves with a piece of soap or to feel briefly the luxury of warm water after the frequently long transports or weeks of imprisonment.	793	ENGLISH	1
Saint Charles Garnier, a priest, one of the eight North American Martyrs, was a French Jesuit missionary who worked among the Hurons for 14 years converting and baptizing them. He was killed by the Iroquois as they attacked their village. Mortally wounded he was giving absolution and baptizing when he died. The eight North American martyrs, also known as the Canadian Martyrs, the Jesuit Martyrs of North America or the Martyrs of France, included six priests and two lay brothers. They traveled from Renaissance France to the wild North American frontier as missionaries to win souls for Christ. All were martyred by the North American Indians. They are the first Catholic martyred saints of North America and were canonized on June 29, 1930.	<urn:uuid:41c25fb8-392b-4797-8ee0-43e82d49bc26>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://portraitsofsaints.com/collections/new-product/products/st-charles-garnier-print	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00020.warc.gz	en	0.988824	156	3.421875	3	[ -0.18023914098739624, 0.4775935411453247, -0.201405331492424, -0.1411917805671692, -0.270132452249527, -0.3322390913963318, -0.09606444835662842, 0.33155110478401184, 0.3225448727607727, -0.009284055791795254, -0.16251681745052338, -0.0970359519124031, -0.24781788885593414, 0.0042869923636...	9	Saint Charles Garnier, a priest, one of the eight North American Martyrs, was a French Jesuit missionary who worked among the Hurons for 14 years converting and baptizing them. He was killed by the Iroquois as they attacked their village. Mortally wounded he was giving absolution and baptizing when he died. The eight North American martyrs, also known as the Canadian Martyrs, the Jesuit Martyrs of North America or the Martyrs of France, included six priests and two lay brothers. They traveled from Renaissance France to the wild North American frontier as missionaries to win souls for Christ. All were martyred by the North American Indians. They are the first Catholic martyred saints of North America and were canonized on June 29, 1930.	164	ENGLISH	1
John Steinbeck Topics He Was Interested In Essay The life and work of the author Jon Steinbeck was born in Salinas, California in 1902. Steinbeck father worked as the Monterey County Treasurer, and his mother was a former school teacher. His mother helped encourage Steinbeck love for reading, and particularly for writing. Although his family was wealthy, he was interested in the lives of the farm laborers and spent time working with them. He used his experiences as material for his writing. Steinbeck worked as a laboratory assistant and farm laborer to support himself through six ears of study at Stanford University, where he took only those courses that interested him without seeking a degree. Many of his works take place in California, where he lived. Steinbeck first became widely known with Tortilla Flat (1935) ,a series of stories about Mexican Americans on Monterey peninsula. His short Story, Of Mice and Man , became a bestseller in 1937 This story is about an unusual friendship between two migrant workers (laborers who travel to wherever there is available work, usually on farms). He wrote a number of novels about poor people who worked on the land and dreamed f a better life, including The Grapes of Wrath, which is the heart-rending story of a family’s struggle to escape the dust bowl of the West to reach California. The Grapes of Wrath received the Pulitzer Prize in 1940. Among his later works should be mentioned East of Eden (1952), The Winter of Our Discontent (1 961), and Travels with Charley (1 962), a travelogue in which Steinbeck wrote about his impressions during a three-month tour in a truck that led him through forty American states. Steinbeck was awarded the Nobel prize for Literature in 1962 and he died in New York City in 1968. Cite this John Steinbeck Topics He Was Interested In Essay John Steinbeck Topics He Was Interested In Essay. (2018, Apr 08). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/john-steinbeck-2/	<urn:uuid:b8b9207d-6725-4285-a8e0-9ba3e60f26ad>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://graduateway.com/john-steinbeck-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00256.warc.gz	en	0.984113	428	3.296875	3	[ 0.16961468756198883, 0.38345903158187866, 0.21777528524398804, -0.296427845954895, 0.07971639931201935, -0.16450925171375275, -0.2831820249557495, 0.4261835515499115, -0.1599779576063156, -0.39308229088783264, -0.08697652816772461, 0.2837156653404236, 0.0012451084330677986, -0.021112404763...	1	John Steinbeck Topics He Was Interested In Essay The life and work of the author Jon Steinbeck was born in Salinas, California in 1902. Steinbeck father worked as the Monterey County Treasurer, and his mother was a former school teacher. His mother helped encourage Steinbeck love for reading, and particularly for writing. Although his family was wealthy, he was interested in the lives of the farm laborers and spent time working with them. He used his experiences as material for his writing. Steinbeck worked as a laboratory assistant and farm laborer to support himself through six ears of study at Stanford University, where he took only those courses that interested him without seeking a degree. Many of his works take place in California, where he lived. Steinbeck first became widely known with Tortilla Flat (1935) ,a series of stories about Mexican Americans on Monterey peninsula. His short Story, Of Mice and Man , became a bestseller in 1937 This story is about an unusual friendship between two migrant workers (laborers who travel to wherever there is available work, usually on farms). He wrote a number of novels about poor people who worked on the land and dreamed f a better life, including The Grapes of Wrath, which is the heart-rending story of a family’s struggle to escape the dust bowl of the West to reach California. The Grapes of Wrath received the Pulitzer Prize in 1940. Among his later works should be mentioned East of Eden (1952), The Winter of Our Discontent (1 961), and Travels with Charley (1 962), a travelogue in which Steinbeck wrote about his impressions during a three-month tour in a truck that led him through forty American states. Steinbeck was awarded the Nobel prize for Literature in 1962 and he died in New York City in 1968. Cite this John Steinbeck Topics He Was Interested In Essay John Steinbeck Topics He Was Interested In Essay. (2018, Apr 08). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/john-steinbeck-2/	444	ENGLISH	1
Who Was John F. Kennedy? John F. Kennedy served in both the U.S. House of Representatives and U.S. Senate before becoming the 35th president in 1961. As president, Kennedy faced a number of foreign crises, especially in Cuba and Berlin, but managed to secure such achievements as the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty and the Alliance for Progress. On November 22, 1963, Kennedy was assassinated while riding in a motorcade in Dallas, Texas. Kennedy was born on May 29, 1917, in Brookline, Massachusetts. Both the Fitzgeralds and the Kennedys were wealthy and prominent Irish Catholic Boston families. Kennedy's paternal grandfather, P.J. Kennedy, was a wealthy banker and liquor trader, and his maternal grandfather, John E. Fitzgerald, nicknamed "Honey Fitz," was a skilled politician who served as a congressman and as the mayor of Boston. Kennedy's mother, Rose Elizabeth Fitzgerald, was a Boston debutante, and his father, Joseph Kennedy Sr., was a successful banker who made a fortune on the stock market after World War I. Joe Kennedy Sr. went on to a government career as chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission and as an ambassador to Great Britain. John, nicknamed "Jack," was the second oldest of a group of nine extraordinary siblings. His brothers and sisters include Eunice, the founder of the Special Olympics; Robert, a U.S. Attorney General, and Ted, one of the most powerful senators in American history. The Kennedy children remained close-knit and supportive of each other throughout their entire lives. Joseph and Rose largely spurned the world of Boston socialites into which they had been born to focus instead on their children's education. Joe Sr. in particular obsessed over every detail of his kids' lives, a rarity for a father at that time. As a family friend noted, "Most fathers in those days simply weren't that interested in what their children did. But Joe Kennedy knew what his kids were up to all the time." Joe Sr. had great expectations for his children, and he sought to instill in them a fierce competitive fire and the belief that winning was everything. He entered his children in swimming and sailing competitions and chided them for finishing in anything but first place. John's sister, Eunice, later recalled, "I was twenty-four before I knew I didn't have to win something every day." John bought into his father's philosophy that winning was everything. "He hates to lose at anything," Eunice said. "That's the only thing Jack gets really emotional about — when he loses." Despite his father's constant reprimands, young Kennedy was a poor student and a mischievous boy. He attended a Catholic boys' boarding school in Connecticut called Canterbury, where he excelled at English and history, the subjects he enjoyed, but nearly flunked Latin, in which he had no interest. Despite his poor grades, Kennedy continued on to Choate, an elite Connecticut preparatory school. Although he was obviously brilliant — evidenced by the extraordinary thoughtfulness and nuance of his work on the rare occasions when he applied himself — Kennedy remained at best a mediocre student, preferring sports, girls and practical jokes to coursework. His father wrote to him by way of encouragement, "If I didn't really feel you had the goods I would be most charitable in my attitude toward your failings ... I am not expecting too much, and I will not be disappointed if you don't turn out to be a real genius, but I think you can be a really worthwhile citizen with good judgment and understanding." Kennedy was in fact very bookish in high school, reading ceaselessly but not the books his teachers assigned. He was also chronically ill during his childhood and adolescence; he suffered from severe colds, the flu, scarlet fever and even more severe, undiagnosed diseases that forced him to miss months of school at a time and occasionally brought him to the brink of death. After graduating from Choate and spending one semester at Princeton, Kennedy transferred to Harvard University in 1936. There, he repeated his by then well-established academic pattern, excelling occasionally in the classes he enjoyed but proving only an average student due to the omnipresent diversions of sports and women. Handsome, charming and blessed with a radiant smile, Kennedy was incredibly popular with his Harvard classmates. His friend Lem Billings recalled, "Jack was more fun than anyone I've ever known, and I think most people who knew him felt the same way about him." Kennedy was also an incorrigible womanizer. He wrote to Billings during his sophomore year, "I can now get tail as often and as free as I want which is a step in the right direction." Nevertheless, as an upperclassman, Kennedy finally grew serious about his studies and began to realize his potential. His father had been appointed Ambassador to Great Britain, and on an extended visit in 1939, Kennedy decided to research and write a senior thesis on why Britain was so unprepared to fight Germany in World War II. An incisive analysis of Britain's failures to meet the Nazi challenge, the paper was so well-received that upon Kennedy's graduation in 1940 it was published as a book, Why England Slept, selling more than 80,000 copies. Kennedy's father sent him a cablegram in the aftermath of the book's publication: "Two things I always knew about you one that you are smart two that you are a swell guy love dad." U.S. Navy Service Shortly after graduating from Harvard, Kennedy joined the U.S. Navy and was assigned to command a patrol torpedo boat in the South Pacific. On August 2, 1943, his boat, PT-109, was rammed by a Japanese warship and split in two. Two sailors died and Kennedy badly injured his back. Hauling another wounded sailor by the strap of his life vest, Kennedy led the survivors to a nearby island, where they were rescued six days later. The incident earned him the Navy and Marine Corps Medal for "extremely heroic conduct" and a Purple Heart for the injuries he suffered. However, Kennedy's older brother, Joe Jr., who had also joined the Navy, was not so fortunate. A pilot, he died when his plane blew up in August 1944. Handsome, athletic, intelligent and ambitious, Joseph Kennedy Jr. had been pegged by his father as the one among his children who would some day become president of the United States. In the aftermath of Joe Jr.'s death, Kennedy took his family's hopes and aspirations for his older brother upon himself. Upon his discharge from the Navy, Kennedy worked briefly as a reporter for Hearst Newspapers. Then in 1946, at the age of 29, he decided to run for the U.S. House of Representatives from a working-class district of Boston, a seat being vacated by Democrat James Michael Curly. Bolstered by his status as a war hero, his family connections and his father's money, Kennedy won the election handily. However, after the glory and excitement of publishing his first book and serving in World War II, Kennedy found his work in Congress incredibly dull. Despite serving three terms, from 1946 to 1952, Kennedy remained frustrated by what he saw as stifling rules and procedures that prevented a young, inexperienced representative from making an impact. "We were just worms in the House," he later recalled. "Nobody paid attention to us nationally." Congressman and Senator In 1952, seeking greater influence and a larger platform, Kennedy challenged Republican incumbent Henry Cabot Lodge for his seat in the U.S. Senate. Once again backed by his father's vast financial resources, Kennedy hired his younger brother Robert as his campaign manager. Robert Kennedy put together what one journalist called "the most methodical, the most scientific, the most thoroughly detailed, the most intricate, the most disciplined and smoothly working state-wide campaign in Massachusetts history – and possibly anywhere else." In an election year in which Republicans gained control of both Houses of Congress, Kennedy nevertheless won a narrow victory, giving him considerable clout within the Democratic Party. According to one of his aides, the decisive factor in Kennedy's victory was his personality: "He was the new kind of political figure that people were looking for that year, dignified and gentlemanly and well-educated and intelligent, without the air of superior condescension." Shortly after his election, Kennedy met a beautiful young woman named Jacqueline Bouvier at a dinner party and, in his own words, "leaned across the asparagus and asked her for a date." They were married on September 12, 1953. John and Jackie had three children: Caroline, John Jr. and Patrick Kennedy. Kennedy continued to suffer frequent illnesses during his career in the Senate. While recovering from one surgery, he wrote another book, profiling eight senators who had taken courageous but unpopular stances. Profiles in Courage won the 1957 Pulitzer Prize for biography, and Kennedy remains the only American president to win a Pulitzer Prize. Presidential Candidate and Presidency Kennedy's eight-year Senate career was relatively undistinguished. Bored by the Massachusetts-specific issues on which he had to spend much of his time, Kennedy was more drawn to the international challenges posed by the Soviet Union's growing nuclear arsenal and the Cold War battle for the hearts and minds of Third World nations. In 1956, Kennedy was very nearly selected as Democratic presidential candidate Adlai Stevenson's running mate, but was ultimately passed over for Estes Kefauver from Tennessee. Four years later, Kennedy decided to run for president. In the 1960 Democratic primaries, Kennedy outmaneuvered his main opponent, Hubert Humphrey, with superior organization and financial resources. Selecting Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson as his running mate, Kennedy faced Vice President Richard Nixon in the general election. The election turned largely on a series of televised national debates in which Kennedy bested Nixon, an experienced and skilled debater, by appearing relaxed, healthy and vigorous in contrast to his pallid and tense opponent. On November 8, 1960, Kennedy defeated Nixon by a razor-thin margin to become the 35th president of the United States of America. Kennedy's election was historic in several respects. At the age of 43, he was the second youngest American president in history, second only to Theodore Roosevelt, who assumed the office at 42. He was also the first Catholic president and the first president born in the 20th century. Delivering his legendary inaugural address on January 20, 1961, Kennedy sought to inspire all Americans to more active citizenship. "Ask not what your country can do for you," he said. "Ask what you can do for your country." Kennedy's greatest accomplishments during his brief tenure as president came in the arena of foreign affairs. Capitalizing on the spirit of activism he had helped to ignite, Kennedy created the Peace Corps by executive order in 1961. By the end of the century, over 170,000 Peace Corps volunteers would serve in 135 countries. Also in 1961, Kennedy created the Alliance for Progress to foster greater economic ties with Latin America, in hopes of alleviating poverty and thwarting the spread of communism in the region. Kennedy also presided over a series of international crises. On April 15, 1961, he authorized a covert mission to overthrow leftist Cuban leader Fidel Castro with a group of 1,500 CIA-trained Cuban refugees. Known as the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the mission proved an unmitigated failure, causing Kennedy great embarrassment. In August 1961, to stem massive waves of emigration from Soviet-dominated East Germany to American ally West Germany via the divided city of Berlin, Nikita Khrushchev ordered the construction of the Berlin Wall, which became the foremost symbol of the Cold War. However, the greatest crisis of the Kennedy administration was the Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962. Discovering that the Soviet Union had sent ballistic nuclear missiles to Cuba, Kennedy blockaded the island and vowed to defend the United States at any cost. After several of the tensest days in history, during which the world seemed on the brink of nuclear annihilation, the Soviet Union agreed to remove the missiles in return for Kennedy's promise not to invade Cuba and to remove American missiles from Turkey. Eight months later, in June 1963, Kennedy successfully negotiated the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty with Great Britain and the Soviet Union, helping to ease Cold War tensions. It was one of his proudest accomplishments. President Kennedy's record on domestic policy was rather mixed. Taking office in the midst of a recession, he proposed sweeping income tax cuts, raising the minimum wage and instituting new social programs to improve education, health care and mass transit. However, hampered by lukewarm relations with Congress, Kennedy only achieved part of his agenda: a modest increase in the minimum wage and watered down tax cuts. The most contentious domestic issue of Kennedy's presidency was civil rights. Constrained by Southern Democrats in Congress who remained stridently opposed to civil rights for black citizens, Kennedy offered only tepid support for civil rights reforms early in his term. Nevertheless, in September 1962 Kennedy sent his brother, Attorney General Robert Kennedy, to Mississippi to use the National Guard and federal marshals to escort and defend civil rights activist James Meredith as he became the first black student to enroll at the University of Mississippi on October 1, 1962. Near the end of 1963, in the wake of the March on Washington and Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Had a Dream" speech, Kennedy finally sent a civil rights bill to Congress. One of the last acts of his presidency and his life, Kennedy's bill eventually passed as the landmark Civil Rights Act in 1964. On November 21, 1963, President Kennedy flew to Dallas, Texas for a campaign appearance. The next day, November 22, Kennedy, along with his wife and Texas governor John Connally, rode through cheering crowds in downtown Dallas in a Lincoln Continental convertible. From an upstairs window of the Texas School Book Depository building, a 24-year-old warehouse worker named Lee Harvey Oswald, a former Marine with Soviet sympathies, fired upon the car, hitting the president twice. Kennedy died at Parkland Memorial Hospital shortly thereafter, at age 46. A Dallas nightclub owner named Jack Ruby assassinated Oswald days later while he was being transferred between jails. The death of President Kennedy was an unspeakable national tragedy, and to this date many people remember with unsettling vividness the exact moment they learned of his death. While conspiracy theories have swirled ever since Kennedy's assassination, the official version of events remains the most plausible: Oswald acted alone. For few former presidents is the dichotomy between public and scholarly opinion so vast. To the American public, as well as his first historians, Kennedy is a hero — a visionary politician who, if not for his untimely death, might have averted the political and social turmoil of the late 1960s. In public-opinion polls, Kennedy consistently ranks with Thomas Jefferson and Abraham Lincoln as among the most beloved American presidents of all time. Critiquing this outpouring of adoration, many more recent Kennedy scholars have derided Kennedy's womanizing and lack of personal morals and argued that as a leader he was more style than substance. In the end, no one can ever truly know what type of president Kennedy would have become, or the different course history might have taken had he lived into old age. As historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr. wrote, it was "as if Lincoln had been killed six months after Gettysburg or Franklin Roosevelt at the end of 1935 or Truman before the Marshall Plan." The most enduring image of Kennedy's presidency, and of his whole life, is that of Camelot, the idyllic castle of the legendary King Arthur. As his wife Jackie Kennedy said after his death, "There'll be great presidents again, and the Johnsons are wonderful, they've been wonderful to me — but there'll never be another Camelot again." Release of Assassination Documents On October 26, 2017, President Donald Trump ordered the release of 2,800 records related to the Kennedy assassination. The move came at the expiration of a 25-year waiting period signed into law in 1992, which allowed the declassification of the documents provided that doing so would not hurt intelligence, military operations or foreign relations. Trump's release of the documents came on the final day he was legally allowed to do so. However, he did not release all of the documents, as officials from the FBI, CIA and other agencies had successfully lobbied for the chance to review particularly sensitive material for an additional 180 days. We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us!	<urn:uuid:e605b047-7639-4139-a5f5-059ae0e92352>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.biography.com/us-president/john-f-kennedy	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00133.warc.gz	en	0.983967	3,413	3.3125	3	[ -0.29610294103622437, 0.14095473289489746, 0.36097636818885803, -0.346500962972641, 0.08188271522521973, 0.48933112621307373, 0.340331494808197, -0.025575948879122734, -0.30483880639076233, -0.17306944727897644, 0.24859383702278137, 0.434417724609375, 0.19709640741348267, 0.279329806566238...	2	Who Was John F. Kennedy? John F. Kennedy served in both the U.S. House of Representatives and U.S. Senate before becoming the 35th president in 1961. As president, Kennedy faced a number of foreign crises, especially in Cuba and Berlin, but managed to secure such achievements as the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty and the Alliance for Progress. On November 22, 1963, Kennedy was assassinated while riding in a motorcade in Dallas, Texas. Kennedy was born on May 29, 1917, in Brookline, Massachusetts. Both the Fitzgeralds and the Kennedys were wealthy and prominent Irish Catholic Boston families. Kennedy's paternal grandfather, P.J. Kennedy, was a wealthy banker and liquor trader, and his maternal grandfather, John E. Fitzgerald, nicknamed "Honey Fitz," was a skilled politician who served as a congressman and as the mayor of Boston. Kennedy's mother, Rose Elizabeth Fitzgerald, was a Boston debutante, and his father, Joseph Kennedy Sr., was a successful banker who made a fortune on the stock market after World War I. Joe Kennedy Sr. went on to a government career as chairman of the Securities and Exchange Commission and as an ambassador to Great Britain. John, nicknamed "Jack," was the second oldest of a group of nine extraordinary siblings. His brothers and sisters include Eunice, the founder of the Special Olympics; Robert, a U.S. Attorney General, and Ted, one of the most powerful senators in American history. The Kennedy children remained close-knit and supportive of each other throughout their entire lives. Joseph and Rose largely spurned the world of Boston socialites into which they had been born to focus instead on their children's education. Joe Sr. in particular obsessed over every detail of his kids' lives, a rarity for a father at that time. As a family friend noted, "Most fathers in those days simply weren't that interested in what their children did. But Joe Kennedy knew what his kids were up to all the time." Joe Sr. had great expectations for his children, and he sought to instill in them a fierce competitive fire and the belief that winning was everything. He entered his children in swimming and sailing competitions and chided them for finishing in anything but first place. John's sister, Eunice, later recalled, "I was twenty-four before I knew I didn't have to win something every day." John bought into his father's philosophy that winning was everything. "He hates to lose at anything," Eunice said. "That's the only thing Jack gets really emotional about — when he loses." Despite his father's constant reprimands, young Kennedy was a poor student and a mischievous boy. He attended a Catholic boys' boarding school in Connecticut called Canterbury, where he excelled at English and history, the subjects he enjoyed, but nearly flunked Latin, in which he had no interest. Despite his poor grades, Kennedy continued on to Choate, an elite Connecticut preparatory school. Although he was obviously brilliant — evidenced by the extraordinary thoughtfulness and nuance of his work on the rare occasions when he applied himself — Kennedy remained at best a mediocre student, preferring sports, girls and practical jokes to coursework. His father wrote to him by way of encouragement, "If I didn't really feel you had the goods I would be most charitable in my attitude toward your failings ... I am not expecting too much, and I will not be disappointed if you don't turn out to be a real genius, but I think you can be a really worthwhile citizen with good judgment and understanding." Kennedy was in fact very bookish in high school, reading ceaselessly but not the books his teachers assigned. He was also chronically ill during his childhood and adolescence; he suffered from severe colds, the flu, scarlet fever and even more severe, undiagnosed diseases that forced him to miss months of school at a time and occasionally brought him to the brink of death. After graduating from Choate and spending one semester at Princeton, Kennedy transferred to Harvard University in 1936. There, he repeated his by then well-established academic pattern, excelling occasionally in the classes he enjoyed but proving only an average student due to the omnipresent diversions of sports and women. Handsome, charming and blessed with a radiant smile, Kennedy was incredibly popular with his Harvard classmates. His friend Lem Billings recalled, "Jack was more fun than anyone I've ever known, and I think most people who knew him felt the same way about him." Kennedy was also an incorrigible womanizer. He wrote to Billings during his sophomore year, "I can now get tail as often and as free as I want which is a step in the right direction." Nevertheless, as an upperclassman, Kennedy finally grew serious about his studies and began to realize his potential. His father had been appointed Ambassador to Great Britain, and on an extended visit in 1939, Kennedy decided to research and write a senior thesis on why Britain was so unprepared to fight Germany in World War II. An incisive analysis of Britain's failures to meet the Nazi challenge, the paper was so well-received that upon Kennedy's graduation in 1940 it was published as a book, Why England Slept, selling more than 80,000 copies. Kennedy's father sent him a cablegram in the aftermath of the book's publication: "Two things I always knew about you one that you are smart two that you are a swell guy love dad." U.S. Navy Service Shortly after graduating from Harvard, Kennedy joined the U.S. Navy and was assigned to command a patrol torpedo boat in the South Pacific. On August 2, 1943, his boat, PT-109, was rammed by a Japanese warship and split in two. Two sailors died and Kennedy badly injured his back. Hauling another wounded sailor by the strap of his life vest, Kennedy led the survivors to a nearby island, where they were rescued six days later. The incident earned him the Navy and Marine Corps Medal for "extremely heroic conduct" and a Purple Heart for the injuries he suffered. However, Kennedy's older brother, Joe Jr., who had also joined the Navy, was not so fortunate. A pilot, he died when his plane blew up in August 1944. Handsome, athletic, intelligent and ambitious, Joseph Kennedy Jr. had been pegged by his father as the one among his children who would some day become president of the United States. In the aftermath of Joe Jr.'s death, Kennedy took his family's hopes and aspirations for his older brother upon himself. Upon his discharge from the Navy, Kennedy worked briefly as a reporter for Hearst Newspapers. Then in 1946, at the age of 29, he decided to run for the U.S. House of Representatives from a working-class district of Boston, a seat being vacated by Democrat James Michael Curly. Bolstered by his status as a war hero, his family connections and his father's money, Kennedy won the election handily. However, after the glory and excitement of publishing his first book and serving in World War II, Kennedy found his work in Congress incredibly dull. Despite serving three terms, from 1946 to 1952, Kennedy remained frustrated by what he saw as stifling rules and procedures that prevented a young, inexperienced representative from making an impact. "We were just worms in the House," he later recalled. "Nobody paid attention to us nationally." Congressman and Senator In 1952, seeking greater influence and a larger platform, Kennedy challenged Republican incumbent Henry Cabot Lodge for his seat in the U.S. Senate. Once again backed by his father's vast financial resources, Kennedy hired his younger brother Robert as his campaign manager. Robert Kennedy put together what one journalist called "the most methodical, the most scientific, the most thoroughly detailed, the most intricate, the most disciplined and smoothly working state-wide campaign in Massachusetts history – and possibly anywhere else." In an election year in which Republicans gained control of both Houses of Congress, Kennedy nevertheless won a narrow victory, giving him considerable clout within the Democratic Party. According to one of his aides, the decisive factor in Kennedy's victory was his personality: "He was the new kind of political figure that people were looking for that year, dignified and gentlemanly and well-educated and intelligent, without the air of superior condescension." Shortly after his election, Kennedy met a beautiful young woman named Jacqueline Bouvier at a dinner party and, in his own words, "leaned across the asparagus and asked her for a date." They were married on September 12, 1953. John and Jackie had three children: Caroline, John Jr. and Patrick Kennedy. Kennedy continued to suffer frequent illnesses during his career in the Senate. While recovering from one surgery, he wrote another book, profiling eight senators who had taken courageous but unpopular stances. Profiles in Courage won the 1957 Pulitzer Prize for biography, and Kennedy remains the only American president to win a Pulitzer Prize. Presidential Candidate and Presidency Kennedy's eight-year Senate career was relatively undistinguished. Bored by the Massachusetts-specific issues on which he had to spend much of his time, Kennedy was more drawn to the international challenges posed by the Soviet Union's growing nuclear arsenal and the Cold War battle for the hearts and minds of Third World nations. In 1956, Kennedy was very nearly selected as Democratic presidential candidate Adlai Stevenson's running mate, but was ultimately passed over for Estes Kefauver from Tennessee. Four years later, Kennedy decided to run for president. In the 1960 Democratic primaries, Kennedy outmaneuvered his main opponent, Hubert Humphrey, with superior organization and financial resources. Selecting Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson as his running mate, Kennedy faced Vice President Richard Nixon in the general election. The election turned largely on a series of televised national debates in which Kennedy bested Nixon, an experienced and skilled debater, by appearing relaxed, healthy and vigorous in contrast to his pallid and tense opponent. On November 8, 1960, Kennedy defeated Nixon by a razor-thin margin to become the 35th president of the United States of America. Kennedy's election was historic in several respects. At the age of 43, he was the second youngest American president in history, second only to Theodore Roosevelt, who assumed the office at 42. He was also the first Catholic president and the first president born in the 20th century. Delivering his legendary inaugural address on January 20, 1961, Kennedy sought to inspire all Americans to more active citizenship. "Ask not what your country can do for you," he said. "Ask what you can do for your country." Kennedy's greatest accomplishments during his brief tenure as president came in the arena of foreign affairs. Capitalizing on the spirit of activism he had helped to ignite, Kennedy created the Peace Corps by executive order in 1961. By the end of the century, over 170,000 Peace Corps volunteers would serve in 135 countries. Also in 1961, Kennedy created the Alliance for Progress to foster greater economic ties with Latin America, in hopes of alleviating poverty and thwarting the spread of communism in the region. Kennedy also presided over a series of international crises. On April 15, 1961, he authorized a covert mission to overthrow leftist Cuban leader Fidel Castro with a group of 1,500 CIA-trained Cuban refugees. Known as the Bay of Pigs Invasion, the mission proved an unmitigated failure, causing Kennedy great embarrassment. In August 1961, to stem massive waves of emigration from Soviet-dominated East Germany to American ally West Germany via the divided city of Berlin, Nikita Khrushchev ordered the construction of the Berlin Wall, which became the foremost symbol of the Cold War. However, the greatest crisis of the Kennedy administration was the Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962. Discovering that the Soviet Union had sent ballistic nuclear missiles to Cuba, Kennedy blockaded the island and vowed to defend the United States at any cost. After several of the tensest days in history, during which the world seemed on the brink of nuclear annihilation, the Soviet Union agreed to remove the missiles in return for Kennedy's promise not to invade Cuba and to remove American missiles from Turkey. Eight months later, in June 1963, Kennedy successfully negotiated the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty with Great Britain and the Soviet Union, helping to ease Cold War tensions. It was one of his proudest accomplishments. President Kennedy's record on domestic policy was rather mixed. Taking office in the midst of a recession, he proposed sweeping income tax cuts, raising the minimum wage and instituting new social programs to improve education, health care and mass transit. However, hampered by lukewarm relations with Congress, Kennedy only achieved part of his agenda: a modest increase in the minimum wage and watered down tax cuts. The most contentious domestic issue of Kennedy's presidency was civil rights. Constrained by Southern Democrats in Congress who remained stridently opposed to civil rights for black citizens, Kennedy offered only tepid support for civil rights reforms early in his term. Nevertheless, in September 1962 Kennedy sent his brother, Attorney General Robert Kennedy, to Mississippi to use the National Guard and federal marshals to escort and defend civil rights activist James Meredith as he became the first black student to enroll at the University of Mississippi on October 1, 1962. Near the end of 1963, in the wake of the March on Washington and Martin Luther King Jr.'s "I Had a Dream" speech, Kennedy finally sent a civil rights bill to Congress. One of the last acts of his presidency and his life, Kennedy's bill eventually passed as the landmark Civil Rights Act in 1964. On November 21, 1963, President Kennedy flew to Dallas, Texas for a campaign appearance. The next day, November 22, Kennedy, along with his wife and Texas governor John Connally, rode through cheering crowds in downtown Dallas in a Lincoln Continental convertible. From an upstairs window of the Texas School Book Depository building, a 24-year-old warehouse worker named Lee Harvey Oswald, a former Marine with Soviet sympathies, fired upon the car, hitting the president twice. Kennedy died at Parkland Memorial Hospital shortly thereafter, at age 46. A Dallas nightclub owner named Jack Ruby assassinated Oswald days later while he was being transferred between jails. The death of President Kennedy was an unspeakable national tragedy, and to this date many people remember with unsettling vividness the exact moment they learned of his death. While conspiracy theories have swirled ever since Kennedy's assassination, the official version of events remains the most plausible: Oswald acted alone. For few former presidents is the dichotomy between public and scholarly opinion so vast. To the American public, as well as his first historians, Kennedy is a hero — a visionary politician who, if not for his untimely death, might have averted the political and social turmoil of the late 1960s. In public-opinion polls, Kennedy consistently ranks with Thomas Jefferson and Abraham Lincoln as among the most beloved American presidents of all time. Critiquing this outpouring of adoration, many more recent Kennedy scholars have derided Kennedy's womanizing and lack of personal morals and argued that as a leader he was more style than substance. In the end, no one can ever truly know what type of president Kennedy would have become, or the different course history might have taken had he lived into old age. As historian Arthur Schlesinger Jr. wrote, it was "as if Lincoln had been killed six months after Gettysburg or Franklin Roosevelt at the end of 1935 or Truman before the Marshall Plan." The most enduring image of Kennedy's presidency, and of his whole life, is that of Camelot, the idyllic castle of the legendary King Arthur. As his wife Jackie Kennedy said after his death, "There'll be great presidents again, and the Johnsons are wonderful, they've been wonderful to me — but there'll never be another Camelot again." Release of Assassination Documents On October 26, 2017, President Donald Trump ordered the release of 2,800 records related to the Kennedy assassination. The move came at the expiration of a 25-year waiting period signed into law in 1992, which allowed the declassification of the documents provided that doing so would not hurt intelligence, military operations or foreign relations. Trump's release of the documents came on the final day he was legally allowed to do so. However, he did not release all of the documents, as officials from the FBI, CIA and other agencies had successfully lobbied for the chance to review particularly sensitive material for an additional 180 days. We strive for accuracy and fairness. If you see something that doesn't look right, contact us!	3,576	ENGLISH	1
What he did to get to the supreme court: As a young child Taft dream job was to reach the Supreme Court justices eventually he did both becoming our 27th president and the 10th Chief Justice, he was born in Cincinnati Ohio on September 15, 1857 he was part of a political family where he follows his family tradition, he also went to private school, attend to Yale which joins the now notorious society skull and bone and graduated 1857. Furthermore, he attended the University of Cincinnati College of laws school, earning a bachelor in 1880, later he was accepted to Ohio state bar association were he was an assistant prosecutor of Hamilton county in 1887-90, and u.s solicitor general, u.s circuit court judge 1892-1900, governor of the Philippines 1901-04 Works Prior to Supreme Court: He received two offers to become a justice of the supreme court but, denied it, he was appointed to the federal circuit for the 6th District, where he served from March 1892 until 1900. However President Warren G Harding on June 30, 1921, decided Taft, Should be chief justice of United States Supreme Court. During a secret session, the Senate approved Taft with 60-4 vote.Political leaning: Taft had different points of views, he would like to break from the party and his former party. His job was helped secure passage of the Judge’s Act of 1925, allowing the supreme court to receive cases that were national importance, He also improved the organization and efficiency.Major cases: In 1926, Taft ruled on the Myers v. United States, which he disproves an act of limiting the president’s authority to remove federal officials and more. Taft says to deny the president that power wouldn’t allow him to “discharge his own constitutional duty of seeing that law be faithfully executed.’ he also wrote a decision in Truax u. Corrigan and more. Reputation as a Supreme Court Justice:He was highly successful throughout his position and was respected figure, he had a vision when it comes to things, and if he didn’t like them he would do his best to bring it to success. And as deciding in an issue he doesn’t like to decide quickly, he likes to see all side of the argument. Conclusion:As a result, as being successful throughout his life he did many thing, such as increased the supreme court power, he convinced congress to pass the judge bill of rights in 1925, He died on march 8, 1930 for a heart ailment at age 72.	<urn:uuid:e01871a0-f5fd-443b-b2ce-c650b7dabe12>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://tooly.io/supreme-court-child-taft-dream-job/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00539.warc.gz	en	0.991214	525	3.46875	3	[ -0.7368115782737732, 0.2050698697566986, -0.05568782240152359, -0.5239397287368774, -0.6548476219177246, 0.3247731029987335, 0.6045618653297424, -0.11853671818971634, -0.052839167416095734, 0.17668819427490234, -0.023689551278948784, 0.38549569249153137, 0.3802892863750458, 0.1229068487882...	1	What he did to get to the supreme court: As a young child Taft dream job was to reach the Supreme Court justices eventually he did both becoming our 27th president and the 10th Chief Justice, he was born in Cincinnati Ohio on September 15, 1857 he was part of a political family where he follows his family tradition, he also went to private school, attend to Yale which joins the now notorious society skull and bone and graduated 1857. Furthermore, he attended the University of Cincinnati College of laws school, earning a bachelor in 1880, later he was accepted to Ohio state bar association were he was an assistant prosecutor of Hamilton county in 1887-90, and u.s solicitor general, u.s circuit court judge 1892-1900, governor of the Philippines 1901-04 Works Prior to Supreme Court: He received two offers to become a justice of the supreme court but, denied it, he was appointed to the federal circuit for the 6th District, where he served from March 1892 until 1900. However President Warren G Harding on June 30, 1921, decided Taft, Should be chief justice of United States Supreme Court. During a secret session, the Senate approved Taft with 60-4 vote.Political leaning: Taft had different points of views, he would like to break from the party and his former party. His job was helped secure passage of the Judge’s Act of 1925, allowing the supreme court to receive cases that were national importance, He also improved the organization and efficiency.Major cases: In 1926, Taft ruled on the Myers v. United States, which he disproves an act of limiting the president’s authority to remove federal officials and more. Taft says to deny the president that power wouldn’t allow him to “discharge his own constitutional duty of seeing that law be faithfully executed.’ he also wrote a decision in Truax u. Corrigan and more. Reputation as a Supreme Court Justice:He was highly successful throughout his position and was respected figure, he had a vision when it comes to things, and if he didn’t like them he would do his best to bring it to success. And as deciding in an issue he doesn’t like to decide quickly, he likes to see all side of the argument. Conclusion:As a result, as being successful throughout his life he did many thing, such as increased the supreme court power, he convinced congress to pass the judge bill of rights in 1925, He died on march 8, 1930 for a heart ailment at age 72.	577	ENGLISH	1
On this day in 1809 Arthur Wellesley became the Viscount Wellington. This was a man who knew a thing or two about PR in the days before PR was invented. Born Arthur Wesley in Dublin he was a member of the Protestant ascendancy. He did not want to be held back by his Irish roots and is supposed to have said “Because Jesus was born in a stable did not make him a horse.” He changed the spelling of his name to Wellesley when he was serving in India in a move to brand himself as distinct from his older brother, Richard, Lord Mornington, Governor General of India. July 28th 1809 was when Wellesley won the Battle of Talavera against the French during the peninsular campaign. Up to this point he was looked down upon by the military establishment. He was seen by some of his contemporaries as a “Sepoy” general, a lower class of leader than those who fought in European wars. He had gained his seniority mainly through the purchase of commissions, which was standard practice at the time. The British Empire was stabilised by a system where the sons of the nobility and the ruling classes dominated the military through purchase of position. This prevented the rise of populist demagogues, such as Napoleon. Wellesley saw some action in Germany and Denmark, but it was in the Peninsular campaign that he was destined to shine. He defeated every French field marshal in succession before eventually defeating Napoleon himself in Waterloo. Talavera was his first real test in Iberia. Despite losing 25% of his troops, and retreating from Spain for a year, Wellesley sold it to London as a victory. As a result he was ennobled and was known henceforth as Lord Wellington, first as Viscount and later Duke. Wellington was a quick study. At Talavera he learned that the Spaniards did not have the resources or matériel to support the British forces in Spain. While the French and Spanish armies had the ability to live off the land his troops could not. He could not risk dispersing his men to forage, and having them picked off piecemeal by superior French forces. He retreated from Spain with a tactical victory which served his interests in London, but giving the strategic victory to the French. He would not return to Spain until he could guarantee secure supplies for his forces. At Talavera he also practiced a technique that later made him famous at Waterloo. He ordered brigades of foot soldiers to lie down on the reverse slopes of elevated positions. This kept them safe from artillery fire which was designed to clear a path for the French columns. Once the columns began to march the troops were ordered up and into the “thin red line”. What I find most interesting about Talavera is that the winning side on the day, the combined British and Spanish forces, lost more troops than the French. This is often the way in battle. It is the army that is prepared to take the hard hits that wins the day. In most battles the losing side withdraws in good order, defeated but not routed. It is only when the losing side loses formation and collapses that they suffer large losses. When the fear takes hold, when the common soldiers realise they have lost, and it becomes every man for himself. The lines break up and the victorious cavalry go to town on retreating infantry. In battle, in sport and in business it is the ability to weather defeat, to avoid a complete rout, that marks out a side with character. That is a team with the ability to come back and win the next time.	<urn:uuid:e251ac74-41e3-49b7-82fc-48ce28744967>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://donalclancy.wordpress.com/2016/07/29/write-me-a-victory/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250620381.59/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124130719-20200124155719-00395.warc.gz	en	0.992718	749	3.453125	3	[ -0.23052270710468292, 0.48410463333129883, 0.18589037656784058, -0.23785743117332458, -0.43661507964134216, -0.44962745904922485, 0.18593643605709076, 0.12975570559501648, 0.04339224100112915, -0.08281562477350235, 0.15830717980861664, -0.7433392405509949, 0.2887532114982605, 0.23147746920...	4	On this day in 1809 Arthur Wellesley became the Viscount Wellington. This was a man who knew a thing or two about PR in the days before PR was invented. Born Arthur Wesley in Dublin he was a member of the Protestant ascendancy. He did not want to be held back by his Irish roots and is supposed to have said “Because Jesus was born in a stable did not make him a horse.” He changed the spelling of his name to Wellesley when he was serving in India in a move to brand himself as distinct from his older brother, Richard, Lord Mornington, Governor General of India. July 28th 1809 was when Wellesley won the Battle of Talavera against the French during the peninsular campaign. Up to this point he was looked down upon by the military establishment. He was seen by some of his contemporaries as a “Sepoy” general, a lower class of leader than those who fought in European wars. He had gained his seniority mainly through the purchase of commissions, which was standard practice at the time. The British Empire was stabilised by a system where the sons of the nobility and the ruling classes dominated the military through purchase of position. This prevented the rise of populist demagogues, such as Napoleon. Wellesley saw some action in Germany and Denmark, but it was in the Peninsular campaign that he was destined to shine. He defeated every French field marshal in succession before eventually defeating Napoleon himself in Waterloo. Talavera was his first real test in Iberia. Despite losing 25% of his troops, and retreating from Spain for a year, Wellesley sold it to London as a victory. As a result he was ennobled and was known henceforth as Lord Wellington, first as Viscount and later Duke. Wellington was a quick study. At Talavera he learned that the Spaniards did not have the resources or matériel to support the British forces in Spain. While the French and Spanish armies had the ability to live off the land his troops could not. He could not risk dispersing his men to forage, and having them picked off piecemeal by superior French forces. He retreated from Spain with a tactical victory which served his interests in London, but giving the strategic victory to the French. He would not return to Spain until he could guarantee secure supplies for his forces. At Talavera he also practiced a technique that later made him famous at Waterloo. He ordered brigades of foot soldiers to lie down on the reverse slopes of elevated positions. This kept them safe from artillery fire which was designed to clear a path for the French columns. Once the columns began to march the troops were ordered up and into the “thin red line”. What I find most interesting about Talavera is that the winning side on the day, the combined British and Spanish forces, lost more troops than the French. This is often the way in battle. It is the army that is prepared to take the hard hits that wins the day. In most battles the losing side withdraws in good order, defeated but not routed. It is only when the losing side loses formation and collapses that they suffer large losses. When the fear takes hold, when the common soldiers realise they have lost, and it becomes every man for himself. The lines break up and the victorious cavalry go to town on retreating infantry. In battle, in sport and in business it is the ability to weather defeat, to avoid a complete rout, that marks out a side with character. That is a team with the ability to come back and win the next time.	746	ENGLISH	1
Romanticism was a European movement and it involved different arts suches literature, painting, sculpture and music. According to the different culture, social and political context of each country, it took on different aspects. Romanticism was born in Germany in 1770 and it was anticipated by the so-called “Sturm and Drang” which included such poets as goethe and shiller who believed in the freedom of the individual and asked for a return to nature. In Germany, Romanticism was essentially a philosophical movement. In Italy, Romanticism was a patriotic movement and was connected with the Risorgimento and the fight for independence. The main exponents of the movement were G.Leopardi, U.Foscolo, A.Manzoni, whose “Promessi sposi” described the lives of simple people against a background of great historical events. In France, Romanticism developed later. It was introduced by Madame de Staël and Jean-Jacque Rousseau who believed in man’s natural goodness and his consequences corraction by society. In England, Romanticism whose essentially a literary movement and poetry became one of the most vital forms of literally expression. Romanticism represented a reaction against the neo-classical and rationalistic ideals of the 18th century. English romantic poets were against all kind rules and conventions, institutions and system. They prized feelings and emotions above reason and they believed in the power of immagination. They so immagination as a source of spiritual energy and the poet, through it was able to modify or even recreate the world around him. The typical romantic poet was inclined to mysticism, the exotic, the strange, the unreal, the marvelous. The poet wonted to escape from reality becaming a dreamer and an individualist romantic poets looked at the medioeval world for inspiration so popular ballats, ancient Scandinavian and Celtic themes were admired as well as the poets of the past such as Shakespeare, Spencer and Milton. The romantic poet became a prophet a teacher; he didn’t address a selective audience but he wanted to be understood by everybody. They also were interested in childhood.	<urn:uuid:80f11d56-f87e-46a1-8bbf-182d46b81f8b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.skuola.net/letteratura-inglese-1800-1900/romanticismo-fatti-principali.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00500.warc.gz	en	0.981859	449	3.890625	4	[ 0.1976870745420456, 0.3647926151752472, 0.48450833559036255, 0.12306871265172958, -0.3026862144470215, 0.23641085624694824, 0.13277190923690796, 0.12119060754776001, 0.0416390560567379, -0.15311071276664734, -0.08913169056177139, 0.1549840122461319, 0.34662172198295593, 0.00775981321930885...	1	Romanticism was a European movement and it involved different arts suches literature, painting, sculpture and music. According to the different culture, social and political context of each country, it took on different aspects. Romanticism was born in Germany in 1770 and it was anticipated by the so-called “Sturm and Drang” which included such poets as goethe and shiller who believed in the freedom of the individual and asked for a return to nature. In Germany, Romanticism was essentially a philosophical movement. In Italy, Romanticism was a patriotic movement and was connected with the Risorgimento and the fight for independence. The main exponents of the movement were G.Leopardi, U.Foscolo, A.Manzoni, whose “Promessi sposi” described the lives of simple people against a background of great historical events. In France, Romanticism developed later. It was introduced by Madame de Staël and Jean-Jacque Rousseau who believed in man’s natural goodness and his consequences corraction by society. In England, Romanticism whose essentially a literary movement and poetry became one of the most vital forms of literally expression. Romanticism represented a reaction against the neo-classical and rationalistic ideals of the 18th century. English romantic poets were against all kind rules and conventions, institutions and system. They prized feelings and emotions above reason and they believed in the power of immagination. They so immagination as a source of spiritual energy and the poet, through it was able to modify or even recreate the world around him. The typical romantic poet was inclined to mysticism, the exotic, the strange, the unreal, the marvelous. The poet wonted to escape from reality becaming a dreamer and an individualist romantic poets looked at the medioeval world for inspiration so popular ballats, ancient Scandinavian and Celtic themes were admired as well as the poets of the past such as Shakespeare, Spencer and Milton. The romantic poet became a prophet a teacher; he didn’t address a selective audience but he wanted to be understood by everybody. They also were interested in childhood.	428	ENGLISH	1
Now that the Corps had acquired horses and supplies, from the Shoshone, they could begin the difficult task of trekking over cliffs and mountains. As expected, the trip was treacherous. The horses were in constant danger of slipping on the narrow routes atop tall cliffs. There were virtually no animals to hunt, and the expedition ran out of salt pork on September 3rd. During their trip through the mountains, the Corps would cross over the Continental Divide, the point at which river and streams flow westward toward the Pacific. Once they could get back on the water, their trip to the Pacific Ocean would be easier because they'd be sailing with the current. Eventually, the Corps made it to the valley of the Bitterroots, where they were able to trade for more horses with the Nez Perce Indians before attempting to cross the Bitterroots. On September 10, the Corps rested at a location known as Traveler's Rest, where they collected badly needed game as well as three Nez Perce natives who agreed to guide them over the Bitterroots. Brutal Conditions Lead to Desperate Times Unfortunately for the Corps of Discovery, two guides abandoned them. The guide that remained with them, called Old Toby, attempted to lead the Corps through the Bitterroots via the Nez Perce Trail but became confused and disoriented. In the meantime, rain, hail, and as much as eight inches of snow fell upon the travelers. On September 17, several starving horses strayed from the camp. It took all morning to round them up. The men too were starving and near the limits of their physical endurance. The Corps resorted to eating the horses – but soon there were no more horses to eat. William Clark and several hunters were sent ahead to the plains in the hopes of finding game to send back to the main camp. After four days, one of the hunters returned to the main camp with fish and dried roots obtained by Clark from the Nez Perce Indians. That evening Clark and the rest of the hunters returned to camp. Clark returned with vital information. He had met a Nez Perce chief named Twisted Hair who described the waterways that led to the falls of the Columbia River (the river the Corps knew led to the Pacific). The chief told Clark it was a ten day trip from his village to the destination. Twisted Hair also showed Clark how to make canoes more efficiently and agreed to watch the horses until they returned the following spring. Did You Know? The Continental Divide is an invisible divide that runs through the Rocky Mountains. Precipitation that falls east of the divide theoretically ends up in the Atlantic Ocean, while precipitaiton that walls west of the divide ends up in the Pacfiic Ocean. Here is a picture of me on the Continental Divide in Colorado.	<urn:uuid:974136c7-5d0a-401a-8e69-6b31ab304995>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mrnussbaum.com/part-8-lewis-and-clark-in-depth-tour-bitterroots	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00205.warc.gz	en	0.980902	570	3.6875	4	[ -0.43085336685180664, 0.2242814600467682, 0.2679043114185333, 0.4145672917366028, -0.2590116262435913, -0.0837772786617279, -0.12924255430698395, 0.3595060408115387, -0.3324812650680542, 0.154973566532135, 0.21379590034484863, -0.3509655296802521, 0.49355238676071167, 0.19953292608261108, ...	1	Now that the Corps had acquired horses and supplies, from the Shoshone, they could begin the difficult task of trekking over cliffs and mountains. As expected, the trip was treacherous. The horses were in constant danger of slipping on the narrow routes atop tall cliffs. There were virtually no animals to hunt, and the expedition ran out of salt pork on September 3rd. During their trip through the mountains, the Corps would cross over the Continental Divide, the point at which river and streams flow westward toward the Pacific. Once they could get back on the water, their trip to the Pacific Ocean would be easier because they'd be sailing with the current. Eventually, the Corps made it to the valley of the Bitterroots, where they were able to trade for more horses with the Nez Perce Indians before attempting to cross the Bitterroots. On September 10, the Corps rested at a location known as Traveler's Rest, where they collected badly needed game as well as three Nez Perce natives who agreed to guide them over the Bitterroots. Brutal Conditions Lead to Desperate Times Unfortunately for the Corps of Discovery, two guides abandoned them. The guide that remained with them, called Old Toby, attempted to lead the Corps through the Bitterroots via the Nez Perce Trail but became confused and disoriented. In the meantime, rain, hail, and as much as eight inches of snow fell upon the travelers. On September 17, several starving horses strayed from the camp. It took all morning to round them up. The men too were starving and near the limits of their physical endurance. The Corps resorted to eating the horses – but soon there were no more horses to eat. William Clark and several hunters were sent ahead to the plains in the hopes of finding game to send back to the main camp. After four days, one of the hunters returned to the main camp with fish and dried roots obtained by Clark from the Nez Perce Indians. That evening Clark and the rest of the hunters returned to camp. Clark returned with vital information. He had met a Nez Perce chief named Twisted Hair who described the waterways that led to the falls of the Columbia River (the river the Corps knew led to the Pacific). The chief told Clark it was a ten day trip from his village to the destination. Twisted Hair also showed Clark how to make canoes more efficiently and agreed to watch the horses until they returned the following spring. Did You Know? The Continental Divide is an invisible divide that runs through the Rocky Mountains. Precipitation that falls east of the divide theoretically ends up in the Atlantic Ocean, while precipitaiton that walls west of the divide ends up in the Pacfiic Ocean. Here is a picture of me on the Continental Divide in Colorado.	577	ENGLISH	1
Elementary students make pouches for Australian animals in need Fourth and fifth graders are floored by the numbers. "We know they've burned about 12 million acres and it's estimated that a billion animals may have died from these fires," conservation officer Connie Betts said. "So the animals can't get out of the way very quickly." Australia is half a world away but West Harrison school kids feel a connection. "We're saving the animals because there's a lot of fires in Australia," Julyan Tyson said. The kids are using scissors and little supplies to help how they can. They heard that Australians need a way to carry animals they find that are struggling "They used their own t-shirt, their own shirt is off their back saving these animals and helping them out," Betts said. "We're making pouches for the baby animals getting hurt in the fire," Tessa Small said.	<urn:uuid:30a329f0-357a-454a-866d-7ffd9a605525>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.ketv.com/article/elementary-students-make-pouches-for-australian-animals-in-need/30506013	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00345.warc.gz	en	0.980896	192	3.390625	3	[ -0.1058511957526207, -0.17306511104106903, 0.0900513082742691, -0.02800515852868557, 0.2673642337322235, 0.32155248522758484, -0.19634021818637848, 0.2779950797557831, -0.1649816930294037, 0.24304509162902832, 0.15640990436077118, -0.6254273056983948, 0.03889863193035126, 0.567780077457428...	2	Elementary students make pouches for Australian animals in need Fourth and fifth graders are floored by the numbers. "We know they've burned about 12 million acres and it's estimated that a billion animals may have died from these fires," conservation officer Connie Betts said. "So the animals can't get out of the way very quickly." Australia is half a world away but West Harrison school kids feel a connection. "We're saving the animals because there's a lot of fires in Australia," Julyan Tyson said. The kids are using scissors and little supplies to help how they can. They heard that Australians need a way to carry animals they find that are struggling "They used their own t-shirt, their own shirt is off their back saving these animals and helping them out," Betts said. "We're making pouches for the baby animals getting hurt in the fire," Tessa Small said.	182	ENGLISH	1
As part of a series, TRT World explores fascinating stories of African figures whose contribution to humanity has been largely neglected. Ahmed Sekou Toure was a Guinean politician who played a key role in the African independence movement. As the first president of Guinea, he led his country to gain its independence from France in 1958. He was known as a charismatic and radical figure in Africa's post-colonial history. Toure's activism for independence and decolonisation bore fruit in 1958, when an overwhelming population of Guinea voted in favour of independence, rejecting French President Charles de Gaulle’s offer of joining a new federal community. Toure's words regarding de Gaulle's offer strongly resonated across the Guinean public. He famously said: ''Guinea prefers poverty in freedom than riches in slavery.'' It was a comment that angered de Gaulle. ''Then all you have to do is to vote 'no'. I pledge myself that nobody will stand in the way of your independence," Gaulle said in response to Toure's assertion. Guinea became the first independent French-speaking state in Africa and it was the only country which did not accept the proposal of the French president. In 1958, Toure became the first president of what became known as The Republic of Guinea. The French reacted by recalling all their professional people and civil servants and by removing all transportable equipment. As France threatened Toure and Guinea through economic pressure, Toure accepted support from the communist bloc and at the same time sought help from Western nations. Sekou Toure’s origin Born in 1922 in Faranah,Guinea, Toure came from humble origins. His parents were uneducated and poor. Some sources say he was the grandson of Samory Toure, the legendary leader who resisted France in the late 19th Century. Toure practiced the Muslim faith from his childhood, attending a Koranic school as well as French primary schools. At the age of 14, he displayed the spark of political activism as he led a student revolt against a French Technical school at Conakry from where he was later dismissed. In 1940, he started working as a clerk at a company called Niger Français. In the following year he took an administrative assignment in the postal service where his interest in labour movement started increasing. Toure formed close ties with senior labour leaders and organised 76 days of the first successful strike in French-controlled Western Africa. Then, in 1945, he became secretary-general of the Post and Telecommunications Workers’ Union and participated in the foundation of the Federation of Workers’ Union of Guinea which was linked to the World Federation of Trade Unions. He eventually became the vice president of the union. In order to realise his aim in politics, Toure helped Felix Houphouet of Ivory Coast to form the African Democratic Rally in 1946. A strong orator, he was elected to the French National Assembly in 1951 as the representative of Guinea. How was prevented from taking his seat in the assembly, however. He was re-elected in the following year but again prevented from taking his seat. When he was elected as mayor of Conakry by getting a majority of votes in 1955, he was finally permitted to take his place in the National Assembly. Once he became president of Guinea, he worked toward establishing unity with Ghana but couldn't achieve much on that front. In 1966, when Ghana's President Kwame Nkrumah was ousted in 1966, Toure gave him asylum. He then faced a failed attack from its neighbour; Portuguese Guinea (today Guinea Bissau). Soon after he started intimidation policies against the opposition. In post-independence Ghana, Toure won most elections, ruling the country for 26 years. Despite taking a tough stance against opposition parties, he was known as a genial leader on the international stage. He was tasked with leading the mediation board of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation during the Iraq-Iran war. He became a powerful figure in the Organisation of African Unity and played a vital role in the France-Africa summit which took place in France. In 1984, he died during heart surgery in Cleveland, United States. Some of his published books are: La Revolution et l'unite populaire (1946; Revolution and People Unity); Les poemes militants (1964; Militant Poems).	<urn:uuid:c5e1d1ea-3c22-444d-beaf-8795b15bcbc1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.trtworld.com/africa/ahmed-sekou-toure-an-indispensable-yet-forgotten-african-leader-31967	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00071.warc.gz	en	0.982026	902	3.59375	4	[ -0.5039243698120117, 0.7462435364723206, 0.2278609573841095, -0.27879011631011963, 0.004075051285326481, 0.0770985335111618, 0.35349971055984497, 0.3134927749633789, -0.0016206977888941765, 0.5636591911315918, 0.11509986221790314, -0.21912020444869995, 0.18082937598228455, 0.62140876054763...	10	As part of a series, TRT World explores fascinating stories of African figures whose contribution to humanity has been largely neglected. Ahmed Sekou Toure was a Guinean politician who played a key role in the African independence movement. As the first president of Guinea, he led his country to gain its independence from France in 1958. He was known as a charismatic and radical figure in Africa's post-colonial history. Toure's activism for independence and decolonisation bore fruit in 1958, when an overwhelming population of Guinea voted in favour of independence, rejecting French President Charles de Gaulle’s offer of joining a new federal community. Toure's words regarding de Gaulle's offer strongly resonated across the Guinean public. He famously said: ''Guinea prefers poverty in freedom than riches in slavery.'' It was a comment that angered de Gaulle. ''Then all you have to do is to vote 'no'. I pledge myself that nobody will stand in the way of your independence," Gaulle said in response to Toure's assertion. Guinea became the first independent French-speaking state in Africa and it was the only country which did not accept the proposal of the French president. In 1958, Toure became the first president of what became known as The Republic of Guinea. The French reacted by recalling all their professional people and civil servants and by removing all transportable equipment. As France threatened Toure and Guinea through economic pressure, Toure accepted support from the communist bloc and at the same time sought help from Western nations. Sekou Toure’s origin Born in 1922 in Faranah,Guinea, Toure came from humble origins. His parents were uneducated and poor. Some sources say he was the grandson of Samory Toure, the legendary leader who resisted France in the late 19th Century. Toure practiced the Muslim faith from his childhood, attending a Koranic school as well as French primary schools. At the age of 14, he displayed the spark of political activism as he led a student revolt against a French Technical school at Conakry from where he was later dismissed. In 1940, he started working as a clerk at a company called Niger Français. In the following year he took an administrative assignment in the postal service where his interest in labour movement started increasing. Toure formed close ties with senior labour leaders and organised 76 days of the first successful strike in French-controlled Western Africa. Then, in 1945, he became secretary-general of the Post and Telecommunications Workers’ Union and participated in the foundation of the Federation of Workers’ Union of Guinea which was linked to the World Federation of Trade Unions. He eventually became the vice president of the union. In order to realise his aim in politics, Toure helped Felix Houphouet of Ivory Coast to form the African Democratic Rally in 1946. A strong orator, he was elected to the French National Assembly in 1951 as the representative of Guinea. How was prevented from taking his seat in the assembly, however. He was re-elected in the following year but again prevented from taking his seat. When he was elected as mayor of Conakry by getting a majority of votes in 1955, he was finally permitted to take his place in the National Assembly. Once he became president of Guinea, he worked toward establishing unity with Ghana but couldn't achieve much on that front. In 1966, when Ghana's President Kwame Nkrumah was ousted in 1966, Toure gave him asylum. He then faced a failed attack from its neighbour; Portuguese Guinea (today Guinea Bissau). Soon after he started intimidation policies against the opposition. In post-independence Ghana, Toure won most elections, ruling the country for 26 years. Despite taking a tough stance against opposition parties, he was known as a genial leader on the international stage. He was tasked with leading the mediation board of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation during the Iraq-Iran war. He became a powerful figure in the Organisation of African Unity and played a vital role in the France-Africa summit which took place in France. In 1984, he died during heart surgery in Cleveland, United States. Some of his published books are: La Revolution et l'unite populaire (1946; Revolution and People Unity); Les poemes militants (1964; Militant Poems).	930	ENGLISH	1
Paper type: Essay Pages: 2 (259 words) Shirley Temple was one of the most famous child actors in history. She was born April 23, 1928 as Shirley Jane Temple. Shirley and her parents along with her siblings live in Santa Monica, California. Her father, George Francis Temple was a business man and a banker in Southern California. Shirley’s mother, Gertrude Amelia Krieger was a homemaker. She loved dancing and her love for dancing helped mold Shirley’s career. Her parents were engaged in 1914 and had three children-Jack, George Jr. , and Shirley Jane. Shirley began dancing in September 1931, at Meglin’s Dance Studio in Los Angeles at the age 3. There she was seen by two producers, Jack Hays and Charles Lamont. In 1931, they were making a series of one-reel short films called Baby Burlesks. Shirley was chosen as the star of the film and was paid $10 a day. She acted in a number of films after Baby Burlesks. In late 1933, Shirley was contacted by Fox Film Corporation and landed a role in their new film” Stand Up and Cheer” in February 1934. It was a great success, and Shirley’s acting surprised many fans. On December 28, 1934, the movie “Bright Eyes” was released. Shirley Temple was featured in this movie and it was the first in which her name appeared above the title. In this movie her signature song “On the Good Ship Lollipop” was introduced in sold 500,000 music copies. In February 1935, Temple became the first child star to be honored with a miniature Juvenile Oscar for her 1934 film accomplishment. Cite this page Shirley Temple. (2016, Dec 22). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/shirley-temple-essay	<urn:uuid:8c246201-f233-4426-b4e5-5f76cf9792c6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studymoose.com/shirley-temple-essay	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00094.warc.gz	en	0.983906	395	3.34375	3	[ -0.11987442523241043, -0.0678255632519722, -0.0071483189240098, -0.17046485841274261, -0.5496531128883362, 0.24180181324481964, 0.08701806515455246, 0.13952971994876862, -0.07781945914030075, 0.01945086009800434, 0.307386189699173, 0.122390978038311, -0.0813034176826477, 0.517102837562561,...	1	Paper type: Essay Pages: 2 (259 words) Shirley Temple was one of the most famous child actors in history. She was born April 23, 1928 as Shirley Jane Temple. Shirley and her parents along with her siblings live in Santa Monica, California. Her father, George Francis Temple was a business man and a banker in Southern California. Shirley’s mother, Gertrude Amelia Krieger was a homemaker. She loved dancing and her love for dancing helped mold Shirley’s career. Her parents were engaged in 1914 and had three children-Jack, George Jr. , and Shirley Jane. Shirley began dancing in September 1931, at Meglin’s Dance Studio in Los Angeles at the age 3. There she was seen by two producers, Jack Hays and Charles Lamont. In 1931, they were making a series of one-reel short films called Baby Burlesks. Shirley was chosen as the star of the film and was paid $10 a day. She acted in a number of films after Baby Burlesks. In late 1933, Shirley was contacted by Fox Film Corporation and landed a role in their new film” Stand Up and Cheer” in February 1934. It was a great success, and Shirley’s acting surprised many fans. On December 28, 1934, the movie “Bright Eyes” was released. Shirley Temple was featured in this movie and it was the first in which her name appeared above the title. In this movie her signature song “On the Good Ship Lollipop” was introduced in sold 500,000 music copies. In February 1935, Temple became the first child star to be honored with a miniature Juvenile Oscar for her 1934 film accomplishment. Cite this page Shirley Temple. (2016, Dec 22). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/shirley-temple-essay	423	ENGLISH	1
To Mendelssohn, he was a composer of epic choral works. To Stravinsky he was a maste Bach was born in the Thuringian town of Eisenach into a family of church musicians. His early education included the study of rhetoric, which some modern scholars have suggested influenced his approach to musical form, and he learnt several instruments and studied composition. Johann Sebastian Bach - Johann Sebastian Bach March 21, - July 28, is considered by many to have been the greatest composer in the history of western music. Bach's main achievement lies in his synthesis and advanced development of the primary contrapuntal idiom of the late Baroque, and in the basic tunefullness of his thematic material. He was able to successfully integrate and expand upon the harmonic and formal frameworks of the national schools of the time: German, French, Italian and English, while retaining a personal identity and spirit in his large output. Bach is also known for the numerical symbolism and mathematical exactitude which many people have found in his music — for this, he is often regarded as one of the pinnacle geniuses of western civilization, even by those who are not normally involved with music. Bach spent the height of his working life in a Lutheran church position in Leipzig, as both organist and music director. Much of his music is overtly religious, while many of his secular works admit religious interpretations on some levels. His large output of organ music is considered to be the greatest legacy of compositions for the instrument, and is the measure by which all later efforts are judged. His other solo keyboard music is held in equally high esteem, especially for its exploration of the strictly contrapuntal fugue; his 48 Preludes and Fugues The Well-Tempered Clavier are still the primary means by which these forms are taught. His other chamber music is similarly lofty, the sets for solo violin and solo cello being the summits of their respective genres. Bach's large-scale sacred choral music is also unique in its scope and development, the Passions and B Minor Mass having led to the rediscovery of his music in the 19th century. His huge output of cantatas for all occasions is equally impressive. His large output of concerti includes some of the finest examples of the period, including the ubiquitous Brandenberg Concertos. Bach came from a family with demonstrable musical talents documented at least as far back as the midth century: The Bach family's identification with music is unparalleled in Western music, as is the genius of Johann Sebastian. He was the youngest child of Johann Ambrosius Bach and Elisabeth Lammerhirt ; by the age of ten, his father had died and many members of the household were dispersed to other more financially stable branches of the family. Bach himself together with his brother Jacob, moved from Eisenach to live with his eldest brother Johann Christoph in Ohrdruf. Bach's musical education was aided by his lifelong passion for studying other composer's music in manuscript and drawing his own musical lessons from what he discovered. This intense study eventually produced the young Bach's first efforts at composition, a set of variations; with his first organ appointment at Arnstadt's Bonifaciuskirche inhe wrote his first cantatas and a number of preludes and fugues. These early works show him already in the possession of unusual melodic inventiveness within the strict forms he used. Church work was for Bach the ideal form of employment, for it combined his intense religiosity with the opportunity to create music for voice and organ in particular, the organ being his first and final fascination. The visit was so rewarding to Bach that he overstayed his leave by two months. He was criticized by the church authorities not only for this breach of contract but also for the extravagant flourishes and strange harmonies in his organ accompaniments to congregational singing, and when his young cousin Maria Barbara later his wife was found to be singing in the church choir at Bach's behest, he found himself in further trouble. He was already too highly respected, however, for either objection to result in his dismissal. In October he and Maria Barbara were married; they had their first baby, a daughter, the following year. He began to travel throughout Germany as an organ virtuoso and as a consultant to organ builders. His performance of these and other works earned him a reputation far beyond the environs of Weimar. His tasks became more specific including the monthly delivery of new cantatas and his duties more onerous. Bach felt his situation to be intolerable; he had now four children and was dissatisfied with his family's standard of living.Johann Sebastian Bach: The Learned Musician [Christoph Wolff] on kaja-net.com FREE shipping on qualifying offers. Finalist for the Pulitzer Prize in Biography, this landmark book was revised in to include new knowledge discovered after its initial publication. Although we have heard the music of J. S. Bach in countless performances and recordings. Johann Sebastian Bach: Life and Work [Martin Geck, John Hargraves, Kurt Masur] on kaja-net.com FREE shipping on qualifying offers. Two hundred and fifty years after his death, Johann Sebastian Bach remains one of the most compelling figures in the history of classical music. In this major study of the composer's life and work. Johann Sebastian Bach (March 21, - July 28, ) is considered by many to have been the greatest composer in the history of western music. See contact information and details about Bach - Composer. Jump to. Johann Sebastian Bach and the great German composer's huge catalogue of works. The Bach Cantatas Website (BCW) is a comprehensive site covering all aspects of J.S. Bach's cantatas and his other vocal works and many of his instrumental works. Watch video · Learn more about the life and times of one of classical music's greatest composers, Johann Sebastian Bach, at kaja-net.com	<urn:uuid:0c35faaa-5a6d-4e26-a10b-6d35ca9cf5d4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://fevekibozysukohu.kaja-net.com/a-biography-of-johann-sebastian-bach-a-german-composer-17859la.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00261.warc.gz	en	0.984288	1,253	3.34375	3	[ 0.2528601288795471, 0.20438167452812195, -0.08512777090072632, -0.3499138355255127, -0.40904754400253296, 0.2678162455558777, -0.21686676144599915, 0.09968847036361694, -0.09392014145851135, -0.7168272137641907, -0.29338735342025757, -0.09599193930625916, 0.4070453345775604, 0.203368216753...	1	To Mendelssohn, he was a composer of epic choral works. To Stravinsky he was a maste Bach was born in the Thuringian town of Eisenach into a family of church musicians. His early education included the study of rhetoric, which some modern scholars have suggested influenced his approach to musical form, and he learnt several instruments and studied composition. Johann Sebastian Bach - Johann Sebastian Bach March 21, - July 28, is considered by many to have been the greatest composer in the history of western music. Bach's main achievement lies in his synthesis and advanced development of the primary contrapuntal idiom of the late Baroque, and in the basic tunefullness of his thematic material. He was able to successfully integrate and expand upon the harmonic and formal frameworks of the national schools of the time: German, French, Italian and English, while retaining a personal identity and spirit in his large output. Bach is also known for the numerical symbolism and mathematical exactitude which many people have found in his music — for this, he is often regarded as one of the pinnacle geniuses of western civilization, even by those who are not normally involved with music. Bach spent the height of his working life in a Lutheran church position in Leipzig, as both organist and music director. Much of his music is overtly religious, while many of his secular works admit religious interpretations on some levels. His large output of organ music is considered to be the greatest legacy of compositions for the instrument, and is the measure by which all later efforts are judged. His other solo keyboard music is held in equally high esteem, especially for its exploration of the strictly contrapuntal fugue; his 48 Preludes and Fugues The Well-Tempered Clavier are still the primary means by which these forms are taught. His other chamber music is similarly lofty, the sets for solo violin and solo cello being the summits of their respective genres. Bach's large-scale sacred choral music is also unique in its scope and development, the Passions and B Minor Mass having led to the rediscovery of his music in the 19th century. His huge output of cantatas for all occasions is equally impressive. His large output of concerti includes some of the finest examples of the period, including the ubiquitous Brandenberg Concertos. Bach came from a family with demonstrable musical talents documented at least as far back as the midth century: The Bach family's identification with music is unparalleled in Western music, as is the genius of Johann Sebastian. He was the youngest child of Johann Ambrosius Bach and Elisabeth Lammerhirt ; by the age of ten, his father had died and many members of the household were dispersed to other more financially stable branches of the family. Bach himself together with his brother Jacob, moved from Eisenach to live with his eldest brother Johann Christoph in Ohrdruf. Bach's musical education was aided by his lifelong passion for studying other composer's music in manuscript and drawing his own musical lessons from what he discovered. This intense study eventually produced the young Bach's first efforts at composition, a set of variations; with his first organ appointment at Arnstadt's Bonifaciuskirche inhe wrote his first cantatas and a number of preludes and fugues. These early works show him already in the possession of unusual melodic inventiveness within the strict forms he used. Church work was for Bach the ideal form of employment, for it combined his intense religiosity with the opportunity to create music for voice and organ in particular, the organ being his first and final fascination. The visit was so rewarding to Bach that he overstayed his leave by two months. He was criticized by the church authorities not only for this breach of contract but also for the extravagant flourishes and strange harmonies in his organ accompaniments to congregational singing, and when his young cousin Maria Barbara later his wife was found to be singing in the church choir at Bach's behest, he found himself in further trouble. He was already too highly respected, however, for either objection to result in his dismissal. In October he and Maria Barbara were married; they had their first baby, a daughter, the following year. He began to travel throughout Germany as an organ virtuoso and as a consultant to organ builders. His performance of these and other works earned him a reputation far beyond the environs of Weimar. His tasks became more specific including the monthly delivery of new cantatas and his duties more onerous. Bach felt his situation to be intolerable; he had now four children and was dissatisfied with his family's standard of living.Johann Sebastian Bach: The Learned Musician [Christoph Wolff] on kaja-net.com FREE shipping on qualifying offers. Finalist for the Pulitzer Prize in Biography, this landmark book was revised in to include new knowledge discovered after its initial publication. Although we have heard the music of J. S. Bach in countless performances and recordings. Johann Sebastian Bach: Life and Work [Martin Geck, John Hargraves, Kurt Masur] on kaja-net.com FREE shipping on qualifying offers. Two hundred and fifty years after his death, Johann Sebastian Bach remains one of the most compelling figures in the history of classical music. In this major study of the composer's life and work. Johann Sebastian Bach (March 21, - July 28, ) is considered by many to have been the greatest composer in the history of western music. See contact information and details about Bach - Composer. Jump to. Johann Sebastian Bach and the great German composer's huge catalogue of works. The Bach Cantatas Website (BCW) is a comprehensive site covering all aspects of J.S. Bach's cantatas and his other vocal works and many of his instrumental works. Watch video · Learn more about the life and times of one of classical music's greatest composers, Johann Sebastian Bach, at kaja-net.com	1,227	ENGLISH	1
By Cate Malek, University of Colorado You have entered Maren, an isolated region located on the East Coast of the moderately prosperous, democratic country of Perades. Perades has struggled economically until recently, when a technology boom finally jumpstarted the country's economy. The country is still nowhere near as rich as the United States, but it is doing reasonably well. Its economy is similar to a European country like Ireland. However, the region of Maren has yet to see the effects of the recent economic boom. Maren is nestled between a mountain range and the ocean in a startlingly beautiful area. The region is isolated both geographically and culturally. The main industries in Maren are agriculture and fishing, neither of which is extremely successful. The rest of the country views the people living in Maren as somewhat backwards. This is partly because of their poverty and partly because of a series of long-running conflicts that have plagued the region for decades. The citizens of Maren divide themselves into four major groups: immigrants, Marenese, Mendozans and Westerners. The main town in Maren is called Blue River. Most of the residents of the town are Marenese, Mendozans, and immigrants. The Westerners tend to stay on the outskirts of town, in their own communities. Because of its location on the coast, Maren is the first stop for an increasing number of immigrants fleeing an impoverished county to the east of Perades known as Trinereo. Trinereo is ruled by a dictator and has a long history of poverty and human rights abuses. The immigrants are desperately poor and see no way to move up. They cannot afford an education and the only opportunity available to them is back-breaking agricultural work. To make matters worse, the combination of a decade-long drought together with misuse of the land has led to a cycle of desertification in their country. Now, even agricultural jobs are scarce. The immigrants come by the boatload to Maren. The journey is dangerous and many die along the way. Perades has tight immigration quotas, so most of the immigrants from Trinereo come illegally. Once they make it to Maren, there are people who set them up with lodging, work and forged documents. However, these people often exploit the immigrants, charging them too much money and not delivering what they have promised. Once the immigrants have secured jobs, they work incredibly hard. Many of them work 60 to 80 hours a week doing menial labor. They send their money back home to wives and children and most of them plan to return home once they have enough saved to buy a house or start a business. Few of the immigrants speak Peradean, which makes things even more difficult. For the most part, the immigrants keep to themselves and try to stay out of trouble until it is time for them to go home. However, some of the immigrants feel resentful of the comparatively leisurely lives the residents of Maren lead. This group refers to themselves as the Marenese because they have lived in Maren longer than anyone else. However, originally they were not even from Perades. Most of the Marenese are former immigrants from Trinereo who have been living in Maren for generations. They have a very distinctive culture, a combination of the customs from Trinereo with some Peradean customs and some of their own touches. The Marenese stand out from the rest of Peradean society because, like most of the immigrants from Trinereo, they are shorter and stouter than the Peradeans, who are taller and more slender. Their difference in appearance has led to years of prejudice and made it hard for the Marenese to get jobs. They mostly work in agriculture, but the land in Maren isn't great and over the years, the area has fallen into a cycle of poverty. Difficult as life is in Maren, the Marenese are proud of their culture and their region. They have a strong sense of community and people come from all over the country to buy their art and attend their festivals. The Marenese are sympathetic to the new Trinerean immigrants, but they are also frustrated because these immigrants will work long hours for low wages and they are driving the Marenese out of their jobs. The Marenese may be poor, but they are unwilling to lower their standard of living to that of the Trinerean immigrants who spend their whole lives at work, earning very little money by Peradean standards. The Mendozans have lived in Maren for almost as long as the Marenese and are just as poor. However, they are native Peradeans and have the tall, slender body type, which separates them from the short, stocky Marenese. The Mendozans came to Maren in search of opportunity in the fishing industry. In fact, Mendozan is the word for fisherman in Peradean. Unfortunately, fishing wasn't as profitable as they had hoped. Many of the Mendozans left, but some fell in love with the region and have stayed, despite the economic difficulty. The Mendozans are proud of their culture and of their land. However, they are intensely prejudiced against both the Marenese and the Trinerean immigrants whom they view as inferior to native Peradeans. They are anti-immigration and they have set up several border control groups, the largest of which is called the Vigilantes. The Mendozans are very loyal to the nation of Perades and its culture. Unfortunately, many of the Peradeans view the Mendozans as ignorant and uneducated. Recently, a new wave of Peradeans has been moving to Maren. This group is largely made up of artists who are attracted to Maren's culture and natural beauty. There are also a number of tech companies relocating to Maren to take advantage of the cheap land. New restaurants and businesses have sprung up to accommodate the Westerners. The Westerners are giving Maren's economy a needed boost, however neither the Marenese nor the Mendozans feel they are benefiting from it. The Westerners tend to either hire immigrants because they work for incredibly low wages, or fellow Westerners who are better educated than the residents of Maren. The Marenese are especially hostile to the Westerners because they believe the Westerners are destroying the Marenese culture. For centuries, the Marenese say they have had a tradition of taking a long lunch break in the middle of the day. The tradition reflects their values of spending time with friends and family. However, the Westerners ignore this tradition and they're beginning to put the Marenese out of business. The Westerners don't realize the effect they're having on the area. In fact, one of the reasons they moved to Maren is because they enjoy the slower pace of life. They call it "Maren time" and they respect the locals' ability to relax and enjoy the moment. Still, they don't quite understand the locals' stubborn adherence to the long lunch break. The Westerners are largely college-educated and view themselves as open-minded. While their parents may be prejudiced towards the Marenese, the Westerners feel they are more tolerant. Still, it seems to them that the Marenese and the Mendozans could do more to break the cycle of poverty in the area and ending the long lunch break would be one of the first steps. The Westerners are largely segregated from the other residents of Maren. They live in richer neighborhoods and their children attend private schools because Maren's public schools are in bad shape. They know the Marenese and the Mendozans have some hostility towards them, but they're not really sure why and they don't have enough contact with them to ask. Although they hire the immigrants in droves, the Westerners don't think much about the immigrants and consider them part of the woodwork. Despite the rising hostility and frustration, these four groups have been living in relative peace for the last few years. Mostly, they try to avoid each other and get on with their lives. But a series of recent incidents suggests that this strategy isn't working anymore. First was a series of three rapes. The police believe that the perpetrators were immigrants, but the suspects have disappeared back to Trinereo without a trace. Two of the victims were Westerners and one was a Mendozan. Although not many details have been released about the attacks, it is known that they were fairly brutal and that two of the women are still in the hospital recovering from their injuries. The second incident was a tech firm that was vandalized in the middle of the night. All the windows were smashed and thousands of dollars of equipment was destroyed, but nothing was stolen. Derogatory phrases were spray-painted on the walls. The damage forced the firm to close for a few weeks until the building could be cleaned up and the equipment repaired or replaced. The vandalism has made the tech workers extremely nervous and many people have since quit the firm and moved back West. Third, some of the local high school kids, both Marenese and Mendozan, have been harassing the Western kids when they come into town. With news getting around of the threats, most Westerners are starting to avoid the town center. Finally, two members of the Mendozan group, the Vigilantes, pistol-whipped an immigrant they caught swimming to shore from an illegal boat. The man was badly injured. The Vigilantes have refused to apologize for the incident and have threatened more violence against the immigrants. Many of Maren's residents are concerned about the recent violence. But they're not sure what to do about it. All they know for sure is that the quality of life in Maren is decreasing. Click on the character you wish to "be." Mike Green: Mike is Marenese and the mayor of Blue River. He is determined to end the violence in Maren and facilitate more understanding between the different community groups in Blue River. Susana Hayek: Susana works for the Trinerean Church, putting together social projects such as a community garden and an affordable housing program. She hopes that providing for the basic needs of the community will help end the violence. William Luchard: William is a university professor living in Blue River. His heritage is half Marenese, half Mendozan, but he identifies with his Marenese relatives. He has recently become involved with an armed organization dedicated to fighting for independence for Maren. Stephen Pelle: Stephen is from a huge Mendozan family and is one of the best policemen in Blue River. He has been charged with investigating the Vigilantes, a violent anti-immigration group. He suspects that many of his family members are involved with the Vigilantes and that his new task will force him to betray his family. Emma Thornton: Emma is a Westerner teaching at Blue River High School, a public school in town with a bad reputation. She is trying to use a soccer league to build bridges between the rich Westerners and the poor locals.	<urn:uuid:edf62b84-1d96-4038-8e65-802e15bc0b9c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.beyondintractability.org/educationtraining/peacebuilding-simulation-background	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00020.warc.gz	en	0.980597	2,296	3.4375	3	[ 0.0828959196805954, -0.1899634748697281, -0.035958558320999146, 0.05054803565144539, 0.4003005027770996, -0.1740623414516449, -0.30136430263519287, 0.008171552792191505, -0.15606869757175446, -0.21679669618606567, -0.20944823324680328, -0.16155192255973816, 0.20420213043689728, -0.04727802...	3	By Cate Malek, University of Colorado You have entered Maren, an isolated region located on the East Coast of the moderately prosperous, democratic country of Perades. Perades has struggled economically until recently, when a technology boom finally jumpstarted the country's economy. The country is still nowhere near as rich as the United States, but it is doing reasonably well. Its economy is similar to a European country like Ireland. However, the region of Maren has yet to see the effects of the recent economic boom. Maren is nestled between a mountain range and the ocean in a startlingly beautiful area. The region is isolated both geographically and culturally. The main industries in Maren are agriculture and fishing, neither of which is extremely successful. The rest of the country views the people living in Maren as somewhat backwards. This is partly because of their poverty and partly because of a series of long-running conflicts that have plagued the region for decades. The citizens of Maren divide themselves into four major groups: immigrants, Marenese, Mendozans and Westerners. The main town in Maren is called Blue River. Most of the residents of the town are Marenese, Mendozans, and immigrants. The Westerners tend to stay on the outskirts of town, in their own communities. Because of its location on the coast, Maren is the first stop for an increasing number of immigrants fleeing an impoverished county to the east of Perades known as Trinereo. Trinereo is ruled by a dictator and has a long history of poverty and human rights abuses. The immigrants are desperately poor and see no way to move up. They cannot afford an education and the only opportunity available to them is back-breaking agricultural work. To make matters worse, the combination of a decade-long drought together with misuse of the land has led to a cycle of desertification in their country. Now, even agricultural jobs are scarce. The immigrants come by the boatload to Maren. The journey is dangerous and many die along the way. Perades has tight immigration quotas, so most of the immigrants from Trinereo come illegally. Once they make it to Maren, there are people who set them up with lodging, work and forged documents. However, these people often exploit the immigrants, charging them too much money and not delivering what they have promised. Once the immigrants have secured jobs, they work incredibly hard. Many of them work 60 to 80 hours a week doing menial labor. They send their money back home to wives and children and most of them plan to return home once they have enough saved to buy a house or start a business. Few of the immigrants speak Peradean, which makes things even more difficult. For the most part, the immigrants keep to themselves and try to stay out of trouble until it is time for them to go home. However, some of the immigrants feel resentful of the comparatively leisurely lives the residents of Maren lead. This group refers to themselves as the Marenese because they have lived in Maren longer than anyone else. However, originally they were not even from Perades. Most of the Marenese are former immigrants from Trinereo who have been living in Maren for generations. They have a very distinctive culture, a combination of the customs from Trinereo with some Peradean customs and some of their own touches. The Marenese stand out from the rest of Peradean society because, like most of the immigrants from Trinereo, they are shorter and stouter than the Peradeans, who are taller and more slender. Their difference in appearance has led to years of prejudice and made it hard for the Marenese to get jobs. They mostly work in agriculture, but the land in Maren isn't great and over the years, the area has fallen into a cycle of poverty. Difficult as life is in Maren, the Marenese are proud of their culture and their region. They have a strong sense of community and people come from all over the country to buy their art and attend their festivals. The Marenese are sympathetic to the new Trinerean immigrants, but they are also frustrated because these immigrants will work long hours for low wages and they are driving the Marenese out of their jobs. The Marenese may be poor, but they are unwilling to lower their standard of living to that of the Trinerean immigrants who spend their whole lives at work, earning very little money by Peradean standards. The Mendozans have lived in Maren for almost as long as the Marenese and are just as poor. However, they are native Peradeans and have the tall, slender body type, which separates them from the short, stocky Marenese. The Mendozans came to Maren in search of opportunity in the fishing industry. In fact, Mendozan is the word for fisherman in Peradean. Unfortunately, fishing wasn't as profitable as they had hoped. Many of the Mendozans left, but some fell in love with the region and have stayed, despite the economic difficulty. The Mendozans are proud of their culture and of their land. However, they are intensely prejudiced against both the Marenese and the Trinerean immigrants whom they view as inferior to native Peradeans. They are anti-immigration and they have set up several border control groups, the largest of which is called the Vigilantes. The Mendozans are very loyal to the nation of Perades and its culture. Unfortunately, many of the Peradeans view the Mendozans as ignorant and uneducated. Recently, a new wave of Peradeans has been moving to Maren. This group is largely made up of artists who are attracted to Maren's culture and natural beauty. There are also a number of tech companies relocating to Maren to take advantage of the cheap land. New restaurants and businesses have sprung up to accommodate the Westerners. The Westerners are giving Maren's economy a needed boost, however neither the Marenese nor the Mendozans feel they are benefiting from it. The Westerners tend to either hire immigrants because they work for incredibly low wages, or fellow Westerners who are better educated than the residents of Maren. The Marenese are especially hostile to the Westerners because they believe the Westerners are destroying the Marenese culture. For centuries, the Marenese say they have had a tradition of taking a long lunch break in the middle of the day. The tradition reflects their values of spending time with friends and family. However, the Westerners ignore this tradition and they're beginning to put the Marenese out of business. The Westerners don't realize the effect they're having on the area. In fact, one of the reasons they moved to Maren is because they enjoy the slower pace of life. They call it "Maren time" and they respect the locals' ability to relax and enjoy the moment. Still, they don't quite understand the locals' stubborn adherence to the long lunch break. The Westerners are largely college-educated and view themselves as open-minded. While their parents may be prejudiced towards the Marenese, the Westerners feel they are more tolerant. Still, it seems to them that the Marenese and the Mendozans could do more to break the cycle of poverty in the area and ending the long lunch break would be one of the first steps. The Westerners are largely segregated from the other residents of Maren. They live in richer neighborhoods and their children attend private schools because Maren's public schools are in bad shape. They know the Marenese and the Mendozans have some hostility towards them, but they're not really sure why and they don't have enough contact with them to ask. Although they hire the immigrants in droves, the Westerners don't think much about the immigrants and consider them part of the woodwork. Despite the rising hostility and frustration, these four groups have been living in relative peace for the last few years. Mostly, they try to avoid each other and get on with their lives. But a series of recent incidents suggests that this strategy isn't working anymore. First was a series of three rapes. The police believe that the perpetrators were immigrants, but the suspects have disappeared back to Trinereo without a trace. Two of the victims were Westerners and one was a Mendozan. Although not many details have been released about the attacks, it is known that they were fairly brutal and that two of the women are still in the hospital recovering from their injuries. The second incident was a tech firm that was vandalized in the middle of the night. All the windows were smashed and thousands of dollars of equipment was destroyed, but nothing was stolen. Derogatory phrases were spray-painted on the walls. The damage forced the firm to close for a few weeks until the building could be cleaned up and the equipment repaired or replaced. The vandalism has made the tech workers extremely nervous and many people have since quit the firm and moved back West. Third, some of the local high school kids, both Marenese and Mendozan, have been harassing the Western kids when they come into town. With news getting around of the threats, most Westerners are starting to avoid the town center. Finally, two members of the Mendozan group, the Vigilantes, pistol-whipped an immigrant they caught swimming to shore from an illegal boat. The man was badly injured. The Vigilantes have refused to apologize for the incident and have threatened more violence against the immigrants. Many of Maren's residents are concerned about the recent violence. But they're not sure what to do about it. All they know for sure is that the quality of life in Maren is decreasing. Click on the character you wish to "be." Mike Green: Mike is Marenese and the mayor of Blue River. He is determined to end the violence in Maren and facilitate more understanding between the different community groups in Blue River. Susana Hayek: Susana works for the Trinerean Church, putting together social projects such as a community garden and an affordable housing program. She hopes that providing for the basic needs of the community will help end the violence. William Luchard: William is a university professor living in Blue River. His heritage is half Marenese, half Mendozan, but he identifies with his Marenese relatives. He has recently become involved with an armed organization dedicated to fighting for independence for Maren. Stephen Pelle: Stephen is from a huge Mendozan family and is one of the best policemen in Blue River. He has been charged with investigating the Vigilantes, a violent anti-immigration group. He suspects that many of his family members are involved with the Vigilantes and that his new task will force him to betray his family. Emma Thornton: Emma is a Westerner teaching at Blue River High School, a public school in town with a bad reputation. She is trying to use a soccer league to build bridges between the rich Westerners and the poor locals.	2,281	ENGLISH	1
A few of the grievances stated in the Declaration was the colonies were taxed without representation, the king exercised absolute power, suspended trial by jury, quartered the soldiers in the citizens home, and made war against the colonies. All of the grievances had substance; the colonies were being punished for being too independent of Britain. The British citizens were represented in Parliament but not the American citizens. The liberties were taken away from the colonist in order to keep them in line. The colonists were made to supply the soldiers with lodging even if that meant in their homes. The King made war on the colonist that was in direct violation of the English Bill of Rights; this was a threat to their freedom (Schultz, 2011) The Constitution gave Congress the power to tax the American citizens, and the citizens are represented by elected representatives. So there would not be obsolete power the Constitution divided the power into three branches of government, the executive, judicial and legislative. The Constitution and the Bill of Right, which is an amendment to the Constitution, guarantee the right to a fair trial by one’s peers. The third amendment protects the citizens from housing soldiers in their homes without their consent. Only Congress has the power to declare war on other countries, not one person. (Schultz, 2011) The Bills of Rights was the first ten amendments to be added to the Constitution in order to ensure the Anti-Federalist the government would not be too strong. The Bill of Rights specifically spells out certain rights that were not clear in the Constitution; freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom to assemble, freedom of the press, freedom to be a speedy and fair trial by an impartial jury, and the right to bear arms are just a few (Schultz, 2011). The Articles of Confederation was the first attempt at a government but was not without flaws. The Articles main issues were the inability to raise funds, authority over internal trade and unanimous approval from all states (Schultz, 2011). The Articles did request money from the States, but they were ignored, they were able to make treaties but had no way to enforce them or pay the national debt, meaning no country wanted to trade with the United States. The Constitution gave specific power to Congress in order to regulate trade and collect taxes for much needed revenue. As in the Article, the Constitution no longer had to have a unanimous vote. In order for an amendment to become part of the Constitution, it needs to be ratified by three-fourth of the states (Schultz, 2011). The next problem was to determine how…	<urn:uuid:e5acddb5-d162-47e8-b921-8457196a7873>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Declaration-United-States-Constitution-And-Schultz-565010.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00081.warc.gz	en	0.984005	519	4.46875	4	[ -0.2511885166168213, 0.1650814414024353, 0.4223068952560425, -0.16158443689346313, -0.2667583227157593, 0.18721148371696472, 0.17597009241580963, -0.09230998158454895, -0.038812194019556046, 0.3305327892303467, 0.27543509006500244, 0.23182886838912964, -0.07997708767652512, 0.1993691623210...	1	A few of the grievances stated in the Declaration was the colonies were taxed without representation, the king exercised absolute power, suspended trial by jury, quartered the soldiers in the citizens home, and made war against the colonies. All of the grievances had substance; the colonies were being punished for being too independent of Britain. The British citizens were represented in Parliament but not the American citizens. The liberties were taken away from the colonist in order to keep them in line. The colonists were made to supply the soldiers with lodging even if that meant in their homes. The King made war on the colonist that was in direct violation of the English Bill of Rights; this was a threat to their freedom (Schultz, 2011) The Constitution gave Congress the power to tax the American citizens, and the citizens are represented by elected representatives. So there would not be obsolete power the Constitution divided the power into three branches of government, the executive, judicial and legislative. The Constitution and the Bill of Right, which is an amendment to the Constitution, guarantee the right to a fair trial by one’s peers. The third amendment protects the citizens from housing soldiers in their homes without their consent. Only Congress has the power to declare war on other countries, not one person. (Schultz, 2011) The Bills of Rights was the first ten amendments to be added to the Constitution in order to ensure the Anti-Federalist the government would not be too strong. The Bill of Rights specifically spells out certain rights that were not clear in the Constitution; freedom of speech, freedom of religion, freedom to assemble, freedom of the press, freedom to be a speedy and fair trial by an impartial jury, and the right to bear arms are just a few (Schultz, 2011). The Articles of Confederation was the first attempt at a government but was not without flaws. The Articles main issues were the inability to raise funds, authority over internal trade and unanimous approval from all states (Schultz, 2011). The Articles did request money from the States, but they were ignored, they were able to make treaties but had no way to enforce them or pay the national debt, meaning no country wanted to trade with the United States. The Constitution gave specific power to Congress in order to regulate trade and collect taxes for much needed revenue. As in the Article, the Constitution no longer had to have a unanimous vote. In order for an amendment to become part of the Constitution, it needs to be ratified by three-fourth of the states (Schultz, 2011). The next problem was to determine how…	535	ENGLISH	1
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work! Athens 1896 Olympic Games The inaugural Games of the modern Olympics were attended by as many as 280 athletes, all male, from 12 countries. The athletes competed in 43 events covering athletics (track and field), cycling, swimming, gymnastics, weightlifting, wrestling, fencing, shooting, and tennis. A festive atmosphere prevailed as foreign athletes were greeted with parades and banquets. A crowd estimated at more than 60,000 attended the opening day of competition. Members of the royal family of Greece played an important role in the organization and management of the Games and were regular spectators over the 10 days of the Olympics. Hungary sent the only national team; most of the foreign athletes were well-to-do college students or members of athletic clubs attracted by the novelty of the Olympics. The athletics (track-and-field) events were held at the Panathenaic Stadium. The stadium, originally built in 330 bce, had been excavated but not rebuilt for the 1870 Greek Olympics and lay in disrepair before the 1896 Olympics, but through the direction and financial aid of Georgios Averoff, a wealthy Egyptian Greek, it was restored with white marble. The ancient track had an unusually elongated shape with such sharp turns that runners were forced to slow down considerably in order to stay in their lanes. The track-and-field competition was dominated by athletes from the United States, who won 9 of the 12 events. The swimming events were held in the cold currents of the Bay of Zea. Two of the four swimming races were won by Alfréd Hajós of Hungary. Paul Masson of France won three of the six cycling events. The 1896 Olympics featured the first marathon. The race, conceived by Frenchman Michel Bréal, followed the legendary route of Pheidippides, a trained runner who was believed to have been sent from the plain of Marathon to Athens to announce the defeat of an invading Persian army in 490 bce. The race became the highlight of the Games and was won by Spyridon Louis, a Greek whose victory earned him the lasting admiration of his nation. Learn More in these related Britannica articles: Olympic Games: Athens, Greece, 1896The inaugural Games of the modern Olympics were attended by as many as 280 athletes, all male, coming from 12 countries. The athletes competed in 43 events covering athletics (track and field), cycling, swimming, gymnastics, weightlifting, wrestling, fencing, shooting, and tennis. A… discus throw…Olympic Games were revived at Athens in 1896.… Athens, historic city and capital of Greece. Many of Classical civilization’s intellectual and artistic ideas originated there, and the city is generally considered to be the birthplace of Western civilization. Athens lies 5 miles (8 km) from…	<urn:uuid:685ce582-4080-456f-9fcf-4a462556f947>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.britannica.com/event/Athens-1896-Olympic-Games	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00467.warc.gz	en	0.982085	614	3.34375	3	[ 0.0000401204451918602, 0.49810922145843506, 0.418290913105011, -0.15340101718902588, -0.2359791100025177, 0.06822054088115692, -0.1488485336303711, 0.3567330837249756, 0.06368100643157959, -0.060649603605270386, -0.11866643279790878, -0.4342748522758484, -0.14385837316513062, 0.33621549606...	1	Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work! Athens 1896 Olympic Games The inaugural Games of the modern Olympics were attended by as many as 280 athletes, all male, from 12 countries. The athletes competed in 43 events covering athletics (track and field), cycling, swimming, gymnastics, weightlifting, wrestling, fencing, shooting, and tennis. A festive atmosphere prevailed as foreign athletes were greeted with parades and banquets. A crowd estimated at more than 60,000 attended the opening day of competition. Members of the royal family of Greece played an important role in the organization and management of the Games and were regular spectators over the 10 days of the Olympics. Hungary sent the only national team; most of the foreign athletes were well-to-do college students or members of athletic clubs attracted by the novelty of the Olympics. The athletics (track-and-field) events were held at the Panathenaic Stadium. The stadium, originally built in 330 bce, had been excavated but not rebuilt for the 1870 Greek Olympics and lay in disrepair before the 1896 Olympics, but through the direction and financial aid of Georgios Averoff, a wealthy Egyptian Greek, it was restored with white marble. The ancient track had an unusually elongated shape with such sharp turns that runners were forced to slow down considerably in order to stay in their lanes. The track-and-field competition was dominated by athletes from the United States, who won 9 of the 12 events. The swimming events were held in the cold currents of the Bay of Zea. Two of the four swimming races were won by Alfréd Hajós of Hungary. Paul Masson of France won three of the six cycling events. The 1896 Olympics featured the first marathon. The race, conceived by Frenchman Michel Bréal, followed the legendary route of Pheidippides, a trained runner who was believed to have been sent from the plain of Marathon to Athens to announce the defeat of an invading Persian army in 490 bce. The race became the highlight of the Games and was won by Spyridon Louis, a Greek whose victory earned him the lasting admiration of his nation. Learn More in these related Britannica articles: Olympic Games: Athens, Greece, 1896The inaugural Games of the modern Olympics were attended by as many as 280 athletes, all male, coming from 12 countries. The athletes competed in 43 events covering athletics (track and field), cycling, swimming, gymnastics, weightlifting, wrestling, fencing, shooting, and tennis. A… discus throw…Olympic Games were revived at Athens in 1896.… Athens, historic city and capital of Greece. Many of Classical civilization’s intellectual and artistic ideas originated there, and the city is generally considered to be the birthplace of Western civilization. Athens lies 5 miles (8 km) from…	648	ENGLISH	1
British Cameroon or British Cameroons was a British Mandate territory in British West Africa. Today, the territory forms parts of Northern Nigeria in West Africa and Cameroon in Central Africa. The area of present-day Cameroon was claimed by Germany as a protectorate during the "Scramble for Africa" at the end of the 19th century. The German Empire named the territory Kamerun. During the First World War, it was occupied by British, French and Belgian troops, and a later League of Nations Mandate to Great Britain and France by the League of Nations in 1922. The French mandate was known as Cameroun and the British territory was administered as two areas, Northern Cameroons and Southern Cameroons. Northern Cameroons consisted of two non-contiguous sections, divided by a point where the Nigerian and Cameroun borders met. French Cameroun became independent, as Cameroun or Cameroon, in January 1960, and Nigeria was scheduled for independence later that same year, which raised question of what to do with the British territory. After some discussion (which had been going on since 1959), a plebiscite was agreed to and held on 11 February 1961. The Muslim-majority Northern area opted for union with Nigeria, and the Southern area voted to join Cameroon. Northern Cameroons became the Sardauna Province of Northern Nigeria on 31 May 1961, while Southern Cameroons became West Cameroon, a constituent state of the Federal Republic of Cameroon, later that year on 1 October 1961.	<urn:uuid:bd786956-3c21-4d96-8c2c-d828135e9943>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://onlinecoin.club/Info/Countries/British_Cameroon/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00148.warc.gz	en	0.981154	299	3.75	4	[ -0.1776149570941925, 0.309706449508667, 0.5781662464141846, -0.4012629985809326, 0.2919224798679352, -0.33656632900238037, 0.03612204268574715, 0.22798565030097961, -0.04761960357427597, 0.3794833719730377, -0.1658695638179779, -1.0425642728805542, 0.1672757863998413, 0.026390109211206436,...	9	British Cameroon or British Cameroons was a British Mandate territory in British West Africa. Today, the territory forms parts of Northern Nigeria in West Africa and Cameroon in Central Africa. The area of present-day Cameroon was claimed by Germany as a protectorate during the "Scramble for Africa" at the end of the 19th century. The German Empire named the territory Kamerun. During the First World War, it was occupied by British, French and Belgian troops, and a later League of Nations Mandate to Great Britain and France by the League of Nations in 1922. The French mandate was known as Cameroun and the British territory was administered as two areas, Northern Cameroons and Southern Cameroons. Northern Cameroons consisted of two non-contiguous sections, divided by a point where the Nigerian and Cameroun borders met. French Cameroun became independent, as Cameroun or Cameroon, in January 1960, and Nigeria was scheduled for independence later that same year, which raised question of what to do with the British territory. After some discussion (which had been going on since 1959), a plebiscite was agreed to and held on 11 February 1961. The Muslim-majority Northern area opted for union with Nigeria, and the Southern area voted to join Cameroon. Northern Cameroons became the Sardauna Province of Northern Nigeria on 31 May 1961, while Southern Cameroons became West Cameroon, a constituent state of the Federal Republic of Cameroon, later that year on 1 October 1961.	336	ENGLISH	1
Hermann Staudinger Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Hermann Staudinger was born on March 23rd, 1881. He was a famous German organic chemist who was bestowed with a Nobel Prize for demonstrating the existence of macromolecules. He was awarded the chemistry Nobel in 1953. Other discoveries that he made were of the Staudinger reaction and ketenes. Hermann Staudinger was born on March 23rd, in 1881. His place of birth was in Worms, Rhineland-Palatinate in Germany. He was the son of Dr. Franz Gottfried and Auguste Staudinger. Staudinger had three brothers and one sister. His brothers were Hans Wilhelm Staudinger, Wilhelm Staudinger, and Karl August Friedrich Staudinger. His sister was called Luise Federn. Hermann Staudinger went for his education in Worms. He later completed his college education in 1899. For a short period, he went to the University of Halle. After a short period, he transferred and enrolled in a technical school in Darmstadt. This was influenced by the fact that his father had been offered a job in Darmstadt. Later, he went for his higher education in Munich before later earning his Ph.D. degree from Halle University in 1903. Immediately after earning his Ph.D., he was employed at the University of Strasbourg. Here, he was under the guidance of Professor Johannes Thiele. Thiele was a celebrated German Chemist at the time. It was while working at the university that he discovered ketenes. The Staudinger Reaction Discovery In 1912, Hermann Staudinger got a new job at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology situated in Zurich, Switzerland. A few years later in 1919, he made the discovery that would later be identified as the Staudinger reaction. In 1927, Hermann Staudinger tied the knot with Magda Woit from Latvia. Hermann Staudinger passed away on September 8th, in 1965. He was 84 years old at the time of his death. Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac John E. Walker Glen T. Seaborg Richard J. Roberts	<urn:uuid:5377e5a3-c0b3-4f74-aaa2-6ace716a0a71>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/d/profile/hermann-staudinger/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00558.warc.gz	en	0.982876	466	3.40625	3	[ 0.36284470558166504, 0.2571553587913513, 0.11101681739091873, -0.12389742583036423, -0.05125776678323746, -0.2277805358171463, 0.17647528648376465, 0.16691990196704865, -0.47122007608413696, -0.18821457028388977, 0.4296007454395294, -0.3665202558040619, 0.18903319537639618, 0.4134840369224...	1	Hermann Staudinger Biography, Life, Interesting Facts Hermann Staudinger was born on March 23rd, 1881. He was a famous German organic chemist who was bestowed with a Nobel Prize for demonstrating the existence of macromolecules. He was awarded the chemistry Nobel in 1953. Other discoveries that he made were of the Staudinger reaction and ketenes. Hermann Staudinger was born on March 23rd, in 1881. His place of birth was in Worms, Rhineland-Palatinate in Germany. He was the son of Dr. Franz Gottfried and Auguste Staudinger. Staudinger had three brothers and one sister. His brothers were Hans Wilhelm Staudinger, Wilhelm Staudinger, and Karl August Friedrich Staudinger. His sister was called Luise Federn. Hermann Staudinger went for his education in Worms. He later completed his college education in 1899. For a short period, he went to the University of Halle. After a short period, he transferred and enrolled in a technical school in Darmstadt. This was influenced by the fact that his father had been offered a job in Darmstadt. Later, he went for his higher education in Munich before later earning his Ph.D. degree from Halle University in 1903. Immediately after earning his Ph.D., he was employed at the University of Strasbourg. Here, he was under the guidance of Professor Johannes Thiele. Thiele was a celebrated German Chemist at the time. It was while working at the university that he discovered ketenes. The Staudinger Reaction Discovery In 1912, Hermann Staudinger got a new job at the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology situated in Zurich, Switzerland. A few years later in 1919, he made the discovery that would later be identified as the Staudinger reaction. In 1927, Hermann Staudinger tied the knot with Magda Woit from Latvia. Hermann Staudinger passed away on September 8th, in 1965. He was 84 years old at the time of his death. Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac John E. Walker Glen T. Seaborg Richard J. Roberts	488	ENGLISH	1
Why our happiness lies in the happiness of others! How to find happiness The short story below is about finding happiness and makes a great starter to a lesson or an engaging assembly idea. I used it during a form time session as a quick lesson on how to find happiness and it made a real impact on the class. You might also what to take a look at how to work out your purpose in life as this is also thought provoking and inspirational. Comments are FREE. Please leave one below about how you used this short story on finding happiness in your classroom. How did your pupils take the story? How did it make them feel? A short story on finding happiness Once a group of 500 people were attending a seminar. Suddenly the speaker stopped and decided to do a group activity. He started giving each person a balloon. Each person was then asked to write their name on it using a marker pen. Then all the balloons were collected and put in another room. The people were then let into that room and asked to find the balloon which had their name written on it within 5 minutes. Everyone was frantically searching for their name, colliding with each other, pushing around others and there was utter chaos. At the end of 5 minutes no one could find their own balloon. Then, the speaker asked each person to randomly collect a balloon and give it to the person whose name was written on it. Within minutes everyone had their own balloon. The speaker then began, “This is happening in our lives. Everyone is frantically looking for happiness all around, not knowing where it is. Our happiness lies in the happiness of other people. Give them their happiness; you will get your own happiness. And this is the purpose of human life…the pursuit of happiness.”	<urn:uuid:2cbf0bb6-b366-4ab4-b33e-6ac592ef3eb1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.magicalmaths.org/why-our-happiness-lies-in-the-happiness-of-others-a-great-story/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00396.warc.gz	en	0.984622	364	3.53125	4	[ -0.3219386041164398, 0.09715691208839417, 0.2779185473918915, 0.18884655833244324, -0.4775697886943817, -0.11999381333589554, 0.6010826826095581, -0.13745786249637604, 0.3322392702102661, 0.04439609497785568, 0.58050137758255, -0.03545359894633293, 0.1747281849384308, 0.2430306375026703, ...	3	Why our happiness lies in the happiness of others! How to find happiness The short story below is about finding happiness and makes a great starter to a lesson or an engaging assembly idea. I used it during a form time session as a quick lesson on how to find happiness and it made a real impact on the class. You might also what to take a look at how to work out your purpose in life as this is also thought provoking and inspirational. Comments are FREE. Please leave one below about how you used this short story on finding happiness in your classroom. How did your pupils take the story? How did it make them feel? A short story on finding happiness Once a group of 500 people were attending a seminar. Suddenly the speaker stopped and decided to do a group activity. He started giving each person a balloon. Each person was then asked to write their name on it using a marker pen. Then all the balloons were collected and put in another room. The people were then let into that room and asked to find the balloon which had their name written on it within 5 minutes. Everyone was frantically searching for their name, colliding with each other, pushing around others and there was utter chaos. At the end of 5 minutes no one could find their own balloon. Then, the speaker asked each person to randomly collect a balloon and give it to the person whose name was written on it. Within minutes everyone had their own balloon. The speaker then began, “This is happening in our lives. Everyone is frantically looking for happiness all around, not knowing where it is. Our happiness lies in the happiness of other people. Give them their happiness; you will get your own happiness. And this is the purpose of human life…the pursuit of happiness.”	359	ENGLISH	1
The Women's march on Versailles was caused by the poor economy of France at the time. The most common food, bread, was skyrocketing in prices which made the people angry, especially the wives that bought food to their families. They protested the prices by marching to Versailles and demanded the King to come to Paris. After being forced to return to Paris the King struggled to fit in and received little support. The king was so distraught that he tried to escape along with Marie Antoinette. They were recognized and arrested, and the news of the king trying to escape killed all of his credibility to the people of France. The Guillotine was an execution used by the french during the French Revolution. It was thought to be a more humane way of execution that was mostly painless. During the Reign of Terror, it is thought that 40,000 were victim to the guillotine.	<urn:uuid:4717568a-f15c-43d6-b6bb-13319d47d52d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/9068ae23/unknown-story2	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00551.warc.gz	en	0.993752	185	3.6875	4	[ -0.19473156332969666, 0.6325994729995728, -0.3028877079486847, 0.1162971556186676, 0.2739255726337433, 0.15540072321891785, 0.42134422063827515, 0.3640003502368927, 0.28780844807624817, -0.17678046226501465, 0.19883696734905243, 0.09231668710708618, -0.13714323937892914, 0.1812520474195480...	1	The Women's march on Versailles was caused by the poor economy of France at the time. The most common food, bread, was skyrocketing in prices which made the people angry, especially the wives that bought food to their families. They protested the prices by marching to Versailles and demanded the King to come to Paris. After being forced to return to Paris the King struggled to fit in and received little support. The king was so distraught that he tried to escape along with Marie Antoinette. They were recognized and arrested, and the news of the king trying to escape killed all of his credibility to the people of France. The Guillotine was an execution used by the french during the French Revolution. It was thought to be a more humane way of execution that was mostly painless. During the Reign of Terror, it is thought that 40,000 were victim to the guillotine.	184	ENGLISH	1
Over 180 Years of History Find out more The concept of a taxi first appeared in London during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, 1533 - 1603, when the wealthy, who owned coaches, sought to recoup some of the enormous expense they incurred in keeping them, by hiring them out to aspiring but less well-heeled members of the gentry. As the coaches aged and were replaced, they were bought by innkeepers and merchants and hired out. A growing trade for carriages and their hire began. Queen Elizabeth 1 had to be encouraged to ride in carriages in her later years, preferring to ride or be carried as above. First Cab Rank The first recognised cab rank was established by Captain Bailey at the Maypole in the Strand (where St Mary-le-Strand church is today). Four coaches were run from here. A year later, King Charles I issued a proclamation restricting the number of Hackney coaches to just 50, and they were only allowed to pick up passengers who were travelling more than 3 miles. The term 'hackney', as used in hackney coaches and cabs comes from the Norman French word 'hacquenée' meaning a type of horse suitable for hire Oliver Cromwells Act Of Parliament It was Oliver Cromwell who set up the Fellowship of Master Hackney Carriages by Act of Parliament, and taxi driving became a profession. According to my father, Oliver Cromwell wished to ensure carriages were regulated by yearly checks. The Coachman was required to drive to the town hall for the carriage to be checked by the wheel wright, the harness by the harness maker and the horses feet by the blacksmith. If all were approved as fit for work, a license was issued and a fee paid. Was his motive safety or another tax on a growing and lucrative industry? We will never know! Further regulations were bought in as required to control this growing business. In 1679 ‘Conditions of Fitness’ was introduced for hackney carriages and in 1768 the number of hackney licences increases to one thousand causing considerable congestion! Purpose Built Carriages Joseph Hansom patents his two-wheel cabriolet (the Hansom cab) and two years later a four-wheel version follows – the ‘Clarence’, aka the ‘Growler’. In Windsor, sights of these carriages would have been rare as the vast majority of England would travel by foot or horse and cart. Carriages such as these would have been used in the city centres by those wealthy enough to have arrived in London by Coach and Horses or their own livery. Windsor Hackney carriage drivers would have used 'whatever they could lay their hands on at a reasonable price'. The Landau carriage is a good example of this, built in 1860 and licensed in 1890. Windsors Cab Rank Licensed Hackney Carriages line up outside the Curfew tower at Windsor Castle. The metal bars can still be found on the hill which were installed for the carriages to rest on and take the weight from the horses. Carriages would take passengers where-ever they wished, using The Long Walk as a thorough fare like all tradesmen. In 1849, with the redesign of Windsor town all public traffic was prohibited from the Long Walk - however, hackney carriages were granted access and our licence was one of only twelve permitted this privilege. In 1869 an Act of Parliament gave the Commissioner of Police authority to regulate the manner in which the carriages were to be fitted and furnished, and importantly the number of persons allowed to be carried. Taxis become motorised With the arrival of the motor vehicle, taxi licences began to be transferred from carriage to car. In fact the first motorcar in England was bought by Evelyn Ellis (pictured) in 1895 who lived just 2 miles from Windsor, so we can imagine Windsorians may have been the first to see one! Permissions to move through private estates, across England, were gradually removed for motor vehicles and in Windsor were not permitted on the Long Walk or Great Park. Only the remaining horse drawn Hackney carriage licensees retained access. Four carriages remaining A tourist trade in Windsor begins to grow with only four horse drawn hackney carriages remain as licences revert to motor vehicles once the licensee passed away. The cab rank in Windsor was shared between the taxi cars and carriages, with carriages allowed at the front of the que. Pictured here is George Paget of Eton Wick (Great Uncle to me) driving The Landau which we still have. This carriage was first licensed in 1910 and you can read more here. The licensees were: 1. Conrad and Marcus Ford of Eton Wick who drove with their single horse Bunty. Known as The Ford Brothers. 2 and 3. George (pictured) and my dad John Seear. 3. A driver we only knew as Doctor Death, which is another story! The last hackney carriage As regular taxi work dried up with the car and train taking most passengers in and out of Windsor, the tourist trade soon grew to be the main carriage business. We were often called upon for town activities such as Father Christmas processions or opening of a new store, such as Fenwicks, where Prince Charles paid a visit to the Hackney carriage as pictured. We slowly became the last carriage in the town to operate under the original 1654 licensing issued by Oliver Cromwell. But diversification was needed to survive! The 'Cab Rank' is closed In 2002, retired Hackney Carriage Drivers, Marcus and Conrad Ford, campaigned with my father for further licenses. They had recognised the growing tourism trade this would serve. However their campaign with the council was not successful. The horse drawn taxi rank outside the Curfew Tower was closed and the last remaining carriage (John Seear, left) was moved to Castle Hill. This followed quite a few years of being moved around the town as it got busier. For a few years dad shared the same 'spot' as the sightseeing buses. A particularly difficult time seeing our horses standing amongst the heavy and growing levels of traffic. 1936 remains the year the last licence for a horse-drawn hackney carriage was issued. New licenses holders can apply under more recent horse and carriage regulations but are limited to public roads only. In 2013 due to my fathers poor health I quit my job as Head of EU Operations for Amazon Prime and rejoined dad on the carriages. Dad added me to the license allowing me to drive on The Long Walk with him and I created the website, branding and business you can book today and most importantly persuaded dad to trial pre booked trips from outside The Castle. This provided a more peaceful location for the horses and allowed us to better manage our time and the work schedule of each horse. Gone were the days sitting in the town waiting for trips. Sadly, I lost my dad, John Seear, in 2016, and as you will learn on our tours, he certainly left quite a legacy. Windsor and Englands last Horse drawn taxi continues!	<urn:uuid:df92931b-0491-4a6a-9634-843f2ef1fc64>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.windsorcarriages.co.uk/history	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00455.warc.gz	en	0.981129	1,470	3.390625	3	[ 0.12972098588943481, -0.18224354088306427, 0.7286385297775269, -0.17306585609912872, -0.5834503173828125, 0.25768059492111206, 0.3752589523792267, -0.09777605533599854, 0.29057395458221436, -0.030546884983778, -0.07549268007278442, -0.30390024185180664, -0.33176037669181824, 0.198079496622...	2	Over 180 Years of History Find out more The concept of a taxi first appeared in London during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, 1533 - 1603, when the wealthy, who owned coaches, sought to recoup some of the enormous expense they incurred in keeping them, by hiring them out to aspiring but less well-heeled members of the gentry. As the coaches aged and were replaced, they were bought by innkeepers and merchants and hired out. A growing trade for carriages and their hire began. Queen Elizabeth 1 had to be encouraged to ride in carriages in her later years, preferring to ride or be carried as above. First Cab Rank The first recognised cab rank was established by Captain Bailey at the Maypole in the Strand (where St Mary-le-Strand church is today). Four coaches were run from here. A year later, King Charles I issued a proclamation restricting the number of Hackney coaches to just 50, and they were only allowed to pick up passengers who were travelling more than 3 miles. The term 'hackney', as used in hackney coaches and cabs comes from the Norman French word 'hacquenée' meaning a type of horse suitable for hire Oliver Cromwells Act Of Parliament It was Oliver Cromwell who set up the Fellowship of Master Hackney Carriages by Act of Parliament, and taxi driving became a profession. According to my father, Oliver Cromwell wished to ensure carriages were regulated by yearly checks. The Coachman was required to drive to the town hall for the carriage to be checked by the wheel wright, the harness by the harness maker and the horses feet by the blacksmith. If all were approved as fit for work, a license was issued and a fee paid. Was his motive safety or another tax on a growing and lucrative industry? We will never know! Further regulations were bought in as required to control this growing business. In 1679 ‘Conditions of Fitness’ was introduced for hackney carriages and in 1768 the number of hackney licences increases to one thousand causing considerable congestion! Purpose Built Carriages Joseph Hansom patents his two-wheel cabriolet (the Hansom cab) and two years later a four-wheel version follows – the ‘Clarence’, aka the ‘Growler’. In Windsor, sights of these carriages would have been rare as the vast majority of England would travel by foot or horse and cart. Carriages such as these would have been used in the city centres by those wealthy enough to have arrived in London by Coach and Horses or their own livery. Windsor Hackney carriage drivers would have used 'whatever they could lay their hands on at a reasonable price'. The Landau carriage is a good example of this, built in 1860 and licensed in 1890. Windsors Cab Rank Licensed Hackney Carriages line up outside the Curfew tower at Windsor Castle. The metal bars can still be found on the hill which were installed for the carriages to rest on and take the weight from the horses. Carriages would take passengers where-ever they wished, using The Long Walk as a thorough fare like all tradesmen. In 1849, with the redesign of Windsor town all public traffic was prohibited from the Long Walk - however, hackney carriages were granted access and our licence was one of only twelve permitted this privilege. In 1869 an Act of Parliament gave the Commissioner of Police authority to regulate the manner in which the carriages were to be fitted and furnished, and importantly the number of persons allowed to be carried. Taxis become motorised With the arrival of the motor vehicle, taxi licences began to be transferred from carriage to car. In fact the first motorcar in England was bought by Evelyn Ellis (pictured) in 1895 who lived just 2 miles from Windsor, so we can imagine Windsorians may have been the first to see one! Permissions to move through private estates, across England, were gradually removed for motor vehicles and in Windsor were not permitted on the Long Walk or Great Park. Only the remaining horse drawn Hackney carriage licensees retained access. Four carriages remaining A tourist trade in Windsor begins to grow with only four horse drawn hackney carriages remain as licences revert to motor vehicles once the licensee passed away. The cab rank in Windsor was shared between the taxi cars and carriages, with carriages allowed at the front of the que. Pictured here is George Paget of Eton Wick (Great Uncle to me) driving The Landau which we still have. This carriage was first licensed in 1910 and you can read more here. The licensees were: 1. Conrad and Marcus Ford of Eton Wick who drove with their single horse Bunty. Known as The Ford Brothers. 2 and 3. George (pictured) and my dad John Seear. 3. A driver we only knew as Doctor Death, which is another story! The last hackney carriage As regular taxi work dried up with the car and train taking most passengers in and out of Windsor, the tourist trade soon grew to be the main carriage business. We were often called upon for town activities such as Father Christmas processions or opening of a new store, such as Fenwicks, where Prince Charles paid a visit to the Hackney carriage as pictured. We slowly became the last carriage in the town to operate under the original 1654 licensing issued by Oliver Cromwell. But diversification was needed to survive! The 'Cab Rank' is closed In 2002, retired Hackney Carriage Drivers, Marcus and Conrad Ford, campaigned with my father for further licenses. They had recognised the growing tourism trade this would serve. However their campaign with the council was not successful. The horse drawn taxi rank outside the Curfew Tower was closed and the last remaining carriage (John Seear, left) was moved to Castle Hill. This followed quite a few years of being moved around the town as it got busier. For a few years dad shared the same 'spot' as the sightseeing buses. A particularly difficult time seeing our horses standing amongst the heavy and growing levels of traffic. 1936 remains the year the last licence for a horse-drawn hackney carriage was issued. New licenses holders can apply under more recent horse and carriage regulations but are limited to public roads only. In 2013 due to my fathers poor health I quit my job as Head of EU Operations for Amazon Prime and rejoined dad on the carriages. Dad added me to the license allowing me to drive on The Long Walk with him and I created the website, branding and business you can book today and most importantly persuaded dad to trial pre booked trips from outside The Castle. This provided a more peaceful location for the horses and allowed us to better manage our time and the work schedule of each horse. Gone were the days sitting in the town waiting for trips. Sadly, I lost my dad, John Seear, in 2016, and as you will learn on our tours, he certainly left quite a legacy. Windsor and Englands last Horse drawn taxi continues!	1,487	ENGLISH	1
Battle of the Plains of Abraham The Battle of the Plains of Abraham was a battle that happened on September 13, 1759. It was part of the French and Indian War, which was part of the big Seven Years' War. The Plains of Abraham is close to the Saint Lawrence River in Quebec City. It is named after Abraham Martin. The battle was the French against the British. The French leader was Louis de Montcalm, and the British leader was James Wolfe. Both were young men. The French were wearing blue and the British were wearing red. The French were in their fort on the Plains of Abraham, waiting for the British to arrive. They knew the British were coming, from rumors and spies. But when the British arrived, the French were not prepared, and they did not have all their troops with them. They attacked anyway; each side had about 4500 troops in the battle. Many of the French troops were not trained as well as the British troops. Montcalm and Wolfe both died. The French retreated, and Quebec surrendered on September 18, 1759. The war continued in 1760, and the British captured Montreal and New France was defeated. This took Canada away from France and made it part of the British Empire. At the end of the war in 1763 France surrendered many of its colonial possessions — including Canada — to the British. Now Canada is a free country from British rule in the Act of Union 1840. Like the United States of America \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Battle of the Plains of Abraham.\|	<urn:uuid:37614feb-ee47-4131-a99f-094c40ff8aff>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_the_Plains_of_Abraham	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00434.warc.gz	en	0.992023	316	3.859375	4	[ -0.19896066188812256, 0.665419340133667, 0.17235495150089264, 0.29400160908699036, -0.6639086604118347, -0.2513035833835602, 0.14545942842960358, 0.3564978539943695, -0.014576708897948265, -0.08903297781944275, -0.2731245756149292, -0.6522822380065918, -0.19296866655349731, 0.1418690085411...	1	Battle of the Plains of Abraham The Battle of the Plains of Abraham was a battle that happened on September 13, 1759. It was part of the French and Indian War, which was part of the big Seven Years' War. The Plains of Abraham is close to the Saint Lawrence River in Quebec City. It is named after Abraham Martin. The battle was the French against the British. The French leader was Louis de Montcalm, and the British leader was James Wolfe. Both were young men. The French were wearing blue and the British were wearing red. The French were in their fort on the Plains of Abraham, waiting for the British to arrive. They knew the British were coming, from rumors and spies. But when the British arrived, the French were not prepared, and they did not have all their troops with them. They attacked anyway; each side had about 4500 troops in the battle. Many of the French troops were not trained as well as the British troops. Montcalm and Wolfe both died. The French retreated, and Quebec surrendered on September 18, 1759. The war continued in 1760, and the British captured Montreal and New France was defeated. This took Canada away from France and made it part of the British Empire. At the end of the war in 1763 France surrendered many of its colonial possessions — including Canada — to the British. Now Canada is a free country from British rule in the Act of Union 1840. Like the United States of America \|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Battle of the Plains of Abraham.\|	337	ENGLISH	1
Olav II Haraldsson ( 995 – 1030), king from 1015–1028, called during his lifetime the Fat and afterwards known as Saint Olaf, was born in the year in which Olaf Tryggvesson came to Norway. His father was Harald Grenske, great-grandchild of Harald I Fairhair. After some years' absence in England, fighting the Danes, he returned to Norway in 1015 and declared himself king, obtaining the support of the five petty kings of the Uplands. In 1016 he defeated Earl Sweyn, hitherto the virtual ruler of Norway, at the Battle of Neaje, and within a few years had won more power than had been enjoyed by any of his predecessors on the throne. He had annihilated the petty kings of the South, had crushed the aristocracy, enforced the acceptance of Christianity throughout the kingdom, asserted his suzerainty in the Orkney Islands, had humbled king Olof Skötkonung of Sweden and was for some time engaged to his daughter, the princess of Sweden, Ingegerd Skötkonung without his approval, and had conducted a successful raid on Denmark. But his success was short-lived, for in 1029 the Norwegian nobles, seething with discontent, rallied round the invading Knut the Great, and Olaf had to flee to Kievan Rus. During the voyage he stayed some time in Sweden in the province of Nerike where, according to local legend, he baptized many locals. On his return a year later, seizing an opportunity to win back the kingdom after Knut the Great's vassal Håkon Jarl was lost at sea, he fell at the Battle of Stiklestad, where his own subjects were arrayed against him. The succeeding years of disunion and misrule under the Danes explain the belated affection with which his countrymen came to regard him. The cunning and cruelty which marred his character were forgotten, and his services to his church and country remembered. Miracles were allegedly worked at his tomb, and his own death had peculiar circumstances (such as his hair and nails continuing to grow after he was dead). This was why he became canonized by Pope Alexander III in 1164. Some say that there is no proof of this, that he was never canonized (which is the case with many of the so-called canonized saints from this time and earlier; Neither Mary or any of the Apostles are formally canonized, for example.), and rather informally accepted as the patron saint of Norway, when his fame spread throughout Scandinavia and even to England, where churches are dedicated to him. The Norwegian order of Knighthood of Saint Olaf was founded in 1847 by Oscar I, king of Sweden and Norway, in memory of this king. He is called Rex Perpetuum Norvegiæ, eternal King of Norway.	<urn:uuid:838be3e3-8d4e-4980-970d-dcfbb3380752>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.statemaster.com/encyclopedia/Saint-Olaf	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00236.warc.gz	en	0.992163	603	3.40625	3	[ 0.0720268040895462, 0.5378848314285278, 0.14634832739830017, -0.19695022702217102, -0.09633651375770569, -0.1032164990901947, 0.08540056645870209, 0.2578775882720947, 0.04195664823055267, 0.1667523980140686, -0.027113821357488632, -0.4692372679710388, 0.5095499157905579, 0.0738668143749237...	1	Olav II Haraldsson ( 995 – 1030), king from 1015–1028, called during his lifetime the Fat and afterwards known as Saint Olaf, was born in the year in which Olaf Tryggvesson came to Norway. His father was Harald Grenske, great-grandchild of Harald I Fairhair. After some years' absence in England, fighting the Danes, he returned to Norway in 1015 and declared himself king, obtaining the support of the five petty kings of the Uplands. In 1016 he defeated Earl Sweyn, hitherto the virtual ruler of Norway, at the Battle of Neaje, and within a few years had won more power than had been enjoyed by any of his predecessors on the throne. He had annihilated the petty kings of the South, had crushed the aristocracy, enforced the acceptance of Christianity throughout the kingdom, asserted his suzerainty in the Orkney Islands, had humbled king Olof Skötkonung of Sweden and was for some time engaged to his daughter, the princess of Sweden, Ingegerd Skötkonung without his approval, and had conducted a successful raid on Denmark. But his success was short-lived, for in 1029 the Norwegian nobles, seething with discontent, rallied round the invading Knut the Great, and Olaf had to flee to Kievan Rus. During the voyage he stayed some time in Sweden in the province of Nerike where, according to local legend, he baptized many locals. On his return a year later, seizing an opportunity to win back the kingdom after Knut the Great's vassal Håkon Jarl was lost at sea, he fell at the Battle of Stiklestad, where his own subjects were arrayed against him. The succeeding years of disunion and misrule under the Danes explain the belated affection with which his countrymen came to regard him. The cunning and cruelty which marred his character were forgotten, and his services to his church and country remembered. Miracles were allegedly worked at his tomb, and his own death had peculiar circumstances (such as his hair and nails continuing to grow after he was dead). This was why he became canonized by Pope Alexander III in 1164. Some say that there is no proof of this, that he was never canonized (which is the case with many of the so-called canonized saints from this time and earlier; Neither Mary or any of the Apostles are formally canonized, for example.), and rather informally accepted as the patron saint of Norway, when his fame spread throughout Scandinavia and even to England, where churches are dedicated to him. The Norwegian order of Knighthood of Saint Olaf was founded in 1847 by Oscar I, king of Sweden and Norway, in memory of this king. He is called Rex Perpetuum Norvegiæ, eternal King of Norway.	623	ENGLISH	1

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