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‘Took The Children Away’ by Archie Roach, an Indigenous Australian singer/songwriter, is about how the white people would take Aboriginal children away from their families and force them to act and to be ‘white’. This song was written to underline how the Aboriginal people were horribly mistreated because the white people thought their way of living was superior.
Essay Example on Took The Children Away
Archie Roach starts the first verse with a serious tone and tells us while the Aboriginal people were lied to he will not do the same to us. He uses the simile, “And how they fenced us in like sheep,” to create the image that Aboriginal people were rounded up and treated like animals by white people. The rhyming couplets in the verse give the song flow and paint the picture of the white people teaching the Aboriginal people how to be like them – “Taught us to read, to write and pray / Then they took the children away.” This idea is continued in the second verse which explores the way the Government removed Aboriginal kids from their home and families. This is expressed through the repetition of “They took the children away, took the children away” and “Teach them how to really live, teach them how to live”.
In the third verse, Roach gives us a short but powerful glimpse of the negative impact the removal of Aboriginal children had on their families. He does this through using rhyme “Breaking their mother’s heart, tearing us all apart” to show the reader the sadness the whole Aboriginal community experienced. The fourth verse introduces Roach’s personal experience of growing up in Framlingham then losing his own family. The switch in the third person pronoun “took them away” to the repetition of the first person pronoun “took us away” within the verse makes the song more emotional to the reader and gets them to think more deeply about what Archie Roach and the Aboriginal community have been through.
The fifth verse deals with the feel… | <urn:uuid:41770dbd-abc2-409b-a49e-0f0ef1796b61> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://paperap.com/paper-on-took-the-children-away-by-archie-roach/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00402.warc.gz | en | 0.981104 | 431 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.007976624183... | 2 | ‘Took The Children Away’ by Archie Roach, an Indigenous Australian singer/songwriter, is about how the white people would take Aboriginal children away from their families and force them to act and to be ‘white’. This song was written to underline how the Aboriginal people were horribly mistreated because the white people thought their way of living was superior.
Essay Example on Took The Children Away
Archie Roach starts the first verse with a serious tone and tells us while the Aboriginal people were lied to he will not do the same to us. He uses the simile, “And how they fenced us in like sheep,” to create the image that Aboriginal people were rounded up and treated like animals by white people. The rhyming couplets in the verse give the song flow and paint the picture of the white people teaching the Aboriginal people how to be like them – “Taught us to read, to write and pray / Then they took the children away.” This idea is continued in the second verse which explores the way the Government removed Aboriginal kids from their home and families. This is expressed through the repetition of “They took the children away, took the children away” and “Teach them how to really live, teach them how to live”.
In the third verse, Roach gives us a short but powerful glimpse of the negative impact the removal of Aboriginal children had on their families. He does this through using rhyme “Breaking their mother’s heart, tearing us all apart” to show the reader the sadness the whole Aboriginal community experienced. The fourth verse introduces Roach’s personal experience of growing up in Framlingham then losing his own family. The switch in the third person pronoun “took them away” to the repetition of the first person pronoun “took us away” within the verse makes the song more emotional to the reader and gets them to think more deeply about what Archie Roach and the Aboriginal community have been through.
The fifth verse deals with the feel… | 399 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Pages that link here:
This famous English explorer was the first man who has deliberately circumvented the Earth in late 16th century. Previous four attempts of circumventions of the globe were not interned as that from their start.
John Ross was a British explorer who sailed toward North Sea more than 70 years before brave heroes of polar discovery started their journeys toward North and South Pole. Today he is remembered for this several trips into Northwestern Passage and for being first man who reached North Magnetic Pole.
Sir John Hawkins is today remembered as a famous military commander and slave trader that had great impact in the defense of the England against powerful Spanish Armada in 1588, and the numerous fights against Spanish forces throughout his entire life.
He is very successful English explorers and the first man who successfully led the nine day overland crossing mission of Antarctic in 1958 in which he visited the South Pole. | <urn:uuid:616dfd98-11bd-4813-b5e7-374b892a670b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.famous-explorers.com/picture/picture-of-thomas-cavendish-the-navigator/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00491.warc.gz | en | 0.980224 | 178 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.2601361274719... | 1 | Pages that link here:
This famous English explorer was the first man who has deliberately circumvented the Earth in late 16th century. Previous four attempts of circumventions of the globe were not interned as that from their start.
John Ross was a British explorer who sailed toward North Sea more than 70 years before brave heroes of polar discovery started their journeys toward North and South Pole. Today he is remembered for this several trips into Northwestern Passage and for being first man who reached North Magnetic Pole.
Sir John Hawkins is today remembered as a famous military commander and slave trader that had great impact in the defense of the England against powerful Spanish Armada in 1588, and the numerous fights against Spanish forces throughout his entire life.
He is very successful English explorers and the first man who successfully led the nine day overland crossing mission of Antarctic in 1958 in which he visited the South Pole. | 186 | ENGLISH | 1 |
If you’ve ever wondered what a one-eyed horse would look like, your curiosity can finally be satisfied. In Denmark, a horse owner anxiously awaited the birth of his mare’s newborn foal, only to be surprised to discover that the baby had one eye and a condition that it would be unable to survive. The “cyclops” horse died immediately, but soon become famous for its unique condition.
Upon the foal’s death, its owner sent it to the University of Copenhagen to be studied. As it turns out, the horse suffered from a condition that resulted in the creature being born with a fused eyeball positioned right in the middle of its head. As if that wasn’t weird enough, the eye had two pupils, giving the horse a very odd, disconcerting appearance.
Although the horse was referred to as “cyclops”, it actually had two eyes that had somehow become fused together. The result was a single large eye with two pupils. It’s easy to become fascinated with the freaky, and scientists have understandably been intrigued by this foal’s rare condition. According to Henrik Elvang Jensen, a professor at the University, defects like this are perfect examples of the strangeness of nature.
Biologists still aren’t quite positive as to what caused this particular mutation, but they do know that the fused eyes were not the only issue with the horse. Problems with the nervous system were also apparent, meaning that there was no possibility that the animal could have survived.
The foal is still the center of attention, and its head is being kept at the university in storage. Eventually, the university is planning on displaying the head to all those who wish to see this horse “cyclops” for themselves. | <urn:uuid:5a4b3ed2-75fb-47a8-9f93-29db78dc2c9c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://sharesplosion.com/cyclops-animal-found-denmark/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00174.warc.gz | en | 0.988275 | 375 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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... | 3 | If you’ve ever wondered what a one-eyed horse would look like, your curiosity can finally be satisfied. In Denmark, a horse owner anxiously awaited the birth of his mare’s newborn foal, only to be surprised to discover that the baby had one eye and a condition that it would be unable to survive. The “cyclops” horse died immediately, but soon become famous for its unique condition.
Upon the foal’s death, its owner sent it to the University of Copenhagen to be studied. As it turns out, the horse suffered from a condition that resulted in the creature being born with a fused eyeball positioned right in the middle of its head. As if that wasn’t weird enough, the eye had two pupils, giving the horse a very odd, disconcerting appearance.
Although the horse was referred to as “cyclops”, it actually had two eyes that had somehow become fused together. The result was a single large eye with two pupils. It’s easy to become fascinated with the freaky, and scientists have understandably been intrigued by this foal’s rare condition. According to Henrik Elvang Jensen, a professor at the University, defects like this are perfect examples of the strangeness of nature.
Biologists still aren’t quite positive as to what caused this particular mutation, but they do know that the fused eyes were not the only issue with the horse. Problems with the nervous system were also apparent, meaning that there was no possibility that the animal could have survived.
The foal is still the center of attention, and its head is being kept at the university in storage. Eventually, the university is planning on displaying the head to all those who wish to see this horse “cyclops” for themselves. | 349 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Most people like to bring home a souvenir from their travels and soldiers in the First World War were no exceptions. The First World War led to great movements of people across the world, but especially through Europe. Many of these people ended up in Great Britain at one time or another. Despite difficulties in wartime, British companies still managed to produce a myriad of souvenirs for the visitors as reminders of their time in Britain, or as a gift for a loved one.
One type of souvenir that was popular during the war was military themed crested china. Crested china gained popularity during the Victorian era. As the railways provided affordable and convenient travel for the middle classes, they wanted to bring home a souvenir of where they had been. Before the First World War companies (the most famous and the original being Goss crested china) made collectibles such as vases, famous houses and public buildings, cars and replicas of visitor attractions.
These collectibles were generally white, often with gilded edges or highlights. Each item was decorated with the coat of arms from a village, town or city.
The advantage for the companies was there were many ways these items could be collected and so many opportunities to sell souvenirs. A person could purchase a variety of ceramics all with the same coat of arms, or could select a subject - such as cats - and collect just those.
The increased numbers of men and women travelling through or in Britain, for training or leave, led to the companies developing military themed crested china. Different figures were popular, such as nurses, sailors and soldiers.
Examples of the latest technologies, such as tanks, and different types of armoured cars were a popular souvenir, as were ambulances and dirigibles (air ships, such as Zeppelins).
Crested china could also be used as propaganda. Figures were produced of Edith Cavell, the famous British nurse executed by the Germans after she helped Allied soldiers escape occupied Belgium. Her image was used extensively through the war as a rallying cry for men to enlist. After its sinking in 1915, crested china models of RMS Lusitania were produced. Again the Lusitania was a powerful propaganda tool, used to encourage support for the war effort in countries already at war, as well as to try and convince America to enter the war. | <urn:uuid:99a7a369-faf7-4e85-bffe-f8f8778c3903> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.awm.gov.au/articles/blog/tourist-souvenirs-crested-china-and-the-first-world-war | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00293.warc.gz | en | 0.98402 | 486 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.33806294202804... | 2 | Most people like to bring home a souvenir from their travels and soldiers in the First World War were no exceptions. The First World War led to great movements of people across the world, but especially through Europe. Many of these people ended up in Great Britain at one time or another. Despite difficulties in wartime, British companies still managed to produce a myriad of souvenirs for the visitors as reminders of their time in Britain, or as a gift for a loved one.
One type of souvenir that was popular during the war was military themed crested china. Crested china gained popularity during the Victorian era. As the railways provided affordable and convenient travel for the middle classes, they wanted to bring home a souvenir of where they had been. Before the First World War companies (the most famous and the original being Goss crested china) made collectibles such as vases, famous houses and public buildings, cars and replicas of visitor attractions.
These collectibles were generally white, often with gilded edges or highlights. Each item was decorated with the coat of arms from a village, town or city.
The advantage for the companies was there were many ways these items could be collected and so many opportunities to sell souvenirs. A person could purchase a variety of ceramics all with the same coat of arms, or could select a subject - such as cats - and collect just those.
The increased numbers of men and women travelling through or in Britain, for training or leave, led to the companies developing military themed crested china. Different figures were popular, such as nurses, sailors and soldiers.
Examples of the latest technologies, such as tanks, and different types of armoured cars were a popular souvenir, as were ambulances and dirigibles (air ships, such as Zeppelins).
Crested china could also be used as propaganda. Figures were produced of Edith Cavell, the famous British nurse executed by the Germans after she helped Allied soldiers escape occupied Belgium. Her image was used extensively through the war as a rallying cry for men to enlist. After its sinking in 1915, crested china models of RMS Lusitania were produced. Again the Lusitania was a powerful propaganda tool, used to encourage support for the war effort in countries already at war, as well as to try and convince America to enter the war. | 474 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Have you ever wondered what happened to those men who signed the Declaration of Independence?
Five signers were captured by the British and suffered at their hand. Twelve had their homes ransacked and burned. One lost his son in the Revolutionary Army, another had two sons captured. One fought and died from wounds received in battle.
What kind of men were they? Twenty-four were lawyers and jurists. Eleven were merchants, nine were farmers and large plantation owners. These were men of means and well educated. They signed the Declaration of Independence knowing that it would be deemed an act of treason by the Crown and that the penalty for doing so might well be death if they were ever captured. Yet they signed and in so doing pledged their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred honor to the American cause.
Carter Braxton of Virginia, a wealthy planter and trader, saw many of the ships in which he held interest appropriated by the British government, captured at sea, or sunk in combat with the British navy. Thomas McKean described in a letter to John Adams being hunted by the British and compelled to move his family often. Vandals or soldiers—or both—looted the properties of Ellery, Clymer, Hall, Walton, Gwinnett, Heyward, Rutledge, and Middleton. At the Battle of Yorktown, Thomas Nelson, Jr., noted that the British General Cornwallis would likely take over the Nelson home to use for his headquarters. The owner is said to have directed cannoneers to bombard the home. Francis Lewis had his home and properties destroyed and his wife briefly jailed by the British. John Hart, still grieving from the recent loss of his wife, fled his home before the advancing British forces. His fields and his grist mill were laid waste. Norris and Livingston are said to have suffered similar fates.
Such were the stories and sacrifices of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. These were not wild-eyed, rabble-rousing ruffians. There were soft-spoken men of means and education. They had security, but they valued liberty more. Standing tall, straight, and unwavering, they pledged: "For the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of the Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other, our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor."
They gave us an independent and free America. As you travel home this evening, ask yourself, "What price would I be willing to pay to keep it so?"
Good night, gentlemen.
Note: There are many versions of this story on the Internet. Some of it truth. Some of it, no doubt, fiction. What is important to take away from this story is that these men signed the declaration knowing full what their fates might be But note too, that many more than the fifty-six signers of the Declaration of Independence risked, suffered, and gave the ultimate sacrifice to support the American revolutionary cause. The hardships and losses endured by Americans during our struggle for independence were not visited upon the signers of the Declaration of Independence alone; ordinary men (and women) like yourselves suffered, sacrificed, and died to give our great nation its birth right. | <urn:uuid:04390dde-0531-4543-bcf3-7df4de0541b1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://troop4673.org/troop_traditions/scoutmasters_minute/pages/the_price_of_freedom.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00028.warc.gz | en | 0.989913 | 657 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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-0.20287092... | 2 | Have you ever wondered what happened to those men who signed the Declaration of Independence?
Five signers were captured by the British and suffered at their hand. Twelve had their homes ransacked and burned. One lost his son in the Revolutionary Army, another had two sons captured. One fought and died from wounds received in battle.
What kind of men were they? Twenty-four were lawyers and jurists. Eleven were merchants, nine were farmers and large plantation owners. These were men of means and well educated. They signed the Declaration of Independence knowing that it would be deemed an act of treason by the Crown and that the penalty for doing so might well be death if they were ever captured. Yet they signed and in so doing pledged their lives, their fortunes, and their sacred honor to the American cause.
Carter Braxton of Virginia, a wealthy planter and trader, saw many of the ships in which he held interest appropriated by the British government, captured at sea, or sunk in combat with the British navy. Thomas McKean described in a letter to John Adams being hunted by the British and compelled to move his family often. Vandals or soldiers—or both—looted the properties of Ellery, Clymer, Hall, Walton, Gwinnett, Heyward, Rutledge, and Middleton. At the Battle of Yorktown, Thomas Nelson, Jr., noted that the British General Cornwallis would likely take over the Nelson home to use for his headquarters. The owner is said to have directed cannoneers to bombard the home. Francis Lewis had his home and properties destroyed and his wife briefly jailed by the British. John Hart, still grieving from the recent loss of his wife, fled his home before the advancing British forces. His fields and his grist mill were laid waste. Norris and Livingston are said to have suffered similar fates.
Such were the stories and sacrifices of the signers of the Declaration of Independence. These were not wild-eyed, rabble-rousing ruffians. There were soft-spoken men of means and education. They had security, but they valued liberty more. Standing tall, straight, and unwavering, they pledged: "For the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of the Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other, our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor."
They gave us an independent and free America. As you travel home this evening, ask yourself, "What price would I be willing to pay to keep it so?"
Good night, gentlemen.
Note: There are many versions of this story on the Internet. Some of it truth. Some of it, no doubt, fiction. What is important to take away from this story is that these men signed the declaration knowing full what their fates might be But note too, that many more than the fifty-six signers of the Declaration of Independence risked, suffered, and gave the ultimate sacrifice to support the American revolutionary cause. The hardships and losses endured by Americans during our struggle for independence were not visited upon the signers of the Declaration of Independence alone; ordinary men (and women) like yourselves suffered, sacrificed, and died to give our great nation its birth right. | 647 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1914, France and Germany had built up huge conscript armies, directed by generals who planned and (when the time came) executed war on the grand scale. But Britain is an island. For centuries, the Navy had always been our first line of defence. Our Navy was very strong and there was never any danger of the German Army gaining a foothold here. Britain had emerged victorious from the war against Napoleon without creating a major continental army, and might well have done so in 1914-18.
Only one member of the cabinet had any experience of war – the young Winston Churchill. But the main principle by which the War would have to be waged did not require Staff College training – merely an elementary knowledge of English history and geography. Nevertheless Asquith’s first move was to look for an expert whom he could put in charge of the War. He appointed the man who appeared to him best qualified – Kitchener. Kitchener was a soldier, not a sailor. He informed the cabinet that the War would require an army on the continental scale. The Prime Minister supported him and he commenced recruitment immediately. Volunteers flooded in. There was never any problem about numbers.
The holocaust which followed was the combined result of Kitchener’s appointment, War Office expansionism and the misplaced patriotic enthusiasm of the young men of Britain. For wars cannot be fought and won by numbers alone. British experience in Africa had already shown that all the valour and discipline of a Zulu impi was powerless against a single machine gun. The Kitchener army had to be formed within the framework of the existing professional army. The professional army was at a low ebb. It had been neglected for a century or longer. Apart from one or two guards and cavalry regiments, it had no social prestige and It was seldom a chosen career for young men with suitable talents. It was quite unable to make good use of the thousands of new would-be solders who joined it. When they were sent to France, they died as the Zulus had died, but on a far greater scale. Their young lives were wasted. Since those who died were so easily replaced by new volunteers, the terrible casualties were of little military significance and there was no change of policy.
In the early months of the war, the Germans had advanced successfully, so that the German side of the line of trenches included large areas of France. German policy from then onwards was mainly defensive; they held on to what they had conquered. To resolve the impasse, the Allies needed to force the Germans back. This they attempted to do over and over again. The generals could not devise any more subtle strategy than simply to order their infantry, equipped with rifles and bayonets, to go out into no-man’s-land and attempt to capture the opposing German trench.
It has become customary to blame the generals for what happened. And it is true that they seldom went into the trenches to see the situation for themselves. But the main problem was that they had been promoted too quickly. Men scarcely fit to command battalions had been put in charge of armies. And perhaps they were presented with an almost impossible task. The fault lay with Asquith’s government, which created an unnecessary and ineffectual army which wasted men’s lives. It was unnecessary because Britain has no land frontier to defend and had the greatest navy in the world. It was ineffectual and wasted men’s lives because it contained no one who was competent to make wise strategic use of the human resources which became available. It is true that all those young men volunteered too easily – conscription came only later in the war. But it is the responsibility of government in war time to restrain the ardour of youth and direct it into useful channels.
At the end of the War, Britain was left an empty and disillusioned country. Casualties were always highest among the junior officers and almost a whole generation of educated young men had lost their lives. Those who had survived were often those who, lacking patriotism had not volunteered and subsequently had evaded conscription by finding the right niche job or knowing the right person in authority. Among those who had fought, thousands had been blinded, gassed or otherwise disabled. If their bodies had survived intact, their minds had often been affected instead. Of many it was said “He’s never been the same since the War”.
The next generation – men of Edward Heath’s generation – grew up in a Britain which no longer believed in itself. Many of them looked for something else to believe in. Some, like Philby, embraced Communism and betrayed their country. Others hoped to find the solution in a united Europe.
The effect of the War was not only to destroy countless patriotic young men, but to bring the very concept of patriotism into disrepute. For patriotism is based on trust. Loyalty is only due to wise governments who can be trusted not to abuse it. That trust was lost in Britain after 1918 and it has not yet been recovered. | <urn:uuid:cd11b064-226e-42db-8ed4-dd9fe8a6481b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://independencedaily.co.uk/patriotism-lost-trust-part-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00298.warc.gz | en | 0.990685 | 1,030 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.5378918647766... | 4 | In 1914, France and Germany had built up huge conscript armies, directed by generals who planned and (when the time came) executed war on the grand scale. But Britain is an island. For centuries, the Navy had always been our first line of defence. Our Navy was very strong and there was never any danger of the German Army gaining a foothold here. Britain had emerged victorious from the war against Napoleon without creating a major continental army, and might well have done so in 1914-18.
Only one member of the cabinet had any experience of war – the young Winston Churchill. But the main principle by which the War would have to be waged did not require Staff College training – merely an elementary knowledge of English history and geography. Nevertheless Asquith’s first move was to look for an expert whom he could put in charge of the War. He appointed the man who appeared to him best qualified – Kitchener. Kitchener was a soldier, not a sailor. He informed the cabinet that the War would require an army on the continental scale. The Prime Minister supported him and he commenced recruitment immediately. Volunteers flooded in. There was never any problem about numbers.
The holocaust which followed was the combined result of Kitchener’s appointment, War Office expansionism and the misplaced patriotic enthusiasm of the young men of Britain. For wars cannot be fought and won by numbers alone. British experience in Africa had already shown that all the valour and discipline of a Zulu impi was powerless against a single machine gun. The Kitchener army had to be formed within the framework of the existing professional army. The professional army was at a low ebb. It had been neglected for a century or longer. Apart from one or two guards and cavalry regiments, it had no social prestige and It was seldom a chosen career for young men with suitable talents. It was quite unable to make good use of the thousands of new would-be solders who joined it. When they were sent to France, they died as the Zulus had died, but on a far greater scale. Their young lives were wasted. Since those who died were so easily replaced by new volunteers, the terrible casualties were of little military significance and there was no change of policy.
In the early months of the war, the Germans had advanced successfully, so that the German side of the line of trenches included large areas of France. German policy from then onwards was mainly defensive; they held on to what they had conquered. To resolve the impasse, the Allies needed to force the Germans back. This they attempted to do over and over again. The generals could not devise any more subtle strategy than simply to order their infantry, equipped with rifles and bayonets, to go out into no-man’s-land and attempt to capture the opposing German trench.
It has become customary to blame the generals for what happened. And it is true that they seldom went into the trenches to see the situation for themselves. But the main problem was that they had been promoted too quickly. Men scarcely fit to command battalions had been put in charge of armies. And perhaps they were presented with an almost impossible task. The fault lay with Asquith’s government, which created an unnecessary and ineffectual army which wasted men’s lives. It was unnecessary because Britain has no land frontier to defend and had the greatest navy in the world. It was ineffectual and wasted men’s lives because it contained no one who was competent to make wise strategic use of the human resources which became available. It is true that all those young men volunteered too easily – conscription came only later in the war. But it is the responsibility of government in war time to restrain the ardour of youth and direct it into useful channels.
At the end of the War, Britain was left an empty and disillusioned country. Casualties were always highest among the junior officers and almost a whole generation of educated young men had lost their lives. Those who had survived were often those who, lacking patriotism had not volunteered and subsequently had evaded conscription by finding the right niche job or knowing the right person in authority. Among those who had fought, thousands had been blinded, gassed or otherwise disabled. If their bodies had survived intact, their minds had often been affected instead. Of many it was said “He’s never been the same since the War”.
The next generation – men of Edward Heath’s generation – grew up in a Britain which no longer believed in itself. Many of them looked for something else to believe in. Some, like Philby, embraced Communism and betrayed their country. Others hoped to find the solution in a united Europe.
The effect of the War was not only to destroy countless patriotic young men, but to bring the very concept of patriotism into disrepute. For patriotism is based on trust. Loyalty is only due to wise governments who can be trusted not to abuse it. That trust was lost in Britain after 1918 and it has not yet been recovered. | 1,023 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Women had been pushing for the right to vote since the founding of our nation, but their requests fell on deaf ears. Things got more serious around 1910 or so, when the National Woman’s Party began organizing parades and pageants which successively grew over the next few years. But they still weren’t getting the job done. The parades were becoming little more than entertainment for bystanders. And so at the beginning of 1917 they began to take things to another level.
Regular demonstrations were held right outside the White House, which included daily pickets and watchfires — burning of copies of Wilson’s speeches. Things moved along faster when a banner was unfurled as Russian delegates arrived: “We women of America tell you that America is not a democracy. Twenty million women are denied the right to vote. President Wilson is the chief opponent of their national enfranchisement”. Another referred to the president as “Kaiser Wilson”.
From the perspective of today, that’s not a big deal, but in 1917 that was viewed as almost criminal, and led to arrests and jail time. Yet daily demonstrations with provocative banners continued, and after 6 months of it Wilson had enough and changed his position to advocate women’s suffrage. | <urn:uuid:283aeee4-1e8d-4bbe-85d3-c43d7f80a66e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://agnituslife.com/grass-roots-social-movements/2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00502.warc.gz | en | 0.982809 | 264 | 3.96875 | 4 | [
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0.0842866227030... | 1 | Women had been pushing for the right to vote since the founding of our nation, but their requests fell on deaf ears. Things got more serious around 1910 or so, when the National Woman’s Party began organizing parades and pageants which successively grew over the next few years. But they still weren’t getting the job done. The parades were becoming little more than entertainment for bystanders. And so at the beginning of 1917 they began to take things to another level.
Regular demonstrations were held right outside the White House, which included daily pickets and watchfires — burning of copies of Wilson’s speeches. Things moved along faster when a banner was unfurled as Russian delegates arrived: “We women of America tell you that America is not a democracy. Twenty million women are denied the right to vote. President Wilson is the chief opponent of their national enfranchisement”. Another referred to the president as “Kaiser Wilson”.
From the perspective of today, that’s not a big deal, but in 1917 that was viewed as almost criminal, and led to arrests and jail time. Yet daily demonstrations with provocative banners continued, and after 6 months of it Wilson had enough and changed his position to advocate women’s suffrage. | 261 | ENGLISH | 1 |
George DeweyGeorge Dewey (December 26, 1837January 16, 1917) was Admiral of the Navy, the only person in United States history to have attained the rank. He is best known for his victory at the Battle of Manila Bay during the Spanish–American War, with the loss of only a single crewman on the American side.
Dewey was born in Montpelier, Vermont. At age 15, Dewey's father enrolled him at Norwich University, Northfield, Vermont. Two years later Norwich expelled him for drunkenness and herding sheep into the barracks. Summarily, he entered the United States Naval Academy in 1854. He graduated from the academy in 1858 and was assigned as the executive lieutenant of the at the beginning of the Civil War. He participated in the capture of New Orleans and the Siege of Port Hudson, helping the Union take control of the Mississippi River. By the end of the war, Dewey reached the rank of lieutenant commander.
After the Civil War, Dewey undertook a variety of assignments, serving on multiple ships and as an instructor at the Naval Academy. He also served on the United States Lighthouse Board and the Board of Inspection and Survey. He was promoted to Commodore in 1896 and assigned to the Asiatic Squadron the following year. After that appointment, he began preparations for a potential war with Spain, which broke out in April 1898. Immediately after the beginning of the war, Dewey led an attack on Manila Bay, sinking the entire Spanish Pacific fleet while suffering only minor casualties. After the battle, his fleet assisted in the capture of Manila. Dewey's victory at Manila Bay was widely lauded in the United States, and he was promoted to Admiral of the Navy in 1903.
Dewey explored a run for the 1900 Democratic presidential nomination, but he withdrew from the race and endorsed President William McKinley. He served on the General Board of the United States Navy, an important policy-making body, from 1900 until his death in 1917. Provided by Wikipedia | <urn:uuid:c7d64c18-9305-4ef0-b9b9-2bc46760e7c7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://juvcat.txwes.edu/vufind/Author/Home?author=Dewey%2C+George%2C+1837-1917 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00133.warc.gz | en | 0.980676 | 411 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.280514121055603... | 1 | George DeweyGeorge Dewey (December 26, 1837January 16, 1917) was Admiral of the Navy, the only person in United States history to have attained the rank. He is best known for his victory at the Battle of Manila Bay during the Spanish–American War, with the loss of only a single crewman on the American side.
Dewey was born in Montpelier, Vermont. At age 15, Dewey's father enrolled him at Norwich University, Northfield, Vermont. Two years later Norwich expelled him for drunkenness and herding sheep into the barracks. Summarily, he entered the United States Naval Academy in 1854. He graduated from the academy in 1858 and was assigned as the executive lieutenant of the at the beginning of the Civil War. He participated in the capture of New Orleans and the Siege of Port Hudson, helping the Union take control of the Mississippi River. By the end of the war, Dewey reached the rank of lieutenant commander.
After the Civil War, Dewey undertook a variety of assignments, serving on multiple ships and as an instructor at the Naval Academy. He also served on the United States Lighthouse Board and the Board of Inspection and Survey. He was promoted to Commodore in 1896 and assigned to the Asiatic Squadron the following year. After that appointment, he began preparations for a potential war with Spain, which broke out in April 1898. Immediately after the beginning of the war, Dewey led an attack on Manila Bay, sinking the entire Spanish Pacific fleet while suffering only minor casualties. After the battle, his fleet assisted in the capture of Manila. Dewey's victory at Manila Bay was widely lauded in the United States, and he was promoted to Admiral of the Navy in 1903.
Dewey explored a run for the 1900 Democratic presidential nomination, but he withdrew from the race and endorsed President William McKinley. He served on the General Board of the United States Navy, an important policy-making body, from 1900 until his death in 1917. Provided by Wikipedia | 452 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By Trevlyn Mwafuli
THE American Civil War erupted from a variety of long-standing tensions and disagreements about American life and politics. There was general animosity between the southern and northern states.
For nearly a century, the people and politicians of the northern and southern states had been clashing over the issues that finally led to war; economic interests, cultural values, the power of the federal government to control the states, and, most importantly, slavery in American society.
While some of these differences might have been resolved peacefully through diplomacy, slavery was not an issue to be solved by dialogue.
With a way of life steeped in age-old traditions of white supremacy and a mainly agricultural economy that depended on cheap (slave) labour, the southern states viewed slavery as essential to their very survival.
A growing movement to abolish slavery had led many northern states to enact abolitionist laws and abandon slavery.
With an economy based more on industry than agriculture, the north enjoyed a steady flow of European immigrants.
The many impoverished European refugees from the potato famine of the 1840s and 1850s could be hired as factory workers at low wages, thus reducing the need for slavery in the north.
In the southern states, longer growing seasons and fertile soils had established an economy based on agriculture fueled by sprawling, white-owned plantations that depended on slaves to perform a wide range of duties.
In the mid-19th Century, while the US was experiencing an era of tremendous growth, a fundamental economic difference existed between the country’s northern and southern regions.
Growing abolitionist sentiment in the North after the 1830s and northern opposition to slavery’s extension into the new Western territories led many southerners to fear that the existence of slavery in America, the backbone of their economy, was in danger.
Some abolitionists like Captain John Brown took a less peaceful route to fighting slavery.
However, it is argued that Brown, as a natural blood-thirsty warmonger, might have picked on anything besides slavery to go to war.
Brown, an eccentric northerner and his family, literally took up arms to fight slavery beginning at ‘Bleeding Kansas’, where 200 pro-slavery settlers perished.
They were also responsible for the Pottawatomie Massacre, where more pro-slavery sympathisers were killed in cold blood.
Brown’s best-known fight, his last, was when his group of 18 equally eccentric men attacked Harper’s Ferry in 1859.
It was a suicidal attack. Among the men fighting with him were his sons who were all killed.
He had hoped that some fugitive slaves would come to his aid. None did.
He was captured, tried and executed in the Southern Court.
The trial got publicity and the northerners turned slavery into a moral issue while the southerners looked at it as a legal issue.
The southerners saw Brown as a criminal who deserved death and the northerners saw him as a martyr, this conflict of interest was among the causes of the civil war between the two states.
The presidential election of 1860 would be the deciding point for the Union.
Abraham Lincoln represented the new Republican Party and Stephen Douglas, the northern Democrat, was seen as his biggest rival.
The southern Democrats put John C. Breckenridge on the ballot. John C. Bell represented the Constitutional Union Party, a group of conservative Whigs hoping to avoid secession.
The country’s divisions were clear on Election Day. Lincoln won the north, Breckenridge the south, and Bell the Border States. Douglas won only Missouri and a portion of New Jersey. It was enough for Lincoln to win the popular vote, as well as 180 electoral votes.
Even though things were already near a boiling point after Lincoln was elected, South Carolina issued its Declaration of the Causes of Secession on December 24, 1860.
They believed that Lincoln was anti-slavery and in favor of northern interests.
President Buchanan’s administration did little to quell the tension or stop what would become known as “Secession Winter”. Between Election Day and Lincoln’s inauguration in March, seven states seceded from the Union: South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas led the way in forming their Confederacy
In the process, the south took control of federal installations, including forts in the region, which would give them a foundation for war.
One of the most shocking events occurred when one-quarter of the nation’s army surrendered in Texas under the command of General David E. Twigg. Not a single shot was fired in that exchange, but the stage was set for the bloodiest war in American history.
When the South States attacked Fort Sumter civil war broke out. On April 9 1865 the South surrendered.
The Civil War was America’s bloodiest and most divisive conflict, pitting the Union Army against the Confederate States of America.
The war resulted in the deaths of more than 620 000 people, with millions more injured and the South left in ruins.
There is a common misinterpretation that is continually perpetuated in America today that the civil war was solely waged to free and aid the slaves.
And yet the slaves were merely a scapegoat to cover deeply rooted differences. This was confirmed by Abraham Lincoln when he said referring to the civil war:
“My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that.’’
It can be concluded that most of the union did not fight for the abolishment of slavery, but instead to reign in the stubborn south.
Both sides undoubtedly had varying and common reasons within the Union and the Confederacy. For the most part though, the South was fighting to keep their customs and living conditions alive and thriving, which for them meant seceding from the progressive and industrial North.
On the other hand the union was split between racist soldiers who fought for the cause of preserving their great and united nation, with those who were committed to aiding their black comrades.
Largely because of the ‘slaves war’, had helped to restore the unity of the United States, Lincoln was obliged to declare all slaves in the US free on January 1 1863. | <urn:uuid:96341b28-5cb3-46cb-9381-34e6d5fc8f84> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thepatriot.co.zw/old_posts/was-the-american-civil-war-about-emancipation-of-slaves/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00203.warc.gz | en | 0.980843 | 1,356 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.37459564208... | 1 | By Trevlyn Mwafuli
THE American Civil War erupted from a variety of long-standing tensions and disagreements about American life and politics. There was general animosity between the southern and northern states.
For nearly a century, the people and politicians of the northern and southern states had been clashing over the issues that finally led to war; economic interests, cultural values, the power of the federal government to control the states, and, most importantly, slavery in American society.
While some of these differences might have been resolved peacefully through diplomacy, slavery was not an issue to be solved by dialogue.
With a way of life steeped in age-old traditions of white supremacy and a mainly agricultural economy that depended on cheap (slave) labour, the southern states viewed slavery as essential to their very survival.
A growing movement to abolish slavery had led many northern states to enact abolitionist laws and abandon slavery.
With an economy based more on industry than agriculture, the north enjoyed a steady flow of European immigrants.
The many impoverished European refugees from the potato famine of the 1840s and 1850s could be hired as factory workers at low wages, thus reducing the need for slavery in the north.
In the southern states, longer growing seasons and fertile soils had established an economy based on agriculture fueled by sprawling, white-owned plantations that depended on slaves to perform a wide range of duties.
In the mid-19th Century, while the US was experiencing an era of tremendous growth, a fundamental economic difference existed between the country’s northern and southern regions.
Growing abolitionist sentiment in the North after the 1830s and northern opposition to slavery’s extension into the new Western territories led many southerners to fear that the existence of slavery in America, the backbone of their economy, was in danger.
Some abolitionists like Captain John Brown took a less peaceful route to fighting slavery.
However, it is argued that Brown, as a natural blood-thirsty warmonger, might have picked on anything besides slavery to go to war.
Brown, an eccentric northerner and his family, literally took up arms to fight slavery beginning at ‘Bleeding Kansas’, where 200 pro-slavery settlers perished.
They were also responsible for the Pottawatomie Massacre, where more pro-slavery sympathisers were killed in cold blood.
Brown’s best-known fight, his last, was when his group of 18 equally eccentric men attacked Harper’s Ferry in 1859.
It was a suicidal attack. Among the men fighting with him were his sons who were all killed.
He had hoped that some fugitive slaves would come to his aid. None did.
He was captured, tried and executed in the Southern Court.
The trial got publicity and the northerners turned slavery into a moral issue while the southerners looked at it as a legal issue.
The southerners saw Brown as a criminal who deserved death and the northerners saw him as a martyr, this conflict of interest was among the causes of the civil war between the two states.
The presidential election of 1860 would be the deciding point for the Union.
Abraham Lincoln represented the new Republican Party and Stephen Douglas, the northern Democrat, was seen as his biggest rival.
The southern Democrats put John C. Breckenridge on the ballot. John C. Bell represented the Constitutional Union Party, a group of conservative Whigs hoping to avoid secession.
The country’s divisions were clear on Election Day. Lincoln won the north, Breckenridge the south, and Bell the Border States. Douglas won only Missouri and a portion of New Jersey. It was enough for Lincoln to win the popular vote, as well as 180 electoral votes.
Even though things were already near a boiling point after Lincoln was elected, South Carolina issued its Declaration of the Causes of Secession on December 24, 1860.
They believed that Lincoln was anti-slavery and in favor of northern interests.
President Buchanan’s administration did little to quell the tension or stop what would become known as “Secession Winter”. Between Election Day and Lincoln’s inauguration in March, seven states seceded from the Union: South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas led the way in forming their Confederacy
In the process, the south took control of federal installations, including forts in the region, which would give them a foundation for war.
One of the most shocking events occurred when one-quarter of the nation’s army surrendered in Texas under the command of General David E. Twigg. Not a single shot was fired in that exchange, but the stage was set for the bloodiest war in American history.
When the South States attacked Fort Sumter civil war broke out. On April 9 1865 the South surrendered.
The Civil War was America’s bloodiest and most divisive conflict, pitting the Union Army against the Confederate States of America.
The war resulted in the deaths of more than 620 000 people, with millions more injured and the South left in ruins.
There is a common misinterpretation that is continually perpetuated in America today that the civil war was solely waged to free and aid the slaves.
And yet the slaves were merely a scapegoat to cover deeply rooted differences. This was confirmed by Abraham Lincoln when he said referring to the civil war:
“My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone, I would also do that.’’
It can be concluded that most of the union did not fight for the abolishment of slavery, but instead to reign in the stubborn south.
Both sides undoubtedly had varying and common reasons within the Union and the Confederacy. For the most part though, the South was fighting to keep their customs and living conditions alive and thriving, which for them meant seceding from the progressive and industrial North.
On the other hand the union was split between racist soldiers who fought for the cause of preserving their great and united nation, with those who were committed to aiding their black comrades.
Largely because of the ‘slaves war’, had helped to restore the unity of the United States, Lincoln was obliged to declare all slaves in the US free on January 1 1863. | 1,335 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Iliad outlines and explains the qualities of a ?Homeric Hero?. The Homeric hero strives to be the best among his peers. His goal is to achieve the greatest glory in order to earn the highest honor from his peers, his commander, and finally from his warrior society. This is because honor is the Greeks? main ambition in life as well as in the afterlife. The Homeric hero strives for excellence in particular areas of human behavior, such as strength, skill, and determination. These are necessary on the both the athletic fields and the battlefields. The Homeric hero judges his own merit and honor based on what his warrior society thinks of him. How well he will be remembered and honored after his death is determined by how well he fights, how his heroic adversity is, and how well he faces death. He feels that society?s view of him is more important than is own view. He chooses to act in a way that will make him acquire the public approval that he needs in order to have one of the basic needs, which is self-esteem. The greatest insult to a Homeric hero is to withhold the honor that he has earned. The honor that he would not have received would be from a battle, or being judged a loser in a competition he should have won. The highest and most honored prize is called the prize of honor. In the Iliad this prize is the best female captive, best meaning the most attractive, intelligent, and skilled. The most absolute honor is everlasting fame. The Homeric hero is placed lower than the gods, but higher than the ordinary man. Achilles, Hector, Agamemnon, and Paris are considered Homeric heroes. Achilles acts childish when he does not receive the appropriate prize. He is upset that he did not receive a great prize as Agamemnon did. Achilles had worked so hard and Agamemnon had taken the credit for it and gotten the better prize. Hector is considered a Homeric hero because he chooses between life and death. He chooses even though an honorable death will bring the immortality of everlasting fame. His death is in the hands of Achilles. This shows that Achilles is the greater warrior and Hector is the greater man.
The function of the gods is to participate in giving advice to mortals. The advice is both good and bad. It supplies thoughts and ideas, strength and skill, courage and determination, and on top of all this causes weapons to hit or miss their marks. The Homeric gods have favorites among the mortals and make efforts to help those that they favor. A mortal is able to earn divine esteem and honor by the way he treats both the gods and other mortals. The gods are partial to heroes because they appreciate and enjoy their heroic deeds. The gods could not change a mortal?s life or death situation. If one was going to die, they could not change their fate. The Homeric gods are ageless and immortal. The gods possess a great deal of knowledge about the future. The gods are influenced by the request of others? prayers. Achilles? mother, the sea goddess Thetis, did not want to accept the fact that her son Achilles was going to die someday because he was half mortal. When Achilles was an infant, Thetis tried to burn away his mortality by secretly putting him in a fire. Peleus, Achilles? father found out about this and was outraged. Thetis was very upset and angry at his reaction so she left him to go back and live at her home in the sea. She had left Achilles with his father until she would one day return. One night, Thetis took Achilles down to the River Styx in the Underworld. She then held him by his heel and dipped him into the water. Every part that the river water touched on his body is where he would not be injured. The only way that Achilles could then be killed was if he was wounded on the back of one heel. Due to Thetis doing this, other warriors knew where Achilles? weakness was and soon his life was taken away.
Every hero wishes for honor because honor is the most extraordinary prize. Hector looked for honor from his countrymen. He went to battle knowing that he was going to die. He did not turn around and run away, he kept his promise to help them to win the war. Hector wanted to be honored by no one else except his warrior society. Paris looked for honor within hubris. The feeling of hubris would lead the hero to think that he was greater than the heroes who were his peers and that he had the limitless power that he attributed to the gods. On account of what Paris did for the goddess Aphrodite, he thinks that he is a gift to the world. Paris thinks that he is better than the other heroes. He causes trouble and doesn?t even have to fight his own battles; he has his warriors there for that. Agamemnon is interested in nothing but materialistic honor. He wanted the best prizes, the best respect, and the best of everything. He didn?t care much about anything. That is what made him so different from all of the other heroes. He worshiped materialistic things, and everyone else worshiped honor that you cannot see. Achilles found honor within his rash behavior. This would eventually lead to vengeance. The gods would sometimes punish the hero directly, and sometimes other human beings would punish him. Achilles wanted the people of Greece to bow down to him. He wanted to hear the people say that they needed his help. He wanted to hear that they needed him, and that is why he stayed out of the war. To Achilles hearing this meant that his people honored him. He was a greatly respected man and warrior. He first shows this trait when he calls the Achaians to assembly. Achilles spoke up for his people against the son of Atreus saying “I believe now that straggling backwards we must make our way home if we can even escape death, if fighting now must crush the Achaians and the plague likewise”(Book 1. lines 59-61). By defeating Agamemnon, Achilles proves to be the greatest Achaian soldier and the most respected. Therefore, he is the most notable Homeric hero in this epic. | <urn:uuid:1db83041-64cd-4563-ae39-e882c67bdc18> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://essay.ua-referat.com/Homeric_Hero | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00212.warc.gz | en | 0.988358 | 1,274 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.63159191608428... | 2 | The Iliad outlines and explains the qualities of a ?Homeric Hero?. The Homeric hero strives to be the best among his peers. His goal is to achieve the greatest glory in order to earn the highest honor from his peers, his commander, and finally from his warrior society. This is because honor is the Greeks? main ambition in life as well as in the afterlife. The Homeric hero strives for excellence in particular areas of human behavior, such as strength, skill, and determination. These are necessary on the both the athletic fields and the battlefields. The Homeric hero judges his own merit and honor based on what his warrior society thinks of him. How well he will be remembered and honored after his death is determined by how well he fights, how his heroic adversity is, and how well he faces death. He feels that society?s view of him is more important than is own view. He chooses to act in a way that will make him acquire the public approval that he needs in order to have one of the basic needs, which is self-esteem. The greatest insult to a Homeric hero is to withhold the honor that he has earned. The honor that he would not have received would be from a battle, or being judged a loser in a competition he should have won. The highest and most honored prize is called the prize of honor. In the Iliad this prize is the best female captive, best meaning the most attractive, intelligent, and skilled. The most absolute honor is everlasting fame. The Homeric hero is placed lower than the gods, but higher than the ordinary man. Achilles, Hector, Agamemnon, and Paris are considered Homeric heroes. Achilles acts childish when he does not receive the appropriate prize. He is upset that he did not receive a great prize as Agamemnon did. Achilles had worked so hard and Agamemnon had taken the credit for it and gotten the better prize. Hector is considered a Homeric hero because he chooses between life and death. He chooses even though an honorable death will bring the immortality of everlasting fame. His death is in the hands of Achilles. This shows that Achilles is the greater warrior and Hector is the greater man.
The function of the gods is to participate in giving advice to mortals. The advice is both good and bad. It supplies thoughts and ideas, strength and skill, courage and determination, and on top of all this causes weapons to hit or miss their marks. The Homeric gods have favorites among the mortals and make efforts to help those that they favor. A mortal is able to earn divine esteem and honor by the way he treats both the gods and other mortals. The gods are partial to heroes because they appreciate and enjoy their heroic deeds. The gods could not change a mortal?s life or death situation. If one was going to die, they could not change their fate. The Homeric gods are ageless and immortal. The gods possess a great deal of knowledge about the future. The gods are influenced by the request of others? prayers. Achilles? mother, the sea goddess Thetis, did not want to accept the fact that her son Achilles was going to die someday because he was half mortal. When Achilles was an infant, Thetis tried to burn away his mortality by secretly putting him in a fire. Peleus, Achilles? father found out about this and was outraged. Thetis was very upset and angry at his reaction so she left him to go back and live at her home in the sea. She had left Achilles with his father until she would one day return. One night, Thetis took Achilles down to the River Styx in the Underworld. She then held him by his heel and dipped him into the water. Every part that the river water touched on his body is where he would not be injured. The only way that Achilles could then be killed was if he was wounded on the back of one heel. Due to Thetis doing this, other warriors knew where Achilles? weakness was and soon his life was taken away.
Every hero wishes for honor because honor is the most extraordinary prize. Hector looked for honor from his countrymen. He went to battle knowing that he was going to die. He did not turn around and run away, he kept his promise to help them to win the war. Hector wanted to be honored by no one else except his warrior society. Paris looked for honor within hubris. The feeling of hubris would lead the hero to think that he was greater than the heroes who were his peers and that he had the limitless power that he attributed to the gods. On account of what Paris did for the goddess Aphrodite, he thinks that he is a gift to the world. Paris thinks that he is better than the other heroes. He causes trouble and doesn?t even have to fight his own battles; he has his warriors there for that. Agamemnon is interested in nothing but materialistic honor. He wanted the best prizes, the best respect, and the best of everything. He didn?t care much about anything. That is what made him so different from all of the other heroes. He worshiped materialistic things, and everyone else worshiped honor that you cannot see. Achilles found honor within his rash behavior. This would eventually lead to vengeance. The gods would sometimes punish the hero directly, and sometimes other human beings would punish him. Achilles wanted the people of Greece to bow down to him. He wanted to hear the people say that they needed his help. He wanted to hear that they needed him, and that is why he stayed out of the war. To Achilles hearing this meant that his people honored him. He was a greatly respected man and warrior. He first shows this trait when he calls the Achaians to assembly. Achilles spoke up for his people against the son of Atreus saying “I believe now that straggling backwards we must make our way home if we can even escape death, if fighting now must crush the Achaians and the plague likewise”(Book 1. lines 59-61). By defeating Agamemnon, Achilles proves to be the greatest Achaian soldier and the most respected. Therefore, he is the most notable Homeric hero in this epic. | 1,278 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The names of the men who first started Slavery in America were Daniel Elfrith and John Colyn Jope. Although they can’t be even nearly considered to be the creators of slavery in general, they do represent the beginning of an almost three-century-long era of African submission inside the new world.
A Brief Look At Start of Slavery In Human History
The precise year remains unknown because the phenomenon of slavery is a relation between people developed during a period of time rather than just a single moment that shapes the face of the societies. However, some of the certain facts are:
Slavery dates back to 3500 b.c. back to the first civilizations as Sumer in Mesopotamia was.
Fruitful soils for slavery are the societies with highly developed hierarchies that lead to diverse social stratifications. There was no recorder example that shows slavery emerging from hunter-gather populations.
In slavery societies, slaves are considered to be a form of chattel.
Slavery Origins In America
Already mentioned Daniel Elfrith and John Jope Rogers were rich Englishmen. They were first to arrive at the colony of Virginia and sell slaves they won in the “robbery”.
Daniel Elfrith was a privateer who served the Earl of Warwick. At the time, Earl of Warwick was the most prestigious title in English peerage. From 1607 he was appointed for a commander of the ship called Treasurer which was owned by the Earl of Warwick.
John Colyn Jope
John Jope Rogers, another privateer, was the captain of the ship White Lion. He earned the famous nickname “Flying Dutchman” for his cunning maneuver. He would take the pinnace, fill it with the prize before consorts would manage to take their share, and sail away to sell it. By some claims, this historic figure was Wagner’s inspiration for his famous opera. However, John Colyn was not a Dutchman but an Englishman.
How Did They Bring Slaves to America?
Portuguese Ship Sailing Out
It all started with a slave ship Sao Jao Bautista leaving the port of Sao Paolo in the year 1619. The captain’s name was Manuel Mendes. He carried 350 enslaved Africans to New Spain(Mexico).
English Privateers Merging On Open Waters
In mid-July 1619 Elfrith and Jope were sailing together. Elfrith was on Treasurer while Jope held his command over the White Lion which was smaller than the treasurer. The two ships met on the sea. From that point on it is told that Jope took the command. They crossed paths with Sao Joao Bautista, Portuguese warship that carried slaves and was going to Mexico. Jope took the pinnace and accompanied by 25 men from both ships, went for the prize. They attacked the vessel and took around sixty slaves and some additional supplies – substantial quantities of grain and tallow. Then both ships turned their courses towards Virginia with a goal to sell their plunder.
First Slave Selling On The Soils Of Today’s America
White Lion was the first one to dock. John Colyn Jope managed to sell more than twenty slaves. That was the first time enslaved afro-Americans were sold on the territory of a new world. Four days later the Treasurer arrived. However, Daniel Elfrith didn’t find much warmth in Virginia welcoming. He sold a few slaves but was unable to buy any supplies due to residence refusing to engage in any kind of exchange with him or his crew. It is highly probable that the reason for this was that port officials knew that his letters of marque from the duke of Savoy were no longer valid.
Letters of marque, when originating from the right authority, provided captains with rights to attack ships from hostile conutries. However, in times of peace, those letters would lose its validity and attacking acts would be reffered to as piracy.
The duke had made peace with Spain about a month after the Treasures had left England, which meant that Captain Elfrith and the ship’s owners now could be accused of piracy. And that possibility was a complication that Virginia officials wanted to avoid.
Happy End For Some Of The Slaves
One happy circumstance we like to share is that researches tracked documents about some of the sold slaves. It showed that they were indexed as free people which means that in the meantime they had managed to gain their freedom. In a whole history of America, up until the Civil War, this was the rarest occasion in which slaves achieved to free themselves from chains and live free like the rest of the folks. | <urn:uuid:fc1c9389-e3fc-4296-a51d-67e285863851> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blackfridayhistory.com/true-history/who-first-started-slavery-in-america/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00366.warc.gz | en | 0.983934 | 973 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.38000953197... | 8 | The names of the men who first started Slavery in America were Daniel Elfrith and John Colyn Jope. Although they can’t be even nearly considered to be the creators of slavery in general, they do represent the beginning of an almost three-century-long era of African submission inside the new world.
A Brief Look At Start of Slavery In Human History
The precise year remains unknown because the phenomenon of slavery is a relation between people developed during a period of time rather than just a single moment that shapes the face of the societies. However, some of the certain facts are:
Slavery dates back to 3500 b.c. back to the first civilizations as Sumer in Mesopotamia was.
Fruitful soils for slavery are the societies with highly developed hierarchies that lead to diverse social stratifications. There was no recorder example that shows slavery emerging from hunter-gather populations.
In slavery societies, slaves are considered to be a form of chattel.
Slavery Origins In America
Already mentioned Daniel Elfrith and John Jope Rogers were rich Englishmen. They were first to arrive at the colony of Virginia and sell slaves they won in the “robbery”.
Daniel Elfrith was a privateer who served the Earl of Warwick. At the time, Earl of Warwick was the most prestigious title in English peerage. From 1607 he was appointed for a commander of the ship called Treasurer which was owned by the Earl of Warwick.
John Colyn Jope
John Jope Rogers, another privateer, was the captain of the ship White Lion. He earned the famous nickname “Flying Dutchman” for his cunning maneuver. He would take the pinnace, fill it with the prize before consorts would manage to take their share, and sail away to sell it. By some claims, this historic figure was Wagner’s inspiration for his famous opera. However, John Colyn was not a Dutchman but an Englishman.
How Did They Bring Slaves to America?
Portuguese Ship Sailing Out
It all started with a slave ship Sao Jao Bautista leaving the port of Sao Paolo in the year 1619. The captain’s name was Manuel Mendes. He carried 350 enslaved Africans to New Spain(Mexico).
English Privateers Merging On Open Waters
In mid-July 1619 Elfrith and Jope were sailing together. Elfrith was on Treasurer while Jope held his command over the White Lion which was smaller than the treasurer. The two ships met on the sea. From that point on it is told that Jope took the command. They crossed paths with Sao Joao Bautista, Portuguese warship that carried slaves and was going to Mexico. Jope took the pinnace and accompanied by 25 men from both ships, went for the prize. They attacked the vessel and took around sixty slaves and some additional supplies – substantial quantities of grain and tallow. Then both ships turned their courses towards Virginia with a goal to sell their plunder.
First Slave Selling On The Soils Of Today’s America
White Lion was the first one to dock. John Colyn Jope managed to sell more than twenty slaves. That was the first time enslaved afro-Americans were sold on the territory of a new world. Four days later the Treasurer arrived. However, Daniel Elfrith didn’t find much warmth in Virginia welcoming. He sold a few slaves but was unable to buy any supplies due to residence refusing to engage in any kind of exchange with him or his crew. It is highly probable that the reason for this was that port officials knew that his letters of marque from the duke of Savoy were no longer valid.
Letters of marque, when originating from the right authority, provided captains with rights to attack ships from hostile conutries. However, in times of peace, those letters would lose its validity and attacking acts would be reffered to as piracy.
The duke had made peace with Spain about a month after the Treasures had left England, which meant that Captain Elfrith and the ship’s owners now could be accused of piracy. And that possibility was a complication that Virginia officials wanted to avoid.
Happy End For Some Of The Slaves
One happy circumstance we like to share is that researches tracked documents about some of the sold slaves. It showed that they were indexed as free people which means that in the meantime they had managed to gain their freedom. In a whole history of America, up until the Civil War, this was the rarest occasion in which slaves achieved to free themselves from chains and live free like the rest of the folks. | 949 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Does your child have "patchy" colored teeth - with very white, yellow or brown stains that don't come off with cleaning? Has the dentist said your teeth are "hypoplastic"?
About 50% of children will have one or more teeth with some form of development defect. This means that the defect occured when the tooth was being formed within the bone of the jaw.
These teeth are said to have Developmental Dental Defects.
It is important to know whether your child has developmental defects and to look after these teeth very carefully because they may not be as strong as they should be and are more susceptible to decay because of their poor structure*.
* Howeve a recent study found that children with enamel defects who had been diagnosed with Coeliac's disease had less dental decay and they suggested this was because they had a gluten free diet that had less exposure to decay causing food!
(Oral aspects in celiac disease children: clinical and dental enamel chemical evaluation - Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology and Oral Radiology Volume 119, Issue 6, June 2015, Pages 636–643)
An excellent web site is available for parents to learn more at The D3 Group http://www.thed3group.org
What do we know about developmental defects in teeth?
Mark has represented his profession in the highly regarded position of ADA VB President and is a consultant in his field, yet he is consistent, approachable and has the highest regard for his patients wellbeing.
Dr Mark Bowman BDSc (Melb) | <urn:uuid:0e5ddd82-c078-4127-aebf-20d84fee9406> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://willsstreetdental.com.au/tooth-enamel-defects | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00347.warc.gz | en | 0.98292 | 321 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.435507088899612... | 2 | Does your child have "patchy" colored teeth - with very white, yellow or brown stains that don't come off with cleaning? Has the dentist said your teeth are "hypoplastic"?
About 50% of children will have one or more teeth with some form of development defect. This means that the defect occured when the tooth was being formed within the bone of the jaw.
These teeth are said to have Developmental Dental Defects.
It is important to know whether your child has developmental defects and to look after these teeth very carefully because they may not be as strong as they should be and are more susceptible to decay because of their poor structure*.
* Howeve a recent study found that children with enamel defects who had been diagnosed with Coeliac's disease had less dental decay and they suggested this was because they had a gluten free diet that had less exposure to decay causing food!
(Oral aspects in celiac disease children: clinical and dental enamel chemical evaluation - Oral Surgery, Oral Medicine, Oral Pathology and Oral Radiology Volume 119, Issue 6, June 2015, Pages 636–643)
An excellent web site is available for parents to learn more at The D3 Group http://www.thed3group.org
What do we know about developmental defects in teeth?
Mark has represented his profession in the highly regarded position of ADA VB President and is a consultant in his field, yet he is consistent, approachable and has the highest regard for his patients wellbeing.
Dr Mark Bowman BDSc (Melb) | 321 | ENGLISH | 1 |
We all know Aesop's tale of how the tiny mouse saved the mighty lion by gnawing him free from a trapper's rope. But stories of the king of the beasts abound in African folklore, but rather than illustrating a moral point this one simply explains how the lion's more fearsome feature - his roar - was acquired.
The lion is a proud beast but according to folklore did not always have his fearsome roar. This was in fact very dangerous to the other animals, as they could not hear where the lions were and, as most were potential dinners, get as far away as possible.
But - as in many African tales - the cunning hare was the creature who came to all their aid. One day he came up with a plan to make the lion's gentle voice as deep as thunder. He gingerly woke the lion in his morning nap.
"Come quickly," said the sneaky hare, "your brother is hurt and needs you!"
The lion got up at once. The scampering hare led him around a merry dance across the plains, until the lion was exhausted and fell asleep once more. The hare then, working with a songbird, stole some honey from a hive of bees. He covered the lion's face and throat in the sticky stuff, then made himself scarce. Sure enough, the bees went looking for the beast who has stolen their nectar and finding the lion covered, took their revenge.
As he was stung more and more by the swarm of bees the lion's cries became deeper and deeper, until his voice did indeed sound as deep as thunder. And that is how the lion got his roar.
Daniel's Lion design is available as a greetings card or art print
Comments will be approved before showing up.
To reach the afterlife in ancient Egypt you must first deal with the trappings of the underworld. Here you will have to contend with various Gods, monsters, gatekeepers, and ultimately prove your worth to Osiris, the Lord of the underworld.
Here are ten interesting narratives about Woodland Animals with references to their place in our culture. Some are form ancient mythologies like the owls and their wisdom, and others like the ‘The Fox and the Crow’. which tell us to be cautious of flattery! | <urn:uuid:8f6685c5-5108-4ae6-a87c-ee9a1a7468a5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.thedmcollection.com/blogs/news/a-hares-cunning | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00283.warc.gz | en | 0.986463 | 468 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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-0.14097553491592... | 1 | We all know Aesop's tale of how the tiny mouse saved the mighty lion by gnawing him free from a trapper's rope. But stories of the king of the beasts abound in African folklore, but rather than illustrating a moral point this one simply explains how the lion's more fearsome feature - his roar - was acquired.
The lion is a proud beast but according to folklore did not always have his fearsome roar. This was in fact very dangerous to the other animals, as they could not hear where the lions were and, as most were potential dinners, get as far away as possible.
But - as in many African tales - the cunning hare was the creature who came to all their aid. One day he came up with a plan to make the lion's gentle voice as deep as thunder. He gingerly woke the lion in his morning nap.
"Come quickly," said the sneaky hare, "your brother is hurt and needs you!"
The lion got up at once. The scampering hare led him around a merry dance across the plains, until the lion was exhausted and fell asleep once more. The hare then, working with a songbird, stole some honey from a hive of bees. He covered the lion's face and throat in the sticky stuff, then made himself scarce. Sure enough, the bees went looking for the beast who has stolen their nectar and finding the lion covered, took their revenge.
As he was stung more and more by the swarm of bees the lion's cries became deeper and deeper, until his voice did indeed sound as deep as thunder. And that is how the lion got his roar.
Daniel's Lion design is available as a greetings card or art print
Comments will be approved before showing up.
To reach the afterlife in ancient Egypt you must first deal with the trappings of the underworld. Here you will have to contend with various Gods, monsters, gatekeepers, and ultimately prove your worth to Osiris, the Lord of the underworld.
Here are ten interesting narratives about Woodland Animals with references to their place in our culture. Some are form ancient mythologies like the owls and their wisdom, and others like the ‘The Fox and the Crow’. which tell us to be cautious of flattery! | 457 | ENGLISH | 1 |
COE School History
About Lee School
Lee Elementary School opened for classes in January of 1918. It is a stylistic example of Classical Revival architecture. Lee and other schools built at the same time were constructed on the “unit plan” to provide a flexible design that could be adapted to the city’s unpredictable growth. As the population increased, additional units could be built around a central quadrangle used as a playground. This plan is said to have originated in Tulsa. It may have been a coincidence that this plan followed the pattern of the town square of old Creek Tulsa.
A four-room apartment located on the roof housed the school’s janitor and his family. Students used a hallway separated from the outside by low railings. Students were exposed to the weather when changing classes until this hallway was enclosed in the 1940s. A large arch bearing the words “Lee Stadium” stands at the north entrance to the school. During the 1920s, Central High School played its football games in the stadium and drew crowds of up to 10,000. Central and the University of Tulsa used the stadium until Skelly Stadium was built around 1920. Junior high school students continued to use the stadium until about 1937, when their games were phased out. The stadium’s athletic importance then ended. Lee’s role in the Tulsa Public Schools’ athletic program faded, and the stadium was demolished, having become dangerous and too costly to repair. However, remains of showers, locker rooms, and tunnels leading to the field can still be found in the basement. The arch at 19th and Cincinnati remains standing as a reminder of past glories. *
* © 2011 Tulsa Preservation Commission | <urn:uuid:8b1d50be-028b-4af8-bfcb-fcdbb38733c9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.counciloakfoundation.org/lee-school | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00460.warc.gz | en | 0.982121 | 347 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.0534267... | 2 | COE School History
About Lee School
Lee Elementary School opened for classes in January of 1918. It is a stylistic example of Classical Revival architecture. Lee and other schools built at the same time were constructed on the “unit plan” to provide a flexible design that could be adapted to the city’s unpredictable growth. As the population increased, additional units could be built around a central quadrangle used as a playground. This plan is said to have originated in Tulsa. It may have been a coincidence that this plan followed the pattern of the town square of old Creek Tulsa.
A four-room apartment located on the roof housed the school’s janitor and his family. Students used a hallway separated from the outside by low railings. Students were exposed to the weather when changing classes until this hallway was enclosed in the 1940s. A large arch bearing the words “Lee Stadium” stands at the north entrance to the school. During the 1920s, Central High School played its football games in the stadium and drew crowds of up to 10,000. Central and the University of Tulsa used the stadium until Skelly Stadium was built around 1920. Junior high school students continued to use the stadium until about 1937, when their games were phased out. The stadium’s athletic importance then ended. Lee’s role in the Tulsa Public Schools’ athletic program faded, and the stadium was demolished, having become dangerous and too costly to repair. However, remains of showers, locker rooms, and tunnels leading to the field can still be found in the basement. The arch at 19th and Cincinnati remains standing as a reminder of past glories. *
* © 2011 Tulsa Preservation Commission | 361 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Father's Day is a day of honoring fatherhood, paternal bonds, as well as the influence of fathers in society. In Catholic countries of Europe, it has been celebrated on March 19 (Saint Joseph's Day) since the Middle Ages. This celebration was brought by the Spanish and Portuguese to Latin America, where March 19 is often still used for it, though many countries in Europe and the Americas have adopted the U. S. date, which is the third Sunday of June. It is celebrated on various days in many parts of the world, most commonly in the months of March, April and June according to the home nation's customs. It complements similar celebrations honoring family members, such as Mother's Day, Siblings Day and Grandparents' Day. | <urn:uuid:191e0ccd-665a-472d-913c-2332c862286a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://fobiaspoleczna.info/some/fathers-day-poems-from-grown-daughter.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00168.warc.gz | en | 0.984349 | 152 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.3317085802555084... | 2 | Father's Day is a day of honoring fatherhood, paternal bonds, as well as the influence of fathers in society. In Catholic countries of Europe, it has been celebrated on March 19 (Saint Joseph's Day) since the Middle Ages. This celebration was brought by the Spanish and Portuguese to Latin America, where March 19 is often still used for it, though many countries in Europe and the Americas have adopted the U. S. date, which is the third Sunday of June. It is celebrated on various days in many parts of the world, most commonly in the months of March, April and June according to the home nation's customs. It complements similar celebrations honoring family members, such as Mother's Day, Siblings Day and Grandparents' Day. | 156 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Some say that Christmas was put on purpose on December 25th because Roman Emperor Aurelian established in 274 the pagan festival of the “Birth of the Unconquered Sun” (Sol Invictus) on the same day. Also in the same period were the Saturnalia (in the honor of roman god Saturn) held on 17 December, later expanded till 23 December.
However, December 25th as the birth date of Jesus was attested prior to AD 274. Saint Hippolytus’ Commentary on Daniel (written sometime between 202 and 211, closer to 202 than 211) claimed that Jesus was born on December 25th and was crucified on March 25th. Then in his Canon he produced a lunar table (dating astronomically to 222) which he used to compute the dates of Passover from creation onward. This chart gives March 25th as the date of the crucifixion, which is the date of the vernal equinox, and this is the date that corresponds to the creation of the world (so Jesus died on the anniversary of the world’s creation), which was backdated from the date of the first Passover in the first week of creation. The Canon gives April 2, 2 BC as the date of Jesus’ conception (γένεσις) but there is also a two-year discrepancy in his age. Lunar table gives March 25th as the date of Jesus’ conception if Jesus were born two years earlier (Commentary on Daniel also gives the date of Jesus’ birth as 4 BC if reckoned from his age and 2 BC if reckoned from Augustus’ reign). In support of this, Saint Hippolytus’ Chronicon says that Jesus was born 5,502 years from the creation of the world, while Commentary on Daniel says that this occurred 5,500 years from creation. Thus, the chronology in Commentary on Daniel appears to use the same lunar computations that later appeared in Canon, and shows the same 2-year discrepancy, though it is unclear why he waved in his dating of the year of Jesus’ birth. The Chronicon also implies that Jesus was born nine months after he was conceived, with the date of the birth given as 5,502 years and nine months from creation. Nine months from March 25th would give the date of Jesus’ birth as December 25th.
This early testimony which doesn’t try to prove the date of birth but takes it as already granted, showing us that there is no connection with Sol Invictus and Saturnalia even if the Christians which were and are lacking of corresponding spiritual life borrowed some customs from these rituals.
If you want to pray for you or to donate, click here. | <urn:uuid:4d38cd04-8af2-49d3-8c0d-1670042adde7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://asceticexperience.com/2019/12/when-was-jesus-born/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00037.warc.gz | en | 0.983889 | 562 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.4216550886631012... | 12 | Some say that Christmas was put on purpose on December 25th because Roman Emperor Aurelian established in 274 the pagan festival of the “Birth of the Unconquered Sun” (Sol Invictus) on the same day. Also in the same period were the Saturnalia (in the honor of roman god Saturn) held on 17 December, later expanded till 23 December.
However, December 25th as the birth date of Jesus was attested prior to AD 274. Saint Hippolytus’ Commentary on Daniel (written sometime between 202 and 211, closer to 202 than 211) claimed that Jesus was born on December 25th and was crucified on March 25th. Then in his Canon he produced a lunar table (dating astronomically to 222) which he used to compute the dates of Passover from creation onward. This chart gives March 25th as the date of the crucifixion, which is the date of the vernal equinox, and this is the date that corresponds to the creation of the world (so Jesus died on the anniversary of the world’s creation), which was backdated from the date of the first Passover in the first week of creation. The Canon gives April 2, 2 BC as the date of Jesus’ conception (γένεσις) but there is also a two-year discrepancy in his age. Lunar table gives March 25th as the date of Jesus’ conception if Jesus were born two years earlier (Commentary on Daniel also gives the date of Jesus’ birth as 4 BC if reckoned from his age and 2 BC if reckoned from Augustus’ reign). In support of this, Saint Hippolytus’ Chronicon says that Jesus was born 5,502 years from the creation of the world, while Commentary on Daniel says that this occurred 5,500 years from creation. Thus, the chronology in Commentary on Daniel appears to use the same lunar computations that later appeared in Canon, and shows the same 2-year discrepancy, though it is unclear why he waved in his dating of the year of Jesus’ birth. The Chronicon also implies that Jesus was born nine months after he was conceived, with the date of the birth given as 5,502 years and nine months from creation. Nine months from March 25th would give the date of Jesus’ birth as December 25th.
This early testimony which doesn’t try to prove the date of birth but takes it as already granted, showing us that there is no connection with Sol Invictus and Saturnalia even if the Christians which were and are lacking of corresponding spiritual life borrowed some customs from these rituals.
If you want to pray for you or to donate, click here. | 595 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Founding Father: Thomas Paine
Unlike many other American Patriots, Thomas Paine was not born in America. He was born in on January 29, 1737 in Thetford, England. Thomas Paine’s father made a living making corsets. Thomas Paine attended Thetford Grammar school, but flunked out at the age of 12. When he was 13, he helped his father at the corset shop, but he was not good at that either. At the age of 19, Thomas Paine went to sea.
During these voyages, Thomas Paine realized that he did not want to live that life either. He ended up back in England where he began working as a tax officer. Unfortunately, over four years he was fired twice. However, he published an article in a very influential paper about how military officers should be given raises. However, everyone ignored this appeal.
Thomas Paine’s Trip to America
Two years later, Thomas Paine met Benjamin Franklin. Franklin helped him go to America. The two men both shared a passion for writing, and Thomas Paine was inspired both by Benjamin Franklin as well as the upcoming revolution in America.
Thomas Paine first work of writing was African Slavery in America, which disapproved of slavery. A year later, Thomas Paine wrote his most famous work, Common Sense. In this paper, Thomas Paine argued for the colonies’ independence from the British, saying that any government that denies its subjects representation should be replaced. Common Sense was read by many people.
Thomas Paine became so passionate by his own words that he joined the Continental Army. He found out once more that he was not very good at something; in this case it was being a soldier. Thomas Paine kept serving with the army, but he started to write a pamphlet called “The Crisis” which described the American need and cause for independence. The Crisis was so popular that by the time the Revolutionary War, Thomas Paine’s name was just as well known as George Washington’s.
Thomas Paine’s Return to England
After United States began to function as country, Thomas Paine returned to Europe where he tried to be an inventor. A few years later, the French Revolution began. Thomas Paine supported the French revolutionaries. He wrote “The Rights of Man” to defend the revolution. Because England was worried about Paine supporting another revolution, they outlawed him and ordered for his arrest.
Paine ran away to France to join the Revolution. After King Louis XVI was killed, Thomas Paine disagreed with the killing, which made the public dislike him. He was then thrown in prison, but was freed in 1794 by the United States Minister to France.
Thomas Paine stayed in France until 1802. He then accepted an offer from President Thomas Jefferson to go back to America. Thomas Paine continued to write articles, many which went against the beliefs of the Federalists. Thomas Paine died on June 8, 1809 by himself in New York City.
Fun Facts about Thomas Paine
• Thomas Paine was married twice, but he never had any children that lived to adulthood.
• Only six people went to his funeral, and two of these people were former slaves.
• In 1792, he helped write the Constitution for the Republic of France. | <urn:uuid:243d3973-c199-4011-a5d9-d5f2f8f33ca5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kids.laws.com/thomas-paine | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00384.warc.gz | en | 0.987929 | 694 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.08801662176... | 4 | Founding Father: Thomas Paine
Unlike many other American Patriots, Thomas Paine was not born in America. He was born in on January 29, 1737 in Thetford, England. Thomas Paine’s father made a living making corsets. Thomas Paine attended Thetford Grammar school, but flunked out at the age of 12. When he was 13, he helped his father at the corset shop, but he was not good at that either. At the age of 19, Thomas Paine went to sea.
During these voyages, Thomas Paine realized that he did not want to live that life either. He ended up back in England where he began working as a tax officer. Unfortunately, over four years he was fired twice. However, he published an article in a very influential paper about how military officers should be given raises. However, everyone ignored this appeal.
Thomas Paine’s Trip to America
Two years later, Thomas Paine met Benjamin Franklin. Franklin helped him go to America. The two men both shared a passion for writing, and Thomas Paine was inspired both by Benjamin Franklin as well as the upcoming revolution in America.
Thomas Paine first work of writing was African Slavery in America, which disapproved of slavery. A year later, Thomas Paine wrote his most famous work, Common Sense. In this paper, Thomas Paine argued for the colonies’ independence from the British, saying that any government that denies its subjects representation should be replaced. Common Sense was read by many people.
Thomas Paine became so passionate by his own words that he joined the Continental Army. He found out once more that he was not very good at something; in this case it was being a soldier. Thomas Paine kept serving with the army, but he started to write a pamphlet called “The Crisis” which described the American need and cause for independence. The Crisis was so popular that by the time the Revolutionary War, Thomas Paine’s name was just as well known as George Washington’s.
Thomas Paine’s Return to England
After United States began to function as country, Thomas Paine returned to Europe where he tried to be an inventor. A few years later, the French Revolution began. Thomas Paine supported the French revolutionaries. He wrote “The Rights of Man” to defend the revolution. Because England was worried about Paine supporting another revolution, they outlawed him and ordered for his arrest.
Paine ran away to France to join the Revolution. After King Louis XVI was killed, Thomas Paine disagreed with the killing, which made the public dislike him. He was then thrown in prison, but was freed in 1794 by the United States Minister to France.
Thomas Paine stayed in France until 1802. He then accepted an offer from President Thomas Jefferson to go back to America. Thomas Paine continued to write articles, many which went against the beliefs of the Federalists. Thomas Paine died on June 8, 1809 by himself in New York City.
Fun Facts about Thomas Paine
• Thomas Paine was married twice, but he never had any children that lived to adulthood.
• Only six people went to his funeral, and two of these people were former slaves.
• In 1792, he helped write the Constitution for the Republic of France. | 694 | ENGLISH | 1 |
From Class IX, you are familiar with some of the solids like cuboid, cone, cylinder, and sphere. You have also learnt how to find their surface areas and volumes.
The area occupied by a object from outside is known as surface area. Whereas the space occupied by a object from inside is known as volume.
Shaalaa.com | Surface Area and Volume part 1 (Basic)
Some plastic balls of radius 1 cm were melted and cast into a tube. The thickness, length and outer radius of the tube were 2 cm , 90 cm and 30 cm respectively. How many balls were melted to make the tube?
A metal parallelopiped of measures 16 cm x 11 cm x 10 cm was melted to make coins. How many coins were made if the thickness and diameter of each coin was 2 mm and 2 cm respectively ?
The diameter and length of a roller is 120 cm and 84 cm respectively. To level the ground, 200 rotations of the roller are required. Find the expenditure to level the ground at the rate of Rs. 10 per sq.m. | <urn:uuid:796242de-4a76-4fff-bebc-027ba35a8ef6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.shaalaa.com/concept-notes/introduction-surface-areas-volumes_1628 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00412.warc.gz | en | 0.981136 | 222 | 3.890625 | 4 | [
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0.01608387939631... | 1 | From Class IX, you are familiar with some of the solids like cuboid, cone, cylinder, and sphere. You have also learnt how to find their surface areas and volumes.
The area occupied by a object from outside is known as surface area. Whereas the space occupied by a object from inside is known as volume.
Shaalaa.com | Surface Area and Volume part 1 (Basic)
Some plastic balls of radius 1 cm were melted and cast into a tube. The thickness, length and outer radius of the tube were 2 cm , 90 cm and 30 cm respectively. How many balls were melted to make the tube?
A metal parallelopiped of measures 16 cm x 11 cm x 10 cm was melted to make coins. How many coins were made if the thickness and diameter of each coin was 2 mm and 2 cm respectively ?
The diameter and length of a roller is 120 cm and 84 cm respectively. To level the ground, 200 rotations of the roller are required. Find the expenditure to level the ground at the rate of Rs. 10 per sq.m. | 237 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Aesop lived in Greece in the 7th century BC, during a period of remarkable cultural and intellectual advances that paved the way for the Greek "Golden Age".
He was friends with the first philosophers, a group called the Seven Sages, who began questioning the gods' supreme powers over the fate of humans. They spoke of common sense and personal responsibility, and introduced the novel idea that men themselves, not the gods, were responsible for their actions.
These early, ground-breaking philosophers influenced the tragic poets, who wrote plays tracing the paths of fallen heroes to find the cause of their undoing, which was generally caused by arrogance (hubris).
Arguably Aesop is the father, or at least the uncle, of satiric comedy, which appeared several hundred years later with Aristophanes (the same period as Socrates and last tragic poet, Euripides) to warn people of their complacent ways.
It's unclear where Aesop was born. Some say Asia Minor, some say he was Ethiopian. The philosopher Aristotle figured he was from Thrace, near the Black Sea. He was most certainly a slave in Samos, owned by a man called Xanthus who freed him because of his clever way with words.
He traveled widely and was active in Athens' politics where he advised statesmen. His stories and morals were warnings to a society he considered lax in its ways. He used animals to act out human faults because he did not want to offend, just make people aware of the possible consequences of their actions.
It's agreed that most of Aesop's stories are adaptations from local lore, chosen because they fit his morals. After his death many other fables were attributed to him. One which is most likely an original is The Frogs Who Wanted a King, to warn the people of Athens to be careful who they supported as their leader. After his death several scholars attempted to write down what they remembered, it seems even Socrates put some of the stories into verse while in prison. Aesop is mentioned by the poets Aristophanes and Sophocles, and by the historian Diogene Laertius.
What we know today as “Aesop’s Fables” was first assembled around 300 BC by the Greek statesman and philosopher Demetrius Phalereus. They were put to prose in Latin by Phaedrus, a freed slave, around 25 BC, which were translated into Greek by Babrius, a writer allegedly from Rome who may have lived around the 1st century. In the 13th century the fables were translated into Arabic and Hebrew (where Zerechiah ha-Nakadan added biblical quotations). In the 17th century they were translated in Chinese by Zhang Geng, and were the inspiration for Fables Choises by the French poet Jean de La Fontaine.
La Fontaine’s superb adaptations are hugely popular in France,
in particular The Fox and The Crow.
There is very little documentation on Aesop's life. The Aesop Romance (c. 2nd century) of unknown authorship describes Aesop as “potbellied, misshapen of head, snub-nosed, swarthy, dwarfish, bandy-legged, short-armed, squint-eyed, and liver-lipped." | <urn:uuid:bd2445aa-4e08-4ddb-a2a8-fce593eeb8e8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.alphainkeditions.info/Aesop.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00193.warc.gz | en | 0.987351 | 686 | 4.0625 | 4 | [
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0.1971043050289... | 5 | Aesop lived in Greece in the 7th century BC, during a period of remarkable cultural and intellectual advances that paved the way for the Greek "Golden Age".
He was friends with the first philosophers, a group called the Seven Sages, who began questioning the gods' supreme powers over the fate of humans. They spoke of common sense and personal responsibility, and introduced the novel idea that men themselves, not the gods, were responsible for their actions.
These early, ground-breaking philosophers influenced the tragic poets, who wrote plays tracing the paths of fallen heroes to find the cause of their undoing, which was generally caused by arrogance (hubris).
Arguably Aesop is the father, or at least the uncle, of satiric comedy, which appeared several hundred years later with Aristophanes (the same period as Socrates and last tragic poet, Euripides) to warn people of their complacent ways.
It's unclear where Aesop was born. Some say Asia Minor, some say he was Ethiopian. The philosopher Aristotle figured he was from Thrace, near the Black Sea. He was most certainly a slave in Samos, owned by a man called Xanthus who freed him because of his clever way with words.
He traveled widely and was active in Athens' politics where he advised statesmen. His stories and morals were warnings to a society he considered lax in its ways. He used animals to act out human faults because he did not want to offend, just make people aware of the possible consequences of their actions.
It's agreed that most of Aesop's stories are adaptations from local lore, chosen because they fit his morals. After his death many other fables were attributed to him. One which is most likely an original is The Frogs Who Wanted a King, to warn the people of Athens to be careful who they supported as their leader. After his death several scholars attempted to write down what they remembered, it seems even Socrates put some of the stories into verse while in prison. Aesop is mentioned by the poets Aristophanes and Sophocles, and by the historian Diogene Laertius.
What we know today as “Aesop’s Fables” was first assembled around 300 BC by the Greek statesman and philosopher Demetrius Phalereus. They were put to prose in Latin by Phaedrus, a freed slave, around 25 BC, which were translated into Greek by Babrius, a writer allegedly from Rome who may have lived around the 1st century. In the 13th century the fables were translated into Arabic and Hebrew (where Zerechiah ha-Nakadan added biblical quotations). In the 17th century they were translated in Chinese by Zhang Geng, and were the inspiration for Fables Choises by the French poet Jean de La Fontaine.
La Fontaine’s superb adaptations are hugely popular in France,
in particular The Fox and The Crow.
There is very little documentation on Aesop's life. The Aesop Romance (c. 2nd century) of unknown authorship describes Aesop as “potbellied, misshapen of head, snub-nosed, swarthy, dwarfish, bandy-legged, short-armed, squint-eyed, and liver-lipped." | 681 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Anne Frank may not have been betrayed to the Nazis, but captured by chance, a new study shows.
A new study published Friday by the Anne Frank House museum in Amsterdam says that despite decades of research, there is no conclusive evidence that the Jewish diarist and her family were betrayed to the Netherlands’ German occupiers during World War II, leading to their arrest and deportation.
Ronald Leopold, Executive Director of the Anne Frank House museum, said in a statement Friday that new research by the museum “illustrates that other scenarios should also be considered.”
One possible theory is that the Aug. 4, 1944, raid that led to Anne’s arrest could have been part of an investigation into illegal labor or falsified ration coupons at the canal-side house where she and other Jews hid for just over two years.
Anne kept a diary during her time in hiding that was published after the war and turned her into a globally recognized symbol of Holocaust victims. She died in the Bergen-Belsen Nazi concentration camp at age 15, shortly before it was liberated by Allied forces.
The new research points to two men who worked in the building on Amsterdam’s Prinsengracht canal and dealt in illegal ration cards. They were arrested earlier in 1944 and subsequently released, Dutch records show. The arrests are also mentioned in Anne’s diary.
Such arrests were reported to an investigation division based in The Hague. “During their day-to-day activities, investigators from this department often came across Jews in hiding by chance,” according to the report.
Another possibility raised by the report is that the raid was part of an investigation into people being allowed to work in order to prevent them from being called up as forced labor and sent to Germany.
“A company where people were working illegally and two sales representatives were arrested for dealing in ration coupons obviously ran the risk of attracting the attention of the authorities,” the report says.
Furthermore, “The possibility of betrayal has of course not been entirely ruled out by this, nor has any relationship between the ration coupon fraud and the arrest been proven,” and more research is necessary.
“Clearly, the last word about that fateful summer day in 1944 has not yet been said,” the report concludes. | <urn:uuid:427e1f7d-ac03-4e28-aa36-a98aac1b7175> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://worldisraelnews.com/new-study-casts-doubt-on-theory-anne-frank-was-betrayed/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00091.warc.gz | en | 0.987 | 477 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.532179415... | 3 | Anne Frank may not have been betrayed to the Nazis, but captured by chance, a new study shows.
A new study published Friday by the Anne Frank House museum in Amsterdam says that despite decades of research, there is no conclusive evidence that the Jewish diarist and her family were betrayed to the Netherlands’ German occupiers during World War II, leading to their arrest and deportation.
Ronald Leopold, Executive Director of the Anne Frank House museum, said in a statement Friday that new research by the museum “illustrates that other scenarios should also be considered.”
One possible theory is that the Aug. 4, 1944, raid that led to Anne’s arrest could have been part of an investigation into illegal labor or falsified ration coupons at the canal-side house where she and other Jews hid for just over two years.
Anne kept a diary during her time in hiding that was published after the war and turned her into a globally recognized symbol of Holocaust victims. She died in the Bergen-Belsen Nazi concentration camp at age 15, shortly before it was liberated by Allied forces.
The new research points to two men who worked in the building on Amsterdam’s Prinsengracht canal and dealt in illegal ration cards. They were arrested earlier in 1944 and subsequently released, Dutch records show. The arrests are also mentioned in Anne’s diary.
Such arrests were reported to an investigation division based in The Hague. “During their day-to-day activities, investigators from this department often came across Jews in hiding by chance,” according to the report.
Another possibility raised by the report is that the raid was part of an investigation into people being allowed to work in order to prevent them from being called up as forced labor and sent to Germany.
“A company where people were working illegally and two sales representatives were arrested for dealing in ration coupons obviously ran the risk of attracting the attention of the authorities,” the report says.
Furthermore, “The possibility of betrayal has of course not been entirely ruled out by this, nor has any relationship between the ration coupon fraud and the arrest been proven,” and more research is necessary.
“Clearly, the last word about that fateful summer day in 1944 has not yet been said,” the report concludes. | 455 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Scott Joplin was born sometime between June 1867 and January 1868 in eastern Texas. His father was a slave. After 1871 Joplin and his family moved to Texarkana, Texas. It was then that young Scott taught himself music on a piano in a home where his mother worked.
Exhibiting musical ability at an early age, Joplin received free music lessons from a local German music teacher. His teacher not only trained him to play the piano well but also gave him a well-rounded knowledge of classical music form. It was this training in classical form that served him in later years in developing his compositional style.
In the late 1880's Joplin left home to pursue his musical career. By 1898 Joplin had sold six pieces for the piano. By 1889 he had published his most celebrated composition, Maple Leaf Rag which placed Joplin at the top of the list of ragtime performers and established ragtime as an important musical form. In the early 1900's, Joplin and his new wife, Belle, moved to St. Louis, Missouri. While living there, he composed some of his best-known works, including The Entertainer and Elite Syncopations.
Scott Joplin died April 1, 1917. He remains the best-known ragtime composer and performer. He also is regarded as one of the three most important composers of classic ragtime.
You can listen to some of his music by clicking here | <urn:uuid:5d7cda9a-adf9-4463-bd3c-a40e3da4be97> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.stalfegeschool.org.uk/highlights/composer-week-scott-joplin | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00075.warc.gz | en | 0.992149 | 302 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.3585019111633... | 3 | Scott Joplin was born sometime between June 1867 and January 1868 in eastern Texas. His father was a slave. After 1871 Joplin and his family moved to Texarkana, Texas. It was then that young Scott taught himself music on a piano in a home where his mother worked.
Exhibiting musical ability at an early age, Joplin received free music lessons from a local German music teacher. His teacher not only trained him to play the piano well but also gave him a well-rounded knowledge of classical music form. It was this training in classical form that served him in later years in developing his compositional style.
In the late 1880's Joplin left home to pursue his musical career. By 1898 Joplin had sold six pieces for the piano. By 1889 he had published his most celebrated composition, Maple Leaf Rag which placed Joplin at the top of the list of ragtime performers and established ragtime as an important musical form. In the early 1900's, Joplin and his new wife, Belle, moved to St. Louis, Missouri. While living there, he composed some of his best-known works, including The Entertainer and Elite Syncopations.
Scott Joplin died April 1, 1917. He remains the best-known ragtime composer and performer. He also is regarded as one of the three most important composers of classic ragtime.
You can listen to some of his music by clicking here | 324 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Vikings are one of the most legendary groups of warriors from the Middle Ages. Their combat strength took undefended monks and villagers by storm and created a legion of terrifying Viking myths. How much of it is really true though? Our understanding of history changes all the time, and Hollywood can just confuse matters when they take artistic license.
Historians have been hard at work debunking myths about Vikings for decades, but a lot of their conclusions are still little-known by the public. Behind the battle cries and the mighty longships, Viking culture was complex and remarkably different from the rest of the European world at the time. Viking facts can now replace myths and give us a better idea of what both Viking women and men were really like.
The Reality: The short summers and harsh winters of Scandinavia meant food resources were limited and Vikings' main source of nutrition came from raids. As a result, they were often underfed and quite small.
Why The Myth: Scandinavian people were allegedly slightly taller than their mainland European counterparts, but the average Viking man appears to have been just 5 feet 6 inches tall. It is more likely the myth about Vikings' massive composure came from anecdotal accounts by travelers in the Middle Ages.
The Reality: Vikings were often laid to rest in specially arranged graves or burial mounds. The wealthiest and most important Vikings were sometimes buried with their boats, and early Vikings may have been cremated. There is little evidence that anyone was ever put in a boat and set sailing while lit aflame. It would have been considered incredibly expensive and a waste of a good ship.
Why The Myth: Traveler Ahmad Ibn Fadlan wrote an account of Viking funerals during the 10th century that involves burning ships, but this is just an anecdotal account. Archeological evidence does not exist for this type of funeral.
The Reality: Viking raids were undeniably vicious, but Scandinavian raiders were hardly the only rough people in the Middle Ages. More often, Vikings were traders. The worst of their behavior was reserved for opportunistic targets and those who slighted them.
Why The Myth: One of the most common opportunistic targets were monasteries, which were rarely guarded with any real force. Since priests and monks made up a large percentage of the literate population in the Middle Ages, their accounts of Viking ferocity became accepted fact. While monks really did suffer at the hands of Vikings, others had more positive experiences interacting with them.
The Reality: When given the choice, Vikings would have opted for a sword, but these were expensive and out of reach for many warriors. The spear actually appears to be their most popular choice.
Why The Myth: While many Vikings did carry an axe, they likely just brought them from their homes since axes were handy tools on farms. Swords were expensive due to the cost of digging up and forging iron, and reusing a farm axe would have been the only choice for many poor warriors. Popular images of Viking warriors typically depict them with axes, which are associated with barbarism more than spears. | <urn:uuid:df37d1f7-d8df-45c6-ac8b-1da720987f7b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ranker.com/list/vikings-myths-debunked/ryan-sargent?ref=collections&l=2744255&collectionId=1751 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783000.84/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128184745-20200128214745-00237.warc.gz | en | 0.985955 | 619 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.13682043552398682... | 3 | Vikings are one of the most legendary groups of warriors from the Middle Ages. Their combat strength took undefended monks and villagers by storm and created a legion of terrifying Viking myths. How much of it is really true though? Our understanding of history changes all the time, and Hollywood can just confuse matters when they take artistic license.
Historians have been hard at work debunking myths about Vikings for decades, but a lot of their conclusions are still little-known by the public. Behind the battle cries and the mighty longships, Viking culture was complex and remarkably different from the rest of the European world at the time. Viking facts can now replace myths and give us a better idea of what both Viking women and men were really like.
The Reality: The short summers and harsh winters of Scandinavia meant food resources were limited and Vikings' main source of nutrition came from raids. As a result, they were often underfed and quite small.
Why The Myth: Scandinavian people were allegedly slightly taller than their mainland European counterparts, but the average Viking man appears to have been just 5 feet 6 inches tall. It is more likely the myth about Vikings' massive composure came from anecdotal accounts by travelers in the Middle Ages.
The Reality: Vikings were often laid to rest in specially arranged graves or burial mounds. The wealthiest and most important Vikings were sometimes buried with their boats, and early Vikings may have been cremated. There is little evidence that anyone was ever put in a boat and set sailing while lit aflame. It would have been considered incredibly expensive and a waste of a good ship.
Why The Myth: Traveler Ahmad Ibn Fadlan wrote an account of Viking funerals during the 10th century that involves burning ships, but this is just an anecdotal account. Archeological evidence does not exist for this type of funeral.
The Reality: Viking raids were undeniably vicious, but Scandinavian raiders were hardly the only rough people in the Middle Ages. More often, Vikings were traders. The worst of their behavior was reserved for opportunistic targets and those who slighted them.
Why The Myth: One of the most common opportunistic targets were monasteries, which were rarely guarded with any real force. Since priests and monks made up a large percentage of the literate population in the Middle Ages, their accounts of Viking ferocity became accepted fact. While monks really did suffer at the hands of Vikings, others had more positive experiences interacting with them.
The Reality: When given the choice, Vikings would have opted for a sword, but these were expensive and out of reach for many warriors. The spear actually appears to be their most popular choice.
Why The Myth: While many Vikings did carry an axe, they likely just brought them from their homes since axes were handy tools on farms. Swords were expensive due to the cost of digging up and forging iron, and reusing a farm axe would have been the only choice for many poor warriors. Popular images of Viking warriors typically depict them with axes, which are associated with barbarism more than spears. | 619 | ENGLISH | 1 |
last week we celebrated anti-bullying week with a theme of ‘change starts with us’ we though about how we could make our school community a happier place for everyone.
It was lovely to see the children focusing on being kind, paying each other compliments, offering support, praising effort and SMILING! The children have made a pledge to make a small change to their behaviour in school that could make a huge difference to someones day.
In Year 2 this morning we have been outside looking at all of the different plants and flowers we can see in our environment. We talked about why plants and flowers begin to grow at certain times of the year. We knew that plants need sunlight to grow but realised that some plants don’t grow in the winter even though the sun is shining. As we are super plant detectives we quickly noticed that it needs to be a certain temperature for the plants to grow as well as having sunlight. Some plants and flowers can survive in lower temperature in comparison to others who need a much warmer temperature.
This afternoon in year 2 we got out the ramps, cars and a range of materials to test which material would encourage the car to go the furthest. We made sure it was a fair test by keeping the car, the height of the ramp and person the same. We found that the best materials were plastic and foam as the car travelled the furthest. We recorded our attempts out of 10 into a tally chart and wrote a conclusion to summarise our learning.
As well as this Mrs Barnes went baking with 5 children, they made rice infused with cardamom pods and poached pear with cinnamon sticks and saffron. The class were able to have a try and thought it was deliciouS.
This morning in Year 2 we have been working very hard at Nest HQ to ensure the birds have fantastic nests. First we had a little recap of our learning from yesterday which was looking at why birds migrate over the winter and even looked at the way they fly in large flocks.
Mrs Radcliffe and Mrs Daley set up two boxes per table for us, one with different manmade materials in and the other with natural materials in.
We had to work in our house teams to plan how we were going to make our nests and then use a range of materials depending on their properties to make suitable nests for the birds.
We talked about two main questions;
1. What would make a good birds nest?
2. What properties do the materials need to have to make good nests?
We thought about making the nests warm and cosy, as well as strong, sturdy and camouflaged from predators. Roosting takes place in the nests too so it needs to be high up so that the eggs and chicks are safe.
We decided that using natural materials was the best as clay provides a strong base for the nest, twigs make good sides to hide the eggs and chicks as well as making them sheltered, the leaves we used made the bed area cosy, warm and comf6 for the birds. Some children thought that using some manmade materials such as sponges would provide good support as it could soak up the rain.
Thank you to Mrs Provis and Mrs Horton for coming in to support us, we had a great time and learnt lots!
This morning we had an introduction assembly to Science week, we found out that if you add bicarbonate of soda to lemon it causes a chemical reaction and fizzes, to make it more exciting we added food colouring. After this we worked collaboratively in our house teams and had a Forest School morning. We were given four different activities to complete in our groups. The yellow team started at the pond area, we were given a scavenger hunt to do and the resources to do tree rubbings. We were very successful and found all of the things Miss Carter had put on the list even a wild card item, we think we will get the extra points for ours.
The second activity we completed was the den building, we had lots of fun and even used rope and tarpolein to make our den draft free. The third activity we completed after break time was the collaborative art, we had a big yellow sheet and found lots of natural materials to put together to show our team animal which is a snow leopard. Finally we were in the quad planting nasturtiums, we took it in turns filling our pots with compost, popping the seeds in, covering them and watering them.
It was such a wonderful start to the week, even the sunshine came out. A big thank you to Mrs Daley and Miss Carter for arranging a fabulous morning!
This afternoon in year 2 we have been experimenting in Science as part of our topic ‘materials’. We were given a range of materials and worked together to see if they absorbed the water we put on them or they were waterproof.
We had lots of fun and learnt lots too. We know that the scientific word absorbent means ‘a material that can soak up liquid’. | <urn:uuid:9b94ea2b-08d7-4f35-b2e5-a8cf2f21e6bf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://blog.marlfieldsprimary.co.uk/category/class-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00062.warc.gz | en | 0.982718 | 1,039 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.226268... | 4 | last week we celebrated anti-bullying week with a theme of ‘change starts with us’ we though about how we could make our school community a happier place for everyone.
It was lovely to see the children focusing on being kind, paying each other compliments, offering support, praising effort and SMILING! The children have made a pledge to make a small change to their behaviour in school that could make a huge difference to someones day.
In Year 2 this morning we have been outside looking at all of the different plants and flowers we can see in our environment. We talked about why plants and flowers begin to grow at certain times of the year. We knew that plants need sunlight to grow but realised that some plants don’t grow in the winter even though the sun is shining. As we are super plant detectives we quickly noticed that it needs to be a certain temperature for the plants to grow as well as having sunlight. Some plants and flowers can survive in lower temperature in comparison to others who need a much warmer temperature.
This afternoon in year 2 we got out the ramps, cars and a range of materials to test which material would encourage the car to go the furthest. We made sure it was a fair test by keeping the car, the height of the ramp and person the same. We found that the best materials were plastic and foam as the car travelled the furthest. We recorded our attempts out of 10 into a tally chart and wrote a conclusion to summarise our learning.
As well as this Mrs Barnes went baking with 5 children, they made rice infused with cardamom pods and poached pear with cinnamon sticks and saffron. The class were able to have a try and thought it was deliciouS.
This morning in Year 2 we have been working very hard at Nest HQ to ensure the birds have fantastic nests. First we had a little recap of our learning from yesterday which was looking at why birds migrate over the winter and even looked at the way they fly in large flocks.
Mrs Radcliffe and Mrs Daley set up two boxes per table for us, one with different manmade materials in and the other with natural materials in.
We had to work in our house teams to plan how we were going to make our nests and then use a range of materials depending on their properties to make suitable nests for the birds.
We talked about two main questions;
1. What would make a good birds nest?
2. What properties do the materials need to have to make good nests?
We thought about making the nests warm and cosy, as well as strong, sturdy and camouflaged from predators. Roosting takes place in the nests too so it needs to be high up so that the eggs and chicks are safe.
We decided that using natural materials was the best as clay provides a strong base for the nest, twigs make good sides to hide the eggs and chicks as well as making them sheltered, the leaves we used made the bed area cosy, warm and comf6 for the birds. Some children thought that using some manmade materials such as sponges would provide good support as it could soak up the rain.
Thank you to Mrs Provis and Mrs Horton for coming in to support us, we had a great time and learnt lots!
This morning we had an introduction assembly to Science week, we found out that if you add bicarbonate of soda to lemon it causes a chemical reaction and fizzes, to make it more exciting we added food colouring. After this we worked collaboratively in our house teams and had a Forest School morning. We were given four different activities to complete in our groups. The yellow team started at the pond area, we were given a scavenger hunt to do and the resources to do tree rubbings. We were very successful and found all of the things Miss Carter had put on the list even a wild card item, we think we will get the extra points for ours.
The second activity we completed was the den building, we had lots of fun and even used rope and tarpolein to make our den draft free. The third activity we completed after break time was the collaborative art, we had a big yellow sheet and found lots of natural materials to put together to show our team animal which is a snow leopard. Finally we were in the quad planting nasturtiums, we took it in turns filling our pots with compost, popping the seeds in, covering them and watering them.
It was such a wonderful start to the week, even the sunshine came out. A big thank you to Mrs Daley and Miss Carter for arranging a fabulous morning!
This afternoon in year 2 we have been experimenting in Science as part of our topic ‘materials’. We were given a range of materials and worked together to see if they absorbed the water we put on them or they were waterproof.
We had lots of fun and learnt lots too. We know that the scientific word absorbent means ‘a material that can soak up liquid’. | 1,011 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Effect _ Most of even beginning algebra depends on being able to do two things__one, doing multiplication quickly and accurately in your head, two, knowing how to add, subtract, multiply, and divide fractions. You might remember a concept in algebra called "factoring." Factoring means breaking up into parts that are multiplied together to give you the whole. You can factor numbers. For instance, 6 factors into 2 and 3_θx3 =6. In elementary algebra we learn to factor expressions such as x^2ƲxƲ. This particular expression is easily factorable into (xư)^2. If this doesn't make any sense to you, don't worry about it. Just trust me, if you don't know your multiplication tables, you can't factor. If you can't factor, you won't do well at all in algebra, geometry, or trigonometry.
1st grade math worksheets and my Mom's math teaching style. Math won't be as terrible as it seems if parents take interest in preparing their little ones for math before school age. I grew up not understanding how it is that people talk about math as difficult as they do, it was my best subject at school. It was easy because of my upbringing that ensured that math and I got acquainted long before school. My mother who was a primary grade teacher told me how she began teaching me math in different guises at home before I got to school age. I remember that with my Mom everything was somehow connected to math. She made me count the buttons in my shirt as she dressed me up, asked questions that demanded answers that are related to sums, like how many pair of shoes do you have? How many buttons are there on your Daddy's shirt? Count all the furniture in the living room and several math games. All my toys were one way or the other math related. I had puzzles, and tons of things Mom had me do as games on daily basis at home to get me ready for kindergarten! In fact, she continued guiding me towards being math friendly throughout kindergarten and first grade during which time 1st grade math worksheets was my constant companion. Practice surely makes perfect and I am very gratefully to Mom for taking her time to familiarize me with math even as a child. | <urn:uuid:d1f15d77-66e1-4209-912b-54b26d0b9912> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bayesianwitch.com/math-worksheet/008-11-grade-maths-maths-algebra-grade-valid-7th-teks-practice-your-skills-with/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00198.warc.gz | en | 0.986001 | 470 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.1380152851343155,... | 1 | The Effect _ Most of even beginning algebra depends on being able to do two things__one, doing multiplication quickly and accurately in your head, two, knowing how to add, subtract, multiply, and divide fractions. You might remember a concept in algebra called "factoring." Factoring means breaking up into parts that are multiplied together to give you the whole. You can factor numbers. For instance, 6 factors into 2 and 3_θx3 =6. In elementary algebra we learn to factor expressions such as x^2ƲxƲ. This particular expression is easily factorable into (xư)^2. If this doesn't make any sense to you, don't worry about it. Just trust me, if you don't know your multiplication tables, you can't factor. If you can't factor, you won't do well at all in algebra, geometry, or trigonometry.
1st grade math worksheets and my Mom's math teaching style. Math won't be as terrible as it seems if parents take interest in preparing their little ones for math before school age. I grew up not understanding how it is that people talk about math as difficult as they do, it was my best subject at school. It was easy because of my upbringing that ensured that math and I got acquainted long before school. My mother who was a primary grade teacher told me how she began teaching me math in different guises at home before I got to school age. I remember that with my Mom everything was somehow connected to math. She made me count the buttons in my shirt as she dressed me up, asked questions that demanded answers that are related to sums, like how many pair of shoes do you have? How many buttons are there on your Daddy's shirt? Count all the furniture in the living room and several math games. All my toys were one way or the other math related. I had puzzles, and tons of things Mom had me do as games on daily basis at home to get me ready for kindergarten! In fact, she continued guiding me towards being math friendly throughout kindergarten and first grade during which time 1st grade math worksheets was my constant companion. Practice surely makes perfect and I am very gratefully to Mom for taking her time to familiarize me with math even as a child. | 466 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Before 1792, most Americans had money troubles. Goods and services could be exchanged for pieces of gold or silver if people had them. Some would use British or Spanish coins. Tobacco leaves, shells and pieces of land were other options. Colonies issued their own type of paper currency, but it wasn't reliable to use when trading and traveling. But on April 2, 1792, Congress established what is now one of the most widely recognized symbols in the world: the dollar.
"In America, they used whatever they could get their hands on," said Frank Noll, a historical consultant for the U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing. "But the Coinage Act established the dollar as a unit of currency for the United States."
The Coinage Act of 1792 created the U.S. Mint, an institution dedicated to producing coins and controlling their movement around the world. The first official American currency was a silver dollar. People had to bring their own silver to the Mint to be coined.
"The coins had to have a portrayal of 'Liberty' on them. And so you have these busts or portraits of female Liberty on all coins," Noll said.
While the act was meant to simplify purchases, buying things was still complicated. It was rare for people to find these silver coins, because not many were produced. So local banks made their own currency that could be exchanged for gold or silver.
In 1861, Congress needed to find a practical way — a currency that didn't rely on gold or silver — to pay for the Civil War and its soldiers. So the United States was introduced to the first government-regulated paper bills, also called "demand notes."
Many would think the $1 would be the first paper bill, but the first bills were the $5, $10 and $20.
The bills were also called "greenbacks," a name Civil War soldiers came up with. The color — used to print the back of the bill — had a purpose. To prevent people from counterfeiting, or printing fake money, the government turned to science.
"What chemists were looking for was a way to create an ink that could not be erased," Noll said. "And so one chemist in the 1840s came up with this ink that couldn't be removed and has a special chemical layer. It happened to be green."
In 1862, the $1 bill was created, and the Treasury Department was in charge of designing it. Treasury Secretary Salmon Chase used that opportunity to put his face on the first dollar. Chase left the Treasury Department in 1864, and officials replaced his face with George Washington's five years later.
Throughout history, paper bills have been redesigned primarily to protect them. The last redesign was the $100 bill in 2013. A 3-D ribbon was added. If you tilt the bill back and forth you can see bells change to 100s. The next expected change is the $10 bill in 2026.
Because our currency was such a complicated system, there is plenty of history behind it. Next time you get your hands on a $1 bill, look at the Great Seal of the United States on the back. The two images, featuring an eagle and a pyramid, first appeared on the dollar bill in 1935. An early design had the images reversed, with the eagle looking away from the pyramid. The decision to flip it came from the highest level of government.
"The current $1 bill, the back looks the way it does because of Franklin Roosevelt," Noll said. "He is the only president who ever got involved in currency design." | <urn:uuid:2a0b7367-401c-4c3a-8041-f555ca3d6625> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.timestelegram.com/news/20190404/kidspost-us-dollar-has-rich-history | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00295.warc.gz | en | 0.984272 | 739 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.0975592285... | 3 | Before 1792, most Americans had money troubles. Goods and services could be exchanged for pieces of gold or silver if people had them. Some would use British or Spanish coins. Tobacco leaves, shells and pieces of land were other options. Colonies issued their own type of paper currency, but it wasn't reliable to use when trading and traveling. But on April 2, 1792, Congress established what is now one of the most widely recognized symbols in the world: the dollar.
"In America, they used whatever they could get their hands on," said Frank Noll, a historical consultant for the U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing. "But the Coinage Act established the dollar as a unit of currency for the United States."
The Coinage Act of 1792 created the U.S. Mint, an institution dedicated to producing coins and controlling their movement around the world. The first official American currency was a silver dollar. People had to bring their own silver to the Mint to be coined.
"The coins had to have a portrayal of 'Liberty' on them. And so you have these busts or portraits of female Liberty on all coins," Noll said.
While the act was meant to simplify purchases, buying things was still complicated. It was rare for people to find these silver coins, because not many were produced. So local banks made their own currency that could be exchanged for gold or silver.
In 1861, Congress needed to find a practical way — a currency that didn't rely on gold or silver — to pay for the Civil War and its soldiers. So the United States was introduced to the first government-regulated paper bills, also called "demand notes."
Many would think the $1 would be the first paper bill, but the first bills were the $5, $10 and $20.
The bills were also called "greenbacks," a name Civil War soldiers came up with. The color — used to print the back of the bill — had a purpose. To prevent people from counterfeiting, or printing fake money, the government turned to science.
"What chemists were looking for was a way to create an ink that could not be erased," Noll said. "And so one chemist in the 1840s came up with this ink that couldn't be removed and has a special chemical layer. It happened to be green."
In 1862, the $1 bill was created, and the Treasury Department was in charge of designing it. Treasury Secretary Salmon Chase used that opportunity to put his face on the first dollar. Chase left the Treasury Department in 1864, and officials replaced his face with George Washington's five years later.
Throughout history, paper bills have been redesigned primarily to protect them. The last redesign was the $100 bill in 2013. A 3-D ribbon was added. If you tilt the bill back and forth you can see bells change to 100s. The next expected change is the $10 bill in 2026.
Because our currency was such a complicated system, there is plenty of history behind it. Next time you get your hands on a $1 bill, look at the Great Seal of the United States on the back. The two images, featuring an eagle and a pyramid, first appeared on the dollar bill in 1935. An early design had the images reversed, with the eagle looking away from the pyramid. The decision to flip it came from the highest level of government.
"The current $1 bill, the back looks the way it does because of Franklin Roosevelt," Noll said. "He is the only president who ever got involved in currency design." | 767 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Nathaniel Hawthorne The 19th century had many great achievements happen within its 100-year time period. From the building of the Erie Canal, to the steel plow being invented. From the invention of the telegraph, to Thomas Edison creating the first light bulb. While all of these inventions have stood the test of time, one has lasted just as long; the inspiring tales a novel written by Nathaniel Hawthorne. Nathaniel Hawthorne was born in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1804. His name by birth was Nathaniel Hawthorne. He added the w to his name when he began to sign his stories. ("Nathaniel Hawthorne" American Writers II) One of Hawthorne's ancestors was actually a judge in the Salem witch trials. The guilt and shame Hawthorne felt of his ancestors were included in some of his stories. (McGraw Hill, pg.67) Hawthorne's father was a sea captain. He died of fever when Hawthorne was only four. Shortly after his father's death, his mother was forced to move her three children into her parent's home and then into her brother's home in Maine. Hawthorne's childhood was not particularly abnormal, as many famous authors have claimed to have. Hawthorne attended Bowdoin College and graduated after four years. After graduation, he returned to Salem. Contrary to his family's expectations, Hawthorne did not begin to read law or enter business, rather he moved into his mother's house to turn himself into a writer. Hawthorne wrote his mother, "I do not want to be a doctor and live by men's diseases, nor a minister to live by their sins, nor a lawyer and live by their quarrels. So, I don't see that there is anything left for me but to be an author." (" American Writers II, pg. 227) For the next twelve years Hawthorne lived in his mother's house. He Seldemly went out except late at night, or when going to another city. " I had read endlessly all sorts of good and good for nothing books, and in dearth of other employment, had early begun to scribble sketches and stories, most of which I burned. | <urn:uuid:b127a77c-b86e-4629-875f-536319ceffab> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/55538.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00154.warc.gz | en | 0.993348 | 443 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.145417779684... | 3 | Nathaniel Hawthorne The 19th century had many great achievements happen within its 100-year time period. From the building of the Erie Canal, to the steel plow being invented. From the invention of the telegraph, to Thomas Edison creating the first light bulb. While all of these inventions have stood the test of time, one has lasted just as long; the inspiring tales a novel written by Nathaniel Hawthorne. Nathaniel Hawthorne was born in Salem, Massachusetts, in 1804. His name by birth was Nathaniel Hawthorne. He added the w to his name when he began to sign his stories. ("Nathaniel Hawthorne" American Writers II) One of Hawthorne's ancestors was actually a judge in the Salem witch trials. The guilt and shame Hawthorne felt of his ancestors were included in some of his stories. (McGraw Hill, pg.67) Hawthorne's father was a sea captain. He died of fever when Hawthorne was only four. Shortly after his father's death, his mother was forced to move her three children into her parent's home and then into her brother's home in Maine. Hawthorne's childhood was not particularly abnormal, as many famous authors have claimed to have. Hawthorne attended Bowdoin College and graduated after four years. After graduation, he returned to Salem. Contrary to his family's expectations, Hawthorne did not begin to read law or enter business, rather he moved into his mother's house to turn himself into a writer. Hawthorne wrote his mother, "I do not want to be a doctor and live by men's diseases, nor a minister to live by their sins, nor a lawyer and live by their quarrels. So, I don't see that there is anything left for me but to be an author." (" American Writers II, pg. 227) For the next twelve years Hawthorne lived in his mother's house. He Seldemly went out except late at night, or when going to another city. " I had read endlessly all sorts of good and good for nothing books, and in dearth of other employment, had early begun to scribble sketches and stories, most of which I burned. | 458 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why was the Armenian Genocide Forgotten?
By definition genocide is the organized killing of a people for the express purpose of putting an end to their collective existence (Webster's dictionary).As a rule, the organizing agent is the nation, the victim population is a domestic minority, and the end result is the near total death of a society. The Armenian genocide generally conforms to this simple definition.
The Armenian genocide is a hidden, almost lost part of world history, pretty much eclipsed by the more publicized genocide of the twentieth century, the Holocaust. The question is why. I could take a poll of this room and I am willing to bet that 95% of the students have ever even heard of the Armenian Genocide and those who have couldn't tell me more than a couple sentences about it. This is pretty scary, considering the statistics of the Armenian Genocide.
The Ottoman Empire was ruled by the Turks who had conquered the land from across West Asia, North Africa to Southeast Europe. The Ottoman government was based in Istanbul and was headed by a sultan who was given absolute power. The Turks were Islamic and were a harsh disciplinary civilization. The Armenians, a Christian minority, lived as second class citizens subject to legal restrictions (Graber 119). These restrictions denied them normal safeguards. Neither their lives nor their properties were guaranteed security. As non-Muslims they were also obligated to pay discriminatory taxes and denied participation in government.
In its prime of the sixteenth century the Ottoman Empire was a powerful state. Its minority populations really benefited with the growth of its economy, but by the nineteenth century, the empire was in serious decline(Graber 121). It had been reduced in size and by 1914 had lost virtually all its lands in Europe and Africa. This decline created enormous internal political and economic pressures which contributed to the increasing… | <urn:uuid:80541006-793b-4e70-9189-756a87394bdd> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/armenian-genocide-3/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00096.warc.gz | en | 0.98039 | 367 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.6278120875358582... | 1 | Why was the Armenian Genocide Forgotten?
By definition genocide is the organized killing of a people for the express purpose of putting an end to their collective existence (Webster's dictionary).As a rule, the organizing agent is the nation, the victim population is a domestic minority, and the end result is the near total death of a society. The Armenian genocide generally conforms to this simple definition.
The Armenian genocide is a hidden, almost lost part of world history, pretty much eclipsed by the more publicized genocide of the twentieth century, the Holocaust. The question is why. I could take a poll of this room and I am willing to bet that 95% of the students have ever even heard of the Armenian Genocide and those who have couldn't tell me more than a couple sentences about it. This is pretty scary, considering the statistics of the Armenian Genocide.
The Ottoman Empire was ruled by the Turks who had conquered the land from across West Asia, North Africa to Southeast Europe. The Ottoman government was based in Istanbul and was headed by a sultan who was given absolute power. The Turks were Islamic and were a harsh disciplinary civilization. The Armenians, a Christian minority, lived as second class citizens subject to legal restrictions (Graber 119). These restrictions denied them normal safeguards. Neither their lives nor their properties were guaranteed security. As non-Muslims they were also obligated to pay discriminatory taxes and denied participation in government.
In its prime of the sixteenth century the Ottoman Empire was a powerful state. Its minority populations really benefited with the growth of its economy, but by the nineteenth century, the empire was in serious decline(Graber 121). It had been reduced in size and by 1914 had lost virtually all its lands in Europe and Africa. This decline created enormous internal political and economic pressures which contributed to the increasing… | 378 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The artists of which country have contributed most to development of the world art?
When hearing this question, French artists are often thought of. And the Dutch. And of course, no one doubts the influence of Italian Renaissance.
However, if we consider the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century, the English artists’ achievements are worth mentioning.
During this time period, several outstanding masters worked in the country of foggy Albion, who completely changed the world art.
1. William Hogarth (1697-1764)
It was a difficult time Hogarth lived in. At the beginning off the 18th century in England, the bourgeois society had just appeared substituting for the feudal one.
Moral values were vague. Mercenariness and greed for wealth at any cost were seriously considered to be strong points.
Hogarth decided not to keep silent. But tried to open his countrymen’s eyes and show them decay of moral values. By using paintings and engravings.
He began with the series of paintings “A Harlot’s Progress”. Unfortunately, there are no paintings remained. We have only engravings left.
It’s a real story of a village girl called Mary, who came to a city to look for her luck. But fell into clutches of an old bawd.
We can see this scene on the first engraving. After becoming a fancy woman, she spent her short life among social outcasts.
Hogarth deliberately turned his paintings into engravings to distribute them widely. Thus, he tried to reach as many people as he could.
He wanted to warn not only poor girls like Mary, but noble people as well. This can be seen from the series of his works “Marriage a la Mode”.
The story described was extremely typical for that time. An impoverished aristocrat marries a daughter of a wealthy merchant. However, it is only a deal that implies no accord of hearts.
The most famous painting of the series “The Tete-a-Tete” demonstrates the emptiness of their relationship.
The wife had spent the night having fun with guests. And the husband returned home only in the morning, feeling ruined by revelry (judging by a spot on his neck, he already suffered from syphilis).
The Countess stretches her arms and is about to yawn. On her face, we can see that she is completely indifferent to her husband. No wonder. She has an extradyadic affair.
The story has a sad end. The husband will find his wife in bed with her lover and will be stabbed to death in a duel. The lover will be hanged. And the Countess will commit suicide.
Hogarth wasn’t just a caricaturist. He was too talented for that. His colour combinations were too complex and harmonious and the paintings were incredibly expressive.
You can easily “read” his paintings, understanding the relationship between people.
It’s difficult to overestimate Hogarth’s merits. After all, he invented the critical realism. He was the one to depict so many conflicts and social dramas in painting. Hogarth inspired Francisco Goya to create his famous Caprichos.
2. Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792)
There are only few painters in the world who were basking in the spotlight when alive and at the same time managed to survive in the descendants’ memory. An English artist Joshua Reynolds was one of those lucky ones.
Since childhood, he knew that the only thing he wanted was to paint. He gained recognition quickly. Indeed, his talent was complimented by a suitable character. Sociable and energetic. In every respect, he won the clients’ hearts easily.
No wonder that once Reynolds became the most influential official in the world of art. At the age of 45, he was elected the President of the Royal Academy of Arts.
Using an appropriate suit, environment or landscape, expression on the face and postures, Reynolds could reveal a person’s most advantageous qualities.
This is true about the portrait of Colonel Tarleton.
It’s the best solution to show the truly courageous man of action against the background of flying colours and clouds of smoke. And the drawing of a sword successfully hides the hand with fingers lost in a battle.
When painting female portraits, Reynolds, undoubtedly, emphasized tenderness and beauty. But he never forgot about the heroine’s character.
In his last years he didn’t see well. And didn’t touch the brush any more. But one order he couldn’t refuse. His client was Catherine II.
Since then, there are several late works by Reynolds in the Hermitage Museum. Including “Venus and Cupid”.
We see Venus making a gesture, non-trivial for Reynolds. She is embarrassed by the eyes looking at her.
The painting clearly shows how Reynolds skilfully copied the old masters’ achievements. The warm and deep colours of Titian. The languishing, soft lines of Rubens.
Reynolds didn’t reinvent the wheel. But he set extremely high standards for all European artists.
3. Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788)
Not for nothing Gainsborough can be called the most famous English painter of the 18th century. He lived at the same time as Reynolds. And they were rivals.
The difference between Reynolds and Gainsborough can be seen with the naked eye. The first one uses red and golden shades, majestic and solemn images.
Gainsborough prefers silver and blue, as well as olive and green shades. His portraits were aerial and intimate.
All these we can see in the portrait “A Lady in Blue”. There is no emotional tension – just a beautiful and gentle image. To achieve this effect, Gainsborough used a thin, almost 6,5 feet (2 meters) long brush for working!
In the first place, Gainsborough always considered himself to be a landscape painter. But the need to earn money forced him to paint portraits on a by-order basis. The irony of it is that he became famous and remained in history precisely as a portrait painter.
But the artist compromised with himself. He often portraying his clients out in the country. Thus, he united hateful portraits and his favorite landscapes.
Clients could not decide which of the two portrait painters they liked more. And the aristocrats kept ordering portraits from both Reynolds and Gainsborough. They were too different. But there works were equally impressive.
But unlike Reynolds, his opponent was attracted by ordinary people as well. He painted a duchess and a commoner with the same passion.
Reynolds traded his painting “Girls with Pigs” from one collector for a Titian’s painting he possessed as he considered it to be the best work of his rival.
Gainsborough’s works are unique in their quality. Here, we can see unhidden touches, which at a distance make the painting look alive and breathing.
There are smooth and shaded lines. As if everything happens in humid air, which is really true for England.
And, of course, an unusual combination of portrait and landscape. All this distinguishes Gainsborough from many other portrait painters of his time.
4. William Blake (1757-1827)
William Blake was an extraordinary person. Since childhood he saw mystical visions. And when he grew up, he became an anarchist. He denied laws and moral, being sure that they oppressed human freedom.
He did not recognize religion either, considering it to be the main limitation of freedom. Of course, his opinion reflected in his works. “The architect of the world” is his dead-set at Christianity.
The Creator holds compasses, tracing borders for humans – the borders that are impossible to cross. That make our thinking limited and existing within narrow frames.
For his contemporaries, his works seemed too extraordinary, so he didn’t lived to be recognized.
Some people saw prophecies and future disturbances in his paintings. They perceived Blake as a blessed one, a man out of head.
But officially Blake was never declared mad. He spent all his life working fruitfully. Moreover, he was a all around handyman. He was an excellent engraver and a brilliant illustrator. He was the one who created incredible watercolours for Dante’s Divine Comedy.
The only thing that Blake had in common with his era is the fashion for everything terrible and fabulous. Indeed, in England of the 19th century, romanticism and fabulous motifs were rather popular.
Therefore, his painting “Ghost of a Flea” fits perfectly into the common series of works of that period.
Blake assured that he had seen a bloodsucker’s soul. But it was placed in a tiny flea. If this soul was placed in a human being, a lot of blood would be shed.
Obviously, Blake was born ahead of his time. His works frighteningly resemble the works of symbolists and surrealists of the 20th century. They were the ones who remembered about this master 100 years after his death. He became their idol and inspirational figure.
5. John Constable (1776-1837)
Despite his aristocratic appearance, Constable was a miller’s son. He loved hand labour. He could plow, build fences and fish. Maybe that’s the reason why we find no pathos in his landscapes. They are natural and realistic.
Before, artists used to paint idealized landscapes, often Italian ones. But Constable depicted a particular locality. A river, a cottage and trees that really existed.
His “Hay Wain” is the most famous English landscape. This was the work seen by the French public at the Paris exhibition of 1824.
Young impressionists were particularly impressed. In this painting, some of them saw something they were aiming at. No academic pomposity. No ancient ruins and spectacular sunsets. Just an everyday life in the countryside. Attractive in its naturalness.
After this exhibition, Constable sold as many as 20 of his paintings in Paris. However, his landscapes were almost never bought in his motherland.
But unlike Gainsborough, he rarely switched to portraits for the sake to earn money. He continued to improve his skills in landscape painting.
For this reason, he studied natural phenomena from a scientific point of view. And he could select colours that were extremely close to those found in nature. He was especially skilled at painting the sky – the contrasting light and dark clouds.
But Constable is famous for not only incredibly realistic paintings. But by his sketches as well.
The artist created a sketch of the same size as his future painting. He worked right outdoors. It was his know-how. This is the working method that Impressionists will adopt later.
But quite often, Constable used these sketches to paint completed works in his studio. Although at that time, the public liked them more, they were not as lively and full of movement as sketches.
It was only in the 20th century that countrymen realized the greatness of Constable. And till now, he is one of the most beloved artists in England.
6. William Turner (1775-1851 )
An English painter William Turner was able to gain popularity and become a member of the art academy when he was still young. Almost immediately, people began to call him “the artist of light”, since the sun was often present on his paintings.
If you look at other artists’ landscapes, you will hardly see any sun. It is too bright.
This brightness is hard to depict. It is in the eyes. It distorts everything around. But Turner wasn’t afraid of this. He drew the sun in its heyday and at sunset. He boldly covered all around with its light.
But Turner could not help experimenting, though he was an academician and set a high value on his title. His mind was too extraordinary and agile.
Therefore, as soon as in a couple of decades, his works evolved greatly. There were less details but more light. More sensations.
One of the most famous paintings of that time is “Last voyage of the Frigate “Brave”.
Here, we can see a bit of allegory. Sailing ships are replaced by steam ones. One era replaces another. The sun sets, and the moon rises to replace it (top left).
Here, the sun still keeps dominating position. The sunset takes as much as the half of the picture.
And in the subsequent works the artist almost approaches the abstract art by hypertrophying all his previous aspirations. By removing details and leaving only sensations and light.
As you understand, the public failed to appreciate such works. Queen Victoria refused to knight Turner. And his reputation was shaken. In society, hints on his madness were heard more and more often.
This is the fate of all the true artists. He takes a step too far forward. And the public catches him up only decades or and even centuries later. That is what happened to the great Turner.
It’s impossible to ignore the Pre-Raphaelites when speaking of the English artists. Moreover, they became extremely popular in the 21st century.
Where did such a strong love for these artists come from?
The Pre-Raphaelites started with setting high goals. They wanted to find a way out of the dead end of stiff academic painting. They were tired of depicting myths and historical plots that were little known to the general public. They wanted to show a real, lively beauty.
And the Pre-Raphaelites began to show female images. They turned out to be extremely beautiful and attractive.
What are worth only of their red-haired beauties. As a rule, they were their lovers in real life as well.
The pre-Raphaelites began to praise female beauty. As a result, nothing was left in them apart from this.
It looked like posed, gorgeous shots for glossy magazines. Such images are easy to imagine as advertisements of women’s perfumes.
That’s why the people of the 21st century liked the Pre-Raphaelites so much. Since it’s the age of glamorous, bright advertising.
Despite the apparent emptiness of many works, it was these artists who stood at the origins of design development that later broke off from art. Indeed, the Pre-Raphaelites (for example, William Morris) worked a lot on sketches of fabrics, wallpapers and other interior decorations.
I hope that after reading this article, you have seen the English artists from a new point of view. It was not always only the Italians and the Dutch who influenced the world art. The English have also made their substantial contribution. | <urn:uuid:efc9e464-5564-4ae8-83a5-bb99b297bc72> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://arts-pad.com/english-artists/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00166.warc.gz | en | 0.982669 | 3,110 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.453126251697... | 5 | The artists of which country have contributed most to development of the world art?
When hearing this question, French artists are often thought of. And the Dutch. And of course, no one doubts the influence of Italian Renaissance.
However, if we consider the 18th and the beginning of the 19th century, the English artists’ achievements are worth mentioning.
During this time period, several outstanding masters worked in the country of foggy Albion, who completely changed the world art.
1. William Hogarth (1697-1764)
It was a difficult time Hogarth lived in. At the beginning off the 18th century in England, the bourgeois society had just appeared substituting for the feudal one.
Moral values were vague. Mercenariness and greed for wealth at any cost were seriously considered to be strong points.
Hogarth decided not to keep silent. But tried to open his countrymen’s eyes and show them decay of moral values. By using paintings and engravings.
He began with the series of paintings “A Harlot’s Progress”. Unfortunately, there are no paintings remained. We have only engravings left.
It’s a real story of a village girl called Mary, who came to a city to look for her luck. But fell into clutches of an old bawd.
We can see this scene on the first engraving. After becoming a fancy woman, she spent her short life among social outcasts.
Hogarth deliberately turned his paintings into engravings to distribute them widely. Thus, he tried to reach as many people as he could.
He wanted to warn not only poor girls like Mary, but noble people as well. This can be seen from the series of his works “Marriage a la Mode”.
The story described was extremely typical for that time. An impoverished aristocrat marries a daughter of a wealthy merchant. However, it is only a deal that implies no accord of hearts.
The most famous painting of the series “The Tete-a-Tete” demonstrates the emptiness of their relationship.
The wife had spent the night having fun with guests. And the husband returned home only in the morning, feeling ruined by revelry (judging by a spot on his neck, he already suffered from syphilis).
The Countess stretches her arms and is about to yawn. On her face, we can see that she is completely indifferent to her husband. No wonder. She has an extradyadic affair.
The story has a sad end. The husband will find his wife in bed with her lover and will be stabbed to death in a duel. The lover will be hanged. And the Countess will commit suicide.
Hogarth wasn’t just a caricaturist. He was too talented for that. His colour combinations were too complex and harmonious and the paintings were incredibly expressive.
You can easily “read” his paintings, understanding the relationship between people.
It’s difficult to overestimate Hogarth’s merits. After all, he invented the critical realism. He was the one to depict so many conflicts and social dramas in painting. Hogarth inspired Francisco Goya to create his famous Caprichos.
2. Joshua Reynolds (1723-1792)
There are only few painters in the world who were basking in the spotlight when alive and at the same time managed to survive in the descendants’ memory. An English artist Joshua Reynolds was one of those lucky ones.
Since childhood, he knew that the only thing he wanted was to paint. He gained recognition quickly. Indeed, his talent was complimented by a suitable character. Sociable and energetic. In every respect, he won the clients’ hearts easily.
No wonder that once Reynolds became the most influential official in the world of art. At the age of 45, he was elected the President of the Royal Academy of Arts.
Using an appropriate suit, environment or landscape, expression on the face and postures, Reynolds could reveal a person’s most advantageous qualities.
This is true about the portrait of Colonel Tarleton.
It’s the best solution to show the truly courageous man of action against the background of flying colours and clouds of smoke. And the drawing of a sword successfully hides the hand with fingers lost in a battle.
When painting female portraits, Reynolds, undoubtedly, emphasized tenderness and beauty. But he never forgot about the heroine’s character.
In his last years he didn’t see well. And didn’t touch the brush any more. But one order he couldn’t refuse. His client was Catherine II.
Since then, there are several late works by Reynolds in the Hermitage Museum. Including “Venus and Cupid”.
We see Venus making a gesture, non-trivial for Reynolds. She is embarrassed by the eyes looking at her.
The painting clearly shows how Reynolds skilfully copied the old masters’ achievements. The warm and deep colours of Titian. The languishing, soft lines of Rubens.
Reynolds didn’t reinvent the wheel. But he set extremely high standards for all European artists.
3. Thomas Gainsborough (1727-1788)
Not for nothing Gainsborough can be called the most famous English painter of the 18th century. He lived at the same time as Reynolds. And they were rivals.
The difference between Reynolds and Gainsborough can be seen with the naked eye. The first one uses red and golden shades, majestic and solemn images.
Gainsborough prefers silver and blue, as well as olive and green shades. His portraits were aerial and intimate.
All these we can see in the portrait “A Lady in Blue”. There is no emotional tension – just a beautiful and gentle image. To achieve this effect, Gainsborough used a thin, almost 6,5 feet (2 meters) long brush for working!
In the first place, Gainsborough always considered himself to be a landscape painter. But the need to earn money forced him to paint portraits on a by-order basis. The irony of it is that he became famous and remained in history precisely as a portrait painter.
But the artist compromised with himself. He often portraying his clients out in the country. Thus, he united hateful portraits and his favorite landscapes.
Clients could not decide which of the two portrait painters they liked more. And the aristocrats kept ordering portraits from both Reynolds and Gainsborough. They were too different. But there works were equally impressive.
But unlike Reynolds, his opponent was attracted by ordinary people as well. He painted a duchess and a commoner with the same passion.
Reynolds traded his painting “Girls with Pigs” from one collector for a Titian’s painting he possessed as he considered it to be the best work of his rival.
Gainsborough’s works are unique in their quality. Here, we can see unhidden touches, which at a distance make the painting look alive and breathing.
There are smooth and shaded lines. As if everything happens in humid air, which is really true for England.
And, of course, an unusual combination of portrait and landscape. All this distinguishes Gainsborough from many other portrait painters of his time.
4. William Blake (1757-1827)
William Blake was an extraordinary person. Since childhood he saw mystical visions. And when he grew up, he became an anarchist. He denied laws and moral, being sure that they oppressed human freedom.
He did not recognize religion either, considering it to be the main limitation of freedom. Of course, his opinion reflected in his works. “The architect of the world” is his dead-set at Christianity.
The Creator holds compasses, tracing borders for humans – the borders that are impossible to cross. That make our thinking limited and existing within narrow frames.
For his contemporaries, his works seemed too extraordinary, so he didn’t lived to be recognized.
Some people saw prophecies and future disturbances in his paintings. They perceived Blake as a blessed one, a man out of head.
But officially Blake was never declared mad. He spent all his life working fruitfully. Moreover, he was a all around handyman. He was an excellent engraver and a brilliant illustrator. He was the one who created incredible watercolours for Dante’s Divine Comedy.
The only thing that Blake had in common with his era is the fashion for everything terrible and fabulous. Indeed, in England of the 19th century, romanticism and fabulous motifs were rather popular.
Therefore, his painting “Ghost of a Flea” fits perfectly into the common series of works of that period.
Blake assured that he had seen a bloodsucker’s soul. But it was placed in a tiny flea. If this soul was placed in a human being, a lot of blood would be shed.
Obviously, Blake was born ahead of his time. His works frighteningly resemble the works of symbolists and surrealists of the 20th century. They were the ones who remembered about this master 100 years after his death. He became their idol and inspirational figure.
5. John Constable (1776-1837)
Despite his aristocratic appearance, Constable was a miller’s son. He loved hand labour. He could plow, build fences and fish. Maybe that’s the reason why we find no pathos in his landscapes. They are natural and realistic.
Before, artists used to paint idealized landscapes, often Italian ones. But Constable depicted a particular locality. A river, a cottage and trees that really existed.
His “Hay Wain” is the most famous English landscape. This was the work seen by the French public at the Paris exhibition of 1824.
Young impressionists were particularly impressed. In this painting, some of them saw something they were aiming at. No academic pomposity. No ancient ruins and spectacular sunsets. Just an everyday life in the countryside. Attractive in its naturalness.
After this exhibition, Constable sold as many as 20 of his paintings in Paris. However, his landscapes were almost never bought in his motherland.
But unlike Gainsborough, he rarely switched to portraits for the sake to earn money. He continued to improve his skills in landscape painting.
For this reason, he studied natural phenomena from a scientific point of view. And he could select colours that were extremely close to those found in nature. He was especially skilled at painting the sky – the contrasting light and dark clouds.
But Constable is famous for not only incredibly realistic paintings. But by his sketches as well.
The artist created a sketch of the same size as his future painting. He worked right outdoors. It was his know-how. This is the working method that Impressionists will adopt later.
But quite often, Constable used these sketches to paint completed works in his studio. Although at that time, the public liked them more, they were not as lively and full of movement as sketches.
It was only in the 20th century that countrymen realized the greatness of Constable. And till now, he is one of the most beloved artists in England.
6. William Turner (1775-1851 )
An English painter William Turner was able to gain popularity and become a member of the art academy when he was still young. Almost immediately, people began to call him “the artist of light”, since the sun was often present on his paintings.
If you look at other artists’ landscapes, you will hardly see any sun. It is too bright.
This brightness is hard to depict. It is in the eyes. It distorts everything around. But Turner wasn’t afraid of this. He drew the sun in its heyday and at sunset. He boldly covered all around with its light.
But Turner could not help experimenting, though he was an academician and set a high value on his title. His mind was too extraordinary and agile.
Therefore, as soon as in a couple of decades, his works evolved greatly. There were less details but more light. More sensations.
One of the most famous paintings of that time is “Last voyage of the Frigate “Brave”.
Here, we can see a bit of allegory. Sailing ships are replaced by steam ones. One era replaces another. The sun sets, and the moon rises to replace it (top left).
Here, the sun still keeps dominating position. The sunset takes as much as the half of the picture.
And in the subsequent works the artist almost approaches the abstract art by hypertrophying all his previous aspirations. By removing details and leaving only sensations and light.
As you understand, the public failed to appreciate such works. Queen Victoria refused to knight Turner. And his reputation was shaken. In society, hints on his madness were heard more and more often.
This is the fate of all the true artists. He takes a step too far forward. And the public catches him up only decades or and even centuries later. That is what happened to the great Turner.
It’s impossible to ignore the Pre-Raphaelites when speaking of the English artists. Moreover, they became extremely popular in the 21st century.
Where did such a strong love for these artists come from?
The Pre-Raphaelites started with setting high goals. They wanted to find a way out of the dead end of stiff academic painting. They were tired of depicting myths and historical plots that were little known to the general public. They wanted to show a real, lively beauty.
And the Pre-Raphaelites began to show female images. They turned out to be extremely beautiful and attractive.
What are worth only of their red-haired beauties. As a rule, they were their lovers in real life as well.
The pre-Raphaelites began to praise female beauty. As a result, nothing was left in them apart from this.
It looked like posed, gorgeous shots for glossy magazines. Such images are easy to imagine as advertisements of women’s perfumes.
That’s why the people of the 21st century liked the Pre-Raphaelites so much. Since it’s the age of glamorous, bright advertising.
Despite the apparent emptiness of many works, it was these artists who stood at the origins of design development that later broke off from art. Indeed, the Pre-Raphaelites (for example, William Morris) worked a lot on sketches of fabrics, wallpapers and other interior decorations.
I hope that after reading this article, you have seen the English artists from a new point of view. It was not always only the Italians and the Dutch who influenced the world art. The English have also made their substantial contribution. | 2,985 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It has long beer known that when exposed to light under suitable conditions of temperature and moisture, the green parts of plents use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and release oxygen to it. These exchanges are the opposite of those that occur in respiration. The process is called photoshynthesis. In photosynthesis, carbonhydrates are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water by the chloroplasts of plant cells in the presence of light. In most plants, the water used in photosynthesis is absorbed from the soil by the roots and translocated through the stomates. Oxygen is the product of the reaction. For each molecule of carbon dioxide used, one molecule of oxygen is released.
Two years ago I moved to a new neighbourhood. There seem to be very few people in this area who are without telephones, so I expected to get a new phone quickly. I applied for one as soon as I moved into my new house. "We aren't supplying many new phones in your area," an engineer told me. "A lot of people want new phones at the moment and the company is employing fewer engineers than last year so as to save money. A new phone won't cost you mush money, but it will take a little time. We can't do anything for you before December." You nees a lot of patience if you're waiting for a new phone and you need a few friends whose phones you can use as well. Fortunately, I had both. December came and went, but there was no sign of a phone. I went to the company's local to protest. "They told me I'd have a phone by December," I protested. "Which year?" the assistant asked. | <urn:uuid:8c5ac57e-5c9a-43cb-9237-b2cc91723ded> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://weonlyknow.blogspot.com/2013/04/the-process-of-photosynthesis_5905.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00420.warc.gz | en | 0.986341 | 342 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.317456185817... | 1 | It has long beer known that when exposed to light under suitable conditions of temperature and moisture, the green parts of plents use carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and release oxygen to it. These exchanges are the opposite of those that occur in respiration. The process is called photoshynthesis. In photosynthesis, carbonhydrates are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water by the chloroplasts of plant cells in the presence of light. In most plants, the water used in photosynthesis is absorbed from the soil by the roots and translocated through the stomates. Oxygen is the product of the reaction. For each molecule of carbon dioxide used, one molecule of oxygen is released.
Two years ago I moved to a new neighbourhood. There seem to be very few people in this area who are without telephones, so I expected to get a new phone quickly. I applied for one as soon as I moved into my new house. "We aren't supplying many new phones in your area," an engineer told me. "A lot of people want new phones at the moment and the company is employing fewer engineers than last year so as to save money. A new phone won't cost you mush money, but it will take a little time. We can't do anything for you before December." You nees a lot of patience if you're waiting for a new phone and you need a few friends whose phones you can use as well. Fortunately, I had both. December came and went, but there was no sign of a phone. I went to the company's local to protest. "They told me I'd have a phone by December," I protested. "Which year?" the assistant asked. | 338 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The arrival of camels in the American Southwest in the 1850s failed to bring a chorus of cheers from the packers and muleskinners. They should have been welcomed as they could carry 800 pounds, live off the local forage, and go for long periods without water. Besides that they could travel anywhere from 35 to 75 miles in a day. Alas, the homely beasts had terrible breath and were known to be extremely temperamental. It seems the female only came in heat once a year while the males were perpetually horny, something that probably explains their irascible demeanor. Couple that with a spirit of intractable independence they were difficult to manage. The muleskinners hated them, packers and teamsters cursed them unmercifully while horses and mules shied when they ambled by. The language barrier presented no small problem. The Americans couldn’t speak Arabic and the camels wouldn’t learn English. Following the old adage “it takes a camel driver to drive a camel,” the government had the foresight to import camel drivers. They were a colorful bunch with names like Long Tom, Short Tom and Greek George. These weren’t their given names but had to do as the Americans couldn’t pronounce their Arabic names anyway. The most famous of these was Hadji Ali and since that one didn’t roll off the tongues of the Americans his name was corrupted into Hi Jolly. | <urn:uuid:7edcccdd-cc02-4211-982c-2b2f19989c37> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://truewestmagazine.com/cowboys-on-camels/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251728207.68/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127205148-20200127235148-00298.warc.gz | en | 0.983871 | 298 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.158284530043602... | 13 | The arrival of camels in the American Southwest in the 1850s failed to bring a chorus of cheers from the packers and muleskinners. They should have been welcomed as they could carry 800 pounds, live off the local forage, and go for long periods without water. Besides that they could travel anywhere from 35 to 75 miles in a day. Alas, the homely beasts had terrible breath and were known to be extremely temperamental. It seems the female only came in heat once a year while the males were perpetually horny, something that probably explains their irascible demeanor. Couple that with a spirit of intractable independence they were difficult to manage. The muleskinners hated them, packers and teamsters cursed them unmercifully while horses and mules shied when they ambled by. The language barrier presented no small problem. The Americans couldn’t speak Arabic and the camels wouldn’t learn English. Following the old adage “it takes a camel driver to drive a camel,” the government had the foresight to import camel drivers. They were a colorful bunch with names like Long Tom, Short Tom and Greek George. These weren’t their given names but had to do as the Americans couldn’t pronounce their Arabic names anyway. The most famous of these was Hadji Ali and since that one didn’t roll off the tongues of the Americans his name was corrupted into Hi Jolly. | 298 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work!
Sitting Bull, Lakota Tatanka Iyotake, (born c. 1831, near Grand River, Dakota Territory [now in South Dakota], U.S.—died December 15, 1890, on the Grand River in South Dakota), Teton Dakota Indian chief under whom the Sioux peoples united in their struggle for survival on the North American Great Plains. He is remembered for his lifelong distrust of white men and his stubborn determination to resist their domination.
What is Sitting Bull known for?
How did Sitting Bull become famous?
How did Sitting Bull die?
Sitting Bull was born into the Hunkpapa division of the Teton Sioux. He joined his first war party at age 14 and soon gained a reputation for fearlessness in battle. He became a leader of the powerful Strong Heart warrior society and, later, was a participant in the Silent Eaters, a select group concerned with tribal welfare. As a tribal leader, Sitting Bull helped extend the Sioux hunting grounds westward into what had been the territory of the Shoshone, Crow, Assiniboin, and other Indian tribes. His first skirmish with white soldiers occurred in June 1863 during the U.S. Army’s retaliation against the Santee Sioux after the “Minnesota Massacre,” in which the Teton Sioux had no part. For the next five years he was in frequent hostile contact with the army, which was invading the Sioux hunting grounds and bringing ruin to the Indian economy. In 1866 he became principal chief of the northern hunting Sioux, with Crazy Horse, leader of the Oglala Sioux, as his vice-chief. Respected for his courage and wisdom, Sitting Bull was made principal chief of the entire Sioux nation about 1867.
In 1868 the Sioux accepted peace with the U.S. government on the basis of the Second Treaty of Fort Laramie, which guaranteed the Sioux a reservation in what is now southwestern South Dakota. But when gold was discovered in the Black Hills in the mid-1870s, a rush of white prospectors invaded lands guaranteed to the Indians by the treaty. Late in 1875 those Sioux who had been resisting the whites’ incursions were ordered to return to their reservations by January 31, 1876, or be considered hostile to the United States. Even had Sitting Bull been willing to comply, he could not possibly have moved his village 240 miles (390 km) in the bitter cold by the specified time.
In March, General George Crook took the field against the hostiles, and Sitting Bull responded by summoning the Sioux, Cheyenne, and certain Arapaho to his camp in Montana Territory. There on June 17 Crook’s troops were forced to retreat in the Battle of the Rosebud. The Indian chiefs then moved their encampment into the valley of the Little Bighorn River. At this point Sitting Bull performed the Sun Dance, and, when he emerged from a trance induced by the rigours of the ceremony, he reported that he had seen soldiers falling into his camp like grasshoppers from the sky. His prophecy was fulfilled on June 25, when Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer rode into the valley and he and all the men under his immediate command were annihilated in the Battle of the Little Bighorn.
Strong public reaction among whites to the Battle of the Little Bighorn resulted in stepped-up military action. The Sioux emerged the victors in their battles with U.S. troops, but though they might win battle after battle, they could never win the war. They depended on the buffalo for their livelihood, and the buffalo, under the steady encroachment of whites, were rapidly becoming extinct. Hunger led more and more Sioux to surrender, and in May 1877 Sitting Bull led his remaining followers across the border into Canada. But the Canadian government could not acknowledge responsibility for feeding a people whose reservation was south of the border, and after four years, during which his following dwindled steadily, famine forced Sitting Bull to surrender. After 1883 he lived at the Standing Rock Agency, where he vainly opposed the sale of tribal lands. In 1885, partly to get rid of him, the Indian agent allowed him to join Buffalo Bill’s Wild West show, in which he gained international fame.
The year 1889 saw the spread of the Ghost Dance religious movement, which prophesied the advent of an Indian messiah who would sweep away the whites and restore the Indians’ former traditions. The Ghost Dance movement augmented the unrest already stirred among the Sioux by hunger and disease. As a precaution, Indian police and soldiers were sent to arrest the chief. Seized on Grand River, December 15, 1890, Sitting Bull was killed while his warriors were trying to rescue him. He was buried at Fort Yates, but his remains were moved in 1953 to Mobridge, South Dakota, where a granite shaft marks his resting place.
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Native American: The conquest of the western United States…them was the Sioux leader Sitting Bull, who was killed on December 15, 1890, while being taken into custody. Just 14 days later the U.S. 7th Cavalry—Custer’s regiment reconstituted—encircled and shelled a peaceful Sioux encampment at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, an action many have argued was taken in revenge of…
American frontier: How the West was won… by a force led by Sitting Bull was a tactical victory for the Northern Plains tribes, but it triggered a massive retaliatory response. Federal troops flooded the region and forced the Native American population into submission.…
Plains Wars: Defeat of the Plains Indiansas Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull, had assembled and agreed to fight together. On June 17 roughly 750 Indians manhandled a column led by one of the army’s best officers, Brig. Gen. George Crook, at Rosebud Creek, Montana Territory. Eight days later another detachment met an even bigger defeat… | <urn:uuid:8ab241d8-85cb-4e92-aafc-d81d78ab426f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sitting-Bull | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00084.warc.gz | en | 0.980159 | 1,268 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.17314925789833... | 2 | Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work!
Sitting Bull, Lakota Tatanka Iyotake, (born c. 1831, near Grand River, Dakota Territory [now in South Dakota], U.S.—died December 15, 1890, on the Grand River in South Dakota), Teton Dakota Indian chief under whom the Sioux peoples united in their struggle for survival on the North American Great Plains. He is remembered for his lifelong distrust of white men and his stubborn determination to resist their domination.
What is Sitting Bull known for?
How did Sitting Bull become famous?
How did Sitting Bull die?
Sitting Bull was born into the Hunkpapa division of the Teton Sioux. He joined his first war party at age 14 and soon gained a reputation for fearlessness in battle. He became a leader of the powerful Strong Heart warrior society and, later, was a participant in the Silent Eaters, a select group concerned with tribal welfare. As a tribal leader, Sitting Bull helped extend the Sioux hunting grounds westward into what had been the territory of the Shoshone, Crow, Assiniboin, and other Indian tribes. His first skirmish with white soldiers occurred in June 1863 during the U.S. Army’s retaliation against the Santee Sioux after the “Minnesota Massacre,” in which the Teton Sioux had no part. For the next five years he was in frequent hostile contact with the army, which was invading the Sioux hunting grounds and bringing ruin to the Indian economy. In 1866 he became principal chief of the northern hunting Sioux, with Crazy Horse, leader of the Oglala Sioux, as his vice-chief. Respected for his courage and wisdom, Sitting Bull was made principal chief of the entire Sioux nation about 1867.
In 1868 the Sioux accepted peace with the U.S. government on the basis of the Second Treaty of Fort Laramie, which guaranteed the Sioux a reservation in what is now southwestern South Dakota. But when gold was discovered in the Black Hills in the mid-1870s, a rush of white prospectors invaded lands guaranteed to the Indians by the treaty. Late in 1875 those Sioux who had been resisting the whites’ incursions were ordered to return to their reservations by January 31, 1876, or be considered hostile to the United States. Even had Sitting Bull been willing to comply, he could not possibly have moved his village 240 miles (390 km) in the bitter cold by the specified time.
In March, General George Crook took the field against the hostiles, and Sitting Bull responded by summoning the Sioux, Cheyenne, and certain Arapaho to his camp in Montana Territory. There on June 17 Crook’s troops were forced to retreat in the Battle of the Rosebud. The Indian chiefs then moved their encampment into the valley of the Little Bighorn River. At this point Sitting Bull performed the Sun Dance, and, when he emerged from a trance induced by the rigours of the ceremony, he reported that he had seen soldiers falling into his camp like grasshoppers from the sky. His prophecy was fulfilled on June 25, when Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer rode into the valley and he and all the men under his immediate command were annihilated in the Battle of the Little Bighorn.
Strong public reaction among whites to the Battle of the Little Bighorn resulted in stepped-up military action. The Sioux emerged the victors in their battles with U.S. troops, but though they might win battle after battle, they could never win the war. They depended on the buffalo for their livelihood, and the buffalo, under the steady encroachment of whites, were rapidly becoming extinct. Hunger led more and more Sioux to surrender, and in May 1877 Sitting Bull led his remaining followers across the border into Canada. But the Canadian government could not acknowledge responsibility for feeding a people whose reservation was south of the border, and after four years, during which his following dwindled steadily, famine forced Sitting Bull to surrender. After 1883 he lived at the Standing Rock Agency, where he vainly opposed the sale of tribal lands. In 1885, partly to get rid of him, the Indian agent allowed him to join Buffalo Bill’s Wild West show, in which he gained international fame.
The year 1889 saw the spread of the Ghost Dance religious movement, which prophesied the advent of an Indian messiah who would sweep away the whites and restore the Indians’ former traditions. The Ghost Dance movement augmented the unrest already stirred among the Sioux by hunger and disease. As a precaution, Indian police and soldiers were sent to arrest the chief. Seized on Grand River, December 15, 1890, Sitting Bull was killed while his warriors were trying to rescue him. He was buried at Fort Yates, but his remains were moved in 1953 to Mobridge, South Dakota, where a granite shaft marks his resting place.
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Native American: The conquest of the western United States…them was the Sioux leader Sitting Bull, who was killed on December 15, 1890, while being taken into custody. Just 14 days later the U.S. 7th Cavalry—Custer’s regiment reconstituted—encircled and shelled a peaceful Sioux encampment at Wounded Knee, South Dakota, an action many have argued was taken in revenge of…
American frontier: How the West was won… by a force led by Sitting Bull was a tactical victory for the Northern Plains tribes, but it triggered a massive retaliatory response. Federal troops flooded the region and forced the Native American population into submission.…
Plains Wars: Defeat of the Plains Indiansas Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull, had assembled and agreed to fight together. On June 17 roughly 750 Indians manhandled a column led by one of the army’s best officers, Brig. Gen. George Crook, at Rosebud Creek, Montana Territory. Eight days later another detachment met an even bigger defeat… | 1,314 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Sharecropper Explains Why He Joined the Exodusters
John Solomon Lewis of Leavenworth, Kansas, wrote this letter on June 10, 1879. Lewis and his family were among thousands of African Americans known as "Exodusters" who escaped the harsh economic and racial realties of the Reconstruction South. The journey was difficult and many suffered hardships. Their exodus to Kansas mirrored earlier ideas about escape to Canada during slavery.
You see, I was in debt, and the man I rented land from said every year I must rent again to pay the other year, and so I rents and rents, and each year I gets deeper and deeper in debt. In a fit of madness I one day said to the man I rented from: ‘It’s no use, I works hard and raises big crops and you sells it and keeps the money, and brings me more and more in debt, so I will go somewhere else and try to make headway like white working-men.’ “He got very mad and said to me: ‘If you try that job, you will get your head shot away.’ So I told my wife, and she says: ‘Let us take to the woods in the night time.’ Well we took [to] the woods, my wife and four children, and we was three weeks living in the woods waiting for a boat. Then a great many more black people came and we was all together at the landing. Boats came along, but they would not stop, but before long the Grand Tower hove up and we got on board.
Says the captain, ‘Where’s you going?’ Says I, ‘Kansas.’ Says he, ‘You can’t go on this boat.’ Says I, ‘I do; you know who I am. I am a man who was a United States soldier and I know my rights, and if I and my family gets put off, I will go in the United States Court and sue for damages.’ Says the Captain to another boat officer, ‘Better take that nigger or he will make trouble.’
When I landed on the soil, I looked on the ground and I says this is free ground. Then I looked on the heavens, and I says them is free and beautiful heavens. Then I looked within my heart, and I says to myself I wonder why I never was free before? When I knew I had all my family in a free land, I said let us hold a little prayer meeting; so we held a little meeting on the river bank. It was raining but the drops fell from heaven on a free family, and the meeting was just as good as sunshine. We was thankful to God for ourselves and we prayed for those who could not come. I asked my wife did she know the ground she stands on. She said, ‘No!’ I said it is free ground; and she cried like a child for joy.
Item Type | Diary/Letter
Cite This document | “A Sharecropper Explains Why He Joined the Exodusters,” HERB: Resources for Teachers, accessed January 23, 2020, https://herb.ashp.cuny.edu/items/show/967. | <urn:uuid:a085b933-ab21-4def-9b81-d04599c0a5c8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://herb.ashp.cuny.edu/items/show/967 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00414.warc.gz | en | 0.980858 | 689 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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John Solomon Lewis of Leavenworth, Kansas, wrote this letter on June 10, 1879. Lewis and his family were among thousands of African Americans known as "Exodusters" who escaped the harsh economic and racial realties of the Reconstruction South. The journey was difficult and many suffered hardships. Their exodus to Kansas mirrored earlier ideas about escape to Canada during slavery.
You see, I was in debt, and the man I rented land from said every year I must rent again to pay the other year, and so I rents and rents, and each year I gets deeper and deeper in debt. In a fit of madness I one day said to the man I rented from: ‘It’s no use, I works hard and raises big crops and you sells it and keeps the money, and brings me more and more in debt, so I will go somewhere else and try to make headway like white working-men.’ “He got very mad and said to me: ‘If you try that job, you will get your head shot away.’ So I told my wife, and she says: ‘Let us take to the woods in the night time.’ Well we took [to] the woods, my wife and four children, and we was three weeks living in the woods waiting for a boat. Then a great many more black people came and we was all together at the landing. Boats came along, but they would not stop, but before long the Grand Tower hove up and we got on board.
Says the captain, ‘Where’s you going?’ Says I, ‘Kansas.’ Says he, ‘You can’t go on this boat.’ Says I, ‘I do; you know who I am. I am a man who was a United States soldier and I know my rights, and if I and my family gets put off, I will go in the United States Court and sue for damages.’ Says the Captain to another boat officer, ‘Better take that nigger or he will make trouble.’
When I landed on the soil, I looked on the ground and I says this is free ground. Then I looked on the heavens, and I says them is free and beautiful heavens. Then I looked within my heart, and I says to myself I wonder why I never was free before? When I knew I had all my family in a free land, I said let us hold a little prayer meeting; so we held a little meeting on the river bank. It was raining but the drops fell from heaven on a free family, and the meeting was just as good as sunshine. We was thankful to God for ourselves and we prayed for those who could not come. I asked my wife did she know the ground she stands on. She said, ‘No!’ I said it is free ground; and she cried like a child for joy.
Item Type | Diary/Letter
Cite This document | “A Sharecropper Explains Why He Joined the Exodusters,” HERB: Resources for Teachers, accessed January 23, 2020, https://herb.ashp.cuny.edu/items/show/967. | 657 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During this period, the climate of the region was moist with humid land; dense forests grew where animals like tiger, elephants and rhinoceros roamed. The forests provided timber for brick kilns, which supplied bricks to the cities.
Date of Harappan Culture
This civilization belonged to the Chalcolithic period. In this age, a new metal called bronze by mixing tin and copper came to be produced. It was harder and better suited to meet the needs of the people. The better tools led to intensive cultivation. Iron was not known to the Indus Valley people. According to Sir John Marshall, the Hindus Valley Civilization may be dated between 3250 B.C. arid 2750 B.C.
The Harappan culture spread to Sindh, Gujarat. Undivided Punjab (including Harayana), Jammu, Western parts of Uttar Pradesh and Northern parts of Rajasthan (Kalibangan). The remains found in these places are similar to those found in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.
Contacts with other civilizations in Harappa
The indus Vafley people had overseas trade contacts with Sumeria, Babylonia and Egypt, Thus India ranks with the ancient Western cultures of Burner, Akkad, Babylon, Egypt and Assyria.
Planned Cities in Harappa
Mohenjo and Harappa were the planned cities. They were the two biggest cities, 600 km apart. They had similar planning, layout and technique in construction. They were probably the twin capitals. Mohenjo-daro, means ‘the mound of the dead’. The city of Mohenjo-dato could be divided into three parts-the Citadel, the lower town arid the small huts on the outer limits of the city.
The Citadel in Harappa
It was the raised part of the city. It has often been described as a fort or administrative block. People might have lived here. The ruling classes included priests and wealthy merchants. The citadel had massive walls. Those walls provided protection against the floods of the Indus river. The citadel consisted of important buildings like the Granary and the Assembly or Town Halls, We also come across the Great Bath here.
The Great Bath
it was situated in the citadel, it measures 1.88 meters X 7.01 meters and is 2.43 meters deep. It had two flights or steps on oTher side, It was made of burnt bricks and mortar, it was provided with two openings one at the top (to let in water) and the other a the bottom (used as an outlet), The idea was to clean the Bath periodically. 1”here were small rooms around tile Bath. They were probably used as dress changing rooms. One of the rooms contained a big well.
The Granary in harappa
In Mohenjo-daro the arqost building is the Granary. It s 45,71 meters long and 15.23 meters wide. In Harappa there were 6 granaries. To the sooth of the granaries, there were circular brick platforms. They were meant for threshing grain.
Town Hall in Harappa
The Town Hall is an imposing structure with 69 meters long arid 23.4 meters wide. The thickness of the walls varied from 1.2 to 1.5 meters. lt might have been used as an administrative block, an assembly hall, a prayer hall, or as a hall for cultural shows.
Lower Town in Harappa
Below the citadel laid a lower town. It was inhabited by petty merchants and craftsmen. This town was divided into rectangular blocks by wide roads. The roads run from north to south and east to west. These roads cut each other at right angles. Here, the remains of brick houses can be seen. The drainage system is praiseworthy. Provision was made for street lighting.
The houses were one or two storey high. All the houses were made of baked bricks of uniform size. Every house had two or more rooms, a bath-room, a kitchen and a courtyard. The houses were also provided with doors and small windows The grinding stones were found close to the hearth
Drainage System in Harappa
The kitchen and the bathroom had drains leading out. The main drain was running alongside the main roads. The drains were lined with bricks. Most of them were covered. There were flights of steps leading to drains. The drains were cleaned periodically.
Occupations of the people in Harappa
The Indus people were farmers, weavers, potters, metal workers, toy makers, jewelers, stone cutters and traders Agriculture was the most important occupation In the fertile soils, farmers cultivated two crops a year They were the first who had grown paddy They knew different methods of irrigation. They used ploughs and sickles Pottery was a popular industry. They were skilled in the use of potter’s wheel.
Animal Husbandry in Harappa
The Indus people had domesticated a number of animals such as oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, asses and camels.
Spinning and Weaving in Harappa
The Indus people were skilled in the art of spinning and weaving. They manufactured woollen cloth from sheep and goats’ hair.
Toy-making and sculptures in Harappa
Manufacture of terracotta (burnt clay) was a major industry of the people. The figures of toys, animals and figurines were manufactured. A miniature toy-cart with a driver pulled by oxen is praiseworthy. Figures of animals such as sacred bull and dove were discovered. The figures of Mother Goddesses were used for religious purposes
Seal-making in Harappa
A large number of seals numbering more than 2000 have been discovered. They carry short inscriptions with carved pictures of animals. The seals were made of terracotta or satellite. They were used for trade. They have provided lot of information about the daily life of the people, their religion, occupations, customs and trade.
Building Industry in Harappa
In building industry, large number of people were employed Manufacture of bricks was an important industry. The bricks were more or less of an uniform size.
Trade in Harappa
The lndus people had engaged themselves in internal and foreign trade The Mesopotamian seals were found in Indus cities and the Indus seals were found in Mesopotamia. Remains of dockyard have been discovered at Lethal in Gujarat. In this dockyard, the ships might have been loaded and unloaded. Thus, the Hindus people were familiar with ships. The merchants were prosperous and lived lavishly. They used sticks with marks to measure articles. They also used various kinds of weights and measures.
Political Organization in Harappa
The city was well administered by a class of wealthy merchants and priests. There was some kind of municipal organization It took care of sanitation and regulated trade. It collected taxes in the form of grains and also maintained law and order in the city
Social Life in Harappa
There were three social groups. The first group or the ruling class lived in the citadel It comprised of wealthy merchants and the high priests. They second group consisted of petty merchants, artisans arid craftsmen. The laborers belonged to the third group and lived in small huts. Generally speaking, the social organization was more definite
Life of the People in Harappa
The Indus people led prosperous life. They had more time for leisure. There was a very big improvement in their food habits, dress and amusements.
Food in Harappa
Wheat and barley were the staple food of the people. Besides these, they consumed milk, meat, fish, fruits and dates.
Dress and Ornaments in Harappa
The women wore a short skirt. It. was held at the waist with a girdle. The men wore a long, loose unstitched garment Women wore necklaces bangles, bracelets, earrings and waist bands. These were made of gold and silver, bone, stone, ivory and she! Men had also adorned themselves with ornaments like armlets. The rich wore gold and silver jewelry. The poor used shell, copper and silver ornaments. The women combed their hair.
Indus Script in Harappa
Indus Script Most of the inscriptions were engraved on seals They contain only a few words They developed picture writing (Pictographs,,). Altogether about 250 to 400 pictographs were discovered. It is interesting to note that the Indus script has not yet been deciphered.
Religious Life in Harappa
The Papal tree was used as a religious symbol. They worshipped Pasupathi (Siva) and Mother Goddess Mother Goddess represented fertility. There are no temple structures among the remains. The Indus people believed in life after death. They buried their dead in huge earthen pots along with food and ornaments. The articles used by them in then’ daily life were also kept in those pots.
Decline of the Indus Civilization
The Indus Civilization was at its peak for about 500 years They lived in the same kind of houses, used the same tools and ate the same food. The city (Mohenjo-daro) was destroyed for a number of times and it was built again and again. The exact causes for the destruction of this great civilization are not known. The cities might have been destroyed by natural disasters like earthquakes, floods or a change in the course of the Indus. The cities declined owing to Aryan invasions also. Deforestation was another cause for the destruction of this civilization | <urn:uuid:dbb97d09-9079-4408-9e21-e73914637e92> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.currentgk.co.in/view_topic/201006/1391/harappa-civilization.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607407.48/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122191620-20200122220620-00530.warc.gz | en | 0.983071 | 1,989 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.249432772397... | 5 | During this period, the climate of the region was moist with humid land; dense forests grew where animals like tiger, elephants and rhinoceros roamed. The forests provided timber for brick kilns, which supplied bricks to the cities.
Date of Harappan Culture
This civilization belonged to the Chalcolithic period. In this age, a new metal called bronze by mixing tin and copper came to be produced. It was harder and better suited to meet the needs of the people. The better tools led to intensive cultivation. Iron was not known to the Indus Valley people. According to Sir John Marshall, the Hindus Valley Civilization may be dated between 3250 B.C. arid 2750 B.C.
The Harappan culture spread to Sindh, Gujarat. Undivided Punjab (including Harayana), Jammu, Western parts of Uttar Pradesh and Northern parts of Rajasthan (Kalibangan). The remains found in these places are similar to those found in Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.
Contacts with other civilizations in Harappa
The indus Vafley people had overseas trade contacts with Sumeria, Babylonia and Egypt, Thus India ranks with the ancient Western cultures of Burner, Akkad, Babylon, Egypt and Assyria.
Planned Cities in Harappa
Mohenjo and Harappa were the planned cities. They were the two biggest cities, 600 km apart. They had similar planning, layout and technique in construction. They were probably the twin capitals. Mohenjo-daro, means ‘the mound of the dead’. The city of Mohenjo-dato could be divided into three parts-the Citadel, the lower town arid the small huts on the outer limits of the city.
The Citadel in Harappa
It was the raised part of the city. It has often been described as a fort or administrative block. People might have lived here. The ruling classes included priests and wealthy merchants. The citadel had massive walls. Those walls provided protection against the floods of the Indus river. The citadel consisted of important buildings like the Granary and the Assembly or Town Halls, We also come across the Great Bath here.
The Great Bath
it was situated in the citadel, it measures 1.88 meters X 7.01 meters and is 2.43 meters deep. It had two flights or steps on oTher side, It was made of burnt bricks and mortar, it was provided with two openings one at the top (to let in water) and the other a the bottom (used as an outlet), The idea was to clean the Bath periodically. 1”here were small rooms around tile Bath. They were probably used as dress changing rooms. One of the rooms contained a big well.
The Granary in harappa
In Mohenjo-daro the arqost building is the Granary. It s 45,71 meters long and 15.23 meters wide. In Harappa there were 6 granaries. To the sooth of the granaries, there were circular brick platforms. They were meant for threshing grain.
Town Hall in Harappa
The Town Hall is an imposing structure with 69 meters long arid 23.4 meters wide. The thickness of the walls varied from 1.2 to 1.5 meters. lt might have been used as an administrative block, an assembly hall, a prayer hall, or as a hall for cultural shows.
Lower Town in Harappa
Below the citadel laid a lower town. It was inhabited by petty merchants and craftsmen. This town was divided into rectangular blocks by wide roads. The roads run from north to south and east to west. These roads cut each other at right angles. Here, the remains of brick houses can be seen. The drainage system is praiseworthy. Provision was made for street lighting.
The houses were one or two storey high. All the houses were made of baked bricks of uniform size. Every house had two or more rooms, a bath-room, a kitchen and a courtyard. The houses were also provided with doors and small windows The grinding stones were found close to the hearth
Drainage System in Harappa
The kitchen and the bathroom had drains leading out. The main drain was running alongside the main roads. The drains were lined with bricks. Most of them were covered. There were flights of steps leading to drains. The drains were cleaned periodically.
Occupations of the people in Harappa
The Indus people were farmers, weavers, potters, metal workers, toy makers, jewelers, stone cutters and traders Agriculture was the most important occupation In the fertile soils, farmers cultivated two crops a year They were the first who had grown paddy They knew different methods of irrigation. They used ploughs and sickles Pottery was a popular industry. They were skilled in the use of potter’s wheel.
Animal Husbandry in Harappa
The Indus people had domesticated a number of animals such as oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, asses and camels.
Spinning and Weaving in Harappa
The Indus people were skilled in the art of spinning and weaving. They manufactured woollen cloth from sheep and goats’ hair.
Toy-making and sculptures in Harappa
Manufacture of terracotta (burnt clay) was a major industry of the people. The figures of toys, animals and figurines were manufactured. A miniature toy-cart with a driver pulled by oxen is praiseworthy. Figures of animals such as sacred bull and dove were discovered. The figures of Mother Goddesses were used for religious purposes
Seal-making in Harappa
A large number of seals numbering more than 2000 have been discovered. They carry short inscriptions with carved pictures of animals. The seals were made of terracotta or satellite. They were used for trade. They have provided lot of information about the daily life of the people, their religion, occupations, customs and trade.
Building Industry in Harappa
In building industry, large number of people were employed Manufacture of bricks was an important industry. The bricks were more or less of an uniform size.
Trade in Harappa
The lndus people had engaged themselves in internal and foreign trade The Mesopotamian seals were found in Indus cities and the Indus seals were found in Mesopotamia. Remains of dockyard have been discovered at Lethal in Gujarat. In this dockyard, the ships might have been loaded and unloaded. Thus, the Hindus people were familiar with ships. The merchants were prosperous and lived lavishly. They used sticks with marks to measure articles. They also used various kinds of weights and measures.
Political Organization in Harappa
The city was well administered by a class of wealthy merchants and priests. There was some kind of municipal organization It took care of sanitation and regulated trade. It collected taxes in the form of grains and also maintained law and order in the city
Social Life in Harappa
There were three social groups. The first group or the ruling class lived in the citadel It comprised of wealthy merchants and the high priests. They second group consisted of petty merchants, artisans arid craftsmen. The laborers belonged to the third group and lived in small huts. Generally speaking, the social organization was more definite
Life of the People in Harappa
The Indus people led prosperous life. They had more time for leisure. There was a very big improvement in their food habits, dress and amusements.
Food in Harappa
Wheat and barley were the staple food of the people. Besides these, they consumed milk, meat, fish, fruits and dates.
Dress and Ornaments in Harappa
The women wore a short skirt. It. was held at the waist with a girdle. The men wore a long, loose unstitched garment Women wore necklaces bangles, bracelets, earrings and waist bands. These were made of gold and silver, bone, stone, ivory and she! Men had also adorned themselves with ornaments like armlets. The rich wore gold and silver jewelry. The poor used shell, copper and silver ornaments. The women combed their hair.
Indus Script in Harappa
Indus Script Most of the inscriptions were engraved on seals They contain only a few words They developed picture writing (Pictographs,,). Altogether about 250 to 400 pictographs were discovered. It is interesting to note that the Indus script has not yet been deciphered.
Religious Life in Harappa
The Papal tree was used as a religious symbol. They worshipped Pasupathi (Siva) and Mother Goddess Mother Goddess represented fertility. There are no temple structures among the remains. The Indus people believed in life after death. They buried their dead in huge earthen pots along with food and ornaments. The articles used by them in then’ daily life were also kept in those pots.
Decline of the Indus Civilization
The Indus Civilization was at its peak for about 500 years They lived in the same kind of houses, used the same tools and ate the same food. The city (Mohenjo-daro) was destroyed for a number of times and it was built again and again. The exact causes for the destruction of this great civilization are not known. The cities might have been destroyed by natural disasters like earthquakes, floods or a change in the course of the Indus. The cities declined owing to Aryan invasions also. Deforestation was another cause for the destruction of this civilization | 1,981 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A statue of Oliver Cromwell outside the Palace of Westminster, LondonOliver Cromwell (1599–1658) was an English military and political leader, during and after the English Civil War. He served as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland from 1653 until his death. A devout Puritan and an intensely religious man, he fervently believed that God was guiding his victories. Cromwell was elected Member of Parliament in 1628 and again in 1640. He fought in the English Civil War on the side of the Parliamentarians, rising to become one of the chief commanders of the New Model Army. One of the signatories of King Charles I's death warrant in 1649, he took command of the English campaign in Ireland in 1649–50 and against the Scottish army between 1650 and 1651. Cromwell is one of the most controversial figures in British and Irish history. Considered by some to be a ruthless dictator, and others hold him up as a hero of liberty.
Cromwell's House in Ely. Oliver Cromwell lived here for several years after inheriting the position of local tax collector in...Read More >>Cromwell's House in Ely. Oliver Cromwell lived here for several years after inheriting the position of local tax collector in 1636. The building is now a museum with rooms displayed as they would have been in Cromwell's time.A portrait of Oliver Cromwell as a young manOliver Cromwell was born in 1599 in Huntingdon, near Cambridge into a family of landowners. He was baptized in the Church of England. He was descended on his father’s side from the sister of Thomas Cromwell, King Henry VIII's chief minister. Aged 21, Oliver Cromwell married Elizabeth Bourchier, daughter of a wealthy merchant family, who were active in the Puritan church (Cromwell became a Puritan himself in the 1630s). The Cromwells had nine children, including Richard, who would succeed his father as Lord Protector.
The story goes that Cromwell attempted to emigrate, along with other Puritans, to Connecticut in America in 1634, but was prevented by the government from leaving. It is not known whether this is true.
Find the answer | <urn:uuid:23b9faf1-31d8-461e-bf81-35dce3d9b0ec> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://m.q-files.com/history/famous-leaders/oliver-cromwell/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00376.warc.gz | en | 0.984859 | 461 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.4340808689594269... | 2 | A statue of Oliver Cromwell outside the Palace of Westminster, LondonOliver Cromwell (1599–1658) was an English military and political leader, during and after the English Civil War. He served as Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland from 1653 until his death. A devout Puritan and an intensely religious man, he fervently believed that God was guiding his victories. Cromwell was elected Member of Parliament in 1628 and again in 1640. He fought in the English Civil War on the side of the Parliamentarians, rising to become one of the chief commanders of the New Model Army. One of the signatories of King Charles I's death warrant in 1649, he took command of the English campaign in Ireland in 1649–50 and against the Scottish army between 1650 and 1651. Cromwell is one of the most controversial figures in British and Irish history. Considered by some to be a ruthless dictator, and others hold him up as a hero of liberty.
Cromwell's House in Ely. Oliver Cromwell lived here for several years after inheriting the position of local tax collector in...Read More >>Cromwell's House in Ely. Oliver Cromwell lived here for several years after inheriting the position of local tax collector in 1636. The building is now a museum with rooms displayed as they would have been in Cromwell's time.A portrait of Oliver Cromwell as a young manOliver Cromwell was born in 1599 in Huntingdon, near Cambridge into a family of landowners. He was baptized in the Church of England. He was descended on his father’s side from the sister of Thomas Cromwell, King Henry VIII's chief minister. Aged 21, Oliver Cromwell married Elizabeth Bourchier, daughter of a wealthy merchant family, who were active in the Puritan church (Cromwell became a Puritan himself in the 1630s). The Cromwells had nine children, including Richard, who would succeed his father as Lord Protector.
The story goes that Cromwell attempted to emigrate, along with other Puritans, to Connecticut in America in 1634, but was prevented by the government from leaving. It is not known whether this is true.
Find the answer | 499 | ENGLISH | 1 |
About Matthew's Gospel
A man called Matthew wrote this book at some time between the years AD 59 and AD 70. He was also called Levi. Matthew was a Jew. He received taxes on behalf of the government. Then he became a disciple of Jesus. Matthew wrote the book in the Greek language. He wrote it for Jews who understood Greek. In his book, Matthew wrote many things about the messages that God's prophets had written a long time ago. He showed that they had now become true. The Jews who read Matthew's book would know all about these things.1. What happened when Jesus was born (unknown 1:1-2:23).2. What happened when Jesus began his work (unknown 3:1-4:11).3. What happened when Jesus was working in Galilee (unknown 4:12-14:12).4. What happened when Jesus went to other places in the north of Israel (unknown 14:13-17:21).5. What happened when Jesus returned to Galilee (unknown 17:22-18:35).6. What happened when Jesus taught the people in Judea and Perea (unknown 19:1-20:34).7. What happened in the city called Jerusalem in the last week of Jesus' life (unknown 21:1-27:66).8. People see Jesus alive again after he died (unknown 28:1-20).
Matthew tells us the good news about the kingdom of God. He tells us about the birth of Jesus and how he lived in Israel. He tells us how Jesus died. He tells us how he rose up after death and he went to live with God again. He also tells us why Jesus came to live in the world. Matthew explains the things that Jesus taught the people. And he tells us about many things that Jesus did.
The Jews were waiting for God to send a special person to them. They called this person the Messiah. It means the person whom God had chosen to be king. God had promised the Jews that he would send him to save them. He is the only person who can make us become right with God. In the Greek language, ‘Christ’ is the word which means ‘Messiah’. Matthew knew that Jesus was that special person. He wanted other people also to know this.
The Gospel of Matthew is in eight parts:
(Galilee, Judea and Perea were regions of the country which is called Israel.) | <urn:uuid:1b7b53d8-1809-4c4e-b18f-4abe289e7338> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.easyenglish.bible/bible/easy/matthew/0/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00040.warc.gz | en | 0.988491 | 507 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.14936594665050507... | 5 | About Matthew's Gospel
A man called Matthew wrote this book at some time between the years AD 59 and AD 70. He was also called Levi. Matthew was a Jew. He received taxes on behalf of the government. Then he became a disciple of Jesus. Matthew wrote the book in the Greek language. He wrote it for Jews who understood Greek. In his book, Matthew wrote many things about the messages that God's prophets had written a long time ago. He showed that they had now become true. The Jews who read Matthew's book would know all about these things.1. What happened when Jesus was born (unknown 1:1-2:23).2. What happened when Jesus began his work (unknown 3:1-4:11).3. What happened when Jesus was working in Galilee (unknown 4:12-14:12).4. What happened when Jesus went to other places in the north of Israel (unknown 14:13-17:21).5. What happened when Jesus returned to Galilee (unknown 17:22-18:35).6. What happened when Jesus taught the people in Judea and Perea (unknown 19:1-20:34).7. What happened in the city called Jerusalem in the last week of Jesus' life (unknown 21:1-27:66).8. People see Jesus alive again after he died (unknown 28:1-20).
Matthew tells us the good news about the kingdom of God. He tells us about the birth of Jesus and how he lived in Israel. He tells us how Jesus died. He tells us how he rose up after death and he went to live with God again. He also tells us why Jesus came to live in the world. Matthew explains the things that Jesus taught the people. And he tells us about many things that Jesus did.
The Jews were waiting for God to send a special person to them. They called this person the Messiah. It means the person whom God had chosen to be king. God had promised the Jews that he would send him to save them. He is the only person who can make us become right with God. In the Greek language, ‘Christ’ is the word which means ‘Messiah’. Matthew knew that Jesus was that special person. He wanted other people also to know this.
The Gospel of Matthew is in eight parts:
(Galilee, Judea and Perea were regions of the country which is called Israel.) | 531 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This was a difficult task for even the ablest and most gifted noble unless he was backed by substantial family wealth and influence.
One of the perquisites of the praetorship and the consulship was the government of a province , which gave ample opportunity for plunder. Military manpower was supplied by the Roman peasantry.
This class had been partly dispossessed by an economic revolution following on the devastation caused by the Second Punic War. The Roman governing class had consequently come to be hated and discredited at home and abroad. From bce onward there had been a series of alternate revolutionary and counter-revolutionary paroxysms. It was evident that the misgovernment of the Roman state and the Greco-Roman world by the Roman nobility could not continue indefinitely and it was fairly clear that the most probable alternative was some form of military dictatorship backed by dispossessed Italian peasants who had turned to long-term military service.
The traditional competition among members of the Roman nobility for office and the spoils of office was thus threatening to turn into a desperate race for seizing autocratic power. The Julii Caesares did not seem to be in the running.
Gaius Julius Caesar known by his nomen and cognomen Julius Caesar, was a Roman dictator, politician, military general, and historian who played a critical. Caesar is a title of imperial character. It derives from the cognomen of Julius Caesar, the Roman dictator. The change from being a familial name to a title.
Whoever had been consul in this critical year would have had to initiate such legislation, whatever his personal political predilections. There is evidence, however, that the Julii Caesares, though patricians, had already committed themselves to the antinobility party. An aunt of the future dictator had married Gaius Marius , a self-made man novus homo who had forced his way up to the summit by his military ability and had made the momentous innovation of recruiting his armies from the dispossessed peasants.
The day was July 12 or 13; the traditional and perhaps most probable year is bce ; but if this date is correct, Caesar must have held each of his offices two years in advance of the legal minimum age. His father, Gaius Caesar, died when Caesar was but 16; his mother, Aurelia, was a notable woman, and it seems certain that he owed much to her.
In spite of the inadequacy of his resources, Caesar seems to have chosen a political career as a matter of course. From the beginning, he probably privately aimed at winning office, not just for the sake of the honours but in order to achieve the power to put the misgoverned Roman state and Greco-Roman world into better order in accordance with ideas of his own.
It is improbable that Caesar deliberately sought monarchical power until after he had crossed the Rubicon in 49 bce , though sufficient power to impose his will, as he was determined to do, proved to mean monarchical power. In 83 bce Lucius Cornelius Sulla returned to Italy from the East and led the successful counter-revolution of 83—82 bce ; Sulla then ordered Caesar to divorce Cornelia. Caesar refused and came close to losing not only his property such as it was but his life as well.
He found it advisable to remove himself from Italy and to do military service, first in the province of Asia and then in Cilicia. His first target, Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella, was defended by Quintus Hortensius , the leading advocate of the day, and was acquitted by the extortion-court jury, composed exclusively of senators. Caesar then went to Rhodes to study oratory under a famous professor, Molon. En route he was captured by pirates one of the symptoms of the anarchy into which the Roman nobility had allowed the Mediterranean world to fall.
Caesar raised his ransom, raised a naval force , captured his captors, and had them crucified—all this as a private individual holding no public office. In his absence from Rome, Caesar was made a member of the politico-ecclesiastical college of pontifices ; and on his return he gained one of the elective military tribuneships. In 69 or 68 bce Caesar was elected quaestor the first rung on the Roman political ladder.
In public funeral orations in their honour, Caesar found opportunities for praising Cinna and Marius. Caesar afterward married Pompeia, a distant relative of Pompey. Caesar served his quaestorship in the province of Farther Spain modern Andalusia and Portugal. Caesar was elected one of the curule aediles for 65 bce , and he celebrated his tenure of this office by unusually lavish expenditure with borrowed money. He was elected pontifex maximus in 63 bce by a political dodge. By now he had become a controversial political figure.
It seems unlikely that either of them had committed himself to Catiline; but Caesar proposed in the Senate a more merciful alternative to the death penalty , which the consul Cicero was asking for the arrested conspirators. Caesar was elected a praetor for 62 bce.
Caesar consequently divorced Pompeia. He obtained the governorship of Farther Spain for 61—60 bce. His creditors did not let him leave Rome until Crassus had gone bail for a quarter of his debts; but a military expedition beyond the northwest frontier of his province enabled Caesar to win loot for himself as well as for his soldiers, with a balance left over for the treasury.
This partial financial recovery enabled him, after his return to Rome in 60 bce , to stand for the consulship for 59 bce. The value of the consulship lay in the lucrative provincial governorship to which it would normally lead. On the eve of the consular elections for 59 bce , the Senate sought to allot to the two future consuls for 59 bce , as their proconsular provinces, the unprofitable supervision of forests and cattle trails in Italy.
The Senate also secured by massive bribery the election of an anti-Caesarean, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus. Caesar now succeeded in organizing an irresistible coalition of political bosses. Pompey had carried out his mission to put the East in order with notable success, but after his return to Italy and his disbandment of his army in 62 bce , the Senate had thwarted him—particularly by preventing him from securing land allotments for his veterans.
Only Caesar, on good terms with both, was in a position to reconcile them. Caesar married Calpurnia, daughter of Lucius Piso, who became consul in 58 bce. Caesar himself initiated a noncontroversial and much-needed act for punishing misconduct by governors of provinces. His tenure was to last until February 28, 54 bce. Between 58 and 50 bce , Caesar conquered the rest of Gaul up to the left bank of the Rhine and subjugated it so effectively that it remained passive under Roman rule throughout the Roman civil wars between 49 and 31 bce.
This achievement was all the more amazing in light of the fact that the Romans did not possess any great superiority in military equipment over the north European barbarians. Indeed, the Gallic cavalry was probably superior to the Roman, horseman for horseman. In Gaul, Rome also had the advantage of being able to deal separately with dozens of relatively small, independent, and uncooperative states. Caesar conquered these piecemeal, and the concerted attempt made by a number of them in 52 bce to shake off the Roman yoke came too late.
He was acquiring the military manpower, the plunder, and the prestige that he needed to secure a free hand for the prosecution of the task of reorganizing the Roman state and the rest of the Greco-Roman world. In 58 bce Caesar intervened beyond this line, first to drive back the Helvetii , who had been migrating westward from their home in what is now central Switzerland.
He then crushed Ariovistus, a German soldier of fortune from beyond the Rhine. In 57 bce Caesar subdued the distant and warlike Belgic group of Gallic peoples in the north, while his lieutenant Publius Licinius Crassus subdued what are now the regions of Normandy and Brittany. In 56 bce the Veneti , in what is now southern Brittany, started a revolt in the northwest that was supported by the still unconquered Morini on the Gallic coast of the Strait of Dover and the Menapii along the south bank of the lower Rhine.
Caesar reconquered the Veneti with some difficulty and treated them barbarously. He could not finish off the conquest of the Morini and Menapii before the end of the campaigning season of 56 bce ; and in the winter of 56—55 bce the Menapii were temporarily expelled from their home by two immigrant German peoples, the Usipetes and Tencteri.
These peoples were exterminated by Caesar in 55 bce. In the same year he bridged the Rhine just below Koblenz to raid Germany on the other side of the river, and then crossed the Channel to raid Britain. In 54 bce he raided Britain again and subdued a serious revolt in northeastern Gaul. In 53 bce he subdued further revolts in Gaul and bridged the Rhine again for a second raid. The peoples of central Gaul found a national leader in the Arvernian Vercingetorix.
They planned to cut off the Roman forces from Caesar, who had been wintering on the other side of the Alps. They even attempted to invade the western end of the old Roman province of Gallia Transalpina. The Bituriges insisted on standing siege in their town Avaricum Bourges , and Vercingetorix was unable to save it from being taken by storm within one month.
Caesar then besieged Vercingetorix in Gergovia near modern Clermont-Ferrand. A Roman attempt to storm Gergovia was repulsed and resulted in heavy Roman losses—the first outright defeat that Caesar had suffered in Gaul. Caesar then defeated an attack on the Roman army on the march and was thus able to besiege Vercingetorix in Alesia , to the northwest of Dijon.
Alesia, like Gergovia, was a position of great natural strength, and a large Gallic army came to relieve it; but this army was repulsed and dispersed by Caesar, and Vercingetorix then capitulated. During the winter of 52—51 bce and the campaigning season of 51 bce , Caesar crushed a number of sporadic further revolts. The most determined of these rebels were the Bellovaci , between the Rivers Seine and Somme , around Beauvais. He spent the year 50 bce in organizing the newly conquered territory.
After that, he was ready to settle his accounts with his opponents at home. During his conquest of Gaul, Caesar had been equally busy in preserving and improving his position at home. He used part of his growing wealth from Gallic loot to hire political agents in Rome. Meanwhile the cohesion of the triumvirate had been placed under strain.
Pompey had soon become restive toward his alarmingly successful ally Caesar, as had Crassus toward his old enemy Pompey. These laws were duly passed. The issue was whether there should or should not be an interval between the date at which Caesar was to resign his provincial governorships and, therewith, the command over his armies and the date at which he would enter his proposed second consulship. If there were to be an interval, Caesar would be a private person during that time, vulnerable to attack by his enemies; if prosecuted and convicted, he would be ruined politically and might possibly lose his life.
Caesar had to make sure that, until his entry on his second consulship, he should continue to hold at least one province with the military force to guarantee his security. This issue had already been the object of a series of political manoeuvres and countermanoeuvres at Rome. The dates on which the issue turned are all in doubt. In 52 bce , a year in which Pompey was elected sole consul and given a five-year provincial command in Spain , Caesar was allowed by a law sponsored by all 10 tribunes to stand for the consulship in absentia. If he were to stand in 49 bce for the consulship for 48 bce , he would be out of office, and therefore in danger, during the last 10 months of 49 bce.
As a safeguard for Caesar against this, there seems to have been an understanding—possibly a private one at Luca in 56 bce between him and Pompey—that the question of a successor to Caesar in his commands should not be raised in the Senate before March 1, 50 bce. This manoeuvre would have ensured that Caesar would retain his commands until the end of 49 bce. However, the question of replacing Caesar was actually raised in the Senate a number of times from 51 bce onward; each time Caesar had the dangerous proposals vetoed by tribunes of the plebs who were his agents—particularly Gaius Scribonius Curio in 50 bce and Mark Antony in 49 bce.
The issue was brought to a head by one of the consuls for 50 bce , Gaius Claudius Marcellus. He obtained resolutions from the Senate that Caesar should lay down his command presumably at its terminal date but that Pompey should not lay down his command simultaneously. Curio then obtained on December 1, 50 bce , a resolution by votes to 22 that both men should lay down their commands simultaneously.
Next day Marcellus without authorization from the Senate offered the command over all troops in Italy to Pompey, together with the power to raise more; and Pompey accepted.
On January 1, 49 bce , the Senate received from Caesar a proposal that he and Pompey should lay down their commands simultaneously. On January 10—11, 49 bce , Caesar led his troops across the little river Rubicon , the boundary between his province of Cisalpine Gaul and Italy proper. He thus committed the first act of war. This was not, however, the heart of the matter. The actual question of substance was whether the misgovernment of the Greco-Roman world by the Roman nobility should be allowed to continue or whether it should be replaced by an autocratic regime.
Either alternative would result in a disastrous civil war. The subsequent partial recuperation of the Greco-Roman world under the principate suggests, however, that Caesarism was the lesser evil. The civil war was a tragedy, for war was not wanted either by Caesar or by Pompey or even by a considerable part of the nobility, while the bulk of the Roman citizen body ardently hoped for the preservation of peace.
By this time, however, the three parties that counted politically were all entrapped. He found that he could not extricate himself from this dilemma by reducing his demands, as he eventually did, to the absolute minimum required for his security. As for Pompey, his growing jealousy of Caesar had led him so far toward the nobility that he could not come to terms with Caesar again without loss of face.
The first bout of the civil war moved swiftly. In 49 bce Caesar drove his opponents out of Italy to the eastern side of the Straits of Otranto. Toward the end of 49 bce , he followed Pompey across the Adriatic Sea and retrieved a reverse at Dyrrachium by winning a decisive victory at Pharsalus on August 9, 48 bce. Caesar wintered in Alexandria , fighting with the populace and dallying with Queen Cleopatra.
In 47 bce he fought a brief local war in northeastern Anatolia with Pharnaces , king of the Cimmerian Bosporus , who was trying to regain Pontus , the kingdom of his father, Mithradates. Caesar then returned to Rome , but a few months later, now with the title of dictator , he left for Africa , where his opponents had rallied. In 46 he crushed their army at Thapsus and returned to Rome, only to leave in November for Farther Spain to deal with a fresh outbreak of resistance, which he crushed on March 17, 45 bce , at Munda. He then returned to Rome to start putting the Greco-Roman world in order.
Caesar had been warned of various plots on his life, but Brutus persuaded him that the Senate would be disappointed if he did not attend.
His ally Mark Antony, similarly suspicious, tried to intervene, but he was detained outside the theatre by the plotter Servilius Casca. On his arrival, Caesar was presented with a petition by Lucius Tillius Cimber for the return of his exiled brother. When Caesar refused, Cimber manhandled Caesar, pulling down his toga. Blinded by the torrent of blood that poured from his wounds, Caesar fell on the steps of the Curia. His last words have been subject to centuries of speculation.
The conspirators headed for the Capitol but were met by a bewildered, fearful crowd, who began a destructive fire. Augustus declared his predecessor a god — Divus Iulius — the same year. Skip to main content. Google Tag Manager. The Death of Caesar. | <urn:uuid:3c56c823-5604-4ae7-aefc-007eb89efabb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://ciqosezuhu.tk/memoir/caesar.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00458.warc.gz | en | 0.984198 | 3,622 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.1019091531... | 1 | This was a difficult task for even the ablest and most gifted noble unless he was backed by substantial family wealth and influence.
One of the perquisites of the praetorship and the consulship was the government of a province , which gave ample opportunity for plunder. Military manpower was supplied by the Roman peasantry.
This class had been partly dispossessed by an economic revolution following on the devastation caused by the Second Punic War. The Roman governing class had consequently come to be hated and discredited at home and abroad. From bce onward there had been a series of alternate revolutionary and counter-revolutionary paroxysms. It was evident that the misgovernment of the Roman state and the Greco-Roman world by the Roman nobility could not continue indefinitely and it was fairly clear that the most probable alternative was some form of military dictatorship backed by dispossessed Italian peasants who had turned to long-term military service.
The traditional competition among members of the Roman nobility for office and the spoils of office was thus threatening to turn into a desperate race for seizing autocratic power. The Julii Caesares did not seem to be in the running.
Gaius Julius Caesar known by his nomen and cognomen Julius Caesar, was a Roman dictator, politician, military general, and historian who played a critical. Caesar is a title of imperial character. It derives from the cognomen of Julius Caesar, the Roman dictator. The change from being a familial name to a title.
Whoever had been consul in this critical year would have had to initiate such legislation, whatever his personal political predilections. There is evidence, however, that the Julii Caesares, though patricians, had already committed themselves to the antinobility party. An aunt of the future dictator had married Gaius Marius , a self-made man novus homo who had forced his way up to the summit by his military ability and had made the momentous innovation of recruiting his armies from the dispossessed peasants.
The day was July 12 or 13; the traditional and perhaps most probable year is bce ; but if this date is correct, Caesar must have held each of his offices two years in advance of the legal minimum age. His father, Gaius Caesar, died when Caesar was but 16; his mother, Aurelia, was a notable woman, and it seems certain that he owed much to her.
In spite of the inadequacy of his resources, Caesar seems to have chosen a political career as a matter of course. From the beginning, he probably privately aimed at winning office, not just for the sake of the honours but in order to achieve the power to put the misgoverned Roman state and Greco-Roman world into better order in accordance with ideas of his own.
It is improbable that Caesar deliberately sought monarchical power until after he had crossed the Rubicon in 49 bce , though sufficient power to impose his will, as he was determined to do, proved to mean monarchical power. In 83 bce Lucius Cornelius Sulla returned to Italy from the East and led the successful counter-revolution of 83—82 bce ; Sulla then ordered Caesar to divorce Cornelia. Caesar refused and came close to losing not only his property such as it was but his life as well.
He found it advisable to remove himself from Italy and to do military service, first in the province of Asia and then in Cilicia. His first target, Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella, was defended by Quintus Hortensius , the leading advocate of the day, and was acquitted by the extortion-court jury, composed exclusively of senators. Caesar then went to Rhodes to study oratory under a famous professor, Molon. En route he was captured by pirates one of the symptoms of the anarchy into which the Roman nobility had allowed the Mediterranean world to fall.
Caesar raised his ransom, raised a naval force , captured his captors, and had them crucified—all this as a private individual holding no public office. In his absence from Rome, Caesar was made a member of the politico-ecclesiastical college of pontifices ; and on his return he gained one of the elective military tribuneships. In 69 or 68 bce Caesar was elected quaestor the first rung on the Roman political ladder.
In public funeral orations in their honour, Caesar found opportunities for praising Cinna and Marius. Caesar afterward married Pompeia, a distant relative of Pompey. Caesar served his quaestorship in the province of Farther Spain modern Andalusia and Portugal. Caesar was elected one of the curule aediles for 65 bce , and he celebrated his tenure of this office by unusually lavish expenditure with borrowed money. He was elected pontifex maximus in 63 bce by a political dodge. By now he had become a controversial political figure.
It seems unlikely that either of them had committed himself to Catiline; but Caesar proposed in the Senate a more merciful alternative to the death penalty , which the consul Cicero was asking for the arrested conspirators. Caesar was elected a praetor for 62 bce.
Caesar consequently divorced Pompeia. He obtained the governorship of Farther Spain for 61—60 bce. His creditors did not let him leave Rome until Crassus had gone bail for a quarter of his debts; but a military expedition beyond the northwest frontier of his province enabled Caesar to win loot for himself as well as for his soldiers, with a balance left over for the treasury.
This partial financial recovery enabled him, after his return to Rome in 60 bce , to stand for the consulship for 59 bce. The value of the consulship lay in the lucrative provincial governorship to which it would normally lead. On the eve of the consular elections for 59 bce , the Senate sought to allot to the two future consuls for 59 bce , as their proconsular provinces, the unprofitable supervision of forests and cattle trails in Italy.
The Senate also secured by massive bribery the election of an anti-Caesarean, Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus. Caesar now succeeded in organizing an irresistible coalition of political bosses. Pompey had carried out his mission to put the East in order with notable success, but after his return to Italy and his disbandment of his army in 62 bce , the Senate had thwarted him—particularly by preventing him from securing land allotments for his veterans.
Only Caesar, on good terms with both, was in a position to reconcile them. Caesar married Calpurnia, daughter of Lucius Piso, who became consul in 58 bce. Caesar himself initiated a noncontroversial and much-needed act for punishing misconduct by governors of provinces. His tenure was to last until February 28, 54 bce. Between 58 and 50 bce , Caesar conquered the rest of Gaul up to the left bank of the Rhine and subjugated it so effectively that it remained passive under Roman rule throughout the Roman civil wars between 49 and 31 bce.
This achievement was all the more amazing in light of the fact that the Romans did not possess any great superiority in military equipment over the north European barbarians. Indeed, the Gallic cavalry was probably superior to the Roman, horseman for horseman. In Gaul, Rome also had the advantage of being able to deal separately with dozens of relatively small, independent, and uncooperative states. Caesar conquered these piecemeal, and the concerted attempt made by a number of them in 52 bce to shake off the Roman yoke came too late.
He was acquiring the military manpower, the plunder, and the prestige that he needed to secure a free hand for the prosecution of the task of reorganizing the Roman state and the rest of the Greco-Roman world. In 58 bce Caesar intervened beyond this line, first to drive back the Helvetii , who had been migrating westward from their home in what is now central Switzerland.
He then crushed Ariovistus, a German soldier of fortune from beyond the Rhine. In 57 bce Caesar subdued the distant and warlike Belgic group of Gallic peoples in the north, while his lieutenant Publius Licinius Crassus subdued what are now the regions of Normandy and Brittany. In 56 bce the Veneti , in what is now southern Brittany, started a revolt in the northwest that was supported by the still unconquered Morini on the Gallic coast of the Strait of Dover and the Menapii along the south bank of the lower Rhine.
Caesar reconquered the Veneti with some difficulty and treated them barbarously. He could not finish off the conquest of the Morini and Menapii before the end of the campaigning season of 56 bce ; and in the winter of 56—55 bce the Menapii were temporarily expelled from their home by two immigrant German peoples, the Usipetes and Tencteri.
These peoples were exterminated by Caesar in 55 bce. In the same year he bridged the Rhine just below Koblenz to raid Germany on the other side of the river, and then crossed the Channel to raid Britain. In 54 bce he raided Britain again and subdued a serious revolt in northeastern Gaul. In 53 bce he subdued further revolts in Gaul and bridged the Rhine again for a second raid. The peoples of central Gaul found a national leader in the Arvernian Vercingetorix.
They planned to cut off the Roman forces from Caesar, who had been wintering on the other side of the Alps. They even attempted to invade the western end of the old Roman province of Gallia Transalpina. The Bituriges insisted on standing siege in their town Avaricum Bourges , and Vercingetorix was unable to save it from being taken by storm within one month.
Caesar then besieged Vercingetorix in Gergovia near modern Clermont-Ferrand. A Roman attempt to storm Gergovia was repulsed and resulted in heavy Roman losses—the first outright defeat that Caesar had suffered in Gaul. Caesar then defeated an attack on the Roman army on the march and was thus able to besiege Vercingetorix in Alesia , to the northwest of Dijon.
Alesia, like Gergovia, was a position of great natural strength, and a large Gallic army came to relieve it; but this army was repulsed and dispersed by Caesar, and Vercingetorix then capitulated. During the winter of 52—51 bce and the campaigning season of 51 bce , Caesar crushed a number of sporadic further revolts. The most determined of these rebels were the Bellovaci , between the Rivers Seine and Somme , around Beauvais. He spent the year 50 bce in organizing the newly conquered territory.
After that, he was ready to settle his accounts with his opponents at home. During his conquest of Gaul, Caesar had been equally busy in preserving and improving his position at home. He used part of his growing wealth from Gallic loot to hire political agents in Rome. Meanwhile the cohesion of the triumvirate had been placed under strain.
Pompey had soon become restive toward his alarmingly successful ally Caesar, as had Crassus toward his old enemy Pompey. These laws were duly passed. The issue was whether there should or should not be an interval between the date at which Caesar was to resign his provincial governorships and, therewith, the command over his armies and the date at which he would enter his proposed second consulship. If there were to be an interval, Caesar would be a private person during that time, vulnerable to attack by his enemies; if prosecuted and convicted, he would be ruined politically and might possibly lose his life.
Caesar had to make sure that, until his entry on his second consulship, he should continue to hold at least one province with the military force to guarantee his security. This issue had already been the object of a series of political manoeuvres and countermanoeuvres at Rome. The dates on which the issue turned are all in doubt. In 52 bce , a year in which Pompey was elected sole consul and given a five-year provincial command in Spain , Caesar was allowed by a law sponsored by all 10 tribunes to stand for the consulship in absentia. If he were to stand in 49 bce for the consulship for 48 bce , he would be out of office, and therefore in danger, during the last 10 months of 49 bce.
As a safeguard for Caesar against this, there seems to have been an understanding—possibly a private one at Luca in 56 bce between him and Pompey—that the question of a successor to Caesar in his commands should not be raised in the Senate before March 1, 50 bce. This manoeuvre would have ensured that Caesar would retain his commands until the end of 49 bce. However, the question of replacing Caesar was actually raised in the Senate a number of times from 51 bce onward; each time Caesar had the dangerous proposals vetoed by tribunes of the plebs who were his agents—particularly Gaius Scribonius Curio in 50 bce and Mark Antony in 49 bce.
The issue was brought to a head by one of the consuls for 50 bce , Gaius Claudius Marcellus. He obtained resolutions from the Senate that Caesar should lay down his command presumably at its terminal date but that Pompey should not lay down his command simultaneously. Curio then obtained on December 1, 50 bce , a resolution by votes to 22 that both men should lay down their commands simultaneously.
Next day Marcellus without authorization from the Senate offered the command over all troops in Italy to Pompey, together with the power to raise more; and Pompey accepted.
On January 1, 49 bce , the Senate received from Caesar a proposal that he and Pompey should lay down their commands simultaneously. On January 10—11, 49 bce , Caesar led his troops across the little river Rubicon , the boundary between his province of Cisalpine Gaul and Italy proper. He thus committed the first act of war. This was not, however, the heart of the matter. The actual question of substance was whether the misgovernment of the Greco-Roman world by the Roman nobility should be allowed to continue or whether it should be replaced by an autocratic regime.
Either alternative would result in a disastrous civil war. The subsequent partial recuperation of the Greco-Roman world under the principate suggests, however, that Caesarism was the lesser evil. The civil war was a tragedy, for war was not wanted either by Caesar or by Pompey or even by a considerable part of the nobility, while the bulk of the Roman citizen body ardently hoped for the preservation of peace.
By this time, however, the three parties that counted politically were all entrapped. He found that he could not extricate himself from this dilemma by reducing his demands, as he eventually did, to the absolute minimum required for his security. As for Pompey, his growing jealousy of Caesar had led him so far toward the nobility that he could not come to terms with Caesar again without loss of face.
The first bout of the civil war moved swiftly. In 49 bce Caesar drove his opponents out of Italy to the eastern side of the Straits of Otranto. Toward the end of 49 bce , he followed Pompey across the Adriatic Sea and retrieved a reverse at Dyrrachium by winning a decisive victory at Pharsalus on August 9, 48 bce. Caesar wintered in Alexandria , fighting with the populace and dallying with Queen Cleopatra.
In 47 bce he fought a brief local war in northeastern Anatolia with Pharnaces , king of the Cimmerian Bosporus , who was trying to regain Pontus , the kingdom of his father, Mithradates. Caesar then returned to Rome , but a few months later, now with the title of dictator , he left for Africa , where his opponents had rallied. In 46 he crushed their army at Thapsus and returned to Rome, only to leave in November for Farther Spain to deal with a fresh outbreak of resistance, which he crushed on March 17, 45 bce , at Munda. He then returned to Rome to start putting the Greco-Roman world in order.
Caesar had been warned of various plots on his life, but Brutus persuaded him that the Senate would be disappointed if he did not attend.
His ally Mark Antony, similarly suspicious, tried to intervene, but he was detained outside the theatre by the plotter Servilius Casca. On his arrival, Caesar was presented with a petition by Lucius Tillius Cimber for the return of his exiled brother. When Caesar refused, Cimber manhandled Caesar, pulling down his toga. Blinded by the torrent of blood that poured from his wounds, Caesar fell on the steps of the Curia. His last words have been subject to centuries of speculation.
The conspirators headed for the Capitol but were met by a bewildered, fearful crowd, who began a destructive fire. Augustus declared his predecessor a god — Divus Iulius — the same year. Skip to main content. Google Tag Manager. The Death of Caesar. | 3,706 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Short History of Canada
Canada: PrehistoryAccording to archaeologists, there is evidence that the first natives in North America, of which Canada makes up more than 40 percent, first arrived some 40,000 years BCE (before the Common Era) by crossing a land bridge which had formed between Asia and Alaska during the latest Ice Age. In the United States, these people are often referred to as “Indians” or “Native Americans,” while in Canada they are usually known as “Aboriginal People,” “Native People” or “People of the First Nations.” Because this period of pre-history literally involves thousands of years, below we have created a time-line, beginning 9000 BCE, that will help you see some of the major developments at a glance.
9000-8000 BCE: During this millennium, the Huron people, originally known as the Wendat, settled into Southern Ontario along the Eramosa River near what is now Guelph. They were concentrated between Lake Simcoe and Georgian Bay. Most of the land was still covered in glaciers and the Wendat hunted caribou to survive.
7000 BCE: Aboriginal tribes began settling the west coast of Canada and various cultures built themselves around the rich salmon fishing in the region. The Nuu'chah'nulth, or Nootka people of Vancouver Island began whaling.
6000 BCE: Various cultures were built around the vast store of buffalo by the Plains Indians in central Canada. These groups hunted buffalo by herding them off of cliffs. Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump, near Lethbridge, Alberta, is the most famous hunting grounds in this region of the country and was in use for 5,000 years.
5000 BCE: The oldest ceremonial burial site was discovered at L'Anse Amour on the coast of Labrador containing the remains of a 12-year-old boy. The child was buried face down in a very elaborate manner; red ochre had been sprinkled on the back of his head and in a circle around the body. Also found in the tomb were a decorative caribou antler pestle, a bone pendant, bird bones, a harpoon head, a bone whistle, and a walrus tusk. It is unknown what standing the boy had in the community to have been buried in such a way.
2000 BCE: The Inuit people arrived in what is now Canada by small boats, long after the land bridge had disappeared and settled in the Arctic regions.
800 BCE: As the glaciers receded and the weather warmed, the Huron people became farmers rather than hunters, cultivating corn which will not grow wild.
500 BCE-1000 AD: Natives had settled across most of Canada. Hundreds of tribes had developed, each with its own culture, customs, legends, and character. Some of the most well-known were the Huron, Inuit, Blackfoot, Cree and Iroquois.
Canada: The First Settlers and Fight for ControlThe earliest contact with what is now Canada is thought to have been made by the Vikings in an expedition led by Bjarni Herjólfsson, who was blown off course en route from Iceland to Greenland around 985 AD. However, there are no records of this discovery save for Icelandic sagas; vague word-of-mouth accounts handed down over the generations.
The first European contact noted in Canadian history was made by the Italian explorer John Cabot sailing under the patronage of King Henry VII of England. In 1497, in a quest to find a trade route to the Orient, Cabot ended up somewhere on the eastern Canadian coast and claimed it for the King. This voyage, and one subsequent in 1498, gave England a claim by right of discovery to an indefinite amount of area of eastern North America; in fact, its later claims to Newfoundland, Cape Breton and neighboring regions were based partly on Cabot's exploits.
In the early 16 century, a Frenchman named Jacques Cartier also sailed on two expeditions to Canada, sailing into the St. Lawrence River in August of 1535.
On August 5, 1583, Humphrey Gilbert, armed with legal claim papers from Queen Elizabeth I, formally took possession of Newfoundland in St. John's harbor on behalf of England. But the French also started to make claims on Canadian territories. While their first attempts at settlement failed, in 1604 the fur trade monopoly was granted to Pierre Dugua Sieur de Monts of France, who led his first colonization expedition to an island located near the mouth of the St. Croix River. Among his lieutenants was a geographer named Samuel de Champlain, under whom the St. Croix settlement was moved to Port Royal (today's Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia).
It was France's most successful colony and the settlement came to be known as Acadia. However, the cancellation of de Guast's fur monopoly in 1607 brought the Port Royal settlement to a temporary end. Undiscouraged, Champlain was able to persuade de Guast to allow him to take some colonists and settle on the St. Lawrence, where in 1608 he would found France's first permanent colony in Canada at Quebec. It became the capital of New France.
While the English colonies were growing rapidly along the Atlantic coast, French fur traders and explorers were slowly extending ownership deep into the heart of North America. After settling the area around what is now the Hudson Bay in the early 17 century, the English would later go on to capture Quebec in 1629, although the region was later returned to the French in 1632 during a brief time of peace between the two nations.
Peace between France and England did not last long, however. The Seven Years War (1756-1763) in Europe pitted England against France in a bloody fight for control over North America and Canada particularly. In 1758, the British captured the French fortress of Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island, and in 1759, the English General Wolfe captured the city of Quebec (Wolfe’s victory at Quebec ensured that Canada would become British rather than French). In 1763, the French were forced to surrender all their territories in Canada to Britain by the Treaty of Paris.
Canada: The Early Days of British RuleAfter France was forced to give up its claim on North America, England, which had now added to their other Atlantic colonies, was faced with two pressing problems. There were now over 50,000 new French-speaking subjects in what had formerly been New France. Additionally, there were large tracts of wilderness in the Great Lakes area where the small garrisons of the British were gravely outnumbered by the native Indians.
Led by an intelligent and treacherous Ottawa chieftain named Pontiac, the Indians suddenly rose against their new English masters and began to overthrow these forts one by one; massacring the English soldiers that inhabited them, until fresh troops were rushed in and the uprising was finally subdued.
To avoid further conflict with the French, the English Parliament enacted the Quebec Act of 1774, allowing the French Canadians to practice their own religion—Roman Catholicism—and to keep French civil law alongside British criminal law. By 1775, Canada had a population of about 90,000.
During the American Civil War (1775-1783), the loyalty of what was once New France was tested. Within a year of the passing of the Quebec Act, the rebelling American colonies sent two armies north to capture the province. Sir Guy Carleton, the British governor of Canada, narrowly escaped capture when one of these armies, under Richard Montgomery, took Montreal.
Carleton reached Quebec in time to organize its small garrison against the forces of Benedict Arnold. Arnold began a siege of the fortress, in which he was soon joined by Montgomery. In the midwinter fighting that followed, Montgomery was killed and Arnold wounded. When spring came, the attacking forces retreated. During the rest of the American Revolutionary War, there was no further fighting on Canadian soil.
After the American Revolution, thousands of British Loyalists from the newly-established United States of America, fled to Canada to begin their lives anew in Nova Scotia and in the unsettled lands above the St. Lawrence rapids and north of Lake Ontario. This massive wave of new settlers, known in Canada as the United Empire Loyalists, marked the first major wave of immigration by English-speaking settlers since the days of New France. Their arrival meant that both the Atlantic province of Nova Scotia and the inland colony of Quebec would need to be reorganized.
Initially, the unsettled forests to the west of the Bay of Fundy, once part of French Acadia, had been included in Nova Scotia. In 1784, however, this area was established as a separate colony known as New Brunswick. Cape Breton Island was simultaneously separated from Nova Scotia (a division that was ended in 1820). In all, some 35,000 Loyalist immigrants are believed to have settled in the Maritimes.
Meanwhile, the settlement of the more inaccessible lands north and west of Lake Ontario and along the north shore of the upper St. Lawrence proceeded somewhat more slowly, with only roughly 5,000 Loyalists settling in this area.
Canada: The 19 CenturyDuring the American War of 1812 the Americans invaded Canada but the Canadians were able to turn them back. However, the successful defense of their newly formed country had not prevented the Canadians from seeing the cracks in their own form of government. There were many citizens, particularly the wealthy businessman and landowners, who believed that the colonists had sufficient powers of self-government through their elected assemblies. Others were upset, that the real power did not lie in the hands of the people through their elected representatives, but with the governor who was responsible only to the government in Britain.
One of the loudest accusers of the government's administration, especially when it came to land grants, was William Lyon Mackenzie, who eventually became Mayor of Toronto in 1834. In 1837, he led an unsuccessful uprising, during which he was killed. At about the same time, in Lower Canada, the French Canadians of Lower Canada also rebelled under the leadership of Louis Joseph Papineau; this revolt, too, was quickly put down.
The gravity of troubles in Canada caused deep concern in Great Britain, where memories of the American Revolution were still fresh. At the request of Queen Victoria, who ascended to the throne in 1837, John George Lambton, earl of Durham, accepted appointment as governor in chief of British North America with special powers as lord high commissioner. Lambton arrived in Quebec in the spring of 1838, and though he ended his stay before the year was out, his Report on the Affairs of British North America is one of the most important documents in the history of the British Empire.
Durham recommended that Upper and Lower Canada be united under a single parliament, believing if the colonies were given as much freedom to govern themselves as the people of Great Britain, they would become more loyal instead of less so. He did not live to witness the action that was taken on his report, for within a year he became ill and died. In 1840, the Act of Union was passed, joining Upper and Lower Canada under a central government.
Canada eventually gained democratic government in 1867 when Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were federated as the Dominion of Canada. Canada then had a strong central government, which ruled from Ottawa, the new capital. The first prime minister of Canada was Sir John Macdonald.
Throughout the 19th century, the population of Canada grew rapidly, boosted by a massive wave of European immigration. Canada established its first democratic government in 1867, when Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were federated as the Dominion of Canada. Manitoba was made a province in 1870, and British Columbia joined the confederation in 1871. Alberta and Saskatchewan would later join in 1905.
The Canadian economy also expanded greatly during this time, aided by the spread of the country’s railway system. A transcontinental railroad, the Canadian Pacific, was completed in 1885, and vast areas of land were turned over to farming and manufacturing industries that quickly began to boom. Gold was discovered in the Klondike District of the Yukon in 1896, sparking a gold rush that would last for several years.
Canada: The 20 and 21 CenturyIn the years before World War I, Canada faced one of its most pressing foreign policy issues as a naval competition increased between Germany and Britain. Great Britain naturally desired to receive military help from the colonies. The Canadian Prime Minister at the time, Wilfrid Laurier, found a compromise that satisfied neither the pro-British faction nor the French partisans. He founded the Canadian Navy in 1910 with the provision that in time of war it be placed under British command. This quickly led to accusations that Canadian soldiers would be drafted into the British Army if war came. As a result, Laurier was defeated in the next election of 1911.
The new Conservative government, headed by Robert Laird Borden, had the responsibility of rallying the nation to Britain's side in World War I. Had Canadians remained as divided as they were at the end of Laurier's term, this might have been a difficult thing to do. But Germany's invasion of neutral Belgium in 1914 forged a unity of Canadian sentiment and a demand for participation in the conflict.
Before the war ended in 1918, more than 619,000 officers and men had enlisted, including some 22,000 who had served in the British Royal Air Force. More than 60,000 Canadians were killed in action or died of wounds, a terribly heavy toll in relation to the country's population. Over 66 million shells were produced in Canadian factories. The gross national debt soared from 544 million dollars in 1914 to almost 2 1/2 billion dollars in 1919, most of the money being raised in Canada itself through public war loans.
Following the war, in the 1920s, Canada saw several prosperous years, but like the rest of the world the country suffered greatly during the Great Depression of the 1930s. Exports of timber, fish and grain dropped off sharply, and by 1933 unemployment had soared to a whopping 23%. The government introduced relief works, but economic hardship continued throughout the decade.
With the early 1940s came the start of the Second World War. Within three months an entire division of the new Canadian Active Service Force had been transported to the United Kingdom. These Canadians saw service in almost every theater of war. The Royal Canadian Navy was increased from fewer than a dozen vessels to more than 400. It served primarily as an antisubmarine and convoy force in the North Atlantic. Some of its units were deployed from time to time as far away as the Mediterranean and the Pacific. Canada lost 45,000 soldiers during World War II.
Following the war, the population of Canada grew rapidly, from 16 million in 1951 to 18 million in 1961. People came from all over Southern and Eastern Europe, and, in the 1960s, also from, Southern Asia.
The 1950s and 1960s saw the Canadian economy boom and Canada became a very affluent society. However, during the late 1970s and early 1980s, a recession hit Canada and unemployment rose to 11%. There was another recession in the early 1990s, yet Canada quickly recovered.
In the early part of the 21 century, Canada’s economy rebounded nicely, but like the rest of the world, the country is just now beginning to shake off the effects of the global recession that began in 2008. In 2012, the unemployment rate in Canada stood at 8.1 percent, but today that number has shrunk to 6.9 percent—the lowest rate the country has seen since before the 2008 recession. | <urn:uuid:893f7e6c-135a-476c-b133-bdd34db097ef> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studycountry.com/guide/CA-history.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00227.warc.gz | en | 0.981452 | 3,230 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.2886987030... | 3 | A Short History of Canada
Canada: PrehistoryAccording to archaeologists, there is evidence that the first natives in North America, of which Canada makes up more than 40 percent, first arrived some 40,000 years BCE (before the Common Era) by crossing a land bridge which had formed between Asia and Alaska during the latest Ice Age. In the United States, these people are often referred to as “Indians” or “Native Americans,” while in Canada they are usually known as “Aboriginal People,” “Native People” or “People of the First Nations.” Because this period of pre-history literally involves thousands of years, below we have created a time-line, beginning 9000 BCE, that will help you see some of the major developments at a glance.
9000-8000 BCE: During this millennium, the Huron people, originally known as the Wendat, settled into Southern Ontario along the Eramosa River near what is now Guelph. They were concentrated between Lake Simcoe and Georgian Bay. Most of the land was still covered in glaciers and the Wendat hunted caribou to survive.
7000 BCE: Aboriginal tribes began settling the west coast of Canada and various cultures built themselves around the rich salmon fishing in the region. The Nuu'chah'nulth, or Nootka people of Vancouver Island began whaling.
6000 BCE: Various cultures were built around the vast store of buffalo by the Plains Indians in central Canada. These groups hunted buffalo by herding them off of cliffs. Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump, near Lethbridge, Alberta, is the most famous hunting grounds in this region of the country and was in use for 5,000 years.
5000 BCE: The oldest ceremonial burial site was discovered at L'Anse Amour on the coast of Labrador containing the remains of a 12-year-old boy. The child was buried face down in a very elaborate manner; red ochre had been sprinkled on the back of his head and in a circle around the body. Also found in the tomb were a decorative caribou antler pestle, a bone pendant, bird bones, a harpoon head, a bone whistle, and a walrus tusk. It is unknown what standing the boy had in the community to have been buried in such a way.
2000 BCE: The Inuit people arrived in what is now Canada by small boats, long after the land bridge had disappeared and settled in the Arctic regions.
800 BCE: As the glaciers receded and the weather warmed, the Huron people became farmers rather than hunters, cultivating corn which will not grow wild.
500 BCE-1000 AD: Natives had settled across most of Canada. Hundreds of tribes had developed, each with its own culture, customs, legends, and character. Some of the most well-known were the Huron, Inuit, Blackfoot, Cree and Iroquois.
Canada: The First Settlers and Fight for ControlThe earliest contact with what is now Canada is thought to have been made by the Vikings in an expedition led by Bjarni Herjólfsson, who was blown off course en route from Iceland to Greenland around 985 AD. However, there are no records of this discovery save for Icelandic sagas; vague word-of-mouth accounts handed down over the generations.
The first European contact noted in Canadian history was made by the Italian explorer John Cabot sailing under the patronage of King Henry VII of England. In 1497, in a quest to find a trade route to the Orient, Cabot ended up somewhere on the eastern Canadian coast and claimed it for the King. This voyage, and one subsequent in 1498, gave England a claim by right of discovery to an indefinite amount of area of eastern North America; in fact, its later claims to Newfoundland, Cape Breton and neighboring regions were based partly on Cabot's exploits.
In the early 16 century, a Frenchman named Jacques Cartier also sailed on two expeditions to Canada, sailing into the St. Lawrence River in August of 1535.
On August 5, 1583, Humphrey Gilbert, armed with legal claim papers from Queen Elizabeth I, formally took possession of Newfoundland in St. John's harbor on behalf of England. But the French also started to make claims on Canadian territories. While their first attempts at settlement failed, in 1604 the fur trade monopoly was granted to Pierre Dugua Sieur de Monts of France, who led his first colonization expedition to an island located near the mouth of the St. Croix River. Among his lieutenants was a geographer named Samuel de Champlain, under whom the St. Croix settlement was moved to Port Royal (today's Annapolis Royal, Nova Scotia).
It was France's most successful colony and the settlement came to be known as Acadia. However, the cancellation of de Guast's fur monopoly in 1607 brought the Port Royal settlement to a temporary end. Undiscouraged, Champlain was able to persuade de Guast to allow him to take some colonists and settle on the St. Lawrence, where in 1608 he would found France's first permanent colony in Canada at Quebec. It became the capital of New France.
While the English colonies were growing rapidly along the Atlantic coast, French fur traders and explorers were slowly extending ownership deep into the heart of North America. After settling the area around what is now the Hudson Bay in the early 17 century, the English would later go on to capture Quebec in 1629, although the region was later returned to the French in 1632 during a brief time of peace between the two nations.
Peace between France and England did not last long, however. The Seven Years War (1756-1763) in Europe pitted England against France in a bloody fight for control over North America and Canada particularly. In 1758, the British captured the French fortress of Louisbourg on Cape Breton Island, and in 1759, the English General Wolfe captured the city of Quebec (Wolfe’s victory at Quebec ensured that Canada would become British rather than French). In 1763, the French were forced to surrender all their territories in Canada to Britain by the Treaty of Paris.
Canada: The Early Days of British RuleAfter France was forced to give up its claim on North America, England, which had now added to their other Atlantic colonies, was faced with two pressing problems. There were now over 50,000 new French-speaking subjects in what had formerly been New France. Additionally, there were large tracts of wilderness in the Great Lakes area where the small garrisons of the British were gravely outnumbered by the native Indians.
Led by an intelligent and treacherous Ottawa chieftain named Pontiac, the Indians suddenly rose against their new English masters and began to overthrow these forts one by one; massacring the English soldiers that inhabited them, until fresh troops were rushed in and the uprising was finally subdued.
To avoid further conflict with the French, the English Parliament enacted the Quebec Act of 1774, allowing the French Canadians to practice their own religion—Roman Catholicism—and to keep French civil law alongside British criminal law. By 1775, Canada had a population of about 90,000.
During the American Civil War (1775-1783), the loyalty of what was once New France was tested. Within a year of the passing of the Quebec Act, the rebelling American colonies sent two armies north to capture the province. Sir Guy Carleton, the British governor of Canada, narrowly escaped capture when one of these armies, under Richard Montgomery, took Montreal.
Carleton reached Quebec in time to organize its small garrison against the forces of Benedict Arnold. Arnold began a siege of the fortress, in which he was soon joined by Montgomery. In the midwinter fighting that followed, Montgomery was killed and Arnold wounded. When spring came, the attacking forces retreated. During the rest of the American Revolutionary War, there was no further fighting on Canadian soil.
After the American Revolution, thousands of British Loyalists from the newly-established United States of America, fled to Canada to begin their lives anew in Nova Scotia and in the unsettled lands above the St. Lawrence rapids and north of Lake Ontario. This massive wave of new settlers, known in Canada as the United Empire Loyalists, marked the first major wave of immigration by English-speaking settlers since the days of New France. Their arrival meant that both the Atlantic province of Nova Scotia and the inland colony of Quebec would need to be reorganized.
Initially, the unsettled forests to the west of the Bay of Fundy, once part of French Acadia, had been included in Nova Scotia. In 1784, however, this area was established as a separate colony known as New Brunswick. Cape Breton Island was simultaneously separated from Nova Scotia (a division that was ended in 1820). In all, some 35,000 Loyalist immigrants are believed to have settled in the Maritimes.
Meanwhile, the settlement of the more inaccessible lands north and west of Lake Ontario and along the north shore of the upper St. Lawrence proceeded somewhat more slowly, with only roughly 5,000 Loyalists settling in this area.
Canada: The 19 CenturyDuring the American War of 1812 the Americans invaded Canada but the Canadians were able to turn them back. However, the successful defense of their newly formed country had not prevented the Canadians from seeing the cracks in their own form of government. There were many citizens, particularly the wealthy businessman and landowners, who believed that the colonists had sufficient powers of self-government through their elected assemblies. Others were upset, that the real power did not lie in the hands of the people through their elected representatives, but with the governor who was responsible only to the government in Britain.
One of the loudest accusers of the government's administration, especially when it came to land grants, was William Lyon Mackenzie, who eventually became Mayor of Toronto in 1834. In 1837, he led an unsuccessful uprising, during which he was killed. At about the same time, in Lower Canada, the French Canadians of Lower Canada also rebelled under the leadership of Louis Joseph Papineau; this revolt, too, was quickly put down.
The gravity of troubles in Canada caused deep concern in Great Britain, where memories of the American Revolution were still fresh. At the request of Queen Victoria, who ascended to the throne in 1837, John George Lambton, earl of Durham, accepted appointment as governor in chief of British North America with special powers as lord high commissioner. Lambton arrived in Quebec in the spring of 1838, and though he ended his stay before the year was out, his Report on the Affairs of British North America is one of the most important documents in the history of the British Empire.
Durham recommended that Upper and Lower Canada be united under a single parliament, believing if the colonies were given as much freedom to govern themselves as the people of Great Britain, they would become more loyal instead of less so. He did not live to witness the action that was taken on his report, for within a year he became ill and died. In 1840, the Act of Union was passed, joining Upper and Lower Canada under a central government.
Canada eventually gained democratic government in 1867 when Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were federated as the Dominion of Canada. Canada then had a strong central government, which ruled from Ottawa, the new capital. The first prime minister of Canada was Sir John Macdonald.
Throughout the 19th century, the population of Canada grew rapidly, boosted by a massive wave of European immigration. Canada established its first democratic government in 1867, when Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick were federated as the Dominion of Canada. Manitoba was made a province in 1870, and British Columbia joined the confederation in 1871. Alberta and Saskatchewan would later join in 1905.
The Canadian economy also expanded greatly during this time, aided by the spread of the country’s railway system. A transcontinental railroad, the Canadian Pacific, was completed in 1885, and vast areas of land were turned over to farming and manufacturing industries that quickly began to boom. Gold was discovered in the Klondike District of the Yukon in 1896, sparking a gold rush that would last for several years.
Canada: The 20 and 21 CenturyIn the years before World War I, Canada faced one of its most pressing foreign policy issues as a naval competition increased between Germany and Britain. Great Britain naturally desired to receive military help from the colonies. The Canadian Prime Minister at the time, Wilfrid Laurier, found a compromise that satisfied neither the pro-British faction nor the French partisans. He founded the Canadian Navy in 1910 with the provision that in time of war it be placed under British command. This quickly led to accusations that Canadian soldiers would be drafted into the British Army if war came. As a result, Laurier was defeated in the next election of 1911.
The new Conservative government, headed by Robert Laird Borden, had the responsibility of rallying the nation to Britain's side in World War I. Had Canadians remained as divided as they were at the end of Laurier's term, this might have been a difficult thing to do. But Germany's invasion of neutral Belgium in 1914 forged a unity of Canadian sentiment and a demand for participation in the conflict.
Before the war ended in 1918, more than 619,000 officers and men had enlisted, including some 22,000 who had served in the British Royal Air Force. More than 60,000 Canadians were killed in action or died of wounds, a terribly heavy toll in relation to the country's population. Over 66 million shells were produced in Canadian factories. The gross national debt soared from 544 million dollars in 1914 to almost 2 1/2 billion dollars in 1919, most of the money being raised in Canada itself through public war loans.
Following the war, in the 1920s, Canada saw several prosperous years, but like the rest of the world the country suffered greatly during the Great Depression of the 1930s. Exports of timber, fish and grain dropped off sharply, and by 1933 unemployment had soared to a whopping 23%. The government introduced relief works, but economic hardship continued throughout the decade.
With the early 1940s came the start of the Second World War. Within three months an entire division of the new Canadian Active Service Force had been transported to the United Kingdom. These Canadians saw service in almost every theater of war. The Royal Canadian Navy was increased from fewer than a dozen vessels to more than 400. It served primarily as an antisubmarine and convoy force in the North Atlantic. Some of its units were deployed from time to time as far away as the Mediterranean and the Pacific. Canada lost 45,000 soldiers during World War II.
Following the war, the population of Canada grew rapidly, from 16 million in 1951 to 18 million in 1961. People came from all over Southern and Eastern Europe, and, in the 1960s, also from, Southern Asia.
The 1950s and 1960s saw the Canadian economy boom and Canada became a very affluent society. However, during the late 1970s and early 1980s, a recession hit Canada and unemployment rose to 11%. There was another recession in the early 1990s, yet Canada quickly recovered.
In the early part of the 21 century, Canada’s economy rebounded nicely, but like the rest of the world, the country is just now beginning to shake off the effects of the global recession that began in 2008. In 2012, the unemployment rate in Canada stood at 8.1 percent, but today that number has shrunk to 6.9 percent—the lowest rate the country has seen since before the 2008 recession. | 3,473 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It was in 1832 that the first Nullification Crisis occurred. Oddly enough, it was not about slavery, but rather about money. In 1828 and 1832 Congress had passed two acts establishing protective tariffs, which benefitted the manufacturers of the North and harmed the agricultural interests of the South. South Carolina was the state that was most upset about this state of affairs.
The leading politician in South Carolina, John C. Calhoun actually resigned the Vice-Presidency so that he could more effectively lead the opposition to the tariff legislation. The South Carolina legislature passed a law that if the objectionable tariffs were not reduced further (they had been reduced between the 1828 act and the one of 1832) South Carolina would resist their collection by force of arms. The President was Andrew Jackson, a fellow Southerner to Calhoun and a slave-owner. He would have none of it and got Congress to pass a law authorizing him to use force if South Carolina did the same. In the end, the tariffs were reduced a bit further, both sides backed down, and violence was averted.
The next nullification crisis, in 1861, led to the First Civil War. This one was not over something that the Federal government had actually done, but what it, under Lincoln, the Federal government might do. Lincoln was a strong opponent of the expansion of slavery to the Territories (although he had made a clear pledge not to interfere with slavery in those states in which it existed at the time). Nevertheless, as is well-known, well before Lincoln was inaugurated, led by South Carolina, 11 states seceded and . . . . Other attempts at nullification or one sort or another took place in the South around the issue of school integration (see Gov. Faubus in Arkansas and Gov. Wallace in Alabama).
Now we are faced with another act of nullification by an organ of state government, the State's Supreme Court in the person of its Chief Justice, against the Federal judiciary in general and the Supreme Court of the United States in particular. Interestingly enough, the issue this time around is neither money nor slavery but rather the role of theism in making both Federal and state law.
Following recent rulings of several Courts of Appeals and, in a related case, the "Defense of Marriage Act," that of the Supreme Court, a Federal District Court judge ruled that the provision of the Alabama constitution banning same-sex marriage violates the U.S. Constitution. The Alabama Attorney General applied for a stay to the Supreme Court, pending its expected nation-wide ruling on the matter scheduled for the Spring, and that application was denied. It was then generally expected that gay marriage would move forward in Alabama. Not so fast, said Chief Justice Moore. Legal marriage in Alabama is under the jurisdiction of a slice of the Alabama judiciary called "Probate Court Judges," and at least some of them were prepared to go ahead and marry gay couples (and a few did). But Judge Moore said "no you don't." Even though a Federal Court had handed down a ruling and the Supreme Court refused to grant a stay, Judge Moore ordered the Probate Court Judges not to perform marriages of gay couples.
There are many issues in play here. But the central one is this. In Alabama, whatever churches might do in terms of ceremonies, legal marriage is clearly a civil institution, governed by civil, not theistic, law, and implemented by Probate Court Judges operating under a body of civil law. Found in the 14th Amendment to the Constitution is the following proviso: "No State shall . . . deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." However, Chief Justice Moore does not see the difference between civil marriage and religious marriage. He has made it very clear that his personal opinion about what the nature of marriage is based on his personal religious beliefs. He stated that forthrightly in an interview with Chris Cuomo of CNN between 8:30 and 9:00AM EST on Feb. 12, 2015.
For the Judge, it is his religion that tells him what the nature of marriage is: "between one man and one woman, as ordained by God" and in his case, based on other statements he has made over time, that would be a Christian God, in the sense that he means "Christian God." (Of course, "Christian" means many things to many people. Many gay folks who marry one another regard themselves as Christians and there are many Christian pastors who marry gay couples. But that is a discussion for another time.) Interestingly enough, the Judge did not attempt to use the Constitution to back up his argument. For on the one hand there is that inconvenient 14th Amendment and on the other neither the word "God" nor the word "Christian" appear in it. Rather the Judge falls back on a document that the Christian Right is increasingly trying to use to support its arguments, that is the Declaration of Independence.
There are two problems with this one. First, the Declaration, as grand and historically important as it is, is not part of the Constitution and has no governing power. Second, while the word "God" does appear in it, it used in the context of the terms "Laws of Nature and Nature's God" as entitling "one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another. . . "That doesn't help the theists much. So Judge Moore falls back on the famous "endowed by their Creator" clause. The problem for him there is a) in this context the drafters specifically used the term "Creator" rather than "God," and b) the word "Creator" can mean anything. For me, as a reasonist, (yes, that, not "atheist" is the opposite of "theist," but that too is a discussion for another time) "Creator" means the universal laws of biology, chemistry, and physics.
Of course, Judge Moore would have none of this. His God, or rather his concept of "God," tells him what is right and what's wrong that's that . As it was put by Richard Fausset of The New York Times, " 'Now we see the federal courts moving to take away institutions ordained of God, and recognized by the people for hundreds and even thousands of years before this country came into being,' [Judge Moore] said. The definition of marriage, he said, should not be left to federal judges. 'Courts are just people,' he said. 'They're just men and women dressed in black robes who have no power to re-declare, or declare, the social foundation of this nation as being unconstitutional.' "
Except that many of us in the U.S. either do not see marriage as an "institution ordained by God," or if we do, we, such as the many Christian gay couples who are married, see it quite differently than Judge Moore does. And that is one of other reasons we have a court system, to sort out problems like this one, within the boundaries of the Constitution in general, and in this case very particularly within the provisions of the Equal Protection clause of the 14th Amendment.
And so, we've had nullification of Federal law by a state over tariffs, by several states over slavery, and now by a state Supreme Court Chief Justice over marriage and its definition as a theistic concept or a civil legal concept, or as it actually is in all states, except for some when it comes to same-sex marriage, both.
On February 25, 2103, after this column was originally written, I came across the
following item at ThinkProgress.org: A majority of Republican primary voters want to
"Establish Christianity as the National Religion." Just think of that, and take that, ISIS and Sharia Law! And hey, do you, reader, really think that
the Second Civil War is NOT coming? | <urn:uuid:ad2a1387-94cb-4f12-993d-781b575d7bf4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.opednews.com/populum/page.php?f=I-Hate-to-Break-This-to-Yo-by-Steven-Jonas-Christian_Constitution-In-Crisis_Constitutional-Issues_Constitutionalism-150303-752.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00399.warc.gz | en | 0.981271 | 1,619 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.411677122... | 6 | It was in 1832 that the first Nullification Crisis occurred. Oddly enough, it was not about slavery, but rather about money. In 1828 and 1832 Congress had passed two acts establishing protective tariffs, which benefitted the manufacturers of the North and harmed the agricultural interests of the South. South Carolina was the state that was most upset about this state of affairs.
The leading politician in South Carolina, John C. Calhoun actually resigned the Vice-Presidency so that he could more effectively lead the opposition to the tariff legislation. The South Carolina legislature passed a law that if the objectionable tariffs were not reduced further (they had been reduced between the 1828 act and the one of 1832) South Carolina would resist their collection by force of arms. The President was Andrew Jackson, a fellow Southerner to Calhoun and a slave-owner. He would have none of it and got Congress to pass a law authorizing him to use force if South Carolina did the same. In the end, the tariffs were reduced a bit further, both sides backed down, and violence was averted.
The next nullification crisis, in 1861, led to the First Civil War. This one was not over something that the Federal government had actually done, but what it, under Lincoln, the Federal government might do. Lincoln was a strong opponent of the expansion of slavery to the Territories (although he had made a clear pledge not to interfere with slavery in those states in which it existed at the time). Nevertheless, as is well-known, well before Lincoln was inaugurated, led by South Carolina, 11 states seceded and . . . . Other attempts at nullification or one sort or another took place in the South around the issue of school integration (see Gov. Faubus in Arkansas and Gov. Wallace in Alabama).
Now we are faced with another act of nullification by an organ of state government, the State's Supreme Court in the person of its Chief Justice, against the Federal judiciary in general and the Supreme Court of the United States in particular. Interestingly enough, the issue this time around is neither money nor slavery but rather the role of theism in making both Federal and state law.
Following recent rulings of several Courts of Appeals and, in a related case, the "Defense of Marriage Act," that of the Supreme Court, a Federal District Court judge ruled that the provision of the Alabama constitution banning same-sex marriage violates the U.S. Constitution. The Alabama Attorney General applied for a stay to the Supreme Court, pending its expected nation-wide ruling on the matter scheduled for the Spring, and that application was denied. It was then generally expected that gay marriage would move forward in Alabama. Not so fast, said Chief Justice Moore. Legal marriage in Alabama is under the jurisdiction of a slice of the Alabama judiciary called "Probate Court Judges," and at least some of them were prepared to go ahead and marry gay couples (and a few did). But Judge Moore said "no you don't." Even though a Federal Court had handed down a ruling and the Supreme Court refused to grant a stay, Judge Moore ordered the Probate Court Judges not to perform marriages of gay couples.
There are many issues in play here. But the central one is this. In Alabama, whatever churches might do in terms of ceremonies, legal marriage is clearly a civil institution, governed by civil, not theistic, law, and implemented by Probate Court Judges operating under a body of civil law. Found in the 14th Amendment to the Constitution is the following proviso: "No State shall . . . deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws." However, Chief Justice Moore does not see the difference between civil marriage and religious marriage. He has made it very clear that his personal opinion about what the nature of marriage is based on his personal religious beliefs. He stated that forthrightly in an interview with Chris Cuomo of CNN between 8:30 and 9:00AM EST on Feb. 12, 2015.
For the Judge, it is his religion that tells him what the nature of marriage is: "between one man and one woman, as ordained by God" and in his case, based on other statements he has made over time, that would be a Christian God, in the sense that he means "Christian God." (Of course, "Christian" means many things to many people. Many gay folks who marry one another regard themselves as Christians and there are many Christian pastors who marry gay couples. But that is a discussion for another time.) Interestingly enough, the Judge did not attempt to use the Constitution to back up his argument. For on the one hand there is that inconvenient 14th Amendment and on the other neither the word "God" nor the word "Christian" appear in it. Rather the Judge falls back on a document that the Christian Right is increasingly trying to use to support its arguments, that is the Declaration of Independence.
There are two problems with this one. First, the Declaration, as grand and historically important as it is, is not part of the Constitution and has no governing power. Second, while the word "God" does appear in it, it used in the context of the terms "Laws of Nature and Nature's God" as entitling "one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another. . . "That doesn't help the theists much. So Judge Moore falls back on the famous "endowed by their Creator" clause. The problem for him there is a) in this context the drafters specifically used the term "Creator" rather than "God," and b) the word "Creator" can mean anything. For me, as a reasonist, (yes, that, not "atheist" is the opposite of "theist," but that too is a discussion for another time) "Creator" means the universal laws of biology, chemistry, and physics.
Of course, Judge Moore would have none of this. His God, or rather his concept of "God," tells him what is right and what's wrong that's that . As it was put by Richard Fausset of The New York Times, " 'Now we see the federal courts moving to take away institutions ordained of God, and recognized by the people for hundreds and even thousands of years before this country came into being,' [Judge Moore] said. The definition of marriage, he said, should not be left to federal judges. 'Courts are just people,' he said. 'They're just men and women dressed in black robes who have no power to re-declare, or declare, the social foundation of this nation as being unconstitutional.' "
Except that many of us in the U.S. either do not see marriage as an "institution ordained by God," or if we do, we, such as the many Christian gay couples who are married, see it quite differently than Judge Moore does. And that is one of other reasons we have a court system, to sort out problems like this one, within the boundaries of the Constitution in general, and in this case very particularly within the provisions of the Equal Protection clause of the 14th Amendment.
And so, we've had nullification of Federal law by a state over tariffs, by several states over slavery, and now by a state Supreme Court Chief Justice over marriage and its definition as a theistic concept or a civil legal concept, or as it actually is in all states, except for some when it comes to same-sex marriage, both.
On February 25, 2103, after this column was originally written, I came across the
following item at ThinkProgress.org: A majority of Republican primary voters want to
"Establish Christianity as the National Religion." Just think of that, and take that, ISIS and Sharia Law! And hey, do you, reader, really think that
the Second Civil War is NOT coming? | 1,639 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Henry VIII and his father can be compared by looking at the way they both handled similar situations and how they reacted in comparable events. One would think that father and son would be fairly similar in all aspects, but and Henry VII and Henry VIII could not have been much more different from one another.The first policy to examine is Henry VII and Henry VIII views and actions towards foreign policy. Henry VII tried to avoid war wherever possible while his son on the other hand saw war as the only way to solve certain problems. Henry VII didn’t see the glory side to warfare but the financial side and so he merely saw war as a huge loss of money. Henry VII was also a very cautious man and he did not like taking risk if it could have deputised his position on the throne.Henry VII attitude to warfare was realistic, instead of wanting to re-conquer France like his son did; he decided to make peace so as to mainly decrease the risk of any conspiracies against the throne. His son, Henry VIII, on the other hand had more of boisterous character and he enjoyed to pursue his dynastic rights, very unlike his father. He saw himself as such great warriors as Henry V and King Arthur and he aspired to be remembered, like them, for his courage and bravery. Henry VIII wanted almost the opposite to that of his father because he wanted to recover the French empire. In 1512 Henry’s troops attempted to invade Aquitaine in the south of France, however this campaign fell apart when his troops contracted dysentery and due to their lack of discipline they got drunk and deserted Henry. In 1513 Henry and his troops did succeed in seizing the small towns of Therouanne and Tournai in the north of France.These two gains did not greatly improve Henry’s interests yet he still saw it as the beginning of recovering his French empire, not matter how small the gain. Henry VIII views on warfare were unrealistic because he compared England’s tiny resources to that of a great power like France. Thomas Wolsey, Henry’s advisor took to a tactic of switching allies so as to improve England’s chances of being on the winning side. This way England were more likely to receive much needed gains of money and his small troops would not see too many losses. Henry spent vast amounts of money on warfare and constantly borrowed money from parliament by the selling of monastic lands and the debasement of coinage.Henry continued to spend and didn’t stop to think how he would go about paying all this money back. Between the years 1511-1513 Henry VIII spent �960,000 on warfare when his ordinary income a year was approximately �110,000. Henry was trying to compare himself with much wealthier monarchs such as Francis I and Charles V. Henry VII and Henry VIII foreign policies could not of differed much more, Henry VIII being so adventurous wanted glory and victory whereas his father wanted peace and protection.Henry VII domestic policy was based on financial security and economic stability. He surrounded himself with loyal councillors although he was a very independent man. Henry worked on a basis of efficiency and his main aim was to bring back order to the country after 85 years of civil war. Henry made such changes as reducing the power of feudal lords, increasing foreign trade, introducing a Privy Council and a Star Chamber. Henry VII did not ask too much of the people of England and realistically returned order into the country. Henry also kept a distance between himself and his councillors because he was quite mistrusting. His son on the other hand had grown up with many of his ministers and so developed a close relationship with them all. Henry VIII relied heavily upon his councillors to do the work because Henry was not business like and disliked working.Henry VIII much preferred to take part in the court entertainment such as jousting and hunting. Cardinal Thomas Wolsey was Henrys closest advisor who made such decisions to increase taxes so as to fund Henry’s wild ambitions of warfare. England was small meaning so was its tax base and when taxes were increased, this triggered off revolts making Henry VIII quite unpopular. Henry worked for around a mere one hour everyday making him deeply dependent on his ministers. This system worked well for Henry because if any policies proved to be unpopular, he could then blame his minister even when he might have agreed. On some occasions Henry had ministers executed so as to add to the appearance of his ministers being guilty of passing the policy and not himself. Henry VIII led a very disorganised and unreliable domestic policy when his father had previously worked so hard to bring order to the country.Henry VII was a Roman Catholic and had no major feelings of attitudes towards the Church. Conversely his son was the reason for the Protestant reformation in England even though he was a Roman Catholic. Henry was religious and for example when he married his brother’s widow he was worried that they would be cursed with no male heir. Henry VIII wanted to put a stop to the growing power of the Church by passing certain laws, one of which meant priests could now only be associated with one church. Henry also ordered for a number of monasteries within England to be destroyed. This reformation led to a severe divide between Roman Catholics and Protestants which in turn triggered a number of wars. Henry would eventually make himself the Supreme Head of Church in England just so that he could have his own way and divorce his wife. Henry VIII was not a deeply religious man but he did see his rule as being led by God and also claimed that he was spoken to by God at times. Henry VII wanted peace and therefore left the Church alone, yet Henry was only interested in authority of kings and wanted power from the Church, so as to making himself the most powerful man in England. Henry VIII reinforced imperial kingship, which placed the king next to God in importance on Earth.Henry VII changed England from a poor country to that of a very wealthy one. A majority of the financial work was done by him and he had noexperience to help him. Henry saw the strength of the Crown as a reflection of financial strength. Henry VII was no miser because his court was very luxurious and lavish, he was however a realist making his revenue so large because of his cautious foreign policy. The main sources of revenue were the royal estates and a policy of wardship. Disobedience on the nobles’ behalf was punished by fines which added to Henry’s revenue as well. Henry VIII attitudes to financial policy were completely different because there was no particular policy. Henry quickly squandered all the money his father had carefully saved on aimless wars. Henry VIII then relied on money granted from Parliament in the form of selling monastic lands and debasing the coinage. Henry was closely dependent on his councillors to do a majority of the work while Henry took more of an interest in music, art and women. Henry VIII lack of structure led to his loss of financial security which his father had left for him. Henry VIII was irresponsible and his strong desire to recover his French empire rendered him heavily in debt, a debt which he kindly left his children to sort out. While Henry VII was wise a careful, his son was adventurous, reckless and negligent.Henry VII kept the upper hand over the nobility by knowing he couldn’t trust them meant he kept his distance. Henry prevented the re-emergence of ‘super nobles’ as a group by refusing to distribute royal estates in return for their support. Henry had a policy to punish the nobility with fines if they disobeyed him but not to reward them if they proved to be loyal. Henry VIII used a more violent technique to secure the nobles loyalty, his punishment was not a fine, but execution. Henry VIII was a friendly man at times and enjoyed to take part in activities with his noblemen such as jousting, hunting and tennis. Henry enjoyed their company because he had grown up with most of them and so general atmosphere was relaxed and happy. However if a noble was to raise an opinion that perhaps Henry did not agree to or they disobeyed him then he would usually have them executed. Yet on the other hand Henry relied on the nobility because they made up a vast majority of his army, so it was the nobility that allowed him to pursue his claim to the French throne.Henry VIII policies diverged from that of his father’s quite considerably. Henry VII was an organised and cautious king, who carefully thought out plans before carrying them out. Henry VII put the people of England and his son’s future first before his own. He chose to focus on financially stabilising the country instead of gallivanting across Europe. Henry VIII however, was a young and immature king during 1509-1515 and wanted to be known as a great warrior just like Henry V or King Arthur. Henry VIII hastily spent his father’s money on aimless wars and inconsiderately ran up huge debts which his children would need to sort out. Henry remained to be boisterous throughout his reign in England. Henry VIII and his father could not have been more different to one another; it was mainly due to their opposite personalities which made their policies differ so greatly. While Henry VII was king, he barely saw his son and so it was probably due to this separation that father and son turned out to be such different people. | <urn:uuid:baa76172-d105-4ad6-914e-1736bfe91730> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://woodstock-online.com/essay-to-what-extent-did-the-policies-of-henry-viii-diverge-from-that-of-his-father-in-period-1509-1515/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00538.warc.gz | en | 0.99253 | 1,910 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.548603475093... | 2 | Henry VIII and his father can be compared by looking at the way they both handled similar situations and how they reacted in comparable events. One would think that father and son would be fairly similar in all aspects, but and Henry VII and Henry VIII could not have been much more different from one another.The first policy to examine is Henry VII and Henry VIII views and actions towards foreign policy. Henry VII tried to avoid war wherever possible while his son on the other hand saw war as the only way to solve certain problems. Henry VII didn’t see the glory side to warfare but the financial side and so he merely saw war as a huge loss of money. Henry VII was also a very cautious man and he did not like taking risk if it could have deputised his position on the throne.Henry VII attitude to warfare was realistic, instead of wanting to re-conquer France like his son did; he decided to make peace so as to mainly decrease the risk of any conspiracies against the throne. His son, Henry VIII, on the other hand had more of boisterous character and he enjoyed to pursue his dynastic rights, very unlike his father. He saw himself as such great warriors as Henry V and King Arthur and he aspired to be remembered, like them, for his courage and bravery. Henry VIII wanted almost the opposite to that of his father because he wanted to recover the French empire. In 1512 Henry’s troops attempted to invade Aquitaine in the south of France, however this campaign fell apart when his troops contracted dysentery and due to their lack of discipline they got drunk and deserted Henry. In 1513 Henry and his troops did succeed in seizing the small towns of Therouanne and Tournai in the north of France.These two gains did not greatly improve Henry’s interests yet he still saw it as the beginning of recovering his French empire, not matter how small the gain. Henry VIII views on warfare were unrealistic because he compared England’s tiny resources to that of a great power like France. Thomas Wolsey, Henry’s advisor took to a tactic of switching allies so as to improve England’s chances of being on the winning side. This way England were more likely to receive much needed gains of money and his small troops would not see too many losses. Henry spent vast amounts of money on warfare and constantly borrowed money from parliament by the selling of monastic lands and the debasement of coinage.Henry continued to spend and didn’t stop to think how he would go about paying all this money back. Between the years 1511-1513 Henry VIII spent �960,000 on warfare when his ordinary income a year was approximately �110,000. Henry was trying to compare himself with much wealthier monarchs such as Francis I and Charles V. Henry VII and Henry VIII foreign policies could not of differed much more, Henry VIII being so adventurous wanted glory and victory whereas his father wanted peace and protection.Henry VII domestic policy was based on financial security and economic stability. He surrounded himself with loyal councillors although he was a very independent man. Henry worked on a basis of efficiency and his main aim was to bring back order to the country after 85 years of civil war. Henry made such changes as reducing the power of feudal lords, increasing foreign trade, introducing a Privy Council and a Star Chamber. Henry VII did not ask too much of the people of England and realistically returned order into the country. Henry also kept a distance between himself and his councillors because he was quite mistrusting. His son on the other hand had grown up with many of his ministers and so developed a close relationship with them all. Henry VIII relied heavily upon his councillors to do the work because Henry was not business like and disliked working.Henry VIII much preferred to take part in the court entertainment such as jousting and hunting. Cardinal Thomas Wolsey was Henrys closest advisor who made such decisions to increase taxes so as to fund Henry’s wild ambitions of warfare. England was small meaning so was its tax base and when taxes were increased, this triggered off revolts making Henry VIII quite unpopular. Henry worked for around a mere one hour everyday making him deeply dependent on his ministers. This system worked well for Henry because if any policies proved to be unpopular, he could then blame his minister even when he might have agreed. On some occasions Henry had ministers executed so as to add to the appearance of his ministers being guilty of passing the policy and not himself. Henry VIII led a very disorganised and unreliable domestic policy when his father had previously worked so hard to bring order to the country.Henry VII was a Roman Catholic and had no major feelings of attitudes towards the Church. Conversely his son was the reason for the Protestant reformation in England even though he was a Roman Catholic. Henry was religious and for example when he married his brother’s widow he was worried that they would be cursed with no male heir. Henry VIII wanted to put a stop to the growing power of the Church by passing certain laws, one of which meant priests could now only be associated with one church. Henry also ordered for a number of monasteries within England to be destroyed. This reformation led to a severe divide between Roman Catholics and Protestants which in turn triggered a number of wars. Henry would eventually make himself the Supreme Head of Church in England just so that he could have his own way and divorce his wife. Henry VIII was not a deeply religious man but he did see his rule as being led by God and also claimed that he was spoken to by God at times. Henry VII wanted peace and therefore left the Church alone, yet Henry was only interested in authority of kings and wanted power from the Church, so as to making himself the most powerful man in England. Henry VIII reinforced imperial kingship, which placed the king next to God in importance on Earth.Henry VII changed England from a poor country to that of a very wealthy one. A majority of the financial work was done by him and he had noexperience to help him. Henry saw the strength of the Crown as a reflection of financial strength. Henry VII was no miser because his court was very luxurious and lavish, he was however a realist making his revenue so large because of his cautious foreign policy. The main sources of revenue were the royal estates and a policy of wardship. Disobedience on the nobles’ behalf was punished by fines which added to Henry’s revenue as well. Henry VIII attitudes to financial policy were completely different because there was no particular policy. Henry quickly squandered all the money his father had carefully saved on aimless wars. Henry VIII then relied on money granted from Parliament in the form of selling monastic lands and debasing the coinage. Henry was closely dependent on his councillors to do a majority of the work while Henry took more of an interest in music, art and women. Henry VIII lack of structure led to his loss of financial security which his father had left for him. Henry VIII was irresponsible and his strong desire to recover his French empire rendered him heavily in debt, a debt which he kindly left his children to sort out. While Henry VII was wise a careful, his son was adventurous, reckless and negligent.Henry VII kept the upper hand over the nobility by knowing he couldn’t trust them meant he kept his distance. Henry prevented the re-emergence of ‘super nobles’ as a group by refusing to distribute royal estates in return for their support. Henry had a policy to punish the nobility with fines if they disobeyed him but not to reward them if they proved to be loyal. Henry VIII used a more violent technique to secure the nobles loyalty, his punishment was not a fine, but execution. Henry VIII was a friendly man at times and enjoyed to take part in activities with his noblemen such as jousting, hunting and tennis. Henry enjoyed their company because he had grown up with most of them and so general atmosphere was relaxed and happy. However if a noble was to raise an opinion that perhaps Henry did not agree to or they disobeyed him then he would usually have them executed. Yet on the other hand Henry relied on the nobility because they made up a vast majority of his army, so it was the nobility that allowed him to pursue his claim to the French throne.Henry VIII policies diverged from that of his father’s quite considerably. Henry VII was an organised and cautious king, who carefully thought out plans before carrying them out. Henry VII put the people of England and his son’s future first before his own. He chose to focus on financially stabilising the country instead of gallivanting across Europe. Henry VIII however, was a young and immature king during 1509-1515 and wanted to be known as a great warrior just like Henry V or King Arthur. Henry VIII hastily spent his father’s money on aimless wars and inconsiderately ran up huge debts which his children would need to sort out. Henry remained to be boisterous throughout his reign in England. Henry VIII and his father could not have been more different to one another; it was mainly due to their opposite personalities which made their policies differ so greatly. While Henry VII was king, he barely saw his son and so it was probably due to this separation that father and son turned out to be such different people. | 1,918 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The ecoregion has no direct land-based sources of contaminants or litter but is influenced by inputs from outside its boundaries, from the atmosphere as well as from ships passing through or visiting the area. Studies indicate that levels of contaminants are below thresholds of concern in sediments and benthic organisms, although there is evidence that they become bio-magnified up the food chain.
From the 1940s to the 1980s, low-level radioactive waste was dumped at several sites in the Oceanic Northeast Atlantic. Disposal sites were all at depths > 2000 m and mostly in the southeastern (outer Bay of Biscay) area. Disposal drums were expected to last between 10 and 40 years, before releasing radioactivity into the surrounding environment. Monitoring of radioactivity sites continued up to the year 2000, but has since ceased. | <urn:uuid:35bd6767-678d-4896-9c9a-835e69204e93> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ices.dk/explore-us/Action%20Areas/ESD/Pages/NEAtlantic_compounds.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00484.warc.gz | en | 0.983479 | 169 | 3.578125 | 4 | [
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0.59560143947601... | 3 | The ecoregion has no direct land-based sources of contaminants or litter but is influenced by inputs from outside its boundaries, from the atmosphere as well as from ships passing through or visiting the area. Studies indicate that levels of contaminants are below thresholds of concern in sediments and benthic organisms, although there is evidence that they become bio-magnified up the food chain.
From the 1940s to the 1980s, low-level radioactive waste was dumped at several sites in the Oceanic Northeast Atlantic. Disposal sites were all at depths > 2000 m and mostly in the southeastern (outer Bay of Biscay) area. Disposal drums were expected to last between 10 and 40 years, before releasing radioactivity into the surrounding environment. Monitoring of radioactivity sites continued up to the year 2000, but has since ceased. | 185 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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One of the judges of Israel. The story of Jephte is narrated in chapters xi and xii of the Book of Judges. He was a warrior of Galaad and the son of a harlot. His father's name was Galaad, who having a wife and other children, these latter thrust out Jephte from the family and he fled to the land of Tob in Eastern Syria. Here he became the leader of a band of "needy men" and robbers who followed him as their prince. At this juncture the Israelitish territory east of the Jordan was invaded by the Ammonites, and the elders of Galaad, being in sore need of a leader to conduct the defence, saw themselves forced to go to Tob and ask Jephte to return and be their prince. After expressing surprise that they should make him such an offer, considering the treatment he had received in his native city, he yielded to their entreaties, but insisted on the condition that, should he be victorious over the Ammonites, his own countrymen would remain faithful to their word and recognize him as their prince. The elders made a solemn promise, and Jephte returned with them to the land of Galaad, where he was made chief by popular acclamation. Before beginning his campaign, Jephte made a vow to the Lord, saying: "If thou wilt deliver the children of Ammon into my hands, whosoever shall first come forth out of the doors of my house, and shall meet me when I return in peace from the children of Ammon, the same will I offer a holocaust to the Lord." After a rather long negotiation with the King of the Ammonites as to Israel's right of possession of the land of Galaad, Jephte led his forces against the invaders and "smote them from Aroer till you come to Mennith, twenty cities, and as far as Abel, which is set with vineyards, with a very great slaughter: and the children of Ammon were humbled by the children of Israel " ( Judges 11:33 ).
On his triumphant return to his home in Maspha, the first person to come forth to meet him is his only daughter, accompanied by a chorus of women. On beholding her he is stricken with alarm and dismay, remembering his rash vow, but he declares that he has opened his mouth to the Lord and cannot do otherwise than fulfil it. The daughter expresses a noble and generous resignation to her fate, but asks a respite of two months that she may "bewail her virginity " in the mountains with her companions. At the expiration of the two months "she returned to her father and he did to her as he had vowed." Whence arose a custom that from year to year the daughters of Israel used to assemble together and lament during four days the daughter of Jephte the Galaadite.
The obvious import of the narrative is that the daughter of Jephte was offered up as a human sacrifice, and in fact, such has been the unanimous interpretation of it in Jewish, as well as in early Christian, tradition. Some modern apologists, however, shocked by the idea that a judge upon whom came "the spirit of the Lord" (xi, 29) could commit so barbarous an act, have endeavoured to prove that the words of Jephte's vow should not be taken literally, but as referring to perpetual celibacy to which his daughter was to be condemned. The arguments to this effect, which are far from convincing, may be found in Vigouroux, "Dictionnaire de la Bible", s.v. They ignore the barbarous ethical condition of the Israelites at that relatively remote epoch–a condition which is evident from other narratives in the same Book of Judges (v.g. that of ch. xix). That human sacrifice was expressly forbidden by the Mosaic Law does not help the argument, for, even granting that the Law then existed at all otherwise than in embryo, which is at least very doubtful, it is plain from the historical books referring to this and subsequent periods that its prescriptions were constantly ignored by the Jewish people. That such rash vows with their dire consequences, and even human sacrifices, were not things unheard of in that stage of Israel's history, may be gathered from such passages as 1 Samuel 14:24 sqq. ; 2 Samuel 21:6-9 ; 2 Kings 16:3 ; etc.
After the conquest of the Ammonites Jephte became involved in a severe conflict with the neighbouring tribesmen of Ephraim who arrogantly complained that they had not been invited to take part in the expedition. Jephte retorted that they had been called upon to assist him but had declined, and the result was a fierce struggle between Ephraim and the men of Galaad in which the latter were victorious. They obtained strategic control of the fords of the Jordan by which the fleeing Ephraimites were obliged to return homeward, and when the fugitives appeared, each one was asked to pronounce the word "shibboleth" (an ear of corn), and if according to the Ephraimitic dialect it was pronounced "sibboleth" the man was immediately put to death. That forty-two thousand Ephraimites were slain on that occasion may be an exaggeration or possibly a change of the text. After a judgeship of six years Jephte died and was buried in his city of Galaad.
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- Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary
Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited.
Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law. | <urn:uuid:cee1ede7-38e0-40a0-abb1-edde8fde784f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=6297 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00242.warc.gz | en | 0.981649 | 1,343 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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One of the judges of Israel. The story of Jephte is narrated in chapters xi and xii of the Book of Judges. He was a warrior of Galaad and the son of a harlot. His father's name was Galaad, who having a wife and other children, these latter thrust out Jephte from the family and he fled to the land of Tob in Eastern Syria. Here he became the leader of a band of "needy men" and robbers who followed him as their prince. At this juncture the Israelitish territory east of the Jordan was invaded by the Ammonites, and the elders of Galaad, being in sore need of a leader to conduct the defence, saw themselves forced to go to Tob and ask Jephte to return and be their prince. After expressing surprise that they should make him such an offer, considering the treatment he had received in his native city, he yielded to their entreaties, but insisted on the condition that, should he be victorious over the Ammonites, his own countrymen would remain faithful to their word and recognize him as their prince. The elders made a solemn promise, and Jephte returned with them to the land of Galaad, where he was made chief by popular acclamation. Before beginning his campaign, Jephte made a vow to the Lord, saying: "If thou wilt deliver the children of Ammon into my hands, whosoever shall first come forth out of the doors of my house, and shall meet me when I return in peace from the children of Ammon, the same will I offer a holocaust to the Lord." After a rather long negotiation with the King of the Ammonites as to Israel's right of possession of the land of Galaad, Jephte led his forces against the invaders and "smote them from Aroer till you come to Mennith, twenty cities, and as far as Abel, which is set with vineyards, with a very great slaughter: and the children of Ammon were humbled by the children of Israel " ( Judges 11:33 ).
On his triumphant return to his home in Maspha, the first person to come forth to meet him is his only daughter, accompanied by a chorus of women. On beholding her he is stricken with alarm and dismay, remembering his rash vow, but he declares that he has opened his mouth to the Lord and cannot do otherwise than fulfil it. The daughter expresses a noble and generous resignation to her fate, but asks a respite of two months that she may "bewail her virginity " in the mountains with her companions. At the expiration of the two months "she returned to her father and he did to her as he had vowed." Whence arose a custom that from year to year the daughters of Israel used to assemble together and lament during four days the daughter of Jephte the Galaadite.
The obvious import of the narrative is that the daughter of Jephte was offered up as a human sacrifice, and in fact, such has been the unanimous interpretation of it in Jewish, as well as in early Christian, tradition. Some modern apologists, however, shocked by the idea that a judge upon whom came "the spirit of the Lord" (xi, 29) could commit so barbarous an act, have endeavoured to prove that the words of Jephte's vow should not be taken literally, but as referring to perpetual celibacy to which his daughter was to be condemned. The arguments to this effect, which are far from convincing, may be found in Vigouroux, "Dictionnaire de la Bible", s.v. They ignore the barbarous ethical condition of the Israelites at that relatively remote epoch–a condition which is evident from other narratives in the same Book of Judges (v.g. that of ch. xix). That human sacrifice was expressly forbidden by the Mosaic Law does not help the argument, for, even granting that the Law then existed at all otherwise than in embryo, which is at least very doubtful, it is plain from the historical books referring to this and subsequent periods that its prescriptions were constantly ignored by the Jewish people. That such rash vows with their dire consequences, and even human sacrifices, were not things unheard of in that stage of Israel's history, may be gathered from such passages as 1 Samuel 14:24 sqq. ; 2 Samuel 21:6-9 ; 2 Kings 16:3 ; etc.
After the conquest of the Ammonites Jephte became involved in a severe conflict with the neighbouring tribesmen of Ephraim who arrogantly complained that they had not been invited to take part in the expedition. Jephte retorted that they had been called upon to assist him but had declined, and the result was a fierce struggle between Ephraim and the men of Galaad in which the latter were victorious. They obtained strategic control of the fords of the Jordan by which the fleeing Ephraimites were obliged to return homeward, and when the fugitives appeared, each one was asked to pronounce the word "shibboleth" (an ear of corn), and if according to the Ephraimitic dialect it was pronounced "sibboleth" the man was immediately put to death. That forty-two thousand Ephraimites were slain on that occasion may be an exaggeration or possibly a change of the text. After a judgeship of six years Jephte died and was buried in his city of Galaad.
FREE Catholic Classes Pick a class, you can learn anything
- Unfailing Prayer to St. Anthony
- The Our Father
- Infant Jesus of Prague Novena Prayer
- The Apostles' Creed
- A Guide for Confession
- Hail Mary
- Litany of the Blessed Virgin Mary
Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited.
Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law. | 1,351 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Until the middle of the 18th century, Bagamoyo was a small, rather insignificant trading center. Trade items were fish, salt and gum among other things. Most of the population consisted of fishermen and farmers.
But Bagamoyo wasn't just a trade center for slaves and trade goods (ivory or copra, which was won from coconuts and was used for the production of soap) or a center for boat building, but also the starting point for the first European "discoverers". They moved out from Bagamoyo to find the source of the River Nile or to explore the inner lakes, which were still shrouded in mystery in those times. Among those who started their journeys from Bagamoyo were: Livingstone, Burton, Speke (who went together with Grant to solve the mystery of the Nile springs), Grant and Stanley (who broke up in 1871 with a crew of 192 and 6 tons of equipment to find the missing Livingston; and later again in 1889 when he retuned from a 3-year expedition with a crew that had been reduced from 708 to 196).
Bagamoyo also became famous through the return of Livingstone: After a march of 9 months from Zambia, Livingston's Zanzibar helpers Abdullah Susi and James Chuma brought his dead body, dried out from the sun (and missing the heart that had already been buried in Zambia) to Bagamoyo on February 15th, 1874 ("Mwili wa Daudi" - "the Body of David"). 700 slaves took their leave of him before he was taken to England where he was buried in Westminster Abbey.
In 1880 Bagamoyo probably had a permanent population of 1,000. But by the year of 1889, when the slave trade was already heavily disputed, more than 1,305 caravans with 41,144 people still passed through Bagamoyo on their way into the center of the country.
At that time, the population of the town consisted mainly of members of the native people of Zaramo and Doe, Shomvi Muslims from Oman, Hindus from India (who worked in administration, or on the coconut plantations and in the boat yards), as well as other Muslims, among them the Ismailites who had settled there in 1840 and whose numbers had grown to 137 by 1870, Sunnites from Zanzibar (shop-owners mostly) and Persian traders. A small group of Catholics mainly worked as tailors.
In 1888 the German East Africa Company signed a treaty with the Sultan of Zanzibar, Seyyid Khalifa, which allowed the company access to the coastal regions. Directly after the treaty was signed, the flagpole of the Sultan in Bagamoyo was cut down - against the heavy resistance of his local representative, who had refused to bring down the Sultan's flag. When in the course of a conflict between the German Company and inhabitants of the town the Usagara warehouse, built at the beach of Bagamoyo, was occupied, the SS Möwe put about 200 Marines on shore to deal with the revolt. More than 100 inhabitants (about 10% of the total population) died.
In the late 19th century Bagamoyo was the most important place on the coast. In 1888 the German colonial forces declared Bagamoyo the capital of the new colony and built the Boma, the German colonial headquarters. But the shallow waters in front of Bagamoyo were the reason that a few years later Dar es Salaam, with its deep-water harbour, became the new German capital city.
The conflict between the town's people and the German colonial lords escalated when the Germans introduced registration of land and property. Never before had such a registration been demanded from the natives and they feared the Germans wanted to take away land from the native population.
That was why the Arab Bomboma organised a rebellion in Bagamoyo with the help of the legendary Bushiri bin Salim al-Harthi, who had once lead Arab troops against the Germans in Tabora. Initially, Bushiri was very successful. Large parts of Bagamoyo were burned down, and Bushiri gathered his troops in front of the city for a general attack.
The German government felt forced to support the German East Africa Company and ordered Hermann von Wissmann to put down Bushiri with his infantry which had been supplemented by Sudanese and Zulus from South Africa. To win time until the arrival of the German troops, the German Admiral Denhardt started negotiations with Bushiri, who demanded the post of governor of the coastal region, monthly payments and the right of to keep his own army.
In May 1889 Wissmann had gathered his troops and had built several fortifications. After several battles the rebellion was put down, in July 1889 the city of Pangani (north of Bagamoyo) was conquered and Bushiri was executed. The leader Bomboma and others met the same fate.
In October 1890 the Germans were granted official land rights for 4 million Mark from the Sultan of Zanzibar, and in the spring of 1891 German East Africa formally became a colony.
Yet, because of the shallow waters in front of Bagamoyo, Dar es Salaam with its deep-water harbour became the new capital city of German East Africa already in April 1891.
From now on the Boma of Bagamoyo served as an administrative center. Many new stone houses were built, as well as a new guard house. Caravan trade stagnated, instead the influence of Indian traders grew. The first Greeks arrived and founded a European hotel in Bagamoyo. The trade company Oswald from Hamburg settled in Bagamoyo, also the company Hansing with their vanilla plantations in Kitomeni and Hurgira. A large Koran school was opened.
With the departure of the Germans from East Africa the role of Bagamoyo as a trade center ended, and for almost 100 years Bagamoyo again became a sleepy town of fishermen and farmers, with slowly rotting colonial buildings, whose (lived-in) ruins remind of the glamorous times of Bagamoyo as the most important coastal town of the region.
Today Bagamoyo has about 35,000 inhabitants and is the capital of the very large District of Bagamoyo.
There are efforts to declare Bagamoyo part of the new UNESCO World Heritage "East African Slaveroute / Bagamoyo"
President Jakaya Kikwete, former minister for foreign affairs, comes from Bagamoyo. | <urn:uuid:f00c6d6a-4555-479e-9360-f383caf75768> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://bagamoyo.com/index.php?id=history_bagamoyo | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00177.warc.gz | en | 0.981012 | 1,358 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.4980342... | 1 | Until the middle of the 18th century, Bagamoyo was a small, rather insignificant trading center. Trade items were fish, salt and gum among other things. Most of the population consisted of fishermen and farmers.
But Bagamoyo wasn't just a trade center for slaves and trade goods (ivory or copra, which was won from coconuts and was used for the production of soap) or a center for boat building, but also the starting point for the first European "discoverers". They moved out from Bagamoyo to find the source of the River Nile or to explore the inner lakes, which were still shrouded in mystery in those times. Among those who started their journeys from Bagamoyo were: Livingstone, Burton, Speke (who went together with Grant to solve the mystery of the Nile springs), Grant and Stanley (who broke up in 1871 with a crew of 192 and 6 tons of equipment to find the missing Livingston; and later again in 1889 when he retuned from a 3-year expedition with a crew that had been reduced from 708 to 196).
Bagamoyo also became famous through the return of Livingstone: After a march of 9 months from Zambia, Livingston's Zanzibar helpers Abdullah Susi and James Chuma brought his dead body, dried out from the sun (and missing the heart that had already been buried in Zambia) to Bagamoyo on February 15th, 1874 ("Mwili wa Daudi" - "the Body of David"). 700 slaves took their leave of him before he was taken to England where he was buried in Westminster Abbey.
In 1880 Bagamoyo probably had a permanent population of 1,000. But by the year of 1889, when the slave trade was already heavily disputed, more than 1,305 caravans with 41,144 people still passed through Bagamoyo on their way into the center of the country.
At that time, the population of the town consisted mainly of members of the native people of Zaramo and Doe, Shomvi Muslims from Oman, Hindus from India (who worked in administration, or on the coconut plantations and in the boat yards), as well as other Muslims, among them the Ismailites who had settled there in 1840 and whose numbers had grown to 137 by 1870, Sunnites from Zanzibar (shop-owners mostly) and Persian traders. A small group of Catholics mainly worked as tailors.
In 1888 the German East Africa Company signed a treaty with the Sultan of Zanzibar, Seyyid Khalifa, which allowed the company access to the coastal regions. Directly after the treaty was signed, the flagpole of the Sultan in Bagamoyo was cut down - against the heavy resistance of his local representative, who had refused to bring down the Sultan's flag. When in the course of a conflict between the German Company and inhabitants of the town the Usagara warehouse, built at the beach of Bagamoyo, was occupied, the SS Möwe put about 200 Marines on shore to deal with the revolt. More than 100 inhabitants (about 10% of the total population) died.
In the late 19th century Bagamoyo was the most important place on the coast. In 1888 the German colonial forces declared Bagamoyo the capital of the new colony and built the Boma, the German colonial headquarters. But the shallow waters in front of Bagamoyo were the reason that a few years later Dar es Salaam, with its deep-water harbour, became the new German capital city.
The conflict between the town's people and the German colonial lords escalated when the Germans introduced registration of land and property. Never before had such a registration been demanded from the natives and they feared the Germans wanted to take away land from the native population.
That was why the Arab Bomboma organised a rebellion in Bagamoyo with the help of the legendary Bushiri bin Salim al-Harthi, who had once lead Arab troops against the Germans in Tabora. Initially, Bushiri was very successful. Large parts of Bagamoyo were burned down, and Bushiri gathered his troops in front of the city for a general attack.
The German government felt forced to support the German East Africa Company and ordered Hermann von Wissmann to put down Bushiri with his infantry which had been supplemented by Sudanese and Zulus from South Africa. To win time until the arrival of the German troops, the German Admiral Denhardt started negotiations with Bushiri, who demanded the post of governor of the coastal region, monthly payments and the right of to keep his own army.
In May 1889 Wissmann had gathered his troops and had built several fortifications. After several battles the rebellion was put down, in July 1889 the city of Pangani (north of Bagamoyo) was conquered and Bushiri was executed. The leader Bomboma and others met the same fate.
In October 1890 the Germans were granted official land rights for 4 million Mark from the Sultan of Zanzibar, and in the spring of 1891 German East Africa formally became a colony.
Yet, because of the shallow waters in front of Bagamoyo, Dar es Salaam with its deep-water harbour became the new capital city of German East Africa already in April 1891.
From now on the Boma of Bagamoyo served as an administrative center. Many new stone houses were built, as well as a new guard house. Caravan trade stagnated, instead the influence of Indian traders grew. The first Greeks arrived and founded a European hotel in Bagamoyo. The trade company Oswald from Hamburg settled in Bagamoyo, also the company Hansing with their vanilla plantations in Kitomeni and Hurgira. A large Koran school was opened.
With the departure of the Germans from East Africa the role of Bagamoyo as a trade center ended, and for almost 100 years Bagamoyo again became a sleepy town of fishermen and farmers, with slowly rotting colonial buildings, whose (lived-in) ruins remind of the glamorous times of Bagamoyo as the most important coastal town of the region.
Today Bagamoyo has about 35,000 inhabitants and is the capital of the very large District of Bagamoyo.
There are efforts to declare Bagamoyo part of the new UNESCO World Heritage "East African Slaveroute / Bagamoyo"
President Jakaya Kikwete, former minister for foreign affairs, comes from Bagamoyo. | 1,410 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A Separate Peace: Contrasting Gene and Phineas and the Struggle for Po
John Knowles' A Separate Peace depicts many examples of how power is used. In A Separate Peace, two opposing characters struggle for their own separate might. Gene Forrester, the reserved narrator, is weakened by his struggle for power. While, Phineas was inspired by his own power within. The novel conveys how peace can weaken or inspire during a mental war. Phineas, a natural rebel, is known as the best athlete in school. For example, he and three others come to look at a tree, which is considered among the Upper Middler students at Devon an impossibility. Phineas demonstrates his supreme power by stating that the tree is, indeed, a "cinch" …show more content…
School to recollect his past memories of the summer session when he was sixteen years old. As stated before, Phineas was considered the best athlete in school, but Gene tried to compensate by being the best student in school. Gene's continuous competition with Phineas weakened his personality, hence causing
Gene's rebellion on Phineas. Gene begins to think that his purpose is "to become part of Phineas" (p.77). Phineas states that Gene has to play sports now for him. Then, Gene realizes that this must have been his purpose in pushing Phineas off the limb. He is to become part of him. Consequently, in wounding Phineas, Gene has brought Phineas down to his level or below it, so that Phineas will be partly dependent upon Gene and, in this way, Gene can become a part of Phineas' life. Nevertheless, in the beginning of the book, Gene describes the overwhelming feeling of jumping off the tree. It seemed as if he
"was throwing [his] life away" (p.9). It's ironic that Gene would say this because it symbolizes his life after Phineas' accident. The accident destroyed
Phineas' life and it took a part of Gene's life, too. His life totally and drastically is changed because Phineas is all he has. Without Phineas, he has no life nor personality. He and Phineas are one. His life is formless and void.
Gene developed a hatred for Phineas because of this reason. | <urn:uuid:ffb82543-2f7f-4576-ac6b-8a4a8c35fa5b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cram.com/essay/a-Separate-Peace-Contrasting-Gene-And/PKASVM3XJ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00047.warc.gz | en | 0.980453 | 492 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.21483953297... | 1 | A Separate Peace: Contrasting Gene and Phineas and the Struggle for Po
John Knowles' A Separate Peace depicts many examples of how power is used. In A Separate Peace, two opposing characters struggle for their own separate might. Gene Forrester, the reserved narrator, is weakened by his struggle for power. While, Phineas was inspired by his own power within. The novel conveys how peace can weaken or inspire during a mental war. Phineas, a natural rebel, is known as the best athlete in school. For example, he and three others come to look at a tree, which is considered among the Upper Middler students at Devon an impossibility. Phineas demonstrates his supreme power by stating that the tree is, indeed, a "cinch" …show more content…
School to recollect his past memories of the summer session when he was sixteen years old. As stated before, Phineas was considered the best athlete in school, but Gene tried to compensate by being the best student in school. Gene's continuous competition with Phineas weakened his personality, hence causing
Gene's rebellion on Phineas. Gene begins to think that his purpose is "to become part of Phineas" (p.77). Phineas states that Gene has to play sports now for him. Then, Gene realizes that this must have been his purpose in pushing Phineas off the limb. He is to become part of him. Consequently, in wounding Phineas, Gene has brought Phineas down to his level or below it, so that Phineas will be partly dependent upon Gene and, in this way, Gene can become a part of Phineas' life. Nevertheless, in the beginning of the book, Gene describes the overwhelming feeling of jumping off the tree. It seemed as if he
"was throwing [his] life away" (p.9). It's ironic that Gene would say this because it symbolizes his life after Phineas' accident. The accident destroyed
Phineas' life and it took a part of Gene's life, too. His life totally and drastically is changed because Phineas is all he has. Without Phineas, he has no life nor personality. He and Phineas are one. His life is formless and void.
Gene developed a hatred for Phineas because of this reason. | 492 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Joanne O'Brien, ICOREC
The civilization of Ancient Egypt flourished for more than 3,000 years. In the pre-dynastic period Egypt was divided into the kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt, the King of Upper Egypt wore the white crown and the King of Lower Egypt wore the red crown. After years of bitter struggle between the kings of the north and the south, the north was finally defeated, Egypt was united under the Southerner, Menes, and the first dynasty was founded around 3100 BCE. The memory of a pre-dynastic Egypt lived on in the pharaohs' title King of Upper and Lower Egypt. The most important periods of Egyptian history are divided into thirty two dynasties which extend from the beginning of the literate period, under the rule of Menes, until Egypt became a Roman province around 30 BCE. The successive pharaohs of Egypt were divided into these dynasties. Throughout her history Egypt passed through periods of turbulent political upheaval and times of peace, power and prosperity. The most stable and productive periods of Egyptian history are marked by the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms. At the end of the New Kingdom Egypt suffered a series of foreign invasions and rulers and the great periods of Egyptian civilization went into decline.
Life in Ancient Egypt revolved around the towns and villages of Egypt which nestled alongside the River Nile. On either side of the river the lands were green and fertile but beyond these narrow strips of land the hot dry desert stretched as far as the horizon. Once the harvest had been collected even the fertile land became hard and dry under the hot desert sun. By late Spring, when the land was desperately parched, the River Nile began to rise. The waters rose gradually, slowly creeping over the land until the fields were hidden from view. When the waters began to recede, leaving behind a thick black layer of silt, villagers and workmen took up their tools and set to work on the land, clearing, digging, surveying, ploughing and planting. The land of Egypt could once more flower with new life, the people would be fed, the taxes paid and the royal granaries well stocked. Each year the land which had been dead was given new life, so at the time of the yearly flood the people celebrated the festival of Osiris, the god of vegetation. The pharaoh, the priests and the people sang, danced and performed plays in his honor, praying for a rich and fruitful harvest. Osiris would give new life to the land, he would also give new life to those who had died, for he was the god of the underworld and he welcomed the dead to his land, the Land of the West.
Until the Middle Kingdom the land of Upper and Lower Egypt was divided into forty two administrative areas known as nomes (maps of the nomes of Lower and Upper Egypt, 6Kb) each governed by a nomarch. The officials of each nome assessed and collected the taxes which were due on the lands which did not belong to the temples and sorted out any minor legal problems in the towns and villages. In theory, the pharaoh owned all the land in Egypt but he gave gifts of land to his favorite subjects. Every large town had at least one temple and the fertile temple lands were exempt from certain taxes and given many privileges. In addition, the king presented foreign booty to the temples and as a result the priesthood became both powerful and wealthy. Sometimes, particularly in the New Kingdom, the power of the priesthood threatened the power of the king himself. The temple was primarily the house of the god cared for by the priesthood and the position of priest was hereditary, though many of the priests had another profession. A doctor could be a priest of Sekhmet, goddess of disease and epidemic, and a lawyer could be a priest of Ma'at, goddess of truth and justice. Once trained these priests would return annually to the temple where they performed religious duties as well as teaching and debating in the universities attached to the temple. These educational institutions were known as the Houses of Life. Doctors, scientists, lawyers, mathematicians and scribes learned their professions alongside each other in the House of Life and religion was interwoven in all these subjects.
The Egyptians put great emphasis on education because it was a means of escaping dirty and often dangerous menial jobs. Before acquiring a profession it was essential to know how to read and write. Ancient Egyptian writing is known as hieroglyphs. Although schoolchildren spent endless hours copying out hieroglyphic literature it was only after training in the House of Life that the scribe could fully master the hieroglyphic script. The Egyptians worked out mathematical formulae for purely practical reasons. They had to know how to divide land and measure area, it was essential to keep exact measurements when the pyramids, tombs or temples were built. While the plans for a building were drawn up by the architects and mathematicians, the workers were busy quarrying the stones. The most common building stones were sandstone, granite and limestone. Since the River Nile was the main highway in Egypt the stones were placed on flat-bottomed barges and floated up the river to the spot nearest the building site. The horse and chariot were not introduced into Egypt until the Middle to New Kingdom but even then the river was the best highway for heavy cargo. With the use of ramps, pulleys and roller sledges the enormous stones were eased up the river banks. The monumental tombs and temples took many years to build so the pharaoh would begin work on his pyramid or tomb during his lifetime. The pyramids were built in layers with the four sides tapering equally. Smooth pathways of earth were laid over stretches of stones so that the stones could be heaved up on sledges with rollers beneath. The Egyptians used the of the human body to determine set lengths; the main measurement was the cubit, equivalent to a man's forearm from the elbow to the tip of the outstretched middle finger.
The desert edge and the eastern hills of Egypt were a rich source of stone which could be cut for use in monumental buildings, for statues or for delicate cosmetic dishes. Stone dishes, particularly alabaster dishes, were made mainly for burial in tombs whereas clay was the material for everyday domestic use. Often the Ancient Egyptians used minerals to paint pots, walls and coffins. For example, soot charcoal could be used for black paint, powdered malachite for green, iron oxide for pink and red ochre for the bright reds. The pigments were ground with a pestle on stone palettes and mixed with water and with glue, gum or egg for adhesive. The abundant clay of the River Nile was combined with water, straw and other vegetable matter to make bricks, the common building material for houses. Clay from the Nile and from the desert wadis was fired to make ceramic storage jars, pots and bowls. Many of the pots were simple, practical and unpainted, designed for use in the home. The Ancient Egyptians were particularly fond of jewelry for decoration in this life and the next. Necklaces, beads, earrings and amulets were made from gold, silver, shell, carnelian, turquoise, amethyst and other precious and semi-precious stones and metals.
Jewelry was worn by both men and women, particularly on festive occasions but the Egyptians wore very little jewelry and clothing for everyday work in the fields. Most peasants would have worn a small cloth girdle and frequently worked naked. Farming was an important source of labor in Egypt particularly for the people in small villages dotted along the Nile. There was also a demand for craftsmen in the villages or in government workshops. Precious stones were cut and carved to make jewelry for the nobles and the royal family, stonemasons were busy fashioning stones into statues, vases and bowls, carpenters carved fine furniture and statues for houses, temples and tombs. Everybody worked to provide goods for this life as well as the next. The Ancient Egyptians could not imagine the afterlife to be any different from this life. They thought they would still need food, furniture and clothing and to have someone else to plow their lands and prepare their food. So those who could afford it put servant statuettes in their tombs to carry out these tasks. Even the owner of the tomb was usually buried with a statue of himself in case anything should happen to his body. At the burial the officiating priest brought everything to life with sacred words and gestures, this ceremony was known as "the opening of the mouth."
The fertile land of Egypt was scarce and therefore very precious so the dead were buried on the outskirts of towns and villages. In the earliest times they were buried in shallow oval pits dug in the sand with a few goods which they would need in the afterlife: some food, bowls and jewelry. The sun was scorching hot and the sand extremely dry so bodies dried out very quickly. It is possible that sandstorms revealed dead relatives perfectly preserved, this may have been why the people believed that their bodies must be preserved in order to reach the next life. Ancient Egyptian burial became more and more elaborate as time went on. The dead were buried deeper often within a stone chamber and special buildings were put up to mark the grave. These buildings looked like long, low benches and are called "mastabas", an Arabic word for bench. Since the bodies were far away from the drying effects of the sun the skin would rot and eventually all that was left was a skeleton. A way of preserving the body was found through trial and error and the Egyptians learned how to dry out the body so that the skin and hair stayed as it had been in life. This process is known as mummification. During mummification the internal organs were removed by the embalmers through a cut in the lower left hand side of the body. The organs and the body were dried out with a special type of salt known as natron. They were then treated with fragrant spices and perfumes and eventually wrapped in bandages. Special prayers were said over the bandages because each bandage was important, charms were placed next to the skin and between the bandages. These charms are known as "amulets", an Arabic word which means "something which is carried". In life the Ancient Egyptians carried amulets to protect different parts of their bodies and they believed that amulets would ward off evil in the afterlife too.
The pharaoh was far greater than ordinary Egyptians, he was believed to be the son of the great sun god Re. At death the pharaoh joined the sun god in his day boat as he sailed across the sky. At night the sun god changed to his night boat which sailed through the underworld. The pharaohs of the Old Kingdom built huge pyramids of stone which some people thought were like shafts of light coming from the sky, others said it was the place where the pharaoh climbed up to join the sun god. The pharaoh was buried deep inside the pyramid surrounded by all the things he would need for the next life. The pyramids could be seen from great distances and were an easy target for thieves who could break into them at night. The later pharaohs wanted their burials to be safer so they cut their tombs deep into rocks in secret places but even so the thieves found ways of breaking into them.
The sun god Re was one of the most important and oldest gods in Ancient Egypt but there were many others, some were human, some animals while others had animal heads and human bodies. There were favorite gods who would be worshipped on special occasions or in special places. The jackal-headed god Anubis was the god of embalming and guarded the burial place - the necropolis; Seth was the pig god, the evil brother of Osiris, who brought disease and violence; Thoth was the ibis-headed god, the god of writing and wisdom; Horus was the falcon god, son of Osiris and Isis. One god who had an important place in the everyday life of the Ancient Egyptians was the household god, Bes. Bes was depicted as a dwarf deity with ' leonine features and he was affectionately portrayed on bowls, head-rests, mirror handles and other domestic objects. The temple was the house of the god. Each temple was built in the style of the first temple, a simple reed shrine. Tall stone columns carved in the shape of lotus flowers or papyrus buds rose high above the officiating priests. The temples were dark, lit only by windows high up on the walls. The ceilings were painted with stars and the walls were covered in sacred inscriptions and carvings of the gods. The main god of the temple had his sanctuary at the back of the temple and each day the pharaoh or the high priest approached the god's sanctuary to perform the Daily Temple Ritual. The god was washed, fed and dressed and then offered prayers and incense. This important ritual was carried out three times a day in every temple in Egypt.
The monumental temples of Egypt must have appeared daunting to the majority of ordinary people but popular cults did develop around architectural features of the temple. At Memphis, for example, there was a cult of Horus "on the corner of the southern door". Other popular cults grew around the posthumous reputation of famous people, for example, Imhotep, a renowned physician and architect of the third dynasty step pyramid at Saqqara was later worshipped as the god of medicine. Magic also played a central role in Egyptian religion for rich and poor alike. Ritual words, gestures and objects were believed to carry considerable power.
Throughout Egyptian history new gods were accepted into the extensive Egyptian pantheon. At times, however, the literature of the New Kingdom indicates the recognition of a central power behind these countless deities, a power which could be reflected in many forms. This was particularly evident after the reign of the 18th dynasty pharaoh Amenophis IV, who changed his name to Akhenaten and tried to introduce the worship of the Aten as the official Egyptian religion. The Aten's creative power was manifested in the disc of the sun and the pharaoh Akhenaten was his sole representative on earth. After Akhenaten's death there was a move back to traditional cultural practices.
Throughout Egyptian history the diversity of the Egyptian pantheon was welcomed by both the powerful and the humble. The gods permeated most areas of Egyptian life; they could help in sickness and in times of sadness, they could be a cause for celebration or be used as a political tool. Whatever their role they were an essential part of Egyptian life. | <urn:uuid:621535fe-fade-4155-ac03-abd50a21ec46> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.egyptianmyths.net/aegypt.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00493.warc.gz | en | 0.985568 | 3,000 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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The civilization of Ancient Egypt flourished for more than 3,000 years. In the pre-dynastic period Egypt was divided into the kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt, the King of Upper Egypt wore the white crown and the King of Lower Egypt wore the red crown. After years of bitter struggle between the kings of the north and the south, the north was finally defeated, Egypt was united under the Southerner, Menes, and the first dynasty was founded around 3100 BCE. The memory of a pre-dynastic Egypt lived on in the pharaohs' title King of Upper and Lower Egypt. The most important periods of Egyptian history are divided into thirty two dynasties which extend from the beginning of the literate period, under the rule of Menes, until Egypt became a Roman province around 30 BCE. The successive pharaohs of Egypt were divided into these dynasties. Throughout her history Egypt passed through periods of turbulent political upheaval and times of peace, power and prosperity. The most stable and productive periods of Egyptian history are marked by the Old, Middle and New Kingdoms. At the end of the New Kingdom Egypt suffered a series of foreign invasions and rulers and the great periods of Egyptian civilization went into decline.
Life in Ancient Egypt revolved around the towns and villages of Egypt which nestled alongside the River Nile. On either side of the river the lands were green and fertile but beyond these narrow strips of land the hot dry desert stretched as far as the horizon. Once the harvest had been collected even the fertile land became hard and dry under the hot desert sun. By late Spring, when the land was desperately parched, the River Nile began to rise. The waters rose gradually, slowly creeping over the land until the fields were hidden from view. When the waters began to recede, leaving behind a thick black layer of silt, villagers and workmen took up their tools and set to work on the land, clearing, digging, surveying, ploughing and planting. The land of Egypt could once more flower with new life, the people would be fed, the taxes paid and the royal granaries well stocked. Each year the land which had been dead was given new life, so at the time of the yearly flood the people celebrated the festival of Osiris, the god of vegetation. The pharaoh, the priests and the people sang, danced and performed plays in his honor, praying for a rich and fruitful harvest. Osiris would give new life to the land, he would also give new life to those who had died, for he was the god of the underworld and he welcomed the dead to his land, the Land of the West.
Until the Middle Kingdom the land of Upper and Lower Egypt was divided into forty two administrative areas known as nomes (maps of the nomes of Lower and Upper Egypt, 6Kb) each governed by a nomarch. The officials of each nome assessed and collected the taxes which were due on the lands which did not belong to the temples and sorted out any minor legal problems in the towns and villages. In theory, the pharaoh owned all the land in Egypt but he gave gifts of land to his favorite subjects. Every large town had at least one temple and the fertile temple lands were exempt from certain taxes and given many privileges. In addition, the king presented foreign booty to the temples and as a result the priesthood became both powerful and wealthy. Sometimes, particularly in the New Kingdom, the power of the priesthood threatened the power of the king himself. The temple was primarily the house of the god cared for by the priesthood and the position of priest was hereditary, though many of the priests had another profession. A doctor could be a priest of Sekhmet, goddess of disease and epidemic, and a lawyer could be a priest of Ma'at, goddess of truth and justice. Once trained these priests would return annually to the temple where they performed religious duties as well as teaching and debating in the universities attached to the temple. These educational institutions were known as the Houses of Life. Doctors, scientists, lawyers, mathematicians and scribes learned their professions alongside each other in the House of Life and religion was interwoven in all these subjects.
The Egyptians put great emphasis on education because it was a means of escaping dirty and often dangerous menial jobs. Before acquiring a profession it was essential to know how to read and write. Ancient Egyptian writing is known as hieroglyphs. Although schoolchildren spent endless hours copying out hieroglyphic literature it was only after training in the House of Life that the scribe could fully master the hieroglyphic script. The Egyptians worked out mathematical formulae for purely practical reasons. They had to know how to divide land and measure area, it was essential to keep exact measurements when the pyramids, tombs or temples were built. While the plans for a building were drawn up by the architects and mathematicians, the workers were busy quarrying the stones. The most common building stones were sandstone, granite and limestone. Since the River Nile was the main highway in Egypt the stones were placed on flat-bottomed barges and floated up the river to the spot nearest the building site. The horse and chariot were not introduced into Egypt until the Middle to New Kingdom but even then the river was the best highway for heavy cargo. With the use of ramps, pulleys and roller sledges the enormous stones were eased up the river banks. The monumental tombs and temples took many years to build so the pharaoh would begin work on his pyramid or tomb during his lifetime. The pyramids were built in layers with the four sides tapering equally. Smooth pathways of earth were laid over stretches of stones so that the stones could be heaved up on sledges with rollers beneath. The Egyptians used the of the human body to determine set lengths; the main measurement was the cubit, equivalent to a man's forearm from the elbow to the tip of the outstretched middle finger.
The desert edge and the eastern hills of Egypt were a rich source of stone which could be cut for use in monumental buildings, for statues or for delicate cosmetic dishes. Stone dishes, particularly alabaster dishes, were made mainly for burial in tombs whereas clay was the material for everyday domestic use. Often the Ancient Egyptians used minerals to paint pots, walls and coffins. For example, soot charcoal could be used for black paint, powdered malachite for green, iron oxide for pink and red ochre for the bright reds. The pigments were ground with a pestle on stone palettes and mixed with water and with glue, gum or egg for adhesive. The abundant clay of the River Nile was combined with water, straw and other vegetable matter to make bricks, the common building material for houses. Clay from the Nile and from the desert wadis was fired to make ceramic storage jars, pots and bowls. Many of the pots were simple, practical and unpainted, designed for use in the home. The Ancient Egyptians were particularly fond of jewelry for decoration in this life and the next. Necklaces, beads, earrings and amulets were made from gold, silver, shell, carnelian, turquoise, amethyst and other precious and semi-precious stones and metals.
Jewelry was worn by both men and women, particularly on festive occasions but the Egyptians wore very little jewelry and clothing for everyday work in the fields. Most peasants would have worn a small cloth girdle and frequently worked naked. Farming was an important source of labor in Egypt particularly for the people in small villages dotted along the Nile. There was also a demand for craftsmen in the villages or in government workshops. Precious stones were cut and carved to make jewelry for the nobles and the royal family, stonemasons were busy fashioning stones into statues, vases and bowls, carpenters carved fine furniture and statues for houses, temples and tombs. Everybody worked to provide goods for this life as well as the next. The Ancient Egyptians could not imagine the afterlife to be any different from this life. They thought they would still need food, furniture and clothing and to have someone else to plow their lands and prepare their food. So those who could afford it put servant statuettes in their tombs to carry out these tasks. Even the owner of the tomb was usually buried with a statue of himself in case anything should happen to his body. At the burial the officiating priest brought everything to life with sacred words and gestures, this ceremony was known as "the opening of the mouth."
The fertile land of Egypt was scarce and therefore very precious so the dead were buried on the outskirts of towns and villages. In the earliest times they were buried in shallow oval pits dug in the sand with a few goods which they would need in the afterlife: some food, bowls and jewelry. The sun was scorching hot and the sand extremely dry so bodies dried out very quickly. It is possible that sandstorms revealed dead relatives perfectly preserved, this may have been why the people believed that their bodies must be preserved in order to reach the next life. Ancient Egyptian burial became more and more elaborate as time went on. The dead were buried deeper often within a stone chamber and special buildings were put up to mark the grave. These buildings looked like long, low benches and are called "mastabas", an Arabic word for bench. Since the bodies were far away from the drying effects of the sun the skin would rot and eventually all that was left was a skeleton. A way of preserving the body was found through trial and error and the Egyptians learned how to dry out the body so that the skin and hair stayed as it had been in life. This process is known as mummification. During mummification the internal organs were removed by the embalmers through a cut in the lower left hand side of the body. The organs and the body were dried out with a special type of salt known as natron. They were then treated with fragrant spices and perfumes and eventually wrapped in bandages. Special prayers were said over the bandages because each bandage was important, charms were placed next to the skin and between the bandages. These charms are known as "amulets", an Arabic word which means "something which is carried". In life the Ancient Egyptians carried amulets to protect different parts of their bodies and they believed that amulets would ward off evil in the afterlife too.
The pharaoh was far greater than ordinary Egyptians, he was believed to be the son of the great sun god Re. At death the pharaoh joined the sun god in his day boat as he sailed across the sky. At night the sun god changed to his night boat which sailed through the underworld. The pharaohs of the Old Kingdom built huge pyramids of stone which some people thought were like shafts of light coming from the sky, others said it was the place where the pharaoh climbed up to join the sun god. The pharaoh was buried deep inside the pyramid surrounded by all the things he would need for the next life. The pyramids could be seen from great distances and were an easy target for thieves who could break into them at night. The later pharaohs wanted their burials to be safer so they cut their tombs deep into rocks in secret places but even so the thieves found ways of breaking into them.
The sun god Re was one of the most important and oldest gods in Ancient Egypt but there were many others, some were human, some animals while others had animal heads and human bodies. There were favorite gods who would be worshipped on special occasions or in special places. The jackal-headed god Anubis was the god of embalming and guarded the burial place - the necropolis; Seth was the pig god, the evil brother of Osiris, who brought disease and violence; Thoth was the ibis-headed god, the god of writing and wisdom; Horus was the falcon god, son of Osiris and Isis. One god who had an important place in the everyday life of the Ancient Egyptians was the household god, Bes. Bes was depicted as a dwarf deity with ' leonine features and he was affectionately portrayed on bowls, head-rests, mirror handles and other domestic objects. The temple was the house of the god. Each temple was built in the style of the first temple, a simple reed shrine. Tall stone columns carved in the shape of lotus flowers or papyrus buds rose high above the officiating priests. The temples were dark, lit only by windows high up on the walls. The ceilings were painted with stars and the walls were covered in sacred inscriptions and carvings of the gods. The main god of the temple had his sanctuary at the back of the temple and each day the pharaoh or the high priest approached the god's sanctuary to perform the Daily Temple Ritual. The god was washed, fed and dressed and then offered prayers and incense. This important ritual was carried out three times a day in every temple in Egypt.
The monumental temples of Egypt must have appeared daunting to the majority of ordinary people but popular cults did develop around architectural features of the temple. At Memphis, for example, there was a cult of Horus "on the corner of the southern door". Other popular cults grew around the posthumous reputation of famous people, for example, Imhotep, a renowned physician and architect of the third dynasty step pyramid at Saqqara was later worshipped as the god of medicine. Magic also played a central role in Egyptian religion for rich and poor alike. Ritual words, gestures and objects were believed to carry considerable power.
Throughout Egyptian history new gods were accepted into the extensive Egyptian pantheon. At times, however, the literature of the New Kingdom indicates the recognition of a central power behind these countless deities, a power which could be reflected in many forms. This was particularly evident after the reign of the 18th dynasty pharaoh Amenophis IV, who changed his name to Akhenaten and tried to introduce the worship of the Aten as the official Egyptian religion. The Aten's creative power was manifested in the disc of the sun and the pharaoh Akhenaten was his sole representative on earth. After Akhenaten's death there was a move back to traditional cultural practices.
Throughout Egyptian history the diversity of the Egyptian pantheon was welcomed by both the powerful and the humble. The gods permeated most areas of Egyptian life; they could help in sickness and in times of sadness, they could be a cause for celebration or be used as a political tool. Whatever their role they were an essential part of Egyptian life. | 3,004 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Countess Markievicz played an active part in the Easter Rising of 1916 and in post-1916 Irish history. Born in 1868 as Constance Gore-Booth, Countess Markievicz was sentenced to death for her part in the Easter Uprising but had the sentence commuted to life imprisonment on account of her gender.
Countess Markievicz was born in London into a wealthy family that had a large estate in County Sligo. Her father, Sir Henry Gore-Booth, was an explorer, but unlike many landowners in Ireland, he treated his tenants with concern. Therefore, Markievicz was brought up in a household that showed care and concern to those on the family estate in Lissadell. Her sister, Eva, would later involve herself in the labour movement in England – and women’s suffrage. The future countess did not share, at this time, her sister’s aspirations. Constance wanted to be an artist and in 1893, she went to London to study art at the Slade School. In 1898, she continued her studies at the Julian School in Paris. It was here that she met Count Casimir Dunin Markievicz. He was from a wealthy Polish family but was already married when he met Constance. However, his wife died in 1899 and he married Constance in 1901 making her Countess Markievicz.
In 1903, the couple moved to Dublin and the Countess gained a reputation for herself as a landscape artist. In 1905, the Countess founded and funded the United Artists Club which was an attempt to bring together all those in Dublin with an artistic bent. At this moment in time there was nothing tangible to link her to basic politics, let alone a drive for Ireland’s independence from British rule. Then in 1906, something happened which pushed the Countess headlong into Irish politics and away from art. In 1906, she rented out a small cottage in the countryside around Dublin. The person who had previously rented it was a poet called Pádraic Colum. He had left behind old copies of ‘The Peasant and Sinn Fein’. This was a revolutionary publication that pushed for independence from British rule. The Countess read those publications that were left behind and was taken in by what they wanted.
In 1908, the Countess became actively involved in nationalist politics in Ireland. She joined Sinn Fein and Inghinidhe na hEerann – a women’s movement. In the same year, the Countess stood for Parliament. She contested the Manchester constituency where her most famous opponent was Winston Churchill. The Countess lost the election but in the space of two years she had gone from a life oriented around art to a life oriented around Irish politics and independence in particular.
In 1909, she founded Fianna Éireann which was a form of Boy Scouts but with a military input, including the use of firearms. Patrick Pearse said that the creation of Fianna Éireann was as important as the creation of the Irish Volunteers in 1913. In 1911, the Countess was jailed for the first time for her part in the demonstrations that took place against the visit of George V. In the lock-out of 1913, she ran a soup kitchen to aid those who who could not afford food.
When war broke out in August 1914, many in Ireland were happy to support the suspension of Home Rule until the war was over. Thousands of Irishmen volunteered to fight in Britain’s hour of need. However, a hard core of people were not prepared to accept this situation and they were willing to use Britain’s involvement in the war as an opportunity they could exploit. This led to the Easter Uprising of 1916 and it was almost natural for the Countess to have got involved.
The Countess played a very active role in the fighting that took place in Dublin. Having joined JamesConnolly’s Citizen Army, she was second in command at St. Stephen’s Green. Those who fought there held out for six days and surrendered only when they were given a copy of the surrender order signed by Patrick Pearse. Ironically, the British officer (Capt. Wheeler) who accepted their surrender was a distant relative of the Countess. As with many of the arrested rebels when they were paraded through the streets of Dublin, the Countess was verbally abused by Dubliners who had seen part of their city devastated.
The Countess was not the only women arrested at the end of the rebellion. In total, 70 women were but the Countess was the only one held in solitary confinement at Kilmainham Jail. It is possible that the British authorities believed that by herself she was less of a problem; allowed to socialise with other women at the prison, she might be a source of trouble. However, from her cell the Countess could hear the firing squads. She was brought before a court martial and sentenced to death. She effectively admitted her guilt by saying:
“I did what was right and I stand by it.”
However, General Maxwell, the officer commanding the court martial procedure, commuted her sentence to life in prison on account of the fact that she was female. When she was told the news, she said:
“I do wish your lot had the decency to shoot me.”
The Countess was released from prison in 1917, along with others involved in the Uprising, as the government in London granted a General Amnesty for those involved in the Easter Uprising. However, her experiences did nothing to dampen her involvement in politics. In 1918, she was jailed again for her part in anti-conscription activities. While in prison she was elected an MP standing as a Sinn Fein candidate. The Countess refused to take up her seat as it would have involved swearing an oath of allegiance to the king. During the Anglo-Irish War, she was either on the run from the British authorities or she was, once again, in prison. She was a staunch opponent of the 1921 Treaty which gave Ireland dominion status within the British Empire. The Countess referred to those who supported the treaty as “traitors”. Michael Collins, the man who signed the treaty, claimed that she could never understand the rationale behind the treaty as she was English.
After the civil war in Ireland, she toured America. The Countess was also re-elected to the Dáil but her staunch republican views led her to being sent to jail again. In prison, she and 92 other female prisoners went on hunger strike. Within a month, the Countess was released. The hunger-strikes of the Suffragettes had been a huge embarrassment to the British government before the war. The newly created Dáil could barely afford a similar scandal. In 1926, the Countess joined Fianna Fáil led by Eamonn de Valera. She died in 1927. It is estimated that over 250,000 people lined the streets for her funeral in Dublin and de Valera read the eulogy.
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0.30715316534... | 10 | Countess Markievicz played an active part in the Easter Rising of 1916 and in post-1916 Irish history. Born in 1868 as Constance Gore-Booth, Countess Markievicz was sentenced to death for her part in the Easter Uprising but had the sentence commuted to life imprisonment on account of her gender.
Countess Markievicz was born in London into a wealthy family that had a large estate in County Sligo. Her father, Sir Henry Gore-Booth, was an explorer, but unlike many landowners in Ireland, he treated his tenants with concern. Therefore, Markievicz was brought up in a household that showed care and concern to those on the family estate in Lissadell. Her sister, Eva, would later involve herself in the labour movement in England – and women’s suffrage. The future countess did not share, at this time, her sister’s aspirations. Constance wanted to be an artist and in 1893, she went to London to study art at the Slade School. In 1898, she continued her studies at the Julian School in Paris. It was here that she met Count Casimir Dunin Markievicz. He was from a wealthy Polish family but was already married when he met Constance. However, his wife died in 1899 and he married Constance in 1901 making her Countess Markievicz.
In 1903, the couple moved to Dublin and the Countess gained a reputation for herself as a landscape artist. In 1905, the Countess founded and funded the United Artists Club which was an attempt to bring together all those in Dublin with an artistic bent. At this moment in time there was nothing tangible to link her to basic politics, let alone a drive for Ireland’s independence from British rule. Then in 1906, something happened which pushed the Countess headlong into Irish politics and away from art. In 1906, she rented out a small cottage in the countryside around Dublin. The person who had previously rented it was a poet called Pádraic Colum. He had left behind old copies of ‘The Peasant and Sinn Fein’. This was a revolutionary publication that pushed for independence from British rule. The Countess read those publications that were left behind and was taken in by what they wanted.
In 1908, the Countess became actively involved in nationalist politics in Ireland. She joined Sinn Fein and Inghinidhe na hEerann – a women’s movement. In the same year, the Countess stood for Parliament. She contested the Manchester constituency where her most famous opponent was Winston Churchill. The Countess lost the election but in the space of two years she had gone from a life oriented around art to a life oriented around Irish politics and independence in particular.
In 1909, she founded Fianna Éireann which was a form of Boy Scouts but with a military input, including the use of firearms. Patrick Pearse said that the creation of Fianna Éireann was as important as the creation of the Irish Volunteers in 1913. In 1911, the Countess was jailed for the first time for her part in the demonstrations that took place against the visit of George V. In the lock-out of 1913, she ran a soup kitchen to aid those who who could not afford food.
When war broke out in August 1914, many in Ireland were happy to support the suspension of Home Rule until the war was over. Thousands of Irishmen volunteered to fight in Britain’s hour of need. However, a hard core of people were not prepared to accept this situation and they were willing to use Britain’s involvement in the war as an opportunity they could exploit. This led to the Easter Uprising of 1916 and it was almost natural for the Countess to have got involved.
The Countess played a very active role in the fighting that took place in Dublin. Having joined JamesConnolly’s Citizen Army, she was second in command at St. Stephen’s Green. Those who fought there held out for six days and surrendered only when they were given a copy of the surrender order signed by Patrick Pearse. Ironically, the British officer (Capt. Wheeler) who accepted their surrender was a distant relative of the Countess. As with many of the arrested rebels when they were paraded through the streets of Dublin, the Countess was verbally abused by Dubliners who had seen part of their city devastated.
The Countess was not the only women arrested at the end of the rebellion. In total, 70 women were but the Countess was the only one held in solitary confinement at Kilmainham Jail. It is possible that the British authorities believed that by herself she was less of a problem; allowed to socialise with other women at the prison, she might be a source of trouble. However, from her cell the Countess could hear the firing squads. She was brought before a court martial and sentenced to death. She effectively admitted her guilt by saying:
“I did what was right and I stand by it.”
However, General Maxwell, the officer commanding the court martial procedure, commuted her sentence to life in prison on account of the fact that she was female. When she was told the news, she said:
“I do wish your lot had the decency to shoot me.”
The Countess was released from prison in 1917, along with others involved in the Uprising, as the government in London granted a General Amnesty for those involved in the Easter Uprising. However, her experiences did nothing to dampen her involvement in politics. In 1918, she was jailed again for her part in anti-conscription activities. While in prison she was elected an MP standing as a Sinn Fein candidate. The Countess refused to take up her seat as it would have involved swearing an oath of allegiance to the king. During the Anglo-Irish War, she was either on the run from the British authorities or she was, once again, in prison. She was a staunch opponent of the 1921 Treaty which gave Ireland dominion status within the British Empire. The Countess referred to those who supported the treaty as “traitors”. Michael Collins, the man who signed the treaty, claimed that she could never understand the rationale behind the treaty as she was English.
After the civil war in Ireland, she toured America. The Countess was also re-elected to the Dáil but her staunch republican views led her to being sent to jail again. In prison, she and 92 other female prisoners went on hunger strike. Within a month, the Countess was released. The hunger-strikes of the Suffragettes had been a huge embarrassment to the British government before the war. The newly created Dáil could barely afford a similar scandal. In 1926, the Countess joined Fianna Fáil led by Eamonn de Valera. She died in 1927. It is estimated that over 250,000 people lined the streets for her funeral in Dublin and de Valera read the eulogy.
|“One thing she had in abundance – physical courage; with that she was clothed as with a garment.” Sean O’Casey| | 1,527 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The History of Volleyball:
Volleyball was invented in 1895 by William G. Morgan. Morgan was an instructor at the YMCA where he decided to combine basketball, baseball, tennis, and handball. He originally called it Mintonette and later it became known as Volleyball. It became known as volleyball when one of the players described the game as volleying the ball back and forth over the 6 foot 6 inch net. On July 7th 1896, the first organized game of volleyball was played at Springfield College. By 1900 a special ball, known as the volleyball, was created specially for this game. In 1916 the Filipinos created a move called the bomba which was a kill or a spike. Also in 1916, volleyball was added to the gym curriculum after the rules had been modified by the NCAA. In 1948 the first two man beach volleyball game was held. In 1957 the IOC made volleyball and Olympic sport and was played in the 1964 Olympic Games. In 1965 the CBVA was formed. In 1995 the game of volleyball was then 100 years old and the year after two person beach volleyball was added to the Olympic Games.
1. Any ball that touches the line during play is considered “in”.
2. During each possession on one side of the net, a team can only have 3 contacts with the ball.
3. No player can ever make contact with the ball twice in a row.
1. Servers in the right back corner of the court.
2. The players rotate clockwise.
3. There are usually three players in the front and three in the back.
1. Rally scoring, meaning a point in gained on each play.
2. To win a game, a team must win three out of five games top twenty-five points a game.
1. When serving, the server’s foot cannot cross the end line.
2. The serve can go anywhere on the court.
3. It does not matter if the ball touches the net on the serve, the ball is still in play.
1. A player cannot touch the net while the ball is in play.
2. Reaching over net to block a ball is legal, only if the opposing team has used all three of their “touches”. | <urn:uuid:298a35ed-1bfc-4609-9615-0445f3767f2b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bcsd.org/Page/2747 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00040.warc.gz | en | 0.981597 | 476 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.423956453800201... | 3 | The History of Volleyball:
Volleyball was invented in 1895 by William G. Morgan. Morgan was an instructor at the YMCA where he decided to combine basketball, baseball, tennis, and handball. He originally called it Mintonette and later it became known as Volleyball. It became known as volleyball when one of the players described the game as volleying the ball back and forth over the 6 foot 6 inch net. On July 7th 1896, the first organized game of volleyball was played at Springfield College. By 1900 a special ball, known as the volleyball, was created specially for this game. In 1916 the Filipinos created a move called the bomba which was a kill or a spike. Also in 1916, volleyball was added to the gym curriculum after the rules had been modified by the NCAA. In 1948 the first two man beach volleyball game was held. In 1957 the IOC made volleyball and Olympic sport and was played in the 1964 Olympic Games. In 1965 the CBVA was formed. In 1995 the game of volleyball was then 100 years old and the year after two person beach volleyball was added to the Olympic Games.
1. Any ball that touches the line during play is considered “in”.
2. During each possession on one side of the net, a team can only have 3 contacts with the ball.
3. No player can ever make contact with the ball twice in a row.
1. Servers in the right back corner of the court.
2. The players rotate clockwise.
3. There are usually three players in the front and three in the back.
1. Rally scoring, meaning a point in gained on each play.
2. To win a game, a team must win three out of five games top twenty-five points a game.
1. When serving, the server’s foot cannot cross the end line.
2. The serve can go anywhere on the court.
3. It does not matter if the ball touches the net on the serve, the ball is still in play.
1. A player cannot touch the net while the ball is in play.
2. Reaching over net to block a ball is legal, only if the opposing team has used all three of their “touches”. | 493 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why did Japan select Pearl Harbor, and not some other U.S. military base, as the site to surprise attack in 1941? Why didn't Japan attack, for example, the Philippines, or the Panama Canal, or Wake Island, or even California? Why did they select Pearl Harbor instead?
Pearl Harbour was (edit) the base where most of the US Pacific Fleet was deployed, and the intention was to attack the fleet in harbour. That was because ships that are stationary are much easier to hit with bombs and torpedoes. Staging the attack required knowing that the fleet was actually at its base, but that was hard to hide - ships are big and easy to see - and the Japanese had a consulate nearby that could make reports.
The point of the attacks was to cripple the Pacific Fleet and thus prevent it from interfering with the attacks that the Japanese intended to make on US possessions nearer to Japan (The Philippines, Wake Island and Guam were also attacked over the next few hours) and on British and Dutch possessions that were also attacked.
If the Pacific Fleet's aircraft carriers been present at Pearl Harbour at the time of the attack, they would also likely have been damaged or sunk. It was a matter of chance that they were away on missions.
Wikipedia has a decent overview of the reasons for the attack and an account of the action.
(edit) Any fleet going to attack the Panama Canal or California would have to be fairly small, so as to be able to take enough fuel along in tankers for the return trip. The obvious reason for not doing that is that the fleet would be intercepted by the US Pacific Fleet on its way back, and sunk. Attacking the Panama Canal effectively is tricky. Attacking California is pointless - you can't do damage that will cripple the US war effort. But destroying the whole Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbour would cripple the warfighting ability of the USA. The Japanese attack was intended to do just that, but did not succeed. | <urn:uuid:fbef847e-3527-4151-a51e-67bd9fd32ef2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://history.stackexchange.com/questions/34957/why-was-pearl-harbor-selected-as-the-base-japan-attacked-in-december-1941?noredirect=1 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00388.warc.gz | en | 0.98716 | 405 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.63293379545... | 9 | Why did Japan select Pearl Harbor, and not some other U.S. military base, as the site to surprise attack in 1941? Why didn't Japan attack, for example, the Philippines, or the Panama Canal, or Wake Island, or even California? Why did they select Pearl Harbor instead?
Pearl Harbour was (edit) the base where most of the US Pacific Fleet was deployed, and the intention was to attack the fleet in harbour. That was because ships that are stationary are much easier to hit with bombs and torpedoes. Staging the attack required knowing that the fleet was actually at its base, but that was hard to hide - ships are big and easy to see - and the Japanese had a consulate nearby that could make reports.
The point of the attacks was to cripple the Pacific Fleet and thus prevent it from interfering with the attacks that the Japanese intended to make on US possessions nearer to Japan (The Philippines, Wake Island and Guam were also attacked over the next few hours) and on British and Dutch possessions that were also attacked.
If the Pacific Fleet's aircraft carriers been present at Pearl Harbour at the time of the attack, they would also likely have been damaged or sunk. It was a matter of chance that they were away on missions.
Wikipedia has a decent overview of the reasons for the attack and an account of the action.
(edit) Any fleet going to attack the Panama Canal or California would have to be fairly small, so as to be able to take enough fuel along in tankers for the return trip. The obvious reason for not doing that is that the fleet would be intercepted by the US Pacific Fleet on its way back, and sunk. Attacking the Panama Canal effectively is tricky. Attacking California is pointless - you can't do damage that will cripple the US war effort. But destroying the whole Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbour would cripple the warfighting ability of the USA. The Japanese attack was intended to do just that, but did not succeed. | 405 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf Coast on August 29, 2005 as a Category 3 storm. At one point, the storm became a Category 5, but weakened before striking land. Upon making landfall, it had 120-140 mph winds and stretched 400 miles across the coast. The wind caused damage throughout the city, but it was the aftermath in particular that brought the most damage to the city of New Orleans.
New Orleans has an average elevation of six feet below sea level, which puts the city at risk for flooding during heavy rainstorms. The city is surrounded on all sides by the Mississippi River, Lake Pontchartrain, and Lake Borgne, as well as swampland. Because of this, levees and seawalls were built by the United States Army Corps of Engineers to protect the city. The greatest fear in storms was not the levee collapsing, but that a surge could cause the waters to rise above the levee.
Because of the threat of Hurricane Katrina, Mayor Ray Nagin issued a mandatory evacuation for the city of New Orleans. About 80 percent of the city evacuated, while 10,000 headed to the Superdome for shelter. Others decided to stay in their homes at their own risk. It was once the storm passed that the worst happened. The storm surge did in fact pressure the levees and drainage canals and breached over fifty times, causing widespread flooding to over 70 percent of New Orleans in the days following the storm’s landfall. The areas with the most flooding included the Ninth Ward, Lakeview, and St. Bernard Parish, although there was some degree of flooding in almost every neighborhood..
The federal government stalled with assistance for days–being unclear of how bad the damage was and how many people needed help. The Coast Guard began rescuing people that were stranded on their roofs and inside their homes via helicopter and boat. Many New Orleans citizens that had access to boats also helped get people out. 15,000 more people headed to the Superdome, where supplies and food were running out–bringing the headcount to 25,000 people inside the space. The roof began to leak and the environment became unsafe, which lead to an evacuation of the shelter space. Thousands also headed to the Convention Center, hoping to find help, but just found others displaced with no food or medical supplies. Hospitals had no power and needed to get their patients out as well. Meanwhile, looting was also occurring throughout the city, which added to the increasingly chaotic atmosphere. National outreach and fundraising began, as the city sat underwater for weeks.
Hundreds of thousands of people were displaced from the storm and $125 billion in damage was needed. The death toll reached over 1,500 in Louisiana alone. The city vowed to rebuild, and did just that. Today, the city is stronger than ever, and every year, we remember the anniversary of Katrina, honoring the lives lost, and the first responders and volunteers who stepped up during some of the city and region’s darkest hours. | <urn:uuid:6161a474-3116-4ffe-998f-2e864ebfcfc2> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.neworleans.com/things-to-do/history/hurricane-katrina-in-new-orleans/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00063.warc.gz | en | 0.981487 | 607 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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-0.11069531738758... | 11 | Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf Coast on August 29, 2005 as a Category 3 storm. At one point, the storm became a Category 5, but weakened before striking land. Upon making landfall, it had 120-140 mph winds and stretched 400 miles across the coast. The wind caused damage throughout the city, but it was the aftermath in particular that brought the most damage to the city of New Orleans.
New Orleans has an average elevation of six feet below sea level, which puts the city at risk for flooding during heavy rainstorms. The city is surrounded on all sides by the Mississippi River, Lake Pontchartrain, and Lake Borgne, as well as swampland. Because of this, levees and seawalls were built by the United States Army Corps of Engineers to protect the city. The greatest fear in storms was not the levee collapsing, but that a surge could cause the waters to rise above the levee.
Because of the threat of Hurricane Katrina, Mayor Ray Nagin issued a mandatory evacuation for the city of New Orleans. About 80 percent of the city evacuated, while 10,000 headed to the Superdome for shelter. Others decided to stay in their homes at their own risk. It was once the storm passed that the worst happened. The storm surge did in fact pressure the levees and drainage canals and breached over fifty times, causing widespread flooding to over 70 percent of New Orleans in the days following the storm’s landfall. The areas with the most flooding included the Ninth Ward, Lakeview, and St. Bernard Parish, although there was some degree of flooding in almost every neighborhood..
The federal government stalled with assistance for days–being unclear of how bad the damage was and how many people needed help. The Coast Guard began rescuing people that were stranded on their roofs and inside their homes via helicopter and boat. Many New Orleans citizens that had access to boats also helped get people out. 15,000 more people headed to the Superdome, where supplies and food were running out–bringing the headcount to 25,000 people inside the space. The roof began to leak and the environment became unsafe, which lead to an evacuation of the shelter space. Thousands also headed to the Convention Center, hoping to find help, but just found others displaced with no food or medical supplies. Hospitals had no power and needed to get their patients out as well. Meanwhile, looting was also occurring throughout the city, which added to the increasingly chaotic atmosphere. National outreach and fundraising began, as the city sat underwater for weeks.
Hundreds of thousands of people were displaced from the storm and $125 billion in damage was needed. The death toll reached over 1,500 in Louisiana alone. The city vowed to rebuild, and did just that. Today, the city is stronger than ever, and every year, we remember the anniversary of Katrina, honoring the lives lost, and the first responders and volunteers who stepped up during some of the city and region’s darkest hours. | 639 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Aztec Culture Essay
The Aztec Nation A distant sound is heard. It sounds like a deep drum being hit with a heavy instrument. You hear it again and strain your eyes in the direction of the sound.
All around you is dense jungle. Snakes slither between your legs. You hear the sound once again. In front of you is a dense stand of ferns.
You part them and look down into a wide open valley. The valley gets so wide and it is so green that it takes your breath away.
But that is not what you are looking at. You are staring at a huge city with glittering buildings shining in the spring sunlight.
Smoke rises up from some of the many houses. You can see and hear children playing in the wide open fields in front of the shining buildings. Lamas and chickens are being bought and sold. You see bags of gold jewelry being bought and sold.
Beyond the market place you can watch a religious ceremony.
You hear the scream of a person being sacrificed to one of the gods. Beyond the city there are roads made of stone and canals full of pedestrians and canos. Who are these people and what are they doing here you wonder? The above paragraph describes what an early explorer in Mexico might have seen between 1400 and 1500 AD.
The Aztec nation is one of the largest and most advanced Indian nations to ever exist on earth. Just about every part of the Aztec life was advance to such a state that at that time of the world the people were living better than many European nations. The Aztec nation is unique in its history, economy, environment, and way of life then any other nation at that time. Perhaps three to four thousand years ago, small bands of hunting-gathering peoples made their way across the land bridge that was the frozen Bering Strait, migrated southward through what is now Alaska, Canada, the United States, Central America, South America, and Mexico, settling along the way.
One such hunting- gathering group settled in the Central Valley of what is now Mexico (Nicholson 1985). There is a long history of civilizations in the Central Valley of Mexico; as early as several centuries before Christ agricultural tribes had already settled, and by the birth of Christ had established as their great religious center Teotihuacán. The history of the Central Valley after circa the tenth century A.D.
is one of tribal conflict and superiority. About the time of the fall of this agricultural civilization, which flourished from approximately the second to the tenth centuries A.D., a new tribe, who we know as the Toltecs, settled at Tula, Hidalgo.
They belonged to a larger group known as the Nahua, or Nahuatl- speaking, and seem to have entered the Central Valley from the north or northwest. The Toltec civilization gradually replaced the older, agricultural civilization, as Toltec influence was felt as far as the Yucatán Peninsula and other areas occupied by the Mayan peoples. Yet by the eleventh century A.D.
, another tribe, the Chichimecs, had already begun to eclipse the Toltecs as the dominant group of the Central Valley. By approximately the thirteenth century, the Chichimecs had replaced the Toltecs (Wolf 1998). About this time, another Nahua tribe known as the Aztecs began their migration, in c. 1168.
They left their mythical mysterious homeland called Aztlán, place of the herons, or Chicomoztoc, place of the seven caves, and migrated southwards through Michoacán (León-Portilla 1992). The Aztecs, or “Crane People,” arrived in the Central Valley and obtained permission to settle at Chapultepec in c. 1248 (Caso 1958). The tradition of tribal conflict in the Central Valley was continued; however, it seems that the Aztecs, at first, were practically enslaved by the other Nahua tribes inhabiting the Central Valley.
The Aztec culture would not be subjugated, however, and continued in its struggle for power. By the fourteenth century the Aztecs had founded two settlements on islands in lakes: Tlaltetalco and Tenochtitlán. The traditional founding date of Tenochtitlán is 1325; the quest for the sacred site on which to found Tenochtitlán is relayed to us by an Aztec myth, ..
.[its] beginning is found in ancient times, when a humble tribe was banished– by the original Aztecs (Castillo 1908)– from a mysterious homeland it called Aztlán(place of the herons) or Chicomoztoc(place of the seven caves). During the long exile the Mexicas wandered among hostile strangers while anxiously searching for the divine sign, whose presence, prophesied by their god, would mark their arrival in the promised land. The tale continues with the discovery of the omen and the subsequent founding of Mexico-Tenochtitlán on the sacred site.
(León-Portilla 1992) By the fifteenth century Tenochtitlán had become the center of the Aztec world– the center of Aztec growth, conquest, and expansion. As early as the sixteenth century Tenochtitlán dominated all other cities in the Central Valley and had reached the height of its power and magnificence (Caso 1958). The center of the Aztec empire was located near the Lerma river which is near the southern part of the Mexican plateau. The plateau is the largest of Mexico’s land regions and it is the most varied region consisting of five sections.
The Volcanic Axis is located across the southern part of the plateau. Many of the volcanoes are still active. This area receives a lot of rain and the soil is fertile. This area is the main area where corn and beans were grown for the Aztec empire.
The Bajio lies north of the volcanic axis and has an average elevation of 7,000 feet. This region houses the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán. Here there is very little rain and thus the region is very dry. The Mesa del Norte area makes up for more then half of the plateau and has an average elevation of 9,000 feet.
Since it is so high crops are always in danger of freezing. The Sierra Madre Occidental is a long mountain range that forms the western ridge of the plateau. It remained a barrier for the Aztecs and their enemies. Some of this region still has not been explored by people.
The Sierra Madre Oriental is the plateau’s eastern rim. The Aztecs had no use for this area but today there is a major coal and old industry in the area (Aschmann 1985). The average January temperatures of the plateau is from 10 to 15 degrees Centigrade while in July the average temperature is around 20 to 25 degrees centigrade. Thus the weather is much like B.
C. Average precipitation is from 30 – 50 cm at the Aztec capital to less than 30 in the highlands. The central part of life for any Aztec citizen, man or woman, was religion. For example, if a baby was to become a priest, immediately after birth it was painted in black and a beaded necklace placed about its neck, and certain rites were conducted.
The necklace was then removed and placed in a temple until the child came of age, when the child would then proceed in some type of ecclesiastical training. It was never doubted the child would become a priest; the Aztecs believed that the child’s soul was caught in the beads, and that the soul would draw the child to the temple inexorably without regard to the will of the child. Similarly, if a child was to become a great warrior, it was decided at birth and similar ceremonies were carried out. Interestingly, these decisions about a child’s future were made by the parents soon after birth.
Therefore, from the moment a child was brought into the world she was surrounded by religion. The religion of the Aztecs was a complex one, but is generally characterized as polytheistic, based on the worship of a multitude of personal gods. It is interesting that the Aztecs attempted to incorporate the gods of conquered people into their religion; this was accomplished by considering the conquered peoples’ gods simply as manifestations of the gods they already worshipped. Similarly, often in the lower Aztec classes people would create whole gods out of what was generally considered only a manifestation of an attribute of a single god (Caso 6-9).
There is a dual creative principle found throughout the Aztec culture, split not surprisingly between the masculine and the feminine. This dual creative principle was expressed in the form of two gods, Ometecuhtli, “two lord,” and Omecíhuatl, “two lady.” Both resided in Omeyocan, meaning “the place two” (Caso 9). Aztec gods were created when Ometecuhtli and Omecíhuatl had four sons, to whom they entrusted the creation of the other gods, the world, and man.
The sons were named Red Tezcatlipoca, also called Xipe or Camaxtle; Black Tezcatlipoca, commonly called Tezcatlipoca; Quetzlcoatl, the god of wind and life; and Huitzilopochtli, the Blue Tezcatlipoca. It is surmised that in ancient times Quetzlcoatl was replaced by a White Tezcatlipoca (Moctezuma 1988). One of the fundamental concepts in the Aztec religion was the grouping of all beings according to the four compass directions and the central direction of up and down. Ometecuhtli (heaven) and Omecíhuatl (earth) represented the central direction of up and down; this symbolizes the heavens and the earth.
Their four sons were each associated with a different color and a different compass point. Black Tezcatlipoca was associated with the North, Blue Tezcatlipoca with the South, Red Tezcatlipoca with the East, and Quetzlcoatl with the West. Animals, trees, days, and also men and women were grouped in this manner. Men, according to the day on which they were born, belonged to one of the four regions of the world.
Aztec mythology states that the world has been created several times, and eventually each creation is followed by a cataclysm that has destroyed mankind. This was necessary, they believed, because rarely is anything perfected on the first essay. Thus, they could not have a perfect creation after the first try. There are two Aztec myths that clearly illustrate two main tenets of Aztec culture.
The first myth centers on Quetzlcoatl. The myth says that if man was to live, he must reciprocate by offering his own blood in sacrifice. This is because man came about from Quetzcoatl making a sacrifice. Sacrifice was essential in Aztec religion, for if no man could exist except through the creative force of the gods, the gods in turn need man to sustain them with human sacrifice.
The second myth helps explain the warlike tendencies of the Aztecs. As explained by Caso, according to legend, Coatlicue, the old goddess of the earth, became a priestess in the temple living a life of chastity after having given birth to the moon and stars. One day when she was sweeping, Coatlicue came across a ball of down which she tucked into her waistband. When she finished sweeping, she looked for the ball of down but realized it was gone and that she was pregnant.
When her children Coyolxauhqui, the moon, and Centzonhuitznáhuac, the stars, discovered this they became angry and decided to kill their mother. Coatlicue wept over her impending death, but the presence in her womb consoled her. When Coyolxauhqui and Centzonhuitznáhuac came to slay her, Huitzilopochtli was born, and with the aid of the serpent of fire(sun’s rays) he cut off Coyolxauhqui’s head and sent Centzonhuitznáhuac fleeing. Thus, when Huitzilopochtli was born he had to do combat with his brothers the stars and his sister the moon; armed with the serpent of fire he drove them away, his victory signifying a new a new day of life for men.
When Huitzilopochtli consummated his victory, he was carried across the sky on a litter by the spirits of warriors who have died either in combat or on the sacrificial stone. Later, in the early afternoon, Huitzilopochtli was picked up by the spirits of women who perished in childbirth. They then lead the sun to its setting. Each day this divine combat is begun anew, and thus Huitzilopochtli must be strong if he is to defeat all of this brothers with only his arrows of light.
To accomplish this task, Huitzilopochtli must be strong, nourished by human blood. Huitzilopochtli is a god, and disdains the coarse food of humans; he desires chalchíhuatl, the precious liquid. Thus the Aztecs, the people of Huitzilopochtli, are charged with the duty of supplying him with food. Thus, for the Aztecs, war was an integral part of their diurnal routine.
War became almost a from of worship of Huitzilopochtli. Their belief that Huitzilopochtli depended on them for chalchíhuatl led the Aztecs to establish the Xochiyaóyotl, or “flowery war.” The sole purpose of the Xochiyaóyotl was to take prisoners to sacrifice to the sun. Therefore, each Aztec god required his own sacrifices.
This led to an unusual culture: one refined, yet with an accepted level of brutality that is still unsurpassed. The Aztecs conducted an interesting ceremony called Tóxcatl in the sixth month. A young warrior, most likely captured through Xochiyaóyotl, was selected for his godlike qualities: smooth skin, good looks, and poise among others. He was then trained for an entire year in how to conduct himself as a personage of the court.
He was taught how to play clay pipes, and was given an entourage to attend to him as though he were a lord. Dressed in the attire of the gods, this impersonator of Tezcatlipoca would stroll the streets smoking fine tobacco from gilded reed pipes carrying a bouquet of flowers. Any citizens who met him on the street held him in as high of an esteem as the king himself. Twenty days before the celebration of the festival, his dress was changed to that of a great captain.
He was married to four young maidens, incarnations of the wives of the god of providence: Xochiqutzal, Xilonen, Atlatonan, and Huixtocíhuatl. When the day of the festival finally came, banquets, ceremonies, and dances were held in honor of the youth. The entire population praised him, commoners and nobles alike. Suddenly, he was taken with his wives and court to a small, neglected temple on the shore of a lake.
Here, his wives and entourage left him. Left with but a few pages and his clay pipes, he was escorted to the base of the temple. Here, even the pages left him. He ascended the temple steps alone.
On each of the steps, he broke one of his flutes, symbolizing his passed grandeur. Finally, atop the temple he was seized by four priests and stripped of his remaining finery. Each of his arms and legs was seized by a priest, and the young man was stretched atop an altar resembling a flattened cylinder, with his chest thrust high in the air. A fifth priest, in a plunging motion, thrust an obsidian knife into the young man’s chest.
The priest then reached in through the wound and tore out the young man’s heart. Tóxcatl had a moral: it was to instruct people that those who enjoy wealth and pleasures in this life will end in poverty and sorrow (Caso 69). Tóxcatl is just one example of Aztec sacrifice. Captured warriors were painted with red and white stripes, in imitation of the astral gods, and sacrificed in the same way.
The emptied corpses were then taken to the captors houses “for dismemberment and distribution: flesh scraped from the skulls and thighbones; fragments of flesh cooked and eaten; human skins, dripping with grease and blood, stretched over living flesh; clots of blood scooped up to smear the temple walls” (Clendinnen 261). For the Aztecs, however, these were more than just grotesque rituals. The flesh was eaten atop whole dried maize kernels; to them, the flesh but was a different form of matter in the vegetable cycle (Clendinnen 209). To the Aztecs, the victims were the incarnation of the god whose attire they wore; thus, the eating of the flesh was a most sacred communion (Caso 75).
The skins of the victims were often worn until decomposition occurred; the removal of the skin was a happy event. This served to remind the Aztecs of the bitterness of the experience of death. In general, however, human skins were worn to this extreme only after one occasion: The Feast of the Flaying of Men. Other sacrificial methods were practiced as well: some men were tethered to a framework and riddled with arrow until they no longer could stand; some men were burned in sacrifices to the gods of fire; some men were flayed alive and the priest dressed in his skin; some men were decapitated; and some fought in gladiator matches.
In these matches, the prisoner was bound and armed with a wooden sword, its usual blades of obsidian replaced with feathers. The prisoner was also given four cudgels of pine. Four expert Aztec warriors, two each from the Jaguar and Eagle clans, would come fight the prisoner one at a time. Should these four fail to vanquish their foe, a fifth man was brought out, always left-handed and thus extremely powerful to slay the prisoner.
This cycle continued until the prisoner was finally exterminated (Bray 1968). To the Aztecs family was very important. The family was an important part of survival. The man was a house builder and a farmer or craftsman while the woman prepared food, cared for the children, made clothes, and looked after the livestock.
Aztecs thought that marriage without children was incomplete and thus barren women were looked down upon and scorned. The aims of an average Aztec was to have a respected position in the community, a happy family life, and a marriage with children. The birth of a child was an important event. Every important event was always accompanied with speeches in Aztec life.
As soon as the baby was born, the midwife would give the baby a speech while she cut the umbilical cord. In the speech she explained to the baby what its duties would be in life. If the infant was a boy he would be told that he would be a warrior whose mission was to feed the Sun with the blood of enemies and if the infant was a girl she was to spend her days doing household chores and help the family. In about four days the father would call an astrologer to read the child’s horoscope and determine the appropriate day for the naming ceremony.
After a naming ceremony, the name was announced and the news was spread by little boys who ran through the streets shouting. Each child had a calendrical name taken from the day of birth and also a personal name which belonged to him alone(Bray 1969). Education was considered extremely important. Even from an infant to age four the child was taught with ‘quite words’.
At age four, practical instruction was given under the watchful eyes of the elders. For example the child was taught all the words of the things he would carry in a basket. He would learn to carry things for his mother and go with his father to the local markets. For girls education was really training for marriage.
She would be shown how to make thread and use it. At age 14 she would learn to weave a loom. She was also thought how to make cloth to support the family. Self control and obedience was taught at home and punishments were severe.
Boys were beaten, pricked with maguey spines, then tied hand and foot and laid naked on the wet ground for a whole day, or else were held over a fire of chili peppers and made to inhale the bitter smoke. Girls were too pricked or held over the fire, being forced to rise before dawn and to spend the whole day cleaning the home and sweeping the street outside (Bray 1968). In many other ways children were made to feel inferior. A ruler’s daughter was made to walk around and never look up from the ground.
She was to never talk while eating and must keep absolute silence. Maidens could not go outside the house without guards. Young unmarried women could never see their father without permission and every time the saw him they would give him presents and gifts they had made. None laughed in his presence and all acted very soberly and modestly(Bray 1969).
The choice of who to marry was left up to the man alone. Women had no choice of who they could marry. The two families would arrange and organize the marriage ceremony. The man who was going to get married was released from school and the school gave him many gifts.
Now the young youth was considered a man. The girl who was usually 16, spent most of her time in preparing food for the big event. Marriage ceremonies were held in a house during the night with many people present (usually about 150). The marriage rite took place and the couple were perfumed with incense and were then presented with traditional gifts.
Then they were joined by a match-maker by the young mans cloak and then they were man and wife. The party continued until the young people were tired and the old people were drunk. Then on the fifth day after the marriage ceremony, there was another party in celebration of the married couple (Bray 1969). Polygamy was very common among the Aztecs.
This was very important in the survival of the nation because so many males were killed in wars and in sacrifices. Also alliances were made in this way for diplomatic reasons. If you committed adultery the punishment was death by stoning or strangulation. The person accused had the choice between the two types of punishment.
The social structure of the Aztecs is very interesting. A person called the Great Speaker was the supreme ruler. The son of the Great Speaker not always was the heir. It was a Council of Wise Men- very similar to the Roman Senate- that decided in a democratic way who would be the next ruler of Tenochtitlán.
In a way, the election of the Great Speaker was very similar to the election of the Byzantine Emperor (coincidentally, these two cultures are contemporary, the Byzantine ending years before the discovery of America). Once the Great Speaker was elected, he was obeyed in everything, since he was the represented of the god Huitzilopochtli on the Earth. The Great Speaker was also head of the government, and the main priest of the Great Temple. This curious selection process is due, according to several investigators basing themselves in legends and Aztec tales, to the fact that the first Aztec Ruler Acamapichtli (1376), had for a main wife a woman called Ilancueitl, daughter of the lord of a nearby town.
This girl was sterile, which caused that the Aztec Lords offered their daughters to him and he also took his women slaves as companions. Logically, this caused that more than one resulted pregnant of the Aztec King and each one claimed the right of carrying the future heir in their wombs. When the majority of the sons of Acamapichtli were old enough, the Emperor ordered a group of priests and great warriors to gather to decide who would the next Great Speaker be. This originated the birth of the Council of Wise Men, whose members would be the greatest warriors and the wisest priests.
Their selection was also democratic since these were also elected by their own Calpullis – we will talk about these later -. This selection process lasted all the time the Aztec Empire lasted. This way never did a dynasty exist (sometimes the Great Speaker was a close relative of the one before, as Moctezuma was Ahuizotl’s nephew) of Aztec families, preventing with this the aging of the civilization, just like it happened with the Czars in Russia and the kings in France. The heart of the Mexica Empire was the Calpulli.
Even before the empire existed, the Calpulli existed already. This was generally formed by relatives or people of the same profession, in this manner there were Calpullis for priests, warriors, carpenters, clay workers, etc…
Each Calpulli was a form of autonomous government, with its own Speaker or governor, who was elected by the oldest men living in the Calpulli. Just to give us an idea, we will say that each Calpulli had its own school, its own temple, and if the Calpulli was important sometimes it had its own garrison. In the Aztec society there were no closed societies. Anyone could get to be a member of the Council of Wise Men.
Though, only the men belonging to the nobility could be Great Speakers. There is an Aztec story that narrates how a Tlaxcalteca, Najahuatzin- called the same way as the god who gave life to the Fifth Sun-, was caught by Moctezuma stealing wood from his private forest. When Nanahuatzin answered honestly, Moctezuma awarded him by naming him Main Voice. This story shows how even the poorest people could reach the highest levels in the Aztec society.
This was the reason why the Aztecs were able to control and dominate the largest empire in all of North America and one of the largest worldwide. An Aztec custom consisted in that the Great Speaker, once elected, was no longer human and was a god from then on. In fact, each Aztec Great Speaker was worshiped in the Temple Mayor. The Aztec protocol was that nobody could look directly to the emperor, nor talk or hear him.
That is why there was a spokesman who relayed what his lord had said to the subjects and what these would respond to the emperor. Though, in cases of emergency, the king talked directly to his Council (León-Portilla 1992, & Hassig 1988). The Aztecs’ main food was corn. The corn was generally ground into flour and then made into masa or dough, which they made into tortillas, drinks, tamales, among other foods.
Other foods in the Aztecs’ diet were the seeds from the sage plant which were used as cereal; spicy peppers, eggs, turkey, rabbit, dog, lizards, locusts, snails, fish eggs, and as a delicacy, green slime which was scooped off the top of lake Texcoco. That was said to taste like cheese. For drink the Aztecs usually drank water and on special occasions they drank beer and nobles drank chocolate sweetened with honey. Foods today in Mexico have some basic components of the Aztec fare such as corn, which is still at the heart of the meal.
That is, today corn products are still widely eaten. This can be seen in the tortilla, a round flat sheet of corn that you find in almost every meal in a present day Mexican table; or the tamale, a lump of corn masa containing meat, wrapped in corn husks, and steamed. Both are Aztec foods. Hence, the blend of the Aztec and Spanish cultures can be seen very clearly in food.
For instance, it is a common rural Mexican tradition to make tamales, an Aztec food for Christmas, a Catholic holiday. Another example is the fact that tamales are often filled with beef, a product unknown to the Aztecs until the arrival of the Spanish. Even the method in which the meals were prepared: the corn is ground on a metate, made into masa, which is rolled into a ball and flattened, then placed on a comal cooking sheet and cooked, is still being practiced in remote country locations. In the city people eat much as they do here in the United States (Baumann 1995.
And Nicholson 1985). Cultivating the soil was the main way of life. In the Aztec society farmers were generally field workers who prepared the earth, breaking up clumps, hoeing with the coa digging stick, leveling, planting, weeding, and irrigating. They understood the rotations and had to read almanacs so they could determine when it was time for planting.
They made the construction of canals to bring water from mountain springS to the towns and fields of the piedmont and foothills. Calculations have shown that the flow of water through this system was insufficient to have maintained farming throughout the year (Bray 1968). The amount of decoration on a garment indicated wealth and social rank of the wearer. Rich people had clothes made of cotton while poorer people had clothes made from maguey fibers.
Aztec men wore a cloth around their hips and a cloak that was knotted around one shoulder. The women wore a sleeveless blouse and a wraparound skirt. The amount of decoration around the garment indicated the wealth and social rank of the wearer. Most of the Aztec homes were simple and designed for usefulness rather than for looks.
In the upper mountain regions the houses were adobe but in the lowlands they had thatched roofs and walls made of branches and leaves. Usually in the same yard around the house a family had other buildings suck as a place to put their tools and a place for their animals. Wealthy Aztecs had large adobe or stone houses with a large patio built around the house. The yard was usually large and the servants were housed in a separate building (Weaver, 1972).
The art of speaking was interwoven with teaching, as the learning of technical skills. Historical accounts, the reciting of stories and poetry, the conduct of law suits, and matters of trade were conducted orally. To be educated was to be a master of oral expression, for people were expected to present artful speeches on all sorts of occasions, both public and private. With all the etiquette required by the highest formalized pattern of Aztec life.
Aztec hieroglyphic writing served to communicate names, places, dates, and tallies in association by a system of dots. The language spoken by the Aztecs was called Nahuatl. This language was one of the must popular ones before the Spanish Conquest because it was the spoken language of the most important race in the prehispanic world: the Mexica or Azteca. Some of the peculiar characteristics of this language, was that it had 23 different sounds: 5 vowels and 18 consonants, divided into 9 primaries and 9 secondaries.
For some strange reason our ancestry of the Aztec basically used only the 9 primary consonants, that were considered as sacred sounds; The other 9 secondary consonants appeared only in the regular language of this Mexicatl country (the country around the Aztec empire). An example of this is the poetry Nezahualcoyotl lord and philosopher of Texcoco. The Nahuatl alphabet is described briefly below. The Aztec have always been warriors, since their time as the Mexica to the time of their demise.
The Aztecs at first were known as dirty barbarians so they were not allowed to settle with the present tribes of Central Mexico. Why did the Aztecs need to have a great military? To answer this question you must understand Aztec religion and way of life. The Aztecs whole beginning is based on war and their main god Huitlilopochi was based on war. The Aztecs had no head army or standing army but it was organized for war.
War was used to capture prisoners for sacrifice, punish tributary tribes, and gain new territory. The soldiers were trained at a young age by nobles in special schools. In these schools they taught the warriors their goals in war. The goals were to capture prisoners for sacrifice, and depending on the amount captured gave that warrior prowess.
Failure in battle was a disgrace for those who could not accomplish their task and usually led to their sacrifice. The overview of the Aztec military, is that their is no separation of armies, but the whole empire was set on war. The military had specific goals, but if not accomplished meant shame and death. The Aztecs had a very powerful military and only lost to the Spanish due to the myth that the white people were gods (Bray 1968).
Agriculture formed the backbone of the Aztec economy. Corn was the most important crop alone with beans, avocados, squashes, potatoes, and tomatoes. The lowlands provided crops such as cotton, papayas, rubber, and cacao. The main agricultural tool was a pointed stick which was used for digging.
In the tropical jungle the Aztecs used the slash and burn agriculture which is still used today. They chopped down the trees and burns them along with the shrubs and the ashes fertilized the soil. Terraces were cut in the mountains up in the highlands to increase the amount of farmland. Huge irrigation systems were made and the farmers used the mud from the bottom of the irrigation systems to help their crops.
As a result the Aztecs yielded huge crops which is the main reason why their civilization was so successful (Hodge & Smith 1
Cite this Aztec Culture Essay
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The Aztec Nation A distant sound is heard. It sounds like a deep drum being hit with a heavy instrument. You hear it again and strain your eyes in the direction of the sound.
All around you is dense jungle. Snakes slither between your legs. You hear the sound once again. In front of you is a dense stand of ferns.
You part them and look down into a wide open valley. The valley gets so wide and it is so green that it takes your breath away.
But that is not what you are looking at. You are staring at a huge city with glittering buildings shining in the spring sunlight.
Smoke rises up from some of the many houses. You can see and hear children playing in the wide open fields in front of the shining buildings. Lamas and chickens are being bought and sold. You see bags of gold jewelry being bought and sold.
Beyond the market place you can watch a religious ceremony.
You hear the scream of a person being sacrificed to one of the gods. Beyond the city there are roads made of stone and canals full of pedestrians and canos. Who are these people and what are they doing here you wonder? The above paragraph describes what an early explorer in Mexico might have seen between 1400 and 1500 AD.
The Aztec nation is one of the largest and most advanced Indian nations to ever exist on earth. Just about every part of the Aztec life was advance to such a state that at that time of the world the people were living better than many European nations. The Aztec nation is unique in its history, economy, environment, and way of life then any other nation at that time. Perhaps three to four thousand years ago, small bands of hunting-gathering peoples made their way across the land bridge that was the frozen Bering Strait, migrated southward through what is now Alaska, Canada, the United States, Central America, South America, and Mexico, settling along the way.
One such hunting- gathering group settled in the Central Valley of what is now Mexico (Nicholson 1985). There is a long history of civilizations in the Central Valley of Mexico; as early as several centuries before Christ agricultural tribes had already settled, and by the birth of Christ had established as their great religious center Teotihuacán. The history of the Central Valley after circa the tenth century A.D.
is one of tribal conflict and superiority. About the time of the fall of this agricultural civilization, which flourished from approximately the second to the tenth centuries A.D., a new tribe, who we know as the Toltecs, settled at Tula, Hidalgo.
They belonged to a larger group known as the Nahua, or Nahuatl- speaking, and seem to have entered the Central Valley from the north or northwest. The Toltec civilization gradually replaced the older, agricultural civilization, as Toltec influence was felt as far as the Yucatán Peninsula and other areas occupied by the Mayan peoples. Yet by the eleventh century A.D.
, another tribe, the Chichimecs, had already begun to eclipse the Toltecs as the dominant group of the Central Valley. By approximately the thirteenth century, the Chichimecs had replaced the Toltecs (Wolf 1998). About this time, another Nahua tribe known as the Aztecs began their migration, in c. 1168.
They left their mythical mysterious homeland called Aztlán, place of the herons, or Chicomoztoc, place of the seven caves, and migrated southwards through Michoacán (León-Portilla 1992). The Aztecs, or “Crane People,” arrived in the Central Valley and obtained permission to settle at Chapultepec in c. 1248 (Caso 1958). The tradition of tribal conflict in the Central Valley was continued; however, it seems that the Aztecs, at first, were practically enslaved by the other Nahua tribes inhabiting the Central Valley.
The Aztec culture would not be subjugated, however, and continued in its struggle for power. By the fourteenth century the Aztecs had founded two settlements on islands in lakes: Tlaltetalco and Tenochtitlán. The traditional founding date of Tenochtitlán is 1325; the quest for the sacred site on which to found Tenochtitlán is relayed to us by an Aztec myth, ..
.[its] beginning is found in ancient times, when a humble tribe was banished– by the original Aztecs (Castillo 1908)– from a mysterious homeland it called Aztlán(place of the herons) or Chicomoztoc(place of the seven caves). During the long exile the Mexicas wandered among hostile strangers while anxiously searching for the divine sign, whose presence, prophesied by their god, would mark their arrival in the promised land. The tale continues with the discovery of the omen and the subsequent founding of Mexico-Tenochtitlán on the sacred site.
(León-Portilla 1992) By the fifteenth century Tenochtitlán had become the center of the Aztec world– the center of Aztec growth, conquest, and expansion. As early as the sixteenth century Tenochtitlán dominated all other cities in the Central Valley and had reached the height of its power and magnificence (Caso 1958). The center of the Aztec empire was located near the Lerma river which is near the southern part of the Mexican plateau. The plateau is the largest of Mexico’s land regions and it is the most varied region consisting of five sections.
The Volcanic Axis is located across the southern part of the plateau. Many of the volcanoes are still active. This area receives a lot of rain and the soil is fertile. This area is the main area where corn and beans were grown for the Aztec empire.
The Bajio lies north of the volcanic axis and has an average elevation of 7,000 feet. This region houses the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán. Here there is very little rain and thus the region is very dry. The Mesa del Norte area makes up for more then half of the plateau and has an average elevation of 9,000 feet.
Since it is so high crops are always in danger of freezing. The Sierra Madre Occidental is a long mountain range that forms the western ridge of the plateau. It remained a barrier for the Aztecs and their enemies. Some of this region still has not been explored by people.
The Sierra Madre Oriental is the plateau’s eastern rim. The Aztecs had no use for this area but today there is a major coal and old industry in the area (Aschmann 1985). The average January temperatures of the plateau is from 10 to 15 degrees Centigrade while in July the average temperature is around 20 to 25 degrees centigrade. Thus the weather is much like B.
C. Average precipitation is from 30 – 50 cm at the Aztec capital to less than 30 in the highlands. The central part of life for any Aztec citizen, man or woman, was religion. For example, if a baby was to become a priest, immediately after birth it was painted in black and a beaded necklace placed about its neck, and certain rites were conducted.
The necklace was then removed and placed in a temple until the child came of age, when the child would then proceed in some type of ecclesiastical training. It was never doubted the child would become a priest; the Aztecs believed that the child’s soul was caught in the beads, and that the soul would draw the child to the temple inexorably without regard to the will of the child. Similarly, if a child was to become a great warrior, it was decided at birth and similar ceremonies were carried out. Interestingly, these decisions about a child’s future were made by the parents soon after birth.
Therefore, from the moment a child was brought into the world she was surrounded by religion. The religion of the Aztecs was a complex one, but is generally characterized as polytheistic, based on the worship of a multitude of personal gods. It is interesting that the Aztecs attempted to incorporate the gods of conquered people into their religion; this was accomplished by considering the conquered peoples’ gods simply as manifestations of the gods they already worshipped. Similarly, often in the lower Aztec classes people would create whole gods out of what was generally considered only a manifestation of an attribute of a single god (Caso 6-9).
There is a dual creative principle found throughout the Aztec culture, split not surprisingly between the masculine and the feminine. This dual creative principle was expressed in the form of two gods, Ometecuhtli, “two lord,” and Omecíhuatl, “two lady.” Both resided in Omeyocan, meaning “the place two” (Caso 9). Aztec gods were created when Ometecuhtli and Omecíhuatl had four sons, to whom they entrusted the creation of the other gods, the world, and man.
The sons were named Red Tezcatlipoca, also called Xipe or Camaxtle; Black Tezcatlipoca, commonly called Tezcatlipoca; Quetzlcoatl, the god of wind and life; and Huitzilopochtli, the Blue Tezcatlipoca. It is surmised that in ancient times Quetzlcoatl was replaced by a White Tezcatlipoca (Moctezuma 1988). One of the fundamental concepts in the Aztec religion was the grouping of all beings according to the four compass directions and the central direction of up and down. Ometecuhtli (heaven) and Omecíhuatl (earth) represented the central direction of up and down; this symbolizes the heavens and the earth.
Their four sons were each associated with a different color and a different compass point. Black Tezcatlipoca was associated with the North, Blue Tezcatlipoca with the South, Red Tezcatlipoca with the East, and Quetzlcoatl with the West. Animals, trees, days, and also men and women were grouped in this manner. Men, according to the day on which they were born, belonged to one of the four regions of the world.
Aztec mythology states that the world has been created several times, and eventually each creation is followed by a cataclysm that has destroyed mankind. This was necessary, they believed, because rarely is anything perfected on the first essay. Thus, they could not have a perfect creation after the first try. There are two Aztec myths that clearly illustrate two main tenets of Aztec culture.
The first myth centers on Quetzlcoatl. The myth says that if man was to live, he must reciprocate by offering his own blood in sacrifice. This is because man came about from Quetzcoatl making a sacrifice. Sacrifice was essential in Aztec religion, for if no man could exist except through the creative force of the gods, the gods in turn need man to sustain them with human sacrifice.
The second myth helps explain the warlike tendencies of the Aztecs. As explained by Caso, according to legend, Coatlicue, the old goddess of the earth, became a priestess in the temple living a life of chastity after having given birth to the moon and stars. One day when she was sweeping, Coatlicue came across a ball of down which she tucked into her waistband. When she finished sweeping, she looked for the ball of down but realized it was gone and that she was pregnant.
When her children Coyolxauhqui, the moon, and Centzonhuitznáhuac, the stars, discovered this they became angry and decided to kill their mother. Coatlicue wept over her impending death, but the presence in her womb consoled her. When Coyolxauhqui and Centzonhuitznáhuac came to slay her, Huitzilopochtli was born, and with the aid of the serpent of fire(sun’s rays) he cut off Coyolxauhqui’s head and sent Centzonhuitznáhuac fleeing. Thus, when Huitzilopochtli was born he had to do combat with his brothers the stars and his sister the moon; armed with the serpent of fire he drove them away, his victory signifying a new a new day of life for men.
When Huitzilopochtli consummated his victory, he was carried across the sky on a litter by the spirits of warriors who have died either in combat or on the sacrificial stone. Later, in the early afternoon, Huitzilopochtli was picked up by the spirits of women who perished in childbirth. They then lead the sun to its setting. Each day this divine combat is begun anew, and thus Huitzilopochtli must be strong if he is to defeat all of this brothers with only his arrows of light.
To accomplish this task, Huitzilopochtli must be strong, nourished by human blood. Huitzilopochtli is a god, and disdains the coarse food of humans; he desires chalchíhuatl, the precious liquid. Thus the Aztecs, the people of Huitzilopochtli, are charged with the duty of supplying him with food. Thus, for the Aztecs, war was an integral part of their diurnal routine.
War became almost a from of worship of Huitzilopochtli. Their belief that Huitzilopochtli depended on them for chalchíhuatl led the Aztecs to establish the Xochiyaóyotl, or “flowery war.” The sole purpose of the Xochiyaóyotl was to take prisoners to sacrifice to the sun. Therefore, each Aztec god required his own sacrifices.
This led to an unusual culture: one refined, yet with an accepted level of brutality that is still unsurpassed. The Aztecs conducted an interesting ceremony called Tóxcatl in the sixth month. A young warrior, most likely captured through Xochiyaóyotl, was selected for his godlike qualities: smooth skin, good looks, and poise among others. He was then trained for an entire year in how to conduct himself as a personage of the court.
He was taught how to play clay pipes, and was given an entourage to attend to him as though he were a lord. Dressed in the attire of the gods, this impersonator of Tezcatlipoca would stroll the streets smoking fine tobacco from gilded reed pipes carrying a bouquet of flowers. Any citizens who met him on the street held him in as high of an esteem as the king himself. Twenty days before the celebration of the festival, his dress was changed to that of a great captain.
He was married to four young maidens, incarnations of the wives of the god of providence: Xochiqutzal, Xilonen, Atlatonan, and Huixtocíhuatl. When the day of the festival finally came, banquets, ceremonies, and dances were held in honor of the youth. The entire population praised him, commoners and nobles alike. Suddenly, he was taken with his wives and court to a small, neglected temple on the shore of a lake.
Here, his wives and entourage left him. Left with but a few pages and his clay pipes, he was escorted to the base of the temple. Here, even the pages left him. He ascended the temple steps alone.
On each of the steps, he broke one of his flutes, symbolizing his passed grandeur. Finally, atop the temple he was seized by four priests and stripped of his remaining finery. Each of his arms and legs was seized by a priest, and the young man was stretched atop an altar resembling a flattened cylinder, with his chest thrust high in the air. A fifth priest, in a plunging motion, thrust an obsidian knife into the young man’s chest.
The priest then reached in through the wound and tore out the young man’s heart. Tóxcatl had a moral: it was to instruct people that those who enjoy wealth and pleasures in this life will end in poverty and sorrow (Caso 69). Tóxcatl is just one example of Aztec sacrifice. Captured warriors were painted with red and white stripes, in imitation of the astral gods, and sacrificed in the same way.
The emptied corpses were then taken to the captors houses “for dismemberment and distribution: flesh scraped from the skulls and thighbones; fragments of flesh cooked and eaten; human skins, dripping with grease and blood, stretched over living flesh; clots of blood scooped up to smear the temple walls” (Clendinnen 261). For the Aztecs, however, these were more than just grotesque rituals. The flesh was eaten atop whole dried maize kernels; to them, the flesh but was a different form of matter in the vegetable cycle (Clendinnen 209). To the Aztecs, the victims were the incarnation of the god whose attire they wore; thus, the eating of the flesh was a most sacred communion (Caso 75).
The skins of the victims were often worn until decomposition occurred; the removal of the skin was a happy event. This served to remind the Aztecs of the bitterness of the experience of death. In general, however, human skins were worn to this extreme only after one occasion: The Feast of the Flaying of Men. Other sacrificial methods were practiced as well: some men were tethered to a framework and riddled with arrow until they no longer could stand; some men were burned in sacrifices to the gods of fire; some men were flayed alive and the priest dressed in his skin; some men were decapitated; and some fought in gladiator matches.
In these matches, the prisoner was bound and armed with a wooden sword, its usual blades of obsidian replaced with feathers. The prisoner was also given four cudgels of pine. Four expert Aztec warriors, two each from the Jaguar and Eagle clans, would come fight the prisoner one at a time. Should these four fail to vanquish their foe, a fifth man was brought out, always left-handed and thus extremely powerful to slay the prisoner.
This cycle continued until the prisoner was finally exterminated (Bray 1968). To the Aztecs family was very important. The family was an important part of survival. The man was a house builder and a farmer or craftsman while the woman prepared food, cared for the children, made clothes, and looked after the livestock.
Aztecs thought that marriage without children was incomplete and thus barren women were looked down upon and scorned. The aims of an average Aztec was to have a respected position in the community, a happy family life, and a marriage with children. The birth of a child was an important event. Every important event was always accompanied with speeches in Aztec life.
As soon as the baby was born, the midwife would give the baby a speech while she cut the umbilical cord. In the speech she explained to the baby what its duties would be in life. If the infant was a boy he would be told that he would be a warrior whose mission was to feed the Sun with the blood of enemies and if the infant was a girl she was to spend her days doing household chores and help the family. In about four days the father would call an astrologer to read the child’s horoscope and determine the appropriate day for the naming ceremony.
After a naming ceremony, the name was announced and the news was spread by little boys who ran through the streets shouting. Each child had a calendrical name taken from the day of birth and also a personal name which belonged to him alone(Bray 1969). Education was considered extremely important. Even from an infant to age four the child was taught with ‘quite words’.
At age four, practical instruction was given under the watchful eyes of the elders. For example the child was taught all the words of the things he would carry in a basket. He would learn to carry things for his mother and go with his father to the local markets. For girls education was really training for marriage.
She would be shown how to make thread and use it. At age 14 she would learn to weave a loom. She was also thought how to make cloth to support the family. Self control and obedience was taught at home and punishments were severe.
Boys were beaten, pricked with maguey spines, then tied hand and foot and laid naked on the wet ground for a whole day, or else were held over a fire of chili peppers and made to inhale the bitter smoke. Girls were too pricked or held over the fire, being forced to rise before dawn and to spend the whole day cleaning the home and sweeping the street outside (Bray 1968). In many other ways children were made to feel inferior. A ruler’s daughter was made to walk around and never look up from the ground.
She was to never talk while eating and must keep absolute silence. Maidens could not go outside the house without guards. Young unmarried women could never see their father without permission and every time the saw him they would give him presents and gifts they had made. None laughed in his presence and all acted very soberly and modestly(Bray 1969).
The choice of who to marry was left up to the man alone. Women had no choice of who they could marry. The two families would arrange and organize the marriage ceremony. The man who was going to get married was released from school and the school gave him many gifts.
Now the young youth was considered a man. The girl who was usually 16, spent most of her time in preparing food for the big event. Marriage ceremonies were held in a house during the night with many people present (usually about 150). The marriage rite took place and the couple were perfumed with incense and were then presented with traditional gifts.
Then they were joined by a match-maker by the young mans cloak and then they were man and wife. The party continued until the young people were tired and the old people were drunk. Then on the fifth day after the marriage ceremony, there was another party in celebration of the married couple (Bray 1969). Polygamy was very common among the Aztecs.
This was very important in the survival of the nation because so many males were killed in wars and in sacrifices. Also alliances were made in this way for diplomatic reasons. If you committed adultery the punishment was death by stoning or strangulation. The person accused had the choice between the two types of punishment.
The social structure of the Aztecs is very interesting. A person called the Great Speaker was the supreme ruler. The son of the Great Speaker not always was the heir. It was a Council of Wise Men- very similar to the Roman Senate- that decided in a democratic way who would be the next ruler of Tenochtitlán.
In a way, the election of the Great Speaker was very similar to the election of the Byzantine Emperor (coincidentally, these two cultures are contemporary, the Byzantine ending years before the discovery of America). Once the Great Speaker was elected, he was obeyed in everything, since he was the represented of the god Huitzilopochtli on the Earth. The Great Speaker was also head of the government, and the main priest of the Great Temple. This curious selection process is due, according to several investigators basing themselves in legends and Aztec tales, to the fact that the first Aztec Ruler Acamapichtli (1376), had for a main wife a woman called Ilancueitl, daughter of the lord of a nearby town.
This girl was sterile, which caused that the Aztec Lords offered their daughters to him and he also took his women slaves as companions. Logically, this caused that more than one resulted pregnant of the Aztec King and each one claimed the right of carrying the future heir in their wombs. When the majority of the sons of Acamapichtli were old enough, the Emperor ordered a group of priests and great warriors to gather to decide who would the next Great Speaker be. This originated the birth of the Council of Wise Men, whose members would be the greatest warriors and the wisest priests.
Their selection was also democratic since these were also elected by their own Calpullis – we will talk about these later -. This selection process lasted all the time the Aztec Empire lasted. This way never did a dynasty exist (sometimes the Great Speaker was a close relative of the one before, as Moctezuma was Ahuizotl’s nephew) of Aztec families, preventing with this the aging of the civilization, just like it happened with the Czars in Russia and the kings in France. The heart of the Mexica Empire was the Calpulli.
Even before the empire existed, the Calpulli existed already. This was generally formed by relatives or people of the same profession, in this manner there were Calpullis for priests, warriors, carpenters, clay workers, etc…
Each Calpulli was a form of autonomous government, with its own Speaker or governor, who was elected by the oldest men living in the Calpulli. Just to give us an idea, we will say that each Calpulli had its own school, its own temple, and if the Calpulli was important sometimes it had its own garrison. In the Aztec society there were no closed societies. Anyone could get to be a member of the Council of Wise Men.
Though, only the men belonging to the nobility could be Great Speakers. There is an Aztec story that narrates how a Tlaxcalteca, Najahuatzin- called the same way as the god who gave life to the Fifth Sun-, was caught by Moctezuma stealing wood from his private forest. When Nanahuatzin answered honestly, Moctezuma awarded him by naming him Main Voice. This story shows how even the poorest people could reach the highest levels in the Aztec society.
This was the reason why the Aztecs were able to control and dominate the largest empire in all of North America and one of the largest worldwide. An Aztec custom consisted in that the Great Speaker, once elected, was no longer human and was a god from then on. In fact, each Aztec Great Speaker was worshiped in the Temple Mayor. The Aztec protocol was that nobody could look directly to the emperor, nor talk or hear him.
That is why there was a spokesman who relayed what his lord had said to the subjects and what these would respond to the emperor. Though, in cases of emergency, the king talked directly to his Council (León-Portilla 1992, & Hassig 1988). The Aztecs’ main food was corn. The corn was generally ground into flour and then made into masa or dough, which they made into tortillas, drinks, tamales, among other foods.
Other foods in the Aztecs’ diet were the seeds from the sage plant which were used as cereal; spicy peppers, eggs, turkey, rabbit, dog, lizards, locusts, snails, fish eggs, and as a delicacy, green slime which was scooped off the top of lake Texcoco. That was said to taste like cheese. For drink the Aztecs usually drank water and on special occasions they drank beer and nobles drank chocolate sweetened with honey. Foods today in Mexico have some basic components of the Aztec fare such as corn, which is still at the heart of the meal.
That is, today corn products are still widely eaten. This can be seen in the tortilla, a round flat sheet of corn that you find in almost every meal in a present day Mexican table; or the tamale, a lump of corn masa containing meat, wrapped in corn husks, and steamed. Both are Aztec foods. Hence, the blend of the Aztec and Spanish cultures can be seen very clearly in food.
For instance, it is a common rural Mexican tradition to make tamales, an Aztec food for Christmas, a Catholic holiday. Another example is the fact that tamales are often filled with beef, a product unknown to the Aztecs until the arrival of the Spanish. Even the method in which the meals were prepared: the corn is ground on a metate, made into masa, which is rolled into a ball and flattened, then placed on a comal cooking sheet and cooked, is still being practiced in remote country locations. In the city people eat much as they do here in the United States (Baumann 1995.
And Nicholson 1985). Cultivating the soil was the main way of life. In the Aztec society farmers were generally field workers who prepared the earth, breaking up clumps, hoeing with the coa digging stick, leveling, planting, weeding, and irrigating. They understood the rotations and had to read almanacs so they could determine when it was time for planting.
They made the construction of canals to bring water from mountain springS to the towns and fields of the piedmont and foothills. Calculations have shown that the flow of water through this system was insufficient to have maintained farming throughout the year (Bray 1968). The amount of decoration on a garment indicated wealth and social rank of the wearer. Rich people had clothes made of cotton while poorer people had clothes made from maguey fibers.
Aztec men wore a cloth around their hips and a cloak that was knotted around one shoulder. The women wore a sleeveless blouse and a wraparound skirt. The amount of decoration around the garment indicated the wealth and social rank of the wearer. Most of the Aztec homes were simple and designed for usefulness rather than for looks.
In the upper mountain regions the houses were adobe but in the lowlands they had thatched roofs and walls made of branches and leaves. Usually in the same yard around the house a family had other buildings suck as a place to put their tools and a place for their animals. Wealthy Aztecs had large adobe or stone houses with a large patio built around the house. The yard was usually large and the servants were housed in a separate building (Weaver, 1972).
The art of speaking was interwoven with teaching, as the learning of technical skills. Historical accounts, the reciting of stories and poetry, the conduct of law suits, and matters of trade were conducted orally. To be educated was to be a master of oral expression, for people were expected to present artful speeches on all sorts of occasions, both public and private. With all the etiquette required by the highest formalized pattern of Aztec life.
Aztec hieroglyphic writing served to communicate names, places, dates, and tallies in association by a system of dots. The language spoken by the Aztecs was called Nahuatl. This language was one of the must popular ones before the Spanish Conquest because it was the spoken language of the most important race in the prehispanic world: the Mexica or Azteca. Some of the peculiar characteristics of this language, was that it had 23 different sounds: 5 vowels and 18 consonants, divided into 9 primaries and 9 secondaries.
For some strange reason our ancestry of the Aztec basically used only the 9 primary consonants, that were considered as sacred sounds; The other 9 secondary consonants appeared only in the regular language of this Mexicatl country (the country around the Aztec empire). An example of this is the poetry Nezahualcoyotl lord and philosopher of Texcoco. The Nahuatl alphabet is described briefly below. The Aztec have always been warriors, since their time as the Mexica to the time of their demise.
The Aztecs at first were known as dirty barbarians so they were not allowed to settle with the present tribes of Central Mexico. Why did the Aztecs need to have a great military? To answer this question you must understand Aztec religion and way of life. The Aztecs whole beginning is based on war and their main god Huitlilopochi was based on war. The Aztecs had no head army or standing army but it was organized for war.
War was used to capture prisoners for sacrifice, punish tributary tribes, and gain new territory. The soldiers were trained at a young age by nobles in special schools. In these schools they taught the warriors their goals in war. The goals were to capture prisoners for sacrifice, and depending on the amount captured gave that warrior prowess.
Failure in battle was a disgrace for those who could not accomplish their task and usually led to their sacrifice. The overview of the Aztec military, is that their is no separation of armies, but the whole empire was set on war. The military had specific goals, but if not accomplished meant shame and death. The Aztecs had a very powerful military and only lost to the Spanish due to the myth that the white people were gods (Bray 1968).
Agriculture formed the backbone of the Aztec economy. Corn was the most important crop alone with beans, avocados, squashes, potatoes, and tomatoes. The lowlands provided crops such as cotton, papayas, rubber, and cacao. The main agricultural tool was a pointed stick which was used for digging.
In the tropical jungle the Aztecs used the slash and burn agriculture which is still used today. They chopped down the trees and burns them along with the shrubs and the ashes fertilized the soil. Terraces were cut in the mountains up in the highlands to increase the amount of farmland. Huge irrigation systems were made and the farmers used the mud from the bottom of the irrigation systems to help their crops.
As a result the Aztecs yielded huge crops which is the main reason why their civilization was so successful (Hodge & Smith 1
Cite this Aztec Culture Essay
Aztec Culture Essay. (2018, Sep 28). Retrieved from https://graduateway.com/aztec-culture-essay/ | 7,217 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The assassination of American President William McKinley occurred on the 6th of September 1901 and proved a major incident at the turn of the 21st centaury.
William McKinley was the president shot by an anarchist, Leon Czolgosz at the Temple of Music on the grounds of the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York, shown on this picture by the red cross.
Although the assassination took place on the 6th of September with two bullets fired, the president passed away on September 14th from gangrene caused by the bullet wounds in his abdomen. The same day, Vice President at the time, Theodor Roosevelt was sworn in as the President of the United States.
Leon Czolgosz, the anarchist, believed in the abolition of all government and the organization of society on a voluntary, cooperative basis without recourse to force or compulsion. This belief was formed after his loss of a job in a labour dispute in 1893. Czolgosz worked irregularly and attended political and religious meetings to determine the reasons for the economic turmoil of the Panic of 1893. In doing so, he became interested in anarchism, which was highly feared in the United States.
Czolgosz was brought to trail on September 23rd of 1901 and quickly found guilty and sentenced to death. On October 29th, Leon Czolgosz was the 50th person to die in the electric chair in the state of New York.
The president shot was William McKinley, serving from the election in 1896, as a result of the Panic of 1893 as the 25th president of the United States, till his death in 1901 after being elected the year prior. The man, who took over after the assassination becoming the 26th president of the US, was Theodor Roosevelt.
A previous Cuban Veteran who led men on the charge up the San Juan Hill and was award the Medal of Honour for his actions returned home to be elected governor of New York State. During his time as president starting from 1901, Roosevelt’s target was the trusts as he was a progressive president until the end of his second term in 1909.
At the turn of the century, America had finally established itself as a world power despite its assassination of its leader.
America at the Turn of the Century
By the 1900s, the United States of America, now commonly referred to as the United States had established itself as a world power even after its Civil War in 1861-1865. Currently a federal republic consisting of 50 states, and a federal district America was at the turn of the century a republic with only 45 states, as shown on the maps.
Many factors such as population, government and political developments, attitudes of the people, problems, its empire and navy all allowed the establishment of America as a world power. With a world population of approximately one thousand million six hundred and fifty million, the American population rested at around 4% of that. The 1900 census revealed that approximately seventy six million residing in the states, with a 21% increase since the last. This indicated the extreme amounts of immigrants entering the nation around this time.
Nearly 12 million hopeful immigrants arrived in the United States between 1870 and 1900; with the vast majority of these people were from Germany, Ireland, and England. This large amount of immigrants allowed the processing center at Ellis Island to be built in 1892.
About 2 percent were denied admission to the U.S, and sent back to their countries of origin for reasons such as having a chronic contagious disease, criminal background, or insanity.
At the turn of the century, both the U.S and the major European powers had embarked on an era of imperialist foreign policies. This new found view of an expansionist policy had three goals, to gain island possessions, most of which were already quite populated; to use the new territories not for settlement, but rather as naval bases, trading outposts, and commercial centers on major trade routes; and to think… | <urn:uuid:3312d34d-8d30-47c9-bc26-6fdf33a66049> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/America-1900-Speech-578273.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00173.warc.gz | en | 0.983472 | 813 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.40469795465469... | 1 | The assassination of American President William McKinley occurred on the 6th of September 1901 and proved a major incident at the turn of the 21st centaury.
William McKinley was the president shot by an anarchist, Leon Czolgosz at the Temple of Music on the grounds of the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York, shown on this picture by the red cross.
Although the assassination took place on the 6th of September with two bullets fired, the president passed away on September 14th from gangrene caused by the bullet wounds in his abdomen. The same day, Vice President at the time, Theodor Roosevelt was sworn in as the President of the United States.
Leon Czolgosz, the anarchist, believed in the abolition of all government and the organization of society on a voluntary, cooperative basis without recourse to force or compulsion. This belief was formed after his loss of a job in a labour dispute in 1893. Czolgosz worked irregularly and attended political and religious meetings to determine the reasons for the economic turmoil of the Panic of 1893. In doing so, he became interested in anarchism, which was highly feared in the United States.
Czolgosz was brought to trail on September 23rd of 1901 and quickly found guilty and sentenced to death. On October 29th, Leon Czolgosz was the 50th person to die in the electric chair in the state of New York.
The president shot was William McKinley, serving from the election in 1896, as a result of the Panic of 1893 as the 25th president of the United States, till his death in 1901 after being elected the year prior. The man, who took over after the assassination becoming the 26th president of the US, was Theodor Roosevelt.
A previous Cuban Veteran who led men on the charge up the San Juan Hill and was award the Medal of Honour for his actions returned home to be elected governor of New York State. During his time as president starting from 1901, Roosevelt’s target was the trusts as he was a progressive president until the end of his second term in 1909.
At the turn of the century, America had finally established itself as a world power despite its assassination of its leader.
America at the Turn of the Century
By the 1900s, the United States of America, now commonly referred to as the United States had established itself as a world power even after its Civil War in 1861-1865. Currently a federal republic consisting of 50 states, and a federal district America was at the turn of the century a republic with only 45 states, as shown on the maps.
Many factors such as population, government and political developments, attitudes of the people, problems, its empire and navy all allowed the establishment of America as a world power. With a world population of approximately one thousand million six hundred and fifty million, the American population rested at around 4% of that. The 1900 census revealed that approximately seventy six million residing in the states, with a 21% increase since the last. This indicated the extreme amounts of immigrants entering the nation around this time.
Nearly 12 million hopeful immigrants arrived in the United States between 1870 and 1900; with the vast majority of these people were from Germany, Ireland, and England. This large amount of immigrants allowed the processing center at Ellis Island to be built in 1892.
About 2 percent were denied admission to the U.S, and sent back to their countries of origin for reasons such as having a chronic contagious disease, criminal background, or insanity.
At the turn of the century, both the U.S and the major European powers had embarked on an era of imperialist foreign policies. This new found view of an expansionist policy had three goals, to gain island possessions, most of which were already quite populated; to use the new territories not for settlement, but rather as naval bases, trading outposts, and commercial centers on major trade routes; and to think… | 881 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Historian: the attitude towards the october coup of 1917 is determined by its grave consequences
The event of the past, which directly led to the establishment of a regime, whose actions cost the lives of millions of people, cannot be considered good. According to historian David Vseviov, this, in turn, determines the assessment of the October Revolution of 1917.
Pivotal historic events are always preceded by a prologue. The case of the October Revolution of 1917, or as it was officially called in the Soviet Union since the end of the 1930s, the Great October Socialist Revolution, is no exception. During the first decade after the event, the upheaval was also referred to as the “October Coup” by the leading Bolsheviks.
More or less at the same time, at the end of the 1930s, a concept of “two revolutions” evolved in Soviet Union’s official historiography, according to which the February event had been a bourgeois-democratic revolution, which had exhausted its purpose in a few months, while the October events had, from the beginning, been a socialist revolution.
The tumultuous events of 1905-1907, triggered by the Russo-Japanese war, alarmingly bruised the foundations of the Czarist rule and could have been a serious warning of the possible developments ahead. Still, the Romanov empire, having celebrated its 300th anniversary in 1913, appeared unwavering, at least on the surface. Even the Bolsheviks were convinced of its stability.
Just a few weeks before the revolution in January 1917, Lenin had expressed a deep conviction when addressing the working-class youth of Zürich, that his contemporaries will not see any revolutionary changes in Russia in the next decades. This assertion refers to the fact, that the émigré leader of the Bolshevik party had neither a real understanding of the developments in Russia nor of the deep-rooted problems that the state had found itself in.
Beginning on 28 July 1914, the First World War caused wave of patriotism and euphoria in Russia. However, devastating defeats in the front and mounting supply issues in the rear led to a sharp rise of discontentment. In the winter of 1916-1917, the authorities failed to provide bread even to the residents of the capital.
Soon the demands for bread grew to political anti-government mass demonstrations, which eventually led to the February revolution and the overthrow of a centuries-old monarchy. Thus the rule of the Romanov dynasty ended and the power went to the Russian Provisional Government, which declared an amnesty to political prisoners, promised to guarantee civil liberties and introduce a local government reform.
However, the political parties that had seized power in February were unable to hold on to it. The prolonged and unsuccessful war was accompanied by numerous problems. Everything was lacking: food, firewood and most importantly, faith in the capabilities of those in power. As a result, people became overwhelmed with everyday problems, which ultimately led to complete alienation from the state.
Although it was claimed during the Soviet period, that the Provisional Government was overthrown as a result of an armed uprising, fewer people lost their lives (at least in the capital) during the siege of power than during the February events. It was also declared that the public’s full support secured the October Revolution’s success. It is far more appropriate to characterise people’s reaction to yet another power shift (the composition of the so-called Provisional Government changed several times) with words like “indifference” and “aloofness”. Consequently, the forces supporting the Bolsheviks seized the Winter Palace on 26 October (7 November) and arrested the members of the Provisional Government.
To be precise, the government was referred to as “Provisional Government” because it was the Constituent Assembly that was supposed to decide on the future of Russia’s political arrangements. This idea was so popular among people that the Bolsheviks, who had come to power, were unable to give it up. However, as Bolsheviks were defeated in the Constituent Assembly elections, they soon decided to dissolve the Assembly altogether.
Compared to Petrograd, those aspiring to seize power in Moscow were met with stronger resistance. The battles in the city lasted for several days and took the lives of a few hundred people. There were also a sizable number of citizens that passively resisted the new regime. In Petrograd alone, approximately 50 000 civil servants and employees of private enterprises stopped fulfilling their duties.
The success of the Bolsheviks has been explained by several objective circumstances. Those that had seized power, and the majority of the people, shared mutual interests for a brief period. The Bolshevik’s wish to stop the war and give land to the farmers was the common ground between the two groups.
Some historians argue that the success of the Bolsheviks was far from predestined. It merely became possible due to the inaction of the government which had all the opportunities to stop it. The leader of the Provisional Government, Kerensky, and several cabinet members at the time were convinced that Bolshevik demonstration will meet the same fate as the demonstration in July, when the attempt of a coup was fairly easily suppressed.
The first decision of the Soviet government after the coup on 26 October (8 November) was to close down some opposition newspapers. A decree that regulated the activity of the press published on the next day claimed that if normal societal conditions are restored, the decision will be reversed. Despite that, the monopoly of truth that the Communist Party sought to establish prevailed until perestroika and glasnost.
Thousands of analyses in different genres were published during the Soviet era about the events of the October coup and the “heroes” of those days: collections of documents, fiction, memoirs, films etc. Vladimir Lenin was called the main architect of the Great October Socialist Revolution throughout the period. His companions, however, tended to change, according to the outcomes of the power struggle.
Lev Trotsky, who was given a pivotal role in the events of 25-26 October, stood steadfast next to Lenin in written as well as oral recollections in the first few years after the coup. Such role division was confirmed by Stalin in his article in “Pravda”, published on the first anniversary of the revolution. He noted that in the case of the events of 1917 “we must first and foremost be thankful to comrade Trotsky”.
Stalin deservedly highlighted the fact, that the coup was a success thanks to the swift actions of Trotsky, resulting with the Bolsheviks declaring control over the garrison of Petrograd. Nonetheless, in a few years, during an internal power struggle in the party, Stalin announced conversely, that Trotsky did not play any role in the revolution. As is known from a later period, Trotsky became the main enemy of the Soviet regime and trotskyism a criminal way of thinking, whose disciples were to be eliminated.
Since the 1930s, Stalin had become the main hero of the October Revolution. It is clear from the October-themed films, that in the Lenin-Stalin duo, the latter is visually given a leading role. Several ideas that profoundly influenced life in the Soviet Union (e.g. the necessity to electrify the state) reached the viewers through Stalin’s mouth, while Lenin’s role was to merely nod in agreement.
During the reign of Nikita Khrushchev however, Stalin was cut out of earlier films.
The disappearance of several important figures, who had participated in October events, from the memory of future generations, was strongly supported by official Soviet history, which as an official narrative of party history shaped a suitable account of the events of 1917 to later authorities.
Opinions regarding the events of October (November) 1917 vary greatly. According to the analysis of some authors, the events were a national catastrophe, which ended a normal, centuries-long growth of Russia, and led to a devastating civil war and underdevelopment compared to other advanced countries, and to the establishment of a criminal totalitarian system.
According to the authors that share this point of view, a cynical and power-hungry clique led by Lenin used a favourable chance and violently forced their will on a passive nation. This point of view coincides with the conception of the so-called “German funding” – the Bolsheviks were financed via the intelligence of the German Empire, which was at the time at war with Russia.
The Soviet historiography, naturally, had the opposite point of view (which still exists today). According to this, the coup had been the most progressive step in human history, which had enabled the feudal relics and the injustices of capitalist establishment to be overcome, and the development of a happy society to begin. Supposedly, although this path had its drawbacks (the excesses of the Stalin-era repressions), the course taken during the October Revolution of 1917 was entirely appropriate. According to those that share this point of view, the biggest catastrophe of the 20th century turned out to be the collapse of the Soviet Union.
It is difficult to judge the course of history in opposing categories such as “good” and “bad”. Yet, this event of the past, which directly led to the establishment of a regime, whose actions cost the lives of millions of people, cannot be considered good. This, in turn, determines the assessment of the October Revolution of 1917. | <urn:uuid:5c7be24b-79fe-4874-8904-e82bd0f14efe> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://communistcrimes.org/en/historian-attitude-towards-october-coup-1917-determined-its-grave-consequences | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251689924.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126135207-20200126165207-00477.warc.gz | en | 0.982466 | 1,945 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.29562962055... | 1 | Historian: the attitude towards the october coup of 1917 is determined by its grave consequences
The event of the past, which directly led to the establishment of a regime, whose actions cost the lives of millions of people, cannot be considered good. According to historian David Vseviov, this, in turn, determines the assessment of the October Revolution of 1917.
Pivotal historic events are always preceded by a prologue. The case of the October Revolution of 1917, or as it was officially called in the Soviet Union since the end of the 1930s, the Great October Socialist Revolution, is no exception. During the first decade after the event, the upheaval was also referred to as the “October Coup” by the leading Bolsheviks.
More or less at the same time, at the end of the 1930s, a concept of “two revolutions” evolved in Soviet Union’s official historiography, according to which the February event had been a bourgeois-democratic revolution, which had exhausted its purpose in a few months, while the October events had, from the beginning, been a socialist revolution.
The tumultuous events of 1905-1907, triggered by the Russo-Japanese war, alarmingly bruised the foundations of the Czarist rule and could have been a serious warning of the possible developments ahead. Still, the Romanov empire, having celebrated its 300th anniversary in 1913, appeared unwavering, at least on the surface. Even the Bolsheviks were convinced of its stability.
Just a few weeks before the revolution in January 1917, Lenin had expressed a deep conviction when addressing the working-class youth of Zürich, that his contemporaries will not see any revolutionary changes in Russia in the next decades. This assertion refers to the fact, that the émigré leader of the Bolshevik party had neither a real understanding of the developments in Russia nor of the deep-rooted problems that the state had found itself in.
Beginning on 28 July 1914, the First World War caused wave of patriotism and euphoria in Russia. However, devastating defeats in the front and mounting supply issues in the rear led to a sharp rise of discontentment. In the winter of 1916-1917, the authorities failed to provide bread even to the residents of the capital.
Soon the demands for bread grew to political anti-government mass demonstrations, which eventually led to the February revolution and the overthrow of a centuries-old monarchy. Thus the rule of the Romanov dynasty ended and the power went to the Russian Provisional Government, which declared an amnesty to political prisoners, promised to guarantee civil liberties and introduce a local government reform.
However, the political parties that had seized power in February were unable to hold on to it. The prolonged and unsuccessful war was accompanied by numerous problems. Everything was lacking: food, firewood and most importantly, faith in the capabilities of those in power. As a result, people became overwhelmed with everyday problems, which ultimately led to complete alienation from the state.
Although it was claimed during the Soviet period, that the Provisional Government was overthrown as a result of an armed uprising, fewer people lost their lives (at least in the capital) during the siege of power than during the February events. It was also declared that the public’s full support secured the October Revolution’s success. It is far more appropriate to characterise people’s reaction to yet another power shift (the composition of the so-called Provisional Government changed several times) with words like “indifference” and “aloofness”. Consequently, the forces supporting the Bolsheviks seized the Winter Palace on 26 October (7 November) and arrested the members of the Provisional Government.
To be precise, the government was referred to as “Provisional Government” because it was the Constituent Assembly that was supposed to decide on the future of Russia’s political arrangements. This idea was so popular among people that the Bolsheviks, who had come to power, were unable to give it up. However, as Bolsheviks were defeated in the Constituent Assembly elections, they soon decided to dissolve the Assembly altogether.
Compared to Petrograd, those aspiring to seize power in Moscow were met with stronger resistance. The battles in the city lasted for several days and took the lives of a few hundred people. There were also a sizable number of citizens that passively resisted the new regime. In Petrograd alone, approximately 50 000 civil servants and employees of private enterprises stopped fulfilling their duties.
The success of the Bolsheviks has been explained by several objective circumstances. Those that had seized power, and the majority of the people, shared mutual interests for a brief period. The Bolshevik’s wish to stop the war and give land to the farmers was the common ground between the two groups.
Some historians argue that the success of the Bolsheviks was far from predestined. It merely became possible due to the inaction of the government which had all the opportunities to stop it. The leader of the Provisional Government, Kerensky, and several cabinet members at the time were convinced that Bolshevik demonstration will meet the same fate as the demonstration in July, when the attempt of a coup was fairly easily suppressed.
The first decision of the Soviet government after the coup on 26 October (8 November) was to close down some opposition newspapers. A decree that regulated the activity of the press published on the next day claimed that if normal societal conditions are restored, the decision will be reversed. Despite that, the monopoly of truth that the Communist Party sought to establish prevailed until perestroika and glasnost.
Thousands of analyses in different genres were published during the Soviet era about the events of the October coup and the “heroes” of those days: collections of documents, fiction, memoirs, films etc. Vladimir Lenin was called the main architect of the Great October Socialist Revolution throughout the period. His companions, however, tended to change, according to the outcomes of the power struggle.
Lev Trotsky, who was given a pivotal role in the events of 25-26 October, stood steadfast next to Lenin in written as well as oral recollections in the first few years after the coup. Such role division was confirmed by Stalin in his article in “Pravda”, published on the first anniversary of the revolution. He noted that in the case of the events of 1917 “we must first and foremost be thankful to comrade Trotsky”.
Stalin deservedly highlighted the fact, that the coup was a success thanks to the swift actions of Trotsky, resulting with the Bolsheviks declaring control over the garrison of Petrograd. Nonetheless, in a few years, during an internal power struggle in the party, Stalin announced conversely, that Trotsky did not play any role in the revolution. As is known from a later period, Trotsky became the main enemy of the Soviet regime and trotskyism a criminal way of thinking, whose disciples were to be eliminated.
Since the 1930s, Stalin had become the main hero of the October Revolution. It is clear from the October-themed films, that in the Lenin-Stalin duo, the latter is visually given a leading role. Several ideas that profoundly influenced life in the Soviet Union (e.g. the necessity to electrify the state) reached the viewers through Stalin’s mouth, while Lenin’s role was to merely nod in agreement.
During the reign of Nikita Khrushchev however, Stalin was cut out of earlier films.
The disappearance of several important figures, who had participated in October events, from the memory of future generations, was strongly supported by official Soviet history, which as an official narrative of party history shaped a suitable account of the events of 1917 to later authorities.
Opinions regarding the events of October (November) 1917 vary greatly. According to the analysis of some authors, the events were a national catastrophe, which ended a normal, centuries-long growth of Russia, and led to a devastating civil war and underdevelopment compared to other advanced countries, and to the establishment of a criminal totalitarian system.
According to the authors that share this point of view, a cynical and power-hungry clique led by Lenin used a favourable chance and violently forced their will on a passive nation. This point of view coincides with the conception of the so-called “German funding” – the Bolsheviks were financed via the intelligence of the German Empire, which was at the time at war with Russia.
The Soviet historiography, naturally, had the opposite point of view (which still exists today). According to this, the coup had been the most progressive step in human history, which had enabled the feudal relics and the injustices of capitalist establishment to be overcome, and the development of a happy society to begin. Supposedly, although this path had its drawbacks (the excesses of the Stalin-era repressions), the course taken during the October Revolution of 1917 was entirely appropriate. According to those that share this point of view, the biggest catastrophe of the 20th century turned out to be the collapse of the Soviet Union.
It is difficult to judge the course of history in opposing categories such as “good” and “bad”. Yet, this event of the past, which directly led to the establishment of a regime, whose actions cost the lives of millions of people, cannot be considered good. This, in turn, determines the assessment of the October Revolution of 1917. | 1,964 | ENGLISH | 1 |
As the title of Austen's Pride and Prejudice announces, pride is an important theme in the story. As Mary pedantically remarks, “human nature is particularly prone to” pride (p. 13). We subsequently see that most characters in the novel struggle with this flaw, which often stops them from seeing situations and people objectively.
The consequences of pride are mostly explored through the main characters, Elizabeth Bennet and Fitzwilliam Darcy. Darcy’s pride is initially a result of his belief in his superior social status. Seeing himself as important and sophisticated leads to Mr Darcy looking down on anyone whom he believes does not belong to his social circle. This is why he refuses to dance with Elizabeth at the first ball and even talks about her and other women in rather critical terms.
His pride is challenged by the fact that he begins to be attracted by Elizabeth’s wit and physical appearance. While he still thinks he is superior, he falls in love with her and eventually decides to ask her to marry him. However, his proposal is still influenced by class pride – which makes him offend Elizabeth during his proposal, as he carefully outlines all the failings of her relatives.
Elizabeth’s pride mainly derives from her belief in her intelligence and her ability to ‘read people’. Her pride is wounded when Darcy comments on her looks, saying she is only ‘tolerable’, as well as when he talks about her social inferiority as he proposes marriage. Nevertheless, Darcy and Elizabeth are the only characters in the novel who manage to overcome their pride and, as a result, they fall in love and marry.
At one po... | <urn:uuid:a8259ac3-e3c2-4865-9284-9abef0e66c74> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://liceunet.ro/pride-and-prejudice/interpretation/themes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251773463.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128030221-20200128060221-00305.warc.gz | en | 0.98508 | 345 | 3.828125 | 4 | [
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-0.073573306202888... | 10 | As the title of Austen's Pride and Prejudice announces, pride is an important theme in the story. As Mary pedantically remarks, “human nature is particularly prone to” pride (p. 13). We subsequently see that most characters in the novel struggle with this flaw, which often stops them from seeing situations and people objectively.
The consequences of pride are mostly explored through the main characters, Elizabeth Bennet and Fitzwilliam Darcy. Darcy’s pride is initially a result of his belief in his superior social status. Seeing himself as important and sophisticated leads to Mr Darcy looking down on anyone whom he believes does not belong to his social circle. This is why he refuses to dance with Elizabeth at the first ball and even talks about her and other women in rather critical terms.
His pride is challenged by the fact that he begins to be attracted by Elizabeth’s wit and physical appearance. While he still thinks he is superior, he falls in love with her and eventually decides to ask her to marry him. However, his proposal is still influenced by class pride – which makes him offend Elizabeth during his proposal, as he carefully outlines all the failings of her relatives.
Elizabeth’s pride mainly derives from her belief in her intelligence and her ability to ‘read people’. Her pride is wounded when Darcy comments on her looks, saying she is only ‘tolerable’, as well as when he talks about her social inferiority as he proposes marriage. Nevertheless, Darcy and Elizabeth are the only characters in the novel who manage to overcome their pride and, as a result, they fall in love and marry.
At one po... | 329 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Best of Times the Worst of Times
Comfort women were women and girls forced into a prostitution corps created by the Empire of Japan. The name “comfort women” is a translation of a Japanese name ianfu (??? ). Ianfu is a euphemism for shofu (?? ) whose meaning is “prostitute(s)”.
The earliest reporting on the issue in South Korea stated it was not a voluntary force, and since 1989 a number of women have come forward testifying they were kidnapped by Imperial Japanese soldiers. Historians such as Lee Yeong-Hun and Ikuhiko Hata stated the recruitment of comfort women was voluntary. 7] Other historians, using the testimony of ex-comfort women and surviving Japanese soldiers have argued the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy were either directly or indirectly involved in coercing, deceiving, luring, and sometimes kidnapping young women throughout Japan’s occupied territories. Estimates vary as to how many women were involved, with numbers ranging from as low as 20,000 from some Japanese scholars to as high as 410,000 from some Chinese scholars, but the exact numbers are still being researched and debated.
A majority of the women were from Korea, China, Japan and the Philippines, although women from Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Taiwan, Indonesia and other Japanese-occupied territories were used for military “comfort stations”. Stations were located in Japan, China, the Philippines, Indonesia, then Malaya, Thailand, Burma, New Guinea, Hong Kong, Macau, and French Indochina. According to testimony, young women from countries under Japanese Imperial control were abducted from their homes.
In many cases, women were also lured with promises of work in factories or restaurants. Once recruited, the women were incarcerated in “comfort stations” in foreign lands. A Dutch government study described how the Japanese military itself recruited women by force in the Dutch East Indies. It revealed that a total of 300 Dutch women had been coerced into Japanese military sex slavery | <urn:uuid:64c4bb53-a547-423d-a7be-9276973ca279> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://phdessay.com/the-best-of-times-the-worst-of-times-178322/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00506.warc.gz | en | 0.982578 | 416 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.49649107456207275... | 1 | The Best of Times the Worst of Times
Comfort women were women and girls forced into a prostitution corps created by the Empire of Japan. The name “comfort women” is a translation of a Japanese name ianfu (??? ). Ianfu is a euphemism for shofu (?? ) whose meaning is “prostitute(s)”.
The earliest reporting on the issue in South Korea stated it was not a voluntary force, and since 1989 a number of women have come forward testifying they were kidnapped by Imperial Japanese soldiers. Historians such as Lee Yeong-Hun and Ikuhiko Hata stated the recruitment of comfort women was voluntary. 7] Other historians, using the testimony of ex-comfort women and surviving Japanese soldiers have argued the Imperial Japanese Army and Navy were either directly or indirectly involved in coercing, deceiving, luring, and sometimes kidnapping young women throughout Japan’s occupied territories. Estimates vary as to how many women were involved, with numbers ranging from as low as 20,000 from some Japanese scholars to as high as 410,000 from some Chinese scholars, but the exact numbers are still being researched and debated.
A majority of the women were from Korea, China, Japan and the Philippines, although women from Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Taiwan, Indonesia and other Japanese-occupied territories were used for military “comfort stations”. Stations were located in Japan, China, the Philippines, Indonesia, then Malaya, Thailand, Burma, New Guinea, Hong Kong, Macau, and French Indochina. According to testimony, young women from countries under Japanese Imperial control were abducted from their homes.
In many cases, women were also lured with promises of work in factories or restaurants. Once recruited, the women were incarcerated in “comfort stations” in foreign lands. A Dutch government study described how the Japanese military itself recruited women by force in the Dutch East Indies. It revealed that a total of 300 Dutch women had been coerced into Japanese military sex slavery | 419 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There were no maps of London before about 1550 – that is to say, there were no maps of London in the way that we know them today. The reason why is simple to explain – printing was not invented until about 1450. One of the earliest presses was invented by Gutenberg, in Germany. Early books were publications like the Bible. It took several decades before any serious printing started up in London. Any printed illustrations were usually woodcuts and they were not like the fine steel engraving that we have all seen, they were just simple pictures with rather chunky lines.
The first map of Central London (including Westminster, Strand, Fleet Street, City of London and the north bank of the Thames) was produced around 1550. It was engraved on large sheets of copper, showing great detail. We knew nothing about that map until the 1970s when one copper plate was discovered in somebody’s house! It was examined by experts at the London Museum. It was estimated to be one of a set of 24 plates, laid out in a grid of six plates horizontally by four vertically. A monograph was published by the museum and a copy of the booklet found its way to Yorkshire where a reader realised that also had another plate. The two copper plates are now safely on display in the Museum of London.
In the late 1980s, a diligent German researcher realised that they had found the third plate from the same map, locked away in a museum collection. It was lent to the Museum of London for about three months and put on show.
Frustratingly, only three plates from that detailed map have ever been found. That, however, is not the end of the story. A map of London does exist and it closely resembles the ‘copper-plate’ map. Its scale is slightly smaller and it was produced as a woodcut, using eight blocks – four on the top row and four more below. Being produced from wooden blocks, the detail is not so fine but it is still an interesting map. The blocks for this map are not known to exist but there are three paper copies in existence, two in London and one in Cambridge. The map was probably published about 1561. None of the paper copies of the map from this date is known to exist either. The paper copies that do exist were from a reprint made just after 1600 from wooden blocks that had become damaged. All three paper copies have small parts missing along some of their edges. In the 18th century, the map was attributed to a mapmaker called Ralph Agas. It is now known that he was not the originator but, because we do not know who made the woodcut, we often refer to it as the ‘Agas map’ for convenience.
A third map, also copied from the 1550 copper engraving, also exists. It is a single sheet at a much smaller scale which was engraved by Braun and Hogenberg, in Germany, in 1575.
The only reasonably complete large-scale map, therefore, from the 16th century is the ‘Agas map’. Sadly, most of ‘missing’ parts run along the centre of the whole map and therefore the aesthetic result is rather like looking at Constable’s ‘Haywain’ with a narrow piece torn from the centre of the painting. This obviously annoyed many Victorian engravers as much as it does readers today. One famous Victorian engraver, called Weller, decided to redraw the whole map and ‘create’ the missing pieces. He also added colour to the map, giving it that something ‘extra’.
The small version at the top of this article gives some idea of the ‘Agas facsimile’. It certainly makes understanding the map much easier and, of course, is an attractive work in its own right. | <urn:uuid:9b3fa988-cc27-4494-b781-63af247d2845> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://knowyourlondon.wordpress.com/2014/09/19/agas-facsimile-map/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00286.warc.gz | en | 0.985963 | 796 | 3.6875 | 4 | [
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0.26080983877... | 2 | There were no maps of London before about 1550 – that is to say, there were no maps of London in the way that we know them today. The reason why is simple to explain – printing was not invented until about 1450. One of the earliest presses was invented by Gutenberg, in Germany. Early books were publications like the Bible. It took several decades before any serious printing started up in London. Any printed illustrations were usually woodcuts and they were not like the fine steel engraving that we have all seen, they were just simple pictures with rather chunky lines.
The first map of Central London (including Westminster, Strand, Fleet Street, City of London and the north bank of the Thames) was produced around 1550. It was engraved on large sheets of copper, showing great detail. We knew nothing about that map until the 1970s when one copper plate was discovered in somebody’s house! It was examined by experts at the London Museum. It was estimated to be one of a set of 24 plates, laid out in a grid of six plates horizontally by four vertically. A monograph was published by the museum and a copy of the booklet found its way to Yorkshire where a reader realised that also had another plate. The two copper plates are now safely on display in the Museum of London.
In the late 1980s, a diligent German researcher realised that they had found the third plate from the same map, locked away in a museum collection. It was lent to the Museum of London for about three months and put on show.
Frustratingly, only three plates from that detailed map have ever been found. That, however, is not the end of the story. A map of London does exist and it closely resembles the ‘copper-plate’ map. Its scale is slightly smaller and it was produced as a woodcut, using eight blocks – four on the top row and four more below. Being produced from wooden blocks, the detail is not so fine but it is still an interesting map. The blocks for this map are not known to exist but there are three paper copies in existence, two in London and one in Cambridge. The map was probably published about 1561. None of the paper copies of the map from this date is known to exist either. The paper copies that do exist were from a reprint made just after 1600 from wooden blocks that had become damaged. All three paper copies have small parts missing along some of their edges. In the 18th century, the map was attributed to a mapmaker called Ralph Agas. It is now known that he was not the originator but, because we do not know who made the woodcut, we often refer to it as the ‘Agas map’ for convenience.
A third map, also copied from the 1550 copper engraving, also exists. It is a single sheet at a much smaller scale which was engraved by Braun and Hogenberg, in Germany, in 1575.
The only reasonably complete large-scale map, therefore, from the 16th century is the ‘Agas map’. Sadly, most of ‘missing’ parts run along the centre of the whole map and therefore the aesthetic result is rather like looking at Constable’s ‘Haywain’ with a narrow piece torn from the centre of the painting. This obviously annoyed many Victorian engravers as much as it does readers today. One famous Victorian engraver, called Weller, decided to redraw the whole map and ‘create’ the missing pieces. He also added colour to the map, giving it that something ‘extra’.
The small version at the top of this article gives some idea of the ‘Agas facsimile’. It certainly makes understanding the map much easier and, of course, is an attractive work in its own right. | 799 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(CNN)Between 4500 and 2500 BC, the bodies of a couple, believed to be married, were placed carefully side by side in an ancient burial site of the Harappans, one of the world's earliest civilizations.
Ancient lovers found in Indian burial site mystify and intrigue archaeologists
Thousands of years later, in 2013, a team of Indian and South Korean researchers began excavation work in the necropolis now located in Rakhigarhi -- around 100 miles northwest of India's capital, New Delhi -- in a bid to extract DNA from the skeletal remains.
They discovered dozens of skeletons during the excavation process, which ended three years later. Their finds included the couple, the scientists said in a study published in the peer-reviewed ACB Journal of Anatomy. They believe this is the first Harappan pair confirmed to have been buried together.
"Observation revealed that they died at the same time and they were buried at the same time," said Vasant Shinde, the archeologist who led the team.
The skull of the man was found facing the body of his female partner. "They were intimately placed in the burial," Shinde said. "So we thought maybe they shared [a] very intimate relationship" and were probably husband and wife.
Shinde added that the couple must have been married "because, had they been in an illicit relationship, the community would not have [given] them a proper ceremonial burial."
But one major mystery remained: How did these Bronze Age lovebirds die at the same time? Were they wiped out in a plague? Killed in a ritual death? Or did this star-crossed pair take their own lives? | <urn:uuid:962f4b05-47b9-469e-8740-cd8b2c8bdd56> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.cnn.com/2019/01/10/health/harappa-grave-couple-india-scli-intl/index.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00408.warc.gz | en | 0.984298 | 345 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.472329080104... | 2 | (CNN)Between 4500 and 2500 BC, the bodies of a couple, believed to be married, were placed carefully side by side in an ancient burial site of the Harappans, one of the world's earliest civilizations.
Ancient lovers found in Indian burial site mystify and intrigue archaeologists
Thousands of years later, in 2013, a team of Indian and South Korean researchers began excavation work in the necropolis now located in Rakhigarhi -- around 100 miles northwest of India's capital, New Delhi -- in a bid to extract DNA from the skeletal remains.
They discovered dozens of skeletons during the excavation process, which ended three years later. Their finds included the couple, the scientists said in a study published in the peer-reviewed ACB Journal of Anatomy. They believe this is the first Harappan pair confirmed to have been buried together.
"Observation revealed that they died at the same time and they were buried at the same time," said Vasant Shinde, the archeologist who led the team.
The skull of the man was found facing the body of his female partner. "They were intimately placed in the burial," Shinde said. "So we thought maybe they shared [a] very intimate relationship" and were probably husband and wife.
Shinde added that the couple must have been married "because, had they been in an illicit relationship, the community would not have [given] them a proper ceremonial burial."
But one major mystery remained: How did these Bronze Age lovebirds die at the same time? Were they wiped out in a plague? Killed in a ritual death? Or did this star-crossed pair take their own lives? | 349 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. (March 2012)
He was born and died in Florence, and was one of the chief figures in the company of learned men which gathered around the patronage of Cosimo de' Medici. Niccoli's chief services to classical literature consisted in his work as a copyist and collator of ancient manuscripts; he corrected the text, introduced divisions into chapters, and made tables of contents.
His lack of critical faculty was compensated by his excellent taste; in Greek (of which he knew very little) he had the assistance of Ambrogio Traversari. Many of the most valuable manuscripts in the Laurentian library are by his hand, amongst them those of Lucretius and of twelve comedies of Plautus. The pursuit of ancient manuscripts was a dangerous and expensive task, agents working in the field at the time included Poggio Bracciolini.
Niccoli's private library was bettered only by that of Cosimo de' Medici who was the pioneer of the first Florentine public library which was the largest in Europe at that time. Niccoli also possessed a small but valuable collection of ancient works of art, coins and medals. He regarded himself as an infallible critic, and could not bear the slightest contradiction; his quarrels with Francesco Filelfo, Guarino da Verona and especially with Traversari created a great sensation in the learned world at the time.
His hypercritical spirit (according to his enemies, his ignorance of the language) prevented him from writing or speaking in Latin; his sole literary work was a short tract in Italian on Latin Orthography, which he withdrew from circulation after it had been violently attacked by Guarino. His fame as a Latin stylist was extensive, and many authors would submit to him their manuscripts prior to publication for correction; Leonardo Bruni called him the "censor of the Latin tongue".
He is also regarded as the inventor of the cursive script, known today as Italic or Cancelleresca. This came about from his enduring study of ancient manuscripts and the numerous copies he made. Niccoli decided he would vary his copied manuscripts by using tilted lettering and as a result later on, when Italian printers first used Italic type, they chose Niccoli's lettering style.
Niccoli was buried in the Basilica of Santo Spirito in Florence. He was in a great deal of debt prior to his death, after which Cosimo offered to cover all of his outstanding payments to debtors in exchange for control over his collection of 800 manuscripts valued at around 6,000 florins. He never married, preferring to fill his houses with manuscripts, coins, statuary, vases, and gems. | <urn:uuid:431f252e-a729-440a-a626-e83b6bfe7e38> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.popflock.com/learn?s=Niccol%C3%B2_de'_Niccoli | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00154.warc.gz | en | 0.988106 | 567 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.3627423644... | 2 | This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. (March 2012)
He was born and died in Florence, and was one of the chief figures in the company of learned men which gathered around the patronage of Cosimo de' Medici. Niccoli's chief services to classical literature consisted in his work as a copyist and collator of ancient manuscripts; he corrected the text, introduced divisions into chapters, and made tables of contents.
His lack of critical faculty was compensated by his excellent taste; in Greek (of which he knew very little) he had the assistance of Ambrogio Traversari. Many of the most valuable manuscripts in the Laurentian library are by his hand, amongst them those of Lucretius and of twelve comedies of Plautus. The pursuit of ancient manuscripts was a dangerous and expensive task, agents working in the field at the time included Poggio Bracciolini.
Niccoli's private library was bettered only by that of Cosimo de' Medici who was the pioneer of the first Florentine public library which was the largest in Europe at that time. Niccoli also possessed a small but valuable collection of ancient works of art, coins and medals. He regarded himself as an infallible critic, and could not bear the slightest contradiction; his quarrels with Francesco Filelfo, Guarino da Verona and especially with Traversari created a great sensation in the learned world at the time.
His hypercritical spirit (according to his enemies, his ignorance of the language) prevented him from writing or speaking in Latin; his sole literary work was a short tract in Italian on Latin Orthography, which he withdrew from circulation after it had been violently attacked by Guarino. His fame as a Latin stylist was extensive, and many authors would submit to him their manuscripts prior to publication for correction; Leonardo Bruni called him the "censor of the Latin tongue".
He is also regarded as the inventor of the cursive script, known today as Italic or Cancelleresca. This came about from his enduring study of ancient manuscripts and the numerous copies he made. Niccoli decided he would vary his copied manuscripts by using tilted lettering and as a result later on, when Italian printers first used Italic type, they chose Niccoli's lettering style.
Niccoli was buried in the Basilica of Santo Spirito in Florence. He was in a great deal of debt prior to his death, after which Cosimo offered to cover all of his outstanding payments to debtors in exchange for control over his collection of 800 manuscripts valued at around 6,000 florins. He never married, preferring to fill his houses with manuscripts, coins, statuary, vases, and gems. | 562 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The military believes this has to do with how recruits are selected and trained, as well as the great deal of attention that is paid to troops morale over there. PTSD, formerly known as Combat Fatigue, was first widely noted in the late 19th century, after the American Civil War. That war was one of the first to expose large numbers of troops to extended periods of combat stress. This had long term effect on many soldiers. This was publicized after the war by the newly invented mass media. The PTSD symptoms, as reported in the press over 150 years ago, have not changed. At the time, veterans were diagnosed as suffering from "Irritable Heart" (a popular description, back then, for stress related mental problems.) Symptoms noted included fatigue, shortness of palpitations, headache, excessive sweating, dizziness, disturbed sleep, fainting and flashbacks to traumatic combat situations. In World War I, the condition was called Shell Shock, and the symptoms were the same, although there was more attention paid to vets who jumped and got very nervous when they heard loud noises. During World War II and Korea, the condition was called Combat Stress Reaction. Same symptoms. During Vietnam, the term " Post-Traumatic Stress Syndrome" became popular, until it evolved into what we currently regard as PTSD. Actually, if you comb through military writings for the last few thousand years, you will note that PTSD has always existed. Too much combat "leaves a mark on a man" as the ancients were wont to note. But, the condition could always be faked or, more commonly, as many veterans preferred, hidden. Whatever the case, PTSD is real.
Medical research is getting close to being able to diagnose PTSD with a great deal of certainty, whether the victim wants to admit to admit having it or not. For example, it's now possible, via a blood test, to determine who is most vulnerable to the psychological aftereffects of combat. This makes it possible to keep people out of combat units, who are likely to be most vulnerable to PTSD. This kind of screening, using cruder tools, has been done for a long time. You don't want people with you in combat, who are more prone to get quickly traumatized by it. Again, the old saying, "he doesn't have the nerves for it."
In combat, someone having a mental breakdown can be dangerous for those around him. This is one of the reasons for stressful training. It both gets troops accustomed to working under stress, and also identifies those who can't handle. There are plenty of less stressful, and safer, jobs for these guys. Only about ten percent of the troops in the army have combat jobs, and even in a place like Iraq, only about a third of the troops are exposed to any kind of combat.
Nearly 140,000 female American troops have served in Iraq and Afghanistan since September 11, 2001. More so than men, the women served in non-combat jobs. For example, while about one in 200 men in Iraq were killed in combat, only about one in a thousand women died there. But women still faced a lot of the same stress that men did. However, when they returned, it was found that women did not suffer from PTSD (Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder) to the same degree as men. PTSD is a mental condition, and difficult to diagnose with certainty (unlike, say, a missing limb or eye). Women have always been more willing to seek medical care than men, and in the general population, women are diagnosed with stress related conditions twice as often as men. But not the women who have served in a combat zone. | <urn:uuid:53c90a15-0692-4748-9043-90de6ca94677> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htatrit/articles/20060827.aspx | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00060.warc.gz | en | 0.98425 | 748 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.536419093608856... | 4 | The military believes this has to do with how recruits are selected and trained, as well as the great deal of attention that is paid to troops morale over there. PTSD, formerly known as Combat Fatigue, was first widely noted in the late 19th century, after the American Civil War. That war was one of the first to expose large numbers of troops to extended periods of combat stress. This had long term effect on many soldiers. This was publicized after the war by the newly invented mass media. The PTSD symptoms, as reported in the press over 150 years ago, have not changed. At the time, veterans were diagnosed as suffering from "Irritable Heart" (a popular description, back then, for stress related mental problems.) Symptoms noted included fatigue, shortness of palpitations, headache, excessive sweating, dizziness, disturbed sleep, fainting and flashbacks to traumatic combat situations. In World War I, the condition was called Shell Shock, and the symptoms were the same, although there was more attention paid to vets who jumped and got very nervous when they heard loud noises. During World War II and Korea, the condition was called Combat Stress Reaction. Same symptoms. During Vietnam, the term " Post-Traumatic Stress Syndrome" became popular, until it evolved into what we currently regard as PTSD. Actually, if you comb through military writings for the last few thousand years, you will note that PTSD has always existed. Too much combat "leaves a mark on a man" as the ancients were wont to note. But, the condition could always be faked or, more commonly, as many veterans preferred, hidden. Whatever the case, PTSD is real.
Medical research is getting close to being able to diagnose PTSD with a great deal of certainty, whether the victim wants to admit to admit having it or not. For example, it's now possible, via a blood test, to determine who is most vulnerable to the psychological aftereffects of combat. This makes it possible to keep people out of combat units, who are likely to be most vulnerable to PTSD. This kind of screening, using cruder tools, has been done for a long time. You don't want people with you in combat, who are more prone to get quickly traumatized by it. Again, the old saying, "he doesn't have the nerves for it."
In combat, someone having a mental breakdown can be dangerous for those around him. This is one of the reasons for stressful training. It both gets troops accustomed to working under stress, and also identifies those who can't handle. There are plenty of less stressful, and safer, jobs for these guys. Only about ten percent of the troops in the army have combat jobs, and even in a place like Iraq, only about a third of the troops are exposed to any kind of combat.
Nearly 140,000 female American troops have served in Iraq and Afghanistan since September 11, 2001. More so than men, the women served in non-combat jobs. For example, while about one in 200 men in Iraq were killed in combat, only about one in a thousand women died there. But women still faced a lot of the same stress that men did. However, when they returned, it was found that women did not suffer from PTSD (Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder) to the same degree as men. PTSD is a mental condition, and difficult to diagnose with certainty (unlike, say, a missing limb or eye). Women have always been more willing to seek medical care than men, and in the general population, women are diagnosed with stress related conditions twice as often as men. But not the women who have served in a combat zone. | 763 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During the Gilded Age, the mass accumulation of money by families like the Vanderbilts changed the economic, social, and physical landscape of the United States. The Vanderbilt family's wealth grew out of the shipping and railroad industries, both of which were largely monopolized by the the family patriarch, Cornelius "Commodore" Vanderbilt, in the late 19th century. His hard work set the foundation for his sons and grandsons to continue making money, but their descendants became less inclined to earn and more likely to spend.
As it goes in many wealthy families—such as the Rockefellers, for instance—the Vanderbilts were prone to excess. The houses, the luxury, and the spectacle that defined the Vanderbilt family eventually brought about their decline from atop the financial and social ladders they once dominated.
CNN news anchor Anderson Cooper, son of Gloria Vanderbilt and Wyatt Cooper, has known for some time that he won't be getting any of the family money, and he's okay with it. He told Howard Stern, "My mom's made clear to me that there's no trust fund... [and] I don't believe in inheriting money." He called inherited money an "initiative sucker" and "a curse."
Cooper, who makes millions of dollars a year working for CNN, said he always had a job growing up and, despite his mother's wealth, identifies with his father who grew up poor in Mississippi.
Commodore Vanderbilt married his first cousin Sophia Johnson in 1813. The couple had 13 children together, 11 of which survived to adulthood. The Vanderbilts had three sons, although one boy, George, died in 1864. At the time of his death, the two living boys, William and Cornelius, did little to inspire their father. He often called William a "blatherskite," or a fool, and had Cornelius committed to an asylum on two occasions. The Commodore opted to leave William the bulk of his money, but not before telling him "any fool can make a fortune; it takes a man of brains to hold onto it."
William Henry Vanderbilt suffered a mental breakdown at a young age after working with one of his father's business rivals. After that, he spent most of his time at the family farm in Staten Island where he was successful in boosting its profits. Slowly, William was given more opportunities to work within the Commodore's railroad empire and took it over after his father died.
Cornelius Vanderbilt II's youngest son, Reginald, inherited a small sum from his father, but the bulk of the family money went to his older brother, Alfred. The eldest son, Cornelius III, or Neily, spent large amounts of money before falling out with his family and once commented that "every Vanderbilt son... has increased his fortune except me."
Reginald was a playboy who gambled and drank often. On the night Reginald turned 21 years old, "he celebrated coming into his $15.5 million inheritance by losing $70,000 at the gambling table." He later died of cirrhosis of the liver due to his alcoholism. Reginald had little ambition and didn't make any money for his family, preferring to spend it instead.
In 1922, Reginald married 17-year-old Gloria Morgan. She gave birth to their daughter, also named Gloria, in 1924. Reginald died the following year broke and in debt, leaving his wife and child with only the interest from his daughter's future trust fund.
The Vanderbilts, native to the Netherlands, got their start in the United States sometime during the late 17th century. The Dutch immigrants were farmers and lived in relative obscurity until Commodore Vanderbilt came onto the scene in the early 19th century.
Commodore Vanderbilt was born in 1794, and at the age of 16, he borrowed $100—around $2,000 today—from his parents to purchase a flat-bottomed sailing barge called a periauger. Vanderbilt was working with his father, ferrying goods back and forth from Staten Island to Manhattan, but he decided to branch out on his own. He agreed to share the profits with his parents and began transporting cargo in the New York harbor, out-advertising and undercutting the competition. The shrewd businessman made about $1,000—approximately $21,000 today—in his first year and soon had several ships, then eventually a small fleet at his disposal. | <urn:uuid:79ced683-7544-4de3-9175-f33e6f10a8fc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ranker.com/list/how-vanderbilt-family-lost-fortune/melissa-sartore?page=2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00366.warc.gz | en | 0.990037 | 915 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.184142768383... | 1 | During the Gilded Age, the mass accumulation of money by families like the Vanderbilts changed the economic, social, and physical landscape of the United States. The Vanderbilt family's wealth grew out of the shipping and railroad industries, both of which were largely monopolized by the the family patriarch, Cornelius "Commodore" Vanderbilt, in the late 19th century. His hard work set the foundation for his sons and grandsons to continue making money, but their descendants became less inclined to earn and more likely to spend.
As it goes in many wealthy families—such as the Rockefellers, for instance—the Vanderbilts were prone to excess. The houses, the luxury, and the spectacle that defined the Vanderbilt family eventually brought about their decline from atop the financial and social ladders they once dominated.
CNN news anchor Anderson Cooper, son of Gloria Vanderbilt and Wyatt Cooper, has known for some time that he won't be getting any of the family money, and he's okay with it. He told Howard Stern, "My mom's made clear to me that there's no trust fund... [and] I don't believe in inheriting money." He called inherited money an "initiative sucker" and "a curse."
Cooper, who makes millions of dollars a year working for CNN, said he always had a job growing up and, despite his mother's wealth, identifies with his father who grew up poor in Mississippi.
Commodore Vanderbilt married his first cousin Sophia Johnson in 1813. The couple had 13 children together, 11 of which survived to adulthood. The Vanderbilts had three sons, although one boy, George, died in 1864. At the time of his death, the two living boys, William and Cornelius, did little to inspire their father. He often called William a "blatherskite," or a fool, and had Cornelius committed to an asylum on two occasions. The Commodore opted to leave William the bulk of his money, but not before telling him "any fool can make a fortune; it takes a man of brains to hold onto it."
William Henry Vanderbilt suffered a mental breakdown at a young age after working with one of his father's business rivals. After that, he spent most of his time at the family farm in Staten Island where he was successful in boosting its profits. Slowly, William was given more opportunities to work within the Commodore's railroad empire and took it over after his father died.
Cornelius Vanderbilt II's youngest son, Reginald, inherited a small sum from his father, but the bulk of the family money went to his older brother, Alfred. The eldest son, Cornelius III, or Neily, spent large amounts of money before falling out with his family and once commented that "every Vanderbilt son... has increased his fortune except me."
Reginald was a playboy who gambled and drank often. On the night Reginald turned 21 years old, "he celebrated coming into his $15.5 million inheritance by losing $70,000 at the gambling table." He later died of cirrhosis of the liver due to his alcoholism. Reginald had little ambition and didn't make any money for his family, preferring to spend it instead.
In 1922, Reginald married 17-year-old Gloria Morgan. She gave birth to their daughter, also named Gloria, in 1924. Reginald died the following year broke and in debt, leaving his wife and child with only the interest from his daughter's future trust fund.
The Vanderbilts, native to the Netherlands, got their start in the United States sometime during the late 17th century. The Dutch immigrants were farmers and lived in relative obscurity until Commodore Vanderbilt came onto the scene in the early 19th century.
Commodore Vanderbilt was born in 1794, and at the age of 16, he borrowed $100—around $2,000 today—from his parents to purchase a flat-bottomed sailing barge called a periauger. Vanderbilt was working with his father, ferrying goods back and forth from Staten Island to Manhattan, but he decided to branch out on his own. He agreed to share the profits with his parents and began transporting cargo in the New York harbor, out-advertising and undercutting the competition. The shrewd businessman made about $1,000—approximately $21,000 today—in his first year and soon had several ships, then eventually a small fleet at his disposal. | 951 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Henceforward the Rhine ought to be the Western military frontier of the German countries. Henceforward Germany ought to be deprived of all entrance and assembling ground, that is, of all territorial sovereignty on the left bank of the river, that is, of all facilities for invading quickly, as in 1914, Belgium, Luxembourg, for reaching the coast of the North Sea and threatening the United Kingdom, for outflanking the natural defences of France, the Rhine, Meuse, conquering the Northern Provinces and entering the Parisian area.
Marshal Ferdinand Jean Marie Foch (French pronunciation: [fɔʃ]) (2 October 1851 – 20 March 1929) was a French general and military theorist who served as the Supreme Allied Commander during the First World War. An aggressive, even reckless commander at the First Marne, Flanders, and Artois campaigns of 1914-1916, Foch became the Allied Commander-in-Chief in 1918 and successfully coordinated the French, British, American, and Italian efforts into a coherent whole, deftly handling his strategic reserves.
Foch was later acclaimed as "the most original military thinker of his generation". He became known for his critical analyses of the Franco-Prussian and Napoleonic campaigns and of their relevance to military operations in the new twentieth Century. His re-examination of France's defeat in 1870 was amongst the first of its kind. At the College, Foch was a professor of military history, strategy and general tactics while becoming the French theorist on offensive strategies.
When the Franco-Prussian War broke out in 1870, the 19 year-old Foch enlisted in the French 4th Infantry Regiment, which did not take part in combat. He remained in the army after the war. In 1871, he entered the École Polytechnique, choosing the school of artillery. In 1873, he received his commission as an artillery officer and served as a lieutenant in the 24th Artillery Regiment in Tarbes, despite not having had time to complete his course due to the shortage of junior officers. In 1876, he attended the cavalry school of Saumur to train as a mounted artillery officer. On 30 September 1878 he became a captain and arrived in Paris on 24 September 1879 as an assistant in the Central Personnel Service Depot of the artillery.
In 1885 Foch undertook a course at the Ecole Supérieur de Guerre where he was later an instructor from 1895 to 1901. He was promoted Lieutenant-Colonel in 1898, and colonel in 1903. As a colonel he became regimental commander of the 35th Artillery Regiment (35 R.A) at Vannes. An extremely short man, Foch was known for his physical strength and his sharp mind who always maintained a highly dignified bearing. Foch was a quiet man, known for saying little and when he did speak, it was a volley of words accompanied by much gesturing of his hands that required some knowledge of him to understand properly. One of Foch's favorite phrases was "Pas de protocole!" as Foch preferred to be approachable by all officers and whose only rigidity was always taking his meals at noon and at 7:30; otherwise Foch would work all sorts of irregular hours from dawn until well into the night.
During his time as an instructor Foch created renewed interest in French military history, inspired confidence in a new class of French officers, and brought about "the intellectual and moral regeneration of the French Army". His thinking on military doctrine was shaped by the Clausewitzian philosophy, then uncommon in France, that "the will to conquer is the first condition of victory." Collections of his lectures, which reintroduced the concept of the offensive to French military theory, were published in the volumes "Des Principes de la Guerre" ("On the Principles of War") in 1903, and "De la Conduite de la Guerre" ("On the Conduct of War") in 1904. While Foch advised "qualification and discernment" in military strategy and cautioned that "recklessness in attack could lead to prohibitive losses and ultimate failure," his concepts, distorted and misunderstood by contemporaries, became associated with the extreme offensive doctrines (l'offensive à outrance) of his successors. The cult of the offensive came to dominate military circles, and Foch's reputation was damaged when his books were cited in the development of the disastrous offensive that brought France close to ruin in August 1914.
English translation: Aeroplanes are interesting scientific toys, but they are of no military value.(1911)
In the euphoria of victory Foch was regularly compared to Napoleon and Julius Caesar. However, historians took a less sanguine view of Foch's talents as commander, particularly as the idea took root that his military doctrines had set the stage for the futile and costly offensives of 1914 in which French armies suffered devastating losses. Supporters and critics continue to debate Foch's strategy and instincts as a commander, as well as his exact contributions to the Marne "miracle": Foch's counter-attacks at the Marne generally failed, but his sector resisted determined German attacks while holding the pivot on which the neighbouring French and British forces depended in rolling back the German line.
In 1915, his responsibilities by now crystallised in command of the Northern Army Group, he conducted the Artois Offensive and, in 1916, the French effort at the Battle of the Somme. He was strongly criticised for his tactics and the heavy casualties that were suffered by the Allied armies during these battles, and in December 1916 was removed from command by Joffre and sent to command Allied units on the Italian front; Joffre was himself sacked days later.
A heavy cruiser and an aircraft carrier were named in his honor. An early district of Gdynia, Poland was also named "Foch" after the Marshal, but was renamed by the communist government after the Second World War. Nevertheless, one of the major avenues of the town of Bydgoszcz, located then in the Polish corridor, holds Foch's name as sign of gratitude for his campaigning for an independent Poland. Avenue Foch, a street in Paris, was named after him. Several other streets have been named in his honor in Melbourne, Ypres, Lyon, Kraków, Chrzanów, Grenoble, Quito, Beirut, New Orleans, Wynnum, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Mineola, New York, Queens, New York, Milltown, Shanghai (now part of Yan'a Road) and Singapore (Foch Road). A city quarter in the former French sector of Berlin is called Cité Foch in his honor. This is where French garrison Soldiers were housed while Berlin was divided. Fochville in South Africa was also named in his honour. A statue of Foch stands near Victoria railway station in London. He is the only Frenchman ever to be made an honorary field-marshal by the British. A statue of Foch stands on the Bapaume-Peronne road, near the village of Bouchavesnes, at the point where Messimy's chasseurs broke through on 12 September 1916. General Debeney spoke at the statue's unveiling in 1926, praising Foch's operational concepts of 1918. Foch also has a grape cultivar named after him. In the Belgian city of Leuven, one of the central squares was named after him after the First World War, but it was renamed in 2012. Mount Foch in Alberta is also named after him.
Late in 1917 Foch would have liked to have seen Haig replaced as C-in-C of the BEF by General Herbert Plumer; however, Haig would remain in command of the BEF for the remainder of the war.
Foch received the title of Doctor honoris causa of the Jagiellonian University of Kraków in 1918.
English Translation: To govern is to anticipate, we did: governing is waiting (1920)
On 1 November 1921 Foch was in Kansas City, Missouri, to take part in the groundbreaking ceremony for the Liberty Memorial that was being constructed there. Also present that day were Lieutenant General Baron Jacques of Belgium, Admiral David Beatty of Great Britain, General Armando Diaz of Italy and General John J. Pershing of the United States. One of the main speakers was Vice President Calvin Coolidge of the United States. In 1935 bas-reliefs of Foch, Jacques, Diaz and Pershing by Sculptor Walker Hancock were added to the memorial.
A statue of Foch was set up at the Compiègne Armistice site when the area was converted into a national memorial. This statue was the one item left undisturbed by the Germans following their defeat of France in June 1940. Following the signing of France's surrender on 21 June, the Germans ravaged the area surrounding the railway car in which both the 1918 and 1940 surrenders had taken place. The statue was left standing, to view nothing but a wasteland. The Armistice site was restored by German prisoner-of-war labour following the Second World War, with its memorials and monuments either restored or reassembled.
On the outbreak of World War I, Foch was in command of XX Corps, part of the Second Army of General de Castelnau. On 14 August the Corps advanced towards the Sarrebourg–Morhange line, taking heavy casualties in the Battle of the Frontiers. The defeat of the XV Corps to its right forced Foch into retreat. Foch acquitted himself well, covering the withdrawal to Nancy and the Charmes Gap before launching a counter-attack that prevented the Germans from crossing the River Meurthe.
Ferdinand Foch was born at Tarbes in the Hautes-Pyrénées region. His Germanic first name reflects the ancestry of his father, a civil servant from Comminges whose lineage traces to the Alsace region in the 18th century. He attended school at Tarbes, Rodez and the Jesuit College at Saint-Étienne. His brother became a Jesuit priest, which may have hindered Foch's rise in the French Army since the Republican government of France was anti-clerical. | <urn:uuid:351b6704-1bc5-4790-8336-d218311d9bcc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.idolnetworth.com/ferdinand-foch-net-worth-58645 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00174.warc.gz | en | 0.982834 | 2,106 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.392998218536376... | 1 | Henceforward the Rhine ought to be the Western military frontier of the German countries. Henceforward Germany ought to be deprived of all entrance and assembling ground, that is, of all territorial sovereignty on the left bank of the river, that is, of all facilities for invading quickly, as in 1914, Belgium, Luxembourg, for reaching the coast of the North Sea and threatening the United Kingdom, for outflanking the natural defences of France, the Rhine, Meuse, conquering the Northern Provinces and entering the Parisian area.
Marshal Ferdinand Jean Marie Foch (French pronunciation: [fɔʃ]) (2 October 1851 – 20 March 1929) was a French general and military theorist who served as the Supreme Allied Commander during the First World War. An aggressive, even reckless commander at the First Marne, Flanders, and Artois campaigns of 1914-1916, Foch became the Allied Commander-in-Chief in 1918 and successfully coordinated the French, British, American, and Italian efforts into a coherent whole, deftly handling his strategic reserves.
Foch was later acclaimed as "the most original military thinker of his generation". He became known for his critical analyses of the Franco-Prussian and Napoleonic campaigns and of their relevance to military operations in the new twentieth Century. His re-examination of France's defeat in 1870 was amongst the first of its kind. At the College, Foch was a professor of military history, strategy and general tactics while becoming the French theorist on offensive strategies.
When the Franco-Prussian War broke out in 1870, the 19 year-old Foch enlisted in the French 4th Infantry Regiment, which did not take part in combat. He remained in the army after the war. In 1871, he entered the École Polytechnique, choosing the school of artillery. In 1873, he received his commission as an artillery officer and served as a lieutenant in the 24th Artillery Regiment in Tarbes, despite not having had time to complete his course due to the shortage of junior officers. In 1876, he attended the cavalry school of Saumur to train as a mounted artillery officer. On 30 September 1878 he became a captain and arrived in Paris on 24 September 1879 as an assistant in the Central Personnel Service Depot of the artillery.
In 1885 Foch undertook a course at the Ecole Supérieur de Guerre where he was later an instructor from 1895 to 1901. He was promoted Lieutenant-Colonel in 1898, and colonel in 1903. As a colonel he became regimental commander of the 35th Artillery Regiment (35 R.A) at Vannes. An extremely short man, Foch was known for his physical strength and his sharp mind who always maintained a highly dignified bearing. Foch was a quiet man, known for saying little and when he did speak, it was a volley of words accompanied by much gesturing of his hands that required some knowledge of him to understand properly. One of Foch's favorite phrases was "Pas de protocole!" as Foch preferred to be approachable by all officers and whose only rigidity was always taking his meals at noon and at 7:30; otherwise Foch would work all sorts of irregular hours from dawn until well into the night.
During his time as an instructor Foch created renewed interest in French military history, inspired confidence in a new class of French officers, and brought about "the intellectual and moral regeneration of the French Army". His thinking on military doctrine was shaped by the Clausewitzian philosophy, then uncommon in France, that "the will to conquer is the first condition of victory." Collections of his lectures, which reintroduced the concept of the offensive to French military theory, were published in the volumes "Des Principes de la Guerre" ("On the Principles of War") in 1903, and "De la Conduite de la Guerre" ("On the Conduct of War") in 1904. While Foch advised "qualification and discernment" in military strategy and cautioned that "recklessness in attack could lead to prohibitive losses and ultimate failure," his concepts, distorted and misunderstood by contemporaries, became associated with the extreme offensive doctrines (l'offensive à outrance) of his successors. The cult of the offensive came to dominate military circles, and Foch's reputation was damaged when his books were cited in the development of the disastrous offensive that brought France close to ruin in August 1914.
English translation: Aeroplanes are interesting scientific toys, but they are of no military value.(1911)
In the euphoria of victory Foch was regularly compared to Napoleon and Julius Caesar. However, historians took a less sanguine view of Foch's talents as commander, particularly as the idea took root that his military doctrines had set the stage for the futile and costly offensives of 1914 in which French armies suffered devastating losses. Supporters and critics continue to debate Foch's strategy and instincts as a commander, as well as his exact contributions to the Marne "miracle": Foch's counter-attacks at the Marne generally failed, but his sector resisted determined German attacks while holding the pivot on which the neighbouring French and British forces depended in rolling back the German line.
In 1915, his responsibilities by now crystallised in command of the Northern Army Group, he conducted the Artois Offensive and, in 1916, the French effort at the Battle of the Somme. He was strongly criticised for his tactics and the heavy casualties that were suffered by the Allied armies during these battles, and in December 1916 was removed from command by Joffre and sent to command Allied units on the Italian front; Joffre was himself sacked days later.
A heavy cruiser and an aircraft carrier were named in his honor. An early district of Gdynia, Poland was also named "Foch" after the Marshal, but was renamed by the communist government after the Second World War. Nevertheless, one of the major avenues of the town of Bydgoszcz, located then in the Polish corridor, holds Foch's name as sign of gratitude for his campaigning for an independent Poland. Avenue Foch, a street in Paris, was named after him. Several other streets have been named in his honor in Melbourne, Ypres, Lyon, Kraków, Chrzanów, Grenoble, Quito, Beirut, New Orleans, Wynnum, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Mineola, New York, Queens, New York, Milltown, Shanghai (now part of Yan'a Road) and Singapore (Foch Road). A city quarter in the former French sector of Berlin is called Cité Foch in his honor. This is where French garrison Soldiers were housed while Berlin was divided. Fochville in South Africa was also named in his honour. A statue of Foch stands near Victoria railway station in London. He is the only Frenchman ever to be made an honorary field-marshal by the British. A statue of Foch stands on the Bapaume-Peronne road, near the village of Bouchavesnes, at the point where Messimy's chasseurs broke through on 12 September 1916. General Debeney spoke at the statue's unveiling in 1926, praising Foch's operational concepts of 1918. Foch also has a grape cultivar named after him. In the Belgian city of Leuven, one of the central squares was named after him after the First World War, but it was renamed in 2012. Mount Foch in Alberta is also named after him.
Late in 1917 Foch would have liked to have seen Haig replaced as C-in-C of the BEF by General Herbert Plumer; however, Haig would remain in command of the BEF for the remainder of the war.
Foch received the title of Doctor honoris causa of the Jagiellonian University of Kraków in 1918.
English Translation: To govern is to anticipate, we did: governing is waiting (1920)
On 1 November 1921 Foch was in Kansas City, Missouri, to take part in the groundbreaking ceremony for the Liberty Memorial that was being constructed there. Also present that day were Lieutenant General Baron Jacques of Belgium, Admiral David Beatty of Great Britain, General Armando Diaz of Italy and General John J. Pershing of the United States. One of the main speakers was Vice President Calvin Coolidge of the United States. In 1935 bas-reliefs of Foch, Jacques, Diaz and Pershing by Sculptor Walker Hancock were added to the memorial.
A statue of Foch was set up at the Compiègne Armistice site when the area was converted into a national memorial. This statue was the one item left undisturbed by the Germans following their defeat of France in June 1940. Following the signing of France's surrender on 21 June, the Germans ravaged the area surrounding the railway car in which both the 1918 and 1940 surrenders had taken place. The statue was left standing, to view nothing but a wasteland. The Armistice site was restored by German prisoner-of-war labour following the Second World War, with its memorials and monuments either restored or reassembled.
On the outbreak of World War I, Foch was in command of XX Corps, part of the Second Army of General de Castelnau. On 14 August the Corps advanced towards the Sarrebourg–Morhange line, taking heavy casualties in the Battle of the Frontiers. The defeat of the XV Corps to its right forced Foch into retreat. Foch acquitted himself well, covering the withdrawal to Nancy and the Charmes Gap before launching a counter-attack that prevented the Germans from crossing the River Meurthe.
Ferdinand Foch was born at Tarbes in the Hautes-Pyrénées region. His Germanic first name reflects the ancestry of his father, a civil servant from Comminges whose lineage traces to the Alsace region in the 18th century. He attended school at Tarbes, Rodez and the Jesuit College at Saint-Étienne. His brother became a Jesuit priest, which may have hindered Foch's rise in the French Army since the Republican government of France was anti-clerical. | 2,242 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Celebrating Martin Luther and the Reformation
Lutheran churches throughout the world will be holding special services today to celebrate the 500th anniversary of the Reformation. On Oct. 31, 1517, Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses to the door of All Saints Church in Wittenberg, Germany.
Luther disagreed with the church’s selling of indulgences and began what became Protestantism. He studied Psalms, Hebrews, Romans and Galatians in the Bible and became convinced that justification or declaring a sinner forgiven is by faith alone. Prior to Luther’s writings the church sold atonement.
Since I am Lutheran, I probably know a little more about Luther than the average person. In fact, most people know much more about Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. than his namesake.
His bravery in standing up to the Catholic Church has been largely overlooked in modern times. In fact, in those times, heretics were being burned at the stake and those who challenged the church were labeled heretics.
The 95 theses were banned by the church and Luther was ordered to appear before the Diet of Worms. This was an assembly of the estates of the Holy Roman Empire. While the group decided his destiny, Luther was kept safe at Wartburg Castle. While there, he translated the New Testament from Greek into German so the common people could read it.
Luther was also a prolific hymn writer. He wrote 36 hymns, including “A Mighty Fortress is Our God.”
One of the reasons Luther was so successful in reforming the Christian church was that another German, Johannes Gutenberg, had invented movable type and the printing press the previous century. From 1500 to 1530, Luther’s writings were one fifth of everything printed in Germany.
Luther had preached against celibacy based on Biblical grounds. But he declared he would never marry because, as he wrote in a letter “…I daily expect the death of a heretic."
Yet, on June 13, 1525, he married Katharina von Bora, a former nun, he had helped to escape from the Nimbschen Cisterian convent. At the time of their marriage, Katharina was 26 and Luther was 41. The couple had six children, but only four survived.
Luther suffered from bad health for years. He probably had Ménière's disease because he experienced bouts of vertigo, fainting and tinnitus. He also had a cataract in one eye.
In 1536, he began to suffer from kidney stones and arthritis. In 1544, he began to have chest pains and angina.
A stroke affected his ability to speak and he died shortly afterwards at 2:45 a.m. on Feb. 18, 1546 in Eisleben, where he had gone to preach. He was buried in the church at Wittenberg where he had posted his 95 theses 29 years before. He was 62.
So now you may know a little more about Martin Luther who helped start the Reformation that changed the Christian religion forever. And probably more information than many other folks know about him.
So if you don’t have a costume for Halloween, you might consider dressing like a 16th century monk. Carry a piece of paper and a hammer and nobody will have the slightest idea who you are.
Sis Bowman can be reached at email@example.com. | <urn:uuid:7f8921cb-ec06-43c2-95a5-2cda17f271fb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.zanesvilletimesrecorder.com/story/opinion/columnists/2017/10/29/celebrating-martin-luther-and-reformation/799963001/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00068.warc.gz | en | 0.985871 | 722 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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-0.299506753683... | 4 | Celebrating Martin Luther and the Reformation
Lutheran churches throughout the world will be holding special services today to celebrate the 500th anniversary of the Reformation. On Oct. 31, 1517, Martin Luther nailed his 95 theses to the door of All Saints Church in Wittenberg, Germany.
Luther disagreed with the church’s selling of indulgences and began what became Protestantism. He studied Psalms, Hebrews, Romans and Galatians in the Bible and became convinced that justification or declaring a sinner forgiven is by faith alone. Prior to Luther’s writings the church sold atonement.
Since I am Lutheran, I probably know a little more about Luther than the average person. In fact, most people know much more about Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. than his namesake.
His bravery in standing up to the Catholic Church has been largely overlooked in modern times. In fact, in those times, heretics were being burned at the stake and those who challenged the church were labeled heretics.
The 95 theses were banned by the church and Luther was ordered to appear before the Diet of Worms. This was an assembly of the estates of the Holy Roman Empire. While the group decided his destiny, Luther was kept safe at Wartburg Castle. While there, he translated the New Testament from Greek into German so the common people could read it.
Luther was also a prolific hymn writer. He wrote 36 hymns, including “A Mighty Fortress is Our God.”
One of the reasons Luther was so successful in reforming the Christian church was that another German, Johannes Gutenberg, had invented movable type and the printing press the previous century. From 1500 to 1530, Luther’s writings were one fifth of everything printed in Germany.
Luther had preached against celibacy based on Biblical grounds. But he declared he would never marry because, as he wrote in a letter “…I daily expect the death of a heretic."
Yet, on June 13, 1525, he married Katharina von Bora, a former nun, he had helped to escape from the Nimbschen Cisterian convent. At the time of their marriage, Katharina was 26 and Luther was 41. The couple had six children, but only four survived.
Luther suffered from bad health for years. He probably had Ménière's disease because he experienced bouts of vertigo, fainting and tinnitus. He also had a cataract in one eye.
In 1536, he began to suffer from kidney stones and arthritis. In 1544, he began to have chest pains and angina.
A stroke affected his ability to speak and he died shortly afterwards at 2:45 a.m. on Feb. 18, 1546 in Eisleben, where he had gone to preach. He was buried in the church at Wittenberg where he had posted his 95 theses 29 years before. He was 62.
So now you may know a little more about Martin Luther who helped start the Reformation that changed the Christian religion forever. And probably more information than many other folks know about him.
So if you don’t have a costume for Halloween, you might consider dressing like a 16th century monk. Carry a piece of paper and a hammer and nobody will have the slightest idea who you are.
Sis Bowman can be reached at email@example.com. | 733 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Various reasons have been suggested. For a start, Bartlett (1998) says the rebels were unable to take Dublin at the outset. This deprived the rebellion of a "focus" and prevented also the formation of some sort of credible, representative assembly.
The "staggered outbreak" of the rebellion was also said to have played into government hands. One loyalist said he was eternally "thankful" that the "insurgents" had acted "so little in unison" meaning that they could be beaten off separately one by one.
The counties round Dublin had risen first and been quashed. A few days later Wexford rose but that was sealed off. Then Antrim and Down were subdued. It was only in August/September that Mayo, Sligo and areas in Longford and Westmeath responded to General Humbert's "invasion." But by then, Bartlett (1998) says, it was far too late.
The third explanation relates to the French themselves. Their failure to intervene in large numbers in the summer of 1798 is seen as decisive. A substantial French force would have provided "discipline, leadership, weaponry, recognition" and -above all- a badly needed, overarching strategy.
Then finally it is suggested that Dublin Castle prevailed when it came to the "intelligence wars." Agents were said to have penetrated the ranks of the United Irishmen. Dublin Castle often knew what was going to happen in advance and was able to take appropriate preventative measures. James Hope, the widely revered Antrim rebel, would later reflect that "we were all beset by spies and informers." | <urn:uuid:e1226b91-cc4b-43dd-a0d8-ca6ee6f3352a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.srsm.scot/forum-1/untitled-category/united-irishmen-why-did-the-1798-rebellion-fail | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00417.warc.gz | en | 0.990134 | 331 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.57833325... | 6 | Various reasons have been suggested. For a start, Bartlett (1998) says the rebels were unable to take Dublin at the outset. This deprived the rebellion of a "focus" and prevented also the formation of some sort of credible, representative assembly.
The "staggered outbreak" of the rebellion was also said to have played into government hands. One loyalist said he was eternally "thankful" that the "insurgents" had acted "so little in unison" meaning that they could be beaten off separately one by one.
The counties round Dublin had risen first and been quashed. A few days later Wexford rose but that was sealed off. Then Antrim and Down were subdued. It was only in August/September that Mayo, Sligo and areas in Longford and Westmeath responded to General Humbert's "invasion." But by then, Bartlett (1998) says, it was far too late.
The third explanation relates to the French themselves. Their failure to intervene in large numbers in the summer of 1798 is seen as decisive. A substantial French force would have provided "discipline, leadership, weaponry, recognition" and -above all- a badly needed, overarching strategy.
Then finally it is suggested that Dublin Castle prevailed when it came to the "intelligence wars." Agents were said to have penetrated the ranks of the United Irishmen. Dublin Castle often knew what was going to happen in advance and was able to take appropriate preventative measures. James Hope, the widely revered Antrim rebel, would later reflect that "we were all beset by spies and informers." | 336 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Frozen Charlotte is a name used to describe a specific form of china doll made from c. 1850 to c.1920. The dolls had substantial popularity during the Victorian era.
The name Frozen Charlotte came from an American folk ballad Fair Charlotte, which was attributed to William Lorenzo Carter. The song was inspired by the poem Young Charlotte written by Seba Smith after he read a true story in the New York Observer. “A young woman…was frozen to death while riding to a ball in a carriage on Jan 1, 1840.” She froze to death because she did not want to cover up her pretty dress.
The Frozen Charlotte doll is made in the form of a standing, naked figure molded as a solid piece. The dolls are also sometimes described as pillar dolls, solid chinas, or bathing babies. The dolls ranged in size from under an inch to 18 inches plus. The smallest dolls were sometimes used as charms in Christmas puddings. Smaller sizes were very popular in doll houses. Occasionally, versions are seen with a glazed china front and an unglazed stoneware back. This enabled the doll to float on its back when placed in a bath.
Frozen Charlotte dolls were popular during the late 19th and early 20th centuries in the United States. Smaller versions of the dolls were also known as penny dolls because they were often sold for a cent. Most were made in Germany.
Date: Post-Contact Period (300 ya – present)
Material Class: Ceramic
Want to learn more? Visit the exhibit Block 112: The Untold Story of San Diego’s Working Class in the 1800s currently on view at the Center. | <urn:uuid:e262a277-4f8a-4360-abff-1cb74e12a87e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sandiegoarchaeology.org/artifact-of-the-week-frozen-charlotte-doll/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00353.warc.gz | en | 0.980047 | 345 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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... | 7 | Frozen Charlotte is a name used to describe a specific form of china doll made from c. 1850 to c.1920. The dolls had substantial popularity during the Victorian era.
The name Frozen Charlotte came from an American folk ballad Fair Charlotte, which was attributed to William Lorenzo Carter. The song was inspired by the poem Young Charlotte written by Seba Smith after he read a true story in the New York Observer. “A young woman…was frozen to death while riding to a ball in a carriage on Jan 1, 1840.” She froze to death because she did not want to cover up her pretty dress.
The Frozen Charlotte doll is made in the form of a standing, naked figure molded as a solid piece. The dolls are also sometimes described as pillar dolls, solid chinas, or bathing babies. The dolls ranged in size from under an inch to 18 inches plus. The smallest dolls were sometimes used as charms in Christmas puddings. Smaller sizes were very popular in doll houses. Occasionally, versions are seen with a glazed china front and an unglazed stoneware back. This enabled the doll to float on its back when placed in a bath.
Frozen Charlotte dolls were popular during the late 19th and early 20th centuries in the United States. Smaller versions of the dolls were also known as penny dolls because they were often sold for a cent. Most were made in Germany.
Date: Post-Contact Period (300 ya – present)
Material Class: Ceramic
Want to learn more? Visit the exhibit Block 112: The Untold Story of San Diego’s Working Class in the 1800s currently on view at the Center. | 355 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Dorothea Dix was a famous nurse who fought for the rights of individuals with mental illnesses. She is perhaps best known, however, as the superintendent of nurses for the Union Army in the Civil War.
Dorothea Dix was born on April 4, 1802, in Hamden, Maine. She grew up in Massachusetts. At the age of twelve, she went to live with grandmother in Boston to escape her abusive father and dismal childhood. From an early age, Dorothea was an ambitious and determined woman. At the age of fourteen, she started her first school and gained a reputation as a capable teacher and strict disciplinarian. Work was always paramount in Dorothea's life, and she started a more formal school in 1821 that catered to Boston's rich and elite. During this time, she eagerly tutored poor and neglected students in her own home. Although Dorothea's chronic health problems caused her to leave her school, she spent her recovery time writing children's books. By 1836, her health had deteriorated to such a point that her school was forced to close permanently. Later that year, she decided to sail to Europe to spend time recovering on the coast of Italy. Unfortunately, she fell ill in England, where she was taken care of by the Rathbone family. William Rathbone was a wealthy humanitarian who fought for better care of the "mentally disordered" of England. It was he who influenced Dorothea's ideas on the moral and effective treatment of America's insane, which involved less use of mechanical restraints and more productive activities.
Advocating for People with Mental Disabilities
In 1841, Dorothea toured a prison in Cambridge, Massachusetts. She was horrified at the conditions in which those classified as "insane" were forced to live. They were underfed, dirty, and in some cases, chained to the walls or forced to sleep on stone floors. Dorothea decided to make it her life mission to improve the quality of life for such people. For the next two decades or so, Dorothea traveled the United States lobbying for the mentally ill. Her incredible efforts resulted in numerous studies, bills, and changes in legislation that improved the lives of the mentally ill. Furthermore, her efforts resulted in the formation of many hospitals specifically for the mentally ill.
At the outbreak of the Civil War, Dorothea was named superintendent of Union Army nurses. Although she was in poor health, she organized women into nursing corps, inspected hospitals, and raised money for medical supplies. Furthermore, she insisted on equal treatment of both Union and Confederate soldiers, which angered some Northern Republicans.
After the war, Dorothea continued her travels and helped in the rehabilitation of facilities in the Southern United States. In 1882, and in ailing health, she moved into an apartment designated for her at the New Jersey State Hospital. She died on July 17, 1887. | <urn:uuid:88210f15-9b0b-47bd-9ad1-6604a4ce9f90> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mrnussbaum.com/dorothea-dix-biography | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00557.warc.gz | en | 0.985847 | 597 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.16991513967514038,... | 1 | Dorothea Dix was a famous nurse who fought for the rights of individuals with mental illnesses. She is perhaps best known, however, as the superintendent of nurses for the Union Army in the Civil War.
Dorothea Dix was born on April 4, 1802, in Hamden, Maine. She grew up in Massachusetts. At the age of twelve, she went to live with grandmother in Boston to escape her abusive father and dismal childhood. From an early age, Dorothea was an ambitious and determined woman. At the age of fourteen, she started her first school and gained a reputation as a capable teacher and strict disciplinarian. Work was always paramount in Dorothea's life, and she started a more formal school in 1821 that catered to Boston's rich and elite. During this time, she eagerly tutored poor and neglected students in her own home. Although Dorothea's chronic health problems caused her to leave her school, she spent her recovery time writing children's books. By 1836, her health had deteriorated to such a point that her school was forced to close permanently. Later that year, she decided to sail to Europe to spend time recovering on the coast of Italy. Unfortunately, she fell ill in England, where she was taken care of by the Rathbone family. William Rathbone was a wealthy humanitarian who fought for better care of the "mentally disordered" of England. It was he who influenced Dorothea's ideas on the moral and effective treatment of America's insane, which involved less use of mechanical restraints and more productive activities.
Advocating for People with Mental Disabilities
In 1841, Dorothea toured a prison in Cambridge, Massachusetts. She was horrified at the conditions in which those classified as "insane" were forced to live. They were underfed, dirty, and in some cases, chained to the walls or forced to sleep on stone floors. Dorothea decided to make it her life mission to improve the quality of life for such people. For the next two decades or so, Dorothea traveled the United States lobbying for the mentally ill. Her incredible efforts resulted in numerous studies, bills, and changes in legislation that improved the lives of the mentally ill. Furthermore, her efforts resulted in the formation of many hospitals specifically for the mentally ill.
At the outbreak of the Civil War, Dorothea was named superintendent of Union Army nurses. Although she was in poor health, she organized women into nursing corps, inspected hospitals, and raised money for medical supplies. Furthermore, she insisted on equal treatment of both Union and Confederate soldiers, which angered some Northern Republicans.
After the war, Dorothea continued her travels and helped in the rehabilitation of facilities in the Southern United States. In 1882, and in ailing health, she moved into an apartment designated for her at the New Jersey State Hospital. She died on July 17, 1887. | 622 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Sigmund Freud, an American scholar who put both theories in the field of psychology, is credited with key turning points in his field when he revolutionized the field of psychoanalysis. Many of his theories became major ideas within literary criticisms. Freud read Sophocles' Oedipus Rex and it immediately determined that the underlying ideas in this drama would become a large part of his studies. The tragedies and misfortunes of Oedipus Rex opened new doors to the applications of his theories and the subject of his definition of an Oedipal Complex that still is studied today. .
The theory dictates that all children feel sexual desire for the parent of the opposite sex and the death of the parent of the same sex, and is today believed to be manifest only in very young children. In terms of the play, the Oedipus Complex is extremely unhelpful: firstly, because Oedipus is not a child when Sophocles' play takes place, but secondly (and more importantly) because the play rests on the fact that he is unaware of the identity of his parents when he respectively murders and sleeps with them.
The psychoanalytical process outlined by Sigmund Freud shows Oedipus as a man driven by the inner workings of his psyche. Oedipus has repressed the disturbing memories of killing his father into that part of his psyche, which is his unconscious mind. The understanding that Oedipus has unconscious knowledge of his crime is supported by the similarity between the play's narrative and structure and the psychoanalytical process laid down by Sigmund Freud. The play follows the template of the Freudian psychoanalytical process. Oedipus' unconscious essentially holds his troubling past but he is not aware of it consciously and this represents having a significant impact on current events in his life. Oedipus must look into his past in order to figure out the meaning of this current situation. In this sense, the conflict is not simply one where Oedipus makes a discovery about his past but, he is also bringing his unconscious knowledge into his consciousness. | <urn:uuid:4c9a1a00-5622-488c-bf49-8a666eb5875a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/219789.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00032.warc.gz | en | 0.981067 | 433 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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... | 5 | Sigmund Freud, an American scholar who put both theories in the field of psychology, is credited with key turning points in his field when he revolutionized the field of psychoanalysis. Many of his theories became major ideas within literary criticisms. Freud read Sophocles' Oedipus Rex and it immediately determined that the underlying ideas in this drama would become a large part of his studies. The tragedies and misfortunes of Oedipus Rex opened new doors to the applications of his theories and the subject of his definition of an Oedipal Complex that still is studied today. .
The theory dictates that all children feel sexual desire for the parent of the opposite sex and the death of the parent of the same sex, and is today believed to be manifest only in very young children. In terms of the play, the Oedipus Complex is extremely unhelpful: firstly, because Oedipus is not a child when Sophocles' play takes place, but secondly (and more importantly) because the play rests on the fact that he is unaware of the identity of his parents when he respectively murders and sleeps with them.
The psychoanalytical process outlined by Sigmund Freud shows Oedipus as a man driven by the inner workings of his psyche. Oedipus has repressed the disturbing memories of killing his father into that part of his psyche, which is his unconscious mind. The understanding that Oedipus has unconscious knowledge of his crime is supported by the similarity between the play's narrative and structure and the psychoanalytical process laid down by Sigmund Freud. The play follows the template of the Freudian psychoanalytical process. Oedipus' unconscious essentially holds his troubling past but he is not aware of it consciously and this represents having a significant impact on current events in his life. Oedipus must look into his past in order to figure out the meaning of this current situation. In this sense, the conflict is not simply one where Oedipus makes a discovery about his past but, he is also bringing his unconscious knowledge into his consciousness. | 428 | ENGLISH | 1 |
“Land of the free, home of the brave”, the United States has stood amongst the most powerful and influential countries of the world for decades and decades. In order to maintain said reputation, the country needs a leader just as strong and influential. In the early 1960s the United States had a leader who was a leader among leaders and had the respect of an entire nation. John Fitzgerald Kennedy was the 35th President, who took office on January 20, 1961- but before that Kennedy was a World War II hero, a United States Senator, and published a book titled Profiles of Courage which won him a Pulitzer Prize (www.famouspeople.com). John F. Kennedy possessed traits that allowed him to guide the country through three major geopolitical events that could have been disastrous if a lesser man was the leader of the free world. John Fitzgerald Kennedy went on to become the 35th president and faced conflicts with Cuba, Russia and Vietnam but it was his experience before becoming President which have him the leadership skills manage the country.
John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born on May 29th, 1917 in Brookline, Massachusetts, a small town outside of Boston, to Joseph P. Kennedy and Rose Fitzgerald. . It is said that when Kennedy was born his parents asked for prayers from their church because his health was poor- he was given final rights on five separate occasions by the family priest (Ward, 2005). Kennedy had many health issues ranging from back problems- that required back surgery- to early warning signs of leukemia. Kennedy would deal with illness his entire life. Joseph Kennedy was an ambitious man; he traded stocks on Wall Street and soon moved the family to New York to be closer to his business. Joseph sold most of his stock right before the crash and made more money than the family ever had.
Kennedy attended both Harvard and Yale University, where he specialized in International Relations, a discipline of Political Science; he also attended a school for economics in England. After enrolling in business school in Stanford, in 1940, “Jack [John Kennedy] publicly registered for the first peacetime draft in US history and his number was the 18th drawn” (Ward, 2005); he did not pass the Army’s physical and spent an entire summer working on his physical condition and health. Kennedy used his father’s political influence to get him into the Navy. In the mind of Kennedys, the United States Navy was the “ivy league” of the military branches and sticking with his families urge to maintain public image, he did not want to enlist in the Army.
From a young age, Kennedy showed strong leadership skills; he led by example. As a training officer, on one of the PT boats he commanded, they became stuck on ground and wanted to know what was under there, “rather than send somebody else over the side, he went over himself. He didn't say to the executive officer, ‘You go over and look.’ He did it himself. He knew there are certain dangers in going over it” (Wood,... | <urn:uuid:ac92489e-d6f0-4723-9e0b-a74004682583> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/jfk-leadership-profile | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591234.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117205732-20200117233732-00348.warc.gz | en | 0.989707 | 625 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.32797759771347046... | 1 | “Land of the free, home of the brave”, the United States has stood amongst the most powerful and influential countries of the world for decades and decades. In order to maintain said reputation, the country needs a leader just as strong and influential. In the early 1960s the United States had a leader who was a leader among leaders and had the respect of an entire nation. John Fitzgerald Kennedy was the 35th President, who took office on January 20, 1961- but before that Kennedy was a World War II hero, a United States Senator, and published a book titled Profiles of Courage which won him a Pulitzer Prize (www.famouspeople.com). John F. Kennedy possessed traits that allowed him to guide the country through three major geopolitical events that could have been disastrous if a lesser man was the leader of the free world. John Fitzgerald Kennedy went on to become the 35th president and faced conflicts with Cuba, Russia and Vietnam but it was his experience before becoming President which have him the leadership skills manage the country.
John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born on May 29th, 1917 in Brookline, Massachusetts, a small town outside of Boston, to Joseph P. Kennedy and Rose Fitzgerald. . It is said that when Kennedy was born his parents asked for prayers from their church because his health was poor- he was given final rights on five separate occasions by the family priest (Ward, 2005). Kennedy had many health issues ranging from back problems- that required back surgery- to early warning signs of leukemia. Kennedy would deal with illness his entire life. Joseph Kennedy was an ambitious man; he traded stocks on Wall Street and soon moved the family to New York to be closer to his business. Joseph sold most of his stock right before the crash and made more money than the family ever had.
Kennedy attended both Harvard and Yale University, where he specialized in International Relations, a discipline of Political Science; he also attended a school for economics in England. After enrolling in business school in Stanford, in 1940, “Jack [John Kennedy] publicly registered for the first peacetime draft in US history and his number was the 18th drawn” (Ward, 2005); he did not pass the Army’s physical and spent an entire summer working on his physical condition and health. Kennedy used his father’s political influence to get him into the Navy. In the mind of Kennedys, the United States Navy was the “ivy league” of the military branches and sticking with his families urge to maintain public image, he did not want to enlist in the Army.
From a young age, Kennedy showed strong leadership skills; he led by example. As a training officer, on one of the PT boats he commanded, they became stuck on ground and wanted to know what was under there, “rather than send somebody else over the side, he went over himself. He didn't say to the executive officer, ‘You go over and look.’ He did it himself. He knew there are certain dangers in going over it” (Wood,... | 640 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Lesson Plan - Get It!
Why do you think outlaws are sometimes honored as heroes?
One of the popular movie genres, or types, in the mid-twentieth century was the Western.
Moviegoers loved to follow the stories of the men in white hats versus the men in black hats — the "good guys" versus the "bad guys." Some of those stories were based on the legends of the American West and some of the real heroes and outlaws who lived there.
Australia also has a heritage of legends like these. The outlaws of the Australian version, though, were known as "bushrangers." The "bush," much like the American "wild West," was a vast, open land that only the bravest and toughest settlers could survive. The term "bushranger" came from the people who attempted to settle the land. The term became associated with criminals and convicts whom people thought were the only ones tough enough to live in the bush.
Learn more about the bushrangers by reading a short piece of writing below. As you read, write down the answers to the following questions:
- When did the period of the bushrangers begin?
- Who was the first famous bushranger?
- Why did some people sympathize with the bushrangers?
Now, read the short piece about the bushrangers below, and record your answers to those questions:
The "bush" is an important part of the way Australians think about their country and imagine its past. There have been many books, films, and other works of art produced to show the place of the bush in the imagination of the Australian people. One of the most popular kinds of stories about the Australian bush is the legends of the bushrangers. The first bushranger was a man named John Caesar, also known as "Black Caesar." Black Caesar was a former West Indian slave. He escaped into the bush in the year 1790 and became a notorious thief. He was captured many times but frustrated authorities with his ability to escape time and time again. He survived in the wilderness by hunting and fishing but also by the kindness of strangers who supported him.
Many other bushrangers would follow. Some modern Australians made the bushrangers into heroes. They committed crimes, it is true. But many believe that the bushrangers were in fact fighting against unfair living conditions and poor treatment by authorities. The stories of these wilderness survivors have become a popular and romantic way of remembering the Australian past and thinking about the difference between right and wrong.
Share the information you uncovered with your parent or teacher, then discuss the following questions:
- Why do people sometimes turn the "bad guys" into heroes?
- Do you think it is right to make the bushrangers, like Black Caesar, into heroes? Why or why not?
- Can you think of any similar examples from your own country's history?
Black Caesar was just the first of many bushrangers.
In the Got It? section, learn about the fascinating lives of some other famous outlaws from the Australian bush! | <urn:uuid:78e700cd-e950-4623-ae1f-c87a289f0554> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.elephango.com/index.cfm/pg/k12learning/lcid/12289/The_Bushrangers_of_Australia | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00549.warc.gz | en | 0.982042 | 636 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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Why do you think outlaws are sometimes honored as heroes?
One of the popular movie genres, or types, in the mid-twentieth century was the Western.
Moviegoers loved to follow the stories of the men in white hats versus the men in black hats — the "good guys" versus the "bad guys." Some of those stories were based on the legends of the American West and some of the real heroes and outlaws who lived there.
Australia also has a heritage of legends like these. The outlaws of the Australian version, though, were known as "bushrangers." The "bush," much like the American "wild West," was a vast, open land that only the bravest and toughest settlers could survive. The term "bushranger" came from the people who attempted to settle the land. The term became associated with criminals and convicts whom people thought were the only ones tough enough to live in the bush.
Learn more about the bushrangers by reading a short piece of writing below. As you read, write down the answers to the following questions:
- When did the period of the bushrangers begin?
- Who was the first famous bushranger?
- Why did some people sympathize with the bushrangers?
Now, read the short piece about the bushrangers below, and record your answers to those questions:
The "bush" is an important part of the way Australians think about their country and imagine its past. There have been many books, films, and other works of art produced to show the place of the bush in the imagination of the Australian people. One of the most popular kinds of stories about the Australian bush is the legends of the bushrangers. The first bushranger was a man named John Caesar, also known as "Black Caesar." Black Caesar was a former West Indian slave. He escaped into the bush in the year 1790 and became a notorious thief. He was captured many times but frustrated authorities with his ability to escape time and time again. He survived in the wilderness by hunting and fishing but also by the kindness of strangers who supported him.
Many other bushrangers would follow. Some modern Australians made the bushrangers into heroes. They committed crimes, it is true. But many believe that the bushrangers were in fact fighting against unfair living conditions and poor treatment by authorities. The stories of these wilderness survivors have become a popular and romantic way of remembering the Australian past and thinking about the difference between right and wrong.
Share the information you uncovered with your parent or teacher, then discuss the following questions:
- Why do people sometimes turn the "bad guys" into heroes?
- Do you think it is right to make the bushrangers, like Black Caesar, into heroes? Why or why not?
- Can you think of any similar examples from your own country's history?
Black Caesar was just the first of many bushrangers.
In the Got It? section, learn about the fascinating lives of some other famous outlaws from the Australian bush! | 624 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On this day 200 years ago, Emily Jane Brontë was born in Thornton, a village on the outskirts of Bradford, West Yorkshire.
The fifth of six children born to a perpetual curate (an early type of vicar) and his wife, Emily was the younger sister of Charlotte, and the older sister of Anne, making up the famous literary giants, the Brontë sisters.
Her father was born Patrick Brunty in Ireland, and he came to England to study. He stayed in England after his studies and changed his name to Brontë. It's not fully understood why, but as an educated man from humble beginnings, it is thought he may have wanted his family name to sound more noble.
Anne, Emily and Charlotte Brontë painted by their brother Branwell. He was originally between Emily and Charlotte, but he painted himself out so as not to clutter the portrait.
In 1820, the family moved six miles away to Haworth, still in West Yorkshire. Here Emily was to live, with the exception of a few months away at school or in Belgium, for the rest of her life. The Brontë children were not blessed with long lives. Of the six children Charlotte lived the longest, and she died in 1855, aged just 38.
The other Brontë children died at the following ages: Maria died aged 12, Elizabeth was 11, Branwell, the only son died at the age of 31, Emily died aged 30, and Anne died at the age of 29. To add to the morbid tone, Emily's mother died in 1821 when Emily was just 3 years of age. The death of their mother and two older sisters had a profound effect on the surviving children.
Emily was shy. She knew people in her local community and she knew what was happening in their lives. She could talk with her family about events in the locality and about the people in it. She hardly ever though spoke to anyone outside of the family.
She went away to boarding school for a short time, but returned home suffering from acute homesickness. At the age of 24, she went with her sister to Belgium to improve their French and German, but again returned home, this time because of the death of her aunt.
Once she returned to Haworth, Emily took on the role of housekeeper for her father, cooking, cleaning and taking care of the parsonage. Quiet and reclusive with no known love affairs, she left the family home to walk around the beautifully stark Yorkshire countryside, and she left the house to attend church. Apart from that, she rarely ventured out into the community.
So how did such a quiet, detached isolated soul write a complex, violent and passionate classic?
The sisters and their brother Branwell had written poems and stories of military conquests and romance while they were growing up. Over the years they had created fictitious places and storylines so this most likely laid the foundations for Emily's one and only novel.
Wuthering Heights was published in 1847, just one year before Emily passed away from tuberculosis. As many women at the time did, she published the novel under a male pseudonym, Ellis Bell. The book launched to mixed reviews with the violence and amoral passion causing particular uproar. The book was not a commercial success in Emily's lifetime and it wasn't until much later that the work became considered a classic work of English literature.
The Brontë sisters created some phenomenal works of fiction. Charlotte's Jayne Eyre and Anne's Agnes Grey were also published in 1847, with Jayne Eyre proving to be particularly popular.
This short article is designed just to scratch the surface of a fascinating family. If you'd like to visit Brontë country and learn more about them, can I suggest that you look into visiting the Haworth Parsonage museum. There is a sustained programme of events celebrating 200 years of all things Brontë, and the surrounding area is lovely.
Now, go and read Wuthering Heights... and then Jayne Eyre... and then...
Thanks for reading. | <urn:uuid:01b40269-d558-49ce-b6e3-1dfef439a2a5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.today-but-then.com/single-post/2018/07/30/Ellis-Bell-AKA-Emily-Bront%C3%AB | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00111.warc.gz | en | 0.987949 | 837 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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-0.2003829777240753... | 3 | On this day 200 years ago, Emily Jane Brontë was born in Thornton, a village on the outskirts of Bradford, West Yorkshire.
The fifth of six children born to a perpetual curate (an early type of vicar) and his wife, Emily was the younger sister of Charlotte, and the older sister of Anne, making up the famous literary giants, the Brontë sisters.
Her father was born Patrick Brunty in Ireland, and he came to England to study. He stayed in England after his studies and changed his name to Brontë. It's not fully understood why, but as an educated man from humble beginnings, it is thought he may have wanted his family name to sound more noble.
Anne, Emily and Charlotte Brontë painted by their brother Branwell. He was originally between Emily and Charlotte, but he painted himself out so as not to clutter the portrait.
In 1820, the family moved six miles away to Haworth, still in West Yorkshire. Here Emily was to live, with the exception of a few months away at school or in Belgium, for the rest of her life. The Brontë children were not blessed with long lives. Of the six children Charlotte lived the longest, and she died in 1855, aged just 38.
The other Brontë children died at the following ages: Maria died aged 12, Elizabeth was 11, Branwell, the only son died at the age of 31, Emily died aged 30, and Anne died at the age of 29. To add to the morbid tone, Emily's mother died in 1821 when Emily was just 3 years of age. The death of their mother and two older sisters had a profound effect on the surviving children.
Emily was shy. She knew people in her local community and she knew what was happening in their lives. She could talk with her family about events in the locality and about the people in it. She hardly ever though spoke to anyone outside of the family.
She went away to boarding school for a short time, but returned home suffering from acute homesickness. At the age of 24, she went with her sister to Belgium to improve their French and German, but again returned home, this time because of the death of her aunt.
Once she returned to Haworth, Emily took on the role of housekeeper for her father, cooking, cleaning and taking care of the parsonage. Quiet and reclusive with no known love affairs, she left the family home to walk around the beautifully stark Yorkshire countryside, and she left the house to attend church. Apart from that, she rarely ventured out into the community.
So how did such a quiet, detached isolated soul write a complex, violent and passionate classic?
The sisters and their brother Branwell had written poems and stories of military conquests and romance while they were growing up. Over the years they had created fictitious places and storylines so this most likely laid the foundations for Emily's one and only novel.
Wuthering Heights was published in 1847, just one year before Emily passed away from tuberculosis. As many women at the time did, she published the novel under a male pseudonym, Ellis Bell. The book launched to mixed reviews with the violence and amoral passion causing particular uproar. The book was not a commercial success in Emily's lifetime and it wasn't until much later that the work became considered a classic work of English literature.
The Brontë sisters created some phenomenal works of fiction. Charlotte's Jayne Eyre and Anne's Agnes Grey were also published in 1847, with Jayne Eyre proving to be particularly popular.
This short article is designed just to scratch the surface of a fascinating family. If you'd like to visit Brontë country and learn more about them, can I suggest that you look into visiting the Haworth Parsonage museum. There is a sustained programme of events celebrating 200 years of all things Brontë, and the surrounding area is lovely.
Now, go and read Wuthering Heights... and then Jayne Eyre... and then...
Thanks for reading. | 862 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Anne Frank: The Diary of a Young Girl, what effect has the Nazi occupation had on Anne's family?
In the diary entry dated "Saturday, 20 June, 1942," Anne gives a brief history of her family. She starts by discussing when her parents met and got married, when she and Margot were born, and what different companies her father has worked for. Then she talks about the results of the Dutch capitulation to the Nazis in May of 1940. Everything changed for Jews in Holland once the Nazis took over. She remembers "Anti-Jewish decrees" came one right after another at that time. First, Jews had to wear yellow stars; then, they had to stop riding...
(The entire section contains 277 words.)
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:d950da53-dec5-42df-8a84-3f962e2b534f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/anne-frank-diary-what-effect-has-nazi-occupation-695837 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00011.warc.gz | en | 0.985044 | 159 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.40091168880462... | 1 | In Anne Frank: The Diary of a Young Girl, what effect has the Nazi occupation had on Anne's family?
In the diary entry dated "Saturday, 20 June, 1942," Anne gives a brief history of her family. She starts by discussing when her parents met and got married, when she and Margot were born, and what different companies her father has worked for. Then she talks about the results of the Dutch capitulation to the Nazis in May of 1940. Everything changed for Jews in Holland once the Nazis took over. She remembers "Anti-Jewish decrees" came one right after another at that time. First, Jews had to wear yellow stars; then, they had to stop riding...
(The entire section contains 277 words.)
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 167 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The New Jim Crow Short Summary
In this book, Michelle Alexander highlights how the war against drugs has taken a racial dimension. In the author’s view, the policies that are in place are unfairly aimed at people of color. With the arrests, the black young men suffer from absolute poverty.
Right from the start, the author says that racism is still alive today. Many blacks are prevented from voting. Some laws control the convicted criminals even after they have served their jail terms. The author claims that the drug policies are deliberately put in place to ensure that people of color do not participate in political processes.
The war to control drugs was initiated officially in the 1980s. The enforcement agencies had the power to go to the communities where drug use was prevalent and do thorough searches. The police could frisk people based on suspicion. With that, discrimination came in. There were statistics to show that these laws were aimed at blacks. Even though whites are more likely to engage in drug activities, close to 90% of those convicted of drug-related charges are blacks. Crack cocaine (associated with blacks) users are also punished more severely compared to those found with powdered cocaine. Some statistics show that black young men are more likely to be stopped by police, arrested, and imprisoned compared to whites.
The people who are from prison are also treated differently for the rest of their lives. For example, their access to basic services like proper housing, employment opportunities, and, and education is hampered. They are not allowed to vote either. The author concludes that the mentality that criminality should be associated with being black should stop. Laws should not favor or disadvantage any race. | <urn:uuid:70f6a442-7ae9-4cf4-9830-0e6f187f579d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://summarystory.com/the-new-jim-crow/the-new-jim-crow-short-summary/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00101.warc.gz | en | 0.980801 | 334 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.29019418358802... | 8 | The New Jim Crow Short Summary
In this book, Michelle Alexander highlights how the war against drugs has taken a racial dimension. In the author’s view, the policies that are in place are unfairly aimed at people of color. With the arrests, the black young men suffer from absolute poverty.
Right from the start, the author says that racism is still alive today. Many blacks are prevented from voting. Some laws control the convicted criminals even after they have served their jail terms. The author claims that the drug policies are deliberately put in place to ensure that people of color do not participate in political processes.
The war to control drugs was initiated officially in the 1980s. The enforcement agencies had the power to go to the communities where drug use was prevalent and do thorough searches. The police could frisk people based on suspicion. With that, discrimination came in. There were statistics to show that these laws were aimed at blacks. Even though whites are more likely to engage in drug activities, close to 90% of those convicted of drug-related charges are blacks. Crack cocaine (associated with blacks) users are also punished more severely compared to those found with powdered cocaine. Some statistics show that black young men are more likely to be stopped by police, arrested, and imprisoned compared to whites.
The people who are from prison are also treated differently for the rest of their lives. For example, their access to basic services like proper housing, employment opportunities, and, and education is hampered. They are not allowed to vote either. The author concludes that the mentality that criminality should be associated with being black should stop. Laws should not favor or disadvantage any race. | 336 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Windmills On Montmartre - Life Size Posters
Vincent van Gogh (1853-90) was a Dutch Post-Impressionist painter whose work had a far-reaching influence on 20th-century art. In just over a decade, he produced more than 2,100 artworks but received little recognition during his lifetime.
Van Gogh was unsuccessful during his lifetime and was considered a madman and a failure. He became famous after his suicide, and exists in the public imagination as the quintessential misunderstood genius, the artist "where discourses on madness and creativity converge". His reputation began to grow in the early 20th century as elements of his painting style came to be incorporated by the Fauves and German Expressionists.
Van gogh attained widespread critical, commercial and popular success over the ensuing decades, and is remembered as an important but tragic painter, whose troubled personality typifies the romantic ideal of the tortured artist.View Artist Collection | <urn:uuid:ac29b4e4-d6de-4344-af36-64f56045555a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.tallengestore.com/products/windmills-on-montmartre-art-by-vincent-van-gogh-life-size-posters | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599718.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120165335-20200120194335-00118.warc.gz | en | 0.983367 | 196 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.2627807855... | 1 | Windmills On Montmartre - Life Size Posters
Vincent van Gogh (1853-90) was a Dutch Post-Impressionist painter whose work had a far-reaching influence on 20th-century art. In just over a decade, he produced more than 2,100 artworks but received little recognition during his lifetime.
Van Gogh was unsuccessful during his lifetime and was considered a madman and a failure. He became famous after his suicide, and exists in the public imagination as the quintessential misunderstood genius, the artist "where discourses on madness and creativity converge". His reputation began to grow in the early 20th century as elements of his painting style came to be incorporated by the Fauves and German Expressionists.
Van gogh attained widespread critical, commercial and popular success over the ensuing decades, and is remembered as an important but tragic painter, whose troubled personality typifies the romantic ideal of the tortured artist.View Artist Collection | 200 | ENGLISH | 1 |
An intact and remarkably preserved shipwreck from the age of Columbus has been found at the bottom of the Baltic Sea.
The virtually pristine but unknown vessel dates back about 500 years and is “the best preserved shipwreck of its period to be discovered in recent times”, said archaeologists from the UK’s University of Southampton who were part of the expedition that discovered it.
Underwater robots detected the wreck at more than 120 metres deep about 200 kms southeast of Stockholm in Sweden, the Independent reported.
Underwater footage showed nearly all of the ship was intact, with its masts standing tall and its two guns in their ‘ready to fire’ positions.
A small rowing boat used to ferry crew to and from the ship could also be seen on the main deck. Even parts of the rigging were still in their original place.
Earlier this year, the wreck was identified as having great archaeological significance by ocean survey specialists MMT after it was revealed by sonar in 2009.
“The ship is contemporary to the times of Christopher Columbus and Leonardo Da Vinci,” said deep sea archaeological expert Dr. Rodrigo Pacheco-Ruiz.
“It’s almost like it sank yesterday – masts in place and hull intact,” he said.
Maritime experts said the size of the vessel, the shape of its bow and design of the anchors are very similar to the design of two ships which were part of Columbus’s expedition that discovered America in 1492.
Dr Pacheco-Ruiz said the cold and salty waters of the Baltic Sea had helped preserve the ship so well.
Experts believe it was probably a small merchant vessel built in Sweden or Denmark in the early 1500s.
Damage to part of the ship’s stern and the readiness of its guns suggest the 16-metre long vessel was sunk in a sea battle.
What happened to the crew is unknown. They could have been killed or captured by an attacking vessel or may have gone down with their ship. | <urn:uuid:c90e0b7a-42de-4848-a597-55cde075c42b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.9news.com.au/world/mysterious-500yearold-shipwreck-vessel-dated-from-columbus-era-news-europe/cac22fb3-b3dd-4060-9df7-261a8da57742 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00263.warc.gz | en | 0.980513 | 420 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.33432185649... | 6 | An intact and remarkably preserved shipwreck from the age of Columbus has been found at the bottom of the Baltic Sea.
The virtually pristine but unknown vessel dates back about 500 years and is “the best preserved shipwreck of its period to be discovered in recent times”, said archaeologists from the UK’s University of Southampton who were part of the expedition that discovered it.
Underwater robots detected the wreck at more than 120 metres deep about 200 kms southeast of Stockholm in Sweden, the Independent reported.
Underwater footage showed nearly all of the ship was intact, with its masts standing tall and its two guns in their ‘ready to fire’ positions.
A small rowing boat used to ferry crew to and from the ship could also be seen on the main deck. Even parts of the rigging were still in their original place.
Earlier this year, the wreck was identified as having great archaeological significance by ocean survey specialists MMT after it was revealed by sonar in 2009.
“The ship is contemporary to the times of Christopher Columbus and Leonardo Da Vinci,” said deep sea archaeological expert Dr. Rodrigo Pacheco-Ruiz.
“It’s almost like it sank yesterday – masts in place and hull intact,” he said.
Maritime experts said the size of the vessel, the shape of its bow and design of the anchors are very similar to the design of two ships which were part of Columbus’s expedition that discovered America in 1492.
Dr Pacheco-Ruiz said the cold and salty waters of the Baltic Sea had helped preserve the ship so well.
Experts believe it was probably a small merchant vessel built in Sweden or Denmark in the early 1500s.
Damage to part of the ship’s stern and the readiness of its guns suggest the 16-metre long vessel was sunk in a sea battle.
What happened to the crew is unknown. They could have been killed or captured by an attacking vessel or may have gone down with their ship. | 410 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Philosophers have only interpreted the world in different ways. The point is, however, to change it. (K. Marx, Theses on Feuerbach.)
Two hundred years ago on 5 May, 1818, in the German city of Trier, one of the greatest figures in human history was born. Two centuries later, despite all the furious attacks, malicious distortions and spiteful attempts to undermine his image as a man and a thinker, Karl Marx has established his place in history as a towering genius in the realm of theory.
Whether you agree or disagree with him, there can be no doubt that Karl Marx carried out a great revolution in human thought and thereby changed the entire course of history. He belongs to the great pantheon of outstanding thinkers. His name can stand alongside all the great heroes of the past: Heraclitus and Aristotle, Hegel and Charles Darwin.
Marx’s discoveries in the realm of philosophy, history and political economy can stand as colossal monuments in their own right. Even if his life’s work had begun and ended with the first volume of Capital, that would in itself be a sufficiently great achievement. But Marx was not just a thinker; he was a man of action, a revolutionary who dedicated his entire life to the struggle for the cause of the working class and socialism.
Such a rich and variegated life cannot be adequately described in a few lines. However, on the occasion of Marx’s bicentenary, it is necessary to provide a brief, and inevitably incomplete, sketch of that life as an introduction to this book.
Marx was born two hundred years ago, in Germany, in what was then part of Prussia. However, the Rhineland provinces to which Trier belonged differed in many respects from the backward, semi-feudal and reactionary Prussian lands further to the east.
Annexed by France in the Napoleonic Wars, the inhabitants had been exposed to new ideas such as freedom of the press, constitutional liberty and religious toleration. Though the Rhineland was reincorporated into imperial Prussia by the Congress of Vienna three years before Marx’s birth, the imprint of those years left its mark on the progressive thinking of the most enlightened sections of society.
Karl Heinrich was one of nine children in the family of Heinrich and Henrietta Marx. Marx’s father was a lawyer with a relatively progressive outlook, who read Kant and Voltaire, and advocated reform of the Prussian state. The family was reasonably prosperous. Marx never experienced poverty or privations during his childhood and early youth, although he suffered these things a great deal in his later life.
Both parents were Jewish, but in 1816 at the age of 35, Karl’s father converted to Christianity. This was probably in response to a law of 1815 banning Jews from high society. It is significant that although most people in Trier were Roman Catholics, he chose the Lutheran faith, because he “equated Protestantism with intellectual freedom.” However, Heinrich Marx was very far from being a revolutionary and would doubtless have been horrified had he been aware of the future trajectory of his beloved son Karl.
On leaving school, Marx went on to university, where he studied law, and later history and philosophy. While studying in Berlin he fell under the spell of the great philosopher Hegel. He saw that, beneath the superficial crust of idealism, Hegel’s dialectic had the most profound revolutionary implications. This dialectical philosophy was to form the basis of all his subsequent ideological development.
Marx joined the tendency known as the ‘Left Hegelians’, who drew radical and atheistic conclusions from the Hegelian philosophy. However, he soon became discontented with the endless word chopping and dialectical juggling of these academic radicals who soon degenerated into a mere debating society.
Marx was very impressed by the ideas of Ludwig Feuerbach, who, starting from a criticism of religion, moved in the direction of materialism. But he criticised Feuerbach for his radical rejection of Hegelian dialectics. Marx brilliantly succeeded in combining philosophical materialism with dialectics to produce an entirely different and revolutionary philosophy.
Armed with these revolutionary ideas, the young Marx collaborated with a group of Left Hegelians in the Rhineland who had founded a radical newspaper, the Rheinische Zeitung. As editor of the paper, Marx wrote a number of brilliant revolutionary articles. The paper was an instant success but soon attracted the attention of the Prussian authorities who subjected it to strict censorship. However, the young Marx, with brilliant ingenuity, managed to evade the iron vice of the censors. In the end, they had no choice but to close it down.
In 1836, as he was becoming more politically active, Marx was secretly engaged to Jenny von Westphalen, a handsome young woman from an aristocratic family who was known as the ‘most beautiful girl in Trier.’ She was four years older than him and from a decidedly higher class. But she and Marx had been childhood sweethearts and from everything we know they were totally devoted to each other.
Jenny’s father, Baron Ludwig von Westphalen, a senior official of the Royal Prussian Provincial Government, was a man of doubly aristocratic lineage: his father had been Chief of the General Staff during the Seven Years’ War and his Scottish mother, Anne Wishart, was descended from the Earls of Argyll. It is therefore hardly surprising that they kept their relationship quiet for so long. Three months after the closure of the Rheinische Zeitung, in June 1843, he finally married Jenny von Westphalen, and in October, they moved to Paris.
I believe that not enough attention has been paid to this remarkable woman, who made colossal sacrifices to support her husband in his revolutionary work. She must have suffered a great deal, breaking from her family, travelling from one country to another, sharing all of Marx’s privations and living in the most difficult conditions. She saw her children suffer hardship, fall sick and die. When her son Edgar died in London, she and Marx did not even have enough money to pay for a coffin.
Jenny’s elder brother Ferdinand later became a zealously oppressive Minister of the Interior in the Prussian government between 1850 and 1858, that is to say, during the height of European reaction. We are thus faced with the paradox of one man engaged in revolutionary work to subvert the Prussian state from his London exile, while his brother-in-law in Berlin was in charge of persecuting revolutionaries both within and without the borders of Prussia. History knows of no more ironical situations than this!
In the autumn of 1843, Marx moved to Paris in order to publish a radical journal abroad, together with Arnold Ruge. In the heated atmosphere of Paris at that time, Marx soon made contact with organised groups of émigré German workers and with various sects of French socialists. By now the winds of revolution were blowing strongly throughout Europe, particularly in Paris. Not for the first time, or last, Paris was the political heart of Europe in 1843.
However, only one issue of this journal, Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher, appeared. Publication was discontinued owing mainly to the difficulty of secretly distributing it in Germany, and to philosophical differences between Marx and Ruge. Marx then began writing for another radical newspaper, Vorwärts, which was linked to an organisation that would later become the Communist League. 1
About this time there commenced one of the most extraordinary collaborations in history. In September 1844, a young man called Friedrich Engels came to Paris for a few days to work as a contributor to the journal. From that time on, he became Marx’s closest friend and collaborator. Today the names Marx and Engels are so completely inseparable as to be almost fused into a single person.
During his time in Paris, from October 1843 until January 1845, Marx lived at 38 Rue Vanneau in Paris. Here, Marx engaged in an intensive study of political economy, devouring the works of Adam Smith, David Ricardo, James Stuart Mill, and also the French Utopian socialists, Saint-Simon and Fourier. Here we see the embryo of his future discoveries in the field of economics.
Marx’s revolutionary activities soon attracted the attention of the authorities in Berlin. The Prussian government demanded that the French authorities take action, which the latter were only too pleased to do. Expelled from Paris at the end of 1844, Marx moved to Brussels, where he joined the secret propaganda society, the Communist League. Despite the move, Marx still had severe restrictions on his activity. He had pledged not to publish anything on the subject of contemporary politics.
Marx and Engels immediately formed a close relationship in which the two men brought together different experiences and temperaments in order to work out an entirely new and original set of ideas. As the son of a wealthy German manufacturer, Engels was able to combine his concrete experiences of capitalist production with Marx’s ground-breaking work in the field of philosophy. Engels showed Marx his recently published book The Condition of the Working Class in England. He had already come to the conclusion that the working class would be the most important agent of social change.
It was also Engels who first began to work out the fundamental principles that were later to be brought to fruition in the three volumes of Marx’s Capital. But with characteristic modesty, he always accepted the primacy of Marx in the field of ideology, reserving for himself the role of a humble and loyal disciple, although, in fact, his contribution to Marxist theory must stand shoulder to shoulder to that of Marx himself.
In April 1845, Engels moved from Germany to Brussels to join Marx. Together, the two began writing a criticism of the philosophy of Bruno Bauer, a Young Hegelian with whom Marx had previously been close. The result of Marx and Engels’ first collaboration, The Holy Family, was published in 1845. It marked the beginning of a break with the Left Hegelian trend and the starting point for the entirely new departure.
In 1846, Marx and Engels wrote The German Ideology, in which they first developed the theory on historical materialism. This marked the final and irrevocable rupture with the Young Hegelians. Marx had finally embraced the idea of socialism as the only solution to the problems of humankind. Unfortunately, no publisher was willing to take the risk of publishing The German Ideology, which, along with Theses on Feuerbach, did not see the light of day until after Marx’s death.
Marx and Engels together waged a relentless struggle against the confused ideas of petty-bourgeois socialism, striving to put the ideas of socialism on a scientific basis. In Paris at that time the semi-anarchist ideas of Proudhon were in vogue amongst some revolutionary groups. Marx subjected them to a withering criticism in 1847 in the Poverty of Philosophy, backed up by facts, and substantial quotations from the writings of Proudhon himself.
At the beginning of 1846, Marx attempted to link socialists from around Europe by means of a Communist Correspondence Committee. He had been in contact with a secret organisation of artisans in Paris and Frankfurt called the League of the Just. It was a small group (about a hundred in Paris and eighty in Frankfurt) with very confused ideas. Marx persuaded them to abandon their underground methods and operate in the open as a workers’ political party. It fused with others to form The Communist League.
At the Second Congress of the Communist League, held in London in November 1847, Marx and Engels were charged with producing a document which became known as The Communist Manifesto. This epoch-making document was published in 1848.
The Communist Manifesto and the Neue Rheinische Zeitung
It seems astonishing today that The Communist Manifesto was written when Marx and Engels were still young men; Marx was not yet 30 years of age and Engels three years younger. Yet this remarkable document represents a turning point in history. It is as fresh and relevant now as when it first saw the light of day. Indeed, its relevance is even greater today.
The timing of the publication of this document could hardly have been better. The ink was hardly dry on its pages when a mighty wave of revolutions broke out all over Europe. The February Revolution in France overthrew the Orleans monarchy and led to the creation of the Second Republic.
There is an anecdote that, having recently received a substantial inheritance from his father (withheld by his uncle), Marx used a large part of it to buy arms for the Belgian workers who were moving towards revolutionary action. Whether the story is true or false we do not know, but the Belgian Ministry of Justice certainly believed it. They used it as an excuse for arresting him.
Marx was thus forced to flee back to France, where he believed that he would be safe under the new republican government. But that was a vain hope. The French bourgeois Republicans were terrified of the workers, who were beginning to advance independent class demands that threatened private property. Under these circumstances the last thing they needed was the presence in Paris of a man like Marx.
Marx was convinced that, after France, Germany was on the eve of a revolution. He moved to Cologne, where he founded a new paper – the Neue Rheinische Zeitung – which commenced publication on 1 June 1848. The paper put forward an extremely radical democratic line against the Prussian autocracy and Marx devoted his main energies to its editorship (the Communist League had been virtually disbanded). He continued in this position from June 1848 to 19 May 1849, when the paper was suppressed.
The Neue Rheinische Zeitung was a model of revolutionary journalism and played an active role in the revolutionary events of 1848-49. But the victory of the counter-revolution put an end to this activity. Marx was put on trial for his revolutionary activity. He was acquitted on 9 February 1849, but subsequently banished from Germany on 16 May 1849.
Marx again returned to Paris. However, he was then banished from France after the demonstration of 13 June, 1849. Since Prussia refused to give him a passport, Marx was now a stateless and penniless exile. He moved to London, which in those days was more tolerant and welcoming to political exiles than it is today. Although Britain too denied him citizenship, he remained in London until his death. In May 1849 he began the “long, sleepless night of exile” that was to last for the remainder of his life.
Arriving in London, Marx remained as optimistic about the imminence of a new revolutionary outbreak in Europe. He wrote two lengthy pamphlets on the 1848 revolution in France and its consequences: The Class Struggles in France and The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte. He concluded that “a new revolution is possible only in consequence of a new crisis” and then devoted himself to the study of political economy in order to determine the causes and nature of capitalist crisis.
For most of the time he spent in London, Marx and his family lived in conditions of the direst poverty. He found work as a correspondent for the New York Daily Tribune, a collaboration that lasted for ten years from 1852 to 1862. However, Marx was never able to earn a living wage from his journalism. During the first half of the 1850s, the Marx family lived in squalid conditions in a three room flat in the Soho quarter of London. Marx and Jenny already had four children and two more were to follow. Of these, only three survived.
“Blessed is he that hath no family,” Karl Marx wrote wearily in a letter to Friedrich Engels in June 1854. He was thirty-six at the time and had long since lost all contact with his relatives. His father was dead and relations with his mother were bad. Only through the selfless generosity of his friend Friedrich Engels was Marx and his family able to survive.
The Marx family had seven children, four of whom died in infancy or childhood. Despite all the hardships, they were a happy family. Marx deeply loved his daughters, who, in turn, adored him. In his spare moments in the evenings he would play with them and read from the classics. Don Quixote was a particular favourite, but they also performed Shakespeare plays, with Marx and his children reading different parts. “He was a unique, an unrivalled storyteller,” his daughter Eleanor recalled.
Of the three surviving daughters – Jenny, Laura, and Eleanor – two married Frenchmen. One of these men, Paul Lafargue, played an active role in the Marxist movement and helped to establish the socialist party in Spain. Eleanor Marx was active in the British workers’ movement as a militant labour organiser.
Marx’s work was not confined to theory alone. All the time he was in London he played a most active role in promoting and developing the international labour movement. Marx helped found the German Workers’ Educational Society, as well as a new headquarters for the Communist League. But he was increasingly frustrated and alienated by the endless sectarian squabbles of the émigrés and finally severed all relations with them, while always maintaining close contacts with active members of the British workers movement.
A decisive turn in the situation occurred in 1864. On 28 September, the International Working Men’s Association – known to us as the First International – was founded. From the very beginning Marx was the heart and soul of this organisation, the author of its first address and of a host of resolutions, declarations and manifestos. For the next few years much of his time was devoted to maintaining the work of the International. Together with Engels he kept up a vast correspondence with advanced workers and co-thinkers in many countries, including Russia.
Marx was obliged to carry on a relentless struggle against all kinds of petty-bourgeois deviations within the ranks of the international: Proudhon’s utopian socialism, the bourgeois nationalism of the Italian Mazzini, the opportunism of the British reformist trade union leaders, and above all the intrigues of the anarchist Bakunin and his followers.
In the end, Marx succeeded in winning the ideological struggle, but the conditions in which the young forces of the international were being formed turned in an unfavourable direction. The defeat of the Paris commune was the final death blow.
Given the unfavourable situation in Europe, Marx proposed the transfer of the seat of the General Council from London to New York in 1872 in the hope that the developing class struggle in the New World would provide the International with new opportunities. But nothing could prevent its decline. The most important achievement of the First International was that it provided a firm ideological basis for future developments. But as an organisation it virtually ceased to exist.
Marx’s health was undermined by the exhausting work in the International and his still more strenuous theoretical studies and writing. He continued to work tirelessly on the question of political economy and on the completion of Capital, for which he collected a mass of new material and studied a number of languages including Russian.
Marx never looked after his own health. His love of heavily spiced foods and wine, together with excessive smoking of cigars may well have contributed to the deterioration of his health, which was fatally undermined by years of poverty. In the final dozen years of his life, his recurrent illnesses no longer permitted him to do any continuous intellectual work.
Despite increasing bouts of ill health, Marx threw himself into a monumental study of the laws and history capitalism, developing an entirely new economic theory. In preparation for the writing of Capital, he read every available work in economic and financial theory and practice. It is sufficient to read the extensive footnotes of this great book to realise the astonishing amount of painstaking research that went into its elaboration.
In 1867, he published the first volume of Capital. He spent the rest of his life writing and revising manuscripts for the remaining volumes, which remained incomplete at the time of his death. The remaining two volumes were painstakingly assembled, edited and published posthumously by Engels.
The final blow to Marx’s health was the death of Jenny von Westphalen, who passed away as a result of cancer on 2 December, 1881, at the age of sixty-seven. Together with the death of his eldest daughter, this was a cruel personal tragedy from which Marx never recovered. It clouded the last years of his life.
Karl Marx died of pleurisy in London on 14 March, 1883, passing away peacefully in his armchair. He was buried next to his wife in Highgate Cemetery in London. When he died, a daguerreotype photograph of his father was found in his breast pocket. It was placed in his coffin and interred in Highgate cemetery. His original grave had only a modest stone, now sadly vandalised and largely ignored by visitors who flock to the gigantic monument erected in November 1954 when Marx and his family were reburied on a new site not far from the old one.
The new tomb, unveiled on 14 March 1956, carries the inscription: “Workers of all lands unite!” and the equally celebrated words of the Theses on Feuerbach: “The philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways – the point however is to change it.”
But the real monument to Marx is not in Highgate cemetery. It is not made of stone or bronze, but of far stronger and more durable material: the immortal ideas contained in more than fifty volumes of his Collected Works. That is the only monument that Marx would ever have desired. It is the foundation stone of the world working-class movement and the guarantee of its future victory.
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0.2120779305... | 8 | Philosophers have only interpreted the world in different ways. The point is, however, to change it. (K. Marx, Theses on Feuerbach.)
Two hundred years ago on 5 May, 1818, in the German city of Trier, one of the greatest figures in human history was born. Two centuries later, despite all the furious attacks, malicious distortions and spiteful attempts to undermine his image as a man and a thinker, Karl Marx has established his place in history as a towering genius in the realm of theory.
Whether you agree or disagree with him, there can be no doubt that Karl Marx carried out a great revolution in human thought and thereby changed the entire course of history. He belongs to the great pantheon of outstanding thinkers. His name can stand alongside all the great heroes of the past: Heraclitus and Aristotle, Hegel and Charles Darwin.
Marx’s discoveries in the realm of philosophy, history and political economy can stand as colossal monuments in their own right. Even if his life’s work had begun and ended with the first volume of Capital, that would in itself be a sufficiently great achievement. But Marx was not just a thinker; he was a man of action, a revolutionary who dedicated his entire life to the struggle for the cause of the working class and socialism.
Such a rich and variegated life cannot be adequately described in a few lines. However, on the occasion of Marx’s bicentenary, it is necessary to provide a brief, and inevitably incomplete, sketch of that life as an introduction to this book.
Marx was born two hundred years ago, in Germany, in what was then part of Prussia. However, the Rhineland provinces to which Trier belonged differed in many respects from the backward, semi-feudal and reactionary Prussian lands further to the east.
Annexed by France in the Napoleonic Wars, the inhabitants had been exposed to new ideas such as freedom of the press, constitutional liberty and religious toleration. Though the Rhineland was reincorporated into imperial Prussia by the Congress of Vienna three years before Marx’s birth, the imprint of those years left its mark on the progressive thinking of the most enlightened sections of society.
Karl Heinrich was one of nine children in the family of Heinrich and Henrietta Marx. Marx’s father was a lawyer with a relatively progressive outlook, who read Kant and Voltaire, and advocated reform of the Prussian state. The family was reasonably prosperous. Marx never experienced poverty or privations during his childhood and early youth, although he suffered these things a great deal in his later life.
Both parents were Jewish, but in 1816 at the age of 35, Karl’s father converted to Christianity. This was probably in response to a law of 1815 banning Jews from high society. It is significant that although most people in Trier were Roman Catholics, he chose the Lutheran faith, because he “equated Protestantism with intellectual freedom.” However, Heinrich Marx was very far from being a revolutionary and would doubtless have been horrified had he been aware of the future trajectory of his beloved son Karl.
On leaving school, Marx went on to university, where he studied law, and later history and philosophy. While studying in Berlin he fell under the spell of the great philosopher Hegel. He saw that, beneath the superficial crust of idealism, Hegel’s dialectic had the most profound revolutionary implications. This dialectical philosophy was to form the basis of all his subsequent ideological development.
Marx joined the tendency known as the ‘Left Hegelians’, who drew radical and atheistic conclusions from the Hegelian philosophy. However, he soon became discontented with the endless word chopping and dialectical juggling of these academic radicals who soon degenerated into a mere debating society.
Marx was very impressed by the ideas of Ludwig Feuerbach, who, starting from a criticism of religion, moved in the direction of materialism. But he criticised Feuerbach for his radical rejection of Hegelian dialectics. Marx brilliantly succeeded in combining philosophical materialism with dialectics to produce an entirely different and revolutionary philosophy.
Armed with these revolutionary ideas, the young Marx collaborated with a group of Left Hegelians in the Rhineland who had founded a radical newspaper, the Rheinische Zeitung. As editor of the paper, Marx wrote a number of brilliant revolutionary articles. The paper was an instant success but soon attracted the attention of the Prussian authorities who subjected it to strict censorship. However, the young Marx, with brilliant ingenuity, managed to evade the iron vice of the censors. In the end, they had no choice but to close it down.
In 1836, as he was becoming more politically active, Marx was secretly engaged to Jenny von Westphalen, a handsome young woman from an aristocratic family who was known as the ‘most beautiful girl in Trier.’ She was four years older than him and from a decidedly higher class. But she and Marx had been childhood sweethearts and from everything we know they were totally devoted to each other.
Jenny’s father, Baron Ludwig von Westphalen, a senior official of the Royal Prussian Provincial Government, was a man of doubly aristocratic lineage: his father had been Chief of the General Staff during the Seven Years’ War and his Scottish mother, Anne Wishart, was descended from the Earls of Argyll. It is therefore hardly surprising that they kept their relationship quiet for so long. Three months after the closure of the Rheinische Zeitung, in June 1843, he finally married Jenny von Westphalen, and in October, they moved to Paris.
I believe that not enough attention has been paid to this remarkable woman, who made colossal sacrifices to support her husband in his revolutionary work. She must have suffered a great deal, breaking from her family, travelling from one country to another, sharing all of Marx’s privations and living in the most difficult conditions. She saw her children suffer hardship, fall sick and die. When her son Edgar died in London, she and Marx did not even have enough money to pay for a coffin.
Jenny’s elder brother Ferdinand later became a zealously oppressive Minister of the Interior in the Prussian government between 1850 and 1858, that is to say, during the height of European reaction. We are thus faced with the paradox of one man engaged in revolutionary work to subvert the Prussian state from his London exile, while his brother-in-law in Berlin was in charge of persecuting revolutionaries both within and without the borders of Prussia. History knows of no more ironical situations than this!
In the autumn of 1843, Marx moved to Paris in order to publish a radical journal abroad, together with Arnold Ruge. In the heated atmosphere of Paris at that time, Marx soon made contact with organised groups of émigré German workers and with various sects of French socialists. By now the winds of revolution were blowing strongly throughout Europe, particularly in Paris. Not for the first time, or last, Paris was the political heart of Europe in 1843.
However, only one issue of this journal, Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher, appeared. Publication was discontinued owing mainly to the difficulty of secretly distributing it in Germany, and to philosophical differences between Marx and Ruge. Marx then began writing for another radical newspaper, Vorwärts, which was linked to an organisation that would later become the Communist League. 1
About this time there commenced one of the most extraordinary collaborations in history. In September 1844, a young man called Friedrich Engels came to Paris for a few days to work as a contributor to the journal. From that time on, he became Marx’s closest friend and collaborator. Today the names Marx and Engels are so completely inseparable as to be almost fused into a single person.
During his time in Paris, from October 1843 until January 1845, Marx lived at 38 Rue Vanneau in Paris. Here, Marx engaged in an intensive study of political economy, devouring the works of Adam Smith, David Ricardo, James Stuart Mill, and also the French Utopian socialists, Saint-Simon and Fourier. Here we see the embryo of his future discoveries in the field of economics.
Marx’s revolutionary activities soon attracted the attention of the authorities in Berlin. The Prussian government demanded that the French authorities take action, which the latter were only too pleased to do. Expelled from Paris at the end of 1844, Marx moved to Brussels, where he joined the secret propaganda society, the Communist League. Despite the move, Marx still had severe restrictions on his activity. He had pledged not to publish anything on the subject of contemporary politics.
Marx and Engels immediately formed a close relationship in which the two men brought together different experiences and temperaments in order to work out an entirely new and original set of ideas. As the son of a wealthy German manufacturer, Engels was able to combine his concrete experiences of capitalist production with Marx’s ground-breaking work in the field of philosophy. Engels showed Marx his recently published book The Condition of the Working Class in England. He had already come to the conclusion that the working class would be the most important agent of social change.
It was also Engels who first began to work out the fundamental principles that were later to be brought to fruition in the three volumes of Marx’s Capital. But with characteristic modesty, he always accepted the primacy of Marx in the field of ideology, reserving for himself the role of a humble and loyal disciple, although, in fact, his contribution to Marxist theory must stand shoulder to shoulder to that of Marx himself.
In April 1845, Engels moved from Germany to Brussels to join Marx. Together, the two began writing a criticism of the philosophy of Bruno Bauer, a Young Hegelian with whom Marx had previously been close. The result of Marx and Engels’ first collaboration, The Holy Family, was published in 1845. It marked the beginning of a break with the Left Hegelian trend and the starting point for the entirely new departure.
In 1846, Marx and Engels wrote The German Ideology, in which they first developed the theory on historical materialism. This marked the final and irrevocable rupture with the Young Hegelians. Marx had finally embraced the idea of socialism as the only solution to the problems of humankind. Unfortunately, no publisher was willing to take the risk of publishing The German Ideology, which, along with Theses on Feuerbach, did not see the light of day until after Marx’s death.
Marx and Engels together waged a relentless struggle against the confused ideas of petty-bourgeois socialism, striving to put the ideas of socialism on a scientific basis. In Paris at that time the semi-anarchist ideas of Proudhon were in vogue amongst some revolutionary groups. Marx subjected them to a withering criticism in 1847 in the Poverty of Philosophy, backed up by facts, and substantial quotations from the writings of Proudhon himself.
At the beginning of 1846, Marx attempted to link socialists from around Europe by means of a Communist Correspondence Committee. He had been in contact with a secret organisation of artisans in Paris and Frankfurt called the League of the Just. It was a small group (about a hundred in Paris and eighty in Frankfurt) with very confused ideas. Marx persuaded them to abandon their underground methods and operate in the open as a workers’ political party. It fused with others to form The Communist League.
At the Second Congress of the Communist League, held in London in November 1847, Marx and Engels were charged with producing a document which became known as The Communist Manifesto. This epoch-making document was published in 1848.
The Communist Manifesto and the Neue Rheinische Zeitung
It seems astonishing today that The Communist Manifesto was written when Marx and Engels were still young men; Marx was not yet 30 years of age and Engels three years younger. Yet this remarkable document represents a turning point in history. It is as fresh and relevant now as when it first saw the light of day. Indeed, its relevance is even greater today.
The timing of the publication of this document could hardly have been better. The ink was hardly dry on its pages when a mighty wave of revolutions broke out all over Europe. The February Revolution in France overthrew the Orleans monarchy and led to the creation of the Second Republic.
There is an anecdote that, having recently received a substantial inheritance from his father (withheld by his uncle), Marx used a large part of it to buy arms for the Belgian workers who were moving towards revolutionary action. Whether the story is true or false we do not know, but the Belgian Ministry of Justice certainly believed it. They used it as an excuse for arresting him.
Marx was thus forced to flee back to France, where he believed that he would be safe under the new republican government. But that was a vain hope. The French bourgeois Republicans were terrified of the workers, who were beginning to advance independent class demands that threatened private property. Under these circumstances the last thing they needed was the presence in Paris of a man like Marx.
Marx was convinced that, after France, Germany was on the eve of a revolution. He moved to Cologne, where he founded a new paper – the Neue Rheinische Zeitung – which commenced publication on 1 June 1848. The paper put forward an extremely radical democratic line against the Prussian autocracy and Marx devoted his main energies to its editorship (the Communist League had been virtually disbanded). He continued in this position from June 1848 to 19 May 1849, when the paper was suppressed.
The Neue Rheinische Zeitung was a model of revolutionary journalism and played an active role in the revolutionary events of 1848-49. But the victory of the counter-revolution put an end to this activity. Marx was put on trial for his revolutionary activity. He was acquitted on 9 February 1849, but subsequently banished from Germany on 16 May 1849.
Marx again returned to Paris. However, he was then banished from France after the demonstration of 13 June, 1849. Since Prussia refused to give him a passport, Marx was now a stateless and penniless exile. He moved to London, which in those days was more tolerant and welcoming to political exiles than it is today. Although Britain too denied him citizenship, he remained in London until his death. In May 1849 he began the “long, sleepless night of exile” that was to last for the remainder of his life.
Arriving in London, Marx remained as optimistic about the imminence of a new revolutionary outbreak in Europe. He wrote two lengthy pamphlets on the 1848 revolution in France and its consequences: The Class Struggles in France and The 18th Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte. He concluded that “a new revolution is possible only in consequence of a new crisis” and then devoted himself to the study of political economy in order to determine the causes and nature of capitalist crisis.
For most of the time he spent in London, Marx and his family lived in conditions of the direst poverty. He found work as a correspondent for the New York Daily Tribune, a collaboration that lasted for ten years from 1852 to 1862. However, Marx was never able to earn a living wage from his journalism. During the first half of the 1850s, the Marx family lived in squalid conditions in a three room flat in the Soho quarter of London. Marx and Jenny already had four children and two more were to follow. Of these, only three survived.
“Blessed is he that hath no family,” Karl Marx wrote wearily in a letter to Friedrich Engels in June 1854. He was thirty-six at the time and had long since lost all contact with his relatives. His father was dead and relations with his mother were bad. Only through the selfless generosity of his friend Friedrich Engels was Marx and his family able to survive.
The Marx family had seven children, four of whom died in infancy or childhood. Despite all the hardships, they were a happy family. Marx deeply loved his daughters, who, in turn, adored him. In his spare moments in the evenings he would play with them and read from the classics. Don Quixote was a particular favourite, but they also performed Shakespeare plays, with Marx and his children reading different parts. “He was a unique, an unrivalled storyteller,” his daughter Eleanor recalled.
Of the three surviving daughters – Jenny, Laura, and Eleanor – two married Frenchmen. One of these men, Paul Lafargue, played an active role in the Marxist movement and helped to establish the socialist party in Spain. Eleanor Marx was active in the British workers’ movement as a militant labour organiser.
Marx’s work was not confined to theory alone. All the time he was in London he played a most active role in promoting and developing the international labour movement. Marx helped found the German Workers’ Educational Society, as well as a new headquarters for the Communist League. But he was increasingly frustrated and alienated by the endless sectarian squabbles of the émigrés and finally severed all relations with them, while always maintaining close contacts with active members of the British workers movement.
A decisive turn in the situation occurred in 1864. On 28 September, the International Working Men’s Association – known to us as the First International – was founded. From the very beginning Marx was the heart and soul of this organisation, the author of its first address and of a host of resolutions, declarations and manifestos. For the next few years much of his time was devoted to maintaining the work of the International. Together with Engels he kept up a vast correspondence with advanced workers and co-thinkers in many countries, including Russia.
Marx was obliged to carry on a relentless struggle against all kinds of petty-bourgeois deviations within the ranks of the international: Proudhon’s utopian socialism, the bourgeois nationalism of the Italian Mazzini, the opportunism of the British reformist trade union leaders, and above all the intrigues of the anarchist Bakunin and his followers.
In the end, Marx succeeded in winning the ideological struggle, but the conditions in which the young forces of the international were being formed turned in an unfavourable direction. The defeat of the Paris commune was the final death blow.
Given the unfavourable situation in Europe, Marx proposed the transfer of the seat of the General Council from London to New York in 1872 in the hope that the developing class struggle in the New World would provide the International with new opportunities. But nothing could prevent its decline. The most important achievement of the First International was that it provided a firm ideological basis for future developments. But as an organisation it virtually ceased to exist.
Marx’s health was undermined by the exhausting work in the International and his still more strenuous theoretical studies and writing. He continued to work tirelessly on the question of political economy and on the completion of Capital, for which he collected a mass of new material and studied a number of languages including Russian.
Marx never looked after his own health. His love of heavily spiced foods and wine, together with excessive smoking of cigars may well have contributed to the deterioration of his health, which was fatally undermined by years of poverty. In the final dozen years of his life, his recurrent illnesses no longer permitted him to do any continuous intellectual work.
Despite increasing bouts of ill health, Marx threw himself into a monumental study of the laws and history capitalism, developing an entirely new economic theory. In preparation for the writing of Capital, he read every available work in economic and financial theory and practice. It is sufficient to read the extensive footnotes of this great book to realise the astonishing amount of painstaking research that went into its elaboration.
In 1867, he published the first volume of Capital. He spent the rest of his life writing and revising manuscripts for the remaining volumes, which remained incomplete at the time of his death. The remaining two volumes were painstakingly assembled, edited and published posthumously by Engels.
The final blow to Marx’s health was the death of Jenny von Westphalen, who passed away as a result of cancer on 2 December, 1881, at the age of sixty-seven. Together with the death of his eldest daughter, this was a cruel personal tragedy from which Marx never recovered. It clouded the last years of his life.
Karl Marx died of pleurisy in London on 14 March, 1883, passing away peacefully in his armchair. He was buried next to his wife in Highgate Cemetery in London. When he died, a daguerreotype photograph of his father was found in his breast pocket. It was placed in his coffin and interred in Highgate cemetery. His original grave had only a modest stone, now sadly vandalised and largely ignored by visitors who flock to the gigantic monument erected in November 1954 when Marx and his family were reburied on a new site not far from the old one.
The new tomb, unveiled on 14 March 1956, carries the inscription: “Workers of all lands unite!” and the equally celebrated words of the Theses on Feuerbach: “The philosophers have only interpreted the world in various ways – the point however is to change it.”
But the real monument to Marx is not in Highgate cemetery. It is not made of stone or bronze, but of far stronger and more durable material: the immortal ideas contained in more than fifty volumes of his Collected Works. That is the only monument that Marx would ever have desired. It is the foundation stone of the world working-class movement and the guarantee of its future victory.
1 An organisation of German émigré workers based in London of which Marx and Engels were to become the chief theoreticians. | 4,606 | ENGLISH | 1 |
July 25, 2013 report
Researchers prove dogs are able to differentiate colors
A team of researchers in Russia has conducted a series of experiments that prove that dogs are able to distinguish between different colors. In their paper published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B, the team describes the experiments with dogs they conducted and the results they found.
For much of history, dogs have been assumed to be able to see only in black and white—their ability to differentiate between different colored objects was believed to be due to differences in brightness. In this new research, the team in Russia built on research recently conducted in the U.S. that found that dogs have two cones in their eyes suggesting they should have some ability to differentiate colors. Humans as most remember from grade school, have three cones, which allows for seeing all three primary colors. Since dogs have only two, they should be able to see some colors, but not others—blues, greens and yellows, for example, but not reds or oranges.
To find out if dogs are in fact able to see colors and to distinguish between them, the team conducted a clever experiment. First they trained several dogs to respond to one of four different colored pieces of paper: light or dark yellow and light or dark blue (by putting paper pairs in front of feedboxes that contained meat.) The dogs soon learned that certain colors meant they were in for a treat.
Next, using the same dogs that had been trained to respond to certain colors, the team placed pieces of paper with the color that they'd been taught to respond to in front of a feed box, along with another piece of paper that was brighter, but of a different color—a dog trained to respond to light blue for example would hopefully respond to dark blue instead of light yellow. The researchers found that a majority of the dogs went for the color identifier rather than brightness identifier most of the time, proving that they were able to distinguish color and were not relying on brightness to find their food treat.
The researchers suggest their findings indicate that most animals with just two cones are likely able to differentiate between colors and thus it's likely they respond in ways that have not been previously studied.
© 2013 Phys.org | <urn:uuid:78c6be22-9ce8-4d20-8b3e-8185b6b304e9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://phys.org/news/2013-07-dogs-differentiate.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00175.warc.gz | en | 0.982171 | 448 | 3.78125 | 4 | [
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0.1682378053665... | 2 | July 25, 2013 report
Researchers prove dogs are able to differentiate colors
A team of researchers in Russia has conducted a series of experiments that prove that dogs are able to distinguish between different colors. In their paper published in Proceedings of the Royal Society B, the team describes the experiments with dogs they conducted and the results they found.
For much of history, dogs have been assumed to be able to see only in black and white—their ability to differentiate between different colored objects was believed to be due to differences in brightness. In this new research, the team in Russia built on research recently conducted in the U.S. that found that dogs have two cones in their eyes suggesting they should have some ability to differentiate colors. Humans as most remember from grade school, have three cones, which allows for seeing all three primary colors. Since dogs have only two, they should be able to see some colors, but not others—blues, greens and yellows, for example, but not reds or oranges.
To find out if dogs are in fact able to see colors and to distinguish between them, the team conducted a clever experiment. First they trained several dogs to respond to one of four different colored pieces of paper: light or dark yellow and light or dark blue (by putting paper pairs in front of feedboxes that contained meat.) The dogs soon learned that certain colors meant they were in for a treat.
Next, using the same dogs that had been trained to respond to certain colors, the team placed pieces of paper with the color that they'd been taught to respond to in front of a feed box, along with another piece of paper that was brighter, but of a different color—a dog trained to respond to light blue for example would hopefully respond to dark blue instead of light yellow. The researchers found that a majority of the dogs went for the color identifier rather than brightness identifier most of the time, proving that they were able to distinguish color and were not relying on brightness to find their food treat.
The researchers suggest their findings indicate that most animals with just two cones are likely able to differentiate between colors and thus it's likely they respond in ways that have not been previously studied.
© 2013 Phys.org | 450 | ENGLISH | 1 |
People - Ancient Egypt: Cleopatra & Ptolemy XIV GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD Ptolemaic Dynasty (47-44) This period is confusing due to all of the co-
regencies. Scholars are not always in agreement on the order of reigns and, in some case,
the reigns themselves, from Ptolemy VI through Ptolemy XI. In any event, Egypt's authority
and wealth was intact until the death of Cleopatra, at which time, Egypt was overpowered by
Cleopatra VII in Tour Egypt
In the springtime of 51 BC, Ptolemy Auletes died and left his kingdom in his will to his eighteen year old daughter, Cleopatra, and
her younger brother Ptolemy XIII who was twelve at the time. Cleopatra was born in 69 BC in Alexandria, Egypt. She had two older
sisters, Cleopatra VI and Berenice IV as well as a younger sister, Arsinoe IV. There were two younger brothers as well, Ptolemy XIII
and Ptolemy XIV. It is thought that Cleopatra VI may have died as a child and Auletes had Berenice beheaded. At Ptolemy Auletes'
death, Pompey, a Roman leader, was left in charge of the children. During the two centuries that preceded Ptolemy
Auletes death, the Ptolemies were allied with the Romans. The Ptolemies' strength was failing and the Roman Empire was rising. City
after city was falling to the Roman power and the Ptolemies could do nothing but create a pact with them. During the later rule of
the Ptolemies, the Romans gained more and more control over Egypt. Tributes had to be paid to the Romans to keep them away from
Egypt. When Ptolemy Auletes died, the fall of the Dynasty appeared to be even closer.
According to Egyptian law, Cleopatra was forced to have a consort, who was either a brother or a son, no matter what age, throughout
her reign. She was married to her younger brother Ptolemy XIII when he was twelve, however she soon dropped his name from any
official documents regardless of the Ptolemaic insistence that the male presence be first among co-rulers. She also had her own
portrait and name on coins of that time, ignoring her brother's. When Cleopatra became co-regent, her world was crumbling down around
her. Cyprus, Coele-Syria and Cyrenaica were gone. There was anarchy abroad and famine at home. Cleopatra was a strong-willed
Macedonian queen who was brilliant and dreamed of a greater world empire. She almost achieved it. Whether her way of getting it done
was for her own desires or for the pursuit of power will never be known for certain. However, like many Hellenistic queens, she was
passionate but not promiscuous. As far as we know, she had no other lovers other than Caesar and Antony. Many believe that she did
what she felt was necessary to try to save Alexandria, whatever the price.
By 48 BC, Cleopatra had alarmed the more powerful court officials of Alexandria by some of her actions. For instance, her mercenaries
killed the Roman governor of Syria's sons when they came to ask for her assistance for their father against the Parthians. A group of
men led by Theodotus, the eunuch Pothinus and a half-Greek general, Achillas, overthrew her in favor of her younger brother. They
believed him to be much easier to influence and they became his council of regency. Cleopatra is thought to have fled to Thebaid.
Between 51 and 49 BC, Egypt was suffering from bad harvests and famine because of a drought which stopped the much needed Nile
flooding. Ptolemy XIII signed a decree on October 27, 50 BC which banned any shipments of grain to anywhere but Alexandria. It is
thought that this was to deprive Cleopatra and her supporters who were not in Alexandria. Regardless, she started an army from the
Arab tribes which were east of Pelusium. During this time, she and her sister Arsinoe moved to Syria. They returned by way of Ascalon
which may have been Cleopatra's temporary base.
In the meantime, Pompey had been defeated at Pharsalus in August of 48 BC. He headed for Alexandria hoping to find refuge with
Ptolemy XIII, of whom Pompey was a senate-appointed guardian. Pompey did not realize how much his reputation had been destroyed by
Pharsalus until it was too late. He was murdered as he stepped ashore on September 28, 48 BC. The young Ptolemy XIII stood on the
dock and watched the whole scene. Four days later, Caesar arrived in Alexandria. He brought with him thirty-two hundred legionaries
and eight hundred cavalry. He also brought twelve other soldiers who bore the insignia of the Roman government who carried a bundle
of rods with an ax with a blade that projected out. This was considered a badge of authority that gave a clear hint of his
intentions. There were riots that followed in Alexandria. Ptolemy XIII was gone to Pelusium and Caesar placed himself in the royal
palace and started giving out orders. The eunuch, Pothinus, brought Ptolemy back to Alexandria. Cleopatra had no intentions of being
left out of any deals that were going to be made. She had herself smuggled in through enemy lines rolled in a carpet. She was
delivered to Caesar. Both Cleopatra and Ptolemy were invited to appear before Caesar the next morning. By this time, she and Caesar
were already lovers and Ptolemy realized this right away. He stormed out screaming that he had been betrayed, trying to arouse the
Alexandrian mob. He was soon captured by Caesar's guards and brought back to the palace. It is thought that Caesar had planned to
make Cleopatra the sole ruler of Alexandria. He thought she would be a puppet for Rome.
The Alexandrian War was started when Pothinus called for Ptolemy XIII's soldiers in November and surrounded Caesar in Alexandria with
twenty thousand men. During the war, parts of the Alexandrian Library and some of the warehouses were burned. However, Caesar did
manage to capture the Pharos lighthouse, which kept his control of the harbor. Cleopatra's sister, Arsinoe, escaped from the palace
and ran to Achillas. She was proclaimed the queen by the Macedonian mob and the army. Cleopatra never forgave her sister for this.
During the fighting, Caesar executed Pothinus and Achillas was murdered by Ganymede. Ptolemy XIII drowned in the Nile while he was
trying to flee.
Because of his death, Cleopatra was now the sole ruler of Egypt. Caesar had restored her position, but she now had to marry her
younger brother Ptolemy XIV, who was eleven years old. This was to please the Alexandrians and the Egyptian priests. Surely Caesar
went through all of this trouble for more than his infatuation with the queen of Egypt. It must have been out of arrogance and his
desire to get his hands on Egypt's vast resources. However, Cleopatra's intelligence and inheritance did have some influence as well.
In what must have been very calculated on his part, she became pregnant rather quickly. For him to have a son to carry the throne was
very appealing to him. Caesar and Cleopatra took an extended trip up the Nile for about two months. They stopped in Dendara where
Cleopatra was worshipped as a Pharaoh. Caesar would never have this honor. Caesar only left the boat to attend important business in
Syria just a few weeks before the birth of their son, Caesarion (Ptolemy Caesar) who was born on June 23, 47 BC.
During July of the year 46 BC, Caesar returned to Rome. He was given many honors and a ten-year dictatorship. These celebrations
lasted from September to October and he brought Cleopatra over, along with her entourage. The conservative Republicans were very
offended when he established Cleopatra in his home. Her social manners did not make the situation any better. She upset many.
Cleopatra had started calling herself the New Isis and was the subject of much gossip. She lived in luxury and had a statue made of
gold placed by Caesar, in the temple of Venus Genetrix . Caesar also openly claimed Caesarion as his son. Many were upset that he was
planning to marry Cleopatra regardless of the laws against bigamy and marriages to foreigners.
However, on the Ides of March of 44 BC, all of that came to an end. Caesar was assassinated outside the Senate Building in Rome. He
was killed in a conspiracy by his Senators. Many of the Senators thought he was a threat to the republic's well-being. It was thought
that Caesar was making plans to have himself declared king. After Caesar's murder, Cleopatra fled Rome and returned home to
Alexandria. Caesar had not mentioned Cleopatra or Caesarion in his will. She felt her life, as well as that of her child, was in
Upon returning to Alexandria, she had her consort, Ptolemy XIV, assassinated and established Caesarion as her co-regent at the age of
four. She found Egypt suffering from plagues and famine. The Nile canals had been neglected during her absence which caused the
harvests to be bad and the inundations low. The bad harvests continued from 43 until 41 BC. Trying to help secure recognition for
Caesarion with Caesar's former lieutenant Dolabella, Cleopatra sent Dolabella the four legions that Caesar had left in Egypt. Cassius
captured the legions which caused Dolabella to commit suicide at Laodicea during the summer of 43 BC. She was planning to join Mark
Antony and Octavian (who became Augustus) with a large fleet of ships after Dolabella's death, but was stopped by a violent storm.
Cleopatra watched in the time that followed, who would be the next power in Rome. After Brutus and Cassius had been killed and
Antony, Octavian and Lepidus were triumphant, Cleopatra knew which one she would have to deal with. Octavian went back to Italy very
ill, so Antony was the one to watch. Her son gained his right to become king when Caesar was officially divinized in Rome on January
1, 42 BC. The main object was the promotion of Octavian, but the triumvirs knew of Cleopatra's aid to Dolabella.
Cleopatra was invited by Mark Antony to Tarsus in 41 BC. She already knew enough about him to know how to get to him. She knew about
his limited strategic and tactical abilities, his blue blood, the drinking, his womanizing, his vulgarity and his ambition. Even
though Egypt was on the verge of economic collapse, Cleopatra put on a show for Mark Antony that even Ptolemy Philadelphos couldn't
have done better. She sailed with silver oars, purple sails with her Erotes fanning her and the Nereid handmaids steering and she was
dressed as Aphrodite, the goddess of love. This was a very calculated entrance; considered vulgar by many. It was a vulgar display to
attract the attention of a vulgar man. Mark Antony loved the idea of having a blue-blooded Ptolemy woman. His former mistress as well
as his current wife, Fulvia, were merely middle class.
Cleopatra and Antony spent the winter of 41 to 40 in Alexandria. According to some sources, Cleopatra could get out of him whatever
she wanted, including the assassination of her sister, Arsinoe. Cleopatra may not have had so much influence over him later on. He
took control of Cyprus from her. Actually it may have been Cleopatra who was the exploited one. Antony needed money and Cleopatra
could be generous when it benefited her as well.
In the spring of 40 BC, Mark Antony left Cleopatra and returned home. He did not see her for four years. Antony's wife, Fulvia had
gotten into a serious movement against Octavian over veterans' allotments of land. She fled to Greece and had a bitter confrontation
with Antony. She became ill and died there. Antony patched things up with Octavian that same autumn by marrying Octavian's sister,
Octavia. She was a beautiful and intelligent woman who had been recently widowed. She had three children from her first marriage. In
the meantime, Cleopatra had given birth to twins, one boy and one girl, in Alexandria. Antony's first child by Octavia was a girl.
Had Octavia given him a son, things might have turned out different. Antony kept the idea of the treasures of the Ptolemies and how
much he wanted it. When he finally did get the treasures, the standard interest rate in Rome fell from 12 percent to 4.
Mark Antony left Italy and went to deal with the Parthians. Octavia had just had another daughter and went with him just as far as
Corcyra. He gave her the excuse that he did not want to expose her to the dangers of the battles and sent her home. He told her that
she would be more use to him at home in Rome keeping peace with her brother, Octavian. However, the first thing that he did when he
reached Antioch, was to send for Cleopatra. Their twin children were officially recognized by Antony and were given the names of
Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene. Mark Antony gave her much land which was very essential to Egypt. He gave her Cyprus, the
Cilician coast, Phoenicia, Coele-Syria, Judea and Arabia. This allowed Egypt to be able to build ships from the lumber from Cilician
coast. Egypt then built a large fleet. Antony had planned a campaign against the Parthians. He obviously needed Cleopatra's support
for this and in 36 BC, he was defeated. He became more indebted to her than ever. They had just had a third child.
On their return to Syria, she met him and what was left of his army, with food, clothing and money. Early in 35 BC, he returned to
Egypt with her. Antony's wife, Octavia was in Athens with supplies and reinforcements waiting for her husband. He sent her a letter
telling her to not come any further. Her brother, Octavian, tried to provoke Antony into a fight. Octavian would release troops as
well as ships to try to force Antony into a war, which, by this time was almost inevitable. Antony might have been able to patch
things up with Octavia and her brother had he returned to Rome in 35 BC. Cleopatra probably did her best to keep him in Alexandria.
Octavia remained completely loyal to Antony through all of this.
In 34 BC, Antony had a campaign into Armenia, which was successful and financially rewarding. He celebrated his triumph with a parade
through Alexandria with Cleopatra presiding over as the New Isis. Antony presented himself as the New Dionysus as part of his dream
of the Graeco-Roman rule. Within a few days, a more political ceremony took place in which the children were given their royal titles
with Antony sitting on the throne as well. Ptolemy XV (Caesarion) was made the co-ruler with his mother and was called the King of
Kings. Cleopatra was called the Queen of Kings, which was a higher position than that of Caesarion's. Alexander Helios, which meant
the sun, was named Great King of the Seleucid empire when it was at its highest. Cleopatra Selene, which meant the moon, was called
Queen of Cyrenaica and Crete. Cleopatra and Antony's son, Ptolemy Philadelphos was named King of Syria and Asia Minor at the age of
two. Cleopatra had dreams of becoming the Empress of the world. She was very close to achieving these dreams and her favorite oath
was, "As surely as I shall yet dispense justice on the Roman Capital."
In 32 to 31 BC, Antony finally divorced Octavia. This forced the Western part of the world to recognize his relationship with
Cleopatra. He had already put her name and face on a Roman coin, the silver denarii. The denarii was widely circulated throughout the
Mediterranean. By doing this, Antony's relationship with the Roman allegiance was ended and Octavian decided to publish Antony's
will. Octavian then formally declared war against Cleopatra. Antony's name was nowhere mentioned in the official declaration. Many
false accusations were made against Cleopatra saying that she was a harlot and a drunken Oriental. These accusations were most likely
made out of fear of Cleopatra and Antony. Many probably thought that the New Isis would prevail and that Antony would start up a new
wave of world conquest and rule in a co-partnership from Alexandria. However, Octavian's navy severely defeated Antony in Actium,
which is in Greece, on September 2, 31 BC. Octavian's admiral, Agrippa, planned and carried out the defeat. In less than a year,
Antony half-heartedly defended Alexandria against the advancing army of Octavian. After the defeat, Antony committed suicide by
falling on his own sword in 30 BC.
After Antony's death, Cleopatra was taken to Octavian where her role in Octavian's triumph was carefully explained to her. He had no
interest in any relationship, negotiation or reconciliation with the Queen of Egypt. She would be displayed as a slave in the cities
she had ruled over. She must have had memories of her sister, Arsinoe, being humiliated in this way. She would not live this way, so
she had an asp, which was an Egyptian cobra, brought to her hidden in a basket of figs. She died on August 12, 30 BC at the age of
39. The Egyptian religion declared that death by snakebite would secure immortality. With this, she achieved her dying wish, to not
be forgotten. The only other ruler to cast a shadow on the fascination with Cleopatra was Alexander who was another Macedonian. After
Cleopatra's death, Caesarion was strangled and the other children of Cleopatra were raised by Antony's wife, Octavia.
Her death was the mark of the end of the Egyptian Monarchs. The Roman Emperors came into to rule in Egypt. The Ptolemies were
Macedonian in decent, but ruled as Egyptians, as Pharaohs. Cleopatra was the last Pharaoh of Egypt.
What is often not associated with Cleopatra was her brilliance and her devotion to her country. She was a quick-witted woman who was
fluent in nine languages, however, Latin was not one of them. She was a mathematician and a very good businesswoman. She had a
genuine respect for Caesar, whose intelligence and wit matched her own. Antony on the other hand almost drove her insane with his
lack of intelligence and his excesses. She dealt with him and made the most of what she had to do. She fought for her country. She
had a charismatic personality, was a born leader and an ambitious monarch who deserved better than suicide.
Cleopatra VII in Wikipedia
Cleopatra VII Philopator (in Greek, Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ; (Late 69 BC – August 12, 30 BC) was the last person to rule Egypt as an
Egyptian pharaoh – after her death Egypt became a Roman province.
She was a member of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Ancient Egypt, and therefore was a descendant of one of Alexander the Great's generals who had
seized control over Egypt after Alexander's death. Most Ptolemeis spoke Greek and refused to learn Egyptian, which is the reason that Greek
as well as Egyptian languages were used on official court documents like the Rosetta Stone. By contrast, Cleopatra learned Egyptian and
represented herself as the reincarnation of an Egyptian Goddess.
Cleopatra originally ruled jointly with her father Ptolemy XII Auletes and later with her brothers, Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV, whom she
married as per Egyptian custom, but eventually she became sole ruler. As pharaoh, she consummated a liaison with Gaius Julius Caesar that
solidified her grip on the throne. She later elevated her son with Caesar, Caesarion, to co-ruler in name.
After Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, she aligned with Mark Antony in opposition to Caesar's legal heir, Gaius Iulius Caesar Octavianus
(later known as Augustus). With Antony, she bore the twins Cleopatra Selene II and Alexander Helios, and another son, Ptolemy Philadelphus.
Her unions with her brothers produced no children. After losing the Battle of Actium to Octavian's forces, Antony committed suicide.
Cleopatra followed suit, according to tradition killing herself by means of an asp bite on August 12, 30 BC. She was briefly outlived by
Caesarion, who was declared pharaoh, but he was soon killed on Octavian's orders. Egypt became the Roman province of Aegyptus.
Though Cleopatra bore the ancient Egyptian title of pharaoh, the Ptolemaic dynasty was Hellenistic, having been founded 300 years before by
Ptolemy I Soter, a Macedonian Greek general of Alexander the Great. As such, Cleopatra's language was the Greek spoken by the
Hellenic aristocracy, though she was reputed to be the first ruler of the dynasty to learn Egyptian. She also adopted common Egyptian
beliefs and deities. Her patron deity was Isis, and thus, during her reign, it was believed that she was the re-incarnation and embodiment
of the goddess. Her death marked the end of the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Hellenistic period and the beginning of the Roman era in the eastern
To this day, Cleopatra remains a popular figure in Western culture. Her legacy survives in numerous works of art and the many
dramatizations of her story in literature and other media, including William Shakespeare's tragedy Antony and Cleopatra, Jules Massenet's
opera Cléopâtre and the 1963 film Cleopatra. In most depictions, Cleopatra is put forward as a great beauty and her successive conquests of
the world's most powerful men are taken to be proof of her aesthetic and sexual appeal. In his Pensées, philosopher Blaise Pascal contends
that Cleopatra's classically beautiful profile changed world history: "Cleopatra's nose, had it been shorter, the whole face of the world
would have been changed."
1.1 Accession to the throne
1.2 Relation with Julius Caesar
1.3 Cleopatra in the Roman Civil War
1.4 Cleopatra and Mark Antony
2 Character and cultural depictions
6 Further reading
7 External links
Accession to the throne
The identity of Cleopatra's mother is unknown, but she is generally believed to be Cleopatra V Tryphaena of Egypt, the sister or cousin and
wife of Ptolemy XII, or possibly another Ptolemaic family member who was the daughter of Ptolemy X and Cleopatra Berenice III Philopator if
Cleopatra V was not the daughter of Ptolemy X and Berenice III. Cleopatra's father Auletes was a direct descendant of Alexander the
Great's general, Ptolemy I Soter, son of Arsinoe and Lacus, both of Macedon.
Centralization of power and corruption led to uprisings in and the losses of Cyprus and Cyrenaica, making Ptolemy's reign one of the most
calamitous of the dynasty. When Ptolemy went to Rome with Cleopatra, Cleopatra VI Tryphaena seized the crown but died shortly afterwards in
suspicious circumstances. It is believed, though not proven by historical sources, that Berenice IV poisoned her so she could assume sole
rulership. Regardless of the cause, she did until Ptolemy Auletes returned in 55 BC, with Roman support, capturing Alexandria aided by
Roman general Aulus Gabinius. Berenice was imprisoned and executed shortly afterwards, her head allegedly being sent to the royal court on
the decree of her father, the king. Cleopatra was now, at age 14, put as joint regent and deputy of her father, although her power was
likely to have been severely limited.
Ptolemy XII died in March 51 BC, thus by his will making the 18-year-old Cleopatra and her brother, the 10-year-old Ptolemy XIII joint
monarchs. The first three years of their reign were difficult, due to economic difficulties, famine, deficient floods of the Nile, and
political conflicts. Although Cleopatra was married to her young brother, she quickly made it clear that she had no intention of sharing
power with him.
In August 51 BC, relations between Cleopatra and Ptolemy completely broke down. Cleopatra dropped Ptolemy's name from official documents
and her face appeared alone on coins, which went against Ptolemaic tradition of female rulers being subordinate to male co-rulers. In 50 BC
Cleopatra came into a serious conflict with the Gabiniani, powerful Roman troops of Aulus Gabinius who had left them in Egypt to protect
Ptolemy XII after his restoration to the throne in 55 BC. This conflict was one of the main causes for Cleopatra's soon following loss of
The sole reign of Cleopatra was finally ended by a cabal of courtiers, led by the eunuch Pothinus, removing Cleopatra from power and making
Ptolemy sole ruler in circa 48 BC (or possibly earlier, as a decree exists from 51 BC with Ptolemy's name alone). She tried to raise a
rebellion around Pelusium, but she was soon forced to flee with her only remaining sister, Arsinoe...
Ptolemy XIV of Egypt in Wikipedia
Ptolemy XIV (Greek: Πτολεμαῖος, Ptolemaĩos, who lived 60 BC/59 BC–44 BC and reigned 47 BC–44 BC), was a son of Ptolemy XII of
Egypt and one of the last members of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt. Following the death of his older brother Ptolemy XIII of
Egypt on January 13, 47 BC, he was proclaimed Pharaoh and co-ruler by their older sister and remaining Pharaoh, Cleopatra VII
of Egypt. Cleopatra also married her new co-ruler but continued to act as lover of Roman dictator Julius Caesar. Ptolemy is
considered to have reigned in name only, with Cleopatra keeping actual authority to herself. On March 15, 44 BC Caesar was
murdered in Rome by a group of conspirators whose most notable members were Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus.
Ptolemy soon followed him in death. An inscription mentioning him as alive was dated at July 26, 44 BC. It has been assumed
but remains uncertain that Cleopatra poisoned her co-ruler to replace him with Ptolemy XV Caesarion, her son by Caesar who
was proclaimed co-ruler on September 2, 44 BC and whom his mother intended to support as successor of his father. | <urn:uuid:646b4ba5-8d7c-4ed0-9b19-c730635033af> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.bible-history.com/links.php?cat=46&sub=3531&cat_name=People+-+Ancient+Egypt&subcat_name=Cleopatra+%26+Ptolemy+XIV+ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00039.warc.gz | en | 0.986695 | 6,036 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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... | 1 | People - Ancient Egypt: Cleopatra & Ptolemy XIV GRECO-ROMAN PERIOD Ptolemaic Dynasty (47-44) This period is confusing due to all of the co-
regencies. Scholars are not always in agreement on the order of reigns and, in some case,
the reigns themselves, from Ptolemy VI through Ptolemy XI. In any event, Egypt's authority
and wealth was intact until the death of Cleopatra, at which time, Egypt was overpowered by
Cleopatra VII in Tour Egypt
In the springtime of 51 BC, Ptolemy Auletes died and left his kingdom in his will to his eighteen year old daughter, Cleopatra, and
her younger brother Ptolemy XIII who was twelve at the time. Cleopatra was born in 69 BC in Alexandria, Egypt. She had two older
sisters, Cleopatra VI and Berenice IV as well as a younger sister, Arsinoe IV. There were two younger brothers as well, Ptolemy XIII
and Ptolemy XIV. It is thought that Cleopatra VI may have died as a child and Auletes had Berenice beheaded. At Ptolemy Auletes'
death, Pompey, a Roman leader, was left in charge of the children. During the two centuries that preceded Ptolemy
Auletes death, the Ptolemies were allied with the Romans. The Ptolemies' strength was failing and the Roman Empire was rising. City
after city was falling to the Roman power and the Ptolemies could do nothing but create a pact with them. During the later rule of
the Ptolemies, the Romans gained more and more control over Egypt. Tributes had to be paid to the Romans to keep them away from
Egypt. When Ptolemy Auletes died, the fall of the Dynasty appeared to be even closer.
According to Egyptian law, Cleopatra was forced to have a consort, who was either a brother or a son, no matter what age, throughout
her reign. She was married to her younger brother Ptolemy XIII when he was twelve, however she soon dropped his name from any
official documents regardless of the Ptolemaic insistence that the male presence be first among co-rulers. She also had her own
portrait and name on coins of that time, ignoring her brother's. When Cleopatra became co-regent, her world was crumbling down around
her. Cyprus, Coele-Syria and Cyrenaica were gone. There was anarchy abroad and famine at home. Cleopatra was a strong-willed
Macedonian queen who was brilliant and dreamed of a greater world empire. She almost achieved it. Whether her way of getting it done
was for her own desires or for the pursuit of power will never be known for certain. However, like many Hellenistic queens, she was
passionate but not promiscuous. As far as we know, she had no other lovers other than Caesar and Antony. Many believe that she did
what she felt was necessary to try to save Alexandria, whatever the price.
By 48 BC, Cleopatra had alarmed the more powerful court officials of Alexandria by some of her actions. For instance, her mercenaries
killed the Roman governor of Syria's sons when they came to ask for her assistance for their father against the Parthians. A group of
men led by Theodotus, the eunuch Pothinus and a half-Greek general, Achillas, overthrew her in favor of her younger brother. They
believed him to be much easier to influence and they became his council of regency. Cleopatra is thought to have fled to Thebaid.
Between 51 and 49 BC, Egypt was suffering from bad harvests and famine because of a drought which stopped the much needed Nile
flooding. Ptolemy XIII signed a decree on October 27, 50 BC which banned any shipments of grain to anywhere but Alexandria. It is
thought that this was to deprive Cleopatra and her supporters who were not in Alexandria. Regardless, she started an army from the
Arab tribes which were east of Pelusium. During this time, she and her sister Arsinoe moved to Syria. They returned by way of Ascalon
which may have been Cleopatra's temporary base.
In the meantime, Pompey had been defeated at Pharsalus in August of 48 BC. He headed for Alexandria hoping to find refuge with
Ptolemy XIII, of whom Pompey was a senate-appointed guardian. Pompey did not realize how much his reputation had been destroyed by
Pharsalus until it was too late. He was murdered as he stepped ashore on September 28, 48 BC. The young Ptolemy XIII stood on the
dock and watched the whole scene. Four days later, Caesar arrived in Alexandria. He brought with him thirty-two hundred legionaries
and eight hundred cavalry. He also brought twelve other soldiers who bore the insignia of the Roman government who carried a bundle
of rods with an ax with a blade that projected out. This was considered a badge of authority that gave a clear hint of his
intentions. There were riots that followed in Alexandria. Ptolemy XIII was gone to Pelusium and Caesar placed himself in the royal
palace and started giving out orders. The eunuch, Pothinus, brought Ptolemy back to Alexandria. Cleopatra had no intentions of being
left out of any deals that were going to be made. She had herself smuggled in through enemy lines rolled in a carpet. She was
delivered to Caesar. Both Cleopatra and Ptolemy were invited to appear before Caesar the next morning. By this time, she and Caesar
were already lovers and Ptolemy realized this right away. He stormed out screaming that he had been betrayed, trying to arouse the
Alexandrian mob. He was soon captured by Caesar's guards and brought back to the palace. It is thought that Caesar had planned to
make Cleopatra the sole ruler of Alexandria. He thought she would be a puppet for Rome.
The Alexandrian War was started when Pothinus called for Ptolemy XIII's soldiers in November and surrounded Caesar in Alexandria with
twenty thousand men. During the war, parts of the Alexandrian Library and some of the warehouses were burned. However, Caesar did
manage to capture the Pharos lighthouse, which kept his control of the harbor. Cleopatra's sister, Arsinoe, escaped from the palace
and ran to Achillas. She was proclaimed the queen by the Macedonian mob and the army. Cleopatra never forgave her sister for this.
During the fighting, Caesar executed Pothinus and Achillas was murdered by Ganymede. Ptolemy XIII drowned in the Nile while he was
trying to flee.
Because of his death, Cleopatra was now the sole ruler of Egypt. Caesar had restored her position, but she now had to marry her
younger brother Ptolemy XIV, who was eleven years old. This was to please the Alexandrians and the Egyptian priests. Surely Caesar
went through all of this trouble for more than his infatuation with the queen of Egypt. It must have been out of arrogance and his
desire to get his hands on Egypt's vast resources. However, Cleopatra's intelligence and inheritance did have some influence as well.
In what must have been very calculated on his part, she became pregnant rather quickly. For him to have a son to carry the throne was
very appealing to him. Caesar and Cleopatra took an extended trip up the Nile for about two months. They stopped in Dendara where
Cleopatra was worshipped as a Pharaoh. Caesar would never have this honor. Caesar only left the boat to attend important business in
Syria just a few weeks before the birth of their son, Caesarion (Ptolemy Caesar) who was born on June 23, 47 BC.
During July of the year 46 BC, Caesar returned to Rome. He was given many honors and a ten-year dictatorship. These celebrations
lasted from September to October and he brought Cleopatra over, along with her entourage. The conservative Republicans were very
offended when he established Cleopatra in his home. Her social manners did not make the situation any better. She upset many.
Cleopatra had started calling herself the New Isis and was the subject of much gossip. She lived in luxury and had a statue made of
gold placed by Caesar, in the temple of Venus Genetrix . Caesar also openly claimed Caesarion as his son. Many were upset that he was
planning to marry Cleopatra regardless of the laws against bigamy and marriages to foreigners.
However, on the Ides of March of 44 BC, all of that came to an end. Caesar was assassinated outside the Senate Building in Rome. He
was killed in a conspiracy by his Senators. Many of the Senators thought he was a threat to the republic's well-being. It was thought
that Caesar was making plans to have himself declared king. After Caesar's murder, Cleopatra fled Rome and returned home to
Alexandria. Caesar had not mentioned Cleopatra or Caesarion in his will. She felt her life, as well as that of her child, was in
Upon returning to Alexandria, she had her consort, Ptolemy XIV, assassinated and established Caesarion as her co-regent at the age of
four. She found Egypt suffering from plagues and famine. The Nile canals had been neglected during her absence which caused the
harvests to be bad and the inundations low. The bad harvests continued from 43 until 41 BC. Trying to help secure recognition for
Caesarion with Caesar's former lieutenant Dolabella, Cleopatra sent Dolabella the four legions that Caesar had left in Egypt. Cassius
captured the legions which caused Dolabella to commit suicide at Laodicea during the summer of 43 BC. She was planning to join Mark
Antony and Octavian (who became Augustus) with a large fleet of ships after Dolabella's death, but was stopped by a violent storm.
Cleopatra watched in the time that followed, who would be the next power in Rome. After Brutus and Cassius had been killed and
Antony, Octavian and Lepidus were triumphant, Cleopatra knew which one she would have to deal with. Octavian went back to Italy very
ill, so Antony was the one to watch. Her son gained his right to become king when Caesar was officially divinized in Rome on January
1, 42 BC. The main object was the promotion of Octavian, but the triumvirs knew of Cleopatra's aid to Dolabella.
Cleopatra was invited by Mark Antony to Tarsus in 41 BC. She already knew enough about him to know how to get to him. She knew about
his limited strategic and tactical abilities, his blue blood, the drinking, his womanizing, his vulgarity and his ambition. Even
though Egypt was on the verge of economic collapse, Cleopatra put on a show for Mark Antony that even Ptolemy Philadelphos couldn't
have done better. She sailed with silver oars, purple sails with her Erotes fanning her and the Nereid handmaids steering and she was
dressed as Aphrodite, the goddess of love. This was a very calculated entrance; considered vulgar by many. It was a vulgar display to
attract the attention of a vulgar man. Mark Antony loved the idea of having a blue-blooded Ptolemy woman. His former mistress as well
as his current wife, Fulvia, were merely middle class.
Cleopatra and Antony spent the winter of 41 to 40 in Alexandria. According to some sources, Cleopatra could get out of him whatever
she wanted, including the assassination of her sister, Arsinoe. Cleopatra may not have had so much influence over him later on. He
took control of Cyprus from her. Actually it may have been Cleopatra who was the exploited one. Antony needed money and Cleopatra
could be generous when it benefited her as well.
In the spring of 40 BC, Mark Antony left Cleopatra and returned home. He did not see her for four years. Antony's wife, Fulvia had
gotten into a serious movement against Octavian over veterans' allotments of land. She fled to Greece and had a bitter confrontation
with Antony. She became ill and died there. Antony patched things up with Octavian that same autumn by marrying Octavian's sister,
Octavia. She was a beautiful and intelligent woman who had been recently widowed. She had three children from her first marriage. In
the meantime, Cleopatra had given birth to twins, one boy and one girl, in Alexandria. Antony's first child by Octavia was a girl.
Had Octavia given him a son, things might have turned out different. Antony kept the idea of the treasures of the Ptolemies and how
much he wanted it. When he finally did get the treasures, the standard interest rate in Rome fell from 12 percent to 4.
Mark Antony left Italy and went to deal with the Parthians. Octavia had just had another daughter and went with him just as far as
Corcyra. He gave her the excuse that he did not want to expose her to the dangers of the battles and sent her home. He told her that
she would be more use to him at home in Rome keeping peace with her brother, Octavian. However, the first thing that he did when he
reached Antioch, was to send for Cleopatra. Their twin children were officially recognized by Antony and were given the names of
Alexander Helios and Cleopatra Selene. Mark Antony gave her much land which was very essential to Egypt. He gave her Cyprus, the
Cilician coast, Phoenicia, Coele-Syria, Judea and Arabia. This allowed Egypt to be able to build ships from the lumber from Cilician
coast. Egypt then built a large fleet. Antony had planned a campaign against the Parthians. He obviously needed Cleopatra's support
for this and in 36 BC, he was defeated. He became more indebted to her than ever. They had just had a third child.
On their return to Syria, she met him and what was left of his army, with food, clothing and money. Early in 35 BC, he returned to
Egypt with her. Antony's wife, Octavia was in Athens with supplies and reinforcements waiting for her husband. He sent her a letter
telling her to not come any further. Her brother, Octavian, tried to provoke Antony into a fight. Octavian would release troops as
well as ships to try to force Antony into a war, which, by this time was almost inevitable. Antony might have been able to patch
things up with Octavia and her brother had he returned to Rome in 35 BC. Cleopatra probably did her best to keep him in Alexandria.
Octavia remained completely loyal to Antony through all of this.
In 34 BC, Antony had a campaign into Armenia, which was successful and financially rewarding. He celebrated his triumph with a parade
through Alexandria with Cleopatra presiding over as the New Isis. Antony presented himself as the New Dionysus as part of his dream
of the Graeco-Roman rule. Within a few days, a more political ceremony took place in which the children were given their royal titles
with Antony sitting on the throne as well. Ptolemy XV (Caesarion) was made the co-ruler with his mother and was called the King of
Kings. Cleopatra was called the Queen of Kings, which was a higher position than that of Caesarion's. Alexander Helios, which meant
the sun, was named Great King of the Seleucid empire when it was at its highest. Cleopatra Selene, which meant the moon, was called
Queen of Cyrenaica and Crete. Cleopatra and Antony's son, Ptolemy Philadelphos was named King of Syria and Asia Minor at the age of
two. Cleopatra had dreams of becoming the Empress of the world. She was very close to achieving these dreams and her favorite oath
was, "As surely as I shall yet dispense justice on the Roman Capital."
In 32 to 31 BC, Antony finally divorced Octavia. This forced the Western part of the world to recognize his relationship with
Cleopatra. He had already put her name and face on a Roman coin, the silver denarii. The denarii was widely circulated throughout the
Mediterranean. By doing this, Antony's relationship with the Roman allegiance was ended and Octavian decided to publish Antony's
will. Octavian then formally declared war against Cleopatra. Antony's name was nowhere mentioned in the official declaration. Many
false accusations were made against Cleopatra saying that she was a harlot and a drunken Oriental. These accusations were most likely
made out of fear of Cleopatra and Antony. Many probably thought that the New Isis would prevail and that Antony would start up a new
wave of world conquest and rule in a co-partnership from Alexandria. However, Octavian's navy severely defeated Antony in Actium,
which is in Greece, on September 2, 31 BC. Octavian's admiral, Agrippa, planned and carried out the defeat. In less than a year,
Antony half-heartedly defended Alexandria against the advancing army of Octavian. After the defeat, Antony committed suicide by
falling on his own sword in 30 BC.
After Antony's death, Cleopatra was taken to Octavian where her role in Octavian's triumph was carefully explained to her. He had no
interest in any relationship, negotiation or reconciliation with the Queen of Egypt. She would be displayed as a slave in the cities
she had ruled over. She must have had memories of her sister, Arsinoe, being humiliated in this way. She would not live this way, so
she had an asp, which was an Egyptian cobra, brought to her hidden in a basket of figs. She died on August 12, 30 BC at the age of
39. The Egyptian religion declared that death by snakebite would secure immortality. With this, she achieved her dying wish, to not
be forgotten. The only other ruler to cast a shadow on the fascination with Cleopatra was Alexander who was another Macedonian. After
Cleopatra's death, Caesarion was strangled and the other children of Cleopatra were raised by Antony's wife, Octavia.
Her death was the mark of the end of the Egyptian Monarchs. The Roman Emperors came into to rule in Egypt. The Ptolemies were
Macedonian in decent, but ruled as Egyptians, as Pharaohs. Cleopatra was the last Pharaoh of Egypt.
What is often not associated with Cleopatra was her brilliance and her devotion to her country. She was a quick-witted woman who was
fluent in nine languages, however, Latin was not one of them. She was a mathematician and a very good businesswoman. She had a
genuine respect for Caesar, whose intelligence and wit matched her own. Antony on the other hand almost drove her insane with his
lack of intelligence and his excesses. She dealt with him and made the most of what she had to do. She fought for her country. She
had a charismatic personality, was a born leader and an ambitious monarch who deserved better than suicide.
Cleopatra VII in Wikipedia
Cleopatra VII Philopator (in Greek, Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ; (Late 69 BC – August 12, 30 BC) was the last person to rule Egypt as an
Egyptian pharaoh – after her death Egypt became a Roman province.
She was a member of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Ancient Egypt, and therefore was a descendant of one of Alexander the Great's generals who had
seized control over Egypt after Alexander's death. Most Ptolemeis spoke Greek and refused to learn Egyptian, which is the reason that Greek
as well as Egyptian languages were used on official court documents like the Rosetta Stone. By contrast, Cleopatra learned Egyptian and
represented herself as the reincarnation of an Egyptian Goddess.
Cleopatra originally ruled jointly with her father Ptolemy XII Auletes and later with her brothers, Ptolemy XIII and Ptolemy XIV, whom she
married as per Egyptian custom, but eventually she became sole ruler. As pharaoh, she consummated a liaison with Gaius Julius Caesar that
solidified her grip on the throne. She later elevated her son with Caesar, Caesarion, to co-ruler in name.
After Caesar's assassination in 44 BC, she aligned with Mark Antony in opposition to Caesar's legal heir, Gaius Iulius Caesar Octavianus
(later known as Augustus). With Antony, she bore the twins Cleopatra Selene II and Alexander Helios, and another son, Ptolemy Philadelphus.
Her unions with her brothers produced no children. After losing the Battle of Actium to Octavian's forces, Antony committed suicide.
Cleopatra followed suit, according to tradition killing herself by means of an asp bite on August 12, 30 BC. She was briefly outlived by
Caesarion, who was declared pharaoh, but he was soon killed on Octavian's orders. Egypt became the Roman province of Aegyptus.
Though Cleopatra bore the ancient Egyptian title of pharaoh, the Ptolemaic dynasty was Hellenistic, having been founded 300 years before by
Ptolemy I Soter, a Macedonian Greek general of Alexander the Great. As such, Cleopatra's language was the Greek spoken by the
Hellenic aristocracy, though she was reputed to be the first ruler of the dynasty to learn Egyptian. She also adopted common Egyptian
beliefs and deities. Her patron deity was Isis, and thus, during her reign, it was believed that she was the re-incarnation and embodiment
of the goddess. Her death marked the end of the Ptolemaic Kingdom and Hellenistic period and the beginning of the Roman era in the eastern
To this day, Cleopatra remains a popular figure in Western culture. Her legacy survives in numerous works of art and the many
dramatizations of her story in literature and other media, including William Shakespeare's tragedy Antony and Cleopatra, Jules Massenet's
opera Cléopâtre and the 1963 film Cleopatra. In most depictions, Cleopatra is put forward as a great beauty and her successive conquests of
the world's most powerful men are taken to be proof of her aesthetic and sexual appeal. In his Pensées, philosopher Blaise Pascal contends
that Cleopatra's classically beautiful profile changed world history: "Cleopatra's nose, had it been shorter, the whole face of the world
would have been changed."
1.1 Accession to the throne
1.2 Relation with Julius Caesar
1.3 Cleopatra in the Roman Civil War
1.4 Cleopatra and Mark Antony
2 Character and cultural depictions
6 Further reading
7 External links
Accession to the throne
The identity of Cleopatra's mother is unknown, but she is generally believed to be Cleopatra V Tryphaena of Egypt, the sister or cousin and
wife of Ptolemy XII, or possibly another Ptolemaic family member who was the daughter of Ptolemy X and Cleopatra Berenice III Philopator if
Cleopatra V was not the daughter of Ptolemy X and Berenice III. Cleopatra's father Auletes was a direct descendant of Alexander the
Great's general, Ptolemy I Soter, son of Arsinoe and Lacus, both of Macedon.
Centralization of power and corruption led to uprisings in and the losses of Cyprus and Cyrenaica, making Ptolemy's reign one of the most
calamitous of the dynasty. When Ptolemy went to Rome with Cleopatra, Cleopatra VI Tryphaena seized the crown but died shortly afterwards in
suspicious circumstances. It is believed, though not proven by historical sources, that Berenice IV poisoned her so she could assume sole
rulership. Regardless of the cause, she did until Ptolemy Auletes returned in 55 BC, with Roman support, capturing Alexandria aided by
Roman general Aulus Gabinius. Berenice was imprisoned and executed shortly afterwards, her head allegedly being sent to the royal court on
the decree of her father, the king. Cleopatra was now, at age 14, put as joint regent and deputy of her father, although her power was
likely to have been severely limited.
Ptolemy XII died in March 51 BC, thus by his will making the 18-year-old Cleopatra and her brother, the 10-year-old Ptolemy XIII joint
monarchs. The first three years of their reign were difficult, due to economic difficulties, famine, deficient floods of the Nile, and
political conflicts. Although Cleopatra was married to her young brother, she quickly made it clear that she had no intention of sharing
power with him.
In August 51 BC, relations between Cleopatra and Ptolemy completely broke down. Cleopatra dropped Ptolemy's name from official documents
and her face appeared alone on coins, which went against Ptolemaic tradition of female rulers being subordinate to male co-rulers. In 50 BC
Cleopatra came into a serious conflict with the Gabiniani, powerful Roman troops of Aulus Gabinius who had left them in Egypt to protect
Ptolemy XII after his restoration to the throne in 55 BC. This conflict was one of the main causes for Cleopatra's soon following loss of
The sole reign of Cleopatra was finally ended by a cabal of courtiers, led by the eunuch Pothinus, removing Cleopatra from power and making
Ptolemy sole ruler in circa 48 BC (or possibly earlier, as a decree exists from 51 BC with Ptolemy's name alone). She tried to raise a
rebellion around Pelusium, but she was soon forced to flee with her only remaining sister, Arsinoe...
Ptolemy XIV of Egypt in Wikipedia
Ptolemy XIV (Greek: Πτολεμαῖος, Ptolemaĩos, who lived 60 BC/59 BC–44 BC and reigned 47 BC–44 BC), was a son of Ptolemy XII of
Egypt and one of the last members of the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt. Following the death of his older brother Ptolemy XIII of
Egypt on January 13, 47 BC, he was proclaimed Pharaoh and co-ruler by their older sister and remaining Pharaoh, Cleopatra VII
of Egypt. Cleopatra also married her new co-ruler but continued to act as lover of Roman dictator Julius Caesar. Ptolemy is
considered to have reigned in name only, with Cleopatra keeping actual authority to herself. On March 15, 44 BC Caesar was
murdered in Rome by a group of conspirators whose most notable members were Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus.
Ptolemy soon followed him in death. An inscription mentioning him as alive was dated at July 26, 44 BC. It has been assumed
but remains uncertain that Cleopatra poisoned her co-ruler to replace him with Ptolemy XV Caesarion, her son by Caesar who
was proclaimed co-ruler on September 2, 44 BC and whom his mother intended to support as successor of his father. | 6,070 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Biography of Abraham Lincoln
Abraham Lincoln was born in 1809 and was reared in a western frontier poor family as he had to struggle to learn and earn for a living as his childhood was not that easy. He used sketches to describe his parents and childhood, which gave the explanation as to why he had to struggle really hard so as to be able to study and gain knowledge (White, 2009).
Lincoln later moved to Illinois where he worked on a firm by splitting rails that were used for fences. He studied law, and later in his life decided to join politics where he won three consecutive re-elections in the Illinois state legislature elections in 1835. Lincoln got married to Marry Todd in 1842, and he later became the United States 16th president, and people commonly termed him as “Honest Abe” (Bonna, 2007). Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth in Washington at the Ford’s Theatre as he was serving his second term. He had been mistaken to be assisting the South by his assassinator (White, 2009).
Lincoln’s Main Idea
The idea which made Lincoln very famous was opposing both abolitionism and slavery, fighting for the preservation of the nation, and fighting in the war against the Southern part of the United States. As Lincoln was running for the presidential seat, he promised not to tamper with the states which already had slaves, but he did not support the admission of new slaves in the states. This political goal by Lincoln was fulfilled in 1863, whereas the president he issued the Emancipation Proclamation, where he declared that all slaves who were within the Confederacy were supposed to be free. Lincoln talked about the fallen soldiers and the ending of the Civil War.
Few Details of Lincoln’s Life
Lincoln was a very determined man, and he also had tremendous power, which was described by his law partner to be a little engine that never rested at all. He was much focused when it came to his political career, and he never had the intention to give up his idea.
The Ideas and Events which Motivated Lincoln
Lincoln was influenced by law which he studied in college to run for the presidential seat. After he became the president, slavery and Civil War significantly influenced him into wanting to adapt the country’s Constitution to the country’s current situation, which led him to support the 13th Amendment which abolished slavery. The law which he studied instilled him to get the idea to want to change the Constitution as well as the country’s situation.
Key Events of Lincoln’s Life
February 12, 1809 – Lincoln was born in Virginia.
1860 – Abraham Lincoln nominated for the President of the USA.
1860 – First Inaugural Address.
1863 – Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation.
1864 – Lincoln was re-elected for the second term.
1864 – He delivered the Second Inaugural Address.
April 14, 1865 – one week after the Civil War, Lincoln was shot in the theatre on a Good Friday.
Quotes Expressing Lincoln’s Ideas
Lincoln’s idea was evident when he delivered the speech he made in Chicago in 1958 when he stated that “I have always hated slavery, I think as much as any Abolitionist” (Vorenberg, 2001). In the house divided speech in Springfield, Illinois, on the 16th of July, 1858, he also expressed his idea by stating that:
“I believe this Government cannot endure; permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved – I do not expect the house to fall – but I do expect it will cease to be divided” (Stringer, 2001).
Other Comments on his Ideas
In his attempt to reunite the South and the North, he had to move with caution. After his speeches, people like Maria Child and Fredrick Douglass appreciated the depth of his speeches as they claimed that it helped in eliminating slavery and also protecting the country.
Abraham Lincoln used speeches to be able to reach his audience and to make his idea valid. Lincoln used logos as a rhetorical strategy in order to catch the attention of his audience. Throughout his speeches, he used reasoning to try to persuade his audience. Having a firsthand interaction with slavery when he moved to Illinois, Lincoln did not have a very good experience in persuading the audience, as in his speeches he used inductive logic where he was able to give his audiences several examples so as to draw them to come to a general proposition (Stringer, 2010).
The audiences of Lincoln’s speech were the soldiers and the union which was the people of the United States and were further divided into four types, namely:
- friendly: Lincoln only reinforced their ideas;
- the apathetic audience where Lincoln had to first convince them into believing his strong idea;
- the uninformed audience who had to be well educated on the importance of the idea before the beginning of the action;
- the hostile audience whose viewpoints had to be respected.
Rhetorical Situation, Language and Identification
Lincoln employed rhetorical devices in his speeches, which gave his words an extended meaning. He used graphic and striking imagery when he made the description of slavery practice. Lincoln made the use of juxtaposition where he compared two ideas and demonstrated how the two ideas could become one like. This is the case of the half slave and half free, as he termed it in his house divided speech (Winkle, 2001). He used “will” and “shall” commands in describing the future years of the U.S., which showed how confident he was of the success of the nation. Consequently, this brought up his main argument which was to push forward the Civil War for the union without having any fear of failing in the war (Speech in Galesburg, 1858).
Social movements were organized to resist the ideas brought up by Lincoln through the use of persuasive strategies. These types of social movements were revivalist, radical, moderate, and innovative where they were intended to benefit the union and the slaveholders. The ideology of the movement was to oppose the big idea of ending slavery in the United States.
Different Audience Reactions
The responses from different audiences were muted due to the surprises of his speeches. These reactions from his different audiences made his remark to a companion that the people were disappointed.
Critique of the Effectiveness of Lincoln’s Ideas
The overall critique was that not everything that Lincoln said in his speech was logically true. This was because he evoked a sense of shame in the United States by claiming that war was the sole element that was responsible for slavery. This made the argument by Lincoln continue to fight to be a holy extent, as he claimed that both the South and the North were responsible for the war. Many people thought Lincoln was a dictator and a mean man, which is evident in The Gettysburg Address, where his quest for might and power was believed to cause many deaths. The critics believed that he destroyed the union instead of saving it by causing harm that destroyed the country. | <urn:uuid:51962cbb-68ba-4010-9449-897abe2b2087> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://best-essay-service.org/essays/research/abraham-lincoln-rhetorical-analysis.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593994.14/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118221909-20200119005909-00524.warc.gz | en | 0.990921 | 1,470 | 3.90625 | 4 | [
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0.3790398538112... | 4 | Biography of Abraham Lincoln
Abraham Lincoln was born in 1809 and was reared in a western frontier poor family as he had to struggle to learn and earn for a living as his childhood was not that easy. He used sketches to describe his parents and childhood, which gave the explanation as to why he had to struggle really hard so as to be able to study and gain knowledge (White, 2009).
Lincoln later moved to Illinois where he worked on a firm by splitting rails that were used for fences. He studied law, and later in his life decided to join politics where he won three consecutive re-elections in the Illinois state legislature elections in 1835. Lincoln got married to Marry Todd in 1842, and he later became the United States 16th president, and people commonly termed him as “Honest Abe” (Bonna, 2007). Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth in Washington at the Ford’s Theatre as he was serving his second term. He had been mistaken to be assisting the South by his assassinator (White, 2009).
Lincoln’s Main Idea
The idea which made Lincoln very famous was opposing both abolitionism and slavery, fighting for the preservation of the nation, and fighting in the war against the Southern part of the United States. As Lincoln was running for the presidential seat, he promised not to tamper with the states which already had slaves, but he did not support the admission of new slaves in the states. This political goal by Lincoln was fulfilled in 1863, whereas the president he issued the Emancipation Proclamation, where he declared that all slaves who were within the Confederacy were supposed to be free. Lincoln talked about the fallen soldiers and the ending of the Civil War.
Few Details of Lincoln’s Life
Lincoln was a very determined man, and he also had tremendous power, which was described by his law partner to be a little engine that never rested at all. He was much focused when it came to his political career, and he never had the intention to give up his idea.
The Ideas and Events which Motivated Lincoln
Lincoln was influenced by law which he studied in college to run for the presidential seat. After he became the president, slavery and Civil War significantly influenced him into wanting to adapt the country’s Constitution to the country’s current situation, which led him to support the 13th Amendment which abolished slavery. The law which he studied instilled him to get the idea to want to change the Constitution as well as the country’s situation.
Key Events of Lincoln’s Life
February 12, 1809 – Lincoln was born in Virginia.
1860 – Abraham Lincoln nominated for the President of the USA.
1860 – First Inaugural Address.
1863 – Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation.
1864 – Lincoln was re-elected for the second term.
1864 – He delivered the Second Inaugural Address.
April 14, 1865 – one week after the Civil War, Lincoln was shot in the theatre on a Good Friday.
Quotes Expressing Lincoln’s Ideas
Lincoln’s idea was evident when he delivered the speech he made in Chicago in 1958 when he stated that “I have always hated slavery, I think as much as any Abolitionist” (Vorenberg, 2001). In the house divided speech in Springfield, Illinois, on the 16th of July, 1858, he also expressed his idea by stating that:
“I believe this Government cannot endure; permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved – I do not expect the house to fall – but I do expect it will cease to be divided” (Stringer, 2001).
Other Comments on his Ideas
In his attempt to reunite the South and the North, he had to move with caution. After his speeches, people like Maria Child and Fredrick Douglass appreciated the depth of his speeches as they claimed that it helped in eliminating slavery and also protecting the country.
Abraham Lincoln used speeches to be able to reach his audience and to make his idea valid. Lincoln used logos as a rhetorical strategy in order to catch the attention of his audience. Throughout his speeches, he used reasoning to try to persuade his audience. Having a firsthand interaction with slavery when he moved to Illinois, Lincoln did not have a very good experience in persuading the audience, as in his speeches he used inductive logic where he was able to give his audiences several examples so as to draw them to come to a general proposition (Stringer, 2010).
The audiences of Lincoln’s speech were the soldiers and the union which was the people of the United States and were further divided into four types, namely:
- friendly: Lincoln only reinforced their ideas;
- the apathetic audience where Lincoln had to first convince them into believing his strong idea;
- the uninformed audience who had to be well educated on the importance of the idea before the beginning of the action;
- the hostile audience whose viewpoints had to be respected.
Rhetorical Situation, Language and Identification
Lincoln employed rhetorical devices in his speeches, which gave his words an extended meaning. He used graphic and striking imagery when he made the description of slavery practice. Lincoln made the use of juxtaposition where he compared two ideas and demonstrated how the two ideas could become one like. This is the case of the half slave and half free, as he termed it in his house divided speech (Winkle, 2001). He used “will” and “shall” commands in describing the future years of the U.S., which showed how confident he was of the success of the nation. Consequently, this brought up his main argument which was to push forward the Civil War for the union without having any fear of failing in the war (Speech in Galesburg, 1858).
Social movements were organized to resist the ideas brought up by Lincoln through the use of persuasive strategies. These types of social movements were revivalist, radical, moderate, and innovative where they were intended to benefit the union and the slaveholders. The ideology of the movement was to oppose the big idea of ending slavery in the United States.
Different Audience Reactions
The responses from different audiences were muted due to the surprises of his speeches. These reactions from his different audiences made his remark to a companion that the people were disappointed.
Critique of the Effectiveness of Lincoln’s Ideas
The overall critique was that not everything that Lincoln said in his speech was logically true. This was because he evoked a sense of shame in the United States by claiming that war was the sole element that was responsible for slavery. This made the argument by Lincoln continue to fight to be a holy extent, as he claimed that both the South and the North were responsible for the war. Many people thought Lincoln was a dictator and a mean man, which is evident in The Gettysburg Address, where his quest for might and power was believed to cause many deaths. The critics believed that he destroyed the union instead of saving it by causing harm that destroyed the country. | 1,491 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Robotics have actually typically been approximately humanoid in type, which has some apparent benefits, because the robotics are much better able to incorporate into a human-designed environment. However there are great deals of environments that aren’t human developed, and scientists have actually been explore robotic types that look more like pests or fish Now, a group of Swiss scientists has actually produced a robotic that appears like absolutely nothing more than a strolling circuit board. In spite of its little size, however, the robotic has the ability to move by hopping, jumping, or strolling, and it can even operate in a group to collaborate activities.
The group calls its development Tribot, for factors that are apparent from its picture above. Tribot appears like a small circuit board since that’s what it mostly is, however there are some substantial additions to the circuitry. One is a little lithium polymer battery, which suggests all the power for its movements and circuits are continued board. The movements are powered by what’s called a shape-memory alloy, which can be warped at one temperature level however snap back into location as soon as the temperature level is altered. Versatile hinges and a polymer core permit these “muscles” to move any of the 3 legs either slowly or with an abrupt breeze, all allowed by small heating systems embedded in the hardware.
Another fascinating function of the robotic is its building and construction. The circuit board and polymer are initially made as a flat, triangular system. A number of folds are all that’s required to transform this shape into the Tribot’s trefoil style.
Tribot can stroll as you may anticipate by shuffling its front and rear legs forward one at a time. However it’s the 3rd arm of the robotic that enables it to take part in some rather uncommon types of movement. By snapping forward, Tribot can do a forward somersault; include some movements with the legs to manage things, and this can be become a forward leap that enables the robotic to clear spaces as much as 4 times its body size. Keep the leading arm constant and snap the legs, and Tribot can jump as much as 2.5 times its own height.
The authors state they were motivated by trapjaw ants, which can toss their bodies around by making unexpected motions with their mandibles. Based upon the energy associated with these movements, the scientists state that Tribot has to do with as energy-efficient as a bug.
The robotic represents a substantial advance, considered that previous efforts at developing robotics that might move by means of various systems included merely having the robotic bring various hardware for each mode of motion. However possibly simply as unexpected is that the small circuitry includes whatever required for the robotics to work together to carry out jobs.
In one circumstances, the scientists established one Tribot as a leader and set a 2nd to follow it. The leader had the ability to identify a space and signal its area to the fan. The fan, which wasn’t taking note of the surface, merely got to the area that its leader showed and jumped over the space once it arrived.
In a 2nd test of cooperation, 2 Tribots pressed a block that was much heavier than either might move alone. The area they pressed it to was suggested by a 3rd Tribot, which kept an eye on development. It sent out updates on the development to a leader, which collaborated the 2 employees. Lastly, a 5th Tribot was required as an interactions relay as soon as the block cut off the line of sight in between the leader and the development screen.
If you’re asking the number of Tribots are required to screw in a light bulb, the response is “more than you may believe.”
As is typically the case in robotics, the authors worry the possibility of “applicability to real-world issues, such as emergency situation mitigation, ecological tracking, and expedition.” However they likewise recommend that the work is a fascinating platform to check out things fresh modes of mobility and the possibility of custom-manufactured robotics for particular jobs. There likewise appears to be space here to turn this into something comparable to the Raspberry Pi of robotics: inexpensive and available enough that almost anybody might choose one as much as explore. | <urn:uuid:4ee4b10d-2edc-494a-8537-68fbcdf48ae7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://scienceandtechblog.com/tiny-robotic-jumps-around-bring-its-own-battery-electronic-devices/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00313.warc.gz | en | 0.980903 | 878 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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The group calls its development Tribot, for factors that are apparent from its picture above. Tribot appears like a small circuit board since that’s what it mostly is, however there are some substantial additions to the circuitry. One is a little lithium polymer battery, which suggests all the power for its movements and circuits are continued board. The movements are powered by what’s called a shape-memory alloy, which can be warped at one temperature level however snap back into location as soon as the temperature level is altered. Versatile hinges and a polymer core permit these “muscles” to move any of the 3 legs either slowly or with an abrupt breeze, all allowed by small heating systems embedded in the hardware.
Another fascinating function of the robotic is its building and construction. The circuit board and polymer are initially made as a flat, triangular system. A number of folds are all that’s required to transform this shape into the Tribot’s trefoil style.
Tribot can stroll as you may anticipate by shuffling its front and rear legs forward one at a time. However it’s the 3rd arm of the robotic that enables it to take part in some rather uncommon types of movement. By snapping forward, Tribot can do a forward somersault; include some movements with the legs to manage things, and this can be become a forward leap that enables the robotic to clear spaces as much as 4 times its body size. Keep the leading arm constant and snap the legs, and Tribot can jump as much as 2.5 times its own height.
The authors state they were motivated by trapjaw ants, which can toss their bodies around by making unexpected motions with their mandibles. Based upon the energy associated with these movements, the scientists state that Tribot has to do with as energy-efficient as a bug.
The robotic represents a substantial advance, considered that previous efforts at developing robotics that might move by means of various systems included merely having the robotic bring various hardware for each mode of motion. However possibly simply as unexpected is that the small circuitry includes whatever required for the robotics to work together to carry out jobs.
In one circumstances, the scientists established one Tribot as a leader and set a 2nd to follow it. The leader had the ability to identify a space and signal its area to the fan. The fan, which wasn’t taking note of the surface, merely got to the area that its leader showed and jumped over the space once it arrived.
In a 2nd test of cooperation, 2 Tribots pressed a block that was much heavier than either might move alone. The area they pressed it to was suggested by a 3rd Tribot, which kept an eye on development. It sent out updates on the development to a leader, which collaborated the 2 employees. Lastly, a 5th Tribot was required as an interactions relay as soon as the block cut off the line of sight in between the leader and the development screen.
If you’re asking the number of Tribots are required to screw in a light bulb, the response is “more than you may believe.”
As is typically the case in robotics, the authors worry the possibility of “applicability to real-world issues, such as emergency situation mitigation, ecological tracking, and expedition.” However they likewise recommend that the work is a fascinating platform to check out things fresh modes of mobility and the possibility of custom-manufactured robotics for particular jobs. There likewise appears to be space here to turn this into something comparable to the Raspberry Pi of robotics: inexpensive and available enough that almost anybody might choose one as much as explore. | 851 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Wikipedia’s Article of the Day November 23, 2019: Yugoslav torpedo boat T7
T7 was a sea-going torpedo boat operated by the Royal Yugoslav Navy between 1921 and 1941.
Originally 96 F, a 250t-class torpedo boat commissioned on 23 November 1916 by the Austro-Hungarian Navy, she performed escort, minesweeping, anti-submarine and shore bombardment operations during World War I. Following Austria-Hungary’s defeat in 1918, she was allocated to Yugoslavia and renamed T7.
She was captured by the Italians during the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 and used for coastal and second-line tasks, after her main armament was modernised. Following the Italian capitulation in September 1943, she was captured by Germany and handed over to the Navy of the Independent State of Croatia, continuing to serve as T7.
Her crew came under the influence of the Yugoslav Partisans, and were preparing to mutiny when the Germans intervened. She ran aground during a battle with British motor torpedo boats in June 1944 and was then destroyed.
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0.57588219642639... | 2 | Wikipedia’s Article of the Day November 23, 2019: Yugoslav torpedo boat T7
T7 was a sea-going torpedo boat operated by the Royal Yugoslav Navy between 1921 and 1941.
Originally 96 F, a 250t-class torpedo boat commissioned on 23 November 1916 by the Austro-Hungarian Navy, she performed escort, minesweeping, anti-submarine and shore bombardment operations during World War I. Following Austria-Hungary’s defeat in 1918, she was allocated to Yugoslavia and renamed T7.
She was captured by the Italians during the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 and used for coastal and second-line tasks, after her main armament was modernised. Following the Italian capitulation in September 1943, she was captured by Germany and handed over to the Navy of the Independent State of Croatia, continuing to serve as T7.
Her crew came under the influence of the Yugoslav Partisans, and were preparing to mutiny when the Germans intervened. She ran aground during a battle with British motor torpedo boats in June 1944 and was then destroyed.
—— AUTO – GENERATED; Published (Halifax Canada Time AST) on: November 22, 2019 at 08:13PM | 289 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Henry II of England ruled from 1154 to 1189 CE. He gained the throne by negotiation with his predecessor King Stephen of England (r. 1135-1154 CE) following the civil war that had raged between that monarch and Henry’s mother Empress Matilda (l. 1102-1167 CE). Henry would begin a new ruling dynasty, the Angevins-Plantagenets, and he would rule until 1189 CE, forming the largest 'empire' in western Europe and establishing himself as one of England’s greatest ever kings. Two black marks which became impossible to erase from memory, however, were the murder of his chancellor and then archbishop, Thomas Becket in 1170 CE and the rebellions led by his own sons at the end of his reign. Henry was succeeded by his son Richard I of England, aka Richard ‘the Lionheart’ (r. 1189-1199 CE) and then his other son King John of England (r. 1199-1216 CE).
Early Life - The Plantagenets
Henry of Anjou was born on 5 March 1133 CE at Le Mans, France, the son of Geoffrey, Count of Anjou (l. 1113-1151 CE). Henry’s mother was Empress Matilda, the daughter of Henry I of England (r. 1100-1135 CE), who had gained her title when marrying her first husband Holy Roman Emperor Henry V (r. 1111-1125 CE) in 1114 CE. After Henry V’s death, Matilda married again, this time to Geoffrey in 1128 CE. The count became known by the nickname ‘Plantagenet’ because his family coat of arms included the broom plant (planta genista). Alternative theories for the origin of the name are that Count Geoffrey wore sprigs of the plant in his hat or his lands were planted with it to provide good cover while hunting. The Plantagenets (1154-1399 CE) did not, of course, call themselves that name, the monarchs carried no surname. The first three kings of the line - Henry II, Richard I, and King John - are sometimes referred to as the Angevins after their ancestral lands in Anjou in north-west France.
Henry II was known for his good looks, intelligence, and ability to speak several languages. Credited with boundless energy and drive, the king was of stocky build and had piercing grey eyes, red hair, and a ferocious temper to match. In later life, he was said to have had a significant paunch.
Henry inherited his father’s lands in Normandy, Anjou, Touraine, and Maine in 1151 CE, but he was ambitious for much more. Following military victories in Brittany and, in May 1152 CE, his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine (c. 1122-1204 CE), the former wife of Louis VII of France (r. 1137-1180 CE), Henry came to control most of France. Henry was ambitious, too, to control England, weakened as it was by years of civil war. He and Eleanor would have eight children which included Richard I the ‘Lionheart’ or Coeur de Lion (b. 1157 CE), Geoffrey, Count of Brittany (b. 1158 CE), Henry the Young King (b. 1155 CE, who reigned as junior king, 1170-1183 CE) and King John of England (b. 1167 CE).
King Stephen, Empress Matilda & Succession
Returning back to 1135 CE, King Henry I of England had left no legitimate male heir and so his nominated successor was his daughter Matilda whom the king had made his barons swear loyalty to. When it came to the actual coronation, though, many barons wanted neither a woman or an Anjou count anywhere near the throne and so supported instead the dead king’s nephew and richest man in England, Stephen of Blois. Consequently, with some sharp manoeuvring, Stephen was crowned king in December 1135 CE. Empress Matilda was undeterred and a civil war broke out between barons who supported Stephen and those who favoured Matilda and her chief ally Robert Fitzroy, Earl of Gloucester, an illegitimate son of Henry I. The war proved long and damaging, and neither side managed to gain the upper-hand, even if Matilda briefly became queen in 1141 CE while Stephen was imprisoned at Bristol. Matilda’s cause was gravely weakened following the death of Robert Fitzroy in 1147 CE and she now focused her attention on the promotion of her son Henry.
Henry attempted an invasion of England in 1147 CE, but his campaign came to an end when he ran out of funds, obliging his return to Normandy. Rather bizarrely, but entirely in keeping with Stephen’s reputation for clemency, the English king paid for Henry’s trip home. Another attack in 1149 CE, this time in the north of England and with the assistance of David I of Scotland (r. 1124-1153 CE), was defeated by an army of Stephen’s. At least Henry did not completely waste his time as he was knighted by the Scottish king. In any case, Henry could bide his time and once he had much greater resources at his disposal, he tried another invasion in 1153 CE which, third time lucky, finally brought an end to the civil war.
In 1153 CE, King Stephen was something of a broken man following the death of his wife and son Eustace (b. 1127 CE) that year. He now faced Henry's third invasion and hoped for a decisive pitched battle, but in the event, neither side's soldiers or leaders were very keen on a fight. Consequently, on 6 November, Stephen signed with Henry the Treaty of Wallingford, which recognised him as Stephen’s official heir. In return, Stephen was allowed to keep his crown for the rest of his life. The barons had no better candidate to support than Henry, and it was clear to all that the civil war had not done anybody any good (even if its chaos has perhaps been exaggerated by later historians) and the last thing England needed was another tussle for the throne. As one anonymous medieval chronicler put it, "For nineteen long winters, God and his angels slept" (quoted in McDowall, 26). It was time for unity and peace. Consequently, when Stephen died on 25 October 1154 CE at Dover in Kent, Henry was crowned on 19 December 1154 CE at Westminster Abbey, and he became the first undisputed king of England for over a century.
Consolidating Royal Power
Henry’s first important task was to bring the Anglo-Norman barons back into line after the period of civil war in England (1135-1153 CE) had enabled them to largely ignore royal authority and build castles, mint their own coinage, and generally deal with the peasantry how they wished without regard to the law. Many castles built in that period were of a temporary nature and not large stone edifices, but Henry was so determined to destroy them he gained the nickname the ‘castle-breaker.’ Some of the stronger and older castles he kept for himself such as Scarborough Castle, Nottingham Castle, Norwich Castle, and Castle Acre. To better ensure the law was equally applied everywhere in the country - a process begun by Henry I - the Assizes of Clarendon established in 1166 CE principles of Common Law, crown courts were set up, and trial by a jury of 12 men was established to punish those who broke it.
A second area where royal power had been eroded was the borders of England. Both Scottish and Welsh rulers had taken advantage of King Stephen’s preoccupation with Empress Matilda to increase their domains. Henry negotiated the return of Cumbria and Northumbria from Malcolm IV of Scotland (1153-1165 CE) but conferred on him the earldom of Huntingdon and allowed the Scottish king to keep the castle at Wark-upon-Tyne in 1157 CE. The Welsh princes, especially Owain Gwynedd (r. 1137-1170 CE), required a more militaristic approach but Henry achieved his aim of reasserting his authority in the east of his kingdom. From 1171 CE a series of invasions were launched in Ireland against the dangerous baron Richard FitzGilbert (aka Strongbow). Eventually, the king’s youngest son John was sent to rule there in place of the traditional High King (Ard Ri).
Treaties then formally recognised Henry’s overlordship over Wales (1163 CE), Scotland (1174 CE), and Ireland (1175 CE). Henry was further boosted by the support of Pope Adrian IV (r. 1154-1159 CE) who gave formal recognition of the English king’s authority over all of Britain and Ireland. The king also maintained his interest in France, indeed, he would spend 20 of his 35 years as king outside England.
A third area where Henry sought to reaffirm the power of the monarchy was its relationship with the medieval Church. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Becket (in office 1162-1170 CE), who had also been the chancellor (from 1155 CE) and a great friend of the king, proved troublesome, and his murder in 1170 CE would overshadow Henry’s reign both at the time and ever since. Thomas had tried to defend the Church’s independence and block the Crown’s attempts to extract taxes from its lands and interfere in appointments. Neither side would budge and, in 1164 CE, Thomas was obliged to flee to a Cistercian monastery in France. Six years later, Thomas returned to England in early December 1170 CE to recrown Henry the Young King after the Pope had decided the original coronation, in which the Archbishop of York had performed the ceremony, was void.
On his return to England Thomas immediately began to suspend or excommunicate those bishops who had not supported him against the king. When Henry remarked ‘Will no one rid me of this turbulent priest?’ four knights took this as a literal order and so they searched out and murdered Thomas while he was praying in Canterbury Cathedral on 29 December 1170 CE. The murder shocked the establishment, and the Pope even made Thomas into a saint in 1173 CE. Fortunately for Henry, Papal legates found the king innocent of Thomas’ death, although in 1174 CE he did have to perform a symbolic act of penance by visiting the dead archbishop’s tomb in the cathedral in which he was murdered; monks armed with branches performed a penitential flogging of the king for good measure.
1173 CE proved to be quite a bad year for the king as his sons and wife rebelled against his rule from this point onwards. Eleanor of Aquitaine had become increasingly exasperated by her husband’s unwillingness to delegate any real power to her and his infidelity, especially his public relationship with the noblewoman Rosamund Clifford (d. 1176 CE), famed for her beauty. Around 1170 CE Eleanor effectively separated from her husband and set up her own court in Poitiers. Her favourite son Richard went with her.
Meanwhile, Henry, well aware of the succession problems that had bedevilled his Norman predecessors, tried to cover himself as best he could by not only nominating his eldest son Henry as his successor but even having him crowned king-designate in 1170 CE, as we have seen (and again in 1173 CE to be absolutely sure). This was a common enough policy amongst French sovereigns and is why the heir is often referred to as Henry the Young King. Besides becoming king of England, the younger Henry was also to acquire the family lands in Anjou and Normandy. The other three sons Richard, Geoffrey, and John, were to receive Aquitaine, Brittany and Ireland respectively. All these careful plans were then thrown out of the window when in 1173 CE the young Henry, Eleanor, and several prominent barons upset over Thomas Becket’s murder launched an 18-month rebellion against the king.
Despite the rebels having Sir William Marshal (c. 1146-1219 CE) on their side, often described as the greatest ever medieval knight, as well as Richard, who would earn himself a reputation as a great military leader, and his brother Geoffrey and William the Lion of Scotland (r. 1165-1214 CE), the rebellion was quashed by the end of 1174 CE. The king's preoccupation with castles had paid dividends. The trouble was a great expense for the crown, though, with huge sums of money spent on strengthening such key fortresses as Windsor Castle and Dover Castle amongst many others and building the technologically advanced Orford Castle in Suffolk. After the rebellion, Eleanor was imprisoned in various castles, only to be released in 1184 CE. Henry the Young King died of dysentery on 11 June 1183 CE. Geoffrey then died in an accident at a medieval tournament on 19 August 1186 CE, leaving Richard as the heir to the English throne despite the fact John had been (seemingly) the only one loyal to his father.
Richard remained impatient, though, and was not quite finished with his schemes to replace his father. In mid-1189 CE he joined forces with Philip II of France (aka Philip Augustus, r. 1180-1223 CE) - technically Richard’s feudal overlord of his lands in France - and the pair were even supported by John against his father. Henry II, with everyone against him, was thus obliged to sign a peace deal and formally recognise the French king as his overlord regarding those lands he still held in France and to nominate Richard as his heir in England.
Death & Successor
Henry died of natural causes on 6 July 1189 CE at Chinon Castle, Anjou. Betrayed by his own nearest and dearest, legend has it the king’s dying words were ‘Shame, shame on a vanquished king’. The dead monarch was buried at Fontevrault Abbey in France. Henry, as agreed, was succeeded by his son Richard who was crowned on 2 September 1189 CE at Westminster Abbey. The kingdom still faced a serious threat from the scheming Philip II who was ambitious to expand his own territory. Philip conspired with John to make him king instead of Richard while the latter was away on the Third Crusade (1189-1192 CE) and then held in captivity by Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (r. 1191-1197 CE). Richard was freed two years later thanks to the payment of a ransom organised by his mother but when he died in battle in 1199 CE, John did at last become king, reigning until 1216 CE. In all, and albeit under different house names after 1399 CE, the Plantagenets would see 14 kings rule England for 331 years, making them the longest-lasting royal dynasty in the country’s history. | <urn:uuid:3700eeb1-8f0a-4b71-9b52-682652a80a93> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.ancient.eu/Henry_II_of_England/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250613416.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123191130-20200123220130-00520.warc.gz | en | 0.986089 | 3,135 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.20642587542... | 7 | Henry II of England ruled from 1154 to 1189 CE. He gained the throne by negotiation with his predecessor King Stephen of England (r. 1135-1154 CE) following the civil war that had raged between that monarch and Henry’s mother Empress Matilda (l. 1102-1167 CE). Henry would begin a new ruling dynasty, the Angevins-Plantagenets, and he would rule until 1189 CE, forming the largest 'empire' in western Europe and establishing himself as one of England’s greatest ever kings. Two black marks which became impossible to erase from memory, however, were the murder of his chancellor and then archbishop, Thomas Becket in 1170 CE and the rebellions led by his own sons at the end of his reign. Henry was succeeded by his son Richard I of England, aka Richard ‘the Lionheart’ (r. 1189-1199 CE) and then his other son King John of England (r. 1199-1216 CE).
Early Life - The Plantagenets
Henry of Anjou was born on 5 March 1133 CE at Le Mans, France, the son of Geoffrey, Count of Anjou (l. 1113-1151 CE). Henry’s mother was Empress Matilda, the daughter of Henry I of England (r. 1100-1135 CE), who had gained her title when marrying her first husband Holy Roman Emperor Henry V (r. 1111-1125 CE) in 1114 CE. After Henry V’s death, Matilda married again, this time to Geoffrey in 1128 CE. The count became known by the nickname ‘Plantagenet’ because his family coat of arms included the broom plant (planta genista). Alternative theories for the origin of the name are that Count Geoffrey wore sprigs of the plant in his hat or his lands were planted with it to provide good cover while hunting. The Plantagenets (1154-1399 CE) did not, of course, call themselves that name, the monarchs carried no surname. The first three kings of the line - Henry II, Richard I, and King John - are sometimes referred to as the Angevins after their ancestral lands in Anjou in north-west France.
Henry II was known for his good looks, intelligence, and ability to speak several languages. Credited with boundless energy and drive, the king was of stocky build and had piercing grey eyes, red hair, and a ferocious temper to match. In later life, he was said to have had a significant paunch.
Henry inherited his father’s lands in Normandy, Anjou, Touraine, and Maine in 1151 CE, but he was ambitious for much more. Following military victories in Brittany and, in May 1152 CE, his marriage to Eleanor of Aquitaine (c. 1122-1204 CE), the former wife of Louis VII of France (r. 1137-1180 CE), Henry came to control most of France. Henry was ambitious, too, to control England, weakened as it was by years of civil war. He and Eleanor would have eight children which included Richard I the ‘Lionheart’ or Coeur de Lion (b. 1157 CE), Geoffrey, Count of Brittany (b. 1158 CE), Henry the Young King (b. 1155 CE, who reigned as junior king, 1170-1183 CE) and King John of England (b. 1167 CE).
King Stephen, Empress Matilda & Succession
Returning back to 1135 CE, King Henry I of England had left no legitimate male heir and so his nominated successor was his daughter Matilda whom the king had made his barons swear loyalty to. When it came to the actual coronation, though, many barons wanted neither a woman or an Anjou count anywhere near the throne and so supported instead the dead king’s nephew and richest man in England, Stephen of Blois. Consequently, with some sharp manoeuvring, Stephen was crowned king in December 1135 CE. Empress Matilda was undeterred and a civil war broke out between barons who supported Stephen and those who favoured Matilda and her chief ally Robert Fitzroy, Earl of Gloucester, an illegitimate son of Henry I. The war proved long and damaging, and neither side managed to gain the upper-hand, even if Matilda briefly became queen in 1141 CE while Stephen was imprisoned at Bristol. Matilda’s cause was gravely weakened following the death of Robert Fitzroy in 1147 CE and she now focused her attention on the promotion of her son Henry.
Henry attempted an invasion of England in 1147 CE, but his campaign came to an end when he ran out of funds, obliging his return to Normandy. Rather bizarrely, but entirely in keeping with Stephen’s reputation for clemency, the English king paid for Henry’s trip home. Another attack in 1149 CE, this time in the north of England and with the assistance of David I of Scotland (r. 1124-1153 CE), was defeated by an army of Stephen’s. At least Henry did not completely waste his time as he was knighted by the Scottish king. In any case, Henry could bide his time and once he had much greater resources at his disposal, he tried another invasion in 1153 CE which, third time lucky, finally brought an end to the civil war.
In 1153 CE, King Stephen was something of a broken man following the death of his wife and son Eustace (b. 1127 CE) that year. He now faced Henry's third invasion and hoped for a decisive pitched battle, but in the event, neither side's soldiers or leaders were very keen on a fight. Consequently, on 6 November, Stephen signed with Henry the Treaty of Wallingford, which recognised him as Stephen’s official heir. In return, Stephen was allowed to keep his crown for the rest of his life. The barons had no better candidate to support than Henry, and it was clear to all that the civil war had not done anybody any good (even if its chaos has perhaps been exaggerated by later historians) and the last thing England needed was another tussle for the throne. As one anonymous medieval chronicler put it, "For nineteen long winters, God and his angels slept" (quoted in McDowall, 26). It was time for unity and peace. Consequently, when Stephen died on 25 October 1154 CE at Dover in Kent, Henry was crowned on 19 December 1154 CE at Westminster Abbey, and he became the first undisputed king of England for over a century.
Consolidating Royal Power
Henry’s first important task was to bring the Anglo-Norman barons back into line after the period of civil war in England (1135-1153 CE) had enabled them to largely ignore royal authority and build castles, mint their own coinage, and generally deal with the peasantry how they wished without regard to the law. Many castles built in that period were of a temporary nature and not large stone edifices, but Henry was so determined to destroy them he gained the nickname the ‘castle-breaker.’ Some of the stronger and older castles he kept for himself such as Scarborough Castle, Nottingham Castle, Norwich Castle, and Castle Acre. To better ensure the law was equally applied everywhere in the country - a process begun by Henry I - the Assizes of Clarendon established in 1166 CE principles of Common Law, crown courts were set up, and trial by a jury of 12 men was established to punish those who broke it.
A second area where royal power had been eroded was the borders of England. Both Scottish and Welsh rulers had taken advantage of King Stephen’s preoccupation with Empress Matilda to increase their domains. Henry negotiated the return of Cumbria and Northumbria from Malcolm IV of Scotland (1153-1165 CE) but conferred on him the earldom of Huntingdon and allowed the Scottish king to keep the castle at Wark-upon-Tyne in 1157 CE. The Welsh princes, especially Owain Gwynedd (r. 1137-1170 CE), required a more militaristic approach but Henry achieved his aim of reasserting his authority in the east of his kingdom. From 1171 CE a series of invasions were launched in Ireland against the dangerous baron Richard FitzGilbert (aka Strongbow). Eventually, the king’s youngest son John was sent to rule there in place of the traditional High King (Ard Ri).
Treaties then formally recognised Henry’s overlordship over Wales (1163 CE), Scotland (1174 CE), and Ireland (1175 CE). Henry was further boosted by the support of Pope Adrian IV (r. 1154-1159 CE) who gave formal recognition of the English king’s authority over all of Britain and Ireland. The king also maintained his interest in France, indeed, he would spend 20 of his 35 years as king outside England.
A third area where Henry sought to reaffirm the power of the monarchy was its relationship with the medieval Church. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Becket (in office 1162-1170 CE), who had also been the chancellor (from 1155 CE) and a great friend of the king, proved troublesome, and his murder in 1170 CE would overshadow Henry’s reign both at the time and ever since. Thomas had tried to defend the Church’s independence and block the Crown’s attempts to extract taxes from its lands and interfere in appointments. Neither side would budge and, in 1164 CE, Thomas was obliged to flee to a Cistercian monastery in France. Six years later, Thomas returned to England in early December 1170 CE to recrown Henry the Young King after the Pope had decided the original coronation, in which the Archbishop of York had performed the ceremony, was void.
On his return to England Thomas immediately began to suspend or excommunicate those bishops who had not supported him against the king. When Henry remarked ‘Will no one rid me of this turbulent priest?’ four knights took this as a literal order and so they searched out and murdered Thomas while he was praying in Canterbury Cathedral on 29 December 1170 CE. The murder shocked the establishment, and the Pope even made Thomas into a saint in 1173 CE. Fortunately for Henry, Papal legates found the king innocent of Thomas’ death, although in 1174 CE he did have to perform a symbolic act of penance by visiting the dead archbishop’s tomb in the cathedral in which he was murdered; monks armed with branches performed a penitential flogging of the king for good measure.
1173 CE proved to be quite a bad year for the king as his sons and wife rebelled against his rule from this point onwards. Eleanor of Aquitaine had become increasingly exasperated by her husband’s unwillingness to delegate any real power to her and his infidelity, especially his public relationship with the noblewoman Rosamund Clifford (d. 1176 CE), famed for her beauty. Around 1170 CE Eleanor effectively separated from her husband and set up her own court in Poitiers. Her favourite son Richard went with her.
Meanwhile, Henry, well aware of the succession problems that had bedevilled his Norman predecessors, tried to cover himself as best he could by not only nominating his eldest son Henry as his successor but even having him crowned king-designate in 1170 CE, as we have seen (and again in 1173 CE to be absolutely sure). This was a common enough policy amongst French sovereigns and is why the heir is often referred to as Henry the Young King. Besides becoming king of England, the younger Henry was also to acquire the family lands in Anjou and Normandy. The other three sons Richard, Geoffrey, and John, were to receive Aquitaine, Brittany and Ireland respectively. All these careful plans were then thrown out of the window when in 1173 CE the young Henry, Eleanor, and several prominent barons upset over Thomas Becket’s murder launched an 18-month rebellion against the king.
Despite the rebels having Sir William Marshal (c. 1146-1219 CE) on their side, often described as the greatest ever medieval knight, as well as Richard, who would earn himself a reputation as a great military leader, and his brother Geoffrey and William the Lion of Scotland (r. 1165-1214 CE), the rebellion was quashed by the end of 1174 CE. The king's preoccupation with castles had paid dividends. The trouble was a great expense for the crown, though, with huge sums of money spent on strengthening such key fortresses as Windsor Castle and Dover Castle amongst many others and building the technologically advanced Orford Castle in Suffolk. After the rebellion, Eleanor was imprisoned in various castles, only to be released in 1184 CE. Henry the Young King died of dysentery on 11 June 1183 CE. Geoffrey then died in an accident at a medieval tournament on 19 August 1186 CE, leaving Richard as the heir to the English throne despite the fact John had been (seemingly) the only one loyal to his father.
Richard remained impatient, though, and was not quite finished with his schemes to replace his father. In mid-1189 CE he joined forces with Philip II of France (aka Philip Augustus, r. 1180-1223 CE) - technically Richard’s feudal overlord of his lands in France - and the pair were even supported by John against his father. Henry II, with everyone against him, was thus obliged to sign a peace deal and formally recognise the French king as his overlord regarding those lands he still held in France and to nominate Richard as his heir in England.
Death & Successor
Henry died of natural causes on 6 July 1189 CE at Chinon Castle, Anjou. Betrayed by his own nearest and dearest, legend has it the king’s dying words were ‘Shame, shame on a vanquished king’. The dead monarch was buried at Fontevrault Abbey in France. Henry, as agreed, was succeeded by his son Richard who was crowned on 2 September 1189 CE at Westminster Abbey. The kingdom still faced a serious threat from the scheming Philip II who was ambitious to expand his own territory. Philip conspired with John to make him king instead of Richard while the latter was away on the Third Crusade (1189-1192 CE) and then held in captivity by Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor (r. 1191-1197 CE). Richard was freed two years later thanks to the payment of a ransom organised by his mother but when he died in battle in 1199 CE, John did at last become king, reigning until 1216 CE. In all, and albeit under different house names after 1399 CE, the Plantagenets would see 14 kings rule England for 331 years, making them the longest-lasting royal dynasty in the country’s history. | 3,357 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Hussites were a protestant movement following the teachings of Czech reformer Jan Hus who was burned for this teaching by the spoiled Roman catholic church in Konstanz. After his death there was a large rebellion within the Czech lands (also in the southern parts of Poland) that resulted in Hussite wars ... it is one of the most famous part of Czech history when the Czechs fought against the whole Catholic Europe, even Joan of Arc threatened to invade the Czech lands, and also thanks to the phenomenal tactics of the commander Jan Zizka, they won many battles.
The Hussite Wars (also called the Bohemian Wars) were military actions in Bohemia in the period 1420 to circa 1434. The Hussite Wars were first European wars, in which gunpowder weapons (muskets) were massively used. And for example, the English name for "pistol" is derived from the Hussite weapon: "pistala".
The Hussite warriors were basically infantry and they defeated larger armies with heavily armoured knights.
Today Hussitan protestants have one of the largest churches within the Czech lands. | <urn:uuid:de8a1b9b-dfad-4286-afe1-7dfcae4da614> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.wulflund.com/against-all-hussites-puzzle | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00447.warc.gz | en | 0.983925 | 229 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.1812719255... | 9 | The Hussites were a protestant movement following the teachings of Czech reformer Jan Hus who was burned for this teaching by the spoiled Roman catholic church in Konstanz. After his death there was a large rebellion within the Czech lands (also in the southern parts of Poland) that resulted in Hussite wars ... it is one of the most famous part of Czech history when the Czechs fought against the whole Catholic Europe, even Joan of Arc threatened to invade the Czech lands, and also thanks to the phenomenal tactics of the commander Jan Zizka, they won many battles.
The Hussite Wars (also called the Bohemian Wars) were military actions in Bohemia in the period 1420 to circa 1434. The Hussite Wars were first European wars, in which gunpowder weapons (muskets) were massively used. And for example, the English name for "pistol" is derived from the Hussite weapon: "pistala".
The Hussite warriors were basically infantry and they defeated larger armies with heavily armoured knights.
Today Hussitan protestants have one of the largest churches within the Czech lands. | 233 | ENGLISH | 1 |
There are many issues brought up in this document pertaining to gender and sexual diversity. Canada values equality and human rights and that is evident within legal documents and aspirational documents. One thing that was surprising to me is that in Saskatchewan, it is illegal to discriminate because of sexual orientation or sexual identity. This happens all the time and up until I read this article, I did not know it was illegal. That says something about the awareness in schools because it was not handled in the right ways and it still happens, especially in schools. It is disappointing to know that schools are not aware of this and it leads to overlooking this issue which can be problematic. Another thing that caught my attention is the fact that people still do not understand the difference between gender identity and sexual orientation. Gender identity is a persons’ sense of being (female, male, neither, etc.) and sexual identity is what type of person they are attracted to. Although I do not know everything about these two topics, I think it would be important to talk about this more and pronouns and everything that is involved with these issues. These are heavy issues containing a lot of matter that people are not aware of and educators should be taught first hand. There are many reasons why people should understand this is schools and communities. The first is for student safety. This is a major point because children should be allowed to feel safe at schools and in communities and to not be harassed or bullied. Other reasons include school culture, physical and emotional health, student engagement and academic success, and diversity and equity. Another thing I learned is the meaning two-spirited. This term comes from the language of First Nations and it describes a person to embody the characteristics of both genders and this was highly valued in the communities. This term has been stigmatized because of the impact of the European influence. One thing I still question is that why do schools not enforce the law on sexual orientation and identity. Upcoming educators should be taught these issues in order to have save environments in the school. One thing I still find problematic is the stigmatized terms the Europeans influenced on us. Today, there are numerous terms tuned negatively and that is because of society and what people have been teaching.
Document found here.
I found this reading quite interesting because there is the debate about the line between bullying and sexual harassment that causes discrepancies in schools. By using a highly watched TV show and demonstrating the ways in which bullying is presented challenges viewers to think about the difference between bullying and sexual harassment. Glee was a show I only knew about a few years ago and it never caught my attention until I read this article. I agree and just learned that some incidents of violence in schools is identified as “bullying” when, in fact, it is defined as sexual harassment. I know when I was growing up there was absolutely no talk about homophobia which would lead to students standing up for themselves rather than relying on teachers in the school or anyone else. Learning about these issues in classes today, makes me feel like we are doing something right as we become future educators. It is also a way for the general public to be educated as well and to know what things are changing. In addition, it is upsetting to learn that some magazines feature bullying in schools when it leads to homicides, suicides, or law suits to get more money from the public. Social media is a huge influence when it comes to subjects like this. Instead, the magazines and other social media platforms can easily promote the awareness of bullying and sexual harassment. It is interesting to also learn that some U.S schools that have organized a student-led club called gay/straight alliances (GSAs), which works well when there is strong staff and administrative support, as well as the student body. One question I still have is one the article stated as well. It said, “why do so many school administrators and teachers, real and fictional ones in shows such as Glee, claim their schools are safe for children while homophobic harassment remains prominent and obvious?” I think with the new generation of teachers, it is important to talk and learn about this issue to help those who seek a safe place to talk to someone outside of the home or any situation. What I still find problematic is that why has it taken so long for issues like this to be taught in classes. Now that I am in university I have only learned about this subject in my education classes and that’s it. When I was in high school it was not talked about either. Looking back, I find it disappointing because my high school had some mandatory presentations that included drugs and alcohol. Although that subject is important, throughout my four years there, the presentations had been the same. There was only the casual new one once in a while with guest speakers and their personal journey. I think it is time that people go to schools to present about sexual harassment because it was evident in my school and because teachers were not educated about it, they classified it as bullying.
It is great to know that Canada is creating many ways for inclusiveness to happen. Although we not near the goal of inclusive education, provinces are making progress on their own. I learned that students are included physically, however, many classrooms do not have the necessary assets for then to be included with peers or socially and academically successful. During my field experience, I was in a classroom with an autistic student and he was not in the classroom that often because he did learn differently so his teaching assistant would take him out of the class and help him. There were times where he would be included in groups to read and write, but other times it was spent outside of the classroom. In addition, there are many universities and other school institutions that have accommodations towards students such as the Three-Block Model and student leadership. The Three-Block Model is a program that involves “students’ self-concept, valuing diversity, belonging and social inclusion, in addition to instructional practices that support academic inclusion” (47). At Queen’s University, students are working on programs to welcome and create a sense of belonging and inclusion for all new students to promote social well-being. It is important that school environments are able to meet the academic needs these students need to involve them in the school and to succeed. There are areas that do need more attention and I learned that teacher education is one of them. I completely agree with this because there are no courses on how to teach students with diverse needs and I think this is something all teachers need to help their classrooms be more inclusive. I think learning about students with diverse needs is crucial in order to have an inclusive classroom. Not only should upcoming teachers be taught, but students as well so that they know how to interact with diverse kids. It is also a way for the diverse kids to be more interactive with peers. Another moment during my field experience, the TA was not there and it was a sub that day also. My partner and I did not know what to do and we were not sure how to interact with him, but thankfully a fellow student new how. She took him under her wing and was letting him learn with her and made sure he was not left out. One question I still have is that why is each province and territory responsible for their own education curriculum and policy? One thing I still find problematic is that is has been thirty years since the promise of equal rights and benefits for the students. It may not be a long time, but studies show we are nowhere near that as a reality. The curriculum needs to change in order for these changes to occur. | <urn:uuid:93d75ad5-66d9-4d94-bcde-e4e45feef297> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alexinagalera.wordpress.com/2018/03/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608295.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123041345-20200123070345-00291.warc.gz | en | 0.988582 | 1,538 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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-0.03948827832937240... | 1 | There are many issues brought up in this document pertaining to gender and sexual diversity. Canada values equality and human rights and that is evident within legal documents and aspirational documents. One thing that was surprising to me is that in Saskatchewan, it is illegal to discriminate because of sexual orientation or sexual identity. This happens all the time and up until I read this article, I did not know it was illegal. That says something about the awareness in schools because it was not handled in the right ways and it still happens, especially in schools. It is disappointing to know that schools are not aware of this and it leads to overlooking this issue which can be problematic. Another thing that caught my attention is the fact that people still do not understand the difference between gender identity and sexual orientation. Gender identity is a persons’ sense of being (female, male, neither, etc.) and sexual identity is what type of person they are attracted to. Although I do not know everything about these two topics, I think it would be important to talk about this more and pronouns and everything that is involved with these issues. These are heavy issues containing a lot of matter that people are not aware of and educators should be taught first hand. There are many reasons why people should understand this is schools and communities. The first is for student safety. This is a major point because children should be allowed to feel safe at schools and in communities and to not be harassed or bullied. Other reasons include school culture, physical and emotional health, student engagement and academic success, and diversity and equity. Another thing I learned is the meaning two-spirited. This term comes from the language of First Nations and it describes a person to embody the characteristics of both genders and this was highly valued in the communities. This term has been stigmatized because of the impact of the European influence. One thing I still question is that why do schools not enforce the law on sexual orientation and identity. Upcoming educators should be taught these issues in order to have save environments in the school. One thing I still find problematic is the stigmatized terms the Europeans influenced on us. Today, there are numerous terms tuned negatively and that is because of society and what people have been teaching.
Document found here.
I found this reading quite interesting because there is the debate about the line between bullying and sexual harassment that causes discrepancies in schools. By using a highly watched TV show and demonstrating the ways in which bullying is presented challenges viewers to think about the difference between bullying and sexual harassment. Glee was a show I only knew about a few years ago and it never caught my attention until I read this article. I agree and just learned that some incidents of violence in schools is identified as “bullying” when, in fact, it is defined as sexual harassment. I know when I was growing up there was absolutely no talk about homophobia which would lead to students standing up for themselves rather than relying on teachers in the school or anyone else. Learning about these issues in classes today, makes me feel like we are doing something right as we become future educators. It is also a way for the general public to be educated as well and to know what things are changing. In addition, it is upsetting to learn that some magazines feature bullying in schools when it leads to homicides, suicides, or law suits to get more money from the public. Social media is a huge influence when it comes to subjects like this. Instead, the magazines and other social media platforms can easily promote the awareness of bullying and sexual harassment. It is interesting to also learn that some U.S schools that have organized a student-led club called gay/straight alliances (GSAs), which works well when there is strong staff and administrative support, as well as the student body. One question I still have is one the article stated as well. It said, “why do so many school administrators and teachers, real and fictional ones in shows such as Glee, claim their schools are safe for children while homophobic harassment remains prominent and obvious?” I think with the new generation of teachers, it is important to talk and learn about this issue to help those who seek a safe place to talk to someone outside of the home or any situation. What I still find problematic is that why has it taken so long for issues like this to be taught in classes. Now that I am in university I have only learned about this subject in my education classes and that’s it. When I was in high school it was not talked about either. Looking back, I find it disappointing because my high school had some mandatory presentations that included drugs and alcohol. Although that subject is important, throughout my four years there, the presentations had been the same. There was only the casual new one once in a while with guest speakers and their personal journey. I think it is time that people go to schools to present about sexual harassment because it was evident in my school and because teachers were not educated about it, they classified it as bullying.
It is great to know that Canada is creating many ways for inclusiveness to happen. Although we not near the goal of inclusive education, provinces are making progress on their own. I learned that students are included physically, however, many classrooms do not have the necessary assets for then to be included with peers or socially and academically successful. During my field experience, I was in a classroom with an autistic student and he was not in the classroom that often because he did learn differently so his teaching assistant would take him out of the class and help him. There were times where he would be included in groups to read and write, but other times it was spent outside of the classroom. In addition, there are many universities and other school institutions that have accommodations towards students such as the Three-Block Model and student leadership. The Three-Block Model is a program that involves “students’ self-concept, valuing diversity, belonging and social inclusion, in addition to instructional practices that support academic inclusion” (47). At Queen’s University, students are working on programs to welcome and create a sense of belonging and inclusion for all new students to promote social well-being. It is important that school environments are able to meet the academic needs these students need to involve them in the school and to succeed. There are areas that do need more attention and I learned that teacher education is one of them. I completely agree with this because there are no courses on how to teach students with diverse needs and I think this is something all teachers need to help their classrooms be more inclusive. I think learning about students with diverse needs is crucial in order to have an inclusive classroom. Not only should upcoming teachers be taught, but students as well so that they know how to interact with diverse kids. It is also a way for the diverse kids to be more interactive with peers. Another moment during my field experience, the TA was not there and it was a sub that day also. My partner and I did not know what to do and we were not sure how to interact with him, but thankfully a fellow student new how. She took him under her wing and was letting him learn with her and made sure he was not left out. One question I still have is that why is each province and territory responsible for their own education curriculum and policy? One thing I still find problematic is that is has been thirty years since the promise of equal rights and benefits for the students. It may not be a long time, but studies show we are nowhere near that as a reality. The curriculum needs to change in order for these changes to occur. | 1,523 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Spanish-Dutch treaty was signed on January 30, EnglandPolandRussiaand the Ottoman Empire were the only European powers that were not represented at the two assemblies. Some scholars of international relations credit the treaties with providing the foundation of the modern state system and articulating the concept of territorial sovereignty.
Those who had fought against the Allies suffered heavy casualties as well: Alongside these statistics, was the fact that vast areas of north-eastern Europe had been reduced to rubble.
Flanders in Belgium had been all but destroyed with the ancient city of Ypres being devastated. The homes ofFrench people were destroyed and the infrastructure of this region had also been severely damaged. The victors from World War One were in no mood to be charitable to the defeated nations and Germany, in particular, was held responsible for the war and its consequences.
During mid, Europe was hit by Spanish flu and an estimated 25 million people died. This added to the feeling of bitterness that ran through Europe and this anger was primarily directed at Germany.
His public image was simple. He was a politician and politicians needed the support of the public to succeed in elections. If he had come across as being soft on Germany, he would have been speedily voted out of office. After the war had finished, Lloyd George believed that the spread of communism posed a far greater threat to the world than a defeated Germany.
Privately, he felt that Germany should be treated in such a way that left her as a barrier to resist the expected spread of communism. He did not want the people of Germany to become so disillusioned with their government that they turned to communism.
Lloyd George did not want Germany treated with lenience but he knew that Germany would be the only country in central Europe that could stop the spread of communism if it burst over the frontiers of Russia. Germany had to be punished but not to the extent that it left her destitute.
However, it would have been political suicide to have gone public with these views. Georges Clemenceau of France had one very simple belief — Germany should be brought to its knees so that she could never start a war again. This reflected the views of the French public but it was also what Clemenceau himself believed in.
He had seen the north-east corner of France destroyed and he determined that Germany should never be allowed to do this again. Woodrow Wilson of America had been genuinely stunned by the savagery of the Great War. He could not understand how an advanced civilisation could have reduced itself so that it had created so much devastation.
In Americathere was a growing desire for the government to adopt a policy of isolation and leave Europe to its own devices. In failing health, Wilson wanted America to concentrate on itself and, despite developing the idea of a League of Nationshe wanted an American input into Europe to be kept to a minimum.
He believed that Germany should be punished but in a way that would lead to European reconciliation as opposed to revenge. The main points in this document were: He was frequently left on the sidelines when the important negotiations took place despite Italy fighting on the side of the Allies.
Why was Italy treated in this manner? Also Italy had not played an overwhelming part in the war. Her army had been beaten at the battles of Caporetto. Her strategic importance to central Europe was minimal whilst Britain dominated the Mediterranean with naval bases in Malta and Gibraltar.
Therefore, the three main nations in the lead up to the treaty were far from united on how Germany should be treated. The eventual treaty seemed to satisfy everyone on the sides of the Allies. So what exactly did the treaty do to Germany? The terms of the Treaty of Versailles The treaty can be divided into a number of sections; territorial, military, financial and general.
Territorial The following land was taken away from Germany: Germany had to return to Russia land taken in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Some of this land was made into new states: Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia. An enlarged Poland also received some of this land.The Treaty of Versailles brought an end to World War I, making peace between Germany and the Allies.
However, its treatment of Germany laid the foundation for many of the problems that led to World War II. 1. What did Wilson believe was the most important thing to accomplish at Versailles? Create League of Nations 2.
What was France’s chief goal at the conference? Treaty of Versailles In June , the peacemakers summoned representatives of the new German Republic to the palace of Versailles outside Paris.
The Germans were ordered to sign the treaty drawn up by Allies. The Versailles Peace Conference (also called the Paris Peace Conference) marked the official end to World War I, then called the Great War. The conference was held in Versailles, France in , following the Armistice of 11 November , which ended the fighting of the war years.
Germany had formally surrendered on November 11, , and all nations had agreed to stop fighting while the terms of peace were negotiated. On June 28, , Germany and the Allied Nations (including Britain, France, Italy and Russia) signed the Treaty of Versailles, formally ending the war.
The Peace of Westphalia consisted of two related treaties, the Treaty of Münster and the Treaty of Osnabrück, signed at the end of the Thirty Years’ War, which was generally between Catholic. | <urn:uuid:8083c7ce-1795-4a99-975f-84af120241d8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://xisyduguhej.torosgazete.com/did-treaty-versailles-accomplish-peace-41975qe.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00427.warc.gz | en | 0.987223 | 1,123 | 4.375 | 4 | [
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0.566602647304... | 1 | The Spanish-Dutch treaty was signed on January 30, EnglandPolandRussiaand the Ottoman Empire were the only European powers that were not represented at the two assemblies. Some scholars of international relations credit the treaties with providing the foundation of the modern state system and articulating the concept of territorial sovereignty.
Those who had fought against the Allies suffered heavy casualties as well: Alongside these statistics, was the fact that vast areas of north-eastern Europe had been reduced to rubble.
Flanders in Belgium had been all but destroyed with the ancient city of Ypres being devastated. The homes ofFrench people were destroyed and the infrastructure of this region had also been severely damaged. The victors from World War One were in no mood to be charitable to the defeated nations and Germany, in particular, was held responsible for the war and its consequences.
During mid, Europe was hit by Spanish flu and an estimated 25 million people died. This added to the feeling of bitterness that ran through Europe and this anger was primarily directed at Germany.
His public image was simple. He was a politician and politicians needed the support of the public to succeed in elections. If he had come across as being soft on Germany, he would have been speedily voted out of office. After the war had finished, Lloyd George believed that the spread of communism posed a far greater threat to the world than a defeated Germany.
Privately, he felt that Germany should be treated in such a way that left her as a barrier to resist the expected spread of communism. He did not want the people of Germany to become so disillusioned with their government that they turned to communism.
Lloyd George did not want Germany treated with lenience but he knew that Germany would be the only country in central Europe that could stop the spread of communism if it burst over the frontiers of Russia. Germany had to be punished but not to the extent that it left her destitute.
However, it would have been political suicide to have gone public with these views. Georges Clemenceau of France had one very simple belief — Germany should be brought to its knees so that she could never start a war again. This reflected the views of the French public but it was also what Clemenceau himself believed in.
He had seen the north-east corner of France destroyed and he determined that Germany should never be allowed to do this again. Woodrow Wilson of America had been genuinely stunned by the savagery of the Great War. He could not understand how an advanced civilisation could have reduced itself so that it had created so much devastation.
In Americathere was a growing desire for the government to adopt a policy of isolation and leave Europe to its own devices. In failing health, Wilson wanted America to concentrate on itself and, despite developing the idea of a League of Nationshe wanted an American input into Europe to be kept to a minimum.
He believed that Germany should be punished but in a way that would lead to European reconciliation as opposed to revenge. The main points in this document were: He was frequently left on the sidelines when the important negotiations took place despite Italy fighting on the side of the Allies.
Why was Italy treated in this manner? Also Italy had not played an overwhelming part in the war. Her army had been beaten at the battles of Caporetto. Her strategic importance to central Europe was minimal whilst Britain dominated the Mediterranean with naval bases in Malta and Gibraltar.
Therefore, the three main nations in the lead up to the treaty were far from united on how Germany should be treated. The eventual treaty seemed to satisfy everyone on the sides of the Allies. So what exactly did the treaty do to Germany? The terms of the Treaty of Versailles The treaty can be divided into a number of sections; territorial, military, financial and general.
Territorial The following land was taken away from Germany: Germany had to return to Russia land taken in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Some of this land was made into new states: Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia. An enlarged Poland also received some of this land.The Treaty of Versailles brought an end to World War I, making peace between Germany and the Allies.
However, its treatment of Germany laid the foundation for many of the problems that led to World War II. 1. What did Wilson believe was the most important thing to accomplish at Versailles? Create League of Nations 2.
What was France’s chief goal at the conference? Treaty of Versailles In June , the peacemakers summoned representatives of the new German Republic to the palace of Versailles outside Paris.
The Germans were ordered to sign the treaty drawn up by Allies. The Versailles Peace Conference (also called the Paris Peace Conference) marked the official end to World War I, then called the Great War. The conference was held in Versailles, France in , following the Armistice of 11 November , which ended the fighting of the war years.
Germany had formally surrendered on November 11, , and all nations had agreed to stop fighting while the terms of peace were negotiated. On June 28, , Germany and the Allied Nations (including Britain, France, Italy and Russia) signed the Treaty of Versailles, formally ending the war.
The Peace of Westphalia consisted of two related treaties, the Treaty of Münster and the Treaty of Osnabrück, signed at the end of the Thirty Years’ War, which was generally between Catholic. | 1,099 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Despite great obstacles, Jews throughout occupied Europe attempted armed resistance against the Germans and their Axis partners. They faced overwhelming odds and desperate scenarios, including lack of weapons and training, operating in hostile zones, parting from family members, and facing an ever-present Nazi terror. Yet thousands resisted by joining or forming partisan units. Among them was Jack Kakis.
Jack Kakis was born in the Greek town of Salonika in 1920. The oldest boy, his mischievous nature made him the black sheep of the family. He remembers that while he received high grades in school, every report card included complaints from his teachers about his behavior. After completing high school he earned a spot in officers’ school, but his studies were interrupted by the outbreak of the war. He went to Athens to fight, but when the Germans invaded he was sent home.
As the occupation of Greece dragged on, the situation became more and more dire. People were starving to death as a national famine took hold, and with the arrival of SS forces the systematic roundup of Greek Jews began. Jack was sent to a labor camp. Meanwhile his family posed as Christians and moved to an island occupied by sympathetic Italians. Jack escaped the labor camp and returned to Athens where he became involved with the underground movement, bombing factories and writing anti-German slogans on the city streets at night. Eventually he joined the National Liberation Front, or EAM, and took to the mountains.
The EAM was a formidable force. They had received shipments of arms and explosives from the Allies as well as heavy artillery from the retreating Italians. Because of his military background, Jack was made the commander of a machine gun regiment. It was his job to assign his men missions. Some went to town as spies, reporting back on the movements of German troops. Others mined the roads or ambushed convoys. Jack would generally accompany the saboteurs, providing them with cover from his machine gun while they carried out their missions. The EAM harassed German trains on the Salonika-Athens railroad, preventing supplies from reaching Erwin Rommel’s forces in North Africa.
After the liberation of Greece in 1944 Jack returned to the regular Greek Army. He was awarded several medals for his service during World War II, including the medal for Bravery Under Duress, the Greek equivalent of the American Purple Heart.
Critical Thinking Questions
- What obstacles and limitations did Jews face when considering resistance?
- What pressures and motivations may have influenced Jack Kakis' decisions and actions? Are these factors unique to this history or universal?
- How can societies, communities, and individuals reinforce and strengthen the willingness to stand up for others? | <urn:uuid:04204749-01c6-46fc-9726-25ed0e35b020> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/jack-kakis | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00429.warc.gz | en | 0.986893 | 540 | 3.71875 | 4 | [
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0.440313309431... | 13 | Despite great obstacles, Jews throughout occupied Europe attempted armed resistance against the Germans and their Axis partners. They faced overwhelming odds and desperate scenarios, including lack of weapons and training, operating in hostile zones, parting from family members, and facing an ever-present Nazi terror. Yet thousands resisted by joining or forming partisan units. Among them was Jack Kakis.
Jack Kakis was born in the Greek town of Salonika in 1920. The oldest boy, his mischievous nature made him the black sheep of the family. He remembers that while he received high grades in school, every report card included complaints from his teachers about his behavior. After completing high school he earned a spot in officers’ school, but his studies were interrupted by the outbreak of the war. He went to Athens to fight, but when the Germans invaded he was sent home.
As the occupation of Greece dragged on, the situation became more and more dire. People were starving to death as a national famine took hold, and with the arrival of SS forces the systematic roundup of Greek Jews began. Jack was sent to a labor camp. Meanwhile his family posed as Christians and moved to an island occupied by sympathetic Italians. Jack escaped the labor camp and returned to Athens where he became involved with the underground movement, bombing factories and writing anti-German slogans on the city streets at night. Eventually he joined the National Liberation Front, or EAM, and took to the mountains.
The EAM was a formidable force. They had received shipments of arms and explosives from the Allies as well as heavy artillery from the retreating Italians. Because of his military background, Jack was made the commander of a machine gun regiment. It was his job to assign his men missions. Some went to town as spies, reporting back on the movements of German troops. Others mined the roads or ambushed convoys. Jack would generally accompany the saboteurs, providing them with cover from his machine gun while they carried out their missions. The EAM harassed German trains on the Salonika-Athens railroad, preventing supplies from reaching Erwin Rommel’s forces in North Africa.
After the liberation of Greece in 1944 Jack returned to the regular Greek Army. He was awarded several medals for his service during World War II, including the medal for Bravery Under Duress, the Greek equivalent of the American Purple Heart.
Critical Thinking Questions
- What obstacles and limitations did Jews face when considering resistance?
- What pressures and motivations may have influenced Jack Kakis' decisions and actions? Are these factors unique to this history or universal?
- How can societies, communities, and individuals reinforce and strengthen the willingness to stand up for others? | 539 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Rodents are mammals that are characterized by a single pair of front teeth that keep growing throughout their lifetime. They make up 40% of all mammal species. They can be found in large numbers in six continents excluding Antarctica. Due to their survival instincts that allow them to survive in the wild and in human-made environments, they are considered as the most diversified mammalian species out there.
They are also characterized by their affinity to burrow and dig in the ground to make homes for themselves or search for food sources. They usually have small bodies and long tails. Most rodents survive on a diet of plant material like nuts or fruits, or seeds, but some can have varied diets such as a predisposition towards meat and dairy products.
Why feature the different types of rodents on a home and garden site?
Because, rodents can be a nuisance in and around the home.
Table of Contents
Rats are the most commonly identified rodents in the world. They are easily differentiated from mice due to their size and color. They have grey fur and long tails. Most common rodents discovered in houses and commercial buildings are usually referred to as rats. The term has acquired a negative connotation throughout history due to rats being the carriers of the bubonic plague which is also known as the Black Death.
Mus is a genus of rodents that are usually referred to as mice. Though they can relate to other species of rodents, mice are generally some of the most well-known rodent species in the world. A mouse is a small rodent with a high breeding rate and can be found in the wild as well as in domestic settings. They are kept as pets and are known to be common animals for medical experimentation.
Hamsters are known most commonly kept as house pets, especially in the western hemisphere. They are considered some of the cutest rodent species out there. They are characterized as being small and fat and come in several different colors. They have short tails, and their feet are covered with thick fur. They are quite fragile and are susceptible to changes in temperature, both hot and cold. They have poor eyesight and are colorblind. They use their sense of smell to locate food and differentiate between the sexes.
Squirrels are commonly known as wild rodents that are found in forests and jungles, but also in gardens and parks. Several types of squirrels such as tree squirrels, ground squirrels, flying squirrels, chipmunks, and marmots exist and can be found in different parts of the world. They usually have a bushy tail and live in trees. They have a diet that consists of various types of nuts that they are habitual of storing in trees or in the ground.
A chinchilla has the densest coat of fur of any mammal living on land. It is only beaten by the sea otter which has a denser coat. It has become quite rare due to excessive hunting in the 19th century and can be found in southwestern South America. They live in burrows and crevices within rocks and can jump very high up to six feet. They are usually considered prey for hawks and falcons, skunks, felines, snakes and canines.
Gerbils similar to hamsters are considered as popular house pets. They aren’t considered aggressive, and they rarely bite unless provoked. They are small and easy to handle and are very sociable. They have a very specialized excretory system that has developed to conserve fluids and minimize waste. This makes them very clean pets and hence, considered as one of the cutest rodents. Gerbils have a thick coat of fur, small ears, and small toes. They have long tails which make up half of their total length
Beavers are usually found in the wild and have a very distinctive appearance. They have a flat, hardtail, with hunched backs and protruding noses. They usually have brown fur and build dams on the river. They are the second largest rodents on earth after the capybara. Their populations have declined sharply over the years due to them being hunted for their glands and fur. The former are used for medicine and perfumes, and the latter are used for clothing.
its excessive feeding and burrowing. Its endurance is considered pestilential to human occupation. It can be recognized immediately by its dark coat of fur around the body, white patch of fur around the mouth, and protruding orange teeth.
Gophers are common to North and Central America. They are known to tunnel excessively and live in holes. They weigh around half a pound and grow to about 6 to 8 inches in length. They can live for up to three years on average and 5 years at maximum. However, some have been documented in the wild to be as much as 7 years old. They have a brown fur coat that matches the color of the soil they live in. They are recognized by the large cheek pouches they have and their small hairy tails.
The agouti is a species of rodent closely related to guinea pigs. They look very similar but have longer legs and are larger in size. They have come in different colors of fur such as reddish, brown, orange, grayish, blackish, etc. They can grow up to be 24 inches in length and have brown fur on their backs and white fur on their bellies.
A lemming is a small rodent that is found in cold places like the frozen tundra. Lemmings usually measure around 5-7 inches in length and weigh around 20 to 30 grams. They have a rounded shape and are brown and black in color. They have a short tail and a hairy snout. They have short legs and small ears. They eat plants and moss but can also forage for berries and bulbs.
The Dormouse is known for its long periods of hibernation. It has a particularly long tail compared to its body and can cling to small plants quite easily due to its lightweight. They are lightly furry, and agile. They are omnivorous so they can feast on berries, fruits, flowers, and insects. They lack premolars, but their dental formula is similar to squirrels. The Dormouse gained popularity amongst the masses due to Lewis Carroll’s classic novel, Alice in Wonderland.
The Muroids are a large family of rodents that include hamsters, gerbils, rats, and voles. They can be found across six continents barring Antarctica. They consist of six families, 19 subfamilies, and around 1750 species.
Cavies are a family of rodents that are exclusively found in South America. They include the largest living rodent, the Capybara, and can be found across the moist savanna to the thorn forests and scrub deserts. They have heavy bodies and large heads, and almost none of them have tails. They range in size from cavies at 22 centimeters to the capybara at 134 centimeters.
These are a subfamily of rodents that include muskrats and lemmings. They are the most populous group of rodents in the northern hemisphere and are found in fossil occlusions of bones cached by predators like owls and other birds of prey. Their fossils are often used for dating archaeological sites in North America and Europe. Their molars are particularly fascinating, having cusps in the shape of alternating triangles.
The Octodon Degu is a rodent found in Chile. It is larger than a golden hamster but smaller than a fancy rat. It is a small animal, 25 to 31 centimeters in length and 400g in weight. It has yellow-brown fur and has creamy yellow fur below the belly. Its tail is thin, with a tufted, black tip, and dark, sparsely furred ears. Its hind feet are bristled, and its check teeth are shaped like the number eight, which is why it’s called an octodon degu.
The lowland paca is a large rodent that is found in Central America and South America. It is closely related to the agouti and has coarse fur. It has dark brown to black fur on the upper body and lighter, yellowish fur on the belly. It has three to 5 rows of white spots on the sides which are covered by dark grey fur. It can weigh between 6 to 12 kilos and can live to about 13 years. They reach maturity at about the age of a year.
The Peromyscus, which is most commonly referred to as the deer mouse, is one of the so called new world mice because they were found in the newly discovered continent of America. They have larger eyes than normal mice and often have two-tone coloring. They can jump very far in comparison to house mice and can run faster as well. They are prolific carriers of disease, having carried the hantavirus, Lyme disease, and ehrlichiosis.
The Blemosl or the mole rat is a burrowing rodent that is found strictly in Sub Saharan Africa. The fossil forms are restricted to the African Continent. They have cylindrical bodies and short limbs. They can range from 9 to 30 centimeters, and weigh from 30 to 1800 g. Blesmols have reduced eyes and ears compared to other fossorial mammals and have short tails, loose skins, and velvety fur.
The Dipodidae are found in the northern hemisphere and include 50 species including jerboas, jumping mice and birch mice. They are found in deserts, forests, and grasslands. They are up to 26 centimeters in length and are adapted for jumping due to their long hind legs. They can be bipedal and have exceedingly long tails.
The Hutia is a large rat that has made its home in the Caribbean islands. They are considered threatened by the IUCN but do remain common and widespread. They have a length of up to 46 centimeters and weigh less than 2 kg. They have small tails and tout bodies with large heads. They’re herbivorous, but they can consume small animals. They usually nest in trees and crevices instead of burrowing in the ground.
The Kangaroo Rat is native to the western part of North America. It’s given its name due to its bipedal form and its stance that is similar to a kangaroo’s. It hops just like a kangaroo but developed this form of motion independently from that species. It is commonly referred to as a hopping mouse as well. Adult kangaroo rats weigh between 70 g and 170 g and have long tails which are longer than their bodies. They have fur line cheek pouches that can be used to store food. They are usually dark gray or cinnamon-buff depending on the species.
The Pack rat has a rat-like appearance with a long tail and large ears, as well as black eyes. They are larger than deer mice and grasshopper mice and even larger than cotton rats. They resemble overgrown squirrels and are native to the US, Mexico, and the Sonoran desert. They can even be found in the Canadian Rockies.
They usually feed on vegetation, twigs, and shoots. They can also eat seeds, fruits, cacti, and acorns.
The Tuco-tuco is a rodent that is native to South America and North America. They have cylindrical bodies with very short legs, and they range from black to light grey in color. They have long forefeet that they use to burrow and bristled hind feet which they use for grooming. They have large heads, small ears, and hairy tails. They can weigh as light as 100 g or as heavy as a kilogram. They usually live in burrows and spend the vast majority of their lives underground. They represent around 45% of all underground rodents in the world.
Old World Porcupine
The Old World Porcupine, so called because it is found in Africa, India, Europe, and the Levant. It is very different from the New World Porcupine that is found in the US and South America. Surprisingly both of these species are not closely related.
Old World Porcupines usually are stout, but heavily built. They have rounded heads, mobile snouts and a coat of thick, flattened spines which cover their bodies. They aren’t intermingled with ordinary hairs. They are herbivorous, eat fruit and roots and even gnaw on dry bones for calcium. While they are usually docile, if provoked, they can be one of the most dangerous rodents in the world.
The Gundi is a small, stocky rodent that lives in deserts across Africa. It has numerous sub-species that are now extinct. They are still hunted for food. Gundis are small, plump, stout, and have large ears. They can grow from 17 to 18 centimeters and are covered in fur. They have four toes on all their feet, and their hind feet carry comb-like bristles. Hence they are called comb rats as well. They are herbivorous animals which can eat any type of plant. They don’t drink water, obtaining all their moisture from their food.
Cane rats are found in Africa, south of the Sahara desert. They are considered a pest species and are one of the most dangerous rodents in the world for crops. They can range from 35 to 60 centimeters in length and can weigh up to 10 kilograms. They live in marshy areas along river banks and have bristly brown fur, which is speckled with yellow and grey spots. They attain maturity at 6 months of age and reproduce more than once a year to litters of two or four.
Pedetes are a genus of rodent that resembles both squirrels due to their pointed ears and long bushy tail, and also kangaroos due to their long hind legs. They are found in Southern and Eastern Africa and are nocturnal. They sleep through the day in the burrows they dig. They feed on roots and other vegetable matter.
Rodents are found in nature around the world and are considered as pets, pests, and food as well as luxury prey for their furs. They are found in various shapes and sizes and have attained various skills from long jumps to storing food in their cheeks. They are some of the fascinating animals on earth due to the diversity in their ranks, and they have adapted well to both domestic and wild environments.
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0.218029528856... | 1 | Rodents are mammals that are characterized by a single pair of front teeth that keep growing throughout their lifetime. They make up 40% of all mammal species. They can be found in large numbers in six continents excluding Antarctica. Due to their survival instincts that allow them to survive in the wild and in human-made environments, they are considered as the most diversified mammalian species out there.
They are also characterized by their affinity to burrow and dig in the ground to make homes for themselves or search for food sources. They usually have small bodies and long tails. Most rodents survive on a diet of plant material like nuts or fruits, or seeds, but some can have varied diets such as a predisposition towards meat and dairy products.
Why feature the different types of rodents on a home and garden site?
Because, rodents can be a nuisance in and around the home.
Table of Contents
Rats are the most commonly identified rodents in the world. They are easily differentiated from mice due to their size and color. They have grey fur and long tails. Most common rodents discovered in houses and commercial buildings are usually referred to as rats. The term has acquired a negative connotation throughout history due to rats being the carriers of the bubonic plague which is also known as the Black Death.
Mus is a genus of rodents that are usually referred to as mice. Though they can relate to other species of rodents, mice are generally some of the most well-known rodent species in the world. A mouse is a small rodent with a high breeding rate and can be found in the wild as well as in domestic settings. They are kept as pets and are known to be common animals for medical experimentation.
Hamsters are known most commonly kept as house pets, especially in the western hemisphere. They are considered some of the cutest rodent species out there. They are characterized as being small and fat and come in several different colors. They have short tails, and their feet are covered with thick fur. They are quite fragile and are susceptible to changes in temperature, both hot and cold. They have poor eyesight and are colorblind. They use their sense of smell to locate food and differentiate between the sexes.
Squirrels are commonly known as wild rodents that are found in forests and jungles, but also in gardens and parks. Several types of squirrels such as tree squirrels, ground squirrels, flying squirrels, chipmunks, and marmots exist and can be found in different parts of the world. They usually have a bushy tail and live in trees. They have a diet that consists of various types of nuts that they are habitual of storing in trees or in the ground.
A chinchilla has the densest coat of fur of any mammal living on land. It is only beaten by the sea otter which has a denser coat. It has become quite rare due to excessive hunting in the 19th century and can be found in southwestern South America. They live in burrows and crevices within rocks and can jump very high up to six feet. They are usually considered prey for hawks and falcons, skunks, felines, snakes and canines.
Gerbils similar to hamsters are considered as popular house pets. They aren’t considered aggressive, and they rarely bite unless provoked. They are small and easy to handle and are very sociable. They have a very specialized excretory system that has developed to conserve fluids and minimize waste. This makes them very clean pets and hence, considered as one of the cutest rodents. Gerbils have a thick coat of fur, small ears, and small toes. They have long tails which make up half of their total length
Beavers are usually found in the wild and have a very distinctive appearance. They have a flat, hardtail, with hunched backs and protruding noses. They usually have brown fur and build dams on the river. They are the second largest rodents on earth after the capybara. Their populations have declined sharply over the years due to them being hunted for their glands and fur. The former are used for medicine and perfumes, and the latter are used for clothing.
its excessive feeding and burrowing. Its endurance is considered pestilential to human occupation. It can be recognized immediately by its dark coat of fur around the body, white patch of fur around the mouth, and protruding orange teeth.
Gophers are common to North and Central America. They are known to tunnel excessively and live in holes. They weigh around half a pound and grow to about 6 to 8 inches in length. They can live for up to three years on average and 5 years at maximum. However, some have been documented in the wild to be as much as 7 years old. They have a brown fur coat that matches the color of the soil they live in. They are recognized by the large cheek pouches they have and their small hairy tails.
The agouti is a species of rodent closely related to guinea pigs. They look very similar but have longer legs and are larger in size. They have come in different colors of fur such as reddish, brown, orange, grayish, blackish, etc. They can grow up to be 24 inches in length and have brown fur on their backs and white fur on their bellies.
A lemming is a small rodent that is found in cold places like the frozen tundra. Lemmings usually measure around 5-7 inches in length and weigh around 20 to 30 grams. They have a rounded shape and are brown and black in color. They have a short tail and a hairy snout. They have short legs and small ears. They eat plants and moss but can also forage for berries and bulbs.
The Dormouse is known for its long periods of hibernation. It has a particularly long tail compared to its body and can cling to small plants quite easily due to its lightweight. They are lightly furry, and agile. They are omnivorous so they can feast on berries, fruits, flowers, and insects. They lack premolars, but their dental formula is similar to squirrels. The Dormouse gained popularity amongst the masses due to Lewis Carroll’s classic novel, Alice in Wonderland.
The Muroids are a large family of rodents that include hamsters, gerbils, rats, and voles. They can be found across six continents barring Antarctica. They consist of six families, 19 subfamilies, and around 1750 species.
Cavies are a family of rodents that are exclusively found in South America. They include the largest living rodent, the Capybara, and can be found across the moist savanna to the thorn forests and scrub deserts. They have heavy bodies and large heads, and almost none of them have tails. They range in size from cavies at 22 centimeters to the capybara at 134 centimeters.
These are a subfamily of rodents that include muskrats and lemmings. They are the most populous group of rodents in the northern hemisphere and are found in fossil occlusions of bones cached by predators like owls and other birds of prey. Their fossils are often used for dating archaeological sites in North America and Europe. Their molars are particularly fascinating, having cusps in the shape of alternating triangles.
The Octodon Degu is a rodent found in Chile. It is larger than a golden hamster but smaller than a fancy rat. It is a small animal, 25 to 31 centimeters in length and 400g in weight. It has yellow-brown fur and has creamy yellow fur below the belly. Its tail is thin, with a tufted, black tip, and dark, sparsely furred ears. Its hind feet are bristled, and its check teeth are shaped like the number eight, which is why it’s called an octodon degu.
The lowland paca is a large rodent that is found in Central America and South America. It is closely related to the agouti and has coarse fur. It has dark brown to black fur on the upper body and lighter, yellowish fur on the belly. It has three to 5 rows of white spots on the sides which are covered by dark grey fur. It can weigh between 6 to 12 kilos and can live to about 13 years. They reach maturity at about the age of a year.
The Peromyscus, which is most commonly referred to as the deer mouse, is one of the so called new world mice because they were found in the newly discovered continent of America. They have larger eyes than normal mice and often have two-tone coloring. They can jump very far in comparison to house mice and can run faster as well. They are prolific carriers of disease, having carried the hantavirus, Lyme disease, and ehrlichiosis.
The Blemosl or the mole rat is a burrowing rodent that is found strictly in Sub Saharan Africa. The fossil forms are restricted to the African Continent. They have cylindrical bodies and short limbs. They can range from 9 to 30 centimeters, and weigh from 30 to 1800 g. Blesmols have reduced eyes and ears compared to other fossorial mammals and have short tails, loose skins, and velvety fur.
The Dipodidae are found in the northern hemisphere and include 50 species including jerboas, jumping mice and birch mice. They are found in deserts, forests, and grasslands. They are up to 26 centimeters in length and are adapted for jumping due to their long hind legs. They can be bipedal and have exceedingly long tails.
The Hutia is a large rat that has made its home in the Caribbean islands. They are considered threatened by the IUCN but do remain common and widespread. They have a length of up to 46 centimeters and weigh less than 2 kg. They have small tails and tout bodies with large heads. They’re herbivorous, but they can consume small animals. They usually nest in trees and crevices instead of burrowing in the ground.
The Kangaroo Rat is native to the western part of North America. It’s given its name due to its bipedal form and its stance that is similar to a kangaroo’s. It hops just like a kangaroo but developed this form of motion independently from that species. It is commonly referred to as a hopping mouse as well. Adult kangaroo rats weigh between 70 g and 170 g and have long tails which are longer than their bodies. They have fur line cheek pouches that can be used to store food. They are usually dark gray or cinnamon-buff depending on the species.
The Pack rat has a rat-like appearance with a long tail and large ears, as well as black eyes. They are larger than deer mice and grasshopper mice and even larger than cotton rats. They resemble overgrown squirrels and are native to the US, Mexico, and the Sonoran desert. They can even be found in the Canadian Rockies.
They usually feed on vegetation, twigs, and shoots. They can also eat seeds, fruits, cacti, and acorns.
The Tuco-tuco is a rodent that is native to South America and North America. They have cylindrical bodies with very short legs, and they range from black to light grey in color. They have long forefeet that they use to burrow and bristled hind feet which they use for grooming. They have large heads, small ears, and hairy tails. They can weigh as light as 100 g or as heavy as a kilogram. They usually live in burrows and spend the vast majority of their lives underground. They represent around 45% of all underground rodents in the world.
Old World Porcupine
The Old World Porcupine, so called because it is found in Africa, India, Europe, and the Levant. It is very different from the New World Porcupine that is found in the US and South America. Surprisingly both of these species are not closely related.
Old World Porcupines usually are stout, but heavily built. They have rounded heads, mobile snouts and a coat of thick, flattened spines which cover their bodies. They aren’t intermingled with ordinary hairs. They are herbivorous, eat fruit and roots and even gnaw on dry bones for calcium. While they are usually docile, if provoked, they can be one of the most dangerous rodents in the world.
The Gundi is a small, stocky rodent that lives in deserts across Africa. It has numerous sub-species that are now extinct. They are still hunted for food. Gundis are small, plump, stout, and have large ears. They can grow from 17 to 18 centimeters and are covered in fur. They have four toes on all their feet, and their hind feet carry comb-like bristles. Hence they are called comb rats as well. They are herbivorous animals which can eat any type of plant. They don’t drink water, obtaining all their moisture from their food.
Cane rats are found in Africa, south of the Sahara desert. They are considered a pest species and are one of the most dangerous rodents in the world for crops. They can range from 35 to 60 centimeters in length and can weigh up to 10 kilograms. They live in marshy areas along river banks and have bristly brown fur, which is speckled with yellow and grey spots. They attain maturity at 6 months of age and reproduce more than once a year to litters of two or four.
Pedetes are a genus of rodent that resembles both squirrels due to their pointed ears and long bushy tail, and also kangaroos due to their long hind legs. They are found in Southern and Eastern Africa and are nocturnal. They sleep through the day in the burrows they dig. They feed on roots and other vegetable matter.
Rodents are found in nature around the world and are considered as pets, pests, and food as well as luxury prey for their furs. They are found in various shapes and sizes and have attained various skills from long jumps to storing food in their cheeks. They are some of the fascinating animals on earth due to the diversity in their ranks, and they have adapted well to both domestic and wild environments.
Home Stratosphere is an award-winning home and garden online publication that’s a result of our talented researchers and writers who work directly with hundreds of professional interior designers, furniture designers, landscape designers and architects from around the world to create helpful, informative, entertaining and inspiring articles and design galleries. | 3,049 | ENGLISH | 1 |
‘O Worship the King’
Born in India, Sir Robert Grant (1779–1838) was the son of Charles Grant, an evangelical Scottish Christian. Charles Grant was known for his impeccable integrity and benevolence, as well as for serving in the British Parliament, being a director in the East India Company, supporting and befriending William Wilberforce in his fight against slavery, sending missionaries to India (including William Carey), and for writing about the plight of Asians within the British Empire. Under his father’s influence, therefore, Robert received a godly heritage that instilled within him a love for Jesus and for people.
Upon returning to England with his father in 1790, Robert received a privileged education and, in January 1807, entered the legal profession. A few months later, he witnessed the British Parliament pass the Act for Abolition of the Slave Trade. In 1818 he was elected to the House of Commons.
No doubt his father’s legacy of compassion for the downtrodden, his own sense of justice, and his solid biblical upbringing moved Robert in 1830 to draft a bill giving equal rights to Jewish people in England. To this point, the Anglican Church had prohibited English Jews from holding certain positions in Parliament and elsewhere because those positions required swearing an oath “on the true faith of a Christian.”
Grant believed this restriction was unfair and proposed his bill twice. Both times it was voted down. It would not be until 1858, 20 years after Grant’s death, that English Jews would be given full rights.
Grant was also a hymn writer. Once, when reading a translation of Psalm 104 in a 1561 psalter, Grant decided to write his own hymn based on that psalm. In 1833, the same year Grant was fighting for the rights of England’s Jews, his hymn “O Worship the King” was published. | <urn:uuid:eac8b099-181a-4831-b2d2-b4029ccf2ef0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://israelmyglory.org/article/o-worship-the-king/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00186.warc.gz | en | 0.983193 | 403 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.2038980573415756... | 9 | ‘O Worship the King’
Born in India, Sir Robert Grant (1779–1838) was the son of Charles Grant, an evangelical Scottish Christian. Charles Grant was known for his impeccable integrity and benevolence, as well as for serving in the British Parliament, being a director in the East India Company, supporting and befriending William Wilberforce in his fight against slavery, sending missionaries to India (including William Carey), and for writing about the plight of Asians within the British Empire. Under his father’s influence, therefore, Robert received a godly heritage that instilled within him a love for Jesus and for people.
Upon returning to England with his father in 1790, Robert received a privileged education and, in January 1807, entered the legal profession. A few months later, he witnessed the British Parliament pass the Act for Abolition of the Slave Trade. In 1818 he was elected to the House of Commons.
No doubt his father’s legacy of compassion for the downtrodden, his own sense of justice, and his solid biblical upbringing moved Robert in 1830 to draft a bill giving equal rights to Jewish people in England. To this point, the Anglican Church had prohibited English Jews from holding certain positions in Parliament and elsewhere because those positions required swearing an oath “on the true faith of a Christian.”
Grant believed this restriction was unfair and proposed his bill twice. Both times it was voted down. It would not be until 1858, 20 years after Grant’s death, that English Jews would be given full rights.
Grant was also a hymn writer. Once, when reading a translation of Psalm 104 in a 1561 psalter, Grant decided to write his own hymn based on that psalm. In 1833, the same year Grant was fighting for the rights of England’s Jews, his hymn “O Worship the King” was published. | 411 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Students could do better during class, assemblies
December 6, 2019
Many students in this school do not know how to properly behave during class or other school activities. Students talk during class and assemblies when teachers and presenters are there for the students benefit.
Students should have learned early on that they must listen to understand. It seems that they have forgotten that aspect of going to school.
Students are expected to sit in their seats and pay attention to the teachers and adults. These wise adults are there to solely help students continue in life with the knowledge to build a good life for themselves. If students would sit and listen to their teachers, they might be able to gain knowledge that could guide them to what they want to do.
Assemblies are organized for the students to learn awareness about something or they are there to entertain students. But students can be especially distracted during these large group activities.
For example, students were disrespecting the presenter during the Alcohol Tobacco and Other Drugs assembly. They were doing this by trying to debunk everything she was saying. Also people kept asking the same questions over and over again making her give the same answer over and over again.
During the assembly I, and many other people, didn’t know what the presenter was talking about for the sole reason of people talking and distracting. Students talk during assemblies because they are uninterested, but they don’t let other people listen who are. How about just sitting there quietly and letting others listen?
One way that we could change this behavior in school is for students to better combat it. During assemblies, students could quietly tell the students around them they need to be quieter. This could be a good form of peer pressure, pressuring the students to be quiet. The students could also try and take an interest in the assemblies. If the students truly can’t they can just not listen but stay quiet. | <urn:uuid:93e22c95-2e8e-4d52-a8c6-16ae28ebe58d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://aajhslivewire.com/35396/opinion/students-could-do-better-during-class-and-assemblies/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00508.warc.gz | en | 0.984265 | 384 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.24173633754... | 11 | Students could do better during class, assemblies
December 6, 2019
Many students in this school do not know how to properly behave during class or other school activities. Students talk during class and assemblies when teachers and presenters are there for the students benefit.
Students should have learned early on that they must listen to understand. It seems that they have forgotten that aspect of going to school.
Students are expected to sit in their seats and pay attention to the teachers and adults. These wise adults are there to solely help students continue in life with the knowledge to build a good life for themselves. If students would sit and listen to their teachers, they might be able to gain knowledge that could guide them to what they want to do.
Assemblies are organized for the students to learn awareness about something or they are there to entertain students. But students can be especially distracted during these large group activities.
For example, students were disrespecting the presenter during the Alcohol Tobacco and Other Drugs assembly. They were doing this by trying to debunk everything she was saying. Also people kept asking the same questions over and over again making her give the same answer over and over again.
During the assembly I, and many other people, didn’t know what the presenter was talking about for the sole reason of people talking and distracting. Students talk during assemblies because they are uninterested, but they don’t let other people listen who are. How about just sitting there quietly and letting others listen?
One way that we could change this behavior in school is for students to better combat it. During assemblies, students could quietly tell the students around them they need to be quieter. This could be a good form of peer pressure, pressuring the students to be quiet. The students could also try and take an interest in the assemblies. If the students truly can’t they can just not listen but stay quiet. | 377 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Bessie Coleman, the world's first female African-American pilot as well as the world's first Native American pilot, was born in Atlanta, Texas. Bessie Coleman overcame many challenges in order to secure her dream of becoming a pilot. During that time, in the 1960s, it was not easy for women to become pilots, let alone women from minority groups. Here are some facts about the life of Bessie Coleman.
She Was Born in Atlanta, Texas in 1892
Bessie was born in Atlanta on January 26, 1892, to a family of thirteen children with Bessie being the fifth-born. Her parents, George Coleman and Susan Coleman, were sharecroppers. Her father was mainly of Cherokee descent while her mother was mainly of African-American descent. At the age of two, Bessie and her family relocated to Waxahachie, Texas, where they resided until Bessie turned 23. While in Waxahachie, she joined school at the age of six where she had to walk four miles to get to class. Throughout her study in all the eight grades, she came out as a top mathematics student. However, her studies were occasionally interrupted every year by cotton harvests.
When she turned 12, she got a scholarship to join the Missionary Baptist Church School. At the age of 18, she used her savings to join the Oklahoma Colored Agricultural and Normal University or the Langston University as it is now called. Unfortunately, she ran out of money after one term and had to go back home.
Coleman passed away on April 30, 1926, in Jacksonville, Florida in a plane crash. She passed away while she was testing her Curtiss JN-4 (Jenny) aircraft for an airshow in Jacksonville. Ten minutes into the flight, her plane developed complications and she was thrown out at a height of about 2,000 feet. She died instantly upon hitting the ground while her engineer and mechanic who was flying the plane, William D. Wills, also lost his life upon impact.
She Was of Native American and African American Descent
As stated earlier, Bessie was born of parents of Cherokee descent (Native Americans) and an African American. Her father left his family while Bessie was only two years old and went to look for work at present-day Oklahoma, which was then known as the Indian Territory.
She Received Her Pilot License in 1921 at the Age of 31
On June 15, 1921, at the age of 31, Coleman made history by becoming the first African-American woman and the first Native American woman to get a pilot license in a world that was dominated by racism and masculinity. Coleman learned to fly using a Nieuport 82 biplane. Her pilot license came from the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. After that, she spent more time training under a French pilot until 1921 when she left for the United States.
She Had to Fly to Travel to France to Become Licensed
When she was finally ready to join a flight school, she could not join American flight schools because they did not admit black people or women. The publisher and founder of the weekly newspaper the Chicago Defender, Robert S. Abbot encouraged her to try her luck abroad. After receiving financial aid from the Defender and a banker who was known as Jesse Binga, she moved to France. Before moving to France, she joined the Berlitz School in Chicago where she learned French. Her move to France happened on November 20, 1920, where she got her license one year later in 1921.
Her Dream Was to Start a Flight School
While in high school, Coleman vowed to herself that her life would amount to something one day. This dream would evolve to become a pilot dream while she was in Chicago in 1916 at the age of 24. The desire to become a pilot was fueled by pilot stories returning home from World War I. After that, she did everything she could until she realized her dream.
She Worked Two jobs to Save Up for Flight School
While in Chicago in 1916, she used to work at the White Sox Barber Shop as a manicurist. Her dream and desire to become a pilot also increased in the same year after hearing stories from pilots. In order to reach her financial goals so that she could join a flight school, she decided to take another job at a chili parlor.
She Is Quoted As Saying, "The Air is the Only Place Free From Prejudices"
This quote is probably her most famous quote. She said this after realizing that the black race had no representation at all in aircraft piloting. After this, she made it her mission to risk her life in order for black and women to get representation.
She Risked Her Life to Learn to Fly
One day before she died, her agent and engineer was flying her Curtiss JN-4 (Jenny) aircraft to Jacksonville from Dallas. The engineer was known as William D. Wills and was 24 at the time. During his flight to Jacksonville, Wills was forced to land three times due to complications arising from poor maintenance of the plane. Naturally, when Coleman’s family knew about the problems, they advised her not to fly but she risked her life and flew in the plane anyway. Wills was the pilot while she was in the other seat observing the terrain for the airshow that had been scheduled for the next day.
She Turned Down a Racist Role in a Movie
At some point, she was offered a role in a movie called Shadow and Sunshine. She thought it would be great publicity and generate money to star her own flight school. However, she declined the role when she learned that it portrayed black people badly. She did not intend to perpetuate racism in any way.
She Inspired Generations of Marginalized Americans
Coleman made a massive statement by pushing hard and getting her pilot license. She participated in several airshows where she earned the nickname “Queen Bess”. All along, she always wanted to get enough money for her flight school. Even though she never realized that dream, she paved the way for black Americans and all other marginalized people as a role model.
Who Is Bessie Coleman?
Bessie Coleman was the world's first female African-American pilot as well as the world's first Native American pilot.
About the Author
Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace.
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0.063180744647979... | 2 | Bessie Coleman, the world's first female African-American pilot as well as the world's first Native American pilot, was born in Atlanta, Texas. Bessie Coleman overcame many challenges in order to secure her dream of becoming a pilot. During that time, in the 1960s, it was not easy for women to become pilots, let alone women from minority groups. Here are some facts about the life of Bessie Coleman.
She Was Born in Atlanta, Texas in 1892
Bessie was born in Atlanta on January 26, 1892, to a family of thirteen children with Bessie being the fifth-born. Her parents, George Coleman and Susan Coleman, were sharecroppers. Her father was mainly of Cherokee descent while her mother was mainly of African-American descent. At the age of two, Bessie and her family relocated to Waxahachie, Texas, where they resided until Bessie turned 23. While in Waxahachie, she joined school at the age of six where she had to walk four miles to get to class. Throughout her study in all the eight grades, she came out as a top mathematics student. However, her studies were occasionally interrupted every year by cotton harvests.
When she turned 12, she got a scholarship to join the Missionary Baptist Church School. At the age of 18, she used her savings to join the Oklahoma Colored Agricultural and Normal University or the Langston University as it is now called. Unfortunately, she ran out of money after one term and had to go back home.
Coleman passed away on April 30, 1926, in Jacksonville, Florida in a plane crash. She passed away while she was testing her Curtiss JN-4 (Jenny) aircraft for an airshow in Jacksonville. Ten minutes into the flight, her plane developed complications and she was thrown out at a height of about 2,000 feet. She died instantly upon hitting the ground while her engineer and mechanic who was flying the plane, William D. Wills, also lost his life upon impact.
She Was of Native American and African American Descent
As stated earlier, Bessie was born of parents of Cherokee descent (Native Americans) and an African American. Her father left his family while Bessie was only two years old and went to look for work at present-day Oklahoma, which was then known as the Indian Territory.
She Received Her Pilot License in 1921 at the Age of 31
On June 15, 1921, at the age of 31, Coleman made history by becoming the first African-American woman and the first Native American woman to get a pilot license in a world that was dominated by racism and masculinity. Coleman learned to fly using a Nieuport 82 biplane. Her pilot license came from the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale. After that, she spent more time training under a French pilot until 1921 when she left for the United States.
She Had to Fly to Travel to France to Become Licensed
When she was finally ready to join a flight school, she could not join American flight schools because they did not admit black people or women. The publisher and founder of the weekly newspaper the Chicago Defender, Robert S. Abbot encouraged her to try her luck abroad. After receiving financial aid from the Defender and a banker who was known as Jesse Binga, she moved to France. Before moving to France, she joined the Berlitz School in Chicago where she learned French. Her move to France happened on November 20, 1920, where she got her license one year later in 1921.
Her Dream Was to Start a Flight School
While in high school, Coleman vowed to herself that her life would amount to something one day. This dream would evolve to become a pilot dream while she was in Chicago in 1916 at the age of 24. The desire to become a pilot was fueled by pilot stories returning home from World War I. After that, she did everything she could until she realized her dream.
She Worked Two jobs to Save Up for Flight School
While in Chicago in 1916, she used to work at the White Sox Barber Shop as a manicurist. Her dream and desire to become a pilot also increased in the same year after hearing stories from pilots. In order to reach her financial goals so that she could join a flight school, she decided to take another job at a chili parlor.
She Is Quoted As Saying, "The Air is the Only Place Free From Prejudices"
This quote is probably her most famous quote. She said this after realizing that the black race had no representation at all in aircraft piloting. After this, she made it her mission to risk her life in order for black and women to get representation.
She Risked Her Life to Learn to Fly
One day before she died, her agent and engineer was flying her Curtiss JN-4 (Jenny) aircraft to Jacksonville from Dallas. The engineer was known as William D. Wills and was 24 at the time. During his flight to Jacksonville, Wills was forced to land three times due to complications arising from poor maintenance of the plane. Naturally, when Coleman’s family knew about the problems, they advised her not to fly but she risked her life and flew in the plane anyway. Wills was the pilot while she was in the other seat observing the terrain for the airshow that had been scheduled for the next day.
She Turned Down a Racist Role in a Movie
At some point, she was offered a role in a movie called Shadow and Sunshine. She thought it would be great publicity and generate money to star her own flight school. However, she declined the role when she learned that it portrayed black people badly. She did not intend to perpetuate racism in any way.
She Inspired Generations of Marginalized Americans
Coleman made a massive statement by pushing hard and getting her pilot license. She participated in several airshows where she earned the nickname “Queen Bess”. All along, she always wanted to get enough money for her flight school. Even though she never realized that dream, she paved the way for black Americans and all other marginalized people as a role model.
Who Is Bessie Coleman?
Bessie Coleman was the world's first female African-American pilot as well as the world's first Native American pilot.
About the Author
Ferdinand graduated in 2016 with a Bsc. Project Planning and Management. He enjoys writing about pretty much anything and has a soft spot for technology and advocating for world peace.
Your MLA Citation
Your APA Citation
Your Chicago Citation
Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 1,423 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 1577, King Philip II of Spain wanted to know whom he was ruling and where in his vast kingdom they were. So his viceroy asked the indigenous groups in what is now Mexico to draw some maps for him.
In response, they drew maps blending indigenous and Spanish traditions. Sometimes rivers are straight, with tiny arrows in the middle, to indicate which way they flow. Paths have footprints or hoofprints in the middle, to indicate whether the paths can be walked or ridden. These beautiful maps, and their way of recording the landscape, are a silent testimony to the survival of indigenous worldviews into the late 1500s.
In the 1500s three provinces, Beach, Maletur, and Lucach, were added to Australia. Note that the Europeans talking about Australia had not yet discovered it yet. Australia was a concept, a possibility, and somehow it already had named provinces. The names were corruptions of real places which were mentioned in Marco Polo’s book. Later European readers mistakenly placed them south of Java. And somehow the myth took on a life of its own.
The most important of the three was Beach, which appeared on many maps with the enticing title provincial aurifera, or “gold-bearing land.“ Sailors often referred to the continent of Australia as "Beach.”
Maletur was given the title scatens aromaibus, or a region overflowing with spices. Lucach was said as late as 1601 to have received an embassy from Java. These three places were believed to exist in Europe during the 1500s. In fact, in 1545 Spain even appointed a governor of the nonexistent Beach – a certain Pedro Sancho de la Hoz, who was one of the conquistadors of Chile.
The discovery of a town of 20,000 could put south-central Kansas on the map as the second-biggest settlement of Native Americans found in the United States, a Wichita State anthropologist says. The city was believed mythological for centuries. Spanish accounts of a permanent settlement with 20,000 Native Americans in it were thought to be exaggerated.
With new archaeological evidence of Etzanoa emerging, historians and archaeologists are having to rethink what they know about what North America looked like before Columbus.
The real name of the mission where the famous battle happened during the Mexican-American War is
San Antonio de Valero. But it has always been known by its nickname, Alamo. Where did that come from? Well, there are two competing theories.
Did you know that “alamo” is the Spanish word for “cottonwood”? One theory says that when the Spanish missionaries came to the spot in central Texas where they would locate the mission, they were struck by the lushness of the land and a grove of cottonwood trees growing nearby along the San Antonio River.
The second, competing theory, says the name came not from trees, but from a Spanish battalion of soldiers who were stationed at the mission after it was abandoned by missionaries. The battalion was named the Second Flying Company of San Carlos de Parras. No “alamo” in there. But the soldiers were originally from a small town called San Jose y Santiago del Alamo, in Coahuila, Mexico. Eventually that very long name got shortened, to La Compañía del Alamo, or just El Alamo.
Neither theory has been proven absolutely. Which do you prefer? | <urn:uuid:624a1ec5-b09b-4e09-909f-9fc585a3a795> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://history.blogberth.com/category/spanish-empire/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00278.warc.gz | en | 0.981109 | 713 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.32601466774... | 1 | In 1577, King Philip II of Spain wanted to know whom he was ruling and where in his vast kingdom they were. So his viceroy asked the indigenous groups in what is now Mexico to draw some maps for him.
In response, they drew maps blending indigenous and Spanish traditions. Sometimes rivers are straight, with tiny arrows in the middle, to indicate which way they flow. Paths have footprints or hoofprints in the middle, to indicate whether the paths can be walked or ridden. These beautiful maps, and their way of recording the landscape, are a silent testimony to the survival of indigenous worldviews into the late 1500s.
In the 1500s three provinces, Beach, Maletur, and Lucach, were added to Australia. Note that the Europeans talking about Australia had not yet discovered it yet. Australia was a concept, a possibility, and somehow it already had named provinces. The names were corruptions of real places which were mentioned in Marco Polo’s book. Later European readers mistakenly placed them south of Java. And somehow the myth took on a life of its own.
The most important of the three was Beach, which appeared on many maps with the enticing title provincial aurifera, or “gold-bearing land.“ Sailors often referred to the continent of Australia as "Beach.”
Maletur was given the title scatens aromaibus, or a region overflowing with spices. Lucach was said as late as 1601 to have received an embassy from Java. These three places were believed to exist in Europe during the 1500s. In fact, in 1545 Spain even appointed a governor of the nonexistent Beach – a certain Pedro Sancho de la Hoz, who was one of the conquistadors of Chile.
The discovery of a town of 20,000 could put south-central Kansas on the map as the second-biggest settlement of Native Americans found in the United States, a Wichita State anthropologist says. The city was believed mythological for centuries. Spanish accounts of a permanent settlement with 20,000 Native Americans in it were thought to be exaggerated.
With new archaeological evidence of Etzanoa emerging, historians and archaeologists are having to rethink what they know about what North America looked like before Columbus.
The real name of the mission where the famous battle happened during the Mexican-American War is
San Antonio de Valero. But it has always been known by its nickname, Alamo. Where did that come from? Well, there are two competing theories.
Did you know that “alamo” is the Spanish word for “cottonwood”? One theory says that when the Spanish missionaries came to the spot in central Texas where they would locate the mission, they were struck by the lushness of the land and a grove of cottonwood trees growing nearby along the San Antonio River.
The second, competing theory, says the name came not from trees, but from a Spanish battalion of soldiers who were stationed at the mission after it was abandoned by missionaries. The battalion was named the Second Flying Company of San Carlos de Parras. No “alamo” in there. But the soldiers were originally from a small town called San Jose y Santiago del Alamo, in Coahuila, Mexico. Eventually that very long name got shortened, to La Compañía del Alamo, or just El Alamo.
Neither theory has been proven absolutely. Which do you prefer? | 711 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Alexandrapol Era Architecture
Alexandrapol used to be an important fortified city in the crossroads of Caucasian, Russian and European civilizations. This is reflected primarily in city’s culture and architecture.
There were several house plans in Gyumri, including single wing, double wing and corner or “L” shaped house plans. Several had blueprints with a central wall and rooms that led from one to the next with back rooms looking onto a garden.
Homes were substantial, made of stone, and were built around central courtyards that included stables and areas for communal activities, gardening and rest. Courtyards featured wooden balconies with elaborate balustrades and porch cornices. The houses themselves often used patterns and symbols from Armenian Khachkars (stone crosses) or pre-Christian carvings in the cornices, above windows or at the top of walls.
One famous pattern was a diamond effect on walls that was made from red and black tufa, Armenia’s most abundant stone.
Buildings built between 1860-1880 favored the black and red tufa patterns that became known as the “Alexandrapol style”. During that period, a type of white concave masonry called “Ghaiytan darz sharvatsk” was used.
From 1880, black tufa became the predominant color, with arches above windows and doors and white joints, until around 1890 when the white joints were joined by a type of masonry called “S’rbatash sharvatsk”.
In the late Russian period, some buildings were painted over in bright hues of blue, pink and yellow. Their original colors were restored in the 20th century, though some buildings are still covered with this Russian Imperial style of paint.
According to one story, when architects arrived in Alexandrapol from St. Petersburgh, they walked around the city and said that local architects and craftsmen made one big mistake with their work. They did not build their city on wheels, so that they could roll it all over the world and show everyone how wonderful a city it is. | <urn:uuid:4aab7ba6-4dc1-48ee-ba16-6baf2f9c9b77> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://visitgyumri.com/alexandrapol-era-architecture/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251802249.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129194333-20200129223333-00267.warc.gz | en | 0.980129 | 451 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.2631539106... | 9 | Alexandrapol Era Architecture
Alexandrapol used to be an important fortified city in the crossroads of Caucasian, Russian and European civilizations. This is reflected primarily in city’s culture and architecture.
There were several house plans in Gyumri, including single wing, double wing and corner or “L” shaped house plans. Several had blueprints with a central wall and rooms that led from one to the next with back rooms looking onto a garden.
Homes were substantial, made of stone, and were built around central courtyards that included stables and areas for communal activities, gardening and rest. Courtyards featured wooden balconies with elaborate balustrades and porch cornices. The houses themselves often used patterns and symbols from Armenian Khachkars (stone crosses) or pre-Christian carvings in the cornices, above windows or at the top of walls.
One famous pattern was a diamond effect on walls that was made from red and black tufa, Armenia’s most abundant stone.
Buildings built between 1860-1880 favored the black and red tufa patterns that became known as the “Alexandrapol style”. During that period, a type of white concave masonry called “Ghaiytan darz sharvatsk” was used.
From 1880, black tufa became the predominant color, with arches above windows and doors and white joints, until around 1890 when the white joints were joined by a type of masonry called “S’rbatash sharvatsk”.
In the late Russian period, some buildings were painted over in bright hues of blue, pink and yellow. Their original colors were restored in the 20th century, though some buildings are still covered with this Russian Imperial style of paint.
According to one story, when architects arrived in Alexandrapol from St. Petersburgh, they walked around the city and said that local architects and craftsmen made one big mistake with their work. They did not build their city on wheels, so that they could roll it all over the world and show everyone how wonderful a city it is. | 442 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The story of the minotaur is an old myth from ancient Greece. He had a bulls head with the body of a man. His mother was Queen Pasiphae of Crete, King Minos’s wife. King Minos had to sacrifice a bull to Poseiden on sometimes, and one day when Posieden gave King Minos the most precious bull to sacrifice to him, King Minos couldn’t give up such a beautiful creature. Poseiden was not happy. He made Pasiphae have a lust for the bull he gave to Minos, and she had intercourse with it. When she gave birth to the bulls baby, she realized he was half bull.
The minotaur lived in the twisting maze of the labyrinth which was built by Daedalus for king Minos, and was offered a regular sacrifice of maidens and youths to satisfy the minotaurs hunger.The Athenians eventually killed his son Androgeus, according to Catullus Athens was compelled by the cruel plague ‘to pay the penalties for killing his son.’ To end the dreadful plague, king Aegeus of Athens had to send young girls and unwed men to the labyrinth to feed the beast. King Minos commanded seven Athenian youths and seven maidens taken by lots to be sent to the minotaur every ninth year.
When the third sacrifice arrived to the labyrinth, the son of king Aegeus, Theseus, volunteered to slay the flesh eating beast. A promise was made to his father by him, if he survived, he would put up a white sail, and if he died, his crew would put up a black sail. As Theseus began his journey, King Minos’s daughter, Ariadne fell in love with Theseus. She helped him find his way to the Labyrinth, but she was also told where it was.
As Theseus made his way into the twisting maze, Ariadne gave him a ball of thread to unwind so he could find his way back. Almost hysterical, the brave Theseus walked gently through the Labyrinth, alert. Once he found the Minotaur, he cut its bull head off. Theseus led the terrified Athenians back out of the labyrinth. When he made his way back to Athens, he had forgotten to put his sails back up. Theseus was thought to have died, and as a result his father jumped of the cliff into the ocean to kill himself.
Meanwhile, Daedalus and his son Icarus had been imprisoned by King Minos, because Daedalus had given Ariadne clues of where the Labyrinth was. But Daedalus hatched a plan. He made two pairs of wings made of wax, one for his son and another for him. Once they were finished, they flew out the sell to escape. Daedalus warned his son not to fly to close to the son, for his wings would melt. But Icarus had a rush of adrenaline, and out of excitement flew high up, though too close to the sun. Icarus’s wings melted, and he fell with his melting wings into the sea, taking his last breath. | <urn:uuid:e0cbd3af-dbc8-414e-b449-26d59f09714d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.joshuashistorycorner.com/2017/06/30/the-minotaur/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00112.warc.gz | en | 0.989303 | 646 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.21537232398986816,... | 13 | The story of the minotaur is an old myth from ancient Greece. He had a bulls head with the body of a man. His mother was Queen Pasiphae of Crete, King Minos’s wife. King Minos had to sacrifice a bull to Poseiden on sometimes, and one day when Posieden gave King Minos the most precious bull to sacrifice to him, King Minos couldn’t give up such a beautiful creature. Poseiden was not happy. He made Pasiphae have a lust for the bull he gave to Minos, and she had intercourse with it. When she gave birth to the bulls baby, she realized he was half bull.
The minotaur lived in the twisting maze of the labyrinth which was built by Daedalus for king Minos, and was offered a regular sacrifice of maidens and youths to satisfy the minotaurs hunger.The Athenians eventually killed his son Androgeus, according to Catullus Athens was compelled by the cruel plague ‘to pay the penalties for killing his son.’ To end the dreadful plague, king Aegeus of Athens had to send young girls and unwed men to the labyrinth to feed the beast. King Minos commanded seven Athenian youths and seven maidens taken by lots to be sent to the minotaur every ninth year.
When the third sacrifice arrived to the labyrinth, the son of king Aegeus, Theseus, volunteered to slay the flesh eating beast. A promise was made to his father by him, if he survived, he would put up a white sail, and if he died, his crew would put up a black sail. As Theseus began his journey, King Minos’s daughter, Ariadne fell in love with Theseus. She helped him find his way to the Labyrinth, but she was also told where it was.
As Theseus made his way into the twisting maze, Ariadne gave him a ball of thread to unwind so he could find his way back. Almost hysterical, the brave Theseus walked gently through the Labyrinth, alert. Once he found the Minotaur, he cut its bull head off. Theseus led the terrified Athenians back out of the labyrinth. When he made his way back to Athens, he had forgotten to put his sails back up. Theseus was thought to have died, and as a result his father jumped of the cliff into the ocean to kill himself.
Meanwhile, Daedalus and his son Icarus had been imprisoned by King Minos, because Daedalus had given Ariadne clues of where the Labyrinth was. But Daedalus hatched a plan. He made two pairs of wings made of wax, one for his son and another for him. Once they were finished, they flew out the sell to escape. Daedalus warned his son not to fly to close to the son, for his wings would melt. But Icarus had a rush of adrenaline, and out of excitement flew high up, though too close to the sun. Icarus’s wings melted, and he fell with his melting wings into the sea, taking his last breath. | 643 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paper type: Essay Pages: 2 (438 words)
Powhatan, “Speech to Captain John Smith,” The World Turned Upside Down. Boston: Bedford, 1994. The message that Powhatan delivered to John Smith in his speech was one of peace. Powhatan told John Smith that he has seen three generations of his people die. The Chief told John Smith that he has seen many years of war and peace. Powhatan explained that he was getting old and tired. He was concerned that his successors did not have the experience or wisdom to deal with the relationships between the Indians and the European settlers.
His hope was that the relationship would be built on love and respect. However, he felt that this reality was not possible, due to the current circumstances at the time. Powhatan pleaded with John Smith, explaining to him that his people were afraid due to what they heard from the Nandsamund tribe. Powhatan could not understand why the Settlers wanted to disarm them and leave them defenseless when they were feeding them.
He told John Smith that he was wise enough to understand that a mutually beneficial relationship would be best for everyone. Powhatan went on to say that the alternative to peace would be starvation, sleepless nights, and the anxiety of not knowing when they would be attacked.
The European Settlers would fall to the same fate because of their selfishness and lack of cooperation with Powhatan’s people. Finally, Powhatan told John Smith that it is his responsibility to influence the settlers to engage in peaceful trade with the Indians. The consequence of tyranny from the settlers would result in both sides losing. Powhatan’s speech to John Smith was about change through peace. Powhatan was really concerned that the settlers did not intend to engage in peaceful trade with the Indian peoples.
Powhatan warns John Smith not to take advantage of the hospitality, which has been extended to the settlers from the tribe. If the settlers continued to take advantage of the people, they would flee to the woods. As a result, John Smith and his people would starve. Powhatan made it clear to John Smith the urgency of creating an amicable relationship before he passes away.
He feared that his successors would not be as understanding or wise enough to cultivate reliance between the two cultures. This speech is historic because it is one of the first noted interactions between the Indians and the Jamestown settlement. This speech is important, as it addresses the future problems for the Indians, due to an influx of European settlement. Powhatan message to John Smith was delivered to him with a hope of change for generations to come.
Cite this page
Powhatan, “Speech to Captain John Smith,” The World Turned Upside Down. Boston: Bedford, 1994. (2016, May 16). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/powhatan-speech-to-captain-john-smith-the-world-turned-upside-down-boston-bedford-1994-essay | <urn:uuid:feaa2ebe-a22c-40fe-89a5-3d75064bf652> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/powhatan-speech-to-captain-john-smith-the-world-turned-upside-down-boston-bedford-1994-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00447.warc.gz | en | 0.985463 | 642 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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Powhatan, “Speech to Captain John Smith,” The World Turned Upside Down. Boston: Bedford, 1994. The message that Powhatan delivered to John Smith in his speech was one of peace. Powhatan told John Smith that he has seen three generations of his people die. The Chief told John Smith that he has seen many years of war and peace. Powhatan explained that he was getting old and tired. He was concerned that his successors did not have the experience or wisdom to deal with the relationships between the Indians and the European settlers.
His hope was that the relationship would be built on love and respect. However, he felt that this reality was not possible, due to the current circumstances at the time. Powhatan pleaded with John Smith, explaining to him that his people were afraid due to what they heard from the Nandsamund tribe. Powhatan could not understand why the Settlers wanted to disarm them and leave them defenseless when they were feeding them.
He told John Smith that he was wise enough to understand that a mutually beneficial relationship would be best for everyone. Powhatan went on to say that the alternative to peace would be starvation, sleepless nights, and the anxiety of not knowing when they would be attacked.
The European Settlers would fall to the same fate because of their selfishness and lack of cooperation with Powhatan’s people. Finally, Powhatan told John Smith that it is his responsibility to influence the settlers to engage in peaceful trade with the Indians. The consequence of tyranny from the settlers would result in both sides losing. Powhatan’s speech to John Smith was about change through peace. Powhatan was really concerned that the settlers did not intend to engage in peaceful trade with the Indian peoples.
Powhatan warns John Smith not to take advantage of the hospitality, which has been extended to the settlers from the tribe. If the settlers continued to take advantage of the people, they would flee to the woods. As a result, John Smith and his people would starve. Powhatan made it clear to John Smith the urgency of creating an amicable relationship before he passes away.
He feared that his successors would not be as understanding or wise enough to cultivate reliance between the two cultures. This speech is historic because it is one of the first noted interactions between the Indians and the Jamestown settlement. This speech is important, as it addresses the future problems for the Indians, due to an influx of European settlement. Powhatan message to John Smith was delivered to him with a hope of change for generations to come.
Cite this page
Powhatan, “Speech to Captain John Smith,” The World Turned Upside Down. Boston: Bedford, 1994. (2016, May 16). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/powhatan-speech-to-captain-john-smith-the-world-turned-upside-down-boston-bedford-1994-essay | 627 | ENGLISH | 1 |
PURITANS AND PILGRIMS
Thanksgiving Day and Black Friday have just passed, but not everybody knows the meaning and history of Thanksgiving Day.
After the Church of England had split off from the Roman Catholic Church, a few Christian groups that didn’t identify themselves with the Anglicans, took root in England.
Puritans were a dissident faction who wanted to “Purify” – hence their name Puritans – the Church of England from the trappings of Catholicism.
Pilgrims, also called Separatists, aimed at separating themselves from the Church of England, which they considered corrupted, and giving rise to an autonomous entity.
Both groups were not tolerated by government authorities, but Separatists were persecuted to such an extent that they were forced to leave the country. They settled in Holland, where they remained for a long time.
In 1620, one hundred Pilgrims or so landed on the shores of Massachusetts. Once there, they came in touch with the Native Americans and established a good relationship with them. They sowed a field with the seeds they had received from the Natives, and the following year they had a good crop. They gave thanks to God both for the crop and everything. Ever since that time, Thanksgiving Day has been celebrated in America.
Puritans emigrated to America as well, and it seems that later the two groups merged together. Puritans have greatly influenced custom, literature, and politics. They aimed at promoting the individual instead of society as a whole. The rise of the modern novel originates from the Puritans. The first novelists, Daniel Defoe, Samuel Richardson, and Henry Fielding were greatly influenced by Puritans.
Ettore Grillo, author of these books:
– A Hidden Sicilian History
– The Vibrations of Words
– Travels of the Mind | <urn:uuid:b3d7b64b-e28b-4788-9ae9-b2dd6c2e9f4c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ettoregrillo.wordpress.com/2016/11/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00150.warc.gz | en | 0.980611 | 385 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.3105956017... | 4 | PURITANS AND PILGRIMS
Thanksgiving Day and Black Friday have just passed, but not everybody knows the meaning and history of Thanksgiving Day.
After the Church of England had split off from the Roman Catholic Church, a few Christian groups that didn’t identify themselves with the Anglicans, took root in England.
Puritans were a dissident faction who wanted to “Purify” – hence their name Puritans – the Church of England from the trappings of Catholicism.
Pilgrims, also called Separatists, aimed at separating themselves from the Church of England, which they considered corrupted, and giving rise to an autonomous entity.
Both groups were not tolerated by government authorities, but Separatists were persecuted to such an extent that they were forced to leave the country. They settled in Holland, where they remained for a long time.
In 1620, one hundred Pilgrims or so landed on the shores of Massachusetts. Once there, they came in touch with the Native Americans and established a good relationship with them. They sowed a field with the seeds they had received from the Natives, and the following year they had a good crop. They gave thanks to God both for the crop and everything. Ever since that time, Thanksgiving Day has been celebrated in America.
Puritans emigrated to America as well, and it seems that later the two groups merged together. Puritans have greatly influenced custom, literature, and politics. They aimed at promoting the individual instead of society as a whole. The rise of the modern novel originates from the Puritans. The first novelists, Daniel Defoe, Samuel Richardson, and Henry Fielding were greatly influenced by Puritans.
Ettore Grillo, author of these books:
– A Hidden Sicilian History
– The Vibrations of Words
– Travels of the Mind | 382 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ancient Greek citizenship?
Who where citizens in ancient Greece? How could a person become a citizen?
- NCLv 71 decade agoFavorite Answer
There was no such thing as "Greek citizenship". Citizens owed allegiance to the city they lived in or around (the English words, by the way, reflect this notion; it is no accident that there is a "city" in "citizen").
Generally, citizenship was a hereditary privilege; a man inherited citizenship from his father or both parents. Some cities employed means tests; only those who paid above certain threshold in taxes had citizenship privileges. Women and slaves were not citizens; neither were "barbarians" (non-Greeks) living among the Greeks.
- Anonymous1 decade ago
In ancient Greece, citizens were all those who: were born in a certain city (eg. if they were born in Athens they were Athenians). They should not be barbarians (people who have red hair or/and don't speak greek), they should not be slaves, women, or villagers around the city. | <urn:uuid:383dbcb1-4b6e-44eb-a9fd-61b9638a0938> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20071009133400AAGzMe2 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00389.warc.gz | en | 0.988532 | 218 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.151481717824... | 1 | Ancient Greek citizenship?
Who where citizens in ancient Greece? How could a person become a citizen?
- NCLv 71 decade agoFavorite Answer
There was no such thing as "Greek citizenship". Citizens owed allegiance to the city they lived in or around (the English words, by the way, reflect this notion; it is no accident that there is a "city" in "citizen").
Generally, citizenship was a hereditary privilege; a man inherited citizenship from his father or both parents. Some cities employed means tests; only those who paid above certain threshold in taxes had citizenship privileges. Women and slaves were not citizens; neither were "barbarians" (non-Greeks) living among the Greeks.
- Anonymous1 decade ago
In ancient Greece, citizens were all those who: were born in a certain city (eg. if they were born in Athens they were Athenians). They should not be barbarians (people who have red hair or/and don't speak greek), they should not be slaves, women, or villagers around the city. | 217 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Iroquois were an interesting group because they were more than one tribe. They united six different tribes to form one league. They did this to defeat their enemies in an Iroquois village. The languages the Iroquois would speak was Iroquoian, Gonovian, and Siouan. The Iroquois lived near Lake Ontario. They ate lots of corn and other vegetables that were grown there, as well as eating meat.
The Iroquois believed that everything came from the sky. In the beginning, there was a lovely heaven in the sky over a dark sea. One day, there was a hole in the sky and a turtle fell out. Next, trees fell out onto the turtle's back. As dust and dirt collected on the turtle's back, it became land. Now the people who fell from the sky could live on turtle's back which became land. The Iroquois worshipped their gods by putting on false faces of creatures seen in dreams and dancing around the fire. They also danced to heal medical problems. The Iroquois had six main celebrations: the New Year's Dance, The Maypole Dance, The Planting Festival, The Strawberry Dance, The Green Corn Festival, and The Snow Dance.
The Iroquois also invented some useful things. They made up the game of lacrosse. Also, the tribes of the Iroquois League lived in long houses. Long houses are made of frames of bent saplings. Bark slabs cover the frame. Each family lived in their own space in a family long house. | <urn:uuid:2ce7744d-5ada-42cb-bc3c-d0714812e63f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.germantownacademy.org/academics/LS/4/sstudies/Colonial/4R/4r98/Matt.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00122.warc.gz | en | 0.986549 | 317 | 3.59375 | 4 | [
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0.165036588... | 1 | The Iroquois were an interesting group because they were more than one tribe. They united six different tribes to form one league. They did this to defeat their enemies in an Iroquois village. The languages the Iroquois would speak was Iroquoian, Gonovian, and Siouan. The Iroquois lived near Lake Ontario. They ate lots of corn and other vegetables that were grown there, as well as eating meat.
The Iroquois believed that everything came from the sky. In the beginning, there was a lovely heaven in the sky over a dark sea. One day, there was a hole in the sky and a turtle fell out. Next, trees fell out onto the turtle's back. As dust and dirt collected on the turtle's back, it became land. Now the people who fell from the sky could live on turtle's back which became land. The Iroquois worshipped their gods by putting on false faces of creatures seen in dreams and dancing around the fire. They also danced to heal medical problems. The Iroquois had six main celebrations: the New Year's Dance, The Maypole Dance, The Planting Festival, The Strawberry Dance, The Green Corn Festival, and The Snow Dance.
The Iroquois also invented some useful things. They made up the game of lacrosse. Also, the tribes of the Iroquois League lived in long houses. Long houses are made of frames of bent saplings. Bark slabs cover the frame. Each family lived in their own space in a family long house. | 325 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Wikijunior:World War II/Pearl Harbor
What is Pearl Harbor?Edit
The attack of Pearl Harbor (or the Hawaii operation, as it was called by the Imperial General Headquarters) was a surprise military strike conducted by the Japanese navy against the US Navy on December 7 1941.
What is "the attack on Pearl Harbor"?Edit
On December 7, 1941, Pearl Harbor (and other places between Honolulu and San Francisco) was attacked by the Japanese. About 2,403 people were killed, 188 airplanes destroyed, and 8 battleships were either destroyed or seriously damaged.
Why did Japan attack Pearl Harbor if the USA was neutral?Edit
Although the US was neutral during the attack on Pearl Harbor, the US was helping China by giving money and shipping oil to them. As a result, Japan no longer got certain resources such as oil and rubber that they really needed. The Empire of Japan saw this embargo (an order from government that stops trade between countries) as a threat and started to prepare to attack. In doing this, Japan hoped that they could make quick advances in the Pacific while the American Navy was damaged, and then build up defenses causing America to sign a peace treaty.
How did the US respond to all this?Edit
The US declared war on Japan the day after Japan attacked Pearl Harbor. Japanese-Americans were forced out of their homes to live in "War Relocation Camps" because of the wide discrimination of Japanese-Americans in the US that sparked after Pearl Harbor. Days later, U.S. forces in the Pacific were defeated in the Philippines, as the British also lost island territories in the Pacific to the Japanese. | <urn:uuid:073a26c8-d65c-4ffa-a193-9ed45547c4ef> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.m.wikibooks.org/wiki/Wikijunior:World_War_II/Pearl_Harbor | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00361.warc.gz | en | 0.983518 | 337 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.4696131348609924... | 3 | Wikijunior:World War II/Pearl Harbor
What is Pearl Harbor?Edit
The attack of Pearl Harbor (or the Hawaii operation, as it was called by the Imperial General Headquarters) was a surprise military strike conducted by the Japanese navy against the US Navy on December 7 1941.
What is "the attack on Pearl Harbor"?Edit
On December 7, 1941, Pearl Harbor (and other places between Honolulu and San Francisco) was attacked by the Japanese. About 2,403 people were killed, 188 airplanes destroyed, and 8 battleships were either destroyed or seriously damaged.
Why did Japan attack Pearl Harbor if the USA was neutral?Edit
Although the US was neutral during the attack on Pearl Harbor, the US was helping China by giving money and shipping oil to them. As a result, Japan no longer got certain resources such as oil and rubber that they really needed. The Empire of Japan saw this embargo (an order from government that stops trade between countries) as a threat and started to prepare to attack. In doing this, Japan hoped that they could make quick advances in the Pacific while the American Navy was damaged, and then build up defenses causing America to sign a peace treaty.
How did the US respond to all this?Edit
The US declared war on Japan the day after Japan attacked Pearl Harbor. Japanese-Americans were forced out of their homes to live in "War Relocation Camps" because of the wide discrimination of Japanese-Americans in the US that sparked after Pearl Harbor. Days later, U.S. forces in the Pacific were defeated in the Philippines, as the British also lost island territories in the Pacific to the Japanese. | 348 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ancient history may have a reputation for being dry, but one Brock University professor has found a way to show it is anything but.
Katharine von Stackelberg, an associate professor in the Department of Classics, noticed the difficulty students sometimes had with reading ancient sources.
This inspired her to find a more engaging way to learn about Roman history.
“The sources are dense; they’re written in a style that’s not very accessible for modern readers, but they’re absolutely essential reading to understand the impact of the arc of Roman history,” she says. “I was looking for ways to get students to engage with primary sources.”
A long-time fan of role-playing games, von Stackelberg wondered if such a game might help the 380 students in her Roman Civilization course better understand the complexities and nuances of Roman society while building relationships with their peers.
Von Stackelberg found the popular role-playing game, Reacting to the Past, pegged to elite male figures of history and major events. Wanting something that reflected the complexity of the ancient world and that would allow students to examine how things actually functioned in ancient society, von Stackelberg settled on family structure for her role-playing game.
“The game really puts into context what was happening; for example, various religious practices were reserved for various statuses and genders,” says third-year student Liz Hoffer. “You can read about it in a book or put yourself in that perspective and really understand what it meant.”
Students in each seminar were divided into three family groups (familia) and took on characters reflecting the different social levels of the ancient Roman family. Students whose character died came back as slaves or freed people, reflecting the changes that happened to the Roman family through history.
“It helped to enhance learning because you were carrying over something you were talking about in lecture into seminar, and then you were actively role playing it,” says student Leslie Czegeny. “Even though I was a slave character, I was involved in the familia’s decision making. You had to know about the other roles in your family. You couldn’t be a passive member”
Each week’s seminar dealt with a particular theme, such as the economy, religion, military or funerary practices. The familiae were faced with various challenges and had to make decisions based on what they were learning in lecture and in their readings.
“A lot of writings are by and about men, so you have to filter through everything and think about what it means for you as a slave’s perspective,” says student Kyle Edwards, whose own role was that of a Roman mother. “Slaves never got to write their own biographies. You have to filter through and figure out how it applies to your character.”
Seminars often lead to passionate discussions, as students felt invested in their characters and familia, says Hoffer.
“You had to be actively involved in seminar,” she says. “It was an amazing way to get to know people in your class and even lead to making new friends and meeting up outside of class.”
Originally published in the Brock News. | <urn:uuid:30c5f17e-4b82-4dbb-b41e-5ba94ee9929d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brocku.ca/blogs/humanities/2020/01/08/bringing-the-ancient-world-to-life-in-clas1p92/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00353.warc.gz | en | 0.983994 | 687 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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-0.1211647... | 9 | Ancient history may have a reputation for being dry, but one Brock University professor has found a way to show it is anything but.
Katharine von Stackelberg, an associate professor in the Department of Classics, noticed the difficulty students sometimes had with reading ancient sources.
This inspired her to find a more engaging way to learn about Roman history.
“The sources are dense; they’re written in a style that’s not very accessible for modern readers, but they’re absolutely essential reading to understand the impact of the arc of Roman history,” she says. “I was looking for ways to get students to engage with primary sources.”
A long-time fan of role-playing games, von Stackelberg wondered if such a game might help the 380 students in her Roman Civilization course better understand the complexities and nuances of Roman society while building relationships with their peers.
Von Stackelberg found the popular role-playing game, Reacting to the Past, pegged to elite male figures of history and major events. Wanting something that reflected the complexity of the ancient world and that would allow students to examine how things actually functioned in ancient society, von Stackelberg settled on family structure for her role-playing game.
“The game really puts into context what was happening; for example, various religious practices were reserved for various statuses and genders,” says third-year student Liz Hoffer. “You can read about it in a book or put yourself in that perspective and really understand what it meant.”
Students in each seminar were divided into three family groups (familia) and took on characters reflecting the different social levels of the ancient Roman family. Students whose character died came back as slaves or freed people, reflecting the changes that happened to the Roman family through history.
“It helped to enhance learning because you were carrying over something you were talking about in lecture into seminar, and then you were actively role playing it,” says student Leslie Czegeny. “Even though I was a slave character, I was involved in the familia’s decision making. You had to know about the other roles in your family. You couldn’t be a passive member”
Each week’s seminar dealt with a particular theme, such as the economy, religion, military or funerary practices. The familiae were faced with various challenges and had to make decisions based on what they were learning in lecture and in their readings.
“A lot of writings are by and about men, so you have to filter through everything and think about what it means for you as a slave’s perspective,” says student Kyle Edwards, whose own role was that of a Roman mother. “Slaves never got to write their own biographies. You have to filter through and figure out how it applies to your character.”
Seminars often lead to passionate discussions, as students felt invested in their characters and familia, says Hoffer.
“You had to be actively involved in seminar,” she says. “It was an amazing way to get to know people in your class and even lead to making new friends and meeting up outside of class.”
Originally published in the Brock News. | 620 | ENGLISH | 1 |
(English) Ruins of Shabran
There are ruins of an ancient city near the village of Shahnazarli. As a result of archaeological excavations carried out on the bank of the Shabran River in 1979-1989, the ruins of the ancient city of Shabran with an area of 450 square kilometers were discovered. The historical city, which was founded between Europe and Asia along the Caspian Sea coast, is now a museum.
Shabran was built by the Sassanid Shah Khosrov Anushiravan (531-579) in the 6th century and was occupied by Arabs in the 7th century. In the 9th-10th centuries, the city turned into a political-administrative, trade, crafts and cultural center. In the 10th-12th centuries, it was one of the main political centers of the Shirvanshah state. The family graveyard and central prisons of Shirvanshah rulers were situated here. According to written sources, in Shabran, Shirvanshah Ibrahim gave a big banquet in honour of Tamerlane, who defeated the Golden Horde Khan Tokhtamysh.
The Mongol invasions and Ottoman raids dealt a serious blow to Shabran’s economy. During the decline of the Safavid state, the city became a small settlement. During the turmoil and infighting in the country in the early 18th century, Shabran went into decline and gradually turned into ruins. The ethnic composition of the city’s population was diverse. Although most of the population were Muslims, there were also Christians and Jews here. The city population was engaged in the production of ceramics. Pottery workshops have been found under the ruins of Shabran. Azerbaijan’s first sewerage system was built in Shabran in the 9th century. The covered network built from stone and bricks connected the central street to the river. In the 11th-12th centuries, spring water was supplied to the city by special pipes from a distance of 14 km. Shabran was laid out with mansions built from raw bricks. In medieval Azerbaijan, the first street was built in Shabran. Ovens in the bakers’ street are still intact. One of the largest mints in the east was located in Shabran. Various metal coins found during excavations show that copper production, jeweller’s art and weapon-making were developed in the city in the Middle Ages. | <urn:uuid:1c6c9255-3d41-47e5-b1ac-2b0213b03717> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://triptoazerbaijan.com/tr/things-to-do/ruins-of-shabran/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594333.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119064802-20200119092802-00041.warc.gz | en | 0.98303 | 514 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.3949804902076... | 1 | (English) Ruins of Shabran
There are ruins of an ancient city near the village of Shahnazarli. As a result of archaeological excavations carried out on the bank of the Shabran River in 1979-1989, the ruins of the ancient city of Shabran with an area of 450 square kilometers were discovered. The historical city, which was founded between Europe and Asia along the Caspian Sea coast, is now a museum.
Shabran was built by the Sassanid Shah Khosrov Anushiravan (531-579) in the 6th century and was occupied by Arabs in the 7th century. In the 9th-10th centuries, the city turned into a political-administrative, trade, crafts and cultural center. In the 10th-12th centuries, it was one of the main political centers of the Shirvanshah state. The family graveyard and central prisons of Shirvanshah rulers were situated here. According to written sources, in Shabran, Shirvanshah Ibrahim gave a big banquet in honour of Tamerlane, who defeated the Golden Horde Khan Tokhtamysh.
The Mongol invasions and Ottoman raids dealt a serious blow to Shabran’s economy. During the decline of the Safavid state, the city became a small settlement. During the turmoil and infighting in the country in the early 18th century, Shabran went into decline and gradually turned into ruins. The ethnic composition of the city’s population was diverse. Although most of the population were Muslims, there were also Christians and Jews here. The city population was engaged in the production of ceramics. Pottery workshops have been found under the ruins of Shabran. Azerbaijan’s first sewerage system was built in Shabran in the 9th century. The covered network built from stone and bricks connected the central street to the river. In the 11th-12th centuries, spring water was supplied to the city by special pipes from a distance of 14 km. Shabran was laid out with mansions built from raw bricks. In medieval Azerbaijan, the first street was built in Shabran. Ovens in the bakers’ street are still intact. One of the largest mints in the east was located in Shabran. Various metal coins found during excavations show that copper production, jeweller’s art and weapon-making were developed in the city in the Middle Ages. | 528 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Celtic Connections 2000-2001
The Celts were ebullient high spirited people who occupied much of Europe and particularly northern and central Europe between 2000 and 100BC. The peak of their influence was between 500-100BC when their territory extended from Ireland in the west, across central and eastern Europe to Turkey. They were fond of ornament and bright clothes, gambling, hunting and intellectual pursuits. They were feasters, drinkers, war-mongers - by Roman accounts "mad fond of war," - who were also known for their hospitality. Celtic society was based on kinship; all major events were marked by shared food and drink.
As for Celtic art, it is fundamentally an abstract art. It combines the natural and spiritual aspects of life depicted in a symbolic way. If I indicate a few examples we can obtain some idea as to the structure of their visual language. Trees, fundamental to Celtic life represented fertility, rebirth and the sacred link between the earth, the sky and the Underworld. The Celts perceived in all aspects of the natural world the presence of spirits which were alive in a supernatural way. These were part of what they called the Underworld.
Wheels and circles symbolise the sun, the sky god and thunder. Fire, an important part of ceremonies held three times a year in May, August and November, was the great cleanser and from it’s ashes sprang new life.
Water was worshiped as creator and destroyer and all sources of water were sacred. Lakes and rivers were concerned with passage into the Underworld, springs were associated with healing and wells were revered for their physical link with the Underworld and the wisdom that reputedly lay at the bottom of them.
Numbers too were mystical. Triple was deemed to be the natural order of things, so sky, earth and the Underworld went together. Earth, air and water; past, present and future. Even Celtic society itself was organised in the tripartite hierarchy of kings, warrior nobility and farmers.
The Celts were a knowledgeable people with a fundamental understanding of life in the round. The art and life of the Celts lives on today because it’s nature is timeless. The works and artefacts then as now are only limited by our own imagination. | <urn:uuid:44daac72-9f1b-47aa-a9d3-1c939a821489> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://glynpooley.co.uk/galleries/paintings/category/celtic-connections | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00035.warc.gz | en | 0.984614 | 457 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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The Celts were ebullient high spirited people who occupied much of Europe and particularly northern and central Europe between 2000 and 100BC. The peak of their influence was between 500-100BC when their territory extended from Ireland in the west, across central and eastern Europe to Turkey. They were fond of ornament and bright clothes, gambling, hunting and intellectual pursuits. They were feasters, drinkers, war-mongers - by Roman accounts "mad fond of war," - who were also known for their hospitality. Celtic society was based on kinship; all major events were marked by shared food and drink.
As for Celtic art, it is fundamentally an abstract art. It combines the natural and spiritual aspects of life depicted in a symbolic way. If I indicate a few examples we can obtain some idea as to the structure of their visual language. Trees, fundamental to Celtic life represented fertility, rebirth and the sacred link between the earth, the sky and the Underworld. The Celts perceived in all aspects of the natural world the presence of spirits which were alive in a supernatural way. These were part of what they called the Underworld.
Wheels and circles symbolise the sun, the sky god and thunder. Fire, an important part of ceremonies held three times a year in May, August and November, was the great cleanser and from it’s ashes sprang new life.
Water was worshiped as creator and destroyer and all sources of water were sacred. Lakes and rivers were concerned with passage into the Underworld, springs were associated with healing and wells were revered for their physical link with the Underworld and the wisdom that reputedly lay at the bottom of them.
Numbers too were mystical. Triple was deemed to be the natural order of things, so sky, earth and the Underworld went together. Earth, air and water; past, present and future. Even Celtic society itself was organised in the tripartite hierarchy of kings, warrior nobility and farmers.
The Celts were a knowledgeable people with a fundamental understanding of life in the round. The art and life of the Celts lives on today because it’s nature is timeless. The works and artefacts then as now are only limited by our own imagination. | 473 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Have you seen The Big Bad Wolf?
During Benchmark Literacy in Mrs. Woodward’s Kindergarten class, the class read The Three Little Pigs. The students learned to analyze characters during reading by looking at each character and talking about how it was feeling. They then talked about what it would be like to be each character. The class decided to act out The Three Little Pigs. As a group they came up with how to make the houses. The students also thought that it would be safer to have a pot of skittles to jump into rather than boiling water. Luckily, they were able to reason that we could not find a pot big enough or get enough Skittles to fill the pot. A small chair ended up working just fine as the pot. The children enjoyed telling and retelling the story as the characters. The children even asked to have this as a literacy station for a second week!
Can you think of other stories that would be fun to act out? | <urn:uuid:580572bd-41c9-4fdc-8089-c8ccf03dab01> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.kidsworldnews.org/single-post/2017/02/15/H-T-Smith-Elementary | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00459.warc.gz | en | 0.985334 | 201 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.1657602... | 1 | Have you seen The Big Bad Wolf?
During Benchmark Literacy in Mrs. Woodward’s Kindergarten class, the class read The Three Little Pigs. The students learned to analyze characters during reading by looking at each character and talking about how it was feeling. They then talked about what it would be like to be each character. The class decided to act out The Three Little Pigs. As a group they came up with how to make the houses. The students also thought that it would be safer to have a pot of skittles to jump into rather than boiling water. Luckily, they were able to reason that we could not find a pot big enough or get enough Skittles to fill the pot. A small chair ended up working just fine as the pot. The children enjoyed telling and retelling the story as the characters. The children even asked to have this as a literacy station for a second week!
Can you think of other stories that would be fun to act out? | 197 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Despite the odds being stacked against them throughout history, African American aviators have contributed significantly to flight exploration as well as to the outer edges of space. Whether male or female, these brave and unique individuals achieved many firsts in aviation and continue to be a source of inspiration to their communities.
Here are 10 noteworthy black pilots who were pioneers of their generation.
Bessie Coleman: First African American and Native American Female Pilot
Hailing from both African American and Native American descent, Bessie Coleman (1892-1926) was the first female from both ethnic heritages to earn her pilot license. But because there were no aeronautical facilities that would teach minority women to fly in America, Coleman had to earn her license in France, which she did in 1921.
When she returned to the States, she became a celebrity and built her career as an airshow pilot. Although she had big dreams of starting an African American flying school, she died during a test flight in 1926.
Eugene Jacques Bullard: First African American Military Combat Pilot
Born in Columbus, Georgia in 1895, Eugene Jacques Bullard had lived many interesting lives before and after making history as the first black military pilot.
As a teen, he found his way to London and later settled in France as both an entertainer and a boxer. When World War I broke out, he fought for France and became a decorated infantryman before training as a pilot, receiving his license in 1917.
However, after fighting and getting wounded in World War II, he returned to the States and settled in Harlem, New York, where he worked odd jobs — his final stint being an elevator operator at Rockefeller Center. He died from stomach cancer in 1961 and was buried in Flushing Cemetery in the French War Veterans' section in Queens, New York.
James Banning: First African American Pilot to Fly Across America
Born in 1900, James Banning held onto his childhood dreams of flying, despite the fact no school in America was willing to train a black man. Thankfully for Banning, he found a white pilot who taught him the ropes and in 1926 became one of the first African American pilots in history.
In 1932, with only four people coming out to watch his epic endeavor from a small airport in Los Angeles, Banning set off with his mechanic Thomas C. Allen on a coast-to-coast, history-making flight. Known as the "Flying Hoboes," the two made the harrowing 3,300-mile journey and landed in Long Island, New York, clocking in at 41 hours and 27 minutes.
Banning was unable to enjoy the fruits of his labor, however; he died just four months later in an air show plane crash in San Diego.
Cornelius Coffey: First Aviation School Founder
Cornelius Coffey (1902-1994) was a triple threat in his day: He was not only distinguished as the first African American aviator who had both a pilot and mechanic's license, but he also was the first to have founded a non-university affiliated flight school.
With his wife and fellow aviator Willa Brown, Coffey established the Coffey School of Aeronautics in Illinois, where they trained many black pilots, including a significant number of Tuskegee Airmen. The school would later be moved to Harlem, New York.
Willa Brown: First African American Woman to Earn a Pilot License in the U.S.
Like her husband Cornelius Coffey, Willa Brown (1906-1992) accomplished many firsts, and some of her achievements extended beyond aviation. While she's best known for being the first black woman to receive her pilot license in the United States, which she did in 1938, Brown also became the first black woman to serve as a Civil Air Patrol officer, the first to receive a commercial pilot's license and the first to run for Congress.
Having co-founded the Coffey School of Aeronautics, Brown would later organize flight schools for youth and remained active in Chicago politics and its public education system before she retired in 1971.
The Tuskegee Airmen: First Black Military Aviators in the U.S. Armed Forces
Led by C. Alfred Anderson, who was known as the "Father of Black Aviation," the Tuskegee Airmen (active 1940-1948) had a lot to prove to their country and the rest of the world as the first black military pilots in the U.S. Armed Forces. Subjected to discrimination both on and off the battlefield, the Tuskegee Airmen's service during World War II was at a time when the military was still segregated.
Their heroic missions — escorting heavy bomber aircraft and conducting successful attack missions in 1945 — earned them distinguished honors and helped bring about the desegregation of the military.
Robert Lawrence: First African American Astronaut
Born in Chicago in 1935, Robert Lawrence graduated from Bradley University at age 20 with a chemistry degree. He would go on to serve as an Air Force officer and skilled pilot, logging in 2,500 hours and flying in 2,000 jets.
In 1965, he earned his Ph.D. in physical chemistry from Ohio State University, and two years later, was chosen by the Air Force to take part in the Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) program, a clandestine space mission that aimed at spying on Cold War adversaries.
As a member of MOL, Lawrence became the first black astronaut selected to a national space program and the only member with a doctorate. Unfortunately, despite all of his promise, Lawrence would never reach space. He was killed as a backseat passenger while testing an F-104 Starfighter supersonic jet, which crashed on December 8, 1967.
Still, Lawrence is remembered for helping develop the Space Shuttle and would have most likely been part of the group who subsequently flew on some of its early missions.
Guy Bluford: First African American Astronaut in Space
What Lawrence fell short of achieving, Guy Bluford picked up the mantle. Born in Philadelphia in 1942, Bluford served in the U.S. Air Force as an officer and pilot before working at NASA.
With multiple degrees in aerospace engineering, Bluford was chosen to participate in the NASA astronaut training program in 1978 and became the first black person in space as a crew member of the Space Shuttle Challenger in 1983. The historical significance wouldn't hit him until later, but once he let reality set in, he embraced it fully.
"I wanted to set the standard, do the best job possible so that other people would be comfortable with African Americans flying in space and African Americans would be proud of being participants in the space program and… encourage others to do the same." Bluford would go on to serve in three other space shuttle missions before retiring from the program in 1993.
Mae Jemison: First African American Woman in Space
Around the time Bluford was nearing the end of his NASA career, Mae Jemison was just beginning hers. Born in Alabama in 1956, Jemison grew up in Chicago and was involved heavily in dance yet also held a fascination with science.
She graduated from Stanford University with a chemical engineering degree in 1977 and received her medical degree from Cornell Medical College four years later. After holding a brief medical practice, Jemison took time off to serve in the Peace Corps, which is when she discovered she was accepted into the NASA program.
On September 12, 1992, Jemison became the first black woman in space as a member of the Space Shuttle Endeavour. A person with many skills and interests, Jemison retired from the program a year later and went on to establish her own tech research company and write a memoir. She is currently a professor at Cornell University.
Emory Malick: First Black Pilot (but some historians disagree)
Born in Pennsylvania in 1881, Emory Malick fell in love with flying as a young man. In 1911, he was the first aviator to fly through the central part of the state, and the following year he received his international pilot license, making him the first African American pilot in history... or was he?
According to his granddaughter, Mary Groce, who recently discovered family documents that confirmed he was black, the answer is "yes." Other organizations like the Federal Aviation Administration, United States Department of Veterans Affairs and American aviation pioneer Glenn Curtis, who trained Malick, also attest to this presumption.
However, other historians have revealed official records that indicate Malick identified as white. Due to his mixed black and European ancestry, the controversy over his race has kept him from receiving unanimous recognition in black aviation history. | <urn:uuid:4d2d333a-5cd8-434a-822a-02fabfbe6c53> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.biography.com/news/bessie-coleman-black-pilots | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00227.warc.gz | en | 0.980032 | 1,785 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.32341733... | 2 | Despite the odds being stacked against them throughout history, African American aviators have contributed significantly to flight exploration as well as to the outer edges of space. Whether male or female, these brave and unique individuals achieved many firsts in aviation and continue to be a source of inspiration to their communities.
Here are 10 noteworthy black pilots who were pioneers of their generation.
Bessie Coleman: First African American and Native American Female Pilot
Hailing from both African American and Native American descent, Bessie Coleman (1892-1926) was the first female from both ethnic heritages to earn her pilot license. But because there were no aeronautical facilities that would teach minority women to fly in America, Coleman had to earn her license in France, which she did in 1921.
When she returned to the States, she became a celebrity and built her career as an airshow pilot. Although she had big dreams of starting an African American flying school, she died during a test flight in 1926.
Eugene Jacques Bullard: First African American Military Combat Pilot
Born in Columbus, Georgia in 1895, Eugene Jacques Bullard had lived many interesting lives before and after making history as the first black military pilot.
As a teen, he found his way to London and later settled in France as both an entertainer and a boxer. When World War I broke out, he fought for France and became a decorated infantryman before training as a pilot, receiving his license in 1917.
However, after fighting and getting wounded in World War II, he returned to the States and settled in Harlem, New York, where he worked odd jobs — his final stint being an elevator operator at Rockefeller Center. He died from stomach cancer in 1961 and was buried in Flushing Cemetery in the French War Veterans' section in Queens, New York.
James Banning: First African American Pilot to Fly Across America
Born in 1900, James Banning held onto his childhood dreams of flying, despite the fact no school in America was willing to train a black man. Thankfully for Banning, he found a white pilot who taught him the ropes and in 1926 became one of the first African American pilots in history.
In 1932, with only four people coming out to watch his epic endeavor from a small airport in Los Angeles, Banning set off with his mechanic Thomas C. Allen on a coast-to-coast, history-making flight. Known as the "Flying Hoboes," the two made the harrowing 3,300-mile journey and landed in Long Island, New York, clocking in at 41 hours and 27 minutes.
Banning was unable to enjoy the fruits of his labor, however; he died just four months later in an air show plane crash in San Diego.
Cornelius Coffey: First Aviation School Founder
Cornelius Coffey (1902-1994) was a triple threat in his day: He was not only distinguished as the first African American aviator who had both a pilot and mechanic's license, but he also was the first to have founded a non-university affiliated flight school.
With his wife and fellow aviator Willa Brown, Coffey established the Coffey School of Aeronautics in Illinois, where they trained many black pilots, including a significant number of Tuskegee Airmen. The school would later be moved to Harlem, New York.
Willa Brown: First African American Woman to Earn a Pilot License in the U.S.
Like her husband Cornelius Coffey, Willa Brown (1906-1992) accomplished many firsts, and some of her achievements extended beyond aviation. While she's best known for being the first black woman to receive her pilot license in the United States, which she did in 1938, Brown also became the first black woman to serve as a Civil Air Patrol officer, the first to receive a commercial pilot's license and the first to run for Congress.
Having co-founded the Coffey School of Aeronautics, Brown would later organize flight schools for youth and remained active in Chicago politics and its public education system before she retired in 1971.
The Tuskegee Airmen: First Black Military Aviators in the U.S. Armed Forces
Led by C. Alfred Anderson, who was known as the "Father of Black Aviation," the Tuskegee Airmen (active 1940-1948) had a lot to prove to their country and the rest of the world as the first black military pilots in the U.S. Armed Forces. Subjected to discrimination both on and off the battlefield, the Tuskegee Airmen's service during World War II was at a time when the military was still segregated.
Their heroic missions — escorting heavy bomber aircraft and conducting successful attack missions in 1945 — earned them distinguished honors and helped bring about the desegregation of the military.
Robert Lawrence: First African American Astronaut
Born in Chicago in 1935, Robert Lawrence graduated from Bradley University at age 20 with a chemistry degree. He would go on to serve as an Air Force officer and skilled pilot, logging in 2,500 hours and flying in 2,000 jets.
In 1965, he earned his Ph.D. in physical chemistry from Ohio State University, and two years later, was chosen by the Air Force to take part in the Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) program, a clandestine space mission that aimed at spying on Cold War adversaries.
As a member of MOL, Lawrence became the first black astronaut selected to a national space program and the only member with a doctorate. Unfortunately, despite all of his promise, Lawrence would never reach space. He was killed as a backseat passenger while testing an F-104 Starfighter supersonic jet, which crashed on December 8, 1967.
Still, Lawrence is remembered for helping develop the Space Shuttle and would have most likely been part of the group who subsequently flew on some of its early missions.
Guy Bluford: First African American Astronaut in Space
What Lawrence fell short of achieving, Guy Bluford picked up the mantle. Born in Philadelphia in 1942, Bluford served in the U.S. Air Force as an officer and pilot before working at NASA.
With multiple degrees in aerospace engineering, Bluford was chosen to participate in the NASA astronaut training program in 1978 and became the first black person in space as a crew member of the Space Shuttle Challenger in 1983. The historical significance wouldn't hit him until later, but once he let reality set in, he embraced it fully.
"I wanted to set the standard, do the best job possible so that other people would be comfortable with African Americans flying in space and African Americans would be proud of being participants in the space program and… encourage others to do the same." Bluford would go on to serve in three other space shuttle missions before retiring from the program in 1993.
Mae Jemison: First African American Woman in Space
Around the time Bluford was nearing the end of his NASA career, Mae Jemison was just beginning hers. Born in Alabama in 1956, Jemison grew up in Chicago and was involved heavily in dance yet also held a fascination with science.
She graduated from Stanford University with a chemical engineering degree in 1977 and received her medical degree from Cornell Medical College four years later. After holding a brief medical practice, Jemison took time off to serve in the Peace Corps, which is when she discovered she was accepted into the NASA program.
On September 12, 1992, Jemison became the first black woman in space as a member of the Space Shuttle Endeavour. A person with many skills and interests, Jemison retired from the program a year later and went on to establish her own tech research company and write a memoir. She is currently a professor at Cornell University.
Emory Malick: First Black Pilot (but some historians disagree)
Born in Pennsylvania in 1881, Emory Malick fell in love with flying as a young man. In 1911, he was the first aviator to fly through the central part of the state, and the following year he received his international pilot license, making him the first African American pilot in history... or was he?
According to his granddaughter, Mary Groce, who recently discovered family documents that confirmed he was black, the answer is "yes." Other organizations like the Federal Aviation Administration, United States Department of Veterans Affairs and American aviation pioneer Glenn Curtis, who trained Malick, also attest to this presumption.
However, other historians have revealed official records that indicate Malick identified as white. Due to his mixed black and European ancestry, the controversy over his race has kept him from receiving unanimous recognition in black aviation history. | 1,880 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Frederick William and Brandenburg-Prussia gained a well deserved reputation in Europe and Frederick William became a very much sought after ally. By 1688, Brandenburg-Prussia’s military reputation was such that Frederick William and then Frederick I could pick and be selective with regards to her allies. The irony is that after 1660, her military was never really tested – yet its reputation remained very sound.
Frederick William adopted a policy of intrigue between France and Austria. Frederick William had no love for Louis XIV and the alliance between Brandenburg-Prussia and France during the Thirty Years War had been one of pure convenience. Frederick William felt no shame in denouncing an alliance when it suited his purposes to do so. Even when he gained a reputation for doing this, other states still wanted him as an ally.
Frederick William had a love-hate relationship with France. In 1672, he allied with Holland, seen by France as a major competitor in Western Europe, and in 1674, he invaded Alsace which the French would have seen as being a direct threat to him. By having Mark and Cleves in Western Europe as part of his territory, Frederick William had two strategic bases to place men from his army.
However, in 1679, Frederick William reverted to Louis XIV again after unsuccessfully trying to get Pomerania from Sweden. This failure made Frederick William feel isolated and an attachment to France eased this concern – even if it was only to be temporary. Frederick William’s army absorbed vast sums of money and any foreign subsidies were more than welcome. Why did Louis XIV ally with a man who would almost certainly go back on the ‘deal’? Almost certainly because Frederick William had great status in Europe and especially in Eastern Europe. There was also the chance that Frederick William might become a long-term ally as well. For Louis XIV, it was a gamble worth taking.
How important was religion in determining Frederick William’s foreign policy? This is difficult to assess. He certainly considered catholic nations to be a threat to Brandenburg-Prussia but he also encouraged Roman Catholics to go and settle in Brandenburg-Prussia. He was also happy to ally himself to catholic France when it suited his purposes to do so. However, when it suited Frederick William, he did ally himself to Lutheran Sweden to act as a deterrent against the spread of Catholicism in eastern Europe.
The only constant theme in Frederick William’s foreign policy was that Brandenburg-Prussia came above all else.
The two most logical allies in Eastern Europe were Brandenburg-Prussia and Sweden. Both were protestant and both had fought against Roman Catholic nations. However, both nations were suspicious of the other so a major alliance between the two was never formed. In fact, from 1658 to 1660 and 1675 to 1679, both nations were at war with the other. As usual, the bone of contention between Sweden and Brandenburg-Prussia was Pomerania.
How ‘German’ was Frederick William? He involved himself in German affairs only when it suited him despite owning Mark and Cleves in north-west Germany. It would be far more accurate to describe Frederick William as a Brandenburg-Prussian rather than a German. North German princes looked to Frederick William as a protector of their religion but Frederick William did not have any form of national consciousness. The state that Frederick William left Brandenburg-Prussia in when he died in 1688, set the seal on what people would class as being Teutonic in future years. As late as World War One, German soldiers drawn in cartoons were invariably shown wearing Prussian uniforms as if Prussia had become Germany – ignoring the fact that south Germany was catholic and more liberal than Brandenburg-Prussia had ever been.
- Frederick William tried to modernise Brandenburg-Prussia as quickly as was possible. Frederick William realised that if he wanted Brandenburg-Prussia to be a major power in…
- Frederick William – or the self-titled ‘Great Elector’ – took Brandenburg-Prussia from obscurity to become one of Europe’s most dominant powers. Such was the impact…
- The army was to be central to the success of Frederick William in Brandenburg-Prussia. In FrederickWilliam’s mind, the army was Brandenburg-Prussia and Brandenburg-Prussia was the… | <urn:uuid:86a5bedf-00c4-4480-a670-8419b25e62b5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/frederick-william-the-great-elector/frederick-william-and-foreign-policy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00486.warc.gz | en | 0.985536 | 905 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.12412482500076294,
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-0.5430192947387695,
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0.12969788908... | 10 | Frederick William and Brandenburg-Prussia gained a well deserved reputation in Europe and Frederick William became a very much sought after ally. By 1688, Brandenburg-Prussia’s military reputation was such that Frederick William and then Frederick I could pick and be selective with regards to her allies. The irony is that after 1660, her military was never really tested – yet its reputation remained very sound.
Frederick William adopted a policy of intrigue between France and Austria. Frederick William had no love for Louis XIV and the alliance between Brandenburg-Prussia and France during the Thirty Years War had been one of pure convenience. Frederick William felt no shame in denouncing an alliance when it suited his purposes to do so. Even when he gained a reputation for doing this, other states still wanted him as an ally.
Frederick William had a love-hate relationship with France. In 1672, he allied with Holland, seen by France as a major competitor in Western Europe, and in 1674, he invaded Alsace which the French would have seen as being a direct threat to him. By having Mark and Cleves in Western Europe as part of his territory, Frederick William had two strategic bases to place men from his army.
However, in 1679, Frederick William reverted to Louis XIV again after unsuccessfully trying to get Pomerania from Sweden. This failure made Frederick William feel isolated and an attachment to France eased this concern – even if it was only to be temporary. Frederick William’s army absorbed vast sums of money and any foreign subsidies were more than welcome. Why did Louis XIV ally with a man who would almost certainly go back on the ‘deal’? Almost certainly because Frederick William had great status in Europe and especially in Eastern Europe. There was also the chance that Frederick William might become a long-term ally as well. For Louis XIV, it was a gamble worth taking.
How important was religion in determining Frederick William’s foreign policy? This is difficult to assess. He certainly considered catholic nations to be a threat to Brandenburg-Prussia but he also encouraged Roman Catholics to go and settle in Brandenburg-Prussia. He was also happy to ally himself to catholic France when it suited his purposes to do so. However, when it suited Frederick William, he did ally himself to Lutheran Sweden to act as a deterrent against the spread of Catholicism in eastern Europe.
The only constant theme in Frederick William’s foreign policy was that Brandenburg-Prussia came above all else.
The two most logical allies in Eastern Europe were Brandenburg-Prussia and Sweden. Both were protestant and both had fought against Roman Catholic nations. However, both nations were suspicious of the other so a major alliance between the two was never formed. In fact, from 1658 to 1660 and 1675 to 1679, both nations were at war with the other. As usual, the bone of contention between Sweden and Brandenburg-Prussia was Pomerania.
How ‘German’ was Frederick William? He involved himself in German affairs only when it suited him despite owning Mark and Cleves in north-west Germany. It would be far more accurate to describe Frederick William as a Brandenburg-Prussian rather than a German. North German princes looked to Frederick William as a protector of their religion but Frederick William did not have any form of national consciousness. The state that Frederick William left Brandenburg-Prussia in when he died in 1688, set the seal on what people would class as being Teutonic in future years. As late as World War One, German soldiers drawn in cartoons were invariably shown wearing Prussian uniforms as if Prussia had become Germany – ignoring the fact that south Germany was catholic and more liberal than Brandenburg-Prussia had ever been.
- Frederick William tried to modernise Brandenburg-Prussia as quickly as was possible. Frederick William realised that if he wanted Brandenburg-Prussia to be a major power in…
- Frederick William – or the self-titled ‘Great Elector’ – took Brandenburg-Prussia from obscurity to become one of Europe’s most dominant powers. Such was the impact…
- The army was to be central to the success of Frederick William in Brandenburg-Prussia. In FrederickWilliam’s mind, the army was Brandenburg-Prussia and Brandenburg-Prussia was the… | 906 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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