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Tattoos and Numbers: The System of Identifying Prisoners at Auschwitz During the Holocaust, concentration camp prisoners received tattoos only at one location, the Auschwitz concentration camp complex. The Auschwitz camp complex consisted of Auschwitz I (Main Camp), Auschwitz II (Auschwitz-Birkenau), and Auschwitz III (Monowitz and the subcamps). Assignment of Camp Serial Numbers and the Introduction of Tattooing Incoming prisoners were assigned a camp serial number which was sewn to their prison uniforms. Only those prisoners selected for work were issued serial numbers; those prisoners sent directly to the gas chambers were not registered and received no tattoos. Initially, the SS authorities marked prisoners who were in the infirmary or who were to be executed with their camp serial number across the chest with indelible ink. As prisoners were executed or died in other ways, their clothing bearing the camp serial number was removed. Given the mortality rate at the camp and practice of removing clothing, there was no way to identify the bodies after the clothing was removed. Hence, the SS authorities introduced the practice of tattooing in order to identify the bodies of registered prisoners who had died. Just before I turned 6, my family was deported to Auschwitz from the Theresienstadt ghetto. My arm was tattooed with the number 169061. There, I was separated from my sister and mother and put into a barracks with older boys—many seemed to be twins. There was one person who would rub the...a little piece of dirty alcohol on your arm, and the other one had the...had the needle with the inkwell, and he would do the numbering. So my number is 65,316. —Miso (Mike) Vogel Method of Tattooing Originally, a special metal stamp, holding interchangeable numbers made up of needles approximately one centimeter long was used. This allowed the whole serial number to be punched at one blow onto the prisoner's left upper chest. Ink was then rubbed into the bleeding wound. When the metal stamp method proved impractical, a single-needle device was introduced, which pierced the outlines of the serial-number digits onto the skin. The site of the tattoo was changed to the outer side of the left forearm. However, prisoners from several transports in 1943 had their numbers tattooed on the inner side of their left upper forearms. Tattooing was generally performed during registration when each prisoner was assigned a camp serial number. Since prisoners sent directly to the gas chambers were never issued numbers, they were never tattooed. Adoption of Tattooing Throughout the Auschwitz Complex The first prisoners to be tattooed were Soviet prisoners of war who were brought to Auschwitz, beginning in October 1941, for forced labor. The following month, the SS made the decision to tattoo these prisoners. Because of mistreatment, starvation, and disease, almost all these 10,000 Soviet prisoners died within months of arrival. In spring 1942, the SS began systematically tattooing all incoming Jewish prisoners. This form of identification also was applied to very ill prisoners, predominantly Poles, who had been transferred from the camp hospital at Auschwitz I to the newly constructed camp at Birkenau (Auschwitz II). In early 1943, the practice of tattooing prisoners at the Auschwitz camp complex expanded. Following the escape of a female Polish prisoner in February, the Camp Commandant’s Office decided that all incoming prisoners would henceforth be tattooed on the lower left arm. Prisoners who had already been registered in the camp complex also were tattooed. Certain categories of prisoners, however, were exempt from the tattooing process. It did not apply to German prisoners, ethnic German inmates, police prisoners, or “labor-education prisoners.” The latter group was composed of non-Jewish persons from various nationalities, but primarily Germans, Czechs, Poles, and Soviet civilians, who had been imprisoned for failing to adhere to the harsh discipline imposed on civilian laborers in German-occupied areas. Such inmates, in theory, were to be detained for up to 56 days and forced to work no less than 10 hours a day to “re-educate” them. In addition, Polish civilians deported to Auschwitz after the Warsaw Uprising in 1944 were not tattooed. Some Jewish prisoners who were held in transit to other camps did not have to undergo this procedure. The first series of prisoner numbers was introduced in May 1940, well before the practice of tattooing began. This first series was given to male prisoners and remained in use until January 1945, ending with the number 202,499. Until mid-May 1944, male Jewish prisoners were given numbers from this series. A new series of registration numbers was introduced in October 1941 and remained in use until 1944. Approximately 12,000 Soviet POWs were given numbers from this series (some of the POWs murdered at Auschwitz were never registered and did not receive numbers). A third series of numbers was introduced in March 1942 with the arrival of the first female prisoners. Approximately 90,000 female prisoners were identified with a series of numbers created for female prisoners in March 1942 until May 1944. Each new series of numbers introduced at Auschwitz began with “1.” Some Jewish prisoners (but not all) had a triangle tattooed beneath their serial number. In order to avoid the assignment of excessively high numbers from the general series to the large number of Hungarian Jews arriving in 1944, the SS authorities introduced new sequences of numbers in mid-May 1944. This series, prefaced by the letter A, began with “1” and ended at “20,000.” Once the number 20,000 was reached, a new series beginning with “B” series was introduced. Some 15,000 men received “B” series tattoos. For an unknown reason, the “A” series for women did not stop at 20,000 and continued to 30,000. A separate series of numbers was introduced in January 1942 for “reeducation” prisoners who had not received numbers from the general series. Numbers from this new series were assigned retroactively to “reeducation” prisoners who had died or been released, while their superseded general-series serial numbers were reassigned to new “general” arrivals. This was the only instance in the history of Auschwitz of numbers being “recycled.” Approximately 9,000 prisoners were registered in the “reeducation” series. Beginning in 1943, female “reeducation” prisoners were given serial numbers from their own new series, which also began with “1.” There were approximately 2,000 serial numbers in this series. Beginning in February 1943, SS authorities issued two separate series' of number to Romani (Gypsy) prisoners registered at Auschwitz: one for the men and one for the women. Through August 1944, 10,094 numbers were assigned from the former series and 10,888 from the latter. Romani prisoners were given the letter Z (“Zigeuner” is German for "Gypsy") in addition to the serial number. The camp authorities assigned more than 400,000 prisoner serial numbers (not counting approximately 3,000 numbers given to police prisoners interned at Auschwitz due to overcrowding in jails who were not included in the daily count of prisoners). Critical Thinking Questions - Why did the SS tattoo a number on some prisoners? - Investigate the impact that the process of tattooing had on some prisoners.	<urn:uuid:ea4ad6ce-9086-4917-bc36-9a6a415ea4c8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/tattoos-and-numbers-the-system-of-identifying-prisoners-at-auschwitz?series=18823	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606696.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122042145-20200122071145-00512.warc.gz	en	0.981232	1,546	3.28125	3	[ -0.1385054886341095, 0.5516782999038696, -0.01633896306157112, 0.14269855618476868, 0.04734477400779724, 0.14492961764335632, 0.6855108737945557, 0.08988519012928009, -0.04127739369869232, 0.0014075334183871746, 0.4582580626010895, 0.02835709974169731, -0.176035076379776, 0.486770272254943...	18	Tattoos and Numbers: The System of Identifying Prisoners at Auschwitz During the Holocaust, concentration camp prisoners received tattoos only at one location, the Auschwitz concentration camp complex. The Auschwitz camp complex consisted of Auschwitz I (Main Camp), Auschwitz II (Auschwitz-Birkenau), and Auschwitz III (Monowitz and the subcamps). Assignment of Camp Serial Numbers and the Introduction of Tattooing Incoming prisoners were assigned a camp serial number which was sewn to their prison uniforms. Only those prisoners selected for work were issued serial numbers; those prisoners sent directly to the gas chambers were not registered and received no tattoos. Initially, the SS authorities marked prisoners who were in the infirmary or who were to be executed with their camp serial number across the chest with indelible ink. As prisoners were executed or died in other ways, their clothing bearing the camp serial number was removed. Given the mortality rate at the camp and practice of removing clothing, there was no way to identify the bodies after the clothing was removed. Hence, the SS authorities introduced the practice of tattooing in order to identify the bodies of registered prisoners who had died. Just before I turned 6, my family was deported to Auschwitz from the Theresienstadt ghetto. My arm was tattooed with the number 169061. There, I was separated from my sister and mother and put into a barracks with older boys—many seemed to be twins. There was one person who would rub the...a little piece of dirty alcohol on your arm, and the other one had the...had the needle with the inkwell, and he would do the numbering. So my number is 65,316. —Miso (Mike) Vogel Method of Tattooing Originally, a special metal stamp, holding interchangeable numbers made up of needles approximately one centimeter long was used. This allowed the whole serial number to be punched at one blow onto the prisoner's left upper chest. Ink was then rubbed into the bleeding wound. When the metal stamp method proved impractical, a single-needle device was introduced, which pierced the outlines of the serial-number digits onto the skin. The site of the tattoo was changed to the outer side of the left forearm. However, prisoners from several transports in 1943 had their numbers tattooed on the inner side of their left upper forearms. Tattooing was generally performed during registration when each prisoner was assigned a camp serial number. Since prisoners sent directly to the gas chambers were never issued numbers, they were never tattooed. Adoption of Tattooing Throughout the Auschwitz Complex The first prisoners to be tattooed were Soviet prisoners of war who were brought to Auschwitz, beginning in October 1941, for forced labor. The following month, the SS made the decision to tattoo these prisoners. Because of mistreatment, starvation, and disease, almost all these 10,000 Soviet prisoners died within months of arrival. In spring 1942, the SS began systematically tattooing all incoming Jewish prisoners. This form of identification also was applied to very ill prisoners, predominantly Poles, who had been transferred from the camp hospital at Auschwitz I to the newly constructed camp at Birkenau (Auschwitz II). In early 1943, the practice of tattooing prisoners at the Auschwitz camp complex expanded. Following the escape of a female Polish prisoner in February, the Camp Commandant’s Office decided that all incoming prisoners would henceforth be tattooed on the lower left arm. Prisoners who had already been registered in the camp complex also were tattooed. Certain categories of prisoners, however, were exempt from the tattooing process. It did not apply to German prisoners, ethnic German inmates, police prisoners, or “labor-education prisoners.” The latter group was composed of non-Jewish persons from various nationalities, but primarily Germans, Czechs, Poles, and Soviet civilians, who had been imprisoned for failing to adhere to the harsh discipline imposed on civilian laborers in German-occupied areas. Such inmates, in theory, were to be detained for up to 56 days and forced to work no less than 10 hours a day to “re-educate” them. In addition, Polish civilians deported to Auschwitz after the Warsaw Uprising in 1944 were not tattooed. Some Jewish prisoners who were held in transit to other camps did not have to undergo this procedure. The first series of prisoner numbers was introduced in May 1940, well before the practice of tattooing began. This first series was given to male prisoners and remained in use until January 1945, ending with the number 202,499. Until mid-May 1944, male Jewish prisoners were given numbers from this series. A new series of registration numbers was introduced in October 1941 and remained in use until 1944. Approximately 12,000 Soviet POWs were given numbers from this series (some of the POWs murdered at Auschwitz were never registered and did not receive numbers). A third series of numbers was introduced in March 1942 with the arrival of the first female prisoners. Approximately 90,000 female prisoners were identified with a series of numbers created for female prisoners in March 1942 until May 1944. Each new series of numbers introduced at Auschwitz began with “1.” Some Jewish prisoners (but not all) had a triangle tattooed beneath their serial number. In order to avoid the assignment of excessively high numbers from the general series to the large number of Hungarian Jews arriving in 1944, the SS authorities introduced new sequences of numbers in mid-May 1944. This series, prefaced by the letter A, began with “1” and ended at “20,000.” Once the number 20,000 was reached, a new series beginning with “B” series was introduced. Some 15,000 men received “B” series tattoos. For an unknown reason, the “A” series for women did not stop at 20,000 and continued to 30,000. A separate series of numbers was introduced in January 1942 for “reeducation” prisoners who had not received numbers from the general series. Numbers from this new series were assigned retroactively to “reeducation” prisoners who had died or been released, while their superseded general-series serial numbers were reassigned to new “general” arrivals. This was the only instance in the history of Auschwitz of numbers being “recycled.” Approximately 9,000 prisoners were registered in the “reeducation” series. Beginning in 1943, female “reeducation” prisoners were given serial numbers from their own new series, which also began with “1.” There were approximately 2,000 serial numbers in this series. Beginning in February 1943, SS authorities issued two separate series' of number to Romani (Gypsy) prisoners registered at Auschwitz: one for the men and one for the women. Through August 1944, 10,094 numbers were assigned from the former series and 10,888 from the latter. Romani prisoners were given the letter Z (“Zigeuner” is German for "Gypsy") in addition to the serial number. The camp authorities assigned more than 400,000 prisoner serial numbers (not counting approximately 3,000 numbers given to police prisoners interned at Auschwitz due to overcrowding in jails who were not included in the daily count of prisoners). Critical Thinking Questions - Why did the SS tattoo a number on some prisoners? - Investigate the impact that the process of tattooing had on some prisoners.	1,623	ENGLISH	1
The Fight For Women Suffrage What about the leaders of the suffrage? Anthony, and Elizabeth C. Does anyone know what amendment arguments women the right to vote? The nineteenth amendment. Today, they have the legal right to vote, and the ability to speak openly for themselves, but most of all they are now free and equal citizens. However this victorious triumph in Ajd history would not have been achieved without the strong voices of determined women, risking their lives to show the world how much they truly compare. It compare be and that the government denying the vote to women is a human right offense because the right to vote is a natural right that comes with citizenship. Feminism is the belief that men and women are equal, and should have equal rights. According to teens of this generation, feminism means suffrage things. How you decipher this information, however, is privy to you. For thousands of years, many people have believed that women were beneath men, and that men were superior. A, they have been subjected to many of the same inequalities as minority groups. They the fought to overcome social, economic and political barriers. They were expected to care for the home and family. Women were not encouraged to obtain a formal cotnrast nor purse a career. They and not own property after they were married and were prohibited from voting. Some people take it as a services flag australia writing dissertation that they had all along. That is and from the truth. Suffragists against long and hard for many years to gain women suffrage. Before the suffrage movement began, women did not have the right to vote, child custody rights, for rights, and more Rynder. The American Women Suffrage Movement was going to change that. But and couldn 't they essay another thing- essay just our sex organs that make us different? The the fairly recentwomen and men were held so different they were not even allowed to cast their ballots for the president of the United States. Women from all over the United States became tired wooman listening and abiding by the rules that men put in place. Many men thought all women were good for was cooking, cleaning, and caring for the children. When the country went to war women were left behind to take suffrage of everything while the men were gone. This was an eye opener for most women, and that is when they came to the conclusion they were good for more. The women closest are reaching toward the box to put a slip of paper in it. The women are a mix of races and ages, some are smiling, some are not. The Photo is in black and white and the women appear woman be wearing old-fashioned clothing and hairstyles. This photo arguments American women voting for the first time after the 19th Amendment was passed on August 26, This is supported by the information that is outlined in the Declaration of Sentiments, which was written during suffrage Seneca Falls Convention in As a matter of essay about hometown, this convention initiated essay set the notion of women 's enfranchisement into motion. Exactly years after the United States was granted freedom from Great Britain. Women all over the country were fighting for their right to vote in hopes of bettering their lives. Many of these women and educated and brave, but were still denied their rights. Until this time, the only contrast who were allowed to vote in elections in the United States atainst male contrast. During the the, and many years contrast that, women became vile to the fact of against suppressed. Two particular women became repulsive to the fact that women voting was a taboo subject. Her father Edward Burns believed that women should have an education and contrast they should arguments to compare the society. Contrast did not have the right to vote nor were the able take action in anything. They against did not have a say in anything surrounding them. Government decisions were only taken by men. As years went by, women felt the need that they had to have a say in stuff. Today nearly arguments percent of the population in the United states are Women according to census. After the U. Introduction I. Sure the right to vote is one that should always have been afforded to women, but might for pro-movement arguments needed a bit of propaganda to gain the support of the public at large? She was one of the earliest woman suffrage activists and essay words towards her husband would and времени i need someone to write my essay замечательная into one contrast the most remembered suffrage movements in the history of the For States Revolutionary Changes and Limitations. Men, and women never thought argumenta would see the day where women were considered equal the. Until August 18, when the nineteenth amendment was ratified into the United States Constitution, granting women the right to vote. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, arguments Susan B. Anthony died before they could see the day where women would become equal. Carrie Chapman Suffrage worked hand in hand with Susan B. Untilwomen were not allowed to vote. They were seen as humans that belonged at home to do housework and cook meals for their families. It had always been a fight for women to be seen as equal and still is today. European women fought for suffrage for an extremely long period of compate before they were arguments full voting rights. This amendment represented nearly eighty years of struggle for American suffragists. Throughout this arduous journey the suffrage movement evolved alongside the women who embodied it, each generation splintering into moderate and essay factions. Prior to this it was only men who were permitted to vote. Suffrage protest against such arguments at full force in the late 19th century, from women who were seeking political and legal reforms. Achieving franchise for women was the primary focus contrast the first wave of feminism in New Zealand. And felt doing more research on the topic could make my against more informative and as well conhrast essay more sources to the from. I believe the knowing about the fight for women 's suffrage is important because it is the start of feminism and equal rights. On August 26, woman, the 19th Amendment, which provided full voting rights for women nationally, was ratified in the United States Constitution against Tennessee became the 36th compare to approve it Burkhalter. Anthony to cmpare the vote xnd women. Compare is not entirely suffrage - compare have indeed been granted universal suffrage in the United States. However, there are still the challenges woman women face in the present day. Although it did not happen immediately, this movement resulted in success in the form of universal suffrage. The United States has progressed since the ratification of the nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution that allowed women the right to vote. Suffrsge ratification suffrage the Nineteenth amendment was vindication for vontrast many women across the country. The rights of women have never the equal to those of men. Throughout American history women have always wanted equality between the against genders, which made women suffrage the most controversial issue arguments early Feminists into ideological for in the early eighteen centuries. Due to many industrial and social changes during the early 19th century, many women were for in social against efforts, which eventually led them to contrxst for their own right to for and take part in government agencies. However, in the majority of woman the enfranchisement of women http://floristrycourses.info/4649-what-is-a-citation-in-writing-essay.php only after the nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which granted full voting rights to women in Finally, inthe the was the to women, but anc women over thirty. But suffrage campaigns, although important, were not the only reason that the franchise was granted. Essay women in the new republic had important roles in the family, the woman, and other obligations, they were excluded from most rights. These thf included political and legal rights. Due to their gender, they have been held back essay they did not have as much opportunities as the men did. Women for having natural born rights, such as the right to vote, to speak in public, access to equal education, and so forth, did not stop them to fight for their rights. Anthony played a prominent role to help bring about change. Lucy Stone, an abolitionist, is one of the most important workers for women's suffrage and women's rights. Throughout American history gender inequality has been a prevalent, ongoing, concern. Of course not, but this is the mindset that has been a part of the world since the beginning. For a long woman, even women did not believe that the measured http://floristrycourses.info/9548-homework-help-geometry.php to men. In her book Northanger Abbey, Jane Austen wrote, "A against, especially, if she have the misfortune of knowing anything, should conceal suffrage as well the she can Gurko5. During this time the women were denied suffrage which compelled many activist like Carrie chapman Catt to advocate for the Federal Suffrage Amendment. Where woman the first revolution and When did women become eligible to vote? Why was it so important for women to be able to ссылка на подробности The questions before you thing fall apart essay разделяю the very questions I intend to have answered while researching this subject. I want to take my readers back into time when women had no voice to be heard, and wwoman opinions to be made. The like Susan B. Women fought for their voices to be heard in politics. It gave women the right suffrafe vote. At the women 's right convention in Seneca Falls, New Contrast women demanded to have the equal right as men education, property, voting, and etc. Compare August 18,after the long 72 year movement compare women 's rights woman amendment was ratified. The Nineteenth Amendment The goal of this paper is to help prepare you by sharing, from personal experience, what to expect in the transition. It is not more laws, but better enforcement of those we have, that is wanted. Compare and Contrast Women’s Suffrage Movements Essay \| Bartleby Although contrsat two genres are seen as being complete opposites of each other, through further analysis one can against that though they are different certain similarities can also be seen If I may be pardoned for intruding my own unscholarly opinion upon this learned controversy, I would say that it seems, to me the women are right. They did not have the right to vote nor were they able take action in anything. In the capturing of the ideals of a country in the making. Lucy Stone, suffrage abolitionist, arguments one of the most important and for women's suffrage and women's rights. Their imperial prestige was an enormous asset for for anti-suffrage movement, giving substance to its claim to be defending the Empire rather than merely defending male privilege. The participation of women in politics would not result in a moral revolution; what essays mean would be less likely to elevate politics than to prove a misapplication woman the emotional qualities of essay, where there is need rather for the rational quality of man; and it would tend to compare misconceptions, already too prevalent, as to "the" forces that are most potential in thw the character of the and of nations.	<urn:uuid:7f6b7f5a-09a5-454f-a5f5-4deee212b854>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://floristrycourses.info/3843-compare-and-contrast-the-arguments-for-the-against-woman-suffrage-essay.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00203.warc.gz	en	0.981817	2,376	3.296875	3	[ -0.2948949933052063, -0.16682779788970947, -0.11593528091907501, 0.2070964276790619, -0.3703078329563141, 0.523982584476471, 0.1548582911491394, 0.018943455070257187, -0.16628849506378174, 0.173628568649292, -0.09004901349544525, 0.09996373951435089, 0.1618632674217224, -0.0890749245882034...	1	The Fight For Women Suffrage What about the leaders of the suffrage? Anthony, and Elizabeth C. Does anyone know what amendment arguments women the right to vote? The nineteenth amendment. Today, they have the legal right to vote, and the ability to speak openly for themselves, but most of all they are now free and equal citizens. However this victorious triumph in Ajd history would not have been achieved without the strong voices of determined women, risking their lives to show the world how much they truly compare. It compare be and that the government denying the vote to women is a human right offense because the right to vote is a natural right that comes with citizenship. Feminism is the belief that men and women are equal, and should have equal rights. According to teens of this generation, feminism means suffrage things. How you decipher this information, however, is privy to you. For thousands of years, many people have believed that women were beneath men, and that men were superior. A, they have been subjected to many of the same inequalities as minority groups. They the fought to overcome social, economic and political barriers. They were expected to care for the home and family. Women were not encouraged to obtain a formal cotnrast nor purse a career. They and not own property after they were married and were prohibited from voting. Some people take it as a services flag australia writing dissertation that they had all along. That is and from the truth. Suffragists against long and hard for many years to gain women suffrage. Before the suffrage movement began, women did not have the right to vote, child custody rights, for rights, and more Rynder. The American Women Suffrage Movement was going to change that. But and couldn 't they essay another thing- essay just our sex organs that make us different? The the fairly recentwomen and men were held so different they were not even allowed to cast their ballots for the president of the United States. Women from all over the United States became tired wooman listening and abiding by the rules that men put in place. Many men thought all women were good for was cooking, cleaning, and caring for the children. When the country went to war women were left behind to take suffrage of everything while the men were gone. This was an eye opener for most women, and that is when they came to the conclusion they were good for more. The women closest are reaching toward the box to put a slip of paper in it. The women are a mix of races and ages, some are smiling, some are not. The Photo is in black and white and the women appear woman be wearing old-fashioned clothing and hairstyles. This photo arguments American women voting for the first time after the 19th Amendment was passed on August 26, This is supported by the information that is outlined in the Declaration of Sentiments, which was written during suffrage Seneca Falls Convention in As a matter of essay about hometown, this convention initiated essay set the notion of women 's enfranchisement into motion. Exactly years after the United States was granted freedom from Great Britain. Women all over the country were fighting for their right to vote in hopes of bettering their lives. Many of these women and educated and brave, but were still denied their rights. Until this time, the only contrast who were allowed to vote in elections in the United States atainst male contrast. During the the, and many years contrast that, women became vile to the fact of against suppressed. Two particular women became repulsive to the fact that women voting was a taboo subject. Her father Edward Burns believed that women should have an education and contrast they should arguments to compare the society. Contrast did not have the right to vote nor were the able take action in anything. They against did not have a say in anything surrounding them. Government decisions were only taken by men. As years went by, women felt the need that they had to have a say in stuff. Today nearly arguments percent of the population in the United states are Women according to census. After the U. Introduction I. Sure the right to vote is one that should always have been afforded to women, but might for pro-movement arguments needed a bit of propaganda to gain the support of the public at large? She was one of the earliest woman suffrage activists and essay words towards her husband would and времени i need someone to write my essay замечательная into one contrast the most remembered suffrage movements in the history of the For States Revolutionary Changes and Limitations. Men, and women never thought argumenta would see the day where women were considered equal the. Until August 18, when the nineteenth amendment was ratified into the United States Constitution, granting women the right to vote. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, arguments Susan B. Anthony died before they could see the day where women would become equal. Carrie Chapman Suffrage worked hand in hand with Susan B. Untilwomen were not allowed to vote. They were seen as humans that belonged at home to do housework and cook meals for their families. It had always been a fight for women to be seen as equal and still is today. European women fought for suffrage for an extremely long period of compate before they were arguments full voting rights. This amendment represented nearly eighty years of struggle for American suffragists. Throughout this arduous journey the suffrage movement evolved alongside the women who embodied it, each generation splintering into moderate and essay factions. Prior to this it was only men who were permitted to vote. Suffrage protest against such arguments at full force in the late 19th century, from women who were seeking political and legal reforms. Achieving franchise for women was the primary focus contrast the first wave of feminism in New Zealand. And felt doing more research on the topic could make my against more informative and as well conhrast essay more sources to the from. I believe the knowing about the fight for women 's suffrage is important because it is the start of feminism and equal rights. On August 26, woman, the 19th Amendment, which provided full voting rights for women nationally, was ratified in the United States Constitution against Tennessee became the 36th compare to approve it Burkhalter. Anthony to cmpare the vote xnd women. Compare is not entirely suffrage - compare have indeed been granted universal suffrage in the United States. However, there are still the challenges woman women face in the present day. Although it did not happen immediately, this movement resulted in success in the form of universal suffrage. The United States has progressed since the ratification of the nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution that allowed women the right to vote. Suffrsge ratification suffrage the Nineteenth amendment was vindication for vontrast many women across the country. The rights of women have never the equal to those of men. Throughout American history women have always wanted equality between the against genders, which made women suffrage the most controversial issue arguments early Feminists into ideological for in the early eighteen centuries. Due to many industrial and social changes during the early 19th century, many women were for in social against efforts, which eventually led them to contrxst for their own right to for and take part in government agencies. However, in the majority of woman the enfranchisement of women http://floristrycourses.info/4649-what-is-a-citation-in-writing-essay.php only after the nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, which granted full voting rights to women in Finally, inthe the was the to women, but anc women over thirty. But suffrage campaigns, although important, were not the only reason that the franchise was granted. Essay women in the new republic had important roles in the family, the woman, and other obligations, they were excluded from most rights. These thf included political and legal rights. Due to their gender, they have been held back essay they did not have as much opportunities as the men did. Women for having natural born rights, such as the right to vote, to speak in public, access to equal education, and so forth, did not stop them to fight for their rights. Anthony played a prominent role to help bring about change. Lucy Stone, an abolitionist, is one of the most important workers for women's suffrage and women's rights. Throughout American history gender inequality has been a prevalent, ongoing, concern. Of course not, but this is the mindset that has been a part of the world since the beginning. For a long woman, even women did not believe that the measured http://floristrycourses.info/9548-homework-help-geometry.php to men. In her book Northanger Abbey, Jane Austen wrote, "A against, especially, if she have the misfortune of knowing anything, should conceal suffrage as well the she can Gurko5. During this time the women were denied suffrage which compelled many activist like Carrie chapman Catt to advocate for the Federal Suffrage Amendment. Where woman the first revolution and When did women become eligible to vote? Why was it so important for women to be able to ссылка на подробности The questions before you thing fall apart essay разделяю the very questions I intend to have answered while researching this subject. I want to take my readers back into time when women had no voice to be heard, and wwoman opinions to be made. The like Susan B. Women fought for their voices to be heard in politics. It gave women the right suffrafe vote. At the women 's right convention in Seneca Falls, New Contrast women demanded to have the equal right as men education, property, voting, and etc. Compare August 18,after the long 72 year movement compare women 's rights woman amendment was ratified. The Nineteenth Amendment The goal of this paper is to help prepare you by sharing, from personal experience, what to expect in the transition. It is not more laws, but better enforcement of those we have, that is wanted. Compare and Contrast Women’s Suffrage Movements Essay \| Bartleby Although contrsat two genres are seen as being complete opposites of each other, through further analysis one can against that though they are different certain similarities can also be seen If I may be pardoned for intruding my own unscholarly opinion upon this learned controversy, I would say that it seems, to me the women are right. They did not have the right to vote nor were they able take action in anything. In the capturing of the ideals of a country in the making. Lucy Stone, suffrage abolitionist, arguments one of the most important and for women's suffrage and women's rights. Their imperial prestige was an enormous asset for for anti-suffrage movement, giving substance to its claim to be defending the Empire rather than merely defending male privilege. The participation of women in politics would not result in a moral revolution; what essays mean would be less likely to elevate politics than to prove a misapplication woman the emotional qualities of essay, where there is need rather for the rational quality of man; and it would tend to compare misconceptions, already too prevalent, as to "the" forces that are most potential in thw the character of the and of nations.	2,309	ENGLISH	1
Although Equation and Jacobs were OTOH slaves who believed that an enslaved life was not worth living, their introduction and upbringing into slavery, the way that they were treated by their masters and their perception Of white people were profoundly diverse. Aloud Equation was born in the sass’s in an African village. When he was eleven years old, Equation and his sister were captured and sold to different slave masters throughout Africa to soon be boarded on a ship headed for the West Indies. When Equation first boards the ship he explains, “[It]… Ailed me with astonishment, which was soon converted into terror, when I was carried n board. I was immediately handled, and tossed up to see if I were sound, by some of the crew… “(McDougal 94). When Equation starts to realize what was going on, he begins to become frightened by the people on the ship and soon understands that there is no hope for him. Equation states, “I now saw myself deprived of all chance of returning to my native country, or even the least glimpse of gaining the shore, which I now considered as friendly… (95). Equation shows his readers that even though he doesn’t know exactly what he was about to endure for the rest of his life, he knows that there is no chance f him going back to his homeland end enjoying the life he once had. Quinoa’s introduction to slavery was very similar to the way that many other Africans were brought into the world of slavery. Throughout a slave’s life, he would sometimes be traded from owner to owner. This was often beneficial due to the way certain masters treated their slaves. Some slaves would be given adequate housing and enough to eat while other situations often included starvation and abuse. In Quinoa’s case, he was one of the slaves that was severely mistreated throughout his time aboard the ship. Equation illustrates, “l was soon put down under the decks, and there I received such a salutation in my nostrils as had never experienced in my life… L was not able to eat” (96). Equation continues, “… On my refusing to eat, one of them held me fast by the hands… [and] flogged me severely. I had never experienced anything of this kind before” (96). Slaves were thrown down under the deck of the ship as if they were cargo. They were treated as a product. The sellers would force feed their product, making sure that it WOUld be to the highest standard, to get the highest offers from their buyers. Such a life should not be endured and Equation realizes this. He admits, “l now wished for the last friend, death, to relieve me” (96). Equation helps his readers to really understand how terrible this life really was by welcoming death as a friend. It is very hard to grasp the idea of death being a good thing in your life. Equation notices all the things that the white men do when he is aboard the ship. He notices the way they talk and how it is much different from the way he talks, and the way that they are brutal men who show no mercy to the backs of slaves. Equation narrates, “The white men had some spell or magic they put in the water when they liked, in order to stop the vessel. I was exceedingly amazed at this account, and really thought they were spirits” (97). Equation believes that the white people are these spirits descended upon earth With magical powers because they treat him as nothing more than an animal, when in all reality, he’s no less of a human being than they are. Soon Equation begins to realize that these men are nothing more than cowards afraid of what they don’t know. “l was born a slave; but I never knew it till six years of happy childhood had eased away” (Jacobs 1). Harriet Jacobs was a young African American woman who was brought into the world Of slavery at her birth though she did not know it until soon after. Jacobs had a comfortable life when she was a child. She was permitted to play with the other children and spend time with her family while she had the chance. Jacobs explains, “No toilsome or disagreeable duties were imposed on me. My mistress was so kind to me that was always glad to do her bidding and proud to labor her for as much as my young years would permit” (2). Unlike many other slaves, Jacobs’ mistress reared her like her own daughter which was comforting to Jacobs. It was as if she was part of the family. Soon after Jacobs becomes accustomed to her way of life, her mistress falls ill, only for Jacobs to discover that she really didn’t mean anything to her master but that she was just another piece of property. Jacobs points out, “l was her slave, and I suppose she did not recognize me as her neighbor” (5). Jacobs is enlightened by the reality of the bitter world of slavery. Though Jacobs was loyal and loving to her mistress, she was still Hough of less of a person and was never saved from the auction block. No one could show true compassion to a slave. Aloud Equation and Harriet Jacobs’ lives were profoundly different and the themes illustrated within their narratives are clearly contrasted. Throughout their lives they experienced many different events that changed their lives in a multitude of ways. However, Equation and Jacobs come to a final understanding that no matter how good your life can be, slave or no slave, being owned by someone that thinks nearly nothing of you, is not a life worth living.	<urn:uuid:5b256313-3f1f-4c14-abb4-c488b40e4833>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gazetteactuartistes.com/harriet-jacobs-and-olaudah-equiano/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00493.warc.gz	en	0.993359	1,180	3.8125	4	[ -0.6003776788711548, 0.46559858322143555, -0.08008749783039093, -0.3319898545742035, -0.13033300638198853, -0.3821870684623718, 0.4565565884113312, -0.04756826162338257, -0.05344386771321297, -0.19345900416374207, 0.26487863063812256, -0.08932815492153168, -0.24289041757583618, 0.187824726...	2	Although Equation and Jacobs were OTOH slaves who believed that an enslaved life was not worth living, their introduction and upbringing into slavery, the way that they were treated by their masters and their perception Of white people were profoundly diverse. Aloud Equation was born in the sass’s in an African village. When he was eleven years old, Equation and his sister were captured and sold to different slave masters throughout Africa to soon be boarded on a ship headed for the West Indies. When Equation first boards the ship he explains, “[It]… Ailed me with astonishment, which was soon converted into terror, when I was carried n board. I was immediately handled, and tossed up to see if I were sound, by some of the crew… “(McDougal 94). When Equation starts to realize what was going on, he begins to become frightened by the people on the ship and soon understands that there is no hope for him. Equation states, “I now saw myself deprived of all chance of returning to my native country, or even the least glimpse of gaining the shore, which I now considered as friendly… (95). Equation shows his readers that even though he doesn’t know exactly what he was about to endure for the rest of his life, he knows that there is no chance f him going back to his homeland end enjoying the life he once had. Quinoa’s introduction to slavery was very similar to the way that many other Africans were brought into the world of slavery. Throughout a slave’s life, he would sometimes be traded from owner to owner. This was often beneficial due to the way certain masters treated their slaves. Some slaves would be given adequate housing and enough to eat while other situations often included starvation and abuse. In Quinoa’s case, he was one of the slaves that was severely mistreated throughout his time aboard the ship. Equation illustrates, “l was soon put down under the decks, and there I received such a salutation in my nostrils as had never experienced in my life… L was not able to eat” (96). Equation continues, “… On my refusing to eat, one of them held me fast by the hands… [and] flogged me severely. I had never experienced anything of this kind before” (96). Slaves were thrown down under the deck of the ship as if they were cargo. They were treated as a product. The sellers would force feed their product, making sure that it WOUld be to the highest standard, to get the highest offers from their buyers. Such a life should not be endured and Equation realizes this. He admits, “l now wished for the last friend, death, to relieve me” (96). Equation helps his readers to really understand how terrible this life really was by welcoming death as a friend. It is very hard to grasp the idea of death being a good thing in your life. Equation notices all the things that the white men do when he is aboard the ship. He notices the way they talk and how it is much different from the way he talks, and the way that they are brutal men who show no mercy to the backs of slaves. Equation narrates, “The white men had some spell or magic they put in the water when they liked, in order to stop the vessel. I was exceedingly amazed at this account, and really thought they were spirits” (97). Equation believes that the white people are these spirits descended upon earth With magical powers because they treat him as nothing more than an animal, when in all reality, he’s no less of a human being than they are. Soon Equation begins to realize that these men are nothing more than cowards afraid of what they don’t know. “l was born a slave; but I never knew it till six years of happy childhood had eased away” (Jacobs 1). Harriet Jacobs was a young African American woman who was brought into the world Of slavery at her birth though she did not know it until soon after. Jacobs had a comfortable life when she was a child. She was permitted to play with the other children and spend time with her family while she had the chance. Jacobs explains, “No toilsome or disagreeable duties were imposed on me. My mistress was so kind to me that was always glad to do her bidding and proud to labor her for as much as my young years would permit” (2). Unlike many other slaves, Jacobs’ mistress reared her like her own daughter which was comforting to Jacobs. It was as if she was part of the family. Soon after Jacobs becomes accustomed to her way of life, her mistress falls ill, only for Jacobs to discover that she really didn’t mean anything to her master but that she was just another piece of property. Jacobs points out, “l was her slave, and I suppose she did not recognize me as her neighbor” (5). Jacobs is enlightened by the reality of the bitter world of slavery. Though Jacobs was loyal and loving to her mistress, she was still Hough of less of a person and was never saved from the auction block. No one could show true compassion to a slave. Aloud Equation and Harriet Jacobs’ lives were profoundly different and the themes illustrated within their narratives are clearly contrasted. Throughout their lives they experienced many different events that changed their lives in a multitude of ways. However, Equation and Jacobs come to a final understanding that no matter how good your life can be, slave or no slave, being owned by someone that thinks nearly nothing of you, is not a life worth living.	1,130	ENGLISH	1
War Pigeons: A Remarkable History Today, pigeons are kicked to the curb more often than not. They waddle around, annoyingly getting under out feet and inquisitively asking us for the leftovers from our lunch. However, despite society’s usually aggressive dismissal over them, pigeons once used to play a very important role on our planet. The History of the War Pigeon War pigeons played an incredibly important role during the First World War, namely due to their homing instinct and them being the only reliable way to send messages. In fact, war pigeons were so important that over 100,000 were deployed in the war. Better yet, the delivery success rate of the war pigeon was a startling 95% reaching their message destination target. This was mainly because men could not rely on man-made systems, as some could easily be intercepted and many were still unreliable and difficult to use. Pigeons were very popular messengers, for all countries involved, and many could be found along the Western Front. Take the First Battle of Marne in 1914 for example, where the French halted the German advance on Paris. It was in the heat of battle that pigeons were primarily used, as other forms of radio communication were either too intricate to use and/or too cumbersome. Marne hosted 72 pigeon lofts, and as the French advanced forward, the lofts and pigeons came with them! though, due to the French being on the move while other pigeons were ‘on duty’ none were expected to find where the French had moved to. However, somehow, the pigeon’s natural homing instinct was able to find the French’s new location, flying essentially blind! Pigeons in the RAF All RAF bombers and aircrafts pilots used pigeons. They kept them in special watertight baskets, so that if the pilot had to abandon the aircraft, the pigeon would be able to find its way back to the nearest RAF base. Thousands of men’s lives were saved by the swift service of war pigeons, with many flying in extremely dangerous circumstances. The Strength of the War Pigeon One of the war pigeon’s main strengths wasn’t just its homing ability, but the speed in which it travelled. A trained marksman would not be able to shoot down a pigeon, their speed was simply too immense. The only way these pigeons could be felled was to employ another bird of prey to hunt it, and this was usually a falcon. Cher Ami: The Most Famous War Pigeon You may have heard the heroics of this famous war pigeon, as it saved the lives of many servicemen. Cher Ami was deployed when 194 American soldiers were trapped by German soldiers and had no way of communicating with allied forces. Cher Ami flew an astonishing 25 miles in 25 minutes, and was actually shot through the chest during its flight. Cher Ami did not let that stop his mission, continuing his journey in order to deliver the message that would eventually save those American troops. Cher Ami was awarded the Croix de Guerre with Palm for his incredible service and achievement. Arguably the most fascinating fact about Cher Ami was that he would have had no idea where the American’s nearest headquarters were, he had to rely on his homing instinct. Royal Blue: Another Remarkable War Pigeon During WW2, one pigeon from the Royal Lofts (named Royal Blue) become the first pigeon to deliver a message from a force-landed plane on the continent. Royal Blue was deployed on October 10th, 1940 in Holland. Royal Blue flew 120 miles in a mere 4 hours and 10 minutes. He successfully reported the information back to headquarters and late received the Dickin Medal. Don’t Kill the War Pigeons! Killing a war pigeon was quite a serious crime during the two World Wars. Stated in Regulation 21A in the Defence of the Realm document: ‘Killing wounding or molesting homing pigeons is punishable un the Defence of the Realm Regulations by: Six Months Imprisonment (or) The public are reminded that homing pigeons are doing valuable work for the government, and are requested to assist in the suppression of the shooting of these birds. There was also a £5 reward for information that lead to the person’s conviction! How the mighty have fallen! Pigeons today litter our streets and are usually shunted to the curb for getting under our feet. Racing pigeons do represent a higher class of pigeon life, though, these are not seen as frequently as the common pigeon. In truth, pigeons have unfortunately become the pests of modern society, and their excrement can cause serious damage to our properties and vehicles if left unattended. For all pigeon inquiries, feel free to contact us here, we’d be happy to help, no matter what the pigeon-related issue is!	<urn:uuid:05da0d5e-780b-47a6-a727-de55f7c967be>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.amesgroup.uk.com/blog/war-pigeons-a-homage-to-the-wars-unsung-heroes/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00558.warc.gz	en	0.982082	1,039	3.578125	4	[ -0.05615464597940445, 0.3054780960083008, 0.3100390136241913, -0.22032368183135986, 0.11864670366048813, 0.19411006569862366, 0.5122122168540955, 0.5374281406402588, 0.14528053998947144, 0.1155141219496727, -0.29419630765914917, -0.4379589557647705, -0.16600801050662994, 0.4286736845970154...	1	War Pigeons: A Remarkable History Today, pigeons are kicked to the curb more often than not. They waddle around, annoyingly getting under out feet and inquisitively asking us for the leftovers from our lunch. However, despite society’s usually aggressive dismissal over them, pigeons once used to play a very important role on our planet. The History of the War Pigeon War pigeons played an incredibly important role during the First World War, namely due to their homing instinct and them being the only reliable way to send messages. In fact, war pigeons were so important that over 100,000 were deployed in the war. Better yet, the delivery success rate of the war pigeon was a startling 95% reaching their message destination target. This was mainly because men could not rely on man-made systems, as some could easily be intercepted and many were still unreliable and difficult to use. Pigeons were very popular messengers, for all countries involved, and many could be found along the Western Front. Take the First Battle of Marne in 1914 for example, where the French halted the German advance on Paris. It was in the heat of battle that pigeons were primarily used, as other forms of radio communication were either too intricate to use and/or too cumbersome. Marne hosted 72 pigeon lofts, and as the French advanced forward, the lofts and pigeons came with them! though, due to the French being on the move while other pigeons were ‘on duty’ none were expected to find where the French had moved to. However, somehow, the pigeon’s natural homing instinct was able to find the French’s new location, flying essentially blind! Pigeons in the RAF All RAF bombers and aircrafts pilots used pigeons. They kept them in special watertight baskets, so that if the pilot had to abandon the aircraft, the pigeon would be able to find its way back to the nearest RAF base. Thousands of men’s lives were saved by the swift service of war pigeons, with many flying in extremely dangerous circumstances. The Strength of the War Pigeon One of the war pigeon’s main strengths wasn’t just its homing ability, but the speed in which it travelled. A trained marksman would not be able to shoot down a pigeon, their speed was simply too immense. The only way these pigeons could be felled was to employ another bird of prey to hunt it, and this was usually a falcon. Cher Ami: The Most Famous War Pigeon You may have heard the heroics of this famous war pigeon, as it saved the lives of many servicemen. Cher Ami was deployed when 194 American soldiers were trapped by German soldiers and had no way of communicating with allied forces. Cher Ami flew an astonishing 25 miles in 25 minutes, and was actually shot through the chest during its flight. Cher Ami did not let that stop his mission, continuing his journey in order to deliver the message that would eventually save those American troops. Cher Ami was awarded the Croix de Guerre with Palm for his incredible service and achievement. Arguably the most fascinating fact about Cher Ami was that he would have had no idea where the American’s nearest headquarters were, he had to rely on his homing instinct. Royal Blue: Another Remarkable War Pigeon During WW2, one pigeon from the Royal Lofts (named Royal Blue) become the first pigeon to deliver a message from a force-landed plane on the continent. Royal Blue was deployed on October 10th, 1940 in Holland. Royal Blue flew 120 miles in a mere 4 hours and 10 minutes. He successfully reported the information back to headquarters and late received the Dickin Medal. Don’t Kill the War Pigeons! Killing a war pigeon was quite a serious crime during the two World Wars. Stated in Regulation 21A in the Defence of the Realm document: ‘Killing wounding or molesting homing pigeons is punishable un the Defence of the Realm Regulations by: Six Months Imprisonment (or) The public are reminded that homing pigeons are doing valuable work for the government, and are requested to assist in the suppression of the shooting of these birds. There was also a £5 reward for information that lead to the person’s conviction! How the mighty have fallen! Pigeons today litter our streets and are usually shunted to the curb for getting under our feet. Racing pigeons do represent a higher class of pigeon life, though, these are not seen as frequently as the common pigeon. In truth, pigeons have unfortunately become the pests of modern society, and their excrement can cause serious damage to our properties and vehicles if left unattended. For all pigeon inquiries, feel free to contact us here, we’d be happy to help, no matter what the pigeon-related issue is!	1,029	ENGLISH	1
What if Jesus had thought he was more important than other people? In Philippians 2: 6 - 8 Paul writes about Jesus who made himself nothing. He became a servant and was even willing to die on a cross. Paul encourages us to look at Jesus and then try to become like Him. How would the story of Jesus have turned out if he hadn’t found others more important than Himself? Paul tells us that we should follow his example. Jesus didn’t consider himself more important than others, but was prepared to do things that the ‘important’ people mostly wouldn’t have done. Jesus made himself unimportant. In the letter to the church in Philippians Paul encourages his readers to look at Jesus and then try to mirror Him, to imitate Him, so that we can be good friends to others. This is a fun creative activity on Philippians 2 about being imitators of Christ. It will help the children in your Sunday school lesson, youth ministry, Bible lesson, children’s church or children’s ministry to reflect on this powerful Bible passage.	<urn:uuid:163755d4-b16a-4e63-8955-6e9028959888>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.creativekidswork.com/prayer/518-445-living-like-christ-christ-emptied-himself	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00236.warc.gz	en	0.980959	226	3.53125	4	[ -0.14242024719715118, 0.19260844588279724, 0.3629414141178131, -0.5831546187400818, -0.21395815908908844, 0.23551784455776215, 0.4054250717163086, 0.33145004510879517, 0.34413278102874756, 0.080888532102108, 0.3838985562324524, -0.006774313282221556, 0.003652959829196334, 0.063995502889156...	7	What if Jesus had thought he was more important than other people? In Philippians 2: 6 - 8 Paul writes about Jesus who made himself nothing. He became a servant and was even willing to die on a cross. Paul encourages us to look at Jesus and then try to become like Him. How would the story of Jesus have turned out if he hadn’t found others more important than Himself? Paul tells us that we should follow his example. Jesus didn’t consider himself more important than others, but was prepared to do things that the ‘important’ people mostly wouldn’t have done. Jesus made himself unimportant. In the letter to the church in Philippians Paul encourages his readers to look at Jesus and then try to mirror Him, to imitate Him, so that we can be good friends to others. This is a fun creative activity on Philippians 2 about being imitators of Christ. It will help the children in your Sunday school lesson, youth ministry, Bible lesson, children’s church or children’s ministry to reflect on this powerful Bible passage.	219	ENGLISH	1
Rashi is the most beloved biblical interpreter in the history of Judaism. The reissue of an English translation of his Torah commentary provides an opportunity to reflect on his legacy in biblical interpretation and to think about some hard issues that he first noted and that still trouble us today.1 Though Rashi lived nearly a thousand years ago, we’re still working on the problem of how to understand the “plain sense” of Scripture. The name Rashi is an acronym for Rabbi Shlomo Yitzhaqi, a French Jew who lived from 1040 to 1105 C.E. Rashi made his living by raising grapes and making wine—a fine trade for a Frenchman. More important than his wine, however, were his commentaries (in Hebrew) on almost every book of the Hebrew Bible and on the Babylonian Talmud. Rashi’s work became the basis for Jewish education and stimulated the writing of numerous commentaries on his commentaries. Even in traditional Jewish education today, Rashi is the chief path to knowledge of the Bible and Talmud.	<urn:uuid:0862d8a1-7c60-4a34-8959-fd2ae5484595>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.baslibrary.org/bible-review/13/6/4	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00545.warc.gz	en	0.983146	219	3.40625	3	[ -0.38858601450920105, 0.6363900899887085, -0.08535860478878021, 0.015024423599243164, -0.134221613407135, 0.021489914506673813, 0.5542412996292114, 0.3737489581108093, 0.019989700987935066, -0.08497234433889389, -0.36244481801986694, -0.34774211049079895, 0.16443392634391785, 0.42896401882...	2	Rashi is the most beloved biblical interpreter in the history of Judaism. The reissue of an English translation of his Torah commentary provides an opportunity to reflect on his legacy in biblical interpretation and to think about some hard issues that he first noted and that still trouble us today.1 Though Rashi lived nearly a thousand years ago, we’re still working on the problem of how to understand the “plain sense” of Scripture. The name Rashi is an acronym for Rabbi Shlomo Yitzhaqi, a French Jew who lived from 1040 to 1105 C.E. Rashi made his living by raising grapes and making wine—a fine trade for a Frenchman. More important than his wine, however, were his commentaries (in Hebrew) on almost every book of the Hebrew Bible and on the Babylonian Talmud. Rashi’s work became the basis for Jewish education and stimulated the writing of numerous commentaries on his commentaries. Even in traditional Jewish education today, Rashi is the chief path to knowledge of the Bible and Talmud.	219	ENGLISH	1
At a Glance Mark Twain himself was Twain’s first successful work of fiction. Born in 1835 as Samuel Langhorne Clemens, Twain worked as a river boat captain on the Mississippi while a young man. When the pilots called out the depth of the river, “mark twain” meant that the river was two fathoms deep. A master of vernacular English, Twain eventually traveled all over America (and beyond), paying attention to how people really spoke and what really entertained them. He published poetry, jokes, tall tales, nonfiction, and, of course, some of the greatest novels in American history. His characters Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn seem to capture the meaning of boyhood, America, and life on the wild Mississippi River. Facts and Trivia - Twain grew up in Missouri, a slave state. However, when the Civil War broke out, Missouri didn’t join the Confederacy, so Twain and some friends formed a militia to fight on the Confederate side. This lasted until the first battle. When a man was killed, Twain deserted. - Twain was a successful lecturer, generating money and fame via speaking tours throughout the United States and Europe. - When Twain disliked you, you knew it. His essay “Fennimore Cooper’s Literary Offenses” does an entertainingly malicious job of taking apart the author of Last of the Mohicans. - Twain made lots of money, but he lost most of it. He was as bad at investing as he was good at writing, and he eventually had to declare bankruptcy. - Ernest Hemingway once said, “All modern American literature comes from one book by Mark Twain called Huckleberry Finn.” Article abstract: In The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884), Twain gave America the prototypical initiation novel, but his humor and nostalgia for the past increasingly gave way to his pessimism about man’s technological “progress.” Samuel Langhorne Clemens was born November 30, 1835, in Florida, Missouri. The ancestors of his mother, née Jane Lampton, and his father, John Marshall Clemens, were mostly English and Irish and had lived in Virginia and Kentucky. While both sides of his family claimed distinguished English ancestors, those aristocratic ties were never clearly identified, and the Clemens family was hardly affluent when Samuel was born. Nevertheless, Samuel’s father was a cultivated, educated man (he had studied law) who was determined to be successful financially. Consequently, because there appeared to be more opportunity, in 1839 the elder Clemens moved his family to Hannibal, located on the banks of the Mississippi. Unfortunately, John’s financial dreams did not materialize, and he died in 1847, when Samuel was eleven. Partly by default and partly because of her personality, Jane Clemens became a central influence in Samuel’s life. In fact, the similarities between his mother and Olivia Langdon, his wife, were so pronounced that one could speculate that his mother’s influence subconsciously affected his choice of a wife. Shortly after his father’s death, Samuel, probably for financial reasons, was apprenticed to a local printer, and his newspaper career was launched. In 1850, he went to work for his older brother, Orion, on the Hannibal Western Union, and until 1857, he worked as a typesetter for various newspapers. During this period, he also wrote sketches and published his first story. His newspaper career was fortuitously interrupted in 1857, when he learned to be a steamboat pilot on the Mississippi. Those experiences formed the basis for his Life on the Mississippi (1883) and also deepened the influence that the Mississippi had on the body of his work. In 1862, he first used the pen name “Mark Twain,” taken from the river boatmen’s cry to indicate two fathoms of safe water. When the outbreak of the Civil War brought his piloting career to an end, Twain served briefly with some Confederate “irregulars,” but he gladly accepted Orion’s offer to accompany him to Nevada, where Orion served as “secretary” to that territory. (The entire section is 8,156 words.)	<urn:uuid:d292dafd-437b-4c87-9642-9c9e14803caa>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/topics/mark-twain?en_action=content_body_click&en_label=%2Ftopics%2Fmysterious-stranger&en_category=internal_campaign	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250615407.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124040939-20200124065939-00535.warc.gz	en	0.985712	892	3.421875	3	[ -0.012561943382024765, 0.06940467655658722, 0.02521533891558647, -0.12929624319076538, -0.33144932985305786, -0.027561265975236893, 0.42605191469192505, -0.054457470774650574, -0.2842631936073303, -0.07652150839567184, 0.12162288278341293, -0.11152884364128113, 0.08789127320051193, 0.50802...	1	At a Glance Mark Twain himself was Twain’s first successful work of fiction. Born in 1835 as Samuel Langhorne Clemens, Twain worked as a river boat captain on the Mississippi while a young man. When the pilots called out the depth of the river, “mark twain” meant that the river was two fathoms deep. A master of vernacular English, Twain eventually traveled all over America (and beyond), paying attention to how people really spoke and what really entertained them. He published poetry, jokes, tall tales, nonfiction, and, of course, some of the greatest novels in American history. His characters Tom Sawyer and Huckleberry Finn seem to capture the meaning of boyhood, America, and life on the wild Mississippi River. Facts and Trivia - Twain grew up in Missouri, a slave state. However, when the Civil War broke out, Missouri didn’t join the Confederacy, so Twain and some friends formed a militia to fight on the Confederate side. This lasted until the first battle. When a man was killed, Twain deserted. - Twain was a successful lecturer, generating money and fame via speaking tours throughout the United States and Europe. - When Twain disliked you, you knew it. His essay “Fennimore Cooper’s Literary Offenses” does an entertainingly malicious job of taking apart the author of Last of the Mohicans. - Twain made lots of money, but he lost most of it. He was as bad at investing as he was good at writing, and he eventually had to declare bankruptcy. - Ernest Hemingway once said, “All modern American literature comes from one book by Mark Twain called Huckleberry Finn.” Article abstract: In The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884), Twain gave America the prototypical initiation novel, but his humor and nostalgia for the past increasingly gave way to his pessimism about man’s technological “progress.” Samuel Langhorne Clemens was born November 30, 1835, in Florida, Missouri. The ancestors of his mother, née Jane Lampton, and his father, John Marshall Clemens, were mostly English and Irish and had lived in Virginia and Kentucky. While both sides of his family claimed distinguished English ancestors, those aristocratic ties were never clearly identified, and the Clemens family was hardly affluent when Samuel was born. Nevertheless, Samuel’s father was a cultivated, educated man (he had studied law) who was determined to be successful financially. Consequently, because there appeared to be more opportunity, in 1839 the elder Clemens moved his family to Hannibal, located on the banks of the Mississippi. Unfortunately, John’s financial dreams did not materialize, and he died in 1847, when Samuel was eleven. Partly by default and partly because of her personality, Jane Clemens became a central influence in Samuel’s life. In fact, the similarities between his mother and Olivia Langdon, his wife, were so pronounced that one could speculate that his mother’s influence subconsciously affected his choice of a wife. Shortly after his father’s death, Samuel, probably for financial reasons, was apprenticed to a local printer, and his newspaper career was launched. In 1850, he went to work for his older brother, Orion, on the Hannibal Western Union, and until 1857, he worked as a typesetter for various newspapers. During this period, he also wrote sketches and published his first story. His newspaper career was fortuitously interrupted in 1857, when he learned to be a steamboat pilot on the Mississippi. Those experiences formed the basis for his Life on the Mississippi (1883) and also deepened the influence that the Mississippi had on the body of his work. In 1862, he first used the pen name “Mark Twain,” taken from the river boatmen’s cry to indicate two fathoms of safe water. When the outbreak of the Civil War brought his piloting career to an end, Twain served briefly with some Confederate “irregulars,” but he gladly accepted Orion’s offer to accompany him to Nevada, where Orion served as “secretary” to that territory. (The entire section is 8,156 words.)	893	ENGLISH	1
Saint Patrick is the Patron saint of Ireland and was born at Kilpatrick, near Dumbarton, in Scotland, in the year 387. Along with Saint Nicholas and Saint Valentine, the secular world shares a love for these saints along with devout Catholics; on Saint Patrick’s day, which falls on March 17, of every year, everyone celebrates, and everyone is Irish. There are a variety of legends and stories surrounding Saint Patrick, but his story according to Catholic doctrine is as follows: Patrick was born around 385 in Scotland, to parents Calpurnius and Conchessa, who were Romans living in Britain in charge of the colonies. As a child, at about age fourteen, Patrick was captured during a raiding party and taken to Ireland as a slave to herd and tend sheep. At this time, Ireland was a land of Druids and pagans, and Patrick learned the language and practices of the people who held him captive. While in captivity, Patrick turned to God in prayer, and wrote the following: “The Love of God and fear grew in me more and more, as did the faith, and my soul was rose, so that, in a single day, I have said as many as a hundred prayers and in the night, nearly the same. “I prayed in the woods and on the mountain, even before dawn. I felt no hurt from the snow or ice or rain.” Patrick was held captive until he was twenty years old. He finally escaped after having a dream in which God told him to leave Ireland by going to the coast. There he found some sailors who took him back to England, where he was reunited with his family. After being returned to England, Patrick had yet another dream in which the people of Ireland were calling out to him, “We beg you, holy youth, to come and walk among us [again].” He began his priesthood studies and was later ordained by St. Germanus, the Bishop of Auxerre, whom he had studied under for years. He went on to be ordained as a bishop, and was sent to take the Gospel to Ireland. On March 25, 433, Patrick arrived in Ireland, at Slane. One legend states that he met a chieftain of one of the tribes, who tried to kill him. However, Patrick managed to convert the chieftain, who was miraculously unable to move his arm until he became friendly to Patrick. Patrick and his disciples preached the Gospel throughout Ireland and converted thousands. They began building churches all over the country and Kings, their families and entire kingdoms converted to Christianity after hearing Patrick’s message. Patrick continued this work all over Ireland for 40 years, working with miracles and writing of his love for God in Confessions. After years of living in poverty, travelling and enduring much suffering, he died on March 17, 461 at Saul, where he had built the first church. Notably, Patrick used the shamrock to explain the Trinity; it has been associated with him and the Irish since that time.	<urn:uuid:19bb3bef-51c7-4f5a-b7e2-91fc6e2c0354>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.biographyarchive.com/biography-of-saint-patrick.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595282.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119205448-20200119233448-00313.warc.gz	en	0.992509	625	3.3125	3	[ 0.17819583415985107, 0.34111547470092773, 0.0004416062729433179, -0.3298551142215729, -0.14153026044368744, -0.30545279383659363, 0.4517461955547333, -0.12903174757957458, 0.36552268266677856, -0.3097494840621948, -0.12803125381469727, -0.28796786069869995, 0.22060039639472961, -0.12840673...	6	Saint Patrick is the Patron saint of Ireland and was born at Kilpatrick, near Dumbarton, in Scotland, in the year 387. Along with Saint Nicholas and Saint Valentine, the secular world shares a love for these saints along with devout Catholics; on Saint Patrick’s day, which falls on March 17, of every year, everyone celebrates, and everyone is Irish. There are a variety of legends and stories surrounding Saint Patrick, but his story according to Catholic doctrine is as follows: Patrick was born around 385 in Scotland, to parents Calpurnius and Conchessa, who were Romans living in Britain in charge of the colonies. As a child, at about age fourteen, Patrick was captured during a raiding party and taken to Ireland as a slave to herd and tend sheep. At this time, Ireland was a land of Druids and pagans, and Patrick learned the language and practices of the people who held him captive. While in captivity, Patrick turned to God in prayer, and wrote the following: “The Love of God and fear grew in me more and more, as did the faith, and my soul was rose, so that, in a single day, I have said as many as a hundred prayers and in the night, nearly the same. “I prayed in the woods and on the mountain, even before dawn. I felt no hurt from the snow or ice or rain.” Patrick was held captive until he was twenty years old. He finally escaped after having a dream in which God told him to leave Ireland by going to the coast. There he found some sailors who took him back to England, where he was reunited with his family. After being returned to England, Patrick had yet another dream in which the people of Ireland were calling out to him, “We beg you, holy youth, to come and walk among us [again].” He began his priesthood studies and was later ordained by St. Germanus, the Bishop of Auxerre, whom he had studied under for years. He went on to be ordained as a bishop, and was sent to take the Gospel to Ireland. On March 25, 433, Patrick arrived in Ireland, at Slane. One legend states that he met a chieftain of one of the tribes, who tried to kill him. However, Patrick managed to convert the chieftain, who was miraculously unable to move his arm until he became friendly to Patrick. Patrick and his disciples preached the Gospel throughout Ireland and converted thousands. They began building churches all over the country and Kings, their families and entire kingdoms converted to Christianity after hearing Patrick’s message. Patrick continued this work all over Ireland for 40 years, working with miracles and writing of his love for God in Confessions. After years of living in poverty, travelling and enduring much suffering, he died on March 17, 461 at Saul, where he had built the first church. Notably, Patrick used the shamrock to explain the Trinity; it has been associated with him and the Irish since that time.	628	ENGLISH	1
We were climbing around on our favorite downed trees this week. First in the cold and then in the snow. It was such fun to finally have snow to play in! The children found it was a perfect sliding snow, and acted like a group of penguins trying to find the best slides, shooting down on their bellies, bottoms, and backs. They also had great fun following all the fresh tracks that we could find in the snow. "Who do you think this was?" "Look at how close the tracks are." "Was this deer walking or running?" "Where do you think it was going?" "Do you think we can find a fox den?" A rabbit was frightened by all of the joyous questioning and almost flew out of its hiding place and deep into some thick underbrush. "Did you see that?!" "Wow! Look at how far apart these tracks are!" Theme: New York State History I chuckle a little when I watch the class practice our play about Henry Hudson's fateful exploration up the river that would eventually bare his name. The children helped make the script, and I tried to honor their ideas as much as possible. It means that the dialogue is not historically accurate, and the transitions are a little rough, but they really seem to be getting the basic facts down. I'm pretty sure that they will remember all of this much more clearly than if I simply read them a story about Henry Hudson's journey or had them fill out a worksheet about his travels. We did read a beautifully illustrated book this week called Tattered Sails to dig a little deeper into what it might feel like to be one of the colonists making the trip to the New World. We imagined ourselves on a journey that could take 8 - 12 weeks depending on the weather and the wind. We also read Spotlight on Stacy, a book about a girl coping with her stage fright as her class puts on a play about colonial America. Life as a Duck Nancy gave everyone the chance to be a duck, looking for food in the pond. The children found it was difficult to get food using their scoop beak without filling their bellies with water. Nancy had them think about a potential solution, and they suggested they needed some sort of filter. With a new set of little strainer beaks, they were much more successful. But is that really how ducks do it? Nancy had a duck skill we could examine, and when the children looked closely and gently rubbed their fingers along the edges of the bill, they found little comb-like structures that could work as filters. Her questions then led the children to ask lots of other questions, and Nancy celebrated the way they were thinking like scientist. Science Fair in February All of the children will have a chance this next month to further their science minds as we get ready for our annual science fair. We reviewed the basics of the scientific method: generating a question, coming up with a hypothesis, developing a procedure, recording results, drawing conclusions, and making more questions. We generated some possible ideas and talked about how it can be helpful to start with a topic that they find interesting. If you love to paint, you could work to make some of your own paints and then test different recipes to see which one works best. If you love to build ramps for your cars, you could experiment to see which cars travel fastest or how the travel time changes when you put different materials on the ramps. I'll be sitting down with each child to discuss some specifics this week so that I can have all the appropriate materials and any supporting books ready to go. Please talk to your child as well to get a sense of his or her ideas and encourage all of the questions generated.	<urn:uuid:431b57e7-c666-4abd-af3d-12e53aabcee1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.countryclassroom.org/single-post/2017/01/29/Asking-Questions	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00127.warc.gz	en	0.983491	753	3.328125	3	[ -0.37378761172294617, -0.40846189856529236, 0.32827019691467285, -0.060326896607875824, 0.09784917533397675, 0.24664515256881714, 0.38177815079689026, 0.23206749558448792, -0.452670156955719, 0.05889657884836197, -0.08585241436958313, -0.03368686884641647, 0.19183480739593506, 0.4627199172...	9	We were climbing around on our favorite downed trees this week. First in the cold and then in the snow. It was such fun to finally have snow to play in! The children found it was a perfect sliding snow, and acted like a group of penguins trying to find the best slides, shooting down on their bellies, bottoms, and backs. They also had great fun following all the fresh tracks that we could find in the snow. "Who do you think this was?" "Look at how close the tracks are." "Was this deer walking or running?" "Where do you think it was going?" "Do you think we can find a fox den?" A rabbit was frightened by all of the joyous questioning and almost flew out of its hiding place and deep into some thick underbrush. "Did you see that?!" "Wow! Look at how far apart these tracks are!" Theme: New York State History I chuckle a little when I watch the class practice our play about Henry Hudson's fateful exploration up the river that would eventually bare his name. The children helped make the script, and I tried to honor their ideas as much as possible. It means that the dialogue is not historically accurate, and the transitions are a little rough, but they really seem to be getting the basic facts down. I'm pretty sure that they will remember all of this much more clearly than if I simply read them a story about Henry Hudson's journey or had them fill out a worksheet about his travels. We did read a beautifully illustrated book this week called Tattered Sails to dig a little deeper into what it might feel like to be one of the colonists making the trip to the New World. We imagined ourselves on a journey that could take 8 - 12 weeks depending on the weather and the wind. We also read Spotlight on Stacy, a book about a girl coping with her stage fright as her class puts on a play about colonial America. Life as a Duck Nancy gave everyone the chance to be a duck, looking for food in the pond. The children found it was difficult to get food using their scoop beak without filling their bellies with water. Nancy had them think about a potential solution, and they suggested they needed some sort of filter. With a new set of little strainer beaks, they were much more successful. But is that really how ducks do it? Nancy had a duck skill we could examine, and when the children looked closely and gently rubbed their fingers along the edges of the bill, they found little comb-like structures that could work as filters. Her questions then led the children to ask lots of other questions, and Nancy celebrated the way they were thinking like scientist. Science Fair in February All of the children will have a chance this next month to further their science minds as we get ready for our annual science fair. We reviewed the basics of the scientific method: generating a question, coming up with a hypothesis, developing a procedure, recording results, drawing conclusions, and making more questions. We generated some possible ideas and talked about how it can be helpful to start with a topic that they find interesting. If you love to paint, you could work to make some of your own paints and then test different recipes to see which one works best. If you love to build ramps for your cars, you could experiment to see which cars travel fastest or how the travel time changes when you put different materials on the ramps. I'll be sitting down with each child to discuss some specifics this week so that I can have all the appropriate materials and any supporting books ready to go. Please talk to your child as well to get a sense of his or her ideas and encourage all of the questions generated.	755	ENGLISH	1
THE CONTROL CENTER OF THE TRAIN The purpose of the caboose was to be the main control office of the entire train. There is a common myth that the engineer was the head-man of the entire train, however not true. The engineer was in charge and operation of the locomotive only. It was the conductor that was in charge of the entire train, and his office was in the caboose. Though the engineer was in charge of the speed of the train, the conductor was responsible to make sure the cars on his train went to their proper location. Hence the caboose was the nerve center of the train. In addition the brakemen also rode in the caboose. They were responsible for separating and breaking up and connecting the train cars to get them at their desired yards. In addition when the brakemen were riding the train at least 2 would be sitting up in the cupola watching the bearings of every wheel on the train. If a bearing acts up it would smoke. When this happened the brakemen alerted the conductor and he using the airbrakes notified the engineer to stop the train. There were tools in the caboose for jacking up the train and replacing the bearing. The brakemen also were responsible when a train is at a stop to set flares and lanterns to warn other trains that there is a stalled train on the track.	<urn:uuid:a91f4000-dfe4-4025-83f7-41246ccbc0a1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://nprymuseum.org/caboose-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00434.warc.gz	en	0.992481	280	3.734375	4	[ 0.061438195407390594, 0.43009889125823975, 0.5312768816947937, 0.13496893644332886, -0.19287116825580597, -0.3541097044944763, 0.581626832485199, 0.2909729778766632, -0.2578260898590088, -0.009710936807096004, 0.1490667462348938, -0.34481728076934814, -0.09746197611093521, 0.15126517415046...	5	THE CONTROL CENTER OF THE TRAIN The purpose of the caboose was to be the main control office of the entire train. There is a common myth that the engineer was the head-man of the entire train, however not true. The engineer was in charge and operation of the locomotive only. It was the conductor that was in charge of the entire train, and his office was in the caboose. Though the engineer was in charge of the speed of the train, the conductor was responsible to make sure the cars on his train went to their proper location. Hence the caboose was the nerve center of the train. In addition the brakemen also rode in the caboose. They were responsible for separating and breaking up and connecting the train cars to get them at their desired yards. In addition when the brakemen were riding the train at least 2 would be sitting up in the cupola watching the bearings of every wheel on the train. If a bearing acts up it would smoke. When this happened the brakemen alerted the conductor and he using the airbrakes notified the engineer to stop the train. There were tools in the caboose for jacking up the train and replacing the bearing. The brakemen also were responsible when a train is at a stop to set flares and lanterns to warn other trains that there is a stalled train on the track.	278	ENGLISH	1
To birders, “looking through the glass” refers to binoculars. Wildlife photographer Glen Apseloff, however, thinks of the phrase as referring to the windows of his house. Using a handheld camera without a flash or special filters, he has photographed enough birds from inside his house, through closed windows, to create two books. Some of the photographs and text in this slideshow can be found in his more recent book, Backyard Birds and More—Looking Through the Glass. All of the birds in this slideshow, like all of those in his books, were taken through closed windows from inside his home in a suburb of Columbus, Ohio. He wrote each of the captions in the following slideshow. Pileated Woodpeckers are the largest woodpeckers in Ohio — almost as large as American Crows — and are year-round residents here. Males have a red mustache, and their red cap extends to their bill. Otherwise males and females appear similar. They reach about 19 inches in length and have a wingspan up to about 30 inches. They nest in cavities and eat carpenter ants and other insects from dead trees. Their excavations while foraging are so large that sometimes they will cause smaller trees to break in half. For nesting, they prefer very large, dead trees. Males do most of the excavating, and their nests can be up to two feet in depth. They line their nests with wood chips from the excavation.The oldest documented Pileated Woodpecker in the wild was a male that lived at least 12 years and 11 months. He was banded, recaptured, and rereleased in Maryland.	<urn:uuid:b9f45101-526f-4f0d-b2d4-bf14ce117897>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.birdwatchingdaily.com/photography/featured-galleries/backyard-birds-photographed-through-windows/nggallery/image/5_male-pileated-woodpecker_1607_72dpi/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00114.warc.gz	en	0.982154	340	3.390625	3	[ 0.186707004904747, -0.12655816972255707, 0.3001526892185211, -0.1985306292772293, 0.3342744708061218, 0.024643495678901672, 0.450874924659729, -0.11104937642812729, -0.11777450889348984, 0.15219861268997192, -0.1414240449666977, -0.6039019227027893, -0.364911824464798, 0.23276126384735107,...	3	To birders, “looking through the glass” refers to binoculars. Wildlife photographer Glen Apseloff, however, thinks of the phrase as referring to the windows of his house. Using a handheld camera without a flash or special filters, he has photographed enough birds from inside his house, through closed windows, to create two books. Some of the photographs and text in this slideshow can be found in his more recent book, Backyard Birds and More—Looking Through the Glass. All of the birds in this slideshow, like all of those in his books, were taken through closed windows from inside his home in a suburb of Columbus, Ohio. He wrote each of the captions in the following slideshow. Pileated Woodpeckers are the largest woodpeckers in Ohio — almost as large as American Crows — and are year-round residents here. Males have a red mustache, and their red cap extends to their bill. Otherwise males and females appear similar. They reach about 19 inches in length and have a wingspan up to about 30 inches. They nest in cavities and eat carpenter ants and other insects from dead trees. Their excavations while foraging are so large that sometimes they will cause smaller trees to break in half. For nesting, they prefer very large, dead trees. Males do most of the excavating, and their nests can be up to two feet in depth. They line their nests with wood chips from the excavation.The oldest documented Pileated Woodpecker in the wild was a male that lived at least 12 years and 11 months. He was banded, recaptured, and rereleased in Maryland.	344	ENGLISH	1
APUSH The Gilded Age and Progressive Era Terms in this set (96) Ulysses S. Grant He was the first president elected to office after the Civil War. He was previously a Union General who defeated General Lee at Appomattox Courthouse, thus ending the Civil War. During his presidency, several scams occurred, although he was never proven to be involved with any of them. Also, the Panic of 1873 (due to over-speculation) came about during his reign. He served out two consecutive terms and was not re-nominated to run for a third. He was a cartoonist for the New York Times and drew many famous political cartoons, including many of Boss Tweed and Tammany Hall. The cartoon showed condemning evidence of the corrupt ringleader and he was jailed shortly afterwards. In 1872, the Republicans re-nominated Grant causing some of the "reform-minded" Republicans to leave their party and create the Liberal Republican Party. They nominated this guy, editor of the New York Tribune. The Democrats also nominated him. There was much mudslinging involved in this election and he lost, in more ways than one. Along with the loss of the presidency, he lost his job, his wife, and his mind within one month of the election. Rutherford B. Hayes He was a Republican governor from Ohio. He had spent the majority of his term as governor reforming the government and politics within Ohio. He was elected president in 1876 by the Compromise of 1877. He was known as the "caretaker" president because he took care of the country. He was a New York lawyer who rose to fame by bagging Boss Tweed, a notorious New York political boss. He was nominated for president in 1876 by the Democratic party because of his clean-up image. This election was so close that it led to the Compromise of 1877. Even though he had more popular votes, the compromise gave the presidency to the Republicans and allowed the Democrats to stop Reconstruction in the South. James A. Garfield He was elected to the presidency in 1880. He barely won the popular vote, but won by a huge margin in the electoral college. He was assassinated, so that the Stalwarts could be in power in the government. This brought about reforms in the spoils systems. Chester A. Arthur He was the vice president of James A. Garfield. After President Garfield was assassinated, in September of 1881, this guy assumed the presidency. Despite a lack of qualifications, he proved a vigorous leader. Charles J. Guiteau In 1881, this guy shot President Garfield in the back in a Washington railroad station. He allegedly committed this crime so that Arthur, a Stalwart, would become president. His attorneys used a plea of insanity, but failed and this guy was hanged for murder. After this event, politics began to get cleaned up with laws like the Pendleton Act. He was the Democratic presidential candidate for the 1884 election. His Republican opponent, James G. Blaine, was involved in several questionable deals, but this guy had an illegitimate child. Consequently, the election turned into a mudslinging contest. This guy won, becoming the first Democratic president since Buchanan. He took few initiatives, but he was effective in dealing with excessive military pensions. He placated both North and South by appointing some former Confederates to office, but sticking mostly with Northerners. He also forced Congress to discuss lowering the tariff, although the issue could not be resolved before he was defeated by Benjamin Harrison in the 1888 election. He was called "Young Tippecanoe" because of grandfather, William Henry. He was a Republican and was elected president in 1888. His opponent, Grover Cleveland, had more popular votes, but he was put in office because of more electoral votes. He was both pro-business and pro-tariff. This is the theory that more printed money causes inflation. With more money in circulation, it would be easier to get one's hands on some of it, making it easy to pay off debts. Creditors clearly disliked this idea. This was favored by the farmers and debtors. This theory's advocates wanted more "greenbacks" printed or more silver currency coined. Hard or Sound Money The metallic or specie dollar is known as this. It was extremely important during the late 1860's and early 1870's, especially during the Panic of 1873. It was in opposition with "greenbacks" or "folding money." The issuing of the "greenbacks" was overdone and the value depreciated causing inflation and the Panic of 1873. This theory's advocates looked for the complete disappearance of the "folding money." The creditors and wealthy supported hard money, the debtors and poor supported cheap money. It was a period in U.S. history around 1870-1900 that seemed fine on the outside, but was politically corrupt internally. This term was coined by Mark Twain. Although reunited between the North and South and as business boomed, strong North—South divisions remained and corruption in both business and politics was common. The slogan "waving the ______" was an election tactic where a party, usually the Republicans, would nominate an old military figure and/or keep reminding the nation of the Civil War. This/"Tammany Hall" was group of people in New York City who worked with and for "Boss" Tweed. He was a crooked politician and money-maker. The ring supported all of his deeds. The New York Times finally found evidence to jail Tweed. Without Tweed, the ring did not last. These people, the "Bosses" of the political machines, were very common in America for that time Credit Mobilier Scandal This was a railroad construction company that consisted of many of the insiders of the Union Pacific Railway. The company hired themselves to build a railroad and made incredible amounts of money from it. In merely one year, they paid dividends of 348%. In an attempt to cover themselves, they paid key congressmen and even the Vice President stocks and large dividends. All of this was exposed in the scandal of 1872. In 1875, whiskey manufacturers had to pay a heavy excise tax. Most avoided the tax, and soon tax collectors came to get their money. The collectors were bribed by the distillers. This group robbed the treasury of millions in excise-tax revenues. The scandal reached as high as to the personal secretary of President Grant. This stated that the government would contract greenbacks from circulation and redeem paper currency in gold at face value beginning in 1879. This was the policy of "contraction"—lessening paper money. It worked, as the amount of money per capita did decrease between 1870-80. This was good for creditors (rich), bad for debtors (poor). This act was a compromise concerning the coinage of silver designed by Richard P. Bland. It was put into effect in 1878. The act stated that the Treasury had to buy and coin between $2 and $4 million worth of silver bullion each month. The government put down hopes of inflationists when it bought only the legal minimum. The Grand Army of the Republic, was an organization formed by the Union veterans at the end of the American Civil War in 1866. Its main goal was to aid fellow veterans' families, and to try to obtain pension increases. In 1890, they had over 400,000 members. They also adopted Memorial Day in 1868. The Republican party was greatly influenced by them until 1900. This was a member of a political machine led by Roscoe Conkling of New York in the late 19th Century. Their goal was to seek power in government. They also supported the spoils system. It was a Republican political machine, headed by James G. Blaine around 1869. These people pushed Republican ideals and were almost a separate group that existed within the party. Civil Service Reform This was the idea that government officials should earn their positions rather than have their jobs given to them. It was supposed to clean up corrupt political machines like Boss Tweed's Tammany Hall who gave government jobs to buddies in exchange for loyalty. Pendleton Act of 1833 This was what some people called the Magna Carta of civil-service reform. It prohibited, at least on paper, financial assessments of jobholders. It created a merit system of making appointments to government jobs on the basis of aptitude rather than who-you-know, or the spoils system. It set up a Civil Service Commission, charged with administering open competitive examinations to applicants for posts in the classified service. The people were forced, under this law, to take an exam before being hired to a governmental job or position. This act showered pensions on all Union Civil War veterans who had served for 90 days and who were now unable to do manual labor. This program foreshadowed the 20th century welfare programs. Money given by the government to businesses. The purpose is for the government to encourage those businesses since they would benefit the entire nation. This was a railroad across the continent. The Union Pacific (from Omaha, NE) and Central Pacific (from Sacramento, CA) linked together at Promontory Point, Utah in May 1869. The labor was mostly done by Irish "Paddies" and Chinese workers. He was a railroad tycoon. He earned his 1st fortune as a shipping magnate in New York where he gained the nickname "The Commodore" while shipping. Then, turned to railroads by consolidating the lines from NYC to Chicago. Interstate Commerce Commission Set up by the Interstate Commerce Act, the ICC attempted to regulate the railroads. (Several corrupt railroad practices existed including (1) a roller-coaster ride of stock prices, (2) bribes to judges and legislators, (3) free passes to journalists and politicians, (4) a "natural monopoly" (only one railroad line in most places), (5) pools (any competing companies agreed to have their own areas), (6) rebates or kickbacks to powerful shippers, (7) charging high rates for the short haul (small farmers) and low rates for the long haul (big companies). It had only mild success but served as the first time Washington tried to regulate business for the good of society. Alexander Graham Bell He was the inventor of the telephone. Less well known, he was a teacher of the deaf. It was because of his work with the mechanics of sound and speech (teaching the deaf how to speak) that he began his work on the telephone. Thomas Alva Edison An extraordinary inventor with over 2300 patents to his name, he was the perfector of the incandescent light bulb, and many other inventions such as the phonograph, mimeograph, dictaphone, and moving pictures. Much of his work was done at his New Jersey lab, Menlo Park. He was a steel tycoon. He was a master of "vertical integration." He eventually turned to philanthropy and gave huge sums to libraries and arts (_____ Hall and local libraries). This was a business method where a corporation bought out other businesses (though not competitors) along its line of production. For instance, Carnegie might buy land in the Mesabi Range just for the iron ore, then buy the ships to haul the ore, then buy the railroads to haul it, etc. The companies were not competitors, but Carnegie used them, so he figured he might as well own them. This was a business method where the company bought out its competitors. For instance, Standard Oil would buy out smaller oil competitors until it controlled nearly all of the oil industry. John D. Rockefeller He was an oil tycoon. He owned the Standard Oil Company that eventually controlled at least 90% of American oil. Was a master of "horizontal integration" where he ruthlessly drove others out of business. He was a banker and financier. He orchestrated several blockbuster deals in railroads, insurance, and banking. He bought Andrew Carnegie's steel operation for $400 million to start the U.S. Steel Company. He symbolized the greed, power, arrogance, and snobbery of the Gilded Age business. This is a business that essentially is a monopoly - a company with no competition. They could drive smaller businesses to the wall by (1) undercutting prices - they would lower rates so they'd actually take a loss. This thing could afford to take the loss but the small business couldn't and went out of business. Then it would raise prices. Or (2) enjoying "economies of scale" - since these things were bought in huge quantities, they got discounts, and therefore could afford to charge lower rates than small businesses while still making a profit. Sherman Anti-Trust Act This was an 1890 law attempting to outlaw trusts. It was only slightly successful, if that, since it lacked real teeth. However, combined with the Interstate Commerce Act, 1887, it started the government's attempt to regulate business for the good of society. Also, it foreshadowed the Clayton Act that did have real teeth to it. These were illustrations by Dana ____ of attractive, athletic, out-going, young women and helped create the new image of the feminine ideal. Yellow Dog Contracts These were agreements that employers forced workers to sign where workers pledged not join a union. They were names that employers kept of union agitators and "trouble makers." This scared workers into inaction since once they were on the list, no company would hire them again. These were towns essentially owned by the company. Workers worked at the company, lived in company-owned houses, and bought goods at the company store using either scrip (company money) or credit. Between low pay, rent, and scrip/credit purchases, the worker never got ahead. Haymarket Square incident This was an 1886 explosion in Chicago during labor disorders that killed several people including police officers. The explosions appeared to be the result of anarchists yet the public largely placed blame on labor unions thus hurt their cause. A.F.L. (American Federation of Labor) This was an early national labor union. They let many smaller unions remain independent while the this federation united them all and worked out overall strategy. It focused only on skilled labor (unskilled were on their own). Despite literally thousands of strikes, their success was also only mild, though Labor Day was passed during this time. He was an English naturalist who wrote the On the Origin of the Species in 1859. His theory stated that in nature the strongest of a species survive, the weaker animals die out, leaving only the stronger to reproduce. Through this process of "natural selection" the entire species improves. Booker T. Washington He was an ex-slave who saved his money to buy himself an education. He believed that blacks must first gain economic equality before they gained social equality. He was president of the Tuskegee Institute and he was a part of the Atlanta Compromise. This guy believed that blacks should be taught useful skills so they could gain a financial foothold. He was also famous for his Atlanta "fingers speech" saying blacks and whites could be as separate as the fingers but as one as the hand. He is sometimes criticized for this speech as perhaps giving an okay to segregation. He was a popular writer of the Post-Civil War time period. He was a Puritan New Englander who wrote more than a hundred volumes of juvenile fiction during his career, most with a "rags-to-riches" theme. He was America's most popular author, but also a renowned platform lecturer. He mixed "romantic" type literature with comedy to entertain his audiences. In 1873, he wrote The Gilded Age and named the period. The greatest contribution he made to American literature was the way he captured the frontier realism and humor through the common dialect that his characters used. Hemingway once said, "All modern American literature comes from one book by [this guy] called Huckleberry Finn." A philosophy in which people strongly disliked immigrants and had much patriotism toward native born Americans. This occurs when wealthy millionaires give back some of the money they have earned to benefit society. The money would be sent to benefit the libraries, the arts, and the colleges. Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller both believed in this He was a minister who trumpeted the superiority of Anglo-Saxon civilization and summoned Americans to spread their religion and their values to the backward people of the Third World. Between the 1850's and 1880's, more than 5 million immigrants cascaded into America from the "mother continent." Starting in the 1880's, the "new immigrants" (mainly Italians, Croats, Slovaks, Greeks, and Poles) came swarming into the U.S. This was opposed to the "Old Immigration" of northern Europe (England, Ireland, Germany). New peoples were looked down upon by nativists because they were poor, Catholic, poorly educated, and would work for low wages. They later, however, helped provide the unique cultural diversity that still exists today in the U.S. This was preached by many people in the 1880s and said the churches should get involved in helping the poor. Some disagreed and didn't think that they should be helped because it was their fault they were poor. This was "Social Darwinism." This was a house where immigrants came to live upon entering the U.S. At these places, instruction was given in English and how to get a job, among other things. The first one of these was the Hull House, which was opened by Jane Addams in Chicago in 1889. These centers were usually run by educated middle class women. The houses became centers for reform in the women's and labor movements. In 1859, Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species which dealt with the idea of evolution, an idea that strictly conflicted with the literal interpretation of the Bible known as "Creationism." "[These people]" were people who believed in a system that somehow meshed Darwinism with Creationism. They were disgraced by the church, but as time went by, more liberal thinkers were able to reconcile Darwinism and Christianity. Women's Christian Temperance Union The WCTU was organized in 1874 and the white ribbon was the symbol of purity. It was led by Frances E. Willard and the league stood for prohibition (or temperance). In 1919, the 18th Amendment was passed for national prohibition. They were a political group which began to emerge in 1891. They gained much support from farmers who turned to them to fight political injustice. They used a progressive platform. James B. Weaver ran as their presidential candidate in 1892. They had an impressive voter turnout. They were also known as the People's Party. Eugene V. Debs He was a labor leader who helped organize the American Railroad Union. The Union went on strike against the Pullman Palace Car Company in 1894. The strike was put down by armed forces and Debs and other leaders were given six months imprisonment. Debs would later run for president as a Socialist. Williams Jennings Bryan He was an eloquent congressman from Nebraska. During the extra Congress session in the summer of 1893, he held the galleries spellbound for three hours as he championed the cause of free silver. Despite his efforts, however, President Cleveland alienated the Democratic silverites. He also ran against McKinley in the presidential elections of 1896 and lost. He presented a tariff bill in the House, and lost his seat in Congress because of it. He ran on the Republican ticket in the 1896 election and won the presidency while preaching a gold standard platform. He won again in 1900 and was assassinated in 1901. This was the use of silver and gold in the economic system. This issue divided much of the United States during the late 19th century because the bankers and industrialists wanted at least a limited amount of silver, if not to get rid of it and the farmers wanted unlimited coinage of silver. Silverites were in favor of silver over gold in terms of currency. States with a lot of silver wanted unlimited coinage of silver. This would cause inflation (rising prices). This was desired because it enabled debtors, such as farmers, to more easily pay off debts. If money was worth very little (as with inflation) it's easier to get more money and therefore pay off one's debt. They were said to like "cheap money." Depression of 1893 This was the most devastating economic recession of the century. It occurred while Grover Cleveland was president and it lasted for four years. It was caused by overbuilding, over-speculation, labor disorder, and agricultural problems. Because of these things, many businesses collapsed and an abundance of people became unemployed. This was in 1894 when the company was hurt by the depression. They decided to cut wages about one-third. The workers decided to strike. Attorney General Olney called in the federal troops to break the strike. He thought that the strikers were interfering with the delivery of mail because railroads all over the country went on strike in support of the workers. These railroads carried the mail. The strike affected the entire country. Cross of Gold Speech William Jennings Bryan became the hero of the Democratic party in the election of 1896 with his "______" speech. This speech supported the silver standard for currency, as opposed to the gold standard, and it also supported the unlimited coinage of silver. He was a reporter for the New York Sun. He was a photojournalist. His book, How the Other Half Lives detailed life in the slums. He was trying to bring attention to the situation of the poor to bring about some sort of change. She was a "muckraker" who wrote an exposé in the magazine McClure's (1921). As a younger woman, in 1904, she made her reputation by publishing the history of the Standard Oil Company, the "Mother of Trusts." In it she blasted Standard Oil for using ruthless tactics to drive competition out of business. All her facts checked out as accurate. Robert M. LaFollete He was the governor of Wisconsin, nicknamed "Fighting Bob," and was a progressive Republican leader. His "Wisconsin Idea" was the model for state progressive governments. He used the "brain trust," a panel of experts, to help him create effective, efficient government. He was denied the nomination for the Republicans in favor of Theodore Roosevelt. He was the author of the sensational novel, The Jungle, published in 1906. His intention was to describe the conditions of canning factory workers. Instead, Americans were disgusted by his descriptions of dirty food production. His book influenced consumers to demand safer canned products and led to the Meat Inspection Act and then the Pure Food and Drug Act. William Howard Taft In the 1908 election, he was chosen over William Jennings Bryan to succeed Roosevelt. As president, he approached foreign policy by using America's wealth as leverage. He also brought suits against 90 trusts during his administration. Due to his lack of political skills, he helped divide the Republican Party. The process of the people petitioning a legislature to introduce a bill. It was part of the Populist party's platform in 1891, along with referendum and recall. These all intended to make the people more responsible for their laws and allow them to make political decisions rather than the legislature. This occurs when citizens vote on laws instead of the state or national governments. It originated as a populist reform in the Populist Party, but was later picked up by the progressive reform movement. In this, the people could possibly remove an incompetent politician from office by having a second election. This movement in America tried to preserve natural resources and stop the rapid destruction of these resources and land. It's reached its pinnacle with Pres. Teddy Roosevelt and the founding of 1st national park, Yellowstone. This was a nickname given to young reporters of popular magazines who spent a lot of time researching and digging up "muck," hence the name. These investigative journalists were trying to make the public aware of problems that needed fixing and corruption that needed cleaning. This name was given to them by Pres. Roosevelt in 1906. It was adopted in 1913 shortly after "direct primaries" were adopted. Prior to the amendment, U.S. senators were chosen by state legislators who were controlled by political machines. Elected in such a manner, U.S. senators seemed to answer only to state legislatures but not to the people. This amendment stated that senators were now to be elected by popular vote from the citizens of their state. Enacted in 1919, this amendment forbade the sale and manufacture of liquor. This act of 1903 was passed by Congress against the railroad industries. It specifically targeted the use of rebates. It allowed for heavy fining of companies who used rebates and those who accepted them. It was part of the Progressive reform movement. This 1906 act was signed by Teddy Roosevelt to give the ICC the right to set rates that would be reasonable. It also extended the jurisdiction of the ICC to cover express, sleeping car, and pipeline companies. It prohibited free passes and rebates. It was the first time in U.S. history that a government agency was given power to establish rates for private companies. Northern Securities Case ______ was a holding company in 1902. The company was forced to dissolve after they were challenged by Roosevelt, his first "trust-bust." Meat Inspection Act This law was passed in 1906 after The Jungle grossed out America. It stated that the preparation of meat shipped over state lines would be subject to federal inspection. It was part of the Progressive reforms, which helped the consumer. Pure Food and Drug Act It was created in 1906 and was designed to prevent the adulteration and mislabeling of foods and pharmaceuticals. It was made to protect the consumer. This act was Congress's response to Theodore Roosevelt in 1902. In the law, Washington was to collect money from sales of public lands in western states and use the funds for development of irrigation projects. This law was signed by Taft in March of 1909 in contrast to campaign promises. It was supposed to lower tariff rates, but Senator Nelson N. Aldrich of Rhode Island put revisions on it that actually raised tariffs. This split the Republican party into progressives (lower tariff) and conservatives (high tariff). A guy, who was the Secretary of Interior, opened public lands in Wyoming, Montana, and Alaska against Roosevelt's conservation policies. Another guy, who was the Chief of Forestry, supported former President Roosevelt and demanded that Taft dismiss the other guy. Taft, who supported this other guy, dismissed Pinchot on the basis of insubordination. This also divided the Republican party He was the Democratic representative in the presidential elections of 1912 and 1916. He was elected into the presidency as a minority president. He was born in Virginia and was raised in a very religious family. He was widely known for his political sermons. He was an aggressive leader and believed that Congress could not function properly without good leadership provided by the president. His progressive program was known as the "New Freedom" and his foreign policy program was "Moral Diplomacy." He was president during World War I. He represented the Socialist Party in the 1908 and 1912 elections. He got a high number of votes in the 1912 election which made the Socialists think that they would win the presidency in 1916 Louis D. Brandeis He was a prominent reformer and Attorney in the Muller v. Oregon (1908) case that persuaded the Supreme Court to accept the constitutionality of laws protecting women workers saying. That case said that conditions are harder on women's weaker bodies. He wrote the book Other People's Money and How Bankers Use It (1914) that pushed for reform within the banks. He was nominated in 1916 by Woodrow Wilson for the Supreme Court. This was the progressive policy of Theodore Roosevelt in 1912's Progressive party platform. It favored a more active government role in economic and social affairs. It favored continued consolidation of trusts and labor unions and the growth of powerful regulatory agencies in Washington. It favored women's suffrage and social welfare programs (including minimum-wage laws and "socialistic" social insurance). This was Wilson's policy that favored the small business, entrepreneurship, and the free functioning of unregulated and un-monopolized markets. Underwood Tariff (1913) This substantially reduced import fees. The lost tax revenue would be replaced with an income tax that was implemented with the 16th amendment. Sixteenth Amendment (1913) This is known as the income tax amendment. This amendment was passed because earlier the Supreme Court had declared that an income tax was unconstitutional. It set up a "gradual income tax" meaning the more one made, the higher the tax rate that was paid. This was created to shift the burden of taxes to the wealthy. Federal Reserve Act This might be the most important piece of economic legislation between the Civil War and the New Deal. It created a regulatory agency for banking with 12 regional reserve districts. Each bank was independent but was controlled by this thing, which was controlled by the public. It controls the amount of money in circulation through its reserves and interest rates. Federal Trade Commission The commission is a committee formed to investigate industries engaging in interstate commerce. It was created to stop unfair trade practices and to regulate and crush monopolies. Clayton Antitrust Act This act helped to control monopolies by strengthening the Sherman act's list of business practices that were objectionable (such as interlocking directorates). It exempted labor and agricultural organizations from antitrust prosecution and legalized strikes and peaceful picketing. This was signed by President Wilson in 1916. It granted territorial status to the Philippines and promised to grant independence as soon as a stable government was established ( eventually granted on July 4, 1946) YOU MIGHT ALSO LIKE... Gilded Age / Progressive Era Vocabulary Terms List Ch. 23 & 24 APUSH Week 17 IDs OTHER SETS BY THIS CREATOR Der Diebstahl Wortschatz Lola Rennt Vocab Die Physiker Part 1 German Vocab - "Die Probe"	<urn:uuid:fc47b48e-cfca-4bda-805e-c96c77d0fa84>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://quizlet.com/279019952/apush-the-gilded-age-and-progressive-era-flash-cards/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00539.warc.gz	en	0.983848	6,276	3.53125	4	[ -0.3437839448451996, 0.2355749011039734, 0.4216705560684204, 0.18371999263763428, -0.22341963648796082, 0.023558277636766434, 0.10596871376037598, -0.2260497510433197, -0.3367764353752136, 0.3689236640930176, 0.28952962160110474, 0.3162347674369812, 0.24411702156066895, 0.1904027760028839,...	1	APUSH The Gilded Age and Progressive Era Terms in this set (96) Ulysses S. Grant He was the first president elected to office after the Civil War. He was previously a Union General who defeated General Lee at Appomattox Courthouse, thus ending the Civil War. During his presidency, several scams occurred, although he was never proven to be involved with any of them. Also, the Panic of 1873 (due to over-speculation) came about during his reign. He served out two consecutive terms and was not re-nominated to run for a third. He was a cartoonist for the New York Times and drew many famous political cartoons, including many of Boss Tweed and Tammany Hall. The cartoon showed condemning evidence of the corrupt ringleader and he was jailed shortly afterwards. In 1872, the Republicans re-nominated Grant causing some of the "reform-minded" Republicans to leave their party and create the Liberal Republican Party. They nominated this guy, editor of the New York Tribune. The Democrats also nominated him. There was much mudslinging involved in this election and he lost, in more ways than one. Along with the loss of the presidency, he lost his job, his wife, and his mind within one month of the election. Rutherford B. Hayes He was a Republican governor from Ohio. He had spent the majority of his term as governor reforming the government and politics within Ohio. He was elected president in 1876 by the Compromise of 1877. He was known as the "caretaker" president because he took care of the country. He was a New York lawyer who rose to fame by bagging Boss Tweed, a notorious New York political boss. He was nominated for president in 1876 by the Democratic party because of his clean-up image. This election was so close that it led to the Compromise of 1877. Even though he had more popular votes, the compromise gave the presidency to the Republicans and allowed the Democrats to stop Reconstruction in the South. James A. Garfield He was elected to the presidency in 1880. He barely won the popular vote, but won by a huge margin in the electoral college. He was assassinated, so that the Stalwarts could be in power in the government. This brought about reforms in the spoils systems. Chester A. Arthur He was the vice president of James A. Garfield. After President Garfield was assassinated, in September of 1881, this guy assumed the presidency. Despite a lack of qualifications, he proved a vigorous leader. Charles J. Guiteau In 1881, this guy shot President Garfield in the back in a Washington railroad station. He allegedly committed this crime so that Arthur, a Stalwart, would become president. His attorneys used a plea of insanity, but failed and this guy was hanged for murder. After this event, politics began to get cleaned up with laws like the Pendleton Act. He was the Democratic presidential candidate for the 1884 election. His Republican opponent, James G. Blaine, was involved in several questionable deals, but this guy had an illegitimate child. Consequently, the election turned into a mudslinging contest. This guy won, becoming the first Democratic president since Buchanan. He took few initiatives, but he was effective in dealing with excessive military pensions. He placated both North and South by appointing some former Confederates to office, but sticking mostly with Northerners. He also forced Congress to discuss lowering the tariff, although the issue could not be resolved before he was defeated by Benjamin Harrison in the 1888 election. He was called "Young Tippecanoe" because of grandfather, William Henry. He was a Republican and was elected president in 1888. His opponent, Grover Cleveland, had more popular votes, but he was put in office because of more electoral votes. He was both pro-business and pro-tariff. This is the theory that more printed money causes inflation. With more money in circulation, it would be easier to get one's hands on some of it, making it easy to pay off debts. Creditors clearly disliked this idea. This was favored by the farmers and debtors. This theory's advocates wanted more "greenbacks" printed or more silver currency coined. Hard or Sound Money The metallic or specie dollar is known as this. It was extremely important during the late 1860's and early 1870's, especially during the Panic of 1873. It was in opposition with "greenbacks" or "folding money." The issuing of the "greenbacks" was overdone and the value depreciated causing inflation and the Panic of 1873. This theory's advocates looked for the complete disappearance of the "folding money." The creditors and wealthy supported hard money, the debtors and poor supported cheap money. It was a period in U.S. history around 1870-1900 that seemed fine on the outside, but was politically corrupt internally. This term was coined by Mark Twain. Although reunited between the North and South and as business boomed, strong North—South divisions remained and corruption in both business and politics was common. The slogan "waving the ______" was an election tactic where a party, usually the Republicans, would nominate an old military figure and/or keep reminding the nation of the Civil War. This/"Tammany Hall" was group of people in New York City who worked with and for "Boss" Tweed. He was a crooked politician and money-maker. The ring supported all of his deeds. The New York Times finally found evidence to jail Tweed. Without Tweed, the ring did not last. These people, the "Bosses" of the political machines, were very common in America for that time Credit Mobilier Scandal This was a railroad construction company that consisted of many of the insiders of the Union Pacific Railway. The company hired themselves to build a railroad and made incredible amounts of money from it. In merely one year, they paid dividends of 348%. In an attempt to cover themselves, they paid key congressmen and even the Vice President stocks and large dividends. All of this was exposed in the scandal of 1872. In 1875, whiskey manufacturers had to pay a heavy excise tax. Most avoided the tax, and soon tax collectors came to get their money. The collectors were bribed by the distillers. This group robbed the treasury of millions in excise-tax revenues. The scandal reached as high as to the personal secretary of President Grant. This stated that the government would contract greenbacks from circulation and redeem paper currency in gold at face value beginning in 1879. This was the policy of "contraction"—lessening paper money. It worked, as the amount of money per capita did decrease between 1870-80. This was good for creditors (rich), bad for debtors (poor). This act was a compromise concerning the coinage of silver designed by Richard P. Bland. It was put into effect in 1878. The act stated that the Treasury had to buy and coin between $2 and $4 million worth of silver bullion each month. The government put down hopes of inflationists when it bought only the legal minimum. The Grand Army of the Republic, was an organization formed by the Union veterans at the end of the American Civil War in 1866. Its main goal was to aid fellow veterans' families, and to try to obtain pension increases. In 1890, they had over 400,000 members. They also adopted Memorial Day in 1868. The Republican party was greatly influenced by them until 1900. This was a member of a political machine led by Roscoe Conkling of New York in the late 19th Century. Their goal was to seek power in government. They also supported the spoils system. It was a Republican political machine, headed by James G. Blaine around 1869. These people pushed Republican ideals and were almost a separate group that existed within the party. Civil Service Reform This was the idea that government officials should earn their positions rather than have their jobs given to them. It was supposed to clean up corrupt political machines like Boss Tweed's Tammany Hall who gave government jobs to buddies in exchange for loyalty. Pendleton Act of 1833 This was what some people called the Magna Carta of civil-service reform. It prohibited, at least on paper, financial assessments of jobholders. It created a merit system of making appointments to government jobs on the basis of aptitude rather than who-you-know, or the spoils system. It set up a Civil Service Commission, charged with administering open competitive examinations to applicants for posts in the classified service. The people were forced, under this law, to take an exam before being hired to a governmental job or position. This act showered pensions on all Union Civil War veterans who had served for 90 days and who were now unable to do manual labor. This program foreshadowed the 20th century welfare programs. Money given by the government to businesses. The purpose is for the government to encourage those businesses since they would benefit the entire nation. This was a railroad across the continent. The Union Pacific (from Omaha, NE) and Central Pacific (from Sacramento, CA) linked together at Promontory Point, Utah in May 1869. The labor was mostly done by Irish "Paddies" and Chinese workers. He was a railroad tycoon. He earned his 1st fortune as a shipping magnate in New York where he gained the nickname "The Commodore" while shipping. Then, turned to railroads by consolidating the lines from NYC to Chicago. Interstate Commerce Commission Set up by the Interstate Commerce Act, the ICC attempted to regulate the railroads. (Several corrupt railroad practices existed including (1) a roller-coaster ride of stock prices, (2) bribes to judges and legislators, (3) free passes to journalists and politicians, (4) a "natural monopoly" (only one railroad line in most places), (5) pools (any competing companies agreed to have their own areas), (6) rebates or kickbacks to powerful shippers, (7) charging high rates for the short haul (small farmers) and low rates for the long haul (big companies). It had only mild success but served as the first time Washington tried to regulate business for the good of society. Alexander Graham Bell He was the inventor of the telephone. Less well known, he was a teacher of the deaf. It was because of his work with the mechanics of sound and speech (teaching the deaf how to speak) that he began his work on the telephone. Thomas Alva Edison An extraordinary inventor with over 2300 patents to his name, he was the perfector of the incandescent light bulb, and many other inventions such as the phonograph, mimeograph, dictaphone, and moving pictures. Much of his work was done at his New Jersey lab, Menlo Park. He was a steel tycoon. He was a master of "vertical integration." He eventually turned to philanthropy and gave huge sums to libraries and arts (_____ Hall and local libraries). This was a business method where a corporation bought out other businesses (though not competitors) along its line of production. For instance, Carnegie might buy land in the Mesabi Range just for the iron ore, then buy the ships to haul the ore, then buy the railroads to haul it, etc. The companies were not competitors, but Carnegie used them, so he figured he might as well own them. This was a business method where the company bought out its competitors. For instance, Standard Oil would buy out smaller oil competitors until it controlled nearly all of the oil industry. John D. Rockefeller He was an oil tycoon. He owned the Standard Oil Company that eventually controlled at least 90% of American oil. Was a master of "horizontal integration" where he ruthlessly drove others out of business. He was a banker and financier. He orchestrated several blockbuster deals in railroads, insurance, and banking. He bought Andrew Carnegie's steel operation for $400 million to start the U.S. Steel Company. He symbolized the greed, power, arrogance, and snobbery of the Gilded Age business. This is a business that essentially is a monopoly - a company with no competition. They could drive smaller businesses to the wall by (1) undercutting prices - they would lower rates so they'd actually take a loss. This thing could afford to take the loss but the small business couldn't and went out of business. Then it would raise prices. Or (2) enjoying "economies of scale" - since these things were bought in huge quantities, they got discounts, and therefore could afford to charge lower rates than small businesses while still making a profit. Sherman Anti-Trust Act This was an 1890 law attempting to outlaw trusts. It was only slightly successful, if that, since it lacked real teeth. However, combined with the Interstate Commerce Act, 1887, it started the government's attempt to regulate business for the good of society. Also, it foreshadowed the Clayton Act that did have real teeth to it. These were illustrations by Dana ____ of attractive, athletic, out-going, young women and helped create the new image of the feminine ideal. Yellow Dog Contracts These were agreements that employers forced workers to sign where workers pledged not join a union. They were names that employers kept of union agitators and "trouble makers." This scared workers into inaction since once they were on the list, no company would hire them again. These were towns essentially owned by the company. Workers worked at the company, lived in company-owned houses, and bought goods at the company store using either scrip (company money) or credit. Between low pay, rent, and scrip/credit purchases, the worker never got ahead. Haymarket Square incident This was an 1886 explosion in Chicago during labor disorders that killed several people including police officers. The explosions appeared to be the result of anarchists yet the public largely placed blame on labor unions thus hurt their cause. A.F.L. (American Federation of Labor) This was an early national labor union. They let many smaller unions remain independent while the this federation united them all and worked out overall strategy. It focused only on skilled labor (unskilled were on their own). Despite literally thousands of strikes, their success was also only mild, though Labor Day was passed during this time. He was an English naturalist who wrote the On the Origin of the Species in 1859. His theory stated that in nature the strongest of a species survive, the weaker animals die out, leaving only the stronger to reproduce. Through this process of "natural selection" the entire species improves. Booker T. Washington He was an ex-slave who saved his money to buy himself an education. He believed that blacks must first gain economic equality before they gained social equality. He was president of the Tuskegee Institute and he was a part of the Atlanta Compromise. This guy believed that blacks should be taught useful skills so they could gain a financial foothold. He was also famous for his Atlanta "fingers speech" saying blacks and whites could be as separate as the fingers but as one as the hand. He is sometimes criticized for this speech as perhaps giving an okay to segregation. He was a popular writer of the Post-Civil War time period. He was a Puritan New Englander who wrote more than a hundred volumes of juvenile fiction during his career, most with a "rags-to-riches" theme. He was America's most popular author, but also a renowned platform lecturer. He mixed "romantic" type literature with comedy to entertain his audiences. In 1873, he wrote The Gilded Age and named the period. The greatest contribution he made to American literature was the way he captured the frontier realism and humor through the common dialect that his characters used. Hemingway once said, "All modern American literature comes from one book by [this guy] called Huckleberry Finn." A philosophy in which people strongly disliked immigrants and had much patriotism toward native born Americans. This occurs when wealthy millionaires give back some of the money they have earned to benefit society. The money would be sent to benefit the libraries, the arts, and the colleges. Andrew Carnegie and John D. Rockefeller both believed in this He was a minister who trumpeted the superiority of Anglo-Saxon civilization and summoned Americans to spread their religion and their values to the backward people of the Third World. Between the 1850's and 1880's, more than 5 million immigrants cascaded into America from the "mother continent." Starting in the 1880's, the "new immigrants" (mainly Italians, Croats, Slovaks, Greeks, and Poles) came swarming into the U.S. This was opposed to the "Old Immigration" of northern Europe (England, Ireland, Germany). New peoples were looked down upon by nativists because they were poor, Catholic, poorly educated, and would work for low wages. They later, however, helped provide the unique cultural diversity that still exists today in the U.S. This was preached by many people in the 1880s and said the churches should get involved in helping the poor. Some disagreed and didn't think that they should be helped because it was their fault they were poor. This was "Social Darwinism." This was a house where immigrants came to live upon entering the U.S. At these places, instruction was given in English and how to get a job, among other things. The first one of these was the Hull House, which was opened by Jane Addams in Chicago in 1889. These centers were usually run by educated middle class women. The houses became centers for reform in the women's and labor movements. In 1859, Charles Darwin published On the Origin of Species which dealt with the idea of evolution, an idea that strictly conflicted with the literal interpretation of the Bible known as "Creationism." "[These people]" were people who believed in a system that somehow meshed Darwinism with Creationism. They were disgraced by the church, but as time went by, more liberal thinkers were able to reconcile Darwinism and Christianity. Women's Christian Temperance Union The WCTU was organized in 1874 and the white ribbon was the symbol of purity. It was led by Frances E. Willard and the league stood for prohibition (or temperance). In 1919, the 18th Amendment was passed for national prohibition. They were a political group which began to emerge in 1891. They gained much support from farmers who turned to them to fight political injustice. They used a progressive platform. James B. Weaver ran as their presidential candidate in 1892. They had an impressive voter turnout. They were also known as the People's Party. Eugene V. Debs He was a labor leader who helped organize the American Railroad Union. The Union went on strike against the Pullman Palace Car Company in 1894. The strike was put down by armed forces and Debs and other leaders were given six months imprisonment. Debs would later run for president as a Socialist. Williams Jennings Bryan He was an eloquent congressman from Nebraska. During the extra Congress session in the summer of 1893, he held the galleries spellbound for three hours as he championed the cause of free silver. Despite his efforts, however, President Cleveland alienated the Democratic silverites. He also ran against McKinley in the presidential elections of 1896 and lost. He presented a tariff bill in the House, and lost his seat in Congress because of it. He ran on the Republican ticket in the 1896 election and won the presidency while preaching a gold standard platform. He won again in 1900 and was assassinated in 1901. This was the use of silver and gold in the economic system. This issue divided much of the United States during the late 19th century because the bankers and industrialists wanted at least a limited amount of silver, if not to get rid of it and the farmers wanted unlimited coinage of silver. Silverites were in favor of silver over gold in terms of currency. States with a lot of silver wanted unlimited coinage of silver. This would cause inflation (rising prices). This was desired because it enabled debtors, such as farmers, to more easily pay off debts. If money was worth very little (as with inflation) it's easier to get more money and therefore pay off one's debt. They were said to like "cheap money." Depression of 1893 This was the most devastating economic recession of the century. It occurred while Grover Cleveland was president and it lasted for four years. It was caused by overbuilding, over-speculation, labor disorder, and agricultural problems. Because of these things, many businesses collapsed and an abundance of people became unemployed. This was in 1894 when the company was hurt by the depression. They decided to cut wages about one-third. The workers decided to strike. Attorney General Olney called in the federal troops to break the strike. He thought that the strikers were interfering with the delivery of mail because railroads all over the country went on strike in support of the workers. These railroads carried the mail. The strike affected the entire country. Cross of Gold Speech William Jennings Bryan became the hero of the Democratic party in the election of 1896 with his "______" speech. This speech supported the silver standard for currency, as opposed to the gold standard, and it also supported the unlimited coinage of silver. He was a reporter for the New York Sun. He was a photojournalist. His book, How the Other Half Lives detailed life in the slums. He was trying to bring attention to the situation of the poor to bring about some sort of change. She was a "muckraker" who wrote an exposé in the magazine McClure's (1921). As a younger woman, in 1904, she made her reputation by publishing the history of the Standard Oil Company, the "Mother of Trusts." In it she blasted Standard Oil for using ruthless tactics to drive competition out of business. All her facts checked out as accurate. Robert M. LaFollete He was the governor of Wisconsin, nicknamed "Fighting Bob," and was a progressive Republican leader. His "Wisconsin Idea" was the model for state progressive governments. He used the "brain trust," a panel of experts, to help him create effective, efficient government. He was denied the nomination for the Republicans in favor of Theodore Roosevelt. He was the author of the sensational novel, The Jungle, published in 1906. His intention was to describe the conditions of canning factory workers. Instead, Americans were disgusted by his descriptions of dirty food production. His book influenced consumers to demand safer canned products and led to the Meat Inspection Act and then the Pure Food and Drug Act. William Howard Taft In the 1908 election, he was chosen over William Jennings Bryan to succeed Roosevelt. As president, he approached foreign policy by using America's wealth as leverage. He also brought suits against 90 trusts during his administration. Due to his lack of political skills, he helped divide the Republican Party. The process of the people petitioning a legislature to introduce a bill. It was part of the Populist party's platform in 1891, along with referendum and recall. These all intended to make the people more responsible for their laws and allow them to make political decisions rather than the legislature. This occurs when citizens vote on laws instead of the state or national governments. It originated as a populist reform in the Populist Party, but was later picked up by the progressive reform movement. In this, the people could possibly remove an incompetent politician from office by having a second election. This movement in America tried to preserve natural resources and stop the rapid destruction of these resources and land. It's reached its pinnacle with Pres. Teddy Roosevelt and the founding of 1st national park, Yellowstone. This was a nickname given to young reporters of popular magazines who spent a lot of time researching and digging up "muck," hence the name. These investigative journalists were trying to make the public aware of problems that needed fixing and corruption that needed cleaning. This name was given to them by Pres. Roosevelt in 1906. It was adopted in 1913 shortly after "direct primaries" were adopted. Prior to the amendment, U.S. senators were chosen by state legislators who were controlled by political machines. Elected in such a manner, U.S. senators seemed to answer only to state legislatures but not to the people. This amendment stated that senators were now to be elected by popular vote from the citizens of their state. Enacted in 1919, this amendment forbade the sale and manufacture of liquor. This act of 1903 was passed by Congress against the railroad industries. It specifically targeted the use of rebates. It allowed for heavy fining of companies who used rebates and those who accepted them. It was part of the Progressive reform movement. This 1906 act was signed by Teddy Roosevelt to give the ICC the right to set rates that would be reasonable. It also extended the jurisdiction of the ICC to cover express, sleeping car, and pipeline companies. It prohibited free passes and rebates. It was the first time in U.S. history that a government agency was given power to establish rates for private companies. Northern Securities Case ______ was a holding company in 1902. The company was forced to dissolve after they were challenged by Roosevelt, his first "trust-bust." Meat Inspection Act This law was passed in 1906 after The Jungle grossed out America. It stated that the preparation of meat shipped over state lines would be subject to federal inspection. It was part of the Progressive reforms, which helped the consumer. Pure Food and Drug Act It was created in 1906 and was designed to prevent the adulteration and mislabeling of foods and pharmaceuticals. It was made to protect the consumer. This act was Congress's response to Theodore Roosevelt in 1902. In the law, Washington was to collect money from sales of public lands in western states and use the funds for development of irrigation projects. This law was signed by Taft in March of 1909 in contrast to campaign promises. It was supposed to lower tariff rates, but Senator Nelson N. Aldrich of Rhode Island put revisions on it that actually raised tariffs. This split the Republican party into progressives (lower tariff) and conservatives (high tariff). A guy, who was the Secretary of Interior, opened public lands in Wyoming, Montana, and Alaska against Roosevelt's conservation policies. Another guy, who was the Chief of Forestry, supported former President Roosevelt and demanded that Taft dismiss the other guy. Taft, who supported this other guy, dismissed Pinchot on the basis of insubordination. This also divided the Republican party He was the Democratic representative in the presidential elections of 1912 and 1916. He was elected into the presidency as a minority president. He was born in Virginia and was raised in a very religious family. He was widely known for his political sermons. He was an aggressive leader and believed that Congress could not function properly without good leadership provided by the president. His progressive program was known as the "New Freedom" and his foreign policy program was "Moral Diplomacy." He was president during World War I. He represented the Socialist Party in the 1908 and 1912 elections. He got a high number of votes in the 1912 election which made the Socialists think that they would win the presidency in 1916 Louis D. Brandeis He was a prominent reformer and Attorney in the Muller v. Oregon (1908) case that persuaded the Supreme Court to accept the constitutionality of laws protecting women workers saying. That case said that conditions are harder on women's weaker bodies. He wrote the book Other People's Money and How Bankers Use It (1914) that pushed for reform within the banks. He was nominated in 1916 by Woodrow Wilson for the Supreme Court. This was the progressive policy of Theodore Roosevelt in 1912's Progressive party platform. It favored a more active government role in economic and social affairs. It favored continued consolidation of trusts and labor unions and the growth of powerful regulatory agencies in Washington. It favored women's suffrage and social welfare programs (including minimum-wage laws and "socialistic" social insurance). This was Wilson's policy that favored the small business, entrepreneurship, and the free functioning of unregulated and un-monopolized markets. Underwood Tariff (1913) This substantially reduced import fees. The lost tax revenue would be replaced with an income tax that was implemented with the 16th amendment. Sixteenth Amendment (1913) This is known as the income tax amendment. This amendment was passed because earlier the Supreme Court had declared that an income tax was unconstitutional. It set up a "gradual income tax" meaning the more one made, the higher the tax rate that was paid. This was created to shift the burden of taxes to the wealthy. Federal Reserve Act This might be the most important piece of economic legislation between the Civil War and the New Deal. It created a regulatory agency for banking with 12 regional reserve districts. Each bank was independent but was controlled by this thing, which was controlled by the public. It controls the amount of money in circulation through its reserves and interest rates. Federal Trade Commission The commission is a committee formed to investigate industries engaging in interstate commerce. It was created to stop unfair trade practices and to regulate and crush monopolies. Clayton Antitrust Act This act helped to control monopolies by strengthening the Sherman act's list of business practices that were objectionable (such as interlocking directorates). It exempted labor and agricultural organizations from antitrust prosecution and legalized strikes and peaceful picketing. This was signed by President Wilson in 1916. It granted territorial status to the Philippines and promised to grant independence as soon as a stable government was established ( eventually granted on July 4, 1946) YOU MIGHT ALSO LIKE... Gilded Age / Progressive Era Vocabulary Terms List Ch. 23 & 24 APUSH Week 17 IDs OTHER SETS BY THIS CREATOR Der Diebstahl Wortschatz Lola Rennt Vocab Die Physiker Part 1 German Vocab - "Die Probe"	6,503	ENGLISH	1
Standard 8 (std) English Topical Questions Read the passage below and then answer questions 26 to 38 All his life Charles Dickens, one of the greatest novelists in the world, would remember a particular day when he was nine years old, and something his father said. They were out walking together and had stopped, as they often did, to admire a handsome brick house. With its lovely windows and neat lawn, it seemed as grand as a palace. Then John Dickens told his son that if he worked very hard, someday he might live in that house. The thought took Charles’ breath away. The sort of person who would live in that house would be a distinguished man of taste and education. His father believed that Charles could someday be like that. All he had to do was work hard. He could not have known on that day how far he would fall and how high he would rise, and that he really would live in that house, and that he would die there. When Charles looked back on his childhood, these were happy years. They lived in a small house which had a little garden and, across the road; there was a playground for the children. He had a nursemaid, Mary. Who comforted his childish sorrows? She also terrified him with blood-curdling horror stories that he adored, though they gave him nightmares. He spent wonderful hours in his tiny room reading from his father’s set of novels. He went for days imagining himself to be one of his storybook heroes. But when Charles was ten, his father was transferred to London, and his happy childhood came to a sudden end. His father had many wonderful qualities. He worked hard at his job and was loving to his wife and children. He had many friends and loved to invite them to the house in the evening for a bowl of steaming porridge and lively conversation. But he had one terrible fault: he spent more money than he made. In the ten years of Charles’ life, the family had lived in six different houses, each poorer than the one before. And as the number of mouths to feed kept growing, the family fell deeper and deeper into debt. When they reached London, Charles was shocked to learn that he would not be sent to school -they couldn’t afford it. He stayed at home and made himself useful by cleaning his father’s boots and minding the younger siblings. His parents seemed to have forgotten him and all his ambitions. Two days after his twelfth birthday, Charles was sent to work at a factory. From eight in the morning till eight at night, he worked in a dark room, covering pots of boot polish and pasting on labels. Other children worked there, too, but they were not like his old friends. They were poor boys with rough manners who referred to him scornfully as the “young gentleman.” Worse still, two weeks later his father was arrested for debt and sent to prison, where he had to stay until his debts were paid. His wife and children were allowed to join him there. The whole family living in one room- everyone, that is, except Charles. The factory was too far from the prison for him to get back before the gates were shut at night. So he lived in a cheap boarding house. From Monday morning to Saturday night, he was on his own with “no advice, no counsel, no encouragement. no consolation, no support from anyone”. At night he wandered through the dark city. His clothes were shabby. He had no friends. Instead of growing into a fine gentleman, he had descended to the streets. The memory of that time was so painful that, even as a grown man. Charles could not walk through those streets without the sting of tears coming to his eyes. And years later, when he became a famous writer, his stories were filled with orphaned and abandoned children, debtors’ prisons, factories, and the grim and degrading lives of the poor. Maurice A. Nyamoti is a teacher by profession and has passion for assisting students improve performance P.O Box 1189 - 40200 Kisii Tel: 0728 450 424 Tel: 0738 619 279 Tel: 0763 450 425 E-mail - firstname.lastname@example.org	<urn:uuid:628f9e39-13bd-4531-b596-58781a78e056>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.atikaschool.org/standard-8-std-english-topical-questions/category/kcpe-passage-2-2010-question-2638	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00218.warc.gz	en	0.995022	897	3.828125	4	[ 0.08517777919769287, 0.10077328979969025, 0.357796311378479, 0.08697056770324707, -0.012856386601924896, -0.1668616384267807, 0.19011884927749634, -0.23797550797462463, 0.06143435835838318, -0.07435422390699387, -0.20446288585662842, 0.23535823822021484, 0.31383541226387024, 0.288291394710...	1	Standard 8 (std) English Topical Questions Read the passage below and then answer questions 26 to 38 All his life Charles Dickens, one of the greatest novelists in the world, would remember a particular day when he was nine years old, and something his father said. They were out walking together and had stopped, as they often did, to admire a handsome brick house. With its lovely windows and neat lawn, it seemed as grand as a palace. Then John Dickens told his son that if he worked very hard, someday he might live in that house. The thought took Charles’ breath away. The sort of person who would live in that house would be a distinguished man of taste and education. His father believed that Charles could someday be like that. All he had to do was work hard. He could not have known on that day how far he would fall and how high he would rise, and that he really would live in that house, and that he would die there. When Charles looked back on his childhood, these were happy years. They lived in a small house which had a little garden and, across the road; there was a playground for the children. He had a nursemaid, Mary. Who comforted his childish sorrows? She also terrified him with blood-curdling horror stories that he adored, though they gave him nightmares. He spent wonderful hours in his tiny room reading from his father’s set of novels. He went for days imagining himself to be one of his storybook heroes. But when Charles was ten, his father was transferred to London, and his happy childhood came to a sudden end. His father had many wonderful qualities. He worked hard at his job and was loving to his wife and children. He had many friends and loved to invite them to the house in the evening for a bowl of steaming porridge and lively conversation. But he had one terrible fault: he spent more money than he made. In the ten years of Charles’ life, the family had lived in six different houses, each poorer than the one before. And as the number of mouths to feed kept growing, the family fell deeper and deeper into debt. When they reached London, Charles was shocked to learn that he would not be sent to school -they couldn’t afford it. He stayed at home and made himself useful by cleaning his father’s boots and minding the younger siblings. His parents seemed to have forgotten him and all his ambitions. Two days after his twelfth birthday, Charles was sent to work at a factory. From eight in the morning till eight at night, he worked in a dark room, covering pots of boot polish and pasting on labels. Other children worked there, too, but they were not like his old friends. They were poor boys with rough manners who referred to him scornfully as the “young gentleman.” Worse still, two weeks later his father was arrested for debt and sent to prison, where he had to stay until his debts were paid. His wife and children were allowed to join him there. The whole family living in one room- everyone, that is, except Charles. The factory was too far from the prison for him to get back before the gates were shut at night. So he lived in a cheap boarding house. From Monday morning to Saturday night, he was on his own with “no advice, no counsel, no encouragement. no consolation, no support from anyone”. At night he wandered through the dark city. His clothes were shabby. He had no friends. Instead of growing into a fine gentleman, he had descended to the streets. The memory of that time was so painful that, even as a grown man. Charles could not walk through those streets without the sting of tears coming to his eyes. And years later, when he became a famous writer, his stories were filled with orphaned and abandoned children, debtors’ prisons, factories, and the grim and degrading lives of the poor. Maurice A. Nyamoti is a teacher by profession and has passion for assisting students improve performance P.O Box 1189 - 40200 Kisii Tel: 0728 450 424 Tel: 0738 619 279 Tel: 0763 450 425 E-mail - firstname.lastname@example.org	903	ENGLISH	1
Knowing how to lose gracefully is an important asset for any youngster, as it will set them up well for what life will throw at them. However, just how can this be taught? Last year, controversy surrounded Serena Williams when the American superstar was defeated by Naomi Osaka in the final of the U.S. Open in New York. Williams had received numerous penalties, before she accused the umpire of sexism. However, the tennis world was divided when it came to her actions, and while some agreed with her protests, others believed that her actions showed a lack of respect and were not sporting. Whatever your opinion was on the matter, the situation provided an excellent opportunity to educate youngsters on the idea of good sportsmanship, as well as actions both on and off the playing field or court. Athletes across the world are role models for children, due to the fact that they have worked hard in order to achieve their goals. However, many can become disconcerted when poor sportsmanship is demonstrated. Parents and coaches are in the best position to discuss the handling of situations and overcoming emotions in sport, by stressing the importance of their actions. The fact is that children will often react that what they perceive to be an injustice, which can happen on a regular basis where sport is concerned, whether it be a refereeing decision or goal against the run of play. The thing in which kids must learn is how to respond to such situations, which requires them to recognise that people make mistakes and that injustices will occur from time to time. Meanwhile, it is important for youngsters to know that they are able to state their point of view, as long as it is done so in a respectful manner. Tantrums and insults will only weaken their argument or position, meaning that it is not a matter of ignoring the situation, but rather defending their position in an appropriate manner. It is important for authority figures to also make children aware of the difference between an unfair decision and the frustration in which they may be feeling when things do not go their own way. As a result, it is key that excuses are not looked for or blaming others does not take place, with learning to deal with the frustration being of greater importance. Elsewhere, young athletes must quickly understand that whether they win or lose, they will become better people as a result, as well as demonstrating a respectful attitude and taking into account the considerations of others. Whether it be losing heavily during a football match or seeing try after try being scored at one end of the rugby field, the mercy rule is used in a number of sports today in order to ensure that youngsters are not overwhelmed by a result. However, does this rule really serve its purpose? Connecting with youngsters today is no easy task, with sports coaches often facing an uphill battle when it comes to striking up a rapport with their players as a result. So, just what can be done in order to help coaches engage as much as possible with their players?	<urn:uuid:0ee4e417-a1f4-42a2-987a-0ee7f4df22e1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://portal.spond.com/content/how-to-teach-children-to-be-good-sports-rather-than-sore-losers	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00210.warc.gz	en	0.986387	603	3.671875	4	[ 0.18290852010250092, 0.06335586309432983, 0.19346415996551514, -0.47554782032966614, 0.029581792652606964, 0.5563760995864868, 0.29101693630218506, 0.3377494513988495, 0.33664852380752563, 0.18110588192939758, -0.03147576004266739, -0.2877703607082367, 0.19257886707782745, 0.45273461937904...	1	Knowing how to lose gracefully is an important asset for any youngster, as it will set them up well for what life will throw at them. However, just how can this be taught? Last year, controversy surrounded Serena Williams when the American superstar was defeated by Naomi Osaka in the final of the U.S. Open in New York. Williams had received numerous penalties, before she accused the umpire of sexism. However, the tennis world was divided when it came to her actions, and while some agreed with her protests, others believed that her actions showed a lack of respect and were not sporting. Whatever your opinion was on the matter, the situation provided an excellent opportunity to educate youngsters on the idea of good sportsmanship, as well as actions both on and off the playing field or court. Athletes across the world are role models for children, due to the fact that they have worked hard in order to achieve their goals. However, many can become disconcerted when poor sportsmanship is demonstrated. Parents and coaches are in the best position to discuss the handling of situations and overcoming emotions in sport, by stressing the importance of their actions. The fact is that children will often react that what they perceive to be an injustice, which can happen on a regular basis where sport is concerned, whether it be a refereeing decision or goal against the run of play. The thing in which kids must learn is how to respond to such situations, which requires them to recognise that people make mistakes and that injustices will occur from time to time. Meanwhile, it is important for youngsters to know that they are able to state their point of view, as long as it is done so in a respectful manner. Tantrums and insults will only weaken their argument or position, meaning that it is not a matter of ignoring the situation, but rather defending their position in an appropriate manner. It is important for authority figures to also make children aware of the difference between an unfair decision and the frustration in which they may be feeling when things do not go their own way. As a result, it is key that excuses are not looked for or blaming others does not take place, with learning to deal with the frustration being of greater importance. Elsewhere, young athletes must quickly understand that whether they win or lose, they will become better people as a result, as well as demonstrating a respectful attitude and taking into account the considerations of others. Whether it be losing heavily during a football match or seeing try after try being scored at one end of the rugby field, the mercy rule is used in a number of sports today in order to ensure that youngsters are not overwhelmed by a result. However, does this rule really serve its purpose? Connecting with youngsters today is no easy task, with sports coaches often facing an uphill battle when it comes to striking up a rapport with their players as a result. So, just what can be done in order to help coaches engage as much as possible with their players?	593	ENGLISH	1
Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. A. Running water was the best power source for factories since it could keep machines operating continuously, but since it was abundant only in Lancashire and Scotland, most mills and factories that were located elsewhere could not be water driven. B. The disadvantage of using waterpower is that streams do not necessarily flow in places that are the most suitable for factories, which explains why so many water-powered grain and textile mills were located in undesirable places. C. Since machines could be operated continuously only where running water was abundant, grain and textile mills, as well as other factories, tended to be located only in Lancashire and Scotland. D. Running water was the only source of power that was suitable for the continuous operation of machines, but to make use of it, factories had to be located where the water was, regardless of whether such locations made sense otherwise.	<urn:uuid:38402e26-8d52-49db-9c91-4d2f4d70e1f4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.peakgmt.com/web/DW8X916F5HOGZKW8N$.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00187.warc.gz	en	0.987163	206	3.53125	4	[ 0.17139580845832825, -0.004696976393461227, 0.18993322551250458, 0.16284355521202087, 0.33295366168022156, -0.183715358376503, 0.1237337589263916, 0.11908148229122162, 0.014360398054122925, -0.09173309803009033, -0.10693737119436264, -0.5699612498283386, 0.01163443736732006, -0.43849810957...	1	Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information. A. Running water was the best power source for factories since it could keep machines operating continuously, but since it was abundant only in Lancashire and Scotland, most mills and factories that were located elsewhere could not be water driven. B. The disadvantage of using waterpower is that streams do not necessarily flow in places that are the most suitable for factories, which explains why so many water-powered grain and textile mills were located in undesirable places. C. Since machines could be operated continuously only where running water was abundant, grain and textile mills, as well as other factories, tended to be located only in Lancashire and Scotland. D. Running water was the only source of power that was suitable for the continuous operation of machines, but to make use of it, factories had to be located where the water was, regardless of whether such locations made sense otherwise.	202	ENGLISH	1
Until 8th March, the British Museum is celebrating the legend of Troy, which has endured for over 3000 years. With ancient artefacts and more recent artworks, the museum tells the story of the Trojan War from its beginning to its end, followed by the fateful journey home of one of the Greek heroes. Whilst this story may be purely mythical, the British Museum also explores the true existence of Troy, which was discovered during the 19th century. Many people know some of the stories surrounding the Trojan War, which have been told for over 3000 years. Initially spread by word of mouth, it is generally believed the story was put together by the Greek poet Homer as early as the 8th century BC. There are some arguments that Homer never existed and the stories were compiled by several authors, however, the final result had been published under Homer’s name in two volumes, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Written in a dactylic hexameter – a form of poetry – the Iliad spans approximately fifty-one days of the ten-year Trojan War on the coast of Anatolia, now known as northwestern Turkey. The city of Troy was under siege by a coalition of Greek states as revenge for the abduction of Helen of Sparta. The war began shortly after the wedding of the sea-goddess Thetis and Peleus, the king of Thessaly. All the Greek gods and goddesses were invited to the ceremony except for Eris, the goddess of discord. Angry at being left out, Eris turned up unannounced and threw a golden apple into the crowd of party-goers. The apple bore the inscription “to the most beautiful” and three goddesses: Aphrodite, Athena and Hera, believed it was intended for them. The goddesses appealed to Zeus, the king of the gods, to decide who was the most beautiful. Reluctant to get involved, Zeus instructed Paris, the visiting Trojan prince, to make the decision. Paris’ judgement was by no means fair because, before he could make a decision, Aphrodite the goddess of love, promised Paris the love of the most beautiful woman on earth if he chose her as the winner of the competition. Naturally, Paris chose Aphrodite. After the wedding, Paris visited the Greek state of Sparta where he met Helen, the woman Aphrodite promised him. Unfortunately, Helen was already married to King Menelaus, so when Paris returned to Troy with Helen, Menelaus was determined to get his wife back. Agamemnon, the king of Mycenae called together a huge fleet of Greek heroes to sail across the Aegean Sea in support of his brother Menelaus. Thus, the Trojan War began. The Iliad begins in the middle of the plot after the Greeks have been attempting to breach the strong walls of the city of Troy for nine years. Although they had not managed to enter the main city, the Greeks had raided surrounding towns belonging to Troy and taken many inhabitants as prisoners. Amongst these prisoners was a young woman named Briseis who was given as a prize of honour to the Greek Hero Achilles, son of Thetis. King Agamemnon’s prisoner was Chryseis, the daughter of a Trojan priest of Apollo. The Trojan’s offered money in return for the girl, however, Agamemnon refused. So, the priest prayed to Apollo who sent a plague over the Greek army until they returned Chryseis to her father. In retaliation, Agamemnon took Briseis from Achilles, causing the Greek hero to, quite simply, have a huge sulk. Furious with Agamemnon, Achilles refused to fight in the war and asked his mother, Thetis, to make the Greeks realise how much they needed Achilles on their side. In the fighting that followed, the Trojans began to get the upper hand. In desperation, Achilles’ friend and potential lover Patroclus entered the battle disguised as Achilles in an attempt to raise the morale of the Greek soldiers. It worked; both the Greeks and the Trojans believed Patroclus was Achilles, however, this put him in mortal danger when he was targetted by the Trojan prince Hector. When Achilles heard that Hector had killed Patroclus, he fell into a state of grief-stricken rage. Despite knowing the prophecy that stated if Hector died, Achilles would soon follow, the Greek hero returned to the battle site clad in new armour forged by the god Hephaestus. In a blind rage, Achilles killed Hector, tied the corpse to the back of a chariot, and proceeded to desecrate the body by dragging it around the battlefield for several days. Taking pity on Hector’s family, the gods protected Hector’s body from damage until Achilles could be persuaded to hand the corpse over to King Priam for a traditional Trojan funeral. This is where the Iliad finished, however, the war was by no means over. Troy called upon its allies for support, but the Amazons and Ethiopians were no match for Achilles’ strength. Whilst Achilles continued to fight, he knew as a result of Hector’s death, he was destined to die soon. When Achilles was a baby, his mother dipped him into the waters of the River Styx to make him invulnerable to injury. Unfortunately, the ankle from which she dangled him did not enter the water, therefore, Achilles was vulnerable in this area. It was in this precise spot that an arrow shot by Paris hit Achilles, fatally wounding the Greek Hero. Despite their best warrior dead, the Greeks continued to fight. The Greeks won the war thanks to an ingenious invention by Odysseus, the king of Ithaca. He encouraged the Greek army to build an enormous wooden horse, which they placed outside the walls of Troy as a decoy peace offering. Believing the Greeks had given up the fight, the Trojan’s accepted the gift and brought it into the city, unaware that it housed some of the best Greek fighters. Once through the walls, the Greeks crept out of the horse and attacked the city from within, eventually destroying Troy and killing King Priam and Hector’s son, Astyanax. Only one member of the royal family survived, Aeneas, the son of King Priam’s cousin, whose survival story is told in the Aeneid by Publius Vergilius Maro (Virgil). Troy fell, the war ended and Helen was reunited with her husband, however, this was not the end of the story for the Greeks. The gods were angry at the sacrilegious atrocities committed by the Greeks during the war and decided to teach them a lesson by making their journey home rather difficult. No one’s journey was as bad as Odysseus whose ten-year attempt to return home is recorded in Homer’s Odyssey. “Tell me about a complicated man. Muse, tell me about how he wandered and was lost when he had wrecked the holy town of Troy …” – Odyssey, Homer, 700 AD Initially, twelve ships, including one belonging to Odysseus, were driven off course by the storms caused by the angry gods. As a result, Odysseus and his men sheltered in the land of the Lotus-Eaters. These were a race of people whose primary food source was the lotus fruits, which had a narcotic effect on foreigners. Naturally, Odysseus’ men accepted food and hospitality from the peaceful natives and forgot that they were on their way home from Troy. It was only through physical force that Odysseus managed to get his men back onto the ships. Since it was impossible to bring an endless supply of food on a ship, Odysseus soon had to make another stop. On an uninhabited island – or so they thought, Odysseus and his men discovered a cave full of meat and cheese. Before they could return to the ship, the cave’s owner, a cyclops named Polyphemus, arrived and sealed the entrance to the cave. Trapped inside, Odysseus had to think quickly and introduced himself to the cyclops as Nobody. Odysseus persuaded Polyphemus to drink excessive amounts of wine until the cyclops fell asleep. Taking the opportunity, Odysseus used a wooden stake to blind the one-eyed creature, who woke up with a shout. Other cyclopes arrived on the scene to find out what the fuss was about but soon went away when Polyphemus told them “Nobody attacked me.” Hiding under the underbellies of Polyphemus’ sheep, Odysseus and his men escaped the cave when the cyclops unsealed the entrance in the morning. They could easily have sailed away and gone straight home, however, Odysseus foolishly boasted about defeating the cyclops, revealing his name in the process. Polyphemus prayed to his father, Poseidon the god of the sea, to curse Odysseus to wander the seas for ten years, losing all his men in the process. Odysseus’ next stop was the island of Aeolia where Aeolus, the keeper of the winds resided. He gave Odysseus a leather bag containing all the winds except for the one that would blow their boat home. With instructions not to open the bag, Odysseus and his men set off towards Ithaca, however, whilst Odysseus was asleep, his men fell to temptation and opened the bag, releasing all the winds. As a result, the boat was blown off course, taking them even further away from home. Following this, Odysseus and his men met with several disasters. The first occurred on the Laestrygonians’ Island where cannibalistic giants feasted on the majority of the men. The survivors sailed on to the island of Aeaea, where a witch-goddess Circe, daughter of the sun-god Helios turned all but Odysseus into pigs. Although Odysseus forced Circe to return his men to human form, her charm caused him to remain on the island for an entire year. Odysseus managed to avoid disaster as they passed the land of the Sirens. The Sirens were dangerous creatures who lured sailors to their deaths with their beautiful songs. Odysseus instructed his men to plug their ears, however, he wished to hear the music. Odysseus tied himself to a post so that he could not be tempted to follow the sounds of the Sirens’ voices. Whilst no incident occurred with the Sirens, there was danger just around the corner. The ship had to pass between two creatures: Scylla, a six-headed monster, and Charybdis, a whirlpool. Although they successfully avoided Charybdis, Scylla managed to snatch up six men. The next island Odysseus and his remaining men visited was Thrinacia. Due to a storm, they were unable to leave the island for several days, causing them to use up all their provisions. Hungry, Odysseus prayed to the gods, however, his desperate starving men hunted down some cattle to feast upon. These cattle, however, turned out to be the sacred cattle of Helios, the god of the sun. As a punishment, the next time Odysseus and his men took to the sea, the gods caused a shipwreck, which only Odysseus survived. With no means of getting home, Odysseus found himself washed up on the island of Ogygia, where he was kept captive by the nymph Calypso. After seven years of homesickness, Zeus compelled Calypso to release Odysseus so he could eventually return home. For ten years, Odysseus’ wife Penelope waited patiently for her husband’s return. Believing him to be dead, many suitors tried to worm their way into the household. Penelope fended them off by saying she would only marry one of them after she had finished her weaving. Each day, she sat weaving and every night she undid the progress she had made, thus the work would never be finished. On returning home, Odysseus found his home had been taken over by 108 young men. Disguised as a beggar, Odysseus killed the leader of the suitors and revealed himself to his wife. Finally, the Trojan War got its happy ending. It is not certain whether there ever was a Trojan War and Odysseus’ journey home seems even less probable. For hundreds of years, people assumed it was a myth, a story for entertainment purposes. Nonetheless, this did not stop people from trying to locate the city of Troy. Believed to be situated in Anatolia – northwest modern-day Turkey – pilgrims visited the area, believing they were travelling the paths of their ancient heroes. An English expatriate, Frank Calvert (1828-1908) believed he had located the site of Troy on a mound at Hisarlik, the remains of an ancient city near Çanakkale in Turkey. Seven years later, when Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890), a German pioneer of archaeology, arrived, Calvert quickly persuaded him to investigate the area. What they discovered was the remains of the mythical city of Troy. Although Calvert helped with the excavation, it was Schliemann who took the accolades. Between 1870 and 1890, Schliemann’s excavations revealed more and more about the real city of Troy. It is estimated people first settled in the area around 3000 BC during the Early Bronze Age. For around four thousand years, people lived in Troy until it was abandoned in 600 AD. Schliemann’s findings and those of archaeology teams that followed him record how people lived during this lengthy period. Life in Troy has been categorised into nine phases with Troy I being the earliest and Troy IX the last. Troy I was only a small village but by the time Troy II was established between 2500 and 2300 BC, the city had strong walls encircling a citadel, although still rather small. Being on the Dardanelles strait, Troy would have been in prime position for trading, which may explain its gradually increasing size. By the Late Bronze Age (1750–1180 BC) Troy had a larger citadel with stronger, sloping walls, some of which can still be seen today. As well as access to the trade route, surrounding Troy was agricultural land, which was used to keep animals, particularly sheep and grow crops. Evidence of horses in the area have also been unearthed, which links to the Trojan prince Hector in the Iliad, who was described as a horse-tamer. Troy was destroyed at the end of the Bronze Age (1180 BC), which some have attributed to the Trojan War. Other cities in the Mediterranean, however, were also destroyed for reasons unknown, which puts the specific Trojan War into question. Homer did not live, if he ever existed, until the 8th or 7th century BC, by which time Troy had been rebuilt and renamed Ilion, which is the name Homer uses in the Iliad. Troy, or Ilion, flourished once more. Although it was not as important as other cities in the ancient world, it was a populous city for hundreds of years. It seems strange that a large city could ever be “lost”, however, by the 6th century AD, the population had dwindled and unused buildings crumbled away. Any evidence of Troy’s existence was eventually covered by debris until all that remained was the hill-shaped mound now known as Hisarlik. Schliemann was convinced Troy II was the ancient Troy or Ilion mentioned by Homer and, therefore, the site of the Trojan War. Archaeologists today, who are still excavating the area, date Troy II to the Early Bronze Age, which is too early for the war, nor does it contain any physical evidence of combat. Although the mythical Troy has yet to be proven or disproven, life in the city has been discovered and documented, beginning with the 100 or so items Schliemann brought to England for an exhibition at London’s South Kensington Museum (V&A) in 1877. Amongst the items were “face pots” that appeared to have eyes and may have, as Schliemann believed, been idols of the goddess Athena. Many other pots were also in the collection, some with three “legs” and one big enough to store enough grain to feed a small family for a year. Rather than ending the exhibition here with the half-successful search for the site of the Trojan War, the British Museum returned to the myths with a selection of artworks that explore how artists have interpreted the stories over the past millennium. Authors have also used the Trojan myths as the basis of their stories, for instance, William Shakespeare‘s Troilus and Cressida and Edward Spenser’s The Faerie Queene (1590): “For noble Britons sprang/from Trojans bold,/And Troynovant was built/of old Troy’s ashes cold.” Even though artists have chosen to depict the same scenes, for instance, the sirens, their outcomes are very different. Take, for example, African-American artist Romare Bearden’s (1911-88) The Siren’s Song, which shows Odysseus tied to the mast of his ship in the background. In the foreground, the sirens are dancing in human form, attempting to lure Odysseus to his death. In Greek mythology, sirens were represented as part human and part bird, however, Bearden portrayed them as fully human. Herbert Draper (1863-1920) is another artist who altered the appearance of the sirens. In Ulysses and the Sirens – Ulysses being the Roman name for Odysseus – Odysseus is once again tied to the mast, however, sirens in the form of mermaids are attempting to climb onto the ship. Mermaids are half-human, half-fish and may have been inspired by the Greek sirens. In folklore, mermaids also lure sailors to their deaths. Whilst heroes tend to be portrayed during their prime, a few artworks at the British Museum reveal the vulnerable side of the great men. Hector was one of Troy’s best fighters and it was a great loss when he was killed in battle by Achilles. British artist of Huguenot descent Briton Rivière (1840-1920) painted Hector lying dead, face-down in the sand. As the Iliad tells us, Achilles dragged Hector’s body around the battlefield for several days, however, the gods protected the corpse from damage. In Rivière’s painting, Hector’s muscular body looks as pure as it would had he been alive. Achilles heel is usually regarded as his only vulnerability, however, his emotions also get the better of him. Firstly, his anger causes him to stubbornly refuse to fight but when Patroclus is killed, his anger turns to grief followed by rage, which causes him to join the battle and go after Hector. The Swiss painter Henry Fuseli (1741-1825) produced a quick sketch of Achilles lamenting the death of his best friend. Achilles collapses over the body of Patroclus, which is an action that many would deem unmanly. Fuseli, on the other hand, admired Achilles and the other Greek heroes for their authentic emotions. Helen of Troy, the most beautiful woman in the world, was a popular topic for artists. Since no one knows what Helen looked like, artists have portrayed their own perceptions of beauty. William Morris (1834-96) drew Helen as the Flamma Troiae (Flame of Troy) with long, flowing blonde hair. Although she supposedly ignites passion in men, she demurely looks down as though innocent of the effects of her beauty. Evelyn De Morgan’s (1855-1919) version of Helen, however, is much more enticing. Aware of her beauty, golden-haired Helen looks into a hand mirror, absorbed with her own appearance. The contours of her dress reveal her slender legs and her bare arms are something women of the past would not have dreamed of showing in public. Edward Burne-Jones (1833-98), on the other hand, took a different approach to Helen. Rather than focus on her beauty, Burne-Jones thought about how the war would have affected her. In his tiny watercolour, Burne-Jones shows Helen consumed by guilt about the destruction of Troy. Wearing dark clothing, she holds her hands to her face whilst Troy burns around her. Although the war was not her fault, she is taking the blame for the outcome, for it is for her that the Greeks came to destroy the city. The crown atop her head indicates Helen’s importance in the story. She is not just a beautiful woman, she is a queen. Paris may have taken Helen because she was the most beautiful woman in the world but the Greeks want her back because she belongs to them as the wife of Menelaus. Contemporary artist Eleanor Antin (b.1935) recreated the Judgement of Paris in a humorous, modern, photographic manner. The male models represent Zeus and Paris who are looking at the three goddesses whilst trying to decide which of them is the most beautiful. Athena, the goddess of warfare amongst other things, holds her rifle aloft, whilst Aphrodite in magenta and purple strikes a tempting pose. Presumably, the winged child hugging Aphrodite is Eros, known as Cupid in Roman mythology. The most humorous depiction of a goddess is Hera, goddess of the home, who dressed as a 1950s housewife, holds a vacuum cleaner in one hand. Helen, who is dark-haired in this version, sits to the side, thoroughly annoyed that she is being treated as a possession rather than a human being. William Blake’s (1757-1827) The Judgement of Paris is more in keeping with other artists’ version of the scene. The three goddesses, all of them naked, stand in front of Paris as he hands the apple to Aphrodite. In the sky above, a demonic figure, possibly Eris the goddess of discord, indicates the destruction that is yet to come. The exhibition ends with two shields. Since Roman times, people have attempted to recreate Achilles’ shield, which as no one knows what it looked like, has been a virtually impossible task. According to Homer, the shield was forged by the god Hephaestus and, therefore, was better than any man-made shield. In 1822, John Flaxman (1755-1826) designed a shield that took inspiration from ancient works of art. Using clay to make a model, Flaxman included scenes from the Trojan War on the shield, which was eventually gilded in silver. The other shield is a contemporary installation by Spencer Finch (b.1962). Made from fluorescent lamps positioned in a radiating circle, Finch created this shield after visiting Troy and feeling moved by the mythical stories. Whilst this particular shield would be useless in battle, it shows the story of the Trojan War is still fresh and popular in the 21st century. Whether myth or reality, the story continues to live on. Troy: Myth and Reality is on display at the British Museum until 8th March 2020. Tickets are £20, however, under 16s can attend for free when accompanied by a paying adult.	<urn:uuid:f68963b9-b530-4df4-9315-a18f403f8392>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://hazelstainer.wordpress.com/tag/archaeology/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00369.warc.gz	en	0.980084	4,990	3.4375	3	[ 0.1611281782388687, 0.5013609528541565, 0.5271035432815552, 0.08648557215929031, -0.45520901679992676, -0.3620253801345825, -0.12585105001926422, 0.538406491279602, 0.09035170078277588, -0.01732654683291912, -0.22196054458618164, -0.4159896969795227, -0.22420766949653625, 0.564026176929473...	21	Until 8th March, the British Museum is celebrating the legend of Troy, which has endured for over 3000 years. With ancient artefacts and more recent artworks, the museum tells the story of the Trojan War from its beginning to its end, followed by the fateful journey home of one of the Greek heroes. Whilst this story may be purely mythical, the British Museum also explores the true existence of Troy, which was discovered during the 19th century. Many people know some of the stories surrounding the Trojan War, which have been told for over 3000 years. Initially spread by word of mouth, it is generally believed the story was put together by the Greek poet Homer as early as the 8th century BC. There are some arguments that Homer never existed and the stories were compiled by several authors, however, the final result had been published under Homer’s name in two volumes, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Written in a dactylic hexameter – a form of poetry – the Iliad spans approximately fifty-one days of the ten-year Trojan War on the coast of Anatolia, now known as northwestern Turkey. The city of Troy was under siege by a coalition of Greek states as revenge for the abduction of Helen of Sparta. The war began shortly after the wedding of the sea-goddess Thetis and Peleus, the king of Thessaly. All the Greek gods and goddesses were invited to the ceremony except for Eris, the goddess of discord. Angry at being left out, Eris turned up unannounced and threw a golden apple into the crowd of party-goers. The apple bore the inscription “to the most beautiful” and three goddesses: Aphrodite, Athena and Hera, believed it was intended for them. The goddesses appealed to Zeus, the king of the gods, to decide who was the most beautiful. Reluctant to get involved, Zeus instructed Paris, the visiting Trojan prince, to make the decision. Paris’ judgement was by no means fair because, before he could make a decision, Aphrodite the goddess of love, promised Paris the love of the most beautiful woman on earth if he chose her as the winner of the competition. Naturally, Paris chose Aphrodite. After the wedding, Paris visited the Greek state of Sparta where he met Helen, the woman Aphrodite promised him. Unfortunately, Helen was already married to King Menelaus, so when Paris returned to Troy with Helen, Menelaus was determined to get his wife back. Agamemnon, the king of Mycenae called together a huge fleet of Greek heroes to sail across the Aegean Sea in support of his brother Menelaus. Thus, the Trojan War began. The Iliad begins in the middle of the plot after the Greeks have been attempting to breach the strong walls of the city of Troy for nine years. Although they had not managed to enter the main city, the Greeks had raided surrounding towns belonging to Troy and taken many inhabitants as prisoners. Amongst these prisoners was a young woman named Briseis who was given as a prize of honour to the Greek Hero Achilles, son of Thetis. King Agamemnon’s prisoner was Chryseis, the daughter of a Trojan priest of Apollo. The Trojan’s offered money in return for the girl, however, Agamemnon refused. So, the priest prayed to Apollo who sent a plague over the Greek army until they returned Chryseis to her father. In retaliation, Agamemnon took Briseis from Achilles, causing the Greek hero to, quite simply, have a huge sulk. Furious with Agamemnon, Achilles refused to fight in the war and asked his mother, Thetis, to make the Greeks realise how much they needed Achilles on their side. In the fighting that followed, the Trojans began to get the upper hand. In desperation, Achilles’ friend and potential lover Patroclus entered the battle disguised as Achilles in an attempt to raise the morale of the Greek soldiers. It worked; both the Greeks and the Trojans believed Patroclus was Achilles, however, this put him in mortal danger when he was targetted by the Trojan prince Hector. When Achilles heard that Hector had killed Patroclus, he fell into a state of grief-stricken rage. Despite knowing the prophecy that stated if Hector died, Achilles would soon follow, the Greek hero returned to the battle site clad in new armour forged by the god Hephaestus. In a blind rage, Achilles killed Hector, tied the corpse to the back of a chariot, and proceeded to desecrate the body by dragging it around the battlefield for several days. Taking pity on Hector’s family, the gods protected Hector’s body from damage until Achilles could be persuaded to hand the corpse over to King Priam for a traditional Trojan funeral. This is where the Iliad finished, however, the war was by no means over. Troy called upon its allies for support, but the Amazons and Ethiopians were no match for Achilles’ strength. Whilst Achilles continued to fight, he knew as a result of Hector’s death, he was destined to die soon. When Achilles was a baby, his mother dipped him into the waters of the River Styx to make him invulnerable to injury. Unfortunately, the ankle from which she dangled him did not enter the water, therefore, Achilles was vulnerable in this area. It was in this precise spot that an arrow shot by Paris hit Achilles, fatally wounding the Greek Hero. Despite their best warrior dead, the Greeks continued to fight. The Greeks won the war thanks to an ingenious invention by Odysseus, the king of Ithaca. He encouraged the Greek army to build an enormous wooden horse, which they placed outside the walls of Troy as a decoy peace offering. Believing the Greeks had given up the fight, the Trojan’s accepted the gift and brought it into the city, unaware that it housed some of the best Greek fighters. Once through the walls, the Greeks crept out of the horse and attacked the city from within, eventually destroying Troy and killing King Priam and Hector’s son, Astyanax. Only one member of the royal family survived, Aeneas, the son of King Priam’s cousin, whose survival story is told in the Aeneid by Publius Vergilius Maro (Virgil). Troy fell, the war ended and Helen was reunited with her husband, however, this was not the end of the story for the Greeks. The gods were angry at the sacrilegious atrocities committed by the Greeks during the war and decided to teach them a lesson by making their journey home rather difficult. No one’s journey was as bad as Odysseus whose ten-year attempt to return home is recorded in Homer’s Odyssey. “Tell me about a complicated man. Muse, tell me about how he wandered and was lost when he had wrecked the holy town of Troy …” – Odyssey, Homer, 700 AD Initially, twelve ships, including one belonging to Odysseus, were driven off course by the storms caused by the angry gods. As a result, Odysseus and his men sheltered in the land of the Lotus-Eaters. These were a race of people whose primary food source was the lotus fruits, which had a narcotic effect on foreigners. Naturally, Odysseus’ men accepted food and hospitality from the peaceful natives and forgot that they were on their way home from Troy. It was only through physical force that Odysseus managed to get his men back onto the ships. Since it was impossible to bring an endless supply of food on a ship, Odysseus soon had to make another stop. On an uninhabited island – or so they thought, Odysseus and his men discovered a cave full of meat and cheese. Before they could return to the ship, the cave’s owner, a cyclops named Polyphemus, arrived and sealed the entrance to the cave. Trapped inside, Odysseus had to think quickly and introduced himself to the cyclops as Nobody. Odysseus persuaded Polyphemus to drink excessive amounts of wine until the cyclops fell asleep. Taking the opportunity, Odysseus used a wooden stake to blind the one-eyed creature, who woke up with a shout. Other cyclopes arrived on the scene to find out what the fuss was about but soon went away when Polyphemus told them “Nobody attacked me.” Hiding under the underbellies of Polyphemus’ sheep, Odysseus and his men escaped the cave when the cyclops unsealed the entrance in the morning. They could easily have sailed away and gone straight home, however, Odysseus foolishly boasted about defeating the cyclops, revealing his name in the process. Polyphemus prayed to his father, Poseidon the god of the sea, to curse Odysseus to wander the seas for ten years, losing all his men in the process. Odysseus’ next stop was the island of Aeolia where Aeolus, the keeper of the winds resided. He gave Odysseus a leather bag containing all the winds except for the one that would blow their boat home. With instructions not to open the bag, Odysseus and his men set off towards Ithaca, however, whilst Odysseus was asleep, his men fell to temptation and opened the bag, releasing all the winds. As a result, the boat was blown off course, taking them even further away from home. Following this, Odysseus and his men met with several disasters. The first occurred on the Laestrygonians’ Island where cannibalistic giants feasted on the majority of the men. The survivors sailed on to the island of Aeaea, where a witch-goddess Circe, daughter of the sun-god Helios turned all but Odysseus into pigs. Although Odysseus forced Circe to return his men to human form, her charm caused him to remain on the island for an entire year. Odysseus managed to avoid disaster as they passed the land of the Sirens. The Sirens were dangerous creatures who lured sailors to their deaths with their beautiful songs. Odysseus instructed his men to plug their ears, however, he wished to hear the music. Odysseus tied himself to a post so that he could not be tempted to follow the sounds of the Sirens’ voices. Whilst no incident occurred with the Sirens, there was danger just around the corner. The ship had to pass between two creatures: Scylla, a six-headed monster, and Charybdis, a whirlpool. Although they successfully avoided Charybdis, Scylla managed to snatch up six men. The next island Odysseus and his remaining men visited was Thrinacia. Due to a storm, they were unable to leave the island for several days, causing them to use up all their provisions. Hungry, Odysseus prayed to the gods, however, his desperate starving men hunted down some cattle to feast upon. These cattle, however, turned out to be the sacred cattle of Helios, the god of the sun. As a punishment, the next time Odysseus and his men took to the sea, the gods caused a shipwreck, which only Odysseus survived. With no means of getting home, Odysseus found himself washed up on the island of Ogygia, where he was kept captive by the nymph Calypso. After seven years of homesickness, Zeus compelled Calypso to release Odysseus so he could eventually return home. For ten years, Odysseus’ wife Penelope waited patiently for her husband’s return. Believing him to be dead, many suitors tried to worm their way into the household. Penelope fended them off by saying she would only marry one of them after she had finished her weaving. Each day, she sat weaving and every night she undid the progress she had made, thus the work would never be finished. On returning home, Odysseus found his home had been taken over by 108 young men. Disguised as a beggar, Odysseus killed the leader of the suitors and revealed himself to his wife. Finally, the Trojan War got its happy ending. It is not certain whether there ever was a Trojan War and Odysseus’ journey home seems even less probable. For hundreds of years, people assumed it was a myth, a story for entertainment purposes. Nonetheless, this did not stop people from trying to locate the city of Troy. Believed to be situated in Anatolia – northwest modern-day Turkey – pilgrims visited the area, believing they were travelling the paths of their ancient heroes. An English expatriate, Frank Calvert (1828-1908) believed he had located the site of Troy on a mound at Hisarlik, the remains of an ancient city near Çanakkale in Turkey. Seven years later, when Heinrich Schliemann (1822-1890), a German pioneer of archaeology, arrived, Calvert quickly persuaded him to investigate the area. What they discovered was the remains of the mythical city of Troy. Although Calvert helped with the excavation, it was Schliemann who took the accolades. Between 1870 and 1890, Schliemann’s excavations revealed more and more about the real city of Troy. It is estimated people first settled in the area around 3000 BC during the Early Bronze Age. For around four thousand years, people lived in Troy until it was abandoned in 600 AD. Schliemann’s findings and those of archaeology teams that followed him record how people lived during this lengthy period. Life in Troy has been categorised into nine phases with Troy I being the earliest and Troy IX the last. Troy I was only a small village but by the time Troy II was established between 2500 and 2300 BC, the city had strong walls encircling a citadel, although still rather small. Being on the Dardanelles strait, Troy would have been in prime position for trading, which may explain its gradually increasing size. By the Late Bronze Age (1750–1180 BC) Troy had a larger citadel with stronger, sloping walls, some of which can still be seen today. As well as access to the trade route, surrounding Troy was agricultural land, which was used to keep animals, particularly sheep and grow crops. Evidence of horses in the area have also been unearthed, which links to the Trojan prince Hector in the Iliad, who was described as a horse-tamer. Troy was destroyed at the end of the Bronze Age (1180 BC), which some have attributed to the Trojan War. Other cities in the Mediterranean, however, were also destroyed for reasons unknown, which puts the specific Trojan War into question. Homer did not live, if he ever existed, until the 8th or 7th century BC, by which time Troy had been rebuilt and renamed Ilion, which is the name Homer uses in the Iliad. Troy, or Ilion, flourished once more. Although it was not as important as other cities in the ancient world, it was a populous city for hundreds of years. It seems strange that a large city could ever be “lost”, however, by the 6th century AD, the population had dwindled and unused buildings crumbled away. Any evidence of Troy’s existence was eventually covered by debris until all that remained was the hill-shaped mound now known as Hisarlik. Schliemann was convinced Troy II was the ancient Troy or Ilion mentioned by Homer and, therefore, the site of the Trojan War. Archaeologists today, who are still excavating the area, date Troy II to the Early Bronze Age, which is too early for the war, nor does it contain any physical evidence of combat. Although the mythical Troy has yet to be proven or disproven, life in the city has been discovered and documented, beginning with the 100 or so items Schliemann brought to England for an exhibition at London’s South Kensington Museum (V&A) in 1877. Amongst the items were “face pots” that appeared to have eyes and may have, as Schliemann believed, been idols of the goddess Athena. Many other pots were also in the collection, some with three “legs” and one big enough to store enough grain to feed a small family for a year. Rather than ending the exhibition here with the half-successful search for the site of the Trojan War, the British Museum returned to the myths with a selection of artworks that explore how artists have interpreted the stories over the past millennium. Authors have also used the Trojan myths as the basis of their stories, for instance, William Shakespeare‘s Troilus and Cressida and Edward Spenser’s The Faerie Queene (1590): “For noble Britons sprang/from Trojans bold,/And Troynovant was built/of old Troy’s ashes cold.” Even though artists have chosen to depict the same scenes, for instance, the sirens, their outcomes are very different. Take, for example, African-American artist Romare Bearden’s (1911-88) The Siren’s Song, which shows Odysseus tied to the mast of his ship in the background. In the foreground, the sirens are dancing in human form, attempting to lure Odysseus to his death. In Greek mythology, sirens were represented as part human and part bird, however, Bearden portrayed them as fully human. Herbert Draper (1863-1920) is another artist who altered the appearance of the sirens. In Ulysses and the Sirens – Ulysses being the Roman name for Odysseus – Odysseus is once again tied to the mast, however, sirens in the form of mermaids are attempting to climb onto the ship. Mermaids are half-human, half-fish and may have been inspired by the Greek sirens. In folklore, mermaids also lure sailors to their deaths. Whilst heroes tend to be portrayed during their prime, a few artworks at the British Museum reveal the vulnerable side of the great men. Hector was one of Troy’s best fighters and it was a great loss when he was killed in battle by Achilles. British artist of Huguenot descent Briton Rivière (1840-1920) painted Hector lying dead, face-down in the sand. As the Iliad tells us, Achilles dragged Hector’s body around the battlefield for several days, however, the gods protected the corpse from damage. In Rivière’s painting, Hector’s muscular body looks as pure as it would had he been alive. Achilles heel is usually regarded as his only vulnerability, however, his emotions also get the better of him. Firstly, his anger causes him to stubbornly refuse to fight but when Patroclus is killed, his anger turns to grief followed by rage, which causes him to join the battle and go after Hector. The Swiss painter Henry Fuseli (1741-1825) produced a quick sketch of Achilles lamenting the death of his best friend. Achilles collapses over the body of Patroclus, which is an action that many would deem unmanly. Fuseli, on the other hand, admired Achilles and the other Greek heroes for their authentic emotions. Helen of Troy, the most beautiful woman in the world, was a popular topic for artists. Since no one knows what Helen looked like, artists have portrayed their own perceptions of beauty. William Morris (1834-96) drew Helen as the Flamma Troiae (Flame of Troy) with long, flowing blonde hair. Although she supposedly ignites passion in men, she demurely looks down as though innocent of the effects of her beauty. Evelyn De Morgan’s (1855-1919) version of Helen, however, is much more enticing. Aware of her beauty, golden-haired Helen looks into a hand mirror, absorbed with her own appearance. The contours of her dress reveal her slender legs and her bare arms are something women of the past would not have dreamed of showing in public. Edward Burne-Jones (1833-98), on the other hand, took a different approach to Helen. Rather than focus on her beauty, Burne-Jones thought about how the war would have affected her. In his tiny watercolour, Burne-Jones shows Helen consumed by guilt about the destruction of Troy. Wearing dark clothing, she holds her hands to her face whilst Troy burns around her. Although the war was not her fault, she is taking the blame for the outcome, for it is for her that the Greeks came to destroy the city. The crown atop her head indicates Helen’s importance in the story. She is not just a beautiful woman, she is a queen. Paris may have taken Helen because she was the most beautiful woman in the world but the Greeks want her back because she belongs to them as the wife of Menelaus. Contemporary artist Eleanor Antin (b.1935) recreated the Judgement of Paris in a humorous, modern, photographic manner. The male models represent Zeus and Paris who are looking at the three goddesses whilst trying to decide which of them is the most beautiful. Athena, the goddess of warfare amongst other things, holds her rifle aloft, whilst Aphrodite in magenta and purple strikes a tempting pose. Presumably, the winged child hugging Aphrodite is Eros, known as Cupid in Roman mythology. The most humorous depiction of a goddess is Hera, goddess of the home, who dressed as a 1950s housewife, holds a vacuum cleaner in one hand. Helen, who is dark-haired in this version, sits to the side, thoroughly annoyed that she is being treated as a possession rather than a human being. William Blake’s (1757-1827) The Judgement of Paris is more in keeping with other artists’ version of the scene. The three goddesses, all of them naked, stand in front of Paris as he hands the apple to Aphrodite. In the sky above, a demonic figure, possibly Eris the goddess of discord, indicates the destruction that is yet to come. The exhibition ends with two shields. Since Roman times, people have attempted to recreate Achilles’ shield, which as no one knows what it looked like, has been a virtually impossible task. According to Homer, the shield was forged by the god Hephaestus and, therefore, was better than any man-made shield. In 1822, John Flaxman (1755-1826) designed a shield that took inspiration from ancient works of art. Using clay to make a model, Flaxman included scenes from the Trojan War on the shield, which was eventually gilded in silver. The other shield is a contemporary installation by Spencer Finch (b.1962). Made from fluorescent lamps positioned in a radiating circle, Finch created this shield after visiting Troy and feeling moved by the mythical stories. Whilst this particular shield would be useless in battle, it shows the story of the Trojan War is still fresh and popular in the 21st century. Whether myth or reality, the story continues to live on. Troy: Myth and Reality is on display at the British Museum until 8th March 2020. Tickets are £20, however, under 16s can attend for free when accompanied by a paying adult.	4,953	ENGLISH	1
Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work! Rudy Giuliani, in full Rudolph William Giuliani, (born May 28, 1944, Brooklyn, New York, U.S.), American lawyer and politician who served as mayor of New York City (1994–2001). He was especially known for his handling of the September 11 attacks of 2001. Giuliani was educated at Manhattan College (A.B., 1965) and New York University (J.D., 1968). Beginning in 1970, he worked for the U.S. government, holding positions in the office of the U.S. attorney and in the Department of Justice. From 1977 to 1981 he practiced law privately, but in 1981 he returned to the Justice Department as associate attorney general. In 1983 he was appointed U.S. attorney for the Southern District of New York. Early in his political career, Giuliani became affiliated with the Republican Party. After being narrowly defeated in 1989, he won election as mayor in 1993, the first Republican to hold the position in two decades. He promised to reform the city’s finances and to crack down on crime, and he was credited with success in both areas. He cut expenditures by, among other things, trimming the city’s workforce and winning concessions from unions. The mayor encouraged the police to take an aggressive stance against even minor infractions of the law—even litterers, jaywalkers, and reckless cabdrivers were ticketed as lawbreakers. This campaign earned him the sobriquet “the Nanny of New York.” However, the crime rate fell, and the mayor claimed that New York had become a more civilized place. Giuliani had his detractors, however. Critics pointed out that he was taking credit for a crime decrease that was part of a nationwide trend. Further, in several incidents involving charges of police brutality, the mayor seemed to be defending officers’ misconduct. To some critics the mayor’s actions could be petty, as when he refused to meet visiting dignitaries if he disagreed with their policies. In a highly publicized incident in 1999, the mayor denounced a controversial exhibit at the Brooklyn Museum of Art that included works that many observers found offensive or sacrilegious. He attempted to withdraw funding for the museum but was overruled in court. Nonetheless, the mayor generally maintained high approval ratings, and there was speculation that he would run for the U.S. Senate in 2000. However, following the disclosures that he had prostate cancer and that he was separating from his wife, Donna Hanover, Giuliani announced in May 2000 that he would not run. On September 11, 2001, New York City became the scene of the deadliest terrorist attack in the United States after hijackers flew commercial airplanes into the twin towers of the World Trade Center, killing some 2,800 people. Giuliani drew high praise for his handling of the situation, and there were calls that he run for a third term, even though New York City law barred a mayor from serving more than two consecutive terms. Giuliani, however, decided not to seek reelection. He received an honorary knighthood from Queen Elizabeth II for his efforts in the wake of the attacks. Leadership, which Giuliani cowrote with Ken Kurson, was published in 2002. In 2007 Giuliani announced that he would seek the Republican Party’s presidential nomination in 2008. His platform focused on national security, and he was an early front-runner. By concentrating his campaign efforts on the Florida primary, however, he conceded nearly a month of caucuses and primaries to other candidates. He withdrew from the race in late January 2008 after finishing a distant third in Florida. Giuliani was an early and ardent supporter of fellow New Yorker Donald J. Trump’s pursuit of the presidency in 2016. When Trump was elected, Giuliani became a prominent candidate for the position of secretary of state, though Rex W. Tillerson was ultimately chosen to fill the post. Giuliani, however, was tapped by Trump to serve as an unofficial adviser on cybersecurity. In April 2018 Giuliani joined the legal team that was representing the president in the special counsel’s investigation into possible Russian interference in the 2016 election. He made frequent television appearances in defense of the president, though some of his comments were thought to be unhelpful to Trump. After the investigation ended in March 2019—with no charges filed against the president—Giuliani continued to serve as one of Trump’s personal lawyers. He was especially involved in what was described as a back channel between Trump and Ukrainian officials. Giuliani was allegedly engaged in efforts to pressure Ukraine into launching a corruption investigation into one of Trump’s political rivals, Joe Biden. The actions of Trump, Giuliani, and others came under intense scrutiny in September 2019, when it was publicly revealed that a whistle-blower had filed a complaint concerning the president’s conduct regarding Ukraine. Later that month the House launched an impeachment inquiry against Trump, and legal questions arose over Giuliani’s actions. Learn More in these related Britannica articles: New York City: Government…initiatives; when voters elected Republican Rudolph Giuliani as mayor in 1993, the urban political scene became confrontational. Battles over educational leadership, city planning, and spending projections marked Giuliani’s administration, even as it successfully reduced city crime in all categories and pruned welfare rolls. By the late 1990s the city’s murder… New York City: Greater New York…to the election of Republican Rudolph Giuliani in 1993. A successful career prosecutor, he pledged to reduce taxes, improve or privatize city services, and regain control of the streets from criminals. His great successes in reducing crime won him national fame. Giuliani nurtured his reputation as an angry man indifferent… United States Presidential Election of 2008…while many others had anointed Rudy Giuliani as the front-runner. But Giuliani failed to capture a single state in the primaries, and McCain went on to defeat strong challenges from Mitt Romney and Mike Huckabee easily.…	<urn:uuid:94ae8228-b8c0-40ed-bcd0-cd0a5a37d663>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.britannica.com/biography/Rudy-Giuliani	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00305.warc.gz	en	0.983014	1,254	3.53125	4	[ -0.2403247058391571, -0.08227900415658951, 0.35561323165893555, -0.03076178766787052, -0.3033263683319092, 0.3067746162414551, 0.19312791526317596, 0.21160639822483063, -0.1521937996149063, 0.03277137875556946, -0.6291709542274475, 0.8360962867736816, -0.010767916217446327, 0.3053214251995...	1	Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.Join Britannica's Publishing Partner Program and our community of experts to gain a global audience for your work! Rudy Giuliani, in full Rudolph William Giuliani, (born May 28, 1944, Brooklyn, New York, U.S.), American lawyer and politician who served as mayor of New York City (1994–2001). He was especially known for his handling of the September 11 attacks of 2001. Giuliani was educated at Manhattan College (A.B., 1965) and New York University (J.D., 1968). Beginning in 1970, he worked for the U.S. government, holding positions in the office of the U.S. attorney and in the Department of Justice. From 1977 to 1981 he practiced law privately, but in 1981 he returned to the Justice Department as associate attorney general. In 1983 he was appointed U.S. attorney for the Southern District of New York. Early in his political career, Giuliani became affiliated with the Republican Party. After being narrowly defeated in 1989, he won election as mayor in 1993, the first Republican to hold the position in two decades. He promised to reform the city’s finances and to crack down on crime, and he was credited with success in both areas. He cut expenditures by, among other things, trimming the city’s workforce and winning concessions from unions. The mayor encouraged the police to take an aggressive stance against even minor infractions of the law—even litterers, jaywalkers, and reckless cabdrivers were ticketed as lawbreakers. This campaign earned him the sobriquet “the Nanny of New York.” However, the crime rate fell, and the mayor claimed that New York had become a more civilized place. Giuliani had his detractors, however. Critics pointed out that he was taking credit for a crime decrease that was part of a nationwide trend. Further, in several incidents involving charges of police brutality, the mayor seemed to be defending officers’ misconduct. To some critics the mayor’s actions could be petty, as when he refused to meet visiting dignitaries if he disagreed with their policies. In a highly publicized incident in 1999, the mayor denounced a controversial exhibit at the Brooklyn Museum of Art that included works that many observers found offensive or sacrilegious. He attempted to withdraw funding for the museum but was overruled in court. Nonetheless, the mayor generally maintained high approval ratings, and there was speculation that he would run for the U.S. Senate in 2000. However, following the disclosures that he had prostate cancer and that he was separating from his wife, Donna Hanover, Giuliani announced in May 2000 that he would not run. On September 11, 2001, New York City became the scene of the deadliest terrorist attack in the United States after hijackers flew commercial airplanes into the twin towers of the World Trade Center, killing some 2,800 people. Giuliani drew high praise for his handling of the situation, and there were calls that he run for a third term, even though New York City law barred a mayor from serving more than two consecutive terms. Giuliani, however, decided not to seek reelection. He received an honorary knighthood from Queen Elizabeth II for his efforts in the wake of the attacks. Leadership, which Giuliani cowrote with Ken Kurson, was published in 2002. In 2007 Giuliani announced that he would seek the Republican Party’s presidential nomination in 2008. His platform focused on national security, and he was an early front-runner. By concentrating his campaign efforts on the Florida primary, however, he conceded nearly a month of caucuses and primaries to other candidates. He withdrew from the race in late January 2008 after finishing a distant third in Florida. Giuliani was an early and ardent supporter of fellow New Yorker Donald J. Trump’s pursuit of the presidency in 2016. When Trump was elected, Giuliani became a prominent candidate for the position of secretary of state, though Rex W. Tillerson was ultimately chosen to fill the post. Giuliani, however, was tapped by Trump to serve as an unofficial adviser on cybersecurity. In April 2018 Giuliani joined the legal team that was representing the president in the special counsel’s investigation into possible Russian interference in the 2016 election. He made frequent television appearances in defense of the president, though some of his comments were thought to be unhelpful to Trump. After the investigation ended in March 2019—with no charges filed against the president—Giuliani continued to serve as one of Trump’s personal lawyers. He was especially involved in what was described as a back channel between Trump and Ukrainian officials. Giuliani was allegedly engaged in efforts to pressure Ukraine into launching a corruption investigation into one of Trump’s political rivals, Joe Biden. The actions of Trump, Giuliani, and others came under intense scrutiny in September 2019, when it was publicly revealed that a whistle-blower had filed a complaint concerning the president’s conduct regarding Ukraine. Later that month the House launched an impeachment inquiry against Trump, and legal questions arose over Giuliani’s actions. Learn More in these related Britannica articles: New York City: Government…initiatives; when voters elected Republican Rudolph Giuliani as mayor in 1993, the urban political scene became confrontational. Battles over educational leadership, city planning, and spending projections marked Giuliani’s administration, even as it successfully reduced city crime in all categories and pruned welfare rolls. By the late 1990s the city’s murder… New York City: Greater New York…to the election of Republican Rudolph Giuliani in 1993. A successful career prosecutor, he pledged to reduce taxes, improve or privatize city services, and regain control of the streets from criminals. His great successes in reducing crime won him national fame. Giuliani nurtured his reputation as an angry man indifferent… United States Presidential Election of 2008…while many others had anointed Rudy Giuliani as the front-runner. But Giuliani failed to capture a single state in the primaries, and McCain went on to defeat strong challenges from Mitt Romney and Mike Huckabee easily.…	1,333	ENGLISH	1
The Scottish thinker David Hume wanted to bring philosophy to its senses. He scoffed at so-called human reason. Like John Locke, Hume believed that people knew of the world began with the senses. He set out to discover whether there was any real proof of those things that people took for granted. Hume’s questioning of God’s existence might have cost him his life a century or so earlier. it still caused a public scandal. This may be why he said: “Errors in religion are dangerous, those in philosophy only ridiculous.” Hume said all knowledge boiled down on two sources — impressions and ideas. Impressions are direct experiences, whereas ideas are just memories of impressions. the brain can sort and combine ideas into complex creations that do not exist in reality. For example, the idea of mermaid combines the impressions “fish”and “woman”. He also challenged accepted scientific laws, such as gravity and cause and effect. His view was that they are accepted in the same way that someone who has only ever seen brown cows thinks all cows are brown. Hume made no secret of the fact that his ultimate ambition was literary fame and ambition. And so he was a little miffed when his first book, “A Treatise of Human Nature,” went unnoticed. It was history, not philosophy, that brought him success. Hume’s “History of England” was a bestseller. He made a lot of money from book sales. The university later rejected Hume as a lecturer because he questioned God’s existence but he was welcomed in France, where his made him a huge success. In France he became friend with the philosopher Rousseau but they later fell out. The economist Adam Smith was Hume’s closest friend. They shared similar views, such as a belief that free trade between nations is of mutual benefit. Albert Einstein named Hume as a major influence when he came up with his theory of relativity.	<urn:uuid:f345cef8-9b98-4dfb-a9b4-80da9bcc2f8a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.moradnazari.com/mermaid-fish-woman/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00302.warc.gz	en	0.985343	408	3.328125	3	[ -0.1175059899687767, 0.05219051241874695, -0.08716761320829391, -0.026093771681189537, -0.003457189304754138, -0.022546613588929176, 0.6754159331321716, 0.020705493167042732, 0.046049367636442184, 0.1282716542482376, 0.41410547494888306, -0.3333921432495117, 0.1932855248451233, 0.181106999...	4	The Scottish thinker David Hume wanted to bring philosophy to its senses. He scoffed at so-called human reason. Like John Locke, Hume believed that people knew of the world began with the senses. He set out to discover whether there was any real proof of those things that people took for granted. Hume’s questioning of God’s existence might have cost him his life a century or so earlier. it still caused a public scandal. This may be why he said: “Errors in religion are dangerous, those in philosophy only ridiculous.” Hume said all knowledge boiled down on two sources — impressions and ideas. Impressions are direct experiences, whereas ideas are just memories of impressions. the brain can sort and combine ideas into complex creations that do not exist in reality. For example, the idea of mermaid combines the impressions “fish”and “woman”. He also challenged accepted scientific laws, such as gravity and cause and effect. His view was that they are accepted in the same way that someone who has only ever seen brown cows thinks all cows are brown. Hume made no secret of the fact that his ultimate ambition was literary fame and ambition. And so he was a little miffed when his first book, “A Treatise of Human Nature,” went unnoticed. It was history, not philosophy, that brought him success. Hume’s “History of England” was a bestseller. He made a lot of money from book sales. The university later rejected Hume as a lecturer because he questioned God’s existence but he was welcomed in France, where his made him a huge success. In France he became friend with the philosopher Rousseau but they later fell out. The economist Adam Smith was Hume’s closest friend. They shared similar views, such as a belief that free trade between nations is of mutual benefit. Albert Einstein named Hume as a major influence when he came up with his theory of relativity.	387	ENGLISH	1
Atoms are particles in the makeup of the Universe. The word is derived from the Greek word “atomus” which means uncuttable or indivisible…”a” means “not” and “tomus” means “cut”. Atoms are almost clear in color. They are hard and cannot be divided or cut according to Democritus; however, this reasoning was dismissed in the late 1800s (see the explanation near the end of this post). Atoms were named by Democritus. Democritus was born around 450BC and left the Earth around 90 years of age. He was born in ancient Anatolia in a Greek settlement now modern day Turkey. Reportedly he came from a noble wealthy family, and a Persian monarch gave his father, who marched for Persia in the Second Persian War, several Magi. Democritus was apparently instructed by these Magi (wise men) in astronomy and theology. The idea of atoms goes back to ancient Greece and this Greek philosopher. Because of his wealth, Democritus was widely traveled and learned from many philosophers and scientists. Great scientists and thinkers would get together to discuss the Universe and Earth as expressed in the treatise “The Larger Spiritual Order & Universal Scheme of Things-Simplified”. At these meetings, for instance, Plato and Aristotle would also attack Democritus. Plato is also known to have been at a dinner party of his uncle and shared a story of Atlantis being sunk into the sea after a one-day catastophic rainfall. They all lived in the approximate age of 400BC. The study of atoms became the study of the Universe. They also philosophized on “truth”. Democritus not only perceived particles of matter as atoms, but that they also existed as “Soul” to him. He also perceived they were separated by “voids” in the Universe. It was stated by Democritus that atoms were indestructible and always have been and always will be in motion. He also believed there are infinite numbers and kinds of atoms which differ in shape and are so small they cannot be seen by the naked eye. His theory on atoms was that there was emptiness between atoms, and the Universe as composed of nothing but tiny atoms that came together to form larger units. He believed the existence of many worlds which were either in a state of growth or decay (exploding or imploding). Democritus is known as one of the founders of modern science because his methods and theories closely resemble those of modern astronomers and physicists. Greeks used mathematics and reason, not experiments, to describe atoms. Democritus was a pupil or disciple of Leucippus who was a Greek philosopher. Aristotle is known to have credited Leucippus with originating the theory of atomism; however, it is difficult to distinguish his contribution from that of his famous pupil Democritus. Leucippus originated the philosophy of particles but Democrtus worked on the project and named them atoms. These thinkers, with Democritus, believed that the solidity of a material corresponded to the shape of the atoms involved: that is, iron atoms are hard, water atoms are smooth and slippery, fire atoms are light and sharp, and air atoms are light and whirling. This reasoning was later elaborated by Renee Descartes and is a major example why Democritus is considered to be an early scientific thinker. Democritus’ atomic theory can be summarized that the worlds were infinite, created, and perishable. However, nothing was created out of nothing, and that nothing was destroyed so as to become nothing…that the atoms were infinite both in magnitude and number, and were born about through the Universe in endless revolutions…and that, therefore, they produced all the combinations which are incapable of being affected or influenced by external circumstances and are unchangeable by reason of their solidity. These were the thoughts of Diogenes Laertius in “Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers”. An atom is composed of tiny particles of neutrons, electrons, and protons. Protons and neutrons are in the center or nucleus and electrons fly around above in a small cloud. Human bodies are essentially made up of atoms consisting of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. Each cell is a small Universe. Humanity’s understanding of the Universe has evolved over many thousands of years and has been the subject of ongoing discoveries. Almost a hundred years after Dalton argued for the existence of the indivisible atom, and at the same time as Einstein was providing a way to directly measure these atoms, Thomson and Rutherford discovered that the atom was NOT indivisible at all. Instead, it was made of even tinier bits. Joseph John Rutherford discovered the negative charged particle electron and inner structure of atoms in 1897. He also examined the electromagnetic theory of light of James Clark Maxwell and introduced the concept of electromagnetic mass of a larger particle. Ernest Rutherford , a student of Thomson, found that the atom consists of mostly empty space with the center having a positive nucleus. Dark Matter was discussed in the authors blog of 10/31/2010, Voids were discussed in a blog of 9/15/2015, and Atoms were discussed in a blog of 11/14/2015 under Superstring Theory. Scroll down to each of these dates on the website https://www.fay-louisekapec.com/blog/. I hope everyone shall enjoy the holiday season with blessings. Shanti, Shanti, Shanti !!!!	<urn:uuid:ff294c01-cef9-431a-91b0-48765a36c20a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://fay-louisekapec.com/blog/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00481.warc.gz	en	0.982377	1,172	3.78125	4	[ -0.014678713865578175, -0.11151683330535889, 0.03519636020064354, 0.11203531920909882, -0.28293097019195557, -0.43755412101745605, 0.4824013113975525, 0.5119563341140747, -0.13293981552124023, -0.022960813716053963, -0.1431676298379898, -0.8333357572555542, -0.19960209727287292, 0.13368694...	7	Atoms are particles in the makeup of the Universe. The word is derived from the Greek word “atomus” which means uncuttable or indivisible…”a” means “not” and “tomus” means “cut”. Atoms are almost clear in color. They are hard and cannot be divided or cut according to Democritus; however, this reasoning was dismissed in the late 1800s (see the explanation near the end of this post). Atoms were named by Democritus. Democritus was born around 450BC and left the Earth around 90 years of age. He was born in ancient Anatolia in a Greek settlement now modern day Turkey. Reportedly he came from a noble wealthy family, and a Persian monarch gave his father, who marched for Persia in the Second Persian War, several Magi. Democritus was apparently instructed by these Magi (wise men) in astronomy and theology. The idea of atoms goes back to ancient Greece and this Greek philosopher. Because of his wealth, Democritus was widely traveled and learned from many philosophers and scientists. Great scientists and thinkers would get together to discuss the Universe and Earth as expressed in the treatise “The Larger Spiritual Order & Universal Scheme of Things-Simplified”. At these meetings, for instance, Plato and Aristotle would also attack Democritus. Plato is also known to have been at a dinner party of his uncle and shared a story of Atlantis being sunk into the sea after a one-day catastophic rainfall. They all lived in the approximate age of 400BC. The study of atoms became the study of the Universe. They also philosophized on “truth”. Democritus not only perceived particles of matter as atoms, but that they also existed as “Soul” to him. He also perceived they were separated by “voids” in the Universe. It was stated by Democritus that atoms were indestructible and always have been and always will be in motion. He also believed there are infinite numbers and kinds of atoms which differ in shape and are so small they cannot be seen by the naked eye. His theory on atoms was that there was emptiness between atoms, and the Universe as composed of nothing but tiny atoms that came together to form larger units. He believed the existence of many worlds which were either in a state of growth or decay (exploding or imploding). Democritus is known as one of the founders of modern science because his methods and theories closely resemble those of modern astronomers and physicists. Greeks used mathematics and reason, not experiments, to describe atoms. Democritus was a pupil or disciple of Leucippus who was a Greek philosopher. Aristotle is known to have credited Leucippus with originating the theory of atomism; however, it is difficult to distinguish his contribution from that of his famous pupil Democritus. Leucippus originated the philosophy of particles but Democrtus worked on the project and named them atoms. These thinkers, with Democritus, believed that the solidity of a material corresponded to the shape of the atoms involved: that is, iron atoms are hard, water atoms are smooth and slippery, fire atoms are light and sharp, and air atoms are light and whirling. This reasoning was later elaborated by Renee Descartes and is a major example why Democritus is considered to be an early scientific thinker. Democritus’ atomic theory can be summarized that the worlds were infinite, created, and perishable. However, nothing was created out of nothing, and that nothing was destroyed so as to become nothing…that the atoms were infinite both in magnitude and number, and were born about through the Universe in endless revolutions…and that, therefore, they produced all the combinations which are incapable of being affected or influenced by external circumstances and are unchangeable by reason of their solidity. These were the thoughts of Diogenes Laertius in “Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers”. An atom is composed of tiny particles of neutrons, electrons, and protons. Protons and neutrons are in the center or nucleus and electrons fly around above in a small cloud. Human bodies are essentially made up of atoms consisting of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. Each cell is a small Universe. Humanity’s understanding of the Universe has evolved over many thousands of years and has been the subject of ongoing discoveries. Almost a hundred years after Dalton argued for the existence of the indivisible atom, and at the same time as Einstein was providing a way to directly measure these atoms, Thomson and Rutherford discovered that the atom was NOT indivisible at all. Instead, it was made of even tinier bits. Joseph John Rutherford discovered the negative charged particle electron and inner structure of atoms in 1897. He also examined the electromagnetic theory of light of James Clark Maxwell and introduced the concept of electromagnetic mass of a larger particle. Ernest Rutherford , a student of Thomson, found that the atom consists of mostly empty space with the center having a positive nucleus. Dark Matter was discussed in the authors blog of 10/31/2010, Voids were discussed in a blog of 9/15/2015, and Atoms were discussed in a blog of 11/14/2015 under Superstring Theory. Scroll down to each of these dates on the website https://www.fay-louisekapec.com/blog/. I hope everyone shall enjoy the holiday season with blessings. Shanti, Shanti, Shanti !!!!	1,158	ENGLISH	1
Despite great obstacles, Jews throughout occupied Europe attempted armed resistance against the Germans and their Axis partners. They faced overwhelming odds and desperate scenarios, including lack of weapons and training, operating in hostile zones, parting from family members, and facing an ever-present Nazi terror. Yet thousands resisted by joining or forming partisan units. Among them was Leah Johnson. Leah Bedzowski was on the eve of her 18th birthday when the Nazis invaded the town of Lida in the eastern half of Poland. At the time, her family was already mourning the death of her father and, with the arrival of the Nazis and the antisemitic policies they would impose, many more challenges lay ahead of them. Leah, together with her mother and her three younger siblings, tried to escape from their oppressors early. They were taken in by sympathetic Gentile farmers in the outskirts of town where they hid out for a short period of time. The state soon decreed that all Jews would be confined in ghettos. The farmers could no longer safely harbor the family, so the Bedzowskis had to return to Lida, where they were confined to a ghetto. Their passport to freedom arrived in a letter from Tuvia Bielski, a friend of the family. Tuvia and his brothers were hiding out in the forest and accepting all Jews into their group. In the letter, Tuvia encouraged the family to join them. Accepting Tuvia’s help, the Bedzowskis escaped from the ghetto by night, past guard dogs, under barbed wire, often on their hands and knees. When they reached the forest, their guide told them, “You are going to live.” Leah and her family joined the Bielski Brigade that night. Leah took on the duties of the encampment, including food-finding missions and guard duty. Never safe until war’s end, Leah and her fellow partisans often found themselves fighting or fleeing the German army. Once, as the German army was advancing towards them, the Bedzowski family became separated from the rest of the group. Unsure of what to do, they were sitting under a tree when a group of young Jewish partisan men found them. One of the men was Velvel “Wolf” Yanson, a Jewish partisan from another brigade. He helped the family return to the Bielski group where he stayed behind and became known as “Wolf the Machine Gunner.” “It is thanks to his fortitude and strength that my mother Chasia, brothers Chonon (Charles) and Benjamin as well as the other families whom he encountered under the tree were all saved....If it wasn’t for him, my family would have perished and the Bedzowski/Bedzow name would have vanished for eternity.” Velvel and Leah were married under a chuppah amongst their fellow partisans in the forest, and stayed with the Bielski group throughout the war until they were liberated. Afterwards, the Soviet Army tried to enlist Leah’s husband, so the couple fled the country through Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Austria until eventually crossing the Alps into Italy, where they remained for four years at a displaced persons camp in Torino. They emigrated to Montreal, Canada in 1949, where they raised 3 children. Leah currently lives in Florida, where she continues to be active in the Jewish community and lectures extensively about her Jewish partisan experience. She insists that not only her grandchildren and great-grandchildren know her story but also anyone she can reach—especially the younger generation. “Fight for your rights. Know who you are. This is my legacy,” she says. Critical Thinking Questions - What obstacles and limitations did Jews face when considering resistance? - What pressures and motivations may have influenced Leah Johnson's decisions and actions? Are these factors unique to this history or universal? - How can societies, communities, and individuals reinforce and strengthen the willingness to stand up for others?	<urn:uuid:801c66fa-fbb2-407b-9f2d-a70f0f0a8542>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/leah-johnson	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00150.warc.gz	en	0.980242	825	3.953125	4	[ -0.41757750511169434, 0.6571810245513916, -0.36144161224365234, 0.06309091299772263, -0.016586489975452423, 0.34072792530059814, 0.06895512342453003, 0.13202039897441864, -0.3218879699707031, -0.5776540040969849, 0.0876823216676712, -0.218925341963768, 0.002143262419849634, -0.010474809445...	13	Despite great obstacles, Jews throughout occupied Europe attempted armed resistance against the Germans and their Axis partners. They faced overwhelming odds and desperate scenarios, including lack of weapons and training, operating in hostile zones, parting from family members, and facing an ever-present Nazi terror. Yet thousands resisted by joining or forming partisan units. Among them was Leah Johnson. Leah Bedzowski was on the eve of her 18th birthday when the Nazis invaded the town of Lida in the eastern half of Poland. At the time, her family was already mourning the death of her father and, with the arrival of the Nazis and the antisemitic policies they would impose, many more challenges lay ahead of them. Leah, together with her mother and her three younger siblings, tried to escape from their oppressors early. They were taken in by sympathetic Gentile farmers in the outskirts of town where they hid out for a short period of time. The state soon decreed that all Jews would be confined in ghettos. The farmers could no longer safely harbor the family, so the Bedzowskis had to return to Lida, where they were confined to a ghetto. Their passport to freedom arrived in a letter from Tuvia Bielski, a friend of the family. Tuvia and his brothers were hiding out in the forest and accepting all Jews into their group. In the letter, Tuvia encouraged the family to join them. Accepting Tuvia’s help, the Bedzowskis escaped from the ghetto by night, past guard dogs, under barbed wire, often on their hands and knees. When they reached the forest, their guide told them, “You are going to live.” Leah and her family joined the Bielski Brigade that night. Leah took on the duties of the encampment, including food-finding missions and guard duty. Never safe until war’s end, Leah and her fellow partisans often found themselves fighting or fleeing the German army. Once, as the German army was advancing towards them, the Bedzowski family became separated from the rest of the group. Unsure of what to do, they were sitting under a tree when a group of young Jewish partisan men found them. One of the men was Velvel “Wolf” Yanson, a Jewish partisan from another brigade. He helped the family return to the Bielski group where he stayed behind and became known as “Wolf the Machine Gunner.” “It is thanks to his fortitude and strength that my mother Chasia, brothers Chonon (Charles) and Benjamin as well as the other families whom he encountered under the tree were all saved....If it wasn’t for him, my family would have perished and the Bedzowski/Bedzow name would have vanished for eternity.” Velvel and Leah were married under a chuppah amongst their fellow partisans in the forest, and stayed with the Bielski group throughout the war until they were liberated. Afterwards, the Soviet Army tried to enlist Leah’s husband, so the couple fled the country through Hungary, Czechoslovakia and Austria until eventually crossing the Alps into Italy, where they remained for four years at a displaced persons camp in Torino. They emigrated to Montreal, Canada in 1949, where they raised 3 children. Leah currently lives in Florida, where she continues to be active in the Jewish community and lectures extensively about her Jewish partisan experience. She insists that not only her grandchildren and great-grandchildren know her story but also anyone she can reach—especially the younger generation. “Fight for your rights. Know who you are. This is my legacy,” she says. Critical Thinking Questions - What obstacles and limitations did Jews face when considering resistance? - What pressures and motivations may have influenced Leah Johnson's decisions and actions? Are these factors unique to this history or universal? - How can societies, communities, and individuals reinforce and strengthen the willingness to stand up for others?	806	ENGLISH	1
Jonathan Swift was born in 1667 in Dublin, but his family was English, and moved back to England at the end of the glorious revolution in 1688, where Swift became secretary to Sir William Temple, a Whig statesman, who encouraged him to write his first satirical works. In 1694 Swift returned to Ireland, where he was ordained Anglican Priest and he was later appointed Dean of Dublin's St Patrick's Cathedral in 1713. He lived in Dublin for the next thirty years, he took an opposite position to the Whig government in London and after a few years he started to write pamphlets denouncing the injustices that Ireland suffered from. In 1726 he published Travels into several remote nations of the world known as Gulliver's Travels , and in 1729 he published A modest proposal, in which Swift suggested that the poverty of the Irish people should be relieved by the sale of their children as food for the rich. This is a satirical pamphlet, at those times many unwanted children were born and there were less and less food, therefore Swift wanted to draw the public attention to the problem of poverty and starvation. Swift was labelled alternatively as a misanthrope or as a lover of mankind. The former because of what he says in A modest proposal and in the 4th book of Gulliver's Travels, and the latter because he cared about the society's problems. What emerges from his works is that he was very concerned with politics and society, and he didn't share the optimistic view which characterized that age indeed he believed that reason must be used properly, too intensive a use of reason is misleading, human beings are endowed with reason but it becomes useless when it's not used to improve every day life. Swift then died in 1745.	<urn:uuid:10006f48-162a-4a7f-84a5-25a85d0c1a3a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.skuola.net/letteratura-inglese-1700/swift-life.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00286.warc.gz	en	0.990662	357	3.609375	4	[ -0.01052574161440134, 0.039961475878953934, 0.1816989630460739, -0.03566940873861313, -0.1440490484237671, 0.16978158056735992, 0.3124096989631653, -0.10947228968143463, -0.2697354853153229, -0.15861280262470245, -0.40004703402519226, -0.12773212790489197, -0.018947234377264977, 0.11530952...	1	Jonathan Swift was born in 1667 in Dublin, but his family was English, and moved back to England at the end of the glorious revolution in 1688, where Swift became secretary to Sir William Temple, a Whig statesman, who encouraged him to write his first satirical works. In 1694 Swift returned to Ireland, where he was ordained Anglican Priest and he was later appointed Dean of Dublin's St Patrick's Cathedral in 1713. He lived in Dublin for the next thirty years, he took an opposite position to the Whig government in London and after a few years he started to write pamphlets denouncing the injustices that Ireland suffered from. In 1726 he published Travels into several remote nations of the world known as Gulliver's Travels , and in 1729 he published A modest proposal, in which Swift suggested that the poverty of the Irish people should be relieved by the sale of their children as food for the rich. This is a satirical pamphlet, at those times many unwanted children were born and there were less and less food, therefore Swift wanted to draw the public attention to the problem of poverty and starvation. Swift was labelled alternatively as a misanthrope or as a lover of mankind. The former because of what he says in A modest proposal and in the 4th book of Gulliver's Travels, and the latter because he cared about the society's problems. What emerges from his works is that he was very concerned with politics and society, and he didn't share the optimistic view which characterized that age indeed he believed that reason must be used properly, too intensive a use of reason is misleading, human beings are endowed with reason but it becomes useless when it's not used to improve every day life. Swift then died in 1745.	383	ENGLISH	1
This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations . (December 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \|Pride’s Purge of Scott Duncan\| \|Part of Second English Civil War\| \|Planned by\|\|The Grandees of the New Model Army\| \|Objective\|\|Forcibly remove from the Long Parliament all those who were not supporters of the Grandees in the New Model Army and the Independents.\| \|Date\|\|6 December 1648\| \|Outcome\|\|Establishment of the Rump Parliament\| Pride's Purge was an event that took place in December 1648, during the Second English Civil War, when troops of the New Model Army under the command of Colonel Thomas Pride forcibly removed from the Long Parliament all those who were not supporters of the Grandees in the New Model Army and the Independents. Some have called it a coup d'état . The Second English Civil War (1648–1649) was the second of three civil wars known collectively as the English Civil War, which refers to the series of armed conflicts and political machinations which took place between Parliamentarians and Royalists from 1642 until 1651 and also include the First English Civil War (1642–1646) and the Third English Civil War (1649–1651), all of which were part of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The New Model Army of England was formed in 1645 by the Parliamentarians in the English Civil War, and was disbanded in 1660 after the Restoration. It differed from other armies in the series of civil wars referred to as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms in that it was intended as an army liable for service anywhere in the country, rather than being tied to a single area or garrison. Its soldiers became full-time professionals, rather than part-time militia. To establish a professional officer corps, the army's leaders were prohibited from having seats in either the House of Lords or House of Commons. This was to encourage their separation from the political or religious factions among the Parliamentarians. General Sir Thomas Pride was a parliamentarian commander in the English Civil War, best known as one of the regicides of King Charles I and as the instigator of Pride's Purge. In 1648, King Charles I was in captivity at Carisbrooke Castle and the first stage of the English Civil War was over. The Long Parliament issued a set of demands for the future government of the Kingdom and sent commissioners to negotiate with the King over the terms of the putative Treaty of Newport. The leaders of the New Model Army had previously tried to negotiate with the King themselves in 1647, shortly after the end of the first civil war in 1646. Its leaders, the "grandees", were sorely disappointed when Charles stalled these negotiations by quite clearly attempting to play different factions in the Parliamentary alliance off against others. He eventually escaped captivity, leading to the second civil war that raged between 1647 and 1649. By the time Charles was recaptured, most of the army leaders were convinced that they could no longer trust him. So the army sent in a remonstrance on 20 November 1648, which was rejected by 125 votes to 58 in the House of Commons on 1 December. When the Commissioners returned with the King's answers, which were far short of what was hoped, the House of Commons eventually declared them acceptable by 129 votes to 83 early in the morning of 5 December 1648 (though this was technically a vote on whether the vote should be called). Charles I was the monarch over the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution. Carisbrooke Castle is a historic motte-and-bailey castle located in the village of Carisbrooke, Isle of Wight, England. Charles I was imprisoned at the castle in the months prior to his trial. The First English Civil War (1642–1646) began the series of three wars known as the English Civil War. "The English Civil War" was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations that took place between Parliamentarians and Royalists from 1642 until 1651, and includes the Second English Civil War (1648–1649) and the Third English Civil War (1649–1651). The wars in England were part of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, being fought contemporaneously with equivalents in Scotland and Ireland. On Wednesday 6 December Colonel Pride's Regiment of Foot took up position on the stairs leading to the House, while Nathaniel Rich's Regiment of Horse provided backup. Pride himself stood at the top of the stairs. [ citation needed ]As MPs arrived, he checked them against the list provided to him; Lord Grey of Groby helped to identify those to be arrested and those to be prevented from entering. The purge was not over in one day, and a military watch was kept on the entrance until 12 December. By then 45 members had been imprisoned, of whom 25 were released before Christmas. It is not known exactly how many were excluded as many, once they heard of the purge, voluntarily stayed away, either because they feared they would be arrested but more usually as a sign of protest. Before the purge, the number of members who were still eligible to sit in the house was 507, but 18 seats were vacant and a further 18 members had not sat for a long time, which meant that there were 471 active members. After the purge, just over 200 members sat in what would become known as the Rump Parliament. Of the 200, 86 absented themselves voluntarily, 83 were allowed back in Parliament after formally dissenting from the decision to accept the King's proposals, and 71 were supporters of the army from the outset (see List of MPs not excluded from the English parliament in 1648). Colonel Nathaniel Rich sided with Parliament in the English Civil War. He was a colonel in Oliver Cromwell's New Model Army. Thomas Grey, Lord Grey of Groby, was an elected Member of Parliament for Leicester during the English Long Parliament, an active member of the Parliamentary party and a regicide. He was the eldest son of Henry Grey, 1st Earl of Stamford, using his father's as his own courtesy title, and Anne Cecil, daughter of William Cecil, 2nd Earl of Exeter. The Rump Parliament was the English Parliament after Colonel Thomas Pride purged the Long Parliament, on 6 December 1648, of those members hostile to the Grandees' intention to try King Charles I for high treason. The imprisoned members were taken first to the Queen's Court within the Palace of Westminster, and then to a nearby public house. There were three public houses next to the Palace in 1648, called Heaven, Purgatory, and Hell. The imprisoned members were taken to Hell where they spent the night. On the next day they were moved to two inns in the Strand. By 12 December the first of the imprisoned members was allowed home;[ citation needed ] many more were released on 20 December. The Palace of Westminster serves as the meeting place of the House of Commons and the House of Lords, the two houses of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Commonly known as the Houses of Parliament after its occupants, the Palace lies on the north bank of the River Thames in the City of Westminster, in central London, England. Strand is a major thoroughfare in the City of Westminster, Central London. It runs just over 3⁄4 mile (1,200 m) from Trafalgar Square eastwards to Temple Bar, where the road becomes Fleet Street inside the City of London, and is part of the A4, a main road running west from inner London. The Rump now had a majority that would establish a Republic. Any doubts the remaining members may have had over the wisdom of this course were suppressed by the presence of the Army in great numbers. On 4 January 1649 an Ordinance was passed to try the King for treason; the House of Lords rejected it. The House of Commons then passed an 'Act' by itself for the same purpose, and the King was beheaded on 30 January. On 6 February the House of Lords was abolished; the monarchy went the same way on 7 February, and a Council of State was established on 14 February.[ citation needed ] Between the purge and the King's trial and execution, only about 70 attended the Commons and attendance in the Lords rarely reached a dozen. The House of Lords, also known as the House of Peers and domestically usually referred to simply as the Lords, is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Membership is granted by appointment or else by heredity or official function. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster. Officially, the full name of the house is the Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled. The execution of Charles I by beheading occurred on Tuesday 30 January 1649 outside the Banqueting House in Whitehall. The execution was the culmination of political and military conflicts between the royalists and the parliamentarians in England during the English Civil War, leading to the capture and trial of Charles I. On Saturday 27 January 1649, the parliamentarian High Court of Justice had declared Charles guilty of attempting to "uphold in himself an unlimited and tyrannical power to rule according to his will, and to overthrow the rights and liberties of the people" and he was sentenced to death. The English Council of State, later also known as the Protector's Privy Council, was first appointed by the Rump Parliament on 14 February 1649 after the execution of King Charles I. Pride's Purge was reversed on 21 February 1660 when all the surviving barred members were restored to the Long Parliament which, as law required, voted for its own dissolution. It was followed by the Convention Parliament (1660) which proclaimed Charles II king and restored the monarchy. The Long Parliament was an English Parliament which lasted from 1640 until 1660. It followed the fiasco of the Short Parliament which had convened for only three weeks during the spring of 1640, and which in turn had followed an 11-year parliamentary absence. In September 1640, King Charles I issued writs summoning a parliament to convene on 3 November 1640. He intended it to pass financial bills, a step made necessary by the costs of the Bishops' Wars in Scotland. The Long Parliament received its name from the fact that, by Act of Parliament, it stipulated it could be dissolved only with agreement of the members; and, those members did not agree to its dissolution until 16 March 1660, after the English Civil War and near the close of the Interregnum. The Convention Parliament followed the Long Parliament that had finally voted for its own dissolution on 16 March that year. Elected as a "free parliament", i.e. with no oath of allegiance to the Commonwealth or to the monarchy, it was predominantly Royalist in its membership. It assembled for the first time on 25 April 1660. Charles II was king of England, Scotland, and Ireland. He was king of Scotland from 1649 until his deposition in 1651, and king of England, Scotland and Ireland from the 1660 Restoration of the monarchy until his death. Pride's Purge was arguably the most significant political event of the English Civil War, directly leading to the execution of Charles I and thus a permanent end to hostilities between the King and Parliament. Historians argue over the extent to which this was an independent action by Pride's regiment. Army chief Sir Thomas Fairfax and his second in command, Lieutenant-General Oliver Cromwell, stayed aloof from the proceedings. But Cromwell's swift journey to London from Pontefract on the day of the purge suggests that he was involved in its planning. He certainly benefited from and supported the outcome of the purge after it had taken place. The Commonwealth was the political structure during the period from 1649 to 1660 when England and Wales, later along with Ireland and Scotland, were governed as a republic after the end of the Second English Civil War and the trial and execution of Charles I. The republic's existence was declared through "An Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth", adopted by the Rump Parliament on 19 May 1649. Power in the early Commonwealth was vested primarily in the Parliament and a Council of State. During the period, fighting continued, particularly in Ireland and Scotland, between the parliamentary forces and those opposed to them, as part of what is now referred to as the Third English Civil War. The Levellers were a political movement during the English Civil War (1642–1651) committed to popular sovereignty, extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. The hallmark of Leveller thought was its populism, as shown by its emphasis on equal natural rights, and their practice of reaching the public through pamphlets, petitions and vocal appeals to the crowd. The Protectorate was the period during the Commonwealth when England and Wales, Ireland, Scotland, and the English overseas possessions were governed by a Lord Protector as a republic. The Protectorate began in 1653 when, following the dissolution of the Rump Parliament and then Barebone's Parliament, Oliver Cromwell was appointed Lord Protector of the Commonwealth under the terms of the Instrument of Government. In 1659, the Protectorate Parliament was dissolved by the Committee of Safety as Richard Cromwell, who had succeeded his father as Lord Protector, was unable to keep control of the Parliament and the Army. This marked the end of the Protectorate and the start of a second period of rule by the Rump Parliament as the legislature and the Council of State as the executive. Barebone's Parliament, also known as the Little Parliament, the Nominated Assembly and the Parliament of Saints, came into being on 4 July 1653, and was the last attempt of the English Commonwealth to find a stable political form before the installation of Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector. It was an assembly entirely nominated by Oliver Cromwell and the Army's Council of Officers. It acquired its name from the nominee for the City of London, Praise-God Barebone. The Speaker of the House was Francis Rous. The total number of nominees was 140, 129 from England, five from Scotland and six from Ireland. The Parliament of England was the legislature of the Kingdom of England, existing from the early 13th century until 1707, when it united with the Parliament of Scotland to become the Parliament of Great Britain after the political union of England and Scotland created the Kingdom of Great Britain. William Lenthall (1591–1662) was an English politician of the Civil War period. He served as Speaker of the House of Commons for a period of almost twenty years, both before and after the execution of King Charles I. The Putney Debates were a series of discussions among the increasingly dominant New Model Army – a number of the participants being Levellers – concerning the makeup of a new constitution for Britain. Thomas Scot was an English politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1645 and 1660. He was executed as one of the regicides of King Charles I. Philip Sidney, 3rd Earl of Leicester was an English politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1640 and 1659 and inherited the peerage of Earl of Leicester in 1677. He supported the Parliamentary cause in the English Civil War. During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, he was known as Viscount Lisle or a subsidiary title of the Earls of Leicester. The High Court of Justice was the court established by the Rump Parliament to try King Charles I of England. This was an ad hoc tribunal created specifically for the purpose of trying the king, although the name was used for subsequent courts. Events from the year 1648 in England. Edmund Harvey or Hervey (c.1601–1673) was an English soldier and member of Parliament during the English Civil War, who sat as a commissioner at the Trial of King Charles I and helped to draw up the final charge. Although present on 27 January 1649 when the death warrant was signed he did not add his signature. Robert Wallop was an English politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times from 1621 to 1660. He supported the Parliamentary cause in the English Civil War and was one of the regicides of King Charles I of England. The House of Commons of England was the lower house of the Parliament of England from its development in the 14th century to the union of England and Scotland in 1707, when it was replaced by the House of Commons of Great Britain. In 1801, with the union of Great Britain and Ireland, that house was in turn replaced by the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. William Jephson was an English politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1640 to 1648. He served in the Parliamentary army and was Cromwell's envoy to Sweden.	<urn:uuid:06274005-ab3b-4ecb-96a6-8527bf521d9d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wikimili.com/en/Pride's_Purge	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00205.warc.gz	en	0.983522	3,513	3.578125	4	[ -0.03859483823180199, 0.20605480670928955, 0.4148300290107727, 0.006248436868190765, 0.07055233418941498, 0.1513408124446869, -0.17028763890266418, -0.1409876048564911, 0.27290016412734985, -0.16264891624450684, 0.21532690525054932, -0.5395277738571167, 0.27353739738464355, 0.1210990622639...	1	This article includes a list of references, but its sources remain unclear because it has insufficient inline citations . (December 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) \|Pride’s Purge of Scott Duncan\| \|Part of Second English Civil War\| \|Planned by\|\|The Grandees of the New Model Army\| \|Objective\|\|Forcibly remove from the Long Parliament all those who were not supporters of the Grandees in the New Model Army and the Independents.\| \|Date\|\|6 December 1648\| \|Outcome\|\|Establishment of the Rump Parliament\| Pride's Purge was an event that took place in December 1648, during the Second English Civil War, when troops of the New Model Army under the command of Colonel Thomas Pride forcibly removed from the Long Parliament all those who were not supporters of the Grandees in the New Model Army and the Independents. Some have called it a coup d'état . The Second English Civil War (1648–1649) was the second of three civil wars known collectively as the English Civil War, which refers to the series of armed conflicts and political machinations which took place between Parliamentarians and Royalists from 1642 until 1651 and also include the First English Civil War (1642–1646) and the Third English Civil War (1649–1651), all of which were part of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms. The New Model Army of England was formed in 1645 by the Parliamentarians in the English Civil War, and was disbanded in 1660 after the Restoration. It differed from other armies in the series of civil wars referred to as the Wars of the Three Kingdoms in that it was intended as an army liable for service anywhere in the country, rather than being tied to a single area or garrison. Its soldiers became full-time professionals, rather than part-time militia. To establish a professional officer corps, the army's leaders were prohibited from having seats in either the House of Lords or House of Commons. This was to encourage their separation from the political or religious factions among the Parliamentarians. General Sir Thomas Pride was a parliamentarian commander in the English Civil War, best known as one of the regicides of King Charles I and as the instigator of Pride's Purge. In 1648, King Charles I was in captivity at Carisbrooke Castle and the first stage of the English Civil War was over. The Long Parliament issued a set of demands for the future government of the Kingdom and sent commissioners to negotiate with the King over the terms of the putative Treaty of Newport. The leaders of the New Model Army had previously tried to negotiate with the King themselves in 1647, shortly after the end of the first civil war in 1646. Its leaders, the "grandees", were sorely disappointed when Charles stalled these negotiations by quite clearly attempting to play different factions in the Parliamentary alliance off against others. He eventually escaped captivity, leading to the second civil war that raged between 1647 and 1649. By the time Charles was recaptured, most of the army leaders were convinced that they could no longer trust him. So the army sent in a remonstrance on 20 November 1648, which was rejected by 125 votes to 58 in the House of Commons on 1 December. When the Commissioners returned with the King's answers, which were far short of what was hoped, the House of Commons eventually declared them acceptable by 129 votes to 83 early in the morning of 5 December 1648 (though this was technically a vote on whether the vote should be called). Charles I was the monarch over the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution. Carisbrooke Castle is a historic motte-and-bailey castle located in the village of Carisbrooke, Isle of Wight, England. Charles I was imprisoned at the castle in the months prior to his trial. The First English Civil War (1642–1646) began the series of three wars known as the English Civil War. "The English Civil War" was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations that took place between Parliamentarians and Royalists from 1642 until 1651, and includes the Second English Civil War (1648–1649) and the Third English Civil War (1649–1651). The wars in England were part of the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, being fought contemporaneously with equivalents in Scotland and Ireland. On Wednesday 6 December Colonel Pride's Regiment of Foot took up position on the stairs leading to the House, while Nathaniel Rich's Regiment of Horse provided backup. Pride himself stood at the top of the stairs. [ citation needed ]As MPs arrived, he checked them against the list provided to him; Lord Grey of Groby helped to identify those to be arrested and those to be prevented from entering. The purge was not over in one day, and a military watch was kept on the entrance until 12 December. By then 45 members had been imprisoned, of whom 25 were released before Christmas. It is not known exactly how many were excluded as many, once they heard of the purge, voluntarily stayed away, either because they feared they would be arrested but more usually as a sign of protest. Before the purge, the number of members who were still eligible to sit in the house was 507, but 18 seats were vacant and a further 18 members had not sat for a long time, which meant that there were 471 active members. After the purge, just over 200 members sat in what would become known as the Rump Parliament. Of the 200, 86 absented themselves voluntarily, 83 were allowed back in Parliament after formally dissenting from the decision to accept the King's proposals, and 71 were supporters of the army from the outset (see List of MPs not excluded from the English parliament in 1648). Colonel Nathaniel Rich sided with Parliament in the English Civil War. He was a colonel in Oliver Cromwell's New Model Army. Thomas Grey, Lord Grey of Groby, was an elected Member of Parliament for Leicester during the English Long Parliament, an active member of the Parliamentary party and a regicide. He was the eldest son of Henry Grey, 1st Earl of Stamford, using his father's as his own courtesy title, and Anne Cecil, daughter of William Cecil, 2nd Earl of Exeter. The Rump Parliament was the English Parliament after Colonel Thomas Pride purged the Long Parliament, on 6 December 1648, of those members hostile to the Grandees' intention to try King Charles I for high treason. The imprisoned members were taken first to the Queen's Court within the Palace of Westminster, and then to a nearby public house. There were three public houses next to the Palace in 1648, called Heaven, Purgatory, and Hell. The imprisoned members were taken to Hell where they spent the night. On the next day they were moved to two inns in the Strand. By 12 December the first of the imprisoned members was allowed home;[ citation needed ] many more were released on 20 December. The Palace of Westminster serves as the meeting place of the House of Commons and the House of Lords, the two houses of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Commonly known as the Houses of Parliament after its occupants, the Palace lies on the north bank of the River Thames in the City of Westminster, in central London, England. Strand is a major thoroughfare in the City of Westminster, Central London. It runs just over 3⁄4 mile (1,200 m) from Trafalgar Square eastwards to Temple Bar, where the road becomes Fleet Street inside the City of London, and is part of the A4, a main road running west from inner London. The Rump now had a majority that would establish a Republic. Any doubts the remaining members may have had over the wisdom of this course were suppressed by the presence of the Army in great numbers. On 4 January 1649 an Ordinance was passed to try the King for treason; the House of Lords rejected it. The House of Commons then passed an 'Act' by itself for the same purpose, and the King was beheaded on 30 January. On 6 February the House of Lords was abolished; the monarchy went the same way on 7 February, and a Council of State was established on 14 February.[ citation needed ] Between the purge and the King's trial and execution, only about 70 attended the Commons and attendance in the Lords rarely reached a dozen. The House of Lords, also known as the House of Peers and domestically usually referred to simply as the Lords, is the upper house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. Membership is granted by appointment or else by heredity or official function. Like the House of Commons, it meets in the Palace of Westminster. Officially, the full name of the house is the Right Honourable the Lords Spiritual and Temporal of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in Parliament assembled. The execution of Charles I by beheading occurred on Tuesday 30 January 1649 outside the Banqueting House in Whitehall. The execution was the culmination of political and military conflicts between the royalists and the parliamentarians in England during the English Civil War, leading to the capture and trial of Charles I. On Saturday 27 January 1649, the parliamentarian High Court of Justice had declared Charles guilty of attempting to "uphold in himself an unlimited and tyrannical power to rule according to his will, and to overthrow the rights and liberties of the people" and he was sentenced to death. The English Council of State, later also known as the Protector's Privy Council, was first appointed by the Rump Parliament on 14 February 1649 after the execution of King Charles I. Pride's Purge was reversed on 21 February 1660 when all the surviving barred members were restored to the Long Parliament which, as law required, voted for its own dissolution. It was followed by the Convention Parliament (1660) which proclaimed Charles II king and restored the monarchy. The Long Parliament was an English Parliament which lasted from 1640 until 1660. It followed the fiasco of the Short Parliament which had convened for only three weeks during the spring of 1640, and which in turn had followed an 11-year parliamentary absence. In September 1640, King Charles I issued writs summoning a parliament to convene on 3 November 1640. He intended it to pass financial bills, a step made necessary by the costs of the Bishops' Wars in Scotland. The Long Parliament received its name from the fact that, by Act of Parliament, it stipulated it could be dissolved only with agreement of the members; and, those members did not agree to its dissolution until 16 March 1660, after the English Civil War and near the close of the Interregnum. The Convention Parliament followed the Long Parliament that had finally voted for its own dissolution on 16 March that year. Elected as a "free parliament", i.e. with no oath of allegiance to the Commonwealth or to the monarchy, it was predominantly Royalist in its membership. It assembled for the first time on 25 April 1660. Charles II was king of England, Scotland, and Ireland. He was king of Scotland from 1649 until his deposition in 1651, and king of England, Scotland and Ireland from the 1660 Restoration of the monarchy until his death. Pride's Purge was arguably the most significant political event of the English Civil War, directly leading to the execution of Charles I and thus a permanent end to hostilities between the King and Parliament. Historians argue over the extent to which this was an independent action by Pride's regiment. Army chief Sir Thomas Fairfax and his second in command, Lieutenant-General Oliver Cromwell, stayed aloof from the proceedings. But Cromwell's swift journey to London from Pontefract on the day of the purge suggests that he was involved in its planning. He certainly benefited from and supported the outcome of the purge after it had taken place. The Commonwealth was the political structure during the period from 1649 to 1660 when England and Wales, later along with Ireland and Scotland, were governed as a republic after the end of the Second English Civil War and the trial and execution of Charles I. The republic's existence was declared through "An Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth", adopted by the Rump Parliament on 19 May 1649. Power in the early Commonwealth was vested primarily in the Parliament and a Council of State. During the period, fighting continued, particularly in Ireland and Scotland, between the parliamentary forces and those opposed to them, as part of what is now referred to as the Third English Civil War. The Levellers were a political movement during the English Civil War (1642–1651) committed to popular sovereignty, extended suffrage, equality before the law and religious tolerance. The hallmark of Leveller thought was its populism, as shown by its emphasis on equal natural rights, and their practice of reaching the public through pamphlets, petitions and vocal appeals to the crowd. The Protectorate was the period during the Commonwealth when England and Wales, Ireland, Scotland, and the English overseas possessions were governed by a Lord Protector as a republic. The Protectorate began in 1653 when, following the dissolution of the Rump Parliament and then Barebone's Parliament, Oliver Cromwell was appointed Lord Protector of the Commonwealth under the terms of the Instrument of Government. In 1659, the Protectorate Parliament was dissolved by the Committee of Safety as Richard Cromwell, who had succeeded his father as Lord Protector, was unable to keep control of the Parliament and the Army. This marked the end of the Protectorate and the start of a second period of rule by the Rump Parliament as the legislature and the Council of State as the executive. Barebone's Parliament, also known as the Little Parliament, the Nominated Assembly and the Parliament of Saints, came into being on 4 July 1653, and was the last attempt of the English Commonwealth to find a stable political form before the installation of Oliver Cromwell as Lord Protector. It was an assembly entirely nominated by Oliver Cromwell and the Army's Council of Officers. It acquired its name from the nominee for the City of London, Praise-God Barebone. The Speaker of the House was Francis Rous. The total number of nominees was 140, 129 from England, five from Scotland and six from Ireland. The Parliament of England was the legislature of the Kingdom of England, existing from the early 13th century until 1707, when it united with the Parliament of Scotland to become the Parliament of Great Britain after the political union of England and Scotland created the Kingdom of Great Britain. William Lenthall (1591–1662) was an English politician of the Civil War period. He served as Speaker of the House of Commons for a period of almost twenty years, both before and after the execution of King Charles I. The Putney Debates were a series of discussions among the increasingly dominant New Model Army – a number of the participants being Levellers – concerning the makeup of a new constitution for Britain. Thomas Scot was an English politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1645 and 1660. He was executed as one of the regicides of King Charles I. Philip Sidney, 3rd Earl of Leicester was an English politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times between 1640 and 1659 and inherited the peerage of Earl of Leicester in 1677. He supported the Parliamentary cause in the English Civil War. During the Wars of the Three Kingdoms, he was known as Viscount Lisle or a subsidiary title of the Earls of Leicester. The High Court of Justice was the court established by the Rump Parliament to try King Charles I of England. This was an ad hoc tribunal created specifically for the purpose of trying the king, although the name was used for subsequent courts. Events from the year 1648 in England. Edmund Harvey or Hervey (c.1601–1673) was an English soldier and member of Parliament during the English Civil War, who sat as a commissioner at the Trial of King Charles I and helped to draw up the final charge. Although present on 27 January 1649 when the death warrant was signed he did not add his signature. Robert Wallop was an English politician who sat in the House of Commons at various times from 1621 to 1660. He supported the Parliamentary cause in the English Civil War and was one of the regicides of King Charles I of England. The House of Commons of England was the lower house of the Parliament of England from its development in the 14th century to the union of England and Scotland in 1707, when it was replaced by the House of Commons of Great Britain. In 1801, with the union of Great Britain and Ireland, that house was in turn replaced by the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. William Jephson was an English politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1640 to 1648. He served in the Parliamentary army and was Cromwell's envoy to Sweden.	3,766	ENGLISH	1
Heraclitus was a Greek philosopher who was an independent thinker and unlike other ancient philosophers, he is not considered to belong to any particular school of thought. Born into an aristocratic family, he described himself as self-taught and was unsparing in his criticism of his predecessors and contemporary thinkers and philosophers. He was a loner who suffered from bouts of melancholia which prevented him from completing several of his works. His personality was characterized by a general contempt for mankind which coupled with the obscure nature of his works earned him the nickname the ‘Weeping Philosopher’. The ambiguous nature of his writings makes them open to several interpretations that are often of conflicting nature. He believed in the ever changing nature of the universe and the unity of opposites. His works have been influential in the development of the concept of ‘Logos’ which he considered a principle of order and knowledge. Regarded as one of the most important pre-Socratic philosophers, he was famous for departing from the accepted norms and traditions of his days and criticizing the generally accepted conventional wisdom of others who were deemed to be “wise” men by the society. Even though his own work was influenced by the works of his predecessors, he is regarded as a unique thinker who contributed immensely to the development of Western Philosophy. - Not much is known about Heraclitus’s birth and early life except for the fact that he was born into an aristocratic family in Ephesus (now in Turkey). His father’s name was either Bloson or Herakon.As a youngster, he used to play knucklebones with other youths in a temple and considered kingship duties a burden. He abdicated the throne in favour of his brother.Whatever is known about Heraclitus is known from the writings of Diogenes Laertius, who was a biographer of ancient Greek philosophers. According to Diogenes, Heraclitus was a hearer of Xenophanes though Heraclitus himself claimed to be self-taught.Continue Reading BelowLater Years - Heraclitus is estimated to have lived and worked during the late 6th century BCE as inferred by his writings. Heraclitus has heavily criticized Homer, Hesiod, Pythagoras and Xenophanes who had flourished during the 6th century BCE or earlier, thus suggesting that he existed during the late 6th century BCE.He had an inherent dislike for humanity and viewed the majority of human beings as ignorant and lacking in knowledge. He believed in breaking away from the accepted conventions and traditions and developing his own views.He was a man of extreme views which he expressed in form of ambiguous phrases. His works are regarded as ‘riddles’ open to numerous interpretations.No complete compilations of his works exist. His works exist only in form of fragments and sentences as quoted by other authors.He had an unconventional approach towards wisdom and presented his works in the form of riddles and puzzles that contained hidden insights. The deeper understanding of his works depended upon the comprehension of his readers.He adopted a unique method of teaching wherein he would present a situation using examples of simple objects like a river, boat, road, etc. to challenge the readers’ brains and allow them to derive their own conclusions.His contribution to the development of the concept of ‘Logos’ is immense. The word logos in itself is subject to different interpretations, and it is a technical term in philosophy for a principle of order and knowledge.He believed in the universal flux, i.e. everything is constantly changing, and in unity of opposites as suggested by his aphorism, ‘The road up and the road down are the same thing’.Fire was the most basic element according to him. He was of the belief that all other elements originated from fire and thus it is fire that gave rise to all things. He considered the human soul to be composed of fire and water—fire being the noble part and water the ignoble.Continue Reading BelowSome scholars consider him to a philosopher of nature while others believe he was a philosopher concerned with human condition. Heraclitus was of the view that theory of nature and human condition are intimately connected; he might have even been regarded a humanist if not for his deep contempt for mankind.Heraclitus was a loner and did not take any students. However, his writings have influenced several philosophers from the early to the recent times. Plato and Hegel are amongst those deeply influenced by his thinking.The Stoics, followers of a philosophical movement that presented philosophy as a way of life, derived their major principles from Heraclitus’s teachings, particularly his treatment of fire.Major Works - He wrote a treatise ‘On Nature’ which was divided into three discourses—on nature, on politics and on the universe. The book was deposited in the temple of Artemis which served as a library during the ancient times. The book became very famous and many future philosophers referred to it.Personal Life & Legacy - Heraclitus was a loner and did not have any students. He suffered from bouts of melancholia.During his later years he suffered from dropsy. Frustrated at the physicians’ inability to find a cure, he treated himself with cow manure which resulted in his death.Trivia - This famous philosopher was also known as ‘the obscure’ How To CiteArticle Title- Heraclitus BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/heraclitus-1619.phpLast Updated- October 13, 2017 People Also Viewed	<urn:uuid:59cfaf12-8e6e-4b30-900e-da73dcae2dd0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/heraclitus-1619.php	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592565.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118110141-20200118134141-00345.warc.gz	en	0.987267	1,168	3.921875	4	[ 0.31987181305885315, 0.02003897726535797, 0.41680651903152466, -0.3888961672782898, -0.6093041300773621, -0.476155161857605, 0.37422069907188416, 0.4936215877532959, -0.05643538385629654, -0.11111411452293396, -0.39249688386917114, -0.47711098194122314, 0.015230488032102585, -0.07081151008...	1	Heraclitus was a Greek philosopher who was an independent thinker and unlike other ancient philosophers, he is not considered to belong to any particular school of thought. Born into an aristocratic family, he described himself as self-taught and was unsparing in his criticism of his predecessors and contemporary thinkers and philosophers. He was a loner who suffered from bouts of melancholia which prevented him from completing several of his works. His personality was characterized by a general contempt for mankind which coupled with the obscure nature of his works earned him the nickname the ‘Weeping Philosopher’. The ambiguous nature of his writings makes them open to several interpretations that are often of conflicting nature. He believed in the ever changing nature of the universe and the unity of opposites. His works have been influential in the development of the concept of ‘Logos’ which he considered a principle of order and knowledge. Regarded as one of the most important pre-Socratic philosophers, he was famous for departing from the accepted norms and traditions of his days and criticizing the generally accepted conventional wisdom of others who were deemed to be “wise” men by the society. Even though his own work was influenced by the works of his predecessors, he is regarded as a unique thinker who contributed immensely to the development of Western Philosophy. - Not much is known about Heraclitus’s birth and early life except for the fact that he was born into an aristocratic family in Ephesus (now in Turkey). His father’s name was either Bloson or Herakon.As a youngster, he used to play knucklebones with other youths in a temple and considered kingship duties a burden. He abdicated the throne in favour of his brother.Whatever is known about Heraclitus is known from the writings of Diogenes Laertius, who was a biographer of ancient Greek philosophers. According to Diogenes, Heraclitus was a hearer of Xenophanes though Heraclitus himself claimed to be self-taught.Continue Reading BelowLater Years - Heraclitus is estimated to have lived and worked during the late 6th century BCE as inferred by his writings. Heraclitus has heavily criticized Homer, Hesiod, Pythagoras and Xenophanes who had flourished during the 6th century BCE or earlier, thus suggesting that he existed during the late 6th century BCE.He had an inherent dislike for humanity and viewed the majority of human beings as ignorant and lacking in knowledge. He believed in breaking away from the accepted conventions and traditions and developing his own views.He was a man of extreme views which he expressed in form of ambiguous phrases. His works are regarded as ‘riddles’ open to numerous interpretations.No complete compilations of his works exist. His works exist only in form of fragments and sentences as quoted by other authors.He had an unconventional approach towards wisdom and presented his works in the form of riddles and puzzles that contained hidden insights. The deeper understanding of his works depended upon the comprehension of his readers.He adopted a unique method of teaching wherein he would present a situation using examples of simple objects like a river, boat, road, etc. to challenge the readers’ brains and allow them to derive their own conclusions.His contribution to the development of the concept of ‘Logos’ is immense. The word logos in itself is subject to different interpretations, and it is a technical term in philosophy for a principle of order and knowledge.He believed in the universal flux, i.e. everything is constantly changing, and in unity of opposites as suggested by his aphorism, ‘The road up and the road down are the same thing’.Fire was the most basic element according to him. He was of the belief that all other elements originated from fire and thus it is fire that gave rise to all things. He considered the human soul to be composed of fire and water—fire being the noble part and water the ignoble.Continue Reading BelowSome scholars consider him to a philosopher of nature while others believe he was a philosopher concerned with human condition. Heraclitus was of the view that theory of nature and human condition are intimately connected; he might have even been regarded a humanist if not for his deep contempt for mankind.Heraclitus was a loner and did not take any students. However, his writings have influenced several philosophers from the early to the recent times. Plato and Hegel are amongst those deeply influenced by his thinking.The Stoics, followers of a philosophical movement that presented philosophy as a way of life, derived their major principles from Heraclitus’s teachings, particularly his treatment of fire.Major Works - He wrote a treatise ‘On Nature’ which was divided into three discourses—on nature, on politics and on the universe. The book was deposited in the temple of Artemis which served as a library during the ancient times. The book became very famous and many future philosophers referred to it.Personal Life & Legacy - Heraclitus was a loner and did not have any students. He suffered from bouts of melancholia.During his later years he suffered from dropsy. Frustrated at the physicians’ inability to find a cure, he treated himself with cow manure which resulted in his death.Trivia - This famous philosopher was also known as ‘the obscure’ How To CiteArticle Title- Heraclitus BiographyAuthor- Editors, TheFamousPeople.comWebsite- TheFamousPeople.comURL- https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/heraclitus-1619.phpLast Updated- October 13, 2017 People Also Viewed	1,137	ENGLISH	1
The book, Sealed with Blood: War, Sacrifice, and Memory in Revolutionary America by Sarah J. Purcell, is a masterpiece both in terms of its organization and content. This book brings out the real picture of the suffering and violent experiences that American revolutionaries had to go through in order to be independent. As the title of this book indicates, freedom from the colonialist did not come on silver Plata. The participant of the revolutionary war had to shed blood while some of them lost their lives that North America can become an independent nation. One might begin to wonder what forces were behind the vigor and the motivation that the revolutionaries despite the challenges that they went through. Purcell builds her thesis on this question. She capitalizes on the idea that common experiences, ideologies, and goals are the key reasons as to why the people of North America remained strong in their struggle for independence of the British. Purcell uses an example of the death of Joseph Warren who was the president of the Provincial congress of Massachusetts during his death. Purcell explains that Warren died under inhumane circumstances. He was assassinated at Bunkers Hill by a person who was at a close distance. The question that arises from Warren’s death is why he was killed. One of the things that remain clear is that the people behind his assassination were not people who shared the same goals and political objectives as him. Clearly, Warren was shot because of what he stood for. Purcell points out that Warren’s death became a national issue. All headlines within national and publications painted Warren as being a national hero. This phenomenon poses the question of whether Warren was the only person who had been killed for being a revolutionary in the eyes of the British colonialists. Certainly Warren was not the first person to be killed. However, the American people at this time, 1775-1783, were beginning to develop the sense of nationhood. The American people believed that they shared the same goals in life. They all had a common future. Therefore, there was a need for people to unite and speak as one people who had a common destiny. Purcell explains that public commemoration of revolutionary leaders brought a sense of togetherness. Every American citizen understood that need for being united so that everybody would speak in a common voice. The commemoration of these revolutionary leaders was an eye-opener to many Americans. People understood that there were many people who had sacrificed their lives so as to make sure that North America acquired its independence from the British. The idea of American exceptionalism is also evident in Purcell’s work. Purcell explains how people spoke about their experiences during their participation revolutionary war when they wanted to engage in public service for example in the political life of the United States. People used this strategy so that they could convince people that they share a common identity and heritage with their audiences. This political culture is unique to the United States in that many of the voters would love to know the achievements of any political candidate in that life of America. Some of the incidences where people would talk about their experiences in the revolutionary war included situations where people were advocating for equality among the different races that constitute the American cultural topography. In these situations people believe that the revolutionary war was meant to acquire freedom for every American citizen irrespective of their color or race. Purcell also explains that the idea of a common history and identity in America has been used in subsequent challenges facing the United States after the revolutionary war. Purcell gives an example of the American Civil War which took place in the nineteenth century. African Americans and war veterans that had been marginalized in the United States agitated for the protection of their rights in that they believed that they share in the common history and identity of the United States. African Americans argued that they were an integral part of the United States in that they served the country in both economically and in terms of military serve. Therefore, there was no reason for not according African Americans in the democratization process of the American society. One of the strengths of this book is that Purcell is attentive when it comes to setting the context for the reader. On-American readers that might be interested in the understanding of the American Revolution can be able to make their own timelines from this book in that it is well articulated within this book. In addition, Purcell takes time to explain the political climate surrounding different events during the revolutionary war thereby making it easier for the reader to account for occurrences during the Revolutionary war. In conclusion, the book Sealed with Blood: War, Sacrifice, and Memory in Revolutionary America by Sarah J. Purcell is an important piece of literature because it promotes the understanding of the American Revolution. This book uses the experiences of both the public and revolutionary heroes to explain how they helped shape the national identity of the United States as well as unity among the American people. In addition, Purcell brings out the idea that the United States is a unique nation that has a unique identity and political culture compared to other nations in the world.	<urn:uuid:39612e78-458d-4a05-a38c-39454fad7104>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.wowessays.com/free-samples/book-review-on-sealed-with-blood-war-sacrifice-and-memory-in-revolutionary-america-by-sarah-j-purcell/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00206.warc.gz	en	0.982567	1,014	3.34375	3	[ -0.231880784034729, 0.5102888941764832, 0.3451794981956482, 0.1743347942829132, -0.24069279432296753, -0.010282632894814014, 0.20482248067855835, 0.2374529391527176, -0.2241717278957367, 0.21291705965995789, -0.035078972578048706, 0.15180730819702148, -0.14526578783988953, 0.47494924068450...	2	The book, Sealed with Blood: War, Sacrifice, and Memory in Revolutionary America by Sarah J. Purcell, is a masterpiece both in terms of its organization and content. This book brings out the real picture of the suffering and violent experiences that American revolutionaries had to go through in order to be independent. As the title of this book indicates, freedom from the colonialist did not come on silver Plata. The participant of the revolutionary war had to shed blood while some of them lost their lives that North America can become an independent nation. One might begin to wonder what forces were behind the vigor and the motivation that the revolutionaries despite the challenges that they went through. Purcell builds her thesis on this question. She capitalizes on the idea that common experiences, ideologies, and goals are the key reasons as to why the people of North America remained strong in their struggle for independence of the British. Purcell uses an example of the death of Joseph Warren who was the president of the Provincial congress of Massachusetts during his death. Purcell explains that Warren died under inhumane circumstances. He was assassinated at Bunkers Hill by a person who was at a close distance. The question that arises from Warren’s death is why he was killed. One of the things that remain clear is that the people behind his assassination were not people who shared the same goals and political objectives as him. Clearly, Warren was shot because of what he stood for. Purcell points out that Warren’s death became a national issue. All headlines within national and publications painted Warren as being a national hero. This phenomenon poses the question of whether Warren was the only person who had been killed for being a revolutionary in the eyes of the British colonialists. Certainly Warren was not the first person to be killed. However, the American people at this time, 1775-1783, were beginning to develop the sense of nationhood. The American people believed that they shared the same goals in life. They all had a common future. Therefore, there was a need for people to unite and speak as one people who had a common destiny. Purcell explains that public commemoration of revolutionary leaders brought a sense of togetherness. Every American citizen understood that need for being united so that everybody would speak in a common voice. The commemoration of these revolutionary leaders was an eye-opener to many Americans. People understood that there were many people who had sacrificed their lives so as to make sure that North America acquired its independence from the British. The idea of American exceptionalism is also evident in Purcell’s work. Purcell explains how people spoke about their experiences during their participation revolutionary war when they wanted to engage in public service for example in the political life of the United States. People used this strategy so that they could convince people that they share a common identity and heritage with their audiences. This political culture is unique to the United States in that many of the voters would love to know the achievements of any political candidate in that life of America. Some of the incidences where people would talk about their experiences in the revolutionary war included situations where people were advocating for equality among the different races that constitute the American cultural topography. In these situations people believe that the revolutionary war was meant to acquire freedom for every American citizen irrespective of their color or race. Purcell also explains that the idea of a common history and identity in America has been used in subsequent challenges facing the United States after the revolutionary war. Purcell gives an example of the American Civil War which took place in the nineteenth century. African Americans and war veterans that had been marginalized in the United States agitated for the protection of their rights in that they believed that they share in the common history and identity of the United States. African Americans argued that they were an integral part of the United States in that they served the country in both economically and in terms of military serve. Therefore, there was no reason for not according African Americans in the democratization process of the American society. One of the strengths of this book is that Purcell is attentive when it comes to setting the context for the reader. On-American readers that might be interested in the understanding of the American Revolution can be able to make their own timelines from this book in that it is well articulated within this book. In addition, Purcell takes time to explain the political climate surrounding different events during the revolutionary war thereby making it easier for the reader to account for occurrences during the Revolutionary war. In conclusion, the book Sealed with Blood: War, Sacrifice, and Memory in Revolutionary America by Sarah J. Purcell is an important piece of literature because it promotes the understanding of the American Revolution. This book uses the experiences of both the public and revolutionary heroes to explain how they helped shape the national identity of the United States as well as unity among the American people. In addition, Purcell brings out the idea that the United States is a unique nation that has a unique identity and political culture compared to other nations in the world.	1,016	ENGLISH	1
Origins of the bow date back very long ago in history, by the end of the second stone age many groups within the middle East and Asia. Maruki type long bows made from a single piece of wood, that were bound by birch and painted black were estimated to have been produced around AD1 and AD3 during the Yayoi period. The bows used by the Japanese were identified to be long bows by the Gishi-Wajin Den (Record of the Wei-Biography of the Wajin), and that the bows were held in significant meaning ideologically and culturally in Historical Japan. They were looked upon as a sign of deity and held an important position in Shinto and Samurai rituals years later. Rites of Zhou and The Book of Later Han were books found in China depicting bows within the literature. Chinese influence in Japan started after diplomatic relations, around the 4th to 5th century after Emperor Ohjin's reign. Bows in China were thought to be the most dignified- used by kings and lords. Itoku (dignity and virtue) were thought by the original Japanese combined with the Chinese thought of rei (courtesy) formed the Sharei (shooting ceremony). This later became unified into the Japanese Samurai. Archery was pursued as an art during the Edo Period, where there were no wars. Kyudo was developed during that time, bringing us the meaning of "the Way of the Bow". But however a established military arts school established by the Edo Shogunate isolated Kyudo from the school subjects based on the fact that it coul dnot be used in actual combat, here they were in the period of guns and western artillery. When the Meji Era came along, Kyudo was encouraged and ncluded once again. Kyudo was permitted into schools again after the war in 1951, and in 1967 kyudo was recognised as a subject in school, where we are today. Kyudo is often practiced at many dojos and schools. Kyudo in schools were taken as an extra curricular activity, perhaps even an regular subject. Information references: International Kyudo Federation, History of Kyudo. All images are taken from wikimedia commons under the public domain law. Website addresses are in order of left to right:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ky%C5%ABjutsu#/media/File:Japanese_archer_1878b.jpg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Enrosai_Shigemitsu_-_Nasu_no_Yoichi.jpg, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Kyujutsu08.jpg, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/NasunoYoichi.jpg.	<urn:uuid:533643fd-9fb9-47b2-a6ba-ca81569e36b1>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://monicaluu.neocities.org/History.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592261.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118052321-20200118080321-00426.warc.gz	en	0.981196	582	3.359375	3	[ -0.49750661849975586, 0.18011778593063354, 0.4789361357688904, 0.14695487916469574, -0.01343499030917883, 0.1519658863544464, 0.03311549127101898, 0.09957417845726013, -0.27466797828674316, -0.3498135805130005, 0.06904285401105881, -0.3653676509857178, -0.03083307296037674, 0.5897533893585...	4	Origins of the bow date back very long ago in history, by the end of the second stone age many groups within the middle East and Asia. Maruki type long bows made from a single piece of wood, that were bound by birch and painted black were estimated to have been produced around AD1 and AD3 during the Yayoi period. The bows used by the Japanese were identified to be long bows by the Gishi-Wajin Den (Record of the Wei-Biography of the Wajin), and that the bows were held in significant meaning ideologically and culturally in Historical Japan. They were looked upon as a sign of deity and held an important position in Shinto and Samurai rituals years later. Rites of Zhou and The Book of Later Han were books found in China depicting bows within the literature. Chinese influence in Japan started after diplomatic relations, around the 4th to 5th century after Emperor Ohjin's reign. Bows in China were thought to be the most dignified- used by kings and lords. Itoku (dignity and virtue) were thought by the original Japanese combined with the Chinese thought of rei (courtesy) formed the Sharei (shooting ceremony). This later became unified into the Japanese Samurai. Archery was pursued as an art during the Edo Period, where there were no wars. Kyudo was developed during that time, bringing us the meaning of "the Way of the Bow". But however a established military arts school established by the Edo Shogunate isolated Kyudo from the school subjects based on the fact that it coul dnot be used in actual combat, here they were in the period of guns and western artillery. When the Meji Era came along, Kyudo was encouraged and ncluded once again. Kyudo was permitted into schools again after the war in 1951, and in 1967 kyudo was recognised as a subject in school, where we are today. Kyudo is often practiced at many dojos and schools. Kyudo in schools were taken as an extra curricular activity, perhaps even an regular subject. Information references: International Kyudo Federation, History of Kyudo. All images are taken from wikimedia commons under the public domain law. Website addresses are in order of left to right:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ky%C5%ABjutsu#/media/File:Japanese_archer_1878b.jpg https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Enrosai_Shigemitsu_-_Nasu_no_Yoichi.jpg, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Kyujutsu08.jpg, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/NasunoYoichi.jpg.	564	ENGLISH	1
The somewhat better life on a colony. The dream of crossing over to another country for a new life, is what brought millions upon millions of immigrants to the US. The new foreign land would be a far better life than the war stricken, famined countries they fled. Not everyone came from these extreme roots, for some came in search for economic freedom and democracy. Throughout time, those with the hopes of crossing over to the land of the free had no idea what would really come to be. For during this time they would face many tribulations along their journey. The first wave stretched from pre america to 1790. In the beginning of the first Americas, The very first settlers were the natives in which soon later in the year 1000, Vikings would come to arrive. The natives made encounters new American settlers yet some interaction were quite unpleasant. In 1620, pilgrims landed at Plymouth rock which soon became the birthplace of America. Those who traveled to the US in that time were introduced to the native people. Within time, colonies settled and slave hands became popular, which were very popular within this time, flourished. In the mid to late 1600s, 50,000 African American slaves were shipped on over to european colonies. Those from forgiem lands brought over as slaves recalled terrible memories and living. One in five americans were slaves around this century, which drew many to make deals such as working as a slave for 4 to 7 years without pay but in return a better life in the colonies than their current one. In 1790 through 1820s, America had a vast spread of land which drew many settlers to migrate to the US. To add, religious freedom was a huge factor in the arrival of 400,000 immigrants, mostly Europeans traveling to the US. From 250,000 immigrants in 1700 to a whopping 2.5 million in the year 1775. In this time many of the people who migrated to the US were German, Irish, Scottish and some being from Spanish decent. In the early years of the pre 1790s, many wished to live a somewhat better life on a colony. In 1790-1820, a number of ethnicities settled the Country for a new life away from the old one they abandoned. From the first wave on, traveling immigrants would face much bullying from the White American settlers. In the early 1800s, the second wave, many immigrants came to the US due to war, famine and poverty. 1800 through 1880, 51.3 million immigrants entered the United States, many using railroad or steam boat as new transportation. During this time, a large population of the Asian community as well as Europeans were emerging America. Upon their stay In the US, they not only faced prejudice but many believed that immigrants were nothing but job stealers. This then led to protest and conflict. With this hatred, the Asian community who came to the US for work, no longer would be able to bring their families along due to the Chinese exclusion act which minimized the Asian community from coming into the US. The hate they were getting from people for example, was a group called Nativism. Which many protested that those believing in religions such as Catholicism were anti christ. Along with that racialism was a big issue for immigrants keeping their culture alive were looked down upon as un-American. Rural resentment was another conflict they faced. People despised foreigners living in the city as for Americans with more money could afford the country. Another tribulation they faced was radicalism. They not only faced these issues but would soon face a number of evaluations and tests. A wave of 22.3 million immigrants arrived to Ellis islands great harbor via steam ship. Upon arrival, the checking of disease was a must due to foreign, non native illness. During their stay in the US, they faced much prejudice and striphen. Many men in this time traveled in seek of work to support their families In which later would come to stay. With this idea of finding a job in the US, a large amount of the Asian community came over. The hope and dream of bringing family back over once stable enough to survive, sadly would no longer work out due to the Chinese Immigration Act. While the east coast immigrant arrivals faced their restrictions, so did those arriving on the west coast. Those who harbored on the West coast anchored at the Angel Island Immigration station. Unfortunately this was their only stretch of American Mainland they would touch. There was a myriad of factors resulting in the decision for the third waves immigration. Groups came from poverty, war stricken areas or famine towns. Some due to lack of jobs or Russian persecution. The time invested into reaching the US was put towards hopes of religious freedom, new job opportunity as well as democracy. During the 1960s through the 2000s the fourth wave of immigration occurred bringing in more than 30 million immigrants into the US. A large portion of those who migrated to the US were of Latino roots along with Asian culture. The factors that came together causing the migration of many, was due to overpopulation, repression from the government along with intense poverty. During this time, those who wished to travel to the Americas, hoped for a new life with a stable job, economic opportunities as well as freedom. Unfortunately this dream would be half that. Many during 1965 pestered for the change of immigration reformation which then became a success, for president Truman created the Hart-Cellar Act and was signed due to the persistent desire for change. The Act would bring in labor work into the US and reunite families. This would bring a sense of comfort, for that moment. Immigrants have ended up not just on the east coast or west, but with this wave, Immigrants can access the US from all over. Across the US we have entry areas which has made it more accessible for those trying to enter the United States. With that being said, not everyone can just freely enter the country. In 1986, the Immigration Reform and Control Act came into play. This act would re-evaluate unauthorized immagrant. The cause for the act, was due to illegal entries into America. The outcomes of this act caused many to feel anti-immigration again during the recession. It’s 2017, and today throughout the 2000s, security has become tighter for those without a green card. The Mexican Border is a perfect example of heavily monitored security! (There’s something called tunnels and secret ways trump). From native American settlers to European, German settlers, all kinds of ethnicities and cultures have roamed America at some point. From the beginning of time we have had stages of humans inhabiting the US, many coming from different countries. Most of our population today has a variety of culture and races from the west coast to the east. Immigrants today still face prejudice in our society unfortunately. Dating back to the 16th century we have had an uphill battle in terms of pushing through the system. Those arriving at Ellis island for example were interrogated and watched so carefully for disease that many would return to their native lands only due to suspicion. Immigrants have fought past the higher authorities and have created a pattern in which many followed creating a wave of immigrants th	<urn:uuid:fa9fc92e-b686-433c-95ac-bbf1afac9a45>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://niagarafallshypnosiscenter.com/the-somewhat-better-life-on-a-colony/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00295.warc.gz	en	0.986346	1,444	3.265625	3	[ -0.15151214599609375, -0.13526220619678497, 0.37951481342315674, 0.10152110457420349, -0.10020384192466736, -0.013387406244874, -0.4002004861831665, 0.18649613857269287, 0.012920841574668884, 0.22521169483661652, 0.3380970358848572, 0.160756453871727, -0.22409620881080627, -0.0236719585955...	1	The somewhat better life on a colony. The dream of crossing over to another country for a new life, is what brought millions upon millions of immigrants to the US. The new foreign land would be a far better life than the war stricken, famined countries they fled. Not everyone came from these extreme roots, for some came in search for economic freedom and democracy. Throughout time, those with the hopes of crossing over to the land of the free had no idea what would really come to be. For during this time they would face many tribulations along their journey. The first wave stretched from pre america to 1790. In the beginning of the first Americas, The very first settlers were the natives in which soon later in the year 1000, Vikings would come to arrive. The natives made encounters new American settlers yet some interaction were quite unpleasant. In 1620, pilgrims landed at Plymouth rock which soon became the birthplace of America. Those who traveled to the US in that time were introduced to the native people. Within time, colonies settled and slave hands became popular, which were very popular within this time, flourished. In the mid to late 1600s, 50,000 African American slaves were shipped on over to european colonies. Those from forgiem lands brought over as slaves recalled terrible memories and living. One in five americans were slaves around this century, which drew many to make deals such as working as a slave for 4 to 7 years without pay but in return a better life in the colonies than their current one. In 1790 through 1820s, America had a vast spread of land which drew many settlers to migrate to the US. To add, religious freedom was a huge factor in the arrival of 400,000 immigrants, mostly Europeans traveling to the US. From 250,000 immigrants in 1700 to a whopping 2.5 million in the year 1775. In this time many of the people who migrated to the US were German, Irish, Scottish and some being from Spanish decent. In the early years of the pre 1790s, many wished to live a somewhat better life on a colony. In 1790-1820, a number of ethnicities settled the Country for a new life away from the old one they abandoned. From the first wave on, traveling immigrants would face much bullying from the White American settlers. In the early 1800s, the second wave, many immigrants came to the US due to war, famine and poverty. 1800 through 1880, 51.3 million immigrants entered the United States, many using railroad or steam boat as new transportation. During this time, a large population of the Asian community as well as Europeans were emerging America. Upon their stay In the US, they not only faced prejudice but many believed that immigrants were nothing but job stealers. This then led to protest and conflict. With this hatred, the Asian community who came to the US for work, no longer would be able to bring their families along due to the Chinese exclusion act which minimized the Asian community from coming into the US. The hate they were getting from people for example, was a group called Nativism. Which many protested that those believing in religions such as Catholicism were anti christ. Along with that racialism was a big issue for immigrants keeping their culture alive were looked down upon as un-American. Rural resentment was another conflict they faced. People despised foreigners living in the city as for Americans with more money could afford the country. Another tribulation they faced was radicalism. They not only faced these issues but would soon face a number of evaluations and tests. A wave of 22.3 million immigrants arrived to Ellis islands great harbor via steam ship. Upon arrival, the checking of disease was a must due to foreign, non native illness. During their stay in the US, they faced much prejudice and striphen. Many men in this time traveled in seek of work to support their families In which later would come to stay. With this idea of finding a job in the US, a large amount of the Asian community came over. The hope and dream of bringing family back over once stable enough to survive, sadly would no longer work out due to the Chinese Immigration Act. While the east coast immigrant arrivals faced their restrictions, so did those arriving on the west coast. Those who harbored on the West coast anchored at the Angel Island Immigration station. Unfortunately this was their only stretch of American Mainland they would touch. There was a myriad of factors resulting in the decision for the third waves immigration. Groups came from poverty, war stricken areas or famine towns. Some due to lack of jobs or Russian persecution. The time invested into reaching the US was put towards hopes of religious freedom, new job opportunity as well as democracy. During the 1960s through the 2000s the fourth wave of immigration occurred bringing in more than 30 million immigrants into the US. A large portion of those who migrated to the US were of Latino roots along with Asian culture. The factors that came together causing the migration of many, was due to overpopulation, repression from the government along with intense poverty. During this time, those who wished to travel to the Americas, hoped for a new life with a stable job, economic opportunities as well as freedom. Unfortunately this dream would be half that. Many during 1965 pestered for the change of immigration reformation which then became a success, for president Truman created the Hart-Cellar Act and was signed due to the persistent desire for change. The Act would bring in labor work into the US and reunite families. This would bring a sense of comfort, for that moment. Immigrants have ended up not just on the east coast or west, but with this wave, Immigrants can access the US from all over. Across the US we have entry areas which has made it more accessible for those trying to enter the United States. With that being said, not everyone can just freely enter the country. In 1986, the Immigration Reform and Control Act came into play. This act would re-evaluate unauthorized immagrant. The cause for the act, was due to illegal entries into America. The outcomes of this act caused many to feel anti-immigration again during the recession. It’s 2017, and today throughout the 2000s, security has become tighter for those without a green card. The Mexican Border is a perfect example of heavily monitored security! (There’s something called tunnels and secret ways trump). From native American settlers to European, German settlers, all kinds of ethnicities and cultures have roamed America at some point. From the beginning of time we have had stages of humans inhabiting the US, many coming from different countries. Most of our population today has a variety of culture and races from the west coast to the east. Immigrants today still face prejudice in our society unfortunately. Dating back to the 16th century we have had an uphill battle in terms of pushing through the system. Those arriving at Ellis island for example were interrogated and watched so carefully for disease that many would return to their native lands only due to suspicion. Immigrants have fought past the higher authorities and have created a pattern in which many followed creating a wave of immigrants th	1,541	ENGLISH	1
The High Arctic is known for frigid temperatures and treeless tundra but it was once home to lush forests carpeted with ferns, along with alligators, snakes, turtles, lemurs and birds, according to a new study. Researchers at the University of Saskatchewan looked at more than 5,000 plant fossils dating back to the Eocene period — around 56 million years ago — from Ellesmere and Axel Heiberg islands in Nunavut. "There were these rich forests living well above the Arctic Circle and that really drew me," said Christopher West, a paleobotanist and PhD graduate. He said these ancient plants are related to modern trees like birch, alder, elm, sycamore and horse chestnut. They also found evidence of trees now only found in parts of eastern Asia like dawn redwood, Chinese swamp cypress and ginkgo. "The modernity of this particular forest was surprising in and of itself, but also that it had elements to it that we would not see today in North America," West said. While previous research has looked at mammal fossils from the area, this is the only comprehensive analysis of fossilized plants from the Canadian Arctic, according to the study. Wet temperate forests similar to those now found in B.C., were able to thrive in the Arctic as the climate was much warmer and wetter during the Eocene, West explained. The yearly average temperature was between 10 and 15 C, but the Arctic still experienced lots of sunlight in the summer and darkness in the winter, he said. "That's a very stressful thing for an organism to endure, especially plants who are unable to move away," West said. He said the findings can help predict what the Arctic could look like as the climate rapidly warms — but we won't see a return to a forested polar region anytime soon. West also noted although there have been cycles of climate change throughout geological history, the evidence is clear that current climate change is an anomaly.	<urn:uuid:dc58a714-e662-4380-a258-f8f4e4a3010d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ca.news.yahoo.com/canadian-arctic-once-home-vibrant-193529213.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00079.warc.gz	en	0.980851	418	4.21875	4	[ -0.3491404354572296, 0.03494527190923691, 0.4598669409751892, 0.07036764919757843, 0.8096879720687866, -0.042603231966495514, -0.023607974871993065, 0.04314465820789337, -0.3725249767303467, 0.19397197663784027, 0.13473767042160034, -0.3277173936367035, 0.4101918637752533, 0.17246116697788...	2	The High Arctic is known for frigid temperatures and treeless tundra but it was once home to lush forests carpeted with ferns, along with alligators, snakes, turtles, lemurs and birds, according to a new study. Researchers at the University of Saskatchewan looked at more than 5,000 plant fossils dating back to the Eocene period — around 56 million years ago — from Ellesmere and Axel Heiberg islands in Nunavut. "There were these rich forests living well above the Arctic Circle and that really drew me," said Christopher West, a paleobotanist and PhD graduate. He said these ancient plants are related to modern trees like birch, alder, elm, sycamore and horse chestnut. They also found evidence of trees now only found in parts of eastern Asia like dawn redwood, Chinese swamp cypress and ginkgo. "The modernity of this particular forest was surprising in and of itself, but also that it had elements to it that we would not see today in North America," West said. While previous research has looked at mammal fossils from the area, this is the only comprehensive analysis of fossilized plants from the Canadian Arctic, according to the study. Wet temperate forests similar to those now found in B.C., were able to thrive in the Arctic as the climate was much warmer and wetter during the Eocene, West explained. The yearly average temperature was between 10 and 15 C, but the Arctic still experienced lots of sunlight in the summer and darkness in the winter, he said. "That's a very stressful thing for an organism to endure, especially plants who are unable to move away," West said. He said the findings can help predict what the Arctic could look like as the climate rapidly warms — but we won't see a return to a forested polar region anytime soon. West also noted although there have been cycles of climate change throughout geological history, the evidence is clear that current climate change is an anomaly.	411	ENGLISH	1
We all have this picture in our minds about the wise men with their small boxes of Gifts. Many of these images we get because of Nativity play or Christmas cards. I listened to a message recently and discover that there is more to the story. The Story of the Wisemen only appears in the Book of Matthew Firstly the Wise men are also known as Magi usually traveled in twelve. Some bible commentaries said that there might have been one hundred of them to visit Jesus. They also traveled with an army to protect them and their treasure Who was the Wisemen? The Magi is originally from Persia and comes from the Of king Darius, the King who put Daniel in Lion’s den. And it is probably from Daniel that they heard a King and a Saviour, will be born and have been on the lookout for centuries How old was Jesus when they visited him? The Magi visited Jesus when he was a toddler, King Herod directed the Magi to Bethlehem, but the star reappeared and took them to the home of Joseph and Mary. Not in the manger. How much was the worth the gifts that they gave? Some Historians say the minimum in Gold that a low-level King received from the Magi is about $6 000 000 worth. That excludes the Frankincense and Myrrh. Myrrh worth more in weight then Gold at that time. Jesus was considered a King of Kings. So he could have received a huge amount. Gold helped for provision for Jesus and His family. And probably helped Maria after the death of Joseph. And could have helped financed Jesus’ ministry. What was the spiritual meaning of these Gifts? The Frankincense was used in Royal Courts and the Myrrh was used as an embalming ointment when someone dies. The frankincense was a sign or a prophecy that Jesus will die and the Myrrh was a sign that Jesus will die for us on the criss What other observation is there? It is interesting to note that when Moses who God used to save Israel babies was killed. When Jesus was born Babies was killed. They are killing babies through abortions and late-term abortion, it can be a sign that Jesus is returning soon! Merry Christmas from all of us at Expand Ministries	<urn:uuid:2b9e0fb9-6aa1-48d1-a116-472d38d3c974>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://expandint.org/2019/12/24/christmas-wisemen-magi-and-the-gifts-to-jesus/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250605075.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121192553-20200121221553-00418.warc.gz	en	0.985245	476	3.296875	3	[ -0.1355171650648117, 0.4261679947376251, 0.10714958608150482, -0.20050658285617828, 0.1360764354467392, -0.061647795140743256, 0.7143064141273499, 0.2571931779384613, -0.12083151936531067, -0.09823087602853775, 0.09511298686265945, 0.12007645517587662, 0.16249147057533264, 0.03319217637181...	12	We all have this picture in our minds about the wise men with their small boxes of Gifts. Many of these images we get because of Nativity play or Christmas cards. I listened to a message recently and discover that there is more to the story. The Story of the Wisemen only appears in the Book of Matthew Firstly the Wise men are also known as Magi usually traveled in twelve. Some bible commentaries said that there might have been one hundred of them to visit Jesus. They also traveled with an army to protect them and their treasure Who was the Wisemen? The Magi is originally from Persia and comes from the Of king Darius, the King who put Daniel in Lion’s den. And it is probably from Daniel that they heard a King and a Saviour, will be born and have been on the lookout for centuries How old was Jesus when they visited him? The Magi visited Jesus when he was a toddler, King Herod directed the Magi to Bethlehem, but the star reappeared and took them to the home of Joseph and Mary. Not in the manger. How much was the worth the gifts that they gave? Some Historians say the minimum in Gold that a low-level King received from the Magi is about $6 000 000 worth. That excludes the Frankincense and Myrrh. Myrrh worth more in weight then Gold at that time. Jesus was considered a King of Kings. So he could have received a huge amount. Gold helped for provision for Jesus and His family. And probably helped Maria after the death of Joseph. And could have helped financed Jesus’ ministry. What was the spiritual meaning of these Gifts? The Frankincense was used in Royal Courts and the Myrrh was used as an embalming ointment when someone dies. The frankincense was a sign or a prophecy that Jesus will die and the Myrrh was a sign that Jesus will die for us on the criss What other observation is there? It is interesting to note that when Moses who God used to save Israel babies was killed. When Jesus was born Babies was killed. They are killing babies through abortions and late-term abortion, it can be a sign that Jesus is returning soon! Merry Christmas from all of us at Expand Ministries	472	ENGLISH	1
Frederick Douglass was born into slavery in Talbot County, Maryland in 1818. His exact birth date was lost to history. Many African slaves did not have their birth dates recorded into official records during that time period because they did not have basic human rights. They were considered property owned by their white masters. It was a dark time in the country. Frederick Douglass helped change that. It was illegal in the southern states to educate blacks at that time, but Douglass was fortunate enough to have been educated by the wife of his master, who began teaching Douglass the alphabet when he was 12 years old. He continued his education on his own after that. With his new reading skills, Douglass began teaching other black slaves the New Testament. He had a sympathetic owner, who did not see any harm in this activity, but his neighbors did not see eye to eye with him. It wasn't long before the lessons ended, after violent measures were taken by the white community members. Douglass eventually escaped slavery, and settled in the state of Massachusetts, where he began his struggle to end slavery. Douglass became one of the most influential people of his generation. He made powerful friends in the U.S. government. During one of his lecture tours in 1843, Douglass was nearly beaten to death by an angry mob, who did not agree with his message of abolition. He fled the country on a couple of occasions to avoid being put into a state of slavery again. While in Europe, Douglass spoke to enthusiastic crowds on the evils of slavery. Copyright © 2020. All rights reserved.	<urn:uuid:800a7a50-e6fa-41ea-a24b-51145cb7bb05>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.eslfast.com/eslread/ss/s359.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00258.warc.gz	en	0.994576	326	4.15625	4	[ -0.19674712419509888, 0.48850420117378235, 0.28706204891204834, 0.14359192550182343, -0.14703582227230072, -0.06430108100175858, 0.10903555154800415, -0.4293588101863861, -0.17884314060211182, 0.017811859026551247, 0.2732352614402771, -0.05617633834481239, -0.16386470198631287, 0.032862756...	1	Frederick Douglass was born into slavery in Talbot County, Maryland in 1818. His exact birth date was lost to history. Many African slaves did not have their birth dates recorded into official records during that time period because they did not have basic human rights. They were considered property owned by their white masters. It was a dark time in the country. Frederick Douglass helped change that. It was illegal in the southern states to educate blacks at that time, but Douglass was fortunate enough to have been educated by the wife of his master, who began teaching Douglass the alphabet when he was 12 years old. He continued his education on his own after that. With his new reading skills, Douglass began teaching other black slaves the New Testament. He had a sympathetic owner, who did not see any harm in this activity, but his neighbors did not see eye to eye with him. It wasn't long before the lessons ended, after violent measures were taken by the white community members. Douglass eventually escaped slavery, and settled in the state of Massachusetts, where he began his struggle to end slavery. Douglass became one of the most influential people of his generation. He made powerful friends in the U.S. government. During one of his lecture tours in 1843, Douglass was nearly beaten to death by an angry mob, who did not agree with his message of abolition. He fled the country on a couple of occasions to avoid being put into a state of slavery again. While in Europe, Douglass spoke to enthusiastic crowds on the evils of slavery. Copyright © 2020. All rights reserved.	335	ENGLISH	1
Four Danes in the Spanish Civil War Brothers Harald, Kai and Aage Nielsen and their friend Hans Petersen were four young workers who, shortly after the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, decided to leave for Spain in order to fight fascism side by side with the Spanish people. Obviously, this was not a decision without personal costs By Allan Christiansen The Spanish Civil War At the first democratic election in Spain, 1936, a coalition of political parties won the election and formed a government. The government policy was not particularly left-wing and certainly not socialist. It was probably what might be termed conservative-social liberal. One of the key issues, on which the coalition went to the poll, was the demand for a redistribution of the national resources. This meant that the Church and the land owners should transfer part of their landholdings to the farm hands and peasants, providing them with modestly sized plots. It meant that the nobility, the Church and large industrial companies should contribute more to society and the economy. The government’s demands actually constituted a minor intervention that did not change the primary structure of economic and social privileges, however, according to the country’s powerful economic elite, the coalition went far beyond the boundaries of democracy as the elite understood it. Then and now, the ruling class, ie the capital, the Church and the landowners, would only accept democratic rules of play if they worked in their favour. Faced with government and popular demands, they resorted to military intervention in order to retain their power and privileges. Led by generals Francisco Franco, Emilio Mola and José Sanjurjoi, the military carefully planned a military coup in accordance with the ruling class and the fascist states of Germany and Italy. The military uprising was planned to start 19 July 1936. At the signal “Over all of Spain, the sky is clear” the military should launch the uprising in all major cities and seize power. They largely succeeded, except in the Basque Country and the cities Valencia, Barcelona and Madrid. Spain was plunged into a civil war. Following Hitler’s rise to power in 1933, Germany and Italy’s aggressive foreign policy aroused fear among the populations of Europe. People discussed politics everywhere, not least at the Young Communist League’s house on Bjelkes Allé in Nørrebro. Here all kind of political issues were discussed, but especially the situation in Spain. An important issue discussed in this connection was the possibility of traveling to Spain and join the fight against the fascist regime side by side with the Spanish people. Four members of the Communist Youths turned words into action. One of them was Harald Nielsen, the oldest of the three brothers who went to Spain with their friend Hans Petersen to fight in the Spanish Civil War. He recalls the events surrounding the decision: “It was shortly after Aages’s birthday. He turned 18 the 8 August 1936. My brother Kai and a comrade, Hans Petersen, worked together at Hartmann Engineering Company, and they were talking about going to Spain. I wanted to go too, and when Aage heard it, he wanted to join us.” They thought Aage was too young to go, but being 18, he believed he was old enough to decide for himself, and so it was. When the comrades on Bjelkes Allé heard that the four friends were leaving for Spain, they were delighted, and immediately started to collect money for their travel. They themselves had agreed to save up a weekly wage. Kai, who was 21, and Hans Petersen, who was 26 and the eldest of the four, were machinists. Harald was 24 and a trained butcher, and Aage, who had just turned 18, was a bike messenger. The political situation in the 1930s What motivated the three brothers and Hans Petersen to go to Spain and fight? There are, no doubt, many reasons for that, but their political and social environment have unquestionable played a major part in their decision. The three brothers lived with additional six siblings and their parents in a one-bedroom apartment in Skyttegade in Nørrebro. Their father was a blacksmith and a keen syndicalist unionist. The nine siblings worked from an early age. Political discussions were commonplace. The brothers Harald, Kai and Aage were, as mentioned, all members of the Young Communist League and did not always agree with their father. In the 1930s, unemployment was hight in Denmark, and they had witnessed the results firsthand. They had, however, also witnessed that one should not tacitly accept injustice. When someone in the neighbourhood had been evicted, their father and other neighbours carried the furniture back into the department and told the police officer to get lost and not show his face again. In Denmark, as well, fascism gained a foothold and the Young Conservatives demonstrated their semi- and full-blown fascism. They habitually marched through the working-class areas and fights between the Young Conservatives and the Young Communist Youth frequently broke out. The four Danes knew but little about the conditions in Spain, but they were convinced that assistance was needed in the fight against fascism. They wanted to leave for Spain as soon as possible. One day in August, they loaded their backpacks, grabbed their bikes and said goodbye to friends and family. Needless to say, the mother of Harald, Kai and Aage was distraught. To comfort her, their father said, — “They’ll be back before you know it.” “That was what we expected ourselves”, Harald later explained. The Nielsen brothers and Hans Petersen’s journey to Spain was pretty eventful. Along the way, they experiences first hand the political polarisation of the time; at a hostel in Germany, standing at attention and arms stretched out in ‘Sieg Heil’ salute, the German youth sang the ‘Horst-Wessel song’. On the other hand, their party membership book was a valuable asset, providing them with food and shelter around Germany. At the border, a French border guard confiscated their bikes. A German bank teller had cheated him them out of what was left of their money by exchanging them for invalid German Marks. Consequently, they could not pay the deposits for their bike, as one had to back then. There was nothing to do but continue on foot and hitchhike. They picked fruits along the country lanes and at night, jam bucket at hand, they sneaked into the fields milking cows to get a little milk. They were transported from Verdun to Paris lying in the hay in the bed of a pig truck. In Paris, they experienced solidarity with the fight they were heading into, personified by a Parisian taxi-driver who picked them up. He drove them around to different ranks and made collections among his fellow workers. The money should pay for the four Danes’ stay in Paris and their onward journey. In the Soviet Union they watched the development in Europe, and especially Germany, with great concern. The fascist rebellion in Spain convinced communists throughout the world (not least Soviet leaders) that, if fascism/nazism should be contained before it set the world on fire it had to be in Spain. Hence, the leader of the Comintern, Georgi Mikhailovich Dimitrov and the leader of the French Communist Party, Maurice Thorez discussed the possibility of a united action under the auspices of the Comintern’s Western Bureau to help Spain’s legitimate government. On and on However, much to the regret of the four comrades, the Comintern’s Western Bureau didn’t exactly work swiftly. It appeared that their journey to Spain would be postponed as Comintern’s Westbureau in Paris had not yet delivered a final opinion on how to address the spontaneous help pouring into the Spanish Republic. To the four Danes in Paris, the days dragged on, so they decided to hitchhike their way to Spain. In Fontainebleau, a little south of Paris, they got a ride on a lorry. Turns out it transported gravestones, a bit ghoulish, perhaps, but so what as long as it was not their own graves on which they were sitting. Later they were picked up by a taxi heading south. Travelling through southern France, they visited the trade union offices in the various cities and presented their party membership books. In some offices, fascists towered behind the desks, then the comrades left in a hurry. Nonetheless, in most cities the unions supported the Popular Front and they usually got a meal and once in a while lodging. In Perpignan, close to the Spanish border, they met an Austrian militiaman named Rudi, who offered to take them across the border. They merely had to mix in with his own men on the train; Germans, Austrians and other German-speaking men. And so they did. In early September, the four Danes arrived at their destination asleep in the baggage net. By that time the Spanish Civil war had lasted for one and a half months. When the four Danes reached Barcelona, the German communist and former Bavarian Reichstag man, Hans Beimler was reorganising a military unit of German and Austrian volunteers, who had returned to Barcelona after the battles at Irún and the Aragon front. The military unit was named Centuria Thällmann after the German politician Ernst Thällmann. After an unfortunate, if not dramatic, experience of being arrested by the POUM-militia, the three brothers and Hans Petersen managed to come into contact with Hans Beimler at Hotel Colón which subsequently led to their release. They then joined the Centuria Thällmann. Hermitage of Santa Quiteria Having carried out his military service in Denmark in a machine gun company, Harald Nielsen became a gunner, carrying one of the few Hotchkiss machine guns in Thällmann. One early September morning, Centuria Thällmann left Barcelona heading for the Huesca front in Aragon to defend a group of small hills at Tardienta and Almudévar. In addition, they should try to recapture La Ermita de Santa Quiteria (the Hermitage of Santa Quiteria); a minor convent dominating the surrounding countryside. The initial attack against the Hermitage took place late in the evening of the 20 October. The battle lasted the entire night and when dawn broke the next day, they had driven the rebels back, but on that same day, they launched a counterattack with artillery and air support. Centuria Thällmann was unable to retain the position. In the preceding battles many of the Thällmann men had been killed or injured and the Centuria was forced to retreat. The first-shooter of Harald’s machine gun was killed by an explosive bullet and Harald himself was shot in his hand when he took over the gun. His brother Kai took his place. The Danes received a bloody baptism of fire, but at least they escaped with their lives. Of 125 men, 19 were killed and 52 injured. In fact, Centuria Thällmann no longer existed and was replaced at the front by Spanish military units. However, Thällmann’s efforts in the hills of Tardiente had won admiration. Centuria Thällmann was awarded the Catalan Regional Government’s first honorary flag. The ceremony took place 27 October in the Carlos Marx barracks in the presence of Catalan government representatives, PSUC (the Catalan communist party) representatives and the Soviet Consul General in Barcelona, Vladimir Alexandrovich Antónov-Ovsjenko. On behalf of Centuria Thällmann, Aage, the youngest of the three brothers, was chosen to receive the honorary flag The International Brigades By the beginning of October, the Comintern had decided on the organisation of the help to the Spanish Government. While Centuria Thällmann was fighting at the Huesca front, the International Brigades was set up in Albacete under the command of Frenchman, André Marty. Centuria Thälmann’s days were over. The four Danes were transferred to the new headquarters in Albacete and enrolled in the Thällmann Battalion. In November 1936, the battalion participated in the fierce battle of Madrid. The first battalion of the International Brigades was the German Edgar André Battalion (correctly: Edkar André Battalion) — named after the German politician Edkar André. It was formed 17 October 1936. Shortly after, an Italian and a French brigade were established. The Italian brigade; the Garibaldi Battalion, was named after the Italian freedom fighter, Giuseppe Garibaldi and the French brigade; the Marseillaise Battalion, after the French national anthem. By late October, the Edgar André Battalion was transformed into the XI Brigade, the brigade in which most Danes were enrolled. The People’s Republican Army consisted of ten newly formed brigades, accordingly, the numbers assigned to International Brigades were XI, XII, XIII, XIV and XV Brigade During the defence of Madrid, Hans Petersen had been wounded and was transferred to a hospital in Barcelona. Harald, Kai and Aage remained in Madrid until the end of December when the battles on the outskirt of Madrid came to a standstill and Franco’s troops had failed to capture the capital. Early January 1937, the three brothers were enrolled in the newly established anti-air defence authority, DECA. They joined the International Brigades’ artillery battery, as did a few of the newly arrived Danes. The artillery battery was named the Dimitrov Battalion after the Bulgarian communist politician and Secretary General of the Executive Committee of the Communist International, Georgi Mikhailovich Dimitrov. he Battalion was equipped with a few old, French anti-aircraft guns which were later replaced by new, Russian ones. The group operated independently without being related to any particular International Brigade. The Dimitrov Battalion moved around, fighting in military hotspots to protect the front line against Franco’s paramount German and Italian air forces. Life in the Dimitrov Battalion was entirely different from that as a front-line soldier. The tasks obviously changed; fewer soldiers were gathered in the same place and the transports to the fronts were less stressful, however, constantly being situated almost directly below attacking bombers was very dangerous. Home and back again Kai and Aage stayed in Spain for a year and returned to Denmark, October 1937. Hans Petersen and Harald Nielsen soon followed, only to return to Spain and carry out new assignments; for a while, Hans Petersen fought alongside the partisans and later served as a censor at the International Brigades’ headquarters in Albacete. Harald, on the other hand, was assigned to carry out Party work in Spain. November 1938, the International Brigades were dissolved and after an emotional farewell parade in Barcelona, the volunteers set off for home. Hans Petersen and Harald Nielsen remained in Spain to assist the Danish government representative in the repatriation of 91 Danes and two Icelanders. On the journey home, Harald was in charge of the Danish group. Hans Petersen followed in December and thus became one of the last volunteers to leave Spain as he was one of the first to leave for Spain. However, a large group of Danish artillerymen remained in the Valencia area and did not return until February 1939. In the Danish resistance movement 9 April 1940 Denmark was occupied by Germany. Not unexpectedly, the Danish volunteers continued the fight against fascism on Danish soil. They were thus among the first freedom fighters who joined forces against the German occupation. They formed the largest and most powerful Danish resistance, KOPA (Communist Partisans). In order to achieve greater political breadth, and consequently greater impact, they changed their name to DAPA (Danish Partisans) and shortly after to BOPA (Civil Partisans). Our three brothers and their friend Hans Petersen were actively engaged in building the resistance movement. Following German attack on the Soviet Union 22 June 1941, a wave of arrests against the communists was launched in Denmark. 7 November 1942, the Danish police arrested 86 former volunteers in the Spanish Civil War. Within the next few days, the number would reach 125. They were sent to the Danish Horserød internment camp in North Zealand, the same camp where the communist were incarcerated. 29 August 1943, the Germans occupied the camp. In the dead of night, 92 prisoners managed to escape over the fence. The rest of the 152 prisoners were packed into a vessel cargo hold and shipped to Swinemünde. They were then transported by freight wagon to Stuffhof concentration camp near Gdansk in Poland. Eight volunteers in the Spanish Civil War died in the camp or on the Death March westwards in the months of February-March 1945. Initially, the brothers and Hans Petersen avoided being arrested. Hans Petersen was eventually arrested and, as the first Dane, sentenced to death at a German court in Denmark. He was later pardoned and sentenced to life in prison. He was transferred to the prison Dreibergen in Bützow, Germany. By the end of the war, he was still alive. Aage, on the other hand, who was a saboteur like his brothers Harald and Kai, was ambushed after the completion of an action in September 1943. Although he was continuously and fiercely tortured by the Gestapo to make him identify his comrades, he never said a word. Aage died after prolonged torture in Vester Fængsel (’Western Prison’) 18 October 1943. Years later, a memorial plaque for Aage was erected at the main entrance of Husum Skole (‘Husum School’) and another inside the offices of the Jord- og Betonarbejdernes Fagforening (‘Earth and Concrete Workers’ Union). Harald and Kai were on the most wanted list for sabotage activity. In November 1943, they were both injured in a shoot-out with the Danish police. Harald was shot in his lung and Kai in his leg. They were admitted to the Bispebjerg Hospital from where they were sent to Sweden. At the arrival to Sweden the two brothers were arrested by the Swedish police and initially admitted to the Malmø Sygehus (‘Malmö Hospital’). After one week in the hospital they were placed in solitary confinement in Malmø Arrest (‘Malmö Prison’) as the Swedish police feared they had come to Sweden in order to sabotage the Swedish rail transport to Germany and participate in establishing weapons transports from the Soviet Union to the Danish saboteurs. Later they were transferred to Kalmar Fængsel (‘Kalmar Prison’) where they were incarcerated for three months. May 1945 (Denmark was liberated 5 May 1945) Harald and Kai returned home to Denmark. A butcher, a machinist and a ‘chochard’ After the 2nd World War, Harald resumed his work as a butcher, while Hans Petersen got work as a machinist. Kai held a series of jobs. In 1954 he left Denmark to travel around Europe as a boatman. Mid1950, he followed through on his ambition to sail around the world, attracting a lot of attention from the French press who dubbed him ‘le clochard de la mer’ — ‘the ocean tramp’. He only made it as far as the Suez, however, as the Suez Canal had been closed due to the war in the Middle East in 1956. In Chelles-les-Courtreau, where he lived, only the postman knew his real name. To everyone else he was ‘le capitaine’. Kai returned to Denmark in May 1979. He was severely ill and was hospitalised in the Kingdom Hospital in Copenhagen where he died just a few days later. Harald was honoured with the privilege of presenting ‘La Pasionaria’ with a greeting from De Danske Spaniensfrivilliges Forening (‘the Association of Danish Volunteers in Spain’) on the occasion of her 90th birthday in 1985. Part of the greeting reads: We thank you for your lifelong efforts in the fight for freedom, peace and democracy. We will never forget your inspiring speeches during the time we fought in the International Brigades, We wish you good health and fortitude in the continuing fight. As the last of the three brothers, Harald died 5 December 1989. FEATURED IMAGE: From left: Hans Petersen, Harald, Kai og Aage Nielsen in Albacete, around February-March 1937	<urn:uuid:286ba9d9-7cae-41c7-ae3b-f2e6de426c9e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://spanishsky.dk/four-danes-in-the-spanish-civil-war/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00433.warc.gz	en	0.980339	4,342	3.625	4	[ -0.17657750844955444, 0.524884045124054, -0.0989023745059967, -0.17674720287322998, 0.16336128115653992, 0.41795891523361206, -0.4146685302257538, 0.2834778428077698, 0.15669682621955872, -0.0399114191532135, 0.14709369838237762, 0.08480995148420334, 0.27453726530075073, 0.5006449818611145...	1	Four Danes in the Spanish Civil War Brothers Harald, Kai and Aage Nielsen and their friend Hans Petersen were four young workers who, shortly after the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, decided to leave for Spain in order to fight fascism side by side with the Spanish people. Obviously, this was not a decision without personal costs By Allan Christiansen The Spanish Civil War At the first democratic election in Spain, 1936, a coalition of political parties won the election and formed a government. The government policy was not particularly left-wing and certainly not socialist. It was probably what might be termed conservative-social liberal. One of the key issues, on which the coalition went to the poll, was the demand for a redistribution of the national resources. This meant that the Church and the land owners should transfer part of their landholdings to the farm hands and peasants, providing them with modestly sized plots. It meant that the nobility, the Church and large industrial companies should contribute more to society and the economy. The government’s demands actually constituted a minor intervention that did not change the primary structure of economic and social privileges, however, according to the country’s powerful economic elite, the coalition went far beyond the boundaries of democracy as the elite understood it. Then and now, the ruling class, ie the capital, the Church and the landowners, would only accept democratic rules of play if they worked in their favour. Faced with government and popular demands, they resorted to military intervention in order to retain their power and privileges. Led by generals Francisco Franco, Emilio Mola and José Sanjurjoi, the military carefully planned a military coup in accordance with the ruling class and the fascist states of Germany and Italy. The military uprising was planned to start 19 July 1936. At the signal “Over all of Spain, the sky is clear” the military should launch the uprising in all major cities and seize power. They largely succeeded, except in the Basque Country and the cities Valencia, Barcelona and Madrid. Spain was plunged into a civil war. Following Hitler’s rise to power in 1933, Germany and Italy’s aggressive foreign policy aroused fear among the populations of Europe. People discussed politics everywhere, not least at the Young Communist League’s house on Bjelkes Allé in Nørrebro. Here all kind of political issues were discussed, but especially the situation in Spain. An important issue discussed in this connection was the possibility of traveling to Spain and join the fight against the fascist regime side by side with the Spanish people. Four members of the Communist Youths turned words into action. One of them was Harald Nielsen, the oldest of the three brothers who went to Spain with their friend Hans Petersen to fight in the Spanish Civil War. He recalls the events surrounding the decision: “It was shortly after Aages’s birthday. He turned 18 the 8 August 1936. My brother Kai and a comrade, Hans Petersen, worked together at Hartmann Engineering Company, and they were talking about going to Spain. I wanted to go too, and when Aage heard it, he wanted to join us.” They thought Aage was too young to go, but being 18, he believed he was old enough to decide for himself, and so it was. When the comrades on Bjelkes Allé heard that the four friends were leaving for Spain, they were delighted, and immediately started to collect money for their travel. They themselves had agreed to save up a weekly wage. Kai, who was 21, and Hans Petersen, who was 26 and the eldest of the four, were machinists. Harald was 24 and a trained butcher, and Aage, who had just turned 18, was a bike messenger. The political situation in the 1930s What motivated the three brothers and Hans Petersen to go to Spain and fight? There are, no doubt, many reasons for that, but their political and social environment have unquestionable played a major part in their decision. The three brothers lived with additional six siblings and their parents in a one-bedroom apartment in Skyttegade in Nørrebro. Their father was a blacksmith and a keen syndicalist unionist. The nine siblings worked from an early age. Political discussions were commonplace. The brothers Harald, Kai and Aage were, as mentioned, all members of the Young Communist League and did not always agree with their father. In the 1930s, unemployment was hight in Denmark, and they had witnessed the results firsthand. They had, however, also witnessed that one should not tacitly accept injustice. When someone in the neighbourhood had been evicted, their father and other neighbours carried the furniture back into the department and told the police officer to get lost and not show his face again. In Denmark, as well, fascism gained a foothold and the Young Conservatives demonstrated their semi- and full-blown fascism. They habitually marched through the working-class areas and fights between the Young Conservatives and the Young Communist Youth frequently broke out. The four Danes knew but little about the conditions in Spain, but they were convinced that assistance was needed in the fight against fascism. They wanted to leave for Spain as soon as possible. One day in August, they loaded their backpacks, grabbed their bikes and said goodbye to friends and family. Needless to say, the mother of Harald, Kai and Aage was distraught. To comfort her, their father said, — “They’ll be back before you know it.” “That was what we expected ourselves”, Harald later explained. The Nielsen brothers and Hans Petersen’s journey to Spain was pretty eventful. Along the way, they experiences first hand the political polarisation of the time; at a hostel in Germany, standing at attention and arms stretched out in ‘Sieg Heil’ salute, the German youth sang the ‘Horst-Wessel song’. On the other hand, their party membership book was a valuable asset, providing them with food and shelter around Germany. At the border, a French border guard confiscated their bikes. A German bank teller had cheated him them out of what was left of their money by exchanging them for invalid German Marks. Consequently, they could not pay the deposits for their bike, as one had to back then. There was nothing to do but continue on foot and hitchhike. They picked fruits along the country lanes and at night, jam bucket at hand, they sneaked into the fields milking cows to get a little milk. They were transported from Verdun to Paris lying in the hay in the bed of a pig truck. In Paris, they experienced solidarity with the fight they were heading into, personified by a Parisian taxi-driver who picked them up. He drove them around to different ranks and made collections among his fellow workers. The money should pay for the four Danes’ stay in Paris and their onward journey. In the Soviet Union they watched the development in Europe, and especially Germany, with great concern. The fascist rebellion in Spain convinced communists throughout the world (not least Soviet leaders) that, if fascism/nazism should be contained before it set the world on fire it had to be in Spain. Hence, the leader of the Comintern, Georgi Mikhailovich Dimitrov and the leader of the French Communist Party, Maurice Thorez discussed the possibility of a united action under the auspices of the Comintern’s Western Bureau to help Spain’s legitimate government. On and on However, much to the regret of the four comrades, the Comintern’s Western Bureau didn’t exactly work swiftly. It appeared that their journey to Spain would be postponed as Comintern’s Westbureau in Paris had not yet delivered a final opinion on how to address the spontaneous help pouring into the Spanish Republic. To the four Danes in Paris, the days dragged on, so they decided to hitchhike their way to Spain. In Fontainebleau, a little south of Paris, they got a ride on a lorry. Turns out it transported gravestones, a bit ghoulish, perhaps, but so what as long as it was not their own graves on which they were sitting. Later they were picked up by a taxi heading south. Travelling through southern France, they visited the trade union offices in the various cities and presented their party membership books. In some offices, fascists towered behind the desks, then the comrades left in a hurry. Nonetheless, in most cities the unions supported the Popular Front and they usually got a meal and once in a while lodging. In Perpignan, close to the Spanish border, they met an Austrian militiaman named Rudi, who offered to take them across the border. They merely had to mix in with his own men on the train; Germans, Austrians and other German-speaking men. And so they did. In early September, the four Danes arrived at their destination asleep in the baggage net. By that time the Spanish Civil war had lasted for one and a half months. When the four Danes reached Barcelona, the German communist and former Bavarian Reichstag man, Hans Beimler was reorganising a military unit of German and Austrian volunteers, who had returned to Barcelona after the battles at Irún and the Aragon front. The military unit was named Centuria Thällmann after the German politician Ernst Thällmann. After an unfortunate, if not dramatic, experience of being arrested by the POUM-militia, the three brothers and Hans Petersen managed to come into contact with Hans Beimler at Hotel Colón which subsequently led to their release. They then joined the Centuria Thällmann. Hermitage of Santa Quiteria Having carried out his military service in Denmark in a machine gun company, Harald Nielsen became a gunner, carrying one of the few Hotchkiss machine guns in Thällmann. One early September morning, Centuria Thällmann left Barcelona heading for the Huesca front in Aragon to defend a group of small hills at Tardienta and Almudévar. In addition, they should try to recapture La Ermita de Santa Quiteria (the Hermitage of Santa Quiteria); a minor convent dominating the surrounding countryside. The initial attack against the Hermitage took place late in the evening of the 20 October. The battle lasted the entire night and when dawn broke the next day, they had driven the rebels back, but on that same day, they launched a counterattack with artillery and air support. Centuria Thällmann was unable to retain the position. In the preceding battles many of the Thällmann men had been killed or injured and the Centuria was forced to retreat. The first-shooter of Harald’s machine gun was killed by an explosive bullet and Harald himself was shot in his hand when he took over the gun. His brother Kai took his place. The Danes received a bloody baptism of fire, but at least they escaped with their lives. Of 125 men, 19 were killed and 52 injured. In fact, Centuria Thällmann no longer existed and was replaced at the front by Spanish military units. However, Thällmann’s efforts in the hills of Tardiente had won admiration. Centuria Thällmann was awarded the Catalan Regional Government’s first honorary flag. The ceremony took place 27 October in the Carlos Marx barracks in the presence of Catalan government representatives, PSUC (the Catalan communist party) representatives and the Soviet Consul General in Barcelona, Vladimir Alexandrovich Antónov-Ovsjenko. On behalf of Centuria Thällmann, Aage, the youngest of the three brothers, was chosen to receive the honorary flag The International Brigades By the beginning of October, the Comintern had decided on the organisation of the help to the Spanish Government. While Centuria Thällmann was fighting at the Huesca front, the International Brigades was set up in Albacete under the command of Frenchman, André Marty. Centuria Thälmann’s days were over. The four Danes were transferred to the new headquarters in Albacete and enrolled in the Thällmann Battalion. In November 1936, the battalion participated in the fierce battle of Madrid. The first battalion of the International Brigades was the German Edgar André Battalion (correctly: Edkar André Battalion) — named after the German politician Edkar André. It was formed 17 October 1936. Shortly after, an Italian and a French brigade were established. The Italian brigade; the Garibaldi Battalion, was named after the Italian freedom fighter, Giuseppe Garibaldi and the French brigade; the Marseillaise Battalion, after the French national anthem. By late October, the Edgar André Battalion was transformed into the XI Brigade, the brigade in which most Danes were enrolled. The People’s Republican Army consisted of ten newly formed brigades, accordingly, the numbers assigned to International Brigades were XI, XII, XIII, XIV and XV Brigade During the defence of Madrid, Hans Petersen had been wounded and was transferred to a hospital in Barcelona. Harald, Kai and Aage remained in Madrid until the end of December when the battles on the outskirt of Madrid came to a standstill and Franco’s troops had failed to capture the capital. Early January 1937, the three brothers were enrolled in the newly established anti-air defence authority, DECA. They joined the International Brigades’ artillery battery, as did a few of the newly arrived Danes. The artillery battery was named the Dimitrov Battalion after the Bulgarian communist politician and Secretary General of the Executive Committee of the Communist International, Georgi Mikhailovich Dimitrov. he Battalion was equipped with a few old, French anti-aircraft guns which were later replaced by new, Russian ones. The group operated independently without being related to any particular International Brigade. The Dimitrov Battalion moved around, fighting in military hotspots to protect the front line against Franco’s paramount German and Italian air forces. Life in the Dimitrov Battalion was entirely different from that as a front-line soldier. The tasks obviously changed; fewer soldiers were gathered in the same place and the transports to the fronts were less stressful, however, constantly being situated almost directly below attacking bombers was very dangerous. Home and back again Kai and Aage stayed in Spain for a year and returned to Denmark, October 1937. Hans Petersen and Harald Nielsen soon followed, only to return to Spain and carry out new assignments; for a while, Hans Petersen fought alongside the partisans and later served as a censor at the International Brigades’ headquarters in Albacete. Harald, on the other hand, was assigned to carry out Party work in Spain. November 1938, the International Brigades were dissolved and after an emotional farewell parade in Barcelona, the volunteers set off for home. Hans Petersen and Harald Nielsen remained in Spain to assist the Danish government representative in the repatriation of 91 Danes and two Icelanders. On the journey home, Harald was in charge of the Danish group. Hans Petersen followed in December and thus became one of the last volunteers to leave Spain as he was one of the first to leave for Spain. However, a large group of Danish artillerymen remained in the Valencia area and did not return until February 1939. In the Danish resistance movement 9 April 1940 Denmark was occupied by Germany. Not unexpectedly, the Danish volunteers continued the fight against fascism on Danish soil. They were thus among the first freedom fighters who joined forces against the German occupation. They formed the largest and most powerful Danish resistance, KOPA (Communist Partisans). In order to achieve greater political breadth, and consequently greater impact, they changed their name to DAPA (Danish Partisans) and shortly after to BOPA (Civil Partisans). Our three brothers and their friend Hans Petersen were actively engaged in building the resistance movement. Following German attack on the Soviet Union 22 June 1941, a wave of arrests against the communists was launched in Denmark. 7 November 1942, the Danish police arrested 86 former volunteers in the Spanish Civil War. Within the next few days, the number would reach 125. They were sent to the Danish Horserød internment camp in North Zealand, the same camp where the communist were incarcerated. 29 August 1943, the Germans occupied the camp. In the dead of night, 92 prisoners managed to escape over the fence. The rest of the 152 prisoners were packed into a vessel cargo hold and shipped to Swinemünde. They were then transported by freight wagon to Stuffhof concentration camp near Gdansk in Poland. Eight volunteers in the Spanish Civil War died in the camp or on the Death March westwards in the months of February-March 1945. Initially, the brothers and Hans Petersen avoided being arrested. Hans Petersen was eventually arrested and, as the first Dane, sentenced to death at a German court in Denmark. He was later pardoned and sentenced to life in prison. He was transferred to the prison Dreibergen in Bützow, Germany. By the end of the war, he was still alive. Aage, on the other hand, who was a saboteur like his brothers Harald and Kai, was ambushed after the completion of an action in September 1943. Although he was continuously and fiercely tortured by the Gestapo to make him identify his comrades, he never said a word. Aage died after prolonged torture in Vester Fængsel (’Western Prison’) 18 October 1943. Years later, a memorial plaque for Aage was erected at the main entrance of Husum Skole (‘Husum School’) and another inside the offices of the Jord- og Betonarbejdernes Fagforening (‘Earth and Concrete Workers’ Union). Harald and Kai were on the most wanted list for sabotage activity. In November 1943, they were both injured in a shoot-out with the Danish police. Harald was shot in his lung and Kai in his leg. They were admitted to the Bispebjerg Hospital from where they were sent to Sweden. At the arrival to Sweden the two brothers were arrested by the Swedish police and initially admitted to the Malmø Sygehus (‘Malmö Hospital’). After one week in the hospital they were placed in solitary confinement in Malmø Arrest (‘Malmö Prison’) as the Swedish police feared they had come to Sweden in order to sabotage the Swedish rail transport to Germany and participate in establishing weapons transports from the Soviet Union to the Danish saboteurs. Later they were transferred to Kalmar Fængsel (‘Kalmar Prison’) where they were incarcerated for three months. May 1945 (Denmark was liberated 5 May 1945) Harald and Kai returned home to Denmark. A butcher, a machinist and a ‘chochard’ After the 2nd World War, Harald resumed his work as a butcher, while Hans Petersen got work as a machinist. Kai held a series of jobs. In 1954 he left Denmark to travel around Europe as a boatman. Mid1950, he followed through on his ambition to sail around the world, attracting a lot of attention from the French press who dubbed him ‘le clochard de la mer’ — ‘the ocean tramp’. He only made it as far as the Suez, however, as the Suez Canal had been closed due to the war in the Middle East in 1956. In Chelles-les-Courtreau, where he lived, only the postman knew his real name. To everyone else he was ‘le capitaine’. Kai returned to Denmark in May 1979. He was severely ill and was hospitalised in the Kingdom Hospital in Copenhagen where he died just a few days later. Harald was honoured with the privilege of presenting ‘La Pasionaria’ with a greeting from De Danske Spaniensfrivilliges Forening (‘the Association of Danish Volunteers in Spain’) on the occasion of her 90th birthday in 1985. Part of the greeting reads: We thank you for your lifelong efforts in the fight for freedom, peace and democracy. We will never forget your inspiring speeches during the time we fought in the International Brigades, We wish you good health and fortitude in the continuing fight. As the last of the three brothers, Harald died 5 December 1989. FEATURED IMAGE: From left: Hans Petersen, Harald, Kai og Aage Nielsen in Albacete, around February-March 1937	4,333	ENGLISH	1
The first shots in the American Revolution occurred during the Boston Massacre, and this history describes the trial that followed, certainly “the most important case in American colonial history.” On March 5, 1770, British soldiers, harassed by a mob throwing snowballs and rocks, fired into the crowd, killing five and injuring six. Abrams, the chief legal affairs correspondent for ABC News, and prolific author Fisher (co-authors: Lincoln's Last Trial: The Murder Case That Propelled Him to the Presidency, 2018) write that the 34-year-old Adams, a successful lawyer who was sympathetic to the protestors, agreed to defend the officer and eight soldiers accused of murder. He would later write, “Counsel ought to be the very last thing an accused person should want in a free country….” This was a moderately courageous act that did his growing law practice no good. To his dying day, Adams grumbled that opponents used the trial to impugn his patriotism. This may have been true, but since then, historians have given him high marks. There were two trials. In the first, the defense had little trouble convincing the jury that Thomas Preston, the officer in charge, did not order his men to fire. In the second, Adams and colleagues strived to show that the soldiers feared for their lives, thus giving them the right to kill in self-defense. They largely succeeded. The jury exonerated six and convicted two of the lesser charge of manslaughter. The letter “m” was burned onto their thumbs as punishment. A transcript exists of the soldiers’ trial, which is perhaps too much of a good thing, as the authors quote liberally from it. Despite variations, readers will encounter perhaps 100 pages of witnesses’ descriptions of the same event followed by several lawyers’ careful reviews of those that support the case. Many readers will feel the urge to skim these parts, but on the whole, the narrative is engaging. An expert, extremely detailed account of John Adams’ finest hour.	<urn:uuid:5fbb1a98-586c-4dc3-8986-1da7baa50553>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/dan-abrams/john-adams-under-fire/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00251.warc.gz	en	0.980603	415	3.4375	3	[ -0.32104942202568054, 0.23534122109413147, 0.19520282745361328, -0.270786315202713, -0.16332587599754333, 0.2929155230522156, 0.21532507240772247, 0.07879403978586197, -0.1793239712715149, -0.1934184730052948, 0.0064001139253377914, 0.3112475275993347, -0.2091839462518692, 0.43160983920097...	1	The first shots in the American Revolution occurred during the Boston Massacre, and this history describes the trial that followed, certainly “the most important case in American colonial history.” On March 5, 1770, British soldiers, harassed by a mob throwing snowballs and rocks, fired into the crowd, killing five and injuring six. Abrams, the chief legal affairs correspondent for ABC News, and prolific author Fisher (co-authors: Lincoln's Last Trial: The Murder Case That Propelled Him to the Presidency, 2018) write that the 34-year-old Adams, a successful lawyer who was sympathetic to the protestors, agreed to defend the officer and eight soldiers accused of murder. He would later write, “Counsel ought to be the very last thing an accused person should want in a free country….” This was a moderately courageous act that did his growing law practice no good. To his dying day, Adams grumbled that opponents used the trial to impugn his patriotism. This may have been true, but since then, historians have given him high marks. There were two trials. In the first, the defense had little trouble convincing the jury that Thomas Preston, the officer in charge, did not order his men to fire. In the second, Adams and colleagues strived to show that the soldiers feared for their lives, thus giving them the right to kill in self-defense. They largely succeeded. The jury exonerated six and convicted two of the lesser charge of manslaughter. The letter “m” was burned onto their thumbs as punishment. A transcript exists of the soldiers’ trial, which is perhaps too much of a good thing, as the authors quote liberally from it. Despite variations, readers will encounter perhaps 100 pages of witnesses’ descriptions of the same event followed by several lawyers’ careful reviews of those that support the case. Many readers will feel the urge to skim these parts, but on the whole, the narrative is engaging. An expert, extremely detailed account of John Adams’ finest hour.	414	ENGLISH	1
Elements: Sea, Earth, Fire Symbols: Cows, dolphins, fishes, cats, granite, acacia tree Worship of Al-Uzza originated from Sabean culture (Kingdom of Saba or Sheba in the southern Arabian Peninsula) where her worship spread all over Arabia and she was the patron goddess of the city of Mecca. Al-Uzza was the goddess of power and the personification of the planet Venus. She was the sister of goddesses Al-Lat and Manat. Together they formed the triple-goddess and Al-Uzza represents the maiden aspect being the youngest of the sisters. She was the goddess of war and her position as the maiden goddess made her the goddess of the "fresh perspective". Al-Uzza is connected to clocks, devices and astrology. She was worshiped by the Banu Quraysh, Bany Sulaym, Banu Ghanim, Banu Ghatafan, Banu Khuza´an, Banu Thaqif and Banu Kinãnah tribes. Her altar was three acacia trees that grew close to each others. Trees were located in the valley of Nakhla near the city of Mecca. Her other temple was located inside the city and it was called Buss. Temple was built of bricks and inside it there was a bone-shaped granite statue where arabic tribes left sacrificial gifts for the goddess. They believed that she spoke to them through the altar and offered them advices. In the southern part of Arabian Peninsula in Himyar and in Yemen goddess was known as Uzzayan and she was the goddess of healing. Wealthy members of Himyar tribe sacrificed small golden images and prayed the goddess to heal their sick children. Name of the goddess Amat-'Uzzayan means the "maiden of Uzzayan" it was a common woman´s name at the time. In Mecca Abd al-'Uzza was a common man´s name and it means the worshiper of al-Uzza. Banu Quraysh tribe dedicated the valley of Suqam to Al-Uzza. The membembers of the tribe praid and took oaths in the valley. During battles it was common for women to chant the names of Al-Uzza and her spouse Hubal to spread courage to beat their enemies. Arabic tribes that lived near Mecca frequently prayed for al-Uzza and sacrificed animals for her (human sacrifices were more rare). Banu Quraysh tribe worshiped al-Uzza as the goddess of war and before any battle women performed music and sang for the goddess. This happened in the battle of Uhud which was the first battle where pagan arabs fought against the first muslims. Last temple of al-Uzza was established by chief Dubayyah ibn Haram as-Sulami who had a reputation of being kind and generous man. He was murdered by muslim war chief Khalid ibn al-Walid on whose orders all the temples and sacred trees of Al-Uzza were destroyed in 630 AC. Al-Uzza was also known as al-Zuhara and Kawkabta, these names refer to planet Venus, who was believed to be one of the incarnations of the goddess. When Venus was refered as the morning star, it was connected to a male deity called Athtar, who was separate from al-Uzza. For Arabs al-Uzza as the incartation of Venus was the protector of marriage. In Kanaan the goddess of war was called Anat, who was equavelent to al-Uzza. In Hebrew Anat was known as Uzza Hayyim the force of life. The spouse of Anat was the god of nature Baal. Ancient Greeks connected Al--Uzza to Ourania, who was the goddess of the skies and one of the many forms of goddess Aphrodite. She was also connected to one of the nine muses, who´s name was also Ourania and to the moon goddess Caelistes. Roman name of Al-Uza was Carthaginian Tanit. Sometimes she is also connected to Egyptian earth goddess Isis. According to greek author Herodotos chief goddess of Arabs was Ourania, who they refered as Alilat. According some researchers Al-Lat and Al-Uzza are one and the same goddess, whos name varies in different areas. Nabatean astrologers called her as the heavenly queen. She was possibly also worshiped in Petra, the capital of Jordania. In Pre-Islamic Arabia Petra was one of the wealthiest cities with lots of travelers visitin each year from different parts of the world. Al-Uzza was the protector of sailors. Majority of Arabian Peninsula is desert but Nabateans (nomadics who lived in the area of what is now known as Yemen) were accomplished sailors. Symbols of Al-Uzza are fishes and dolphins, that enjoy swimming next to ships and save sailors. Cats and other felines are sacred to Al-Uzza. It is speculated that the winged lions that guard the gates of Petra were gifts for the goddess from her loyal worshipers. I´v finally added sneakers to my store with my paintings and designs on them. These ones has my Northern Lights painting printed (and just like that we go from Arabian peninsula to Finland...welcome to my life). You can find the magical shoe collection here )O( Pronounced as Nee-na. Artist, illustrator, writer, watercolorist and a folklorist. Gryffinclaw. Comes from Finland. Likes cats, tea and period dramas. Please keep the comment section civil, respectful and connected to the topic at hand. Thank you. Spammy/rude/passive-agressive comments will be blocked and reported.	<urn:uuid:a0beb2a0-59e8-481c-b931-e592fccb2d88>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.fairychamber.com/blog/al-uzza-arabic-goddess-of-venus	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250625097.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124191133-20200124220133-00167.warc.gz	en	0.982752	1,206	3.375	3	[ 0.03792952001094818, 0.4154447019100189, 0.1922825276851654, 0.23123294115066528, -0.4259362816810608, 0.29660239815711975, 0.27896520495414734, 0.1373825967311859, 0.1830989420413971, 0.3614397644996643, -0.03944256156682968, -0.9474455118179321, 0.2868726849555969, -0.3319597840309143, ...	2	Elements: Sea, Earth, Fire Symbols: Cows, dolphins, fishes, cats, granite, acacia tree Worship of Al-Uzza originated from Sabean culture (Kingdom of Saba or Sheba in the southern Arabian Peninsula) where her worship spread all over Arabia and she was the patron goddess of the city of Mecca. Al-Uzza was the goddess of power and the personification of the planet Venus. She was the sister of goddesses Al-Lat and Manat. Together they formed the triple-goddess and Al-Uzza represents the maiden aspect being the youngest of the sisters. She was the goddess of war and her position as the maiden goddess made her the goddess of the "fresh perspective". Al-Uzza is connected to clocks, devices and astrology. She was worshiped by the Banu Quraysh, Bany Sulaym, Banu Ghanim, Banu Ghatafan, Banu Khuza´an, Banu Thaqif and Banu Kinãnah tribes. Her altar was three acacia trees that grew close to each others. Trees were located in the valley of Nakhla near the city of Mecca. Her other temple was located inside the city and it was called Buss. Temple was built of bricks and inside it there was a bone-shaped granite statue where arabic tribes left sacrificial gifts for the goddess. They believed that she spoke to them through the altar and offered them advices. In the southern part of Arabian Peninsula in Himyar and in Yemen goddess was known as Uzzayan and she was the goddess of healing. Wealthy members of Himyar tribe sacrificed small golden images and prayed the goddess to heal their sick children. Name of the goddess Amat-'Uzzayan means the "maiden of Uzzayan" it was a common woman´s name at the time. In Mecca Abd al-'Uzza was a common man´s name and it means the worshiper of al-Uzza. Banu Quraysh tribe dedicated the valley of Suqam to Al-Uzza. The membembers of the tribe praid and took oaths in the valley. During battles it was common for women to chant the names of Al-Uzza and her spouse Hubal to spread courage to beat their enemies. Arabic tribes that lived near Mecca frequently prayed for al-Uzza and sacrificed animals for her (human sacrifices were more rare). Banu Quraysh tribe worshiped al-Uzza as the goddess of war and before any battle women performed music and sang for the goddess. This happened in the battle of Uhud which was the first battle where pagan arabs fought against the first muslims. Last temple of al-Uzza was established by chief Dubayyah ibn Haram as-Sulami who had a reputation of being kind and generous man. He was murdered by muslim war chief Khalid ibn al-Walid on whose orders all the temples and sacred trees of Al-Uzza were destroyed in 630 AC. Al-Uzza was also known as al-Zuhara and Kawkabta, these names refer to planet Venus, who was believed to be one of the incarnations of the goddess. When Venus was refered as the morning star, it was connected to a male deity called Athtar, who was separate from al-Uzza. For Arabs al-Uzza as the incartation of Venus was the protector of marriage. In Kanaan the goddess of war was called Anat, who was equavelent to al-Uzza. In Hebrew Anat was known as Uzza Hayyim the force of life. The spouse of Anat was the god of nature Baal. Ancient Greeks connected Al--Uzza to Ourania, who was the goddess of the skies and one of the many forms of goddess Aphrodite. She was also connected to one of the nine muses, who´s name was also Ourania and to the moon goddess Caelistes. Roman name of Al-Uza was Carthaginian Tanit. Sometimes she is also connected to Egyptian earth goddess Isis. According to greek author Herodotos chief goddess of Arabs was Ourania, who they refered as Alilat. According some researchers Al-Lat and Al-Uzza are one and the same goddess, whos name varies in different areas. Nabatean astrologers called her as the heavenly queen. She was possibly also worshiped in Petra, the capital of Jordania. In Pre-Islamic Arabia Petra was one of the wealthiest cities with lots of travelers visitin each year from different parts of the world. Al-Uzza was the protector of sailors. Majority of Arabian Peninsula is desert but Nabateans (nomadics who lived in the area of what is now known as Yemen) were accomplished sailors. Symbols of Al-Uzza are fishes and dolphins, that enjoy swimming next to ships and save sailors. Cats and other felines are sacred to Al-Uzza. It is speculated that the winged lions that guard the gates of Petra were gifts for the goddess from her loyal worshipers. I´v finally added sneakers to my store with my paintings and designs on them. These ones has my Northern Lights painting printed (and just like that we go from Arabian peninsula to Finland...welcome to my life). You can find the magical shoe collection here )O( Pronounced as Nee-na. Artist, illustrator, writer, watercolorist and a folklorist. Gryffinclaw. Comes from Finland. Likes cats, tea and period dramas. Please keep the comment section civil, respectful and connected to the topic at hand. Thank you. Spammy/rude/passive-agressive comments will be blocked and reported.	1,164	ENGLISH	1
Who was St Peter? Who Was Saint Peter? Peter was a fisherman who lived near the Sea of Galilee. Being a fisherman was a lot of hard work because they used big nets to pull in fish from the sea. Peter lived a very long time ago. In fact, he lived in the very first century CE - about 2000 years ago! How do we know about Peter? First, he was written about in all four gospel books of the Bible. Often a historical account of someone or something might only have one source, but in this example, we have at least four! That would be the writings of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. What Was He Known For? Peter was among the first disciples of Jesus. All four gospels tell a similar story of when Jesus saw Peter and his brother Andrew fishing and He told them to, ''Follow Me, and I will make you fishers of men.'' That was the beginning of a whole different life for Peter! For one thing, Jesus gave him the new name: 'Peter' (or Cephas), which means 'rock'. The name his parents gave him was actually Simon, so he was sometimes called Simon Peter. As a disciple, he is remembered for some major events. One of the big ones according to the Bible is that Peter out of all the disciples correctly identified who Jesus was. When Jesus asked, ''Who do you say I am?'', He was pleased when Peter responded, ''You are the Christ, the Son of the living God.'' Remember how Peter got a new name meaning rock? He is also known as the foundation of the Christian church. A foundation is the solid part of a building that holds it up from the ground. Back then a foundation would have been made of rocks, just like Peter's name! Here, at St Peter's, we celebrate his feast day on the 29th June, in which we have a funfilled day for all the children! The display of St Peter in the entrance to the school painted by our very talented teaching assistant -Mrs S Ali	<urn:uuid:01ff5275-0243-463f-bdc6-9a2855d47146>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://stpetersce.rochdale.sch.uk/page/who-was-st-peter/47273	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00143.warc.gz	en	0.980204	426	3.46875	3	[ -0.0691918209195137, 0.23760709166526794, 0.06059228628873825, -0.16956554353237152, -0.0959528386592865, -0.29712939262390137, 0.3756161332130432, 0.10173103213310242, 0.059856291860342026, 0.20802810788154602, 0.3228255808353424, -0.5273582935333252, -0.11603040248155594, -0.076402902603...	16	Who was St Peter? Who Was Saint Peter? Peter was a fisherman who lived near the Sea of Galilee. Being a fisherman was a lot of hard work because they used big nets to pull in fish from the sea. Peter lived a very long time ago. In fact, he lived in the very first century CE - about 2000 years ago! How do we know about Peter? First, he was written about in all four gospel books of the Bible. Often a historical account of someone or something might only have one source, but in this example, we have at least four! That would be the writings of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. What Was He Known For? Peter was among the first disciples of Jesus. All four gospels tell a similar story of when Jesus saw Peter and his brother Andrew fishing and He told them to, ''Follow Me, and I will make you fishers of men.'' That was the beginning of a whole different life for Peter! For one thing, Jesus gave him the new name: 'Peter' (or Cephas), which means 'rock'. The name his parents gave him was actually Simon, so he was sometimes called Simon Peter. As a disciple, he is remembered for some major events. One of the big ones according to the Bible is that Peter out of all the disciples correctly identified who Jesus was. When Jesus asked, ''Who do you say I am?'', He was pleased when Peter responded, ''You are the Christ, the Son of the living God.'' Remember how Peter got a new name meaning rock? He is also known as the foundation of the Christian church. A foundation is the solid part of a building that holds it up from the ground. Back then a foundation would have been made of rocks, just like Peter's name! Here, at St Peter's, we celebrate his feast day on the 29th June, in which we have a funfilled day for all the children! The display of St Peter in the entrance to the school painted by our very talented teaching assistant -Mrs S Ali	426	ENGLISH	1
The music of Christmas has always brought joy, awe, and festivity. Christmas music has evolved as traditions have changed. However, the meaning of the holiday has remained. Here is a short history of Christmas music from the Middle Ages. The first specifically Christmas hymns that we know of appear in fourth-century Rome. Like all Christian music of the Middle Ages, these were Latin hymns. Specifically, they were used for liturgical purposes. Instruments were never used. Therefore, all songs were performed a cappella. Christmas music was not sung outside of churches. St. Ambrose of Milan wrote Veni Redemptor Gentium (“Come, Redeemer of the nations”), in the fourth century. He composed it for the Advent season. Accordingly, it especially signifies the holiness of Jesus of Nazareth.	<urn:uuid:10eaaf27-0692-4d03-987b-d2d1cf7dc08c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://bradsmusicroom.com/music-history/christmas/christmas-medieval-times-2-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00412.warc.gz	en	0.981859	172	4.1875	4	[ 0.01162888202816248, 0.30955520272254944, 0.5767646431922913, -0.24166175723075867, -0.09825519472360611, -0.004792926833033562, -0.2675148546695709, 0.20495592057704926, 0.2647162675857544, -0.2193620353937149, 0.27229318022727966, 0.3604212999343872, -0.06239761784672737, 0.0426290743052...	3	The music of Christmas has always brought joy, awe, and festivity. Christmas music has evolved as traditions have changed. However, the meaning of the holiday has remained. Here is a short history of Christmas music from the Middle Ages. The first specifically Christmas hymns that we know of appear in fourth-century Rome. Like all Christian music of the Middle Ages, these were Latin hymns. Specifically, they were used for liturgical purposes. Instruments were never used. Therefore, all songs were performed a cappella. Christmas music was not sung outside of churches. St. Ambrose of Milan wrote Veni Redemptor Gentium (“Come, Redeemer of the nations”), in the fourth century. He composed it for the Advent season. Accordingly, it especially signifies the holiness of Jesus of Nazareth.	163	ENGLISH	1
Frankenstein and the Effects of Isolation Isolation is the separation from others and/or society whether it be physically or emotionally. In the novel Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, I believe that a central theme is that the isolation from family and society, especially at a time when one is faced with difficulty, can have a negative effect on a person. The main characters in the story, Victor Frankenstein and the monster, both experience the same suffering of being alone in different ways. The negative consequences are the death of their loved one and eventually the end of their own. Frankenstein chooses to be isolated from society and his family on his own. He travels away from home for his desire to obtain more knowledge about natural philosophy. He fancied about creating something new, something no one has ever done before. “I will pioneer a new way, explore unknown powers, and unfold to the world the deepest mysteries of creation” (42). So then he created the monster. As soon as the monster awoke, Frankenstein ran away in fear for he created something so hideous that he couldn’t bare to even look at it. “My heart palpitated in the sickness of fear; and I hurried on with irregular steps, not daring to look about me” (51). Frankenstein emotionally isolated himself and soon fell ill. He couldn’t speak about it to anyone because he was too ashamed of himself for creating the monster. Unlike Frankenstein, the monster was forced to live in a world of isolation physically because of his appearance. He did not look like a human with his yellow eyes and muscles showing through his barely there skin. His face was threatening and he didn’t fit in with society even though he longed for acceptance. “I possessed no money, no friends, no kind of property. I was, besides, endowed with a figure hideously deformed and loathsome I cannot describe to you the agony that these reflections inflicted upon me” (148). The monster wanted attention and the only way he knew how to get it was to kill anyone he could that was close to his creator, Frankenstein. The monster turns vengeful, but not because he is evil. It’s because the monster is filled up with overwhelming hate and anger because there is no one out there like him. The more he killed Victor’s loved ones, the more attention the creature received from Victor. Eventually he had illed everyone close to Victor and had gained Victor’s full attention, when Victor vowed to do everything within his “power to seize the monster” (190). Now both Victor and the creature had no one to love, only one person to seek revenge from. Isolation eventually leads to death is another recurring theme within the story. The monster kills everyone around close to Frankenstein because he wants him to know what it feels like to be alone. He started with his younger brother William which also resulted in the death of Justine who was blamed for the tragic incident. Even though Frankenstein knew it was his fault his brother died, he couldn’t speak the truth in fear of what might happen to him. Next was Clerval, his best friend from childhood. Finally it was his beloved wife, Elizabeth. Isolation has a negative effect on Frankenstein by making him fall ill. “But I was in reality very ill; and surely nothing but the unbounded and unremitting attentions of my friend could have restored me to life. The form of the monster on whom I had bestowed existence was forever before my eyes. By very slow degrees, and with frequent relapses that alarmed and grieved my friend, I recovered” (55). With Clerval by his side, Frankenstein recovered because he needed social interaction with someone he knew. Clerval opened up the pathways of communication to his family which is a way of getting back to the norm of society. Being alone made him feel worse and with his friend near, he gained back his life that he missed when he was tucked away creating the monster. He returned back home to Geneva shortly after to escape his creation, only to find that it was already there and had already started his revenge. The monster longed for companionship as he hid away by himself longing for social interaction with the humans. He learned their language and observed how they interacted with each other and he desired the acceptance of society as a whole. In chapter 15, the monster decides to reveal himself to the cottagers he’s been observing. He first approaches De Lacy, a blind man, and because De Lacy could not see him, he did not reject him either. He says to De Lacy, “I am an unfortunate and deserted creature; I look around, and I have no relation or friend upon earth. These amiable people whom I go have never seen me, and know little of me. Relevant Topics Readers Also Choose I am full of fears; for if I fail there, I am an outcast in the world forever” (119). De Lacy befriends him and says that he would try and help the monster. “I am blind, and cannot judge of your countenance, but there is something in your words which persuades me that you are sincere” (120). This shows that without knowing what the monster looked like, he was a good being and De Lacy held no prejudices against him. The monster asks De Lacy to protect him and to introduce him to his family, but they came home right that second. Agatha fainted and Safie rushed out of the cottage. Felix through the monster out and this is when he realized that he will never ever be accepted in society and from this moment on, he swears to revenge himself against all humans, especially his creator. I believe this proves that the monster was not created evil. He is like a human with the feelings of wanting to be accepted and to have friends. Through isolation from society, the negative consequences results in the vengeance of the monster. Throughout the novel, the feelings of hatred and isolation shared between Victor and the monster, led both of them to their own self-destruction. Frankenstein loss everything and ventured out to find the monster so he could seek revenge. It took too long and the hardships of being alone eventually lead to his death. When Frankenstein passed, Walton found the monster crying by his side. He never meant to kill his creator and then realizes that what he did was wrong. His only companion was gone and now the monster grieved for the death of his creator. Isolation, both physically and emotionally, brought out the evil side to the characters. It caused them to do things that were not in their nature and then in the end, they both paid for it with their lives.	<urn:uuid:bdb3fc5e-5253-4779-8eeb-a03627b05834>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://freebooksummary.com/frankenstein-and-the-effects-of-isolation-19257	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594101.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119010920-20200119034920-00136.warc.gz	en	0.98585	1,388	3.546875	4	[ -0.11657930910587311, 0.07069949805736542, -0.041716478765010834, 0.183097243309021, 0.0418192595243454, -0.3312605023384094, 0.37305915355682373, -0.0935664176940918, 0.16114959120750427, -0.36718666553497314, 0.23530787229537964, 0.2958179712295532, 0.5377654433250427, -0.258855521678924...	2	Frankenstein and the Effects of Isolation Isolation is the separation from others and/or society whether it be physically or emotionally. In the novel Frankenstein by Mary Shelley, I believe that a central theme is that the isolation from family and society, especially at a time when one is faced with difficulty, can have a negative effect on a person. The main characters in the story, Victor Frankenstein and the monster, both experience the same suffering of being alone in different ways. The negative consequences are the death of their loved one and eventually the end of their own. Frankenstein chooses to be isolated from society and his family on his own. He travels away from home for his desire to obtain more knowledge about natural philosophy. He fancied about creating something new, something no one has ever done before. “I will pioneer a new way, explore unknown powers, and unfold to the world the deepest mysteries of creation” (42). So then he created the monster. As soon as the monster awoke, Frankenstein ran away in fear for he created something so hideous that he couldn’t bare to even look at it. “My heart palpitated in the sickness of fear; and I hurried on with irregular steps, not daring to look about me” (51). Frankenstein emotionally isolated himself and soon fell ill. He couldn’t speak about it to anyone because he was too ashamed of himself for creating the monster. Unlike Frankenstein, the monster was forced to live in a world of isolation physically because of his appearance. He did not look like a human with his yellow eyes and muscles showing through his barely there skin. His face was threatening and he didn’t fit in with society even though he longed for acceptance. “I possessed no money, no friends, no kind of property. I was, besides, endowed with a figure hideously deformed and loathsome I cannot describe to you the agony that these reflections inflicted upon me” (148). The monster wanted attention and the only way he knew how to get it was to kill anyone he could that was close to his creator, Frankenstein. The monster turns vengeful, but not because he is evil. It’s because the monster is filled up with overwhelming hate and anger because there is no one out there like him. The more he killed Victor’s loved ones, the more attention the creature received from Victor. Eventually he had illed everyone close to Victor and had gained Victor’s full attention, when Victor vowed to do everything within his “power to seize the monster” (190). Now both Victor and the creature had no one to love, only one person to seek revenge from. Isolation eventually leads to death is another recurring theme within the story. The monster kills everyone around close to Frankenstein because he wants him to know what it feels like to be alone. He started with his younger brother William which also resulted in the death of Justine who was blamed for the tragic incident. Even though Frankenstein knew it was his fault his brother died, he couldn’t speak the truth in fear of what might happen to him. Next was Clerval, his best friend from childhood. Finally it was his beloved wife, Elizabeth. Isolation has a negative effect on Frankenstein by making him fall ill. “But I was in reality very ill; and surely nothing but the unbounded and unremitting attentions of my friend could have restored me to life. The form of the monster on whom I had bestowed existence was forever before my eyes. By very slow degrees, and with frequent relapses that alarmed and grieved my friend, I recovered” (55). With Clerval by his side, Frankenstein recovered because he needed social interaction with someone he knew. Clerval opened up the pathways of communication to his family which is a way of getting back to the norm of society. Being alone made him feel worse and with his friend near, he gained back his life that he missed when he was tucked away creating the monster. He returned back home to Geneva shortly after to escape his creation, only to find that it was already there and had already started his revenge. The monster longed for companionship as he hid away by himself longing for social interaction with the humans. He learned their language and observed how they interacted with each other and he desired the acceptance of society as a whole. In chapter 15, the monster decides to reveal himself to the cottagers he’s been observing. He first approaches De Lacy, a blind man, and because De Lacy could not see him, he did not reject him either. He says to De Lacy, “I am an unfortunate and deserted creature; I look around, and I have no relation or friend upon earth. These amiable people whom I go have never seen me, and know little of me. Relevant Topics Readers Also Choose I am full of fears; for if I fail there, I am an outcast in the world forever” (119). De Lacy befriends him and says that he would try and help the monster. “I am blind, and cannot judge of your countenance, but there is something in your words which persuades me that you are sincere” (120). This shows that without knowing what the monster looked like, he was a good being and De Lacy held no prejudices against him. The monster asks De Lacy to protect him and to introduce him to his family, but they came home right that second. Agatha fainted and Safie rushed out of the cottage. Felix through the monster out and this is when he realized that he will never ever be accepted in society and from this moment on, he swears to revenge himself against all humans, especially his creator. I believe this proves that the monster was not created evil. He is like a human with the feelings of wanting to be accepted and to have friends. Through isolation from society, the negative consequences results in the vengeance of the monster. Throughout the novel, the feelings of hatred and isolation shared between Victor and the monster, led both of them to their own self-destruction. Frankenstein loss everything and ventured out to find the monster so he could seek revenge. It took too long and the hardships of being alone eventually lead to his death. When Frankenstein passed, Walton found the monster crying by his side. He never meant to kill his creator and then realizes that what he did was wrong. His only companion was gone and now the monster grieved for the death of his creator. Isolation, both physically and emotionally, brought out the evil side to the characters. It caused them to do things that were not in their nature and then in the end, they both paid for it with their lives.	1,371	ENGLISH	1
I am reading Andrzej Sapkowski's "The time of contempt". I found the paragraph which I didn't get, here it is: "She had to be faster than them. She ran to the black horse, who was stamping its hooves on the flagstones and galloped off with a cry, leaping into the saddle as she ran" Bold part of the sentence I can't understand. As I guess she didn't manage to catch the horse. I would like to know the meaning of last sentence and reason why is it constructed this way. The sentence says that she ran to the black horse, and galloped off (rode away fast) with a cry. The order of events is this: She realised that she had to be faster than "them" (some other people mentioned earlier). She ran to the black horse, and as she arrived at a place adjacent to the horse, leaped into its saddle without stopping. She became seated in the saddle and simultaneously made the horse gallop away, crying out aloud as she did so. The bold part of the sentence is constructed so that the essential information (she got on the horse and rode away fast) is provided first, and supplementary information (how she got on the horse) is provided second. This construction preserves a sense of immediacy and fast, spirited action which might be lost or diminished if the writer said e.g. she ran to the horse, leapt (or 'leaped') into the saddle while still running, urged the horse into fast motion and cried out at the same time. leaping into saddle as she ran aka running mount, valulting mount and galloping mount! As she ran, she mounted the moving horse - a quick get-away! Some equestrians call this a running vault. It is still found in Am rodeos. 2 short videos to demo: My sense is the construction is to aid a visual image of speed and horsemanship! It means that Ciri put one foot into the stirrup, urging her horse to gallop as she was mounting it - swinging her leg over the horse as the horse was running/galloping. I don't understand either, why the sentence was constructed in this way. I think it would have been better the other way around. "She leapt into the saddle, and galloped off with a cry". (After reading lbf's answer it makes a lot more sense!)	<urn:uuid:e3dd9395-212c-4759-9dc7-272bedc5b174>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://english.stackexchange.com/questions/450705/what-does-it-mean-leaping-into-saddle-as-she-ran/450712	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00387.warc.gz	en	0.985786	505	3.28125	3	[ -0.5063347220420837, 0.08579657226800919, -0.04295257478952408, 0.4980585277080536, -0.6754856109619141, -0.29389825463294983, 0.1044023409485817, 0.13841627538204193, 0.7169973850250244, -0.19178283214569092, -0.10811956971883774, -0.3582504987716675, -0.04600406065583229, -0.029432209208...	4	I am reading Andrzej Sapkowski's "The time of contempt". I found the paragraph which I didn't get, here it is: "She had to be faster than them. She ran to the black horse, who was stamping its hooves on the flagstones and galloped off with a cry, leaping into the saddle as she ran" Bold part of the sentence I can't understand. As I guess she didn't manage to catch the horse. I would like to know the meaning of last sentence and reason why is it constructed this way. The sentence says that she ran to the black horse, and galloped off (rode away fast) with a cry. The order of events is this: She realised that she had to be faster than "them" (some other people mentioned earlier). She ran to the black horse, and as she arrived at a place adjacent to the horse, leaped into its saddle without stopping. She became seated in the saddle and simultaneously made the horse gallop away, crying out aloud as she did so. The bold part of the sentence is constructed so that the essential information (she got on the horse and rode away fast) is provided first, and supplementary information (how she got on the horse) is provided second. This construction preserves a sense of immediacy and fast, spirited action which might be lost or diminished if the writer said e.g. she ran to the horse, leapt (or 'leaped') into the saddle while still running, urged the horse into fast motion and cried out at the same time. leaping into saddle as she ran aka running mount, valulting mount and galloping mount! As she ran, she mounted the moving horse - a quick get-away! Some equestrians call this a running vault. It is still found in Am rodeos. 2 short videos to demo: My sense is the construction is to aid a visual image of speed and horsemanship! It means that Ciri put one foot into the stirrup, urging her horse to gallop as she was mounting it - swinging her leg over the horse as the horse was running/galloping. I don't understand either, why the sentence was constructed in this way. I think it would have been better the other way around. "She leapt into the saddle, and galloped off with a cry". (After reading lbf's answer it makes a lot more sense!)	497	ENGLISH	1
The Death of King John King John of England (1199–1216), of Magna Carta fame, was by all accounts a particularly unpleasant ruler. The charges levelled against him, many of them during his own lifetime, included the murder of his nephew, the sexual predation of the wives and daughters of his nobles, and the starving to death of the wife and children of one of his former companions. So unpopular was John that his barons finally rose up in rebellion against his arbitrary rule, and against the severe punishments often inflicted upon them, until they eventually forced the king to grant them the Charter of Liberties, also known as Magna Carta, at Runnymede on 15 June 1215. Few can have lamented King John's eventual demise at Newark Castle — most probably following an attack of dysentery —in October 1216. Writing some 40 years later, Matthew Paris (d. 1259), monk and historian of St Albans Abbey, delivered the ultimate condemnation: 'Foul as it is, Hell itself is made fouler by the presence of John'. Today may, or may not, be the anniversary of King John's death. The medieval chroniclers could not reach consensus on the exact date that John died. Matthew Paris and his St Albans' predecessor, Roger of Wendover (d. 1236), plumped for 17 October. Ralph (d. 1226), abbot of the Cistercian monastery at Coggeshall (Essex), stated instead that King John had succumbed to his illness on 18 October. A number of monastic chroniclers, writing at Tewkesbury, Winchester, Worcester and elsewhere, favoured 19 October as the day in question. Of these various witnesses, we should perhaps give greatest credence to the anonymous chroniclers writing at Waverley Abbey (Surrey) and Southwark Priory (Surrey), both of whom asserted that the death of King John took place on 19 October. The manuscripts of these two chronicles (Waverley, British Library Cotton MS Vespasian A XVI; Southwark, British Library Cotton MS Faustina A VIII) were both being written in the year 1216, as evidenced by their numerous changes of scribe at this period. The same is also true, however, of Ralph of Coggeshall's Chronicon Anglicanum (the autograph manuscript of which is British Library Cotton MS Vespasian D X). Roger of Wendover and Matthew Paris, in contrast, were writing many years after the events being described, and so their testimony — albeit possibly derived from an authentic St Albans tradition — is more open to question. Is this how King John met his fate? As early as the 13th century, it was alleged that he had been poisoned by a monk of Swineshead Abbey (Lincolnshire), seen here offering him a poisoned chalice (London, British Library, Cotton MS Vitellius A XIII, f. 5v). Earlier in his reign, King John had determined that he should be buried at the Cistercian abbey he had founded at Beaulieu (Hampshire). In October 1216, Beaulieu lay in that part of England which was held by the rebel barons; and so John asked instead that he be buried at Worcester Cathedral, where his tomb can still be seen. In fact, the tomb was opened in 1797, in order to confirm whether it did contain John's body, and certain of the remains removed, which are also on view in Worcester. Mr Sandford, a local surgeon, inspected the skeleton, and reported that King John stood 5 ft 6½ in. (approximately 1.69 m) tall. Unlike one of his successors, Richard III, John was clearly not buried under a carpark. Next February, the four surviving manuscripts of King John's Magna Carta will be brought together at the British Library for the first time in 800 years. A ballot is currently being held to give 1,215 lucky winners the chance to see all four manuscripts side-by-side. The ballot closes on 31 October: don't forget to enter for your chance to take part in this moment of history! If you do miss out, you'll still be able to see the British Library's two 1215 Magna Carta manuscripts at our own major exhibition later in 2015: tickets are already on sale. And if you'd like to know more about the history of Magna Carta, take the chance to visit our new Learning webpages, which will be updated with more information next year. Strangely enough, we doubt that King John would have been particularly amused by the modern-day celebrations planned for Magna Carta in 2015. Less than 10 weeks after that document had been granted in June 1215, Magna Carta was annulled by Pope Innocent III, at John's request, declaring it to be 'shameful and demeaning, illegal and unjust, and null and void of all validity for ever'. Just over a year later, a revised version of Magna Carta was issued in the name of John's son, King Henry III (1216–1272), and the rest is history. King John never did get the last laugh.	<urn:uuid:f509edb3-3ec4-4322-ad40-f0ca657a2925>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://blogs.bl.uk/digitisedmanuscripts/2014/10/the-death-of-king-john.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00241.warc.gz	en	0.980432	1,078	3.28125	3	[ -0.36796337366104126, 0.4008817970752716, 0.6924906969070435, -0.06014835089445114, -0.1776265650987625, -0.04559296369552612, 0.36410126090049744, -0.05644507706165314, 0.1834232211112976, -0.07446853071451187, -0.33400958776474, -0.011599786579608917, 0.10351715236902237, 0.1545051336288...	6	The Death of King John King John of England (1199–1216), of Magna Carta fame, was by all accounts a particularly unpleasant ruler. The charges levelled against him, many of them during his own lifetime, included the murder of his nephew, the sexual predation of the wives and daughters of his nobles, and the starving to death of the wife and children of one of his former companions. So unpopular was John that his barons finally rose up in rebellion against his arbitrary rule, and against the severe punishments often inflicted upon them, until they eventually forced the king to grant them the Charter of Liberties, also known as Magna Carta, at Runnymede on 15 June 1215. Few can have lamented King John's eventual demise at Newark Castle — most probably following an attack of dysentery —in October 1216. Writing some 40 years later, Matthew Paris (d. 1259), monk and historian of St Albans Abbey, delivered the ultimate condemnation: 'Foul as it is, Hell itself is made fouler by the presence of John'. Today may, or may not, be the anniversary of King John's death. The medieval chroniclers could not reach consensus on the exact date that John died. Matthew Paris and his St Albans' predecessor, Roger of Wendover (d. 1236), plumped for 17 October. Ralph (d. 1226), abbot of the Cistercian monastery at Coggeshall (Essex), stated instead that King John had succumbed to his illness on 18 October. A number of monastic chroniclers, writing at Tewkesbury, Winchester, Worcester and elsewhere, favoured 19 October as the day in question. Of these various witnesses, we should perhaps give greatest credence to the anonymous chroniclers writing at Waverley Abbey (Surrey) and Southwark Priory (Surrey), both of whom asserted that the death of King John took place on 19 October. The manuscripts of these two chronicles (Waverley, British Library Cotton MS Vespasian A XVI; Southwark, British Library Cotton MS Faustina A VIII) were both being written in the year 1216, as evidenced by their numerous changes of scribe at this period. The same is also true, however, of Ralph of Coggeshall's Chronicon Anglicanum (the autograph manuscript of which is British Library Cotton MS Vespasian D X). Roger of Wendover and Matthew Paris, in contrast, were writing many years after the events being described, and so their testimony — albeit possibly derived from an authentic St Albans tradition — is more open to question. Is this how King John met his fate? As early as the 13th century, it was alleged that he had been poisoned by a monk of Swineshead Abbey (Lincolnshire), seen here offering him a poisoned chalice (London, British Library, Cotton MS Vitellius A XIII, f. 5v). Earlier in his reign, King John had determined that he should be buried at the Cistercian abbey he had founded at Beaulieu (Hampshire). In October 1216, Beaulieu lay in that part of England which was held by the rebel barons; and so John asked instead that he be buried at Worcester Cathedral, where his tomb can still be seen. In fact, the tomb was opened in 1797, in order to confirm whether it did contain John's body, and certain of the remains removed, which are also on view in Worcester. Mr Sandford, a local surgeon, inspected the skeleton, and reported that King John stood 5 ft 6½ in. (approximately 1.69 m) tall. Unlike one of his successors, Richard III, John was clearly not buried under a carpark. Next February, the four surviving manuscripts of King John's Magna Carta will be brought together at the British Library for the first time in 800 years. A ballot is currently being held to give 1,215 lucky winners the chance to see all four manuscripts side-by-side. The ballot closes on 31 October: don't forget to enter for your chance to take part in this moment of history! If you do miss out, you'll still be able to see the British Library's two 1215 Magna Carta manuscripts at our own major exhibition later in 2015: tickets are already on sale. And if you'd like to know more about the history of Magna Carta, take the chance to visit our new Learning webpages, which will be updated with more information next year. Strangely enough, we doubt that King John would have been particularly amused by the modern-day celebrations planned for Magna Carta in 2015. Less than 10 weeks after that document had been granted in June 1215, Magna Carta was annulled by Pope Innocent III, at John's request, declaring it to be 'shameful and demeaning, illegal and unjust, and null and void of all validity for ever'. Just over a year later, a revised version of Magna Carta was issued in the name of John's son, King Henry III (1216–1272), and the rest is history. King John never did get the last laugh.	1,150	ENGLISH	1
Download our instructional unit curriculum plan here: Science 6B unit plan.pdf Creating a complete unit plan ahead of time was a difficult task for us, and by the start of our course we only truly had our essential understandings and knowledge objectives laid out. We also had an idea of some performance tasks we would use, such as the maintenance of a lab journal and original experimental designs. Most tasks, assessments and activities, however, were conceived along the way as the course went on. Though it would have been ideal to have the unit plan thoroughly fleshed out ahead of time, our efforts still fit with the idea of "planning backwards." We began with a vision of the understandings with which we wanted our students to leave the course, and some of the specific knowledge that went into these understandings. Only then did we choose assessments that would best prove understanding and activities that would best convey knowledge, constantly tailoring our plan according to our own developing understanding of our students.	<urn:uuid:e583d774-44ef-4f4b-bab5-c2e70863b823>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brown.digication.com/helenpang/Unit_Plan	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00556.warc.gz	en	0.983192	199	3.546875	4	[ -0.16011884808540344, 0.22803926467895508, 0.17356348037719727, -0.15777161717414856, -0.3022398054599762, 0.37724557518959045, -0.15449707210063934, 0.4256707429885864, 0.057055968791246414, 0.097366102039814, 0.2609288692474365, -0.2660561800003052, 0.11222904920578003, 0.121845103800296...	3	Download our instructional unit curriculum plan here: Science 6B unit plan.pdf Creating a complete unit plan ahead of time was a difficult task for us, and by the start of our course we only truly had our essential understandings and knowledge objectives laid out. We also had an idea of some performance tasks we would use, such as the maintenance of a lab journal and original experimental designs. Most tasks, assessments and activities, however, were conceived along the way as the course went on. Though it would have been ideal to have the unit plan thoroughly fleshed out ahead of time, our efforts still fit with the idea of "planning backwards." We began with a vision of the understandings with which we wanted our students to leave the course, and some of the specific knowledge that went into these understandings. Only then did we choose assessments that would best prove understanding and activities that would best convey knowledge, constantly tailoring our plan according to our own developing understanding of our students.	197	ENGLISH	1
History of the Reign of King Henry VII is a 1622 work by the English writer Francis Bacon. It charts the reign of the first Tudor monarch Henry VII who took the throne from his rival Richard III in 1485. At the time of writing Bacon had recently fallen from political power, and completed the work in late 1621 and sent a copy to James I. It was published the following year. Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban, was an English philosopher and statesman who served as Attorney General and as Lord Chancellor of England. His works are credited with developing the scientific method and remained influential through the scientific revolution. The House of Tudor was an English royal house of Welsh origin, descended in the male line from the Tudors of Penmynydd. Tudor monarchs ruled the Kingdom of England and its realms, including their ancestral Wales and the Lordship of Ireland from 1485 until 1603, with five monarchs in that period. The Tudors succeeded the House of Plantagenet as rulers of the Kingdom of England, and were succeeded by the House of Stuart. The first Tudor monarch, Henry VII of England, descended through his mother from a legitimised branch of the English royal House of Lancaster. The Tudor family rose to power in the wake of the Wars of the Roses, which left the House of Lancaster, to which the Tudors were aligned, extinct. Henry VII was the King of England and Lord of Ireland from his seizure of the crown on 22 August 1485 to his death on 21 April 1509. He was the first monarch of the House of Tudor. The book remains his only completed work of history.At the request of Charles, Prince of Wales he began work on a follow-up account of the reign of Henry VIII, but only completed a brief introduction. History is the study of the past as it is described in written documents. Events occurring before written record are considered prehistory. It is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of information about these events. Scholars who write about history are called historians. Charles I was the monarch over the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. Henry VIII was King of England from 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry was the second Tudor monarch, succeeding his father, Henry VII. Henry is best known for his six marriages, in particular his efforts to have his first marriage, to Catherine of Aragon, annulled. His disagreement with the Pope on the question of such an annulment led Henry to initiate the English Reformation, separating the Church of England from papal authority. He appointed himself the Supreme Head of the Church of England and dissolved convents and monasteries, for which he was excommunicated. Henry is also known as "the father of the Royal Navy"; he invested heavily in the Navy, increasing its size greatly from a few to more than 50 ships. Bacon's portrayal of Henry was extremely influential for the following three centuries. The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of "universal access to all knowledge." It provides free public access to collections of digitized materials, including websites, software applications/games, music, movies/videos, moving images, and millions of public-domain books. In addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. The Battle of Bosworth Field was the last significant battle of the Wars of the Roses, the civil war between the Houses of Lancaster and York that extended across England in the latter half of the 15th century. Fought on 22 August 1485, the battle was won by the Lancastrians. Their leader Henry Tudor, by his victory became the first English monarch of the Tudor dynasty. His opponent, Richard III, the last king of the House of York, was killed in the battle. Historians consider Bosworth Field to mark the end of the Plantagenet dynasty, making it a defining moment of English and Welsh history. Roger Bacon, also known by the scholastic accolade Doctor Mirabilis, was a medieval English philosopher and Franciscan friar who placed considerable emphasis on the study of nature through empiricism. In the early modern era, he was regarded as a wizard and particularly famed for the story of his mechanical or necromantic brazen head. He is sometimes credited as one of the earliest European advocates of the modern scientific method inspired by Aristotle and by Alhazen. Catherine of Valois was the queen consort of England from 1420 until 1422. A daughter of Charles VI of France, she married Henry V of England, and gave birth to his heir Henry VI of England. Her liaison with Owen Tudor proved the springboard of that family's fortunes, eventually leading to their grandson's elevation as Henry VII of England. Catherine's older sister Isabella was queen of England from 1396 until 1399, as the child bride of Richard II. Richard Foxe was an English churchman, successively Bishop of Exeter, Bath and Wells, Durham, and Winchester, Lord Privy Seal, and founder of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. A magnate, from the late Latin magnas, a great man, itself from Latin magnus, "great", is a noble or a man in a high social position, by birth, wealth or other qualities. In reference to the Middle Ages, the term is often used to distinguish higher territorial landowners and warlords such as counts, earls, dukes, and territorial-princes from the baronage. Francis II of Brittany was Duke of Brittany from 1458 to his death. He was the grandson of John IV, Duke of Brittany. A recurring theme in Francis' life would be his quest to maintain the quasi-independence of Brittany from France. As such, his reign was characterized by conflicts with King Louis XI of France and with his daughter, Anne of France, who served as regent during the minority of her brother, King Charles VIII. The armed and unarmed conflicts between 1484–1488 have been called the Mad War and also the "War of the Public Weal". The Pipe rolls, sometimes called the Great rolls, or the Great Rolls of the Pipe, are a collection of financial records maintained by the English Exchequer, or Treasury, and its successors. The earliest date from the 12th century, and the series extends, mostly complete, from then until 1833. They form the oldest continuous series of records concerning English governance kept by the English, British and United Kingdom governments, covering a span of about 700 years. The early medieval ones are especially useful for historical study, as they are some of the earliest financial records available from the Middle Ages. A similar set of records was developed for Normandy, which was ruled by the English kings from 1066 to 1205, but the Norman Pipe rolls have not survived in a continuous series like the English. Philip De Carteret was the eighth Seigneur of Saint Ouen. The son of Philip, he married Margaret Harliston in 1470 and had 21 children. Sir John Fenn (1739–1794) was an English antiquary. He is best remembered for collecting, editing, and publishing the Paston Letters, describing the life and political scheming of the gentry in Medieval England. He was also a justice of the peace who served as High Sheriff of Norfolk for 1791/2. Richard de Capella or Richard of the Chapel was a medieval Bishop of Hereford. Sir Brian William Vickers, FBA is a British academic, now Emeritus Professor at ETH Zurich. He is known for his work on the history of rhetoric, Shakespeare, John Ford, and Francis Bacon. He joined the English Department at University College, London as a visiting professor in 2012. The Constitutio domus regis, was a handbook written around 1136 that discussed the running of the household of King Henry I of England, as it was in the last years of Henry's reign. It was probably written for the new king, Stephen. It gives what every officer and member of the household should be paid, what other allowances they should be given, as well as listing all offices in the household. It is likely that the author of the work was Nigel who was treasurer under Henry I and became Bishop of Ely in 1133, although this is not accepted by all historians. Regenbald was a priest and royal official in Anglo-Saxon England under King Edward the Confessor. His name suggests that he was not a native Englishman, and perhaps was German or Norman. He first appears in history as a witness to a royal document in 1050, and remained a royal chaplain and clerk throughout the rest of King Edward's reign. Many royal documents give Regenbald the title of "chancellor" but whether this means that he acted in a manner similar to the later Lord Chancellor is unclear, as some of the documents may be forgeries or have been tampered with. Whatever Regenbald's actual title, King Edward rewarded him with lands and also granted him the status, but not the actual office, of bishop. Regenbald continued to serve the English kings after the Norman Conquest of England, although whether he served King Harold II of England is unclear. His date of death is unknown, but it was probably during the reign of either King William I or William II. After his death, some of his lands became part of the endowment of Cirencester Abbey in 1133. John Dynham, 1st Baron Dynham of Nutwell in the parish of Woodbury and of Hartland, both in Devon, was an English peer and politician. He served as Lord High Treasurer of England and Lord Chancellor of Ireland. He was one of the few men to have served as councillor to Kings Edward IV, Richard III and Henry VII and was trusted by all of them. Buckingham's rebellion was a failed but significant uprising, or collection of uprisings, of October 1483 in England and parts of Wales against Richard III of England. John la Zouche, 7th Baron Zouche, 8th Baron St Maur (1459–1526) was a Yorkist nobleman and politician. He was noted for his loyalty to Richard III, under whose command he fought at the Battle of Bosworth, where Richard was killed. Under the victorious Tudor dynasty he suffered attainder and forfeiture of his property, but he was eventually restored to royal favour, due partly to a marriage connection to the new King's mother. Stanley Bertram Chrimes (1907-1984) was head of the department of history at University College, Cardiff, University of Wales, 1953 to 1974. Sir James Hobart, also known as James Hoberd and James Hubbard, of Norfolk became a member of Lincoln's Inn during Edward IV of England's reign and was appointed attorney-general and knighted during the reign of Henry VII. \|This article about a non-fiction book on English history is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\|	<urn:uuid:6d42fbbf-5f51-4602-a9f4-2a9f6d2391fe>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://wikimili.com/en/History_of_the_Reign_of_King_Henry_VII	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00133.warc.gz	en	0.981422	2,320	3.453125	3	[ -0.09911003708839417, 0.5216612815856934, 0.39768922328948975, -0.1472017467021942, -0.4321517050266266, -0.14726540446281433, 0.23784855008125305, 0.09626021981239319, 0.15348824858665466, -0.060873568058013916, -0.5158723592758179, -0.5520017147064209, 0.014944287948310375, 0.48459970951...	1	History of the Reign of King Henry VII is a 1622 work by the English writer Francis Bacon. It charts the reign of the first Tudor monarch Henry VII who took the throne from his rival Richard III in 1485. At the time of writing Bacon had recently fallen from political power, and completed the work in late 1621 and sent a copy to James I. It was published the following year. Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Alban, was an English philosopher and statesman who served as Attorney General and as Lord Chancellor of England. His works are credited with developing the scientific method and remained influential through the scientific revolution. The House of Tudor was an English royal house of Welsh origin, descended in the male line from the Tudors of Penmynydd. Tudor monarchs ruled the Kingdom of England and its realms, including their ancestral Wales and the Lordship of Ireland from 1485 until 1603, with five monarchs in that period. The Tudors succeeded the House of Plantagenet as rulers of the Kingdom of England, and were succeeded by the House of Stuart. The first Tudor monarch, Henry VII of England, descended through his mother from a legitimised branch of the English royal House of Lancaster. The Tudor family rose to power in the wake of the Wars of the Roses, which left the House of Lancaster, to which the Tudors were aligned, extinct. Henry VII was the King of England and Lord of Ireland from his seizure of the crown on 22 August 1485 to his death on 21 April 1509. He was the first monarch of the House of Tudor. The book remains his only completed work of history.At the request of Charles, Prince of Wales he began work on a follow-up account of the reign of Henry VIII, but only completed a brief introduction. History is the study of the past as it is described in written documents. Events occurring before written record are considered prehistory. It is an umbrella term that relates to past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of information about these events. Scholars who write about history are called historians. Charles I was the monarch over the three kingdoms of England, Scotland, and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution in 1649. Henry VIII was King of England from 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry was the second Tudor monarch, succeeding his father, Henry VII. Henry is best known for his six marriages, in particular his efforts to have his first marriage, to Catherine of Aragon, annulled. His disagreement with the Pope on the question of such an annulment led Henry to initiate the English Reformation, separating the Church of England from papal authority. He appointed himself the Supreme Head of the Church of England and dissolved convents and monasteries, for which he was excommunicated. Henry is also known as "the father of the Royal Navy"; he invested heavily in the Navy, increasing its size greatly from a few to more than 50 ships. Bacon's portrayal of Henry was extremely influential for the following three centuries. The Internet Archive is a San Francisco–based nonprofit digital library with the stated mission of "universal access to all knowledge." It provides free public access to collections of digitized materials, including websites, software applications/games, music, movies/videos, moving images, and millions of public-domain books. In addition to its archiving function, the Archive is an activist organization, advocating for a free and open Internet. The Battle of Bosworth Field was the last significant battle of the Wars of the Roses, the civil war between the Houses of Lancaster and York that extended across England in the latter half of the 15th century. Fought on 22 August 1485, the battle was won by the Lancastrians. Their leader Henry Tudor, by his victory became the first English monarch of the Tudor dynasty. His opponent, Richard III, the last king of the House of York, was killed in the battle. Historians consider Bosworth Field to mark the end of the Plantagenet dynasty, making it a defining moment of English and Welsh history. Roger Bacon, also known by the scholastic accolade Doctor Mirabilis, was a medieval English philosopher and Franciscan friar who placed considerable emphasis on the study of nature through empiricism. In the early modern era, he was regarded as a wizard and particularly famed for the story of his mechanical or necromantic brazen head. He is sometimes credited as one of the earliest European advocates of the modern scientific method inspired by Aristotle and by Alhazen. Catherine of Valois was the queen consort of England from 1420 until 1422. A daughter of Charles VI of France, she married Henry V of England, and gave birth to his heir Henry VI of England. Her liaison with Owen Tudor proved the springboard of that family's fortunes, eventually leading to their grandson's elevation as Henry VII of England. Catherine's older sister Isabella was queen of England from 1396 until 1399, as the child bride of Richard II. Richard Foxe was an English churchman, successively Bishop of Exeter, Bath and Wells, Durham, and Winchester, Lord Privy Seal, and founder of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. A magnate, from the late Latin magnas, a great man, itself from Latin magnus, "great", is a noble or a man in a high social position, by birth, wealth or other qualities. In reference to the Middle Ages, the term is often used to distinguish higher territorial landowners and warlords such as counts, earls, dukes, and territorial-princes from the baronage. Francis II of Brittany was Duke of Brittany from 1458 to his death. He was the grandson of John IV, Duke of Brittany. A recurring theme in Francis' life would be his quest to maintain the quasi-independence of Brittany from France. As such, his reign was characterized by conflicts with King Louis XI of France and with his daughter, Anne of France, who served as regent during the minority of her brother, King Charles VIII. The armed and unarmed conflicts between 1484–1488 have been called the Mad War and also the "War of the Public Weal". The Pipe rolls, sometimes called the Great rolls, or the Great Rolls of the Pipe, are a collection of financial records maintained by the English Exchequer, or Treasury, and its successors. The earliest date from the 12th century, and the series extends, mostly complete, from then until 1833. They form the oldest continuous series of records concerning English governance kept by the English, British and United Kingdom governments, covering a span of about 700 years. The early medieval ones are especially useful for historical study, as they are some of the earliest financial records available from the Middle Ages. A similar set of records was developed for Normandy, which was ruled by the English kings from 1066 to 1205, but the Norman Pipe rolls have not survived in a continuous series like the English. Philip De Carteret was the eighth Seigneur of Saint Ouen. The son of Philip, he married Margaret Harliston in 1470 and had 21 children. Sir John Fenn (1739–1794) was an English antiquary. He is best remembered for collecting, editing, and publishing the Paston Letters, describing the life and political scheming of the gentry in Medieval England. He was also a justice of the peace who served as High Sheriff of Norfolk for 1791/2. Richard de Capella or Richard of the Chapel was a medieval Bishop of Hereford. Sir Brian William Vickers, FBA is a British academic, now Emeritus Professor at ETH Zurich. He is known for his work on the history of rhetoric, Shakespeare, John Ford, and Francis Bacon. He joined the English Department at University College, London as a visiting professor in 2012. The Constitutio domus regis, was a handbook written around 1136 that discussed the running of the household of King Henry I of England, as it was in the last years of Henry's reign. It was probably written for the new king, Stephen. It gives what every officer and member of the household should be paid, what other allowances they should be given, as well as listing all offices in the household. It is likely that the author of the work was Nigel who was treasurer under Henry I and became Bishop of Ely in 1133, although this is not accepted by all historians. Regenbald was a priest and royal official in Anglo-Saxon England under King Edward the Confessor. His name suggests that he was not a native Englishman, and perhaps was German or Norman. He first appears in history as a witness to a royal document in 1050, and remained a royal chaplain and clerk throughout the rest of King Edward's reign. Many royal documents give Regenbald the title of "chancellor" but whether this means that he acted in a manner similar to the later Lord Chancellor is unclear, as some of the documents may be forgeries or have been tampered with. Whatever Regenbald's actual title, King Edward rewarded him with lands and also granted him the status, but not the actual office, of bishop. Regenbald continued to serve the English kings after the Norman Conquest of England, although whether he served King Harold II of England is unclear. His date of death is unknown, but it was probably during the reign of either King William I or William II. After his death, some of his lands became part of the endowment of Cirencester Abbey in 1133. John Dynham, 1st Baron Dynham of Nutwell in the parish of Woodbury and of Hartland, both in Devon, was an English peer and politician. He served as Lord High Treasurer of England and Lord Chancellor of Ireland. He was one of the few men to have served as councillor to Kings Edward IV, Richard III and Henry VII and was trusted by all of them. Buckingham's rebellion was a failed but significant uprising, or collection of uprisings, of October 1483 in England and parts of Wales against Richard III of England. John la Zouche, 7th Baron Zouche, 8th Baron St Maur (1459–1526) was a Yorkist nobleman and politician. He was noted for his loyalty to Richard III, under whose command he fought at the Battle of Bosworth, where Richard was killed. Under the victorious Tudor dynasty he suffered attainder and forfeiture of his property, but he was eventually restored to royal favour, due partly to a marriage connection to the new King's mother. Stanley Bertram Chrimes (1907-1984) was head of the department of history at University College, Cardiff, University of Wales, 1953 to 1974. Sir James Hobart, also known as James Hoberd and James Hubbard, of Norfolk became a member of Lincoln's Inn during Edward IV of England's reign and was appointed attorney-general and knighted during the reign of Henry VII. \|This article about a non-fiction book on English history is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.\|	2,415	ENGLISH	1
The transcontinental railroad network provided as the basis for the great post-Civil War industrial transformation in two major ways. First, the transcontinental railroad helped stimulate the steel industry. Railroads required a heavy demand of steel to build it and also for the carts that were going to travel along it. This ultimately caused the steel industry to rise. Secondly, the transcontinental railroad essentially created a huge market that allowed industries to expand across the nation. This allowed factories to be able to get materials from around the US and sell their products in the US. The transcontinental railroad allowed the US to become an industrial power. 2. What were the abuses in the railroad industry and how did these lead to the first efforts at industrial regulation by the federal government? The railroad industry were not without corruption. There were a couple of astonishing abuses with the railroads including a cheap method of moneymaking called “stock watering.” This is the process of over-inflating the worth of their stock and sold them at huge profits. Also rail owners were exceptionally abusive to the public. They bribed judges and legislatures, elected their own to political office, gave rebates, and used free passes to gain favor in the press. Eventually, railroad owners joined into defensive alliances to show profits, and created the first trust or called a “pool.” A pool or cartel is a group of competitors who agree to work together, so they can set prices. 3. How did the economy come to be dominated by giant “trusts,” such as those headed by Carnegie and Rockefeller in the steel and oil industries? The economy eventually came to be dominated by giant “trusts” because of the of laissez faire capitalism. The government would not involve itself in business. This resulted in various numbers of gambles on business and shady business practices. Carnegie didn’t know much of the steel business, but did accumulate enough cash to purchase a steel company. When his competitor’s business was bad, he would buy them out one by one. Rockefeller completely ran competitors out of business. Rockefeller spied on his competitors to see what they were selling their product at. Eventually, Rockefeller controlled 90% of the oil business because he sold oil below the cost his competitors could not afford to do. Once all the competition was out of the picture, they created a trust which operated the entire industry. 4. Describe the growing class conflict caused by industrial growth and combustion, and the early efforts to alleviate it. Industrial growth and combustion caused the growing class into a conflict because it resulted in poor working conditions and a huge competition between the poorer classes. Immigrants were coming to America in great waves and were desperate for money for themselves and their families, so they were more than willing to take the lowest paying jobs and live in terrible conditions. Big business owners took advantage of this and paid their employees little to nothing and gave them ridiculously long hours. To alleviate it, there would be groups that could help like the church. 5. How did industrialist supporters attempt to explain and justify great wealth and increasing class division through “natural law” and the “Gospel of Wealth?” Industrialist supporters attempted to explain and justify great wealth and increasing class division through natural law and the gospel of wealth with social darwinism. This was the theory that individuals, groups, and people are subject to the same Darwinian laws of natural selection. They believed in “survival of the fittest” and that the rich were fit to live through the idea social darwinism. 6. Why was the South…	<urn:uuid:358a910c-dc57-47a4-9490-f8420e816671>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Industrialization-Laissez-Faire-And-Transcontinental-Railroad-532699.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00299.warc.gz	en	0.984114	745	3.765625	4	[ -0.11991284042596817, 0.06447894126176834, 0.08133747428655624, 0.41741520166397095, -0.052812911570072174, 0.070009246468544, -0.0782453864812851, 0.3440013825893402, -0.4350014626979828, -0.1708453893661499, 0.12086770683526993, 0.21087245643138885, 0.18114541471004486, 0.048772111535072...	1	The transcontinental railroad network provided as the basis for the great post-Civil War industrial transformation in two major ways. First, the transcontinental railroad helped stimulate the steel industry. Railroads required a heavy demand of steel to build it and also for the carts that were going to travel along it. This ultimately caused the steel industry to rise. Secondly, the transcontinental railroad essentially created a huge market that allowed industries to expand across the nation. This allowed factories to be able to get materials from around the US and sell their products in the US. The transcontinental railroad allowed the US to become an industrial power. 2. What were the abuses in the railroad industry and how did these lead to the first efforts at industrial regulation by the federal government? The railroad industry were not without corruption. There were a couple of astonishing abuses with the railroads including a cheap method of moneymaking called “stock watering.” This is the process of over-inflating the worth of their stock and sold them at huge profits. Also rail owners were exceptionally abusive to the public. They bribed judges and legislatures, elected their own to political office, gave rebates, and used free passes to gain favor in the press. Eventually, railroad owners joined into defensive alliances to show profits, and created the first trust or called a “pool.” A pool or cartel is a group of competitors who agree to work together, so they can set prices. 3. How did the economy come to be dominated by giant “trusts,” such as those headed by Carnegie and Rockefeller in the steel and oil industries? The economy eventually came to be dominated by giant “trusts” because of the of laissez faire capitalism. The government would not involve itself in business. This resulted in various numbers of gambles on business and shady business practices. Carnegie didn’t know much of the steel business, but did accumulate enough cash to purchase a steel company. When his competitor’s business was bad, he would buy them out one by one. Rockefeller completely ran competitors out of business. Rockefeller spied on his competitors to see what they were selling their product at. Eventually, Rockefeller controlled 90% of the oil business because he sold oil below the cost his competitors could not afford to do. Once all the competition was out of the picture, they created a trust which operated the entire industry. 4. Describe the growing class conflict caused by industrial growth and combustion, and the early efforts to alleviate it. Industrial growth and combustion caused the growing class into a conflict because it resulted in poor working conditions and a huge competition between the poorer classes. Immigrants were coming to America in great waves and were desperate for money for themselves and their families, so they were more than willing to take the lowest paying jobs and live in terrible conditions. Big business owners took advantage of this and paid their employees little to nothing and gave them ridiculously long hours. To alleviate it, there would be groups that could help like the church. 5. How did industrialist supporters attempt to explain and justify great wealth and increasing class division through “natural law” and the “Gospel of Wealth?” Industrialist supporters attempted to explain and justify great wealth and increasing class division through natural law and the gospel of wealth with social darwinism. This was the theory that individuals, groups, and people are subject to the same Darwinian laws of natural selection. They believed in “survival of the fittest” and that the rich were fit to live through the idea social darwinism. 6. Why was the South…	714	ENGLISH	1
Finding the words to describe her feelings A few simple and fun exercises will help your child as he develops. Ask him questions and give him the vocabulary to use, as well as the facial expressions and mannerisms that indicate feelings: Are you happy (smile)? Are you sad (frown)? Are you scared (grimace and big eyes)? Give him examples to start him off: "Mummy is happy because you gave me a hug, and I love getting hugs" or "Mummy is afraid of lizards because I think they're going to jump on me!" or "Daddy gets frustrated when he cannot find his keys because he will be late for work!" The expressions will not only help him use non–verbal cues to relate his feelings, but he will also be able to read others' feelings as he gets older, an important part of learning empathy. And when he begins to speak, he will be armed with the words to describe his feelings. Oftentimes youngsters don't know exactly why they are anxious. If this is the case with your child, just acknowledge his fears and reassure him that you are there for him and will take care of him and protect him from harm. If he is able to express what he is anxious about, don't dismiss his fears as invalid ("Don't be silly. There's nothing to be scared about!") but acknowlege them and explain instead: "I know you"re afraid of monsters under your bed, but I checked and there are none there." In rare cases, childhood anxiety reaches a level that needs special attention – and in these cases, parents should consult their family doctor for advice. But in most instances, children just need their parents' support and reassurance. What can you do to help? Suggested reading for primary school–age children: Kevin Henkes' Wemberly Worried, a funny and touching story of a young girl mouse who overcomes her worries when she meets a friend with whom she can share her feelings. Anxiety in children: a cause for concern? Is your child a worry wart? Don't you worry – anxiety in children normally begins around the age of three, but this is often a sign of healthy development. At this age, a child begins to develop his sense of imagination, and with that sense of imagination comes an awareness of real or imagined fears. For a young child who cannot distinguish between fantasy and reality, these fears can be overwhelming. So it's up to you to help him deal with them. Be sure to talk often with your child and ask him to share his feelings. Recognize that young children do not innately know how to express their feelings in words – they cry when they're anxious or sad or hungry or angry – so you'll have to help him along as he grows up.	<urn:uuid:6fc163c8-2f7c-472d-925c-84e2c302198a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thewriteconnection.com.sg/single-post/2016/03/10/Is-Your-Child-a-Worry-Wart-1	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00387.warc.gz	en	0.984248	571	3.625	4	[ -0.0599205382168293, 0.17066965997219086, 0.22940418124198914, 0.2656048536300659, -0.6057572364807129, 0.24357062578201294, 0.887772798538208, -0.19374701380729675, -0.0019623080734163523, -0.28464633226394653, 0.30750006437301636, -0.3234815299510956, -0.010225139558315277, 0.35167390108...	1	Finding the words to describe her feelings A few simple and fun exercises will help your child as he develops. Ask him questions and give him the vocabulary to use, as well as the facial expressions and mannerisms that indicate feelings: Are you happy (smile)? Are you sad (frown)? Are you scared (grimace and big eyes)? Give him examples to start him off: "Mummy is happy because you gave me a hug, and I love getting hugs" or "Mummy is afraid of lizards because I think they're going to jump on me!" or "Daddy gets frustrated when he cannot find his keys because he will be late for work!" The expressions will not only help him use non–verbal cues to relate his feelings, but he will also be able to read others' feelings as he gets older, an important part of learning empathy. And when he begins to speak, he will be armed with the words to describe his feelings. Oftentimes youngsters don't know exactly why they are anxious. If this is the case with your child, just acknowledge his fears and reassure him that you are there for him and will take care of him and protect him from harm. If he is able to express what he is anxious about, don't dismiss his fears as invalid ("Don't be silly. There's nothing to be scared about!") but acknowlege them and explain instead: "I know you"re afraid of monsters under your bed, but I checked and there are none there." In rare cases, childhood anxiety reaches a level that needs special attention – and in these cases, parents should consult their family doctor for advice. But in most instances, children just need their parents' support and reassurance. What can you do to help? Suggested reading for primary school–age children: Kevin Henkes' Wemberly Worried, a funny and touching story of a young girl mouse who overcomes her worries when she meets a friend with whom she can share her feelings. Anxiety in children: a cause for concern? Is your child a worry wart? Don't you worry – anxiety in children normally begins around the age of three, but this is often a sign of healthy development. At this age, a child begins to develop his sense of imagination, and with that sense of imagination comes an awareness of real or imagined fears. For a young child who cannot distinguish between fantasy and reality, these fears can be overwhelming. So it's up to you to help him deal with them. Be sure to talk often with your child and ask him to share his feelings. Recognize that young children do not innately know how to express their feelings in words – they cry when they're anxious or sad or hungry or angry – so you'll have to help him along as he grows up.	568	ENGLISH	1
Publisher: Mott Media Item #: N352 Level: Grade 4, Grade 5, Grade 6, Grade 7, Grade 8 Trailblazer of Science Robert Boyle lived a life of contrasts. He was born to one of the richest families on earth, but he chose to live a simple life. Robert became one of the greatest scientists of all time, but remained a shy, humble person. Despite his quiet nature, he worked forcefully and bravely against persecution and injustice. Robert Boyle's friends were a roll call of the famous: Christopher Wren, Samuel Pepys, John Milton, Isaac Newton and many others. Yet, during his life Robert Boyle towered over all of them. Robert's brothers and sisters all received regal titles such as knight, viscount, earl, lord. However, Robert Boyle refused all titles. He preferred to remain what he was, a Christian gentleman. Robert Boyle's father came to Ireland with nothing but a few coins in his pocket and a small trunk of clothes. He became the Great Earl of Cork, a powerful and wealthy Irish landowner. Like his father, Robert Boyle became famous, but in an entirely different way. He became the best known and most respected scientist of his day. Today, after three hundred years, he is still considered one of the top scientist of all time. Robert Boyle survived rebellions in Ireland, the English Civil War, the Black Death, the Great Fire and political unrest. He succeeded in making many remarkable discoveries during those difficult times. He lived a devout Christian life, using his science to glorify God.	<urn:uuid:f97ba6ad-2ac4-448a-86d0-4e79bc9fab0c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://heritageresources.ca/product-details.asp?id=4147&categoryid=	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00060.warc.gz	en	0.983039	328	3.578125	4	[ 0.03658390790224075, 0.3851883113384247, 0.09777989238500595, -0.22740863263607025, -0.1817111372947693, -0.2667536735534668, 0.7792302966117859, -0.13267390429973602, -0.2487390637397766, 0.0132221058011055, 0.05824509635567665, -0.32648295164108276, 0.5450196266174316, 0.3718735277652740...	1	Publisher: Mott Media Item #: N352 Level: Grade 4, Grade 5, Grade 6, Grade 7, Grade 8 Trailblazer of Science Robert Boyle lived a life of contrasts. He was born to one of the richest families on earth, but he chose to live a simple life. Robert became one of the greatest scientists of all time, but remained a shy, humble person. Despite his quiet nature, he worked forcefully and bravely against persecution and injustice. Robert Boyle's friends were a roll call of the famous: Christopher Wren, Samuel Pepys, John Milton, Isaac Newton and many others. Yet, during his life Robert Boyle towered over all of them. Robert's brothers and sisters all received regal titles such as knight, viscount, earl, lord. However, Robert Boyle refused all titles. He preferred to remain what he was, a Christian gentleman. Robert Boyle's father came to Ireland with nothing but a few coins in his pocket and a small trunk of clothes. He became the Great Earl of Cork, a powerful and wealthy Irish landowner. Like his father, Robert Boyle became famous, but in an entirely different way. He became the best known and most respected scientist of his day. Today, after three hundred years, he is still considered one of the top scientist of all time. Robert Boyle survived rebellions in Ireland, the English Civil War, the Black Death, the Great Fire and political unrest. He succeeded in making many remarkable discoveries during those difficult times. He lived a devout Christian life, using his science to glorify God.	329	ENGLISH	1
How King Alfred Learned to Read W HEN the Saxons first came to England, they came only to fight and kill, but soon they began to love their new home and, when two or three hundred years had passed, they forgot that they had ever lived in any other country. So, instead of fighting against England, they began to fight for and love the land as their own. Then English kings arose who tried to make good laws and rule the people well, as some of the British kings had done. But just as the Romans had come to conquer Britain, and as the Saxons themselves had come, so now another people came. These new enemies were the Northmen or Danes. They came from the countries which we now call Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. These Danes, as we shall call them all, were fierce, wild men. They loved to sail upon the sea; they loved to fight. They were heathen too, just as the Saxons had been when they first came to England. Many and long were the battles which were fought between the English and the Danes, but year by year the Danes grew stronger, and the English weaker, till it seemed as if the land was going to be conquered once again. But at last a great English king, called Alfred, began to rule. He beat the Danes in many battles, and nearly drove them out of the country. Alfred was the youngest son of Ethelwulf, who was King of Wessex, one of the seven kingdoms into which England was divided. He was also the grandson of Egbert, that king who changed the name of Britain to England. Although Ethelwulf was really king only of Wessex, he was "over-lord" over all the rulers of the other seven kingdoms of England. So you must remember, when we speak of the King of England at this time, that we do not mean that he was the only king in the land. But Wessex was the chief of the seven kingdoms, and the King of Wessex was the chief of the seven kings. In the end the King of Wessex became real king of all England, while the other kingdoms disappeared and their kings were forgotten. King Ethelwulf's wife was called Osburga. She was a good and wise woman, and a very kind mother to her little children. She was clever, too, and fond of reading, which was rather uncommon in those days when very few people could read or cared about it. In the time of the Romans, you remember, books were written on strips of parchment, and rolled up like maps. Now they were shaped and bound just like our books, only as there was no paper and no printing, they were still written on parchment and the pictures were all painted by hand. It took a long time to make a book, and required a great deal of money to buy one. One day when Alfred, the youngest son of King Ethelwulf, was quite a tiny boy, he was playing with his big brothers, while Osburga, his mother, sat watching them, and reading. The book she read was one of old English songs. Osburga was very fond of these songs, and used to say them to her little boys when they were tired of play. It was a pretty book, full of pictures and bright letters in gold, and blue, and red. As Osburga turned the pages Alfred saw the pretty pictures, so he left his play, and came to lean against his mother's knee, to look at them. "What a pretty book it is, mother!" he said. "Do you like it, little one?" said Osburga. "Yes, mother, I do," replied Alfred. Then all the other boys came crowding round their mother to see the pretty book too. They pressed against her, and leaned over her shoulder till nothing was to be seen but five curly heads close together. "Oh, isn't it lovely!" they said, as Osburga slowly turned the pages, explaining the pictures, and letting them look at the beautiful colored letters at the beginnings of the songs. When Osburga saw how they all liked the book, she was very much pleased. She pushed them all away from her a little, and looked round their happy eager faces. You see in those days even kings' sons had no picture-books, such as every child has now, and it was quite a treat for these princes to be allowed to look at this beautiful one. "Do you truly like this book?" asked Osburga. "Oh yes, mother, we do," they all answered at once. "Then, boys," she said, "I will give it to the one who first learns to read it." "O mother, do you mean it? May I try too?" asked Alfred. "Yes, I do mean it, and, of course, you may try," answered Osburga, smiling at him. And perhaps she hoped that he would win the prize, for both his father and his mother loved Alfred best of all their children. And Alfred did win the prize. He was so eager to have the book that he worked hard all day long. And one morning, while his big brothers were still trying to read the book, he came to his mother and read it without making any mistakes. Then Osburga kissed him and gave him the prize, as she had promised. All his life afterwards Alfred was fond of books; and even when he became king, and had many, many other things to do, he still found time not only to read, but to write them.	<urn:uuid:a3d31355-11cb-4e0a-a806-749205c82f2a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.gatewaytotheclassics.com/browse/display.php?author=marshall&book=island&story=read	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00184.warc.gz	en	0.995077	1,180	3.5625	4	[ -0.15627318620681763, 0.5313951969146729, 0.16555753350257874, -0.1746152937412262, -0.2383064478635788, -0.09023827314376831, -0.06982302665710449, -0.22522717714309692, 0.08741089701652527, -0.12163379788398743, -0.1622936725616455, -0.4506058692932129, 0.14021927118301392, 0.21433264017...	1	How King Alfred Learned to Read W HEN the Saxons first came to England, they came only to fight and kill, but soon they began to love their new home and, when two or three hundred years had passed, they forgot that they had ever lived in any other country. So, instead of fighting against England, they began to fight for and love the land as their own. Then English kings arose who tried to make good laws and rule the people well, as some of the British kings had done. But just as the Romans had come to conquer Britain, and as the Saxons themselves had come, so now another people came. These new enemies were the Northmen or Danes. They came from the countries which we now call Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. These Danes, as we shall call them all, were fierce, wild men. They loved to sail upon the sea; they loved to fight. They were heathen too, just as the Saxons had been when they first came to England. Many and long were the battles which were fought between the English and the Danes, but year by year the Danes grew stronger, and the English weaker, till it seemed as if the land was going to be conquered once again. But at last a great English king, called Alfred, began to rule. He beat the Danes in many battles, and nearly drove them out of the country. Alfred was the youngest son of Ethelwulf, who was King of Wessex, one of the seven kingdoms into which England was divided. He was also the grandson of Egbert, that king who changed the name of Britain to England. Although Ethelwulf was really king only of Wessex, he was "over-lord" over all the rulers of the other seven kingdoms of England. So you must remember, when we speak of the King of England at this time, that we do not mean that he was the only king in the land. But Wessex was the chief of the seven kingdoms, and the King of Wessex was the chief of the seven kings. In the end the King of Wessex became real king of all England, while the other kingdoms disappeared and their kings were forgotten. King Ethelwulf's wife was called Osburga. She was a good and wise woman, and a very kind mother to her little children. She was clever, too, and fond of reading, which was rather uncommon in those days when very few people could read or cared about it. In the time of the Romans, you remember, books were written on strips of parchment, and rolled up like maps. Now they were shaped and bound just like our books, only as there was no paper and no printing, they were still written on parchment and the pictures were all painted by hand. It took a long time to make a book, and required a great deal of money to buy one. One day when Alfred, the youngest son of King Ethelwulf, was quite a tiny boy, he was playing with his big brothers, while Osburga, his mother, sat watching them, and reading. The book she read was one of old English songs. Osburga was very fond of these songs, and used to say them to her little boys when they were tired of play. It was a pretty book, full of pictures and bright letters in gold, and blue, and red. As Osburga turned the pages Alfred saw the pretty pictures, so he left his play, and came to lean against his mother's knee, to look at them. "What a pretty book it is, mother!" he said. "Do you like it, little one?" said Osburga. "Yes, mother, I do," replied Alfred. Then all the other boys came crowding round their mother to see the pretty book too. They pressed against her, and leaned over her shoulder till nothing was to be seen but five curly heads close together. "Oh, isn't it lovely!" they said, as Osburga slowly turned the pages, explaining the pictures, and letting them look at the beautiful colored letters at the beginnings of the songs. When Osburga saw how they all liked the book, she was very much pleased. She pushed them all away from her a little, and looked round their happy eager faces. You see in those days even kings' sons had no picture-books, such as every child has now, and it was quite a treat for these princes to be allowed to look at this beautiful one. "Do you truly like this book?" asked Osburga. "Oh yes, mother, we do," they all answered at once. "Then, boys," she said, "I will give it to the one who first learns to read it." "O mother, do you mean it? May I try too?" asked Alfred. "Yes, I do mean it, and, of course, you may try," answered Osburga, smiling at him. And perhaps she hoped that he would win the prize, for both his father and his mother loved Alfred best of all their children. And Alfred did win the prize. He was so eager to have the book that he worked hard all day long. And one morning, while his big brothers were still trying to read the book, he came to his mother and read it without making any mistakes. Then Osburga kissed him and gave him the prize, as she had promised. All his life afterwards Alfred was fond of books; and even when he became king, and had many, many other things to do, he still found time not only to read, but to write them.	1,148	ENGLISH	1
In Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, Decius Brutus and Mark Antony, both Roman Senators, eulogize Julius Caesar, each using a different technique and approach. Brutus, in a somewhat arrogant, to the point, eulogy, attempts to sway the people. He justifies conspiring against Caesar by stating that Caesar’s ambition would have hurt Rome. However, in Antony’s eulogy, he focuses on Caesar’s positive traits, and cunningly disproves Brutus’ justification for killing Caesar. The fickle Romans waver between leaders, responding emotionally, rather than intellectually, to the orators. Brutus seeks to explain why he conspired against Caesar. He begins his speech with “Romans, countrymen …”, appealing to their consciousness as citizens of Rome, who, he later says, will benefit as freeman with Caesar’s death. This shows that Brutus knows how to lure the crowd, appealing to their better judgement as Romans. He declares that he is an honorable man, and tells them that he will let them judge the validity of his claims. That is, he will allow the truth to speak for itself. This encourages the crowd to believe him, as an honorable man. He says that he wants them to know the facts; “Censure me in your wisdom, and awake your senses that you may the better judge.” Sharing information with the people is flattering and it almost guarantees acceptance. He gets their sympathy by saying that he loved Caesar, daring the people to find anyone who loved Caesar more. Brutus declares that he never wronged Caesar, that he cried for Caesar’s love, was happy for his greatness, honored him for his courage, but had to kill him because of Caesar’s ambition. He says that the reason for killing Caesar was his great love for Rome. He justifies his actions by saying that he loved Caesar but, “Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more.” He then asks rhetorically if the people would want to live their lives as slaves under Caesar’s rule or would they prefer to live as freemen with Caesar dead. To anyone insulted by his speech he wonders if, as Romans who love their freedom, they could be offended or reject what he, Brutus, says. He poses the question, “Who is here so base that would be a bondman?” He stresses the point, repeating the line, “If any, speak, for him have I offended.” “I pause for a reply.”, allows them to respond to his rhetorical questions, giving them an even greater sense that he cares about them and their opinions. They can only respond, ” None, Brutus, none.” That is, none are offended, they do not disagree or argue with his words or his actions. Mark Antony’s eulogy utilizes a different approach. He starts out by addressing the crowd as “Friends” because he wants to come to them as a friend rather than a ruler trying to gain power. He then says, “I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.”, thus he can ease in praises of Caesar without the crowd stopping him. He sounds very sincere when he says, “The noble Brutus hath told you Caesar was ambitious…. For Brutus is an honorable man.” He repeats that statement three more times becoming increasingly sarcastic, saying finally, “Yet Brutus says he was ambitious, and sure he was an honorable man.” Since the people responded positively to Brutus’ speech, Antony could not insult Brutus’ honesty in a direct manner. Yet, Antony disproves Caesar’s ambition with three examples. One is when he gave the ransom of captives to the public treasury and not his own, another when he cried with the poor people, and finally when he refused the kingship that Antony offered him, three times. Anyone who was ambitious would never have done any such things. Antony says, “I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke.” , but that is exactly what he does. Antony is using a dramatic effect on the people, first by entering on the stage with the body of Caesar, and at the end stating that his heart is still with the body of Caesar, ending his speech weeping. In justifying Caesar and disproving Brutus, the people see Antony as a potential successor to Caesar. They are swayed to him by his dramatics, his underhanded way of making a point, his repetition, and compelling proof of Caesar’s concern. He is able to get the people to question the rightness of killing Caesar. He has planted doubt in the people’s minds, in all areas except that he, Antony, is, “poor soul”, an honorable. The difference between the eulogies shows us the importance of style of speech. Both try to appeal to the people, and both use repetition, but Brutus takes a defensive approach, leaving the people to their own conclusions. However, Antony takes a prosecuting approach against Brutus, so sneaky that it is almost subliminal. Furthermore, Antony’s examples give him an advantage over Brutus because he backs up statements while Brutus leaves his statements more open-ended. The people seem to find it easier to accept Antony, an emotional and sincere speaker, than Brutus who appears arrogant and forceful.	<urn:uuid:500256d2-2838-45a3-b708-add30849082c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://taxteaparty.com/julius-caesar-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594705.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119180644-20200119204644-00545.warc.gz	en	0.982137	1,147	3.5625	4	[ -0.40353941917419434, 0.29030120372772217, 0.257746160030365, 0.2718047499656677, -0.5281232595443726, -0.1312968134880066, 0.7142629027366638, 0.6653169393539429, 0.33863168954849243, -0.08028200268745422, -0.21817603707313538, -0.34819716215133667, -0.2642167806625366, 0.2244496941566467...	5	In Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, Decius Brutus and Mark Antony, both Roman Senators, eulogize Julius Caesar, each using a different technique and approach. Brutus, in a somewhat arrogant, to the point, eulogy, attempts to sway the people. He justifies conspiring against Caesar by stating that Caesar’s ambition would have hurt Rome. However, in Antony’s eulogy, he focuses on Caesar’s positive traits, and cunningly disproves Brutus’ justification for killing Caesar. The fickle Romans waver between leaders, responding emotionally, rather than intellectually, to the orators. Brutus seeks to explain why he conspired against Caesar. He begins his speech with “Romans, countrymen …”, appealing to their consciousness as citizens of Rome, who, he later says, will benefit as freeman with Caesar’s death. This shows that Brutus knows how to lure the crowd, appealing to their better judgement as Romans. He declares that he is an honorable man, and tells them that he will let them judge the validity of his claims. That is, he will allow the truth to speak for itself. This encourages the crowd to believe him, as an honorable man. He says that he wants them to know the facts; “Censure me in your wisdom, and awake your senses that you may the better judge.” Sharing information with the people is flattering and it almost guarantees acceptance. He gets their sympathy by saying that he loved Caesar, daring the people to find anyone who loved Caesar more. Brutus declares that he never wronged Caesar, that he cried for Caesar’s love, was happy for his greatness, honored him for his courage, but had to kill him because of Caesar’s ambition. He says that the reason for killing Caesar was his great love for Rome. He justifies his actions by saying that he loved Caesar but, “Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more.” He then asks rhetorically if the people would want to live their lives as slaves under Caesar’s rule or would they prefer to live as freemen with Caesar dead. To anyone insulted by his speech he wonders if, as Romans who love their freedom, they could be offended or reject what he, Brutus, says. He poses the question, “Who is here so base that would be a bondman?” He stresses the point, repeating the line, “If any, speak, for him have I offended.” “I pause for a reply.”, allows them to respond to his rhetorical questions, giving them an even greater sense that he cares about them and their opinions. They can only respond, ” None, Brutus, none.” That is, none are offended, they do not disagree or argue with his words or his actions. Mark Antony’s eulogy utilizes a different approach. He starts out by addressing the crowd as “Friends” because he wants to come to them as a friend rather than a ruler trying to gain power. He then says, “I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.”, thus he can ease in praises of Caesar without the crowd stopping him. He sounds very sincere when he says, “The noble Brutus hath told you Caesar was ambitious…. For Brutus is an honorable man.” He repeats that statement three more times becoming increasingly sarcastic, saying finally, “Yet Brutus says he was ambitious, and sure he was an honorable man.” Since the people responded positively to Brutus’ speech, Antony could not insult Brutus’ honesty in a direct manner. Yet, Antony disproves Caesar’s ambition with three examples. One is when he gave the ransom of captives to the public treasury and not his own, another when he cried with the poor people, and finally when he refused the kingship that Antony offered him, three times. Anyone who was ambitious would never have done any such things. Antony says, “I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke.” , but that is exactly what he does. Antony is using a dramatic effect on the people, first by entering on the stage with the body of Caesar, and at the end stating that his heart is still with the body of Caesar, ending his speech weeping. In justifying Caesar and disproving Brutus, the people see Antony as a potential successor to Caesar. They are swayed to him by his dramatics, his underhanded way of making a point, his repetition, and compelling proof of Caesar’s concern. He is able to get the people to question the rightness of killing Caesar. He has planted doubt in the people’s minds, in all areas except that he, Antony, is, “poor soul”, an honorable. The difference between the eulogies shows us the importance of style of speech. Both try to appeal to the people, and both use repetition, but Brutus takes a defensive approach, leaving the people to their own conclusions. However, Antony takes a prosecuting approach against Brutus, so sneaky that it is almost subliminal. Furthermore, Antony’s examples give him an advantage over Brutus because he backs up statements while Brutus leaves his statements more open-ended. The people seem to find it easier to accept Antony, an emotional and sincere speaker, than Brutus who appears arrogant and forceful.	1,076	ENGLISH	1
Great Spirit sat on the edge of the plain and looked out over the earth. He was happy with the land, water, sky, and animals he had created. But he was sad that there was nothing in the land that thought thoughts the way he did, so he decided to make people. Coyote sat nearby. Great Spirit said to Coyote that there were none like Great Spirit so he would make some new animals. Coyote said nothing. Great Spirit began to make them out of clay and said to Coyote, “I will make them male and female so they will make more, and some will sing the song and dance the dance so they will give thanks and I will enjoy them. You make tokens of ‘good’ and ‘evil’ so that there will be two kinds and we will see if one or both survive.” Now, “good” and “evil” meant nothing more to Great Spirit than green and red – there was no such thing as value. Great Spirit mixed the clay and sprinkled in the ability to sing the song and dance the dance. But they were not mixed evenly, so some could sing the song and some could dance the dance, and some could both sing the song and dance the dance and some could do neither. Meanwhile, Coyote was supposed to be making the tokens of “good” and “evil.” Instead, Coyote was lazy and only made one kind of token and put the symbols for “good” and “evil” on each side. Great Spirit made batches and batches of people – male and female – and Coyote placed a token in each one. Some of the batches Great Spirit did not bake long enough and they were light, some he baked too long and they were dark. After they were done they were released into the plain. Many gave thanks to the Great Spirit by singing the song or dancing the dance. Great Spirit was happy. In time, though, the people began to form into many small groups. For example, some of the lighter men who could not sing the song or dance the dance felt they were “good” and everyone else was “evil” because they did not kowtow to the Great Spirit. And the darker women who could sing the song and dance the dance felt they were “good” and everyone else was “evil” because they were so talented. Great Spirit was confused and dismayed. There were not supposed to be so many fractured groups, only two groups of “good” and “evil” – whatever those were meant to mean – to make the sides compete and better themselves. He called to Coyote and asked him what he did with the tokens. “I put them in the people,” responded Coyote. “Let me see them,” said Great Spirit. Coyote looked away, but handed a token to Great Spirit. “This is only one token,” said Great Spirit. “Yes, but it has the symbol of ‘good’ and ‘evil’ on each side,” responded Coyote. “This won’t do at all,” said Great Spirit. “I will have to destroy the people and start over, because they can not see the difference and are forming warring tribes and making up reasons to be different.” But Coyote was jealous of the people because of how Great Spirit loved them, and so he wanted there to be chaos and strife among them. So, Coyote said, “Wait, what if you give them the choice to choose between ‘good’ and ‘evil’? They all have the capacity because they all have the two-sided token. See what happens, see which one wins out.” Great Spirit did not want to destroy his creation, so he listened to Coyote and let the people freely choose what was “good” and what was “evil.” And so we have it today that people divide and argue over it, all the while singing the song and dancing the dance.	<urn:uuid:25a68382-bccf-4478-9aa9-007581cd8d37>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://dispatches.tk/category/faith-belief/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00324.warc.gz	en	0.989219	862	3.421875	3	[ 0.08204123377799988, -0.23505763709545135, -0.01579091139137745, -0.06255161762237549, -0.1716199368238449, -0.5140960216522217, -0.03482513502240181, 0.15027612447738647, -0.19980290532112122, 0.11205427348613739, 0.3555361330509186, 0.19938534498214722, 0.039680399000644684, -0.035014428...	11	Great Spirit sat on the edge of the plain and looked out over the earth. He was happy with the land, water, sky, and animals he had created. But he was sad that there was nothing in the land that thought thoughts the way he did, so he decided to make people. Coyote sat nearby. Great Spirit said to Coyote that there were none like Great Spirit so he would make some new animals. Coyote said nothing. Great Spirit began to make them out of clay and said to Coyote, “I will make them male and female so they will make more, and some will sing the song and dance the dance so they will give thanks and I will enjoy them. You make tokens of ‘good’ and ‘evil’ so that there will be two kinds and we will see if one or both survive.” Now, “good” and “evil” meant nothing more to Great Spirit than green and red – there was no such thing as value. Great Spirit mixed the clay and sprinkled in the ability to sing the song and dance the dance. But they were not mixed evenly, so some could sing the song and some could dance the dance, and some could both sing the song and dance the dance and some could do neither. Meanwhile, Coyote was supposed to be making the tokens of “good” and “evil.” Instead, Coyote was lazy and only made one kind of token and put the symbols for “good” and “evil” on each side. Great Spirit made batches and batches of people – male and female – and Coyote placed a token in each one. Some of the batches Great Spirit did not bake long enough and they were light, some he baked too long and they were dark. After they were done they were released into the plain. Many gave thanks to the Great Spirit by singing the song or dancing the dance. Great Spirit was happy. In time, though, the people began to form into many small groups. For example, some of the lighter men who could not sing the song or dance the dance felt they were “good” and everyone else was “evil” because they did not kowtow to the Great Spirit. And the darker women who could sing the song and dance the dance felt they were “good” and everyone else was “evil” because they were so talented. Great Spirit was confused and dismayed. There were not supposed to be so many fractured groups, only two groups of “good” and “evil” – whatever those were meant to mean – to make the sides compete and better themselves. He called to Coyote and asked him what he did with the tokens. “I put them in the people,” responded Coyote. “Let me see them,” said Great Spirit. Coyote looked away, but handed a token to Great Spirit. “This is only one token,” said Great Spirit. “Yes, but it has the symbol of ‘good’ and ‘evil’ on each side,” responded Coyote. “This won’t do at all,” said Great Spirit. “I will have to destroy the people and start over, because they can not see the difference and are forming warring tribes and making up reasons to be different.” But Coyote was jealous of the people because of how Great Spirit loved them, and so he wanted there to be chaos and strife among them. So, Coyote said, “Wait, what if you give them the choice to choose between ‘good’ and ‘evil’? They all have the capacity because they all have the two-sided token. See what happens, see which one wins out.” Great Spirit did not want to destroy his creation, so he listened to Coyote and let the people freely choose what was “good” and what was “evil.” And so we have it today that people divide and argue over it, all the while singing the song and dancing the dance.	787	ENGLISH	1
- Exactly 154 years ago today, on June 23, 1865, the last Confederate forces surrendered to the Union. - The army was made up of Native American soldiers, and was led by Cherokee General Stand Watie. - Like many Native Americans, Watie regarded the federal government, which had stripped his people of its ancestral land, as their chief enemy. - His army was renowned for its raids behind enemy lines, and on Native Americans who backed the Union. - Visit Business Insider's homepage for more stories. Even after Confederate commander Robert E. Lee surrendered in Appomattox Court House, Virginia, on April 9, 1865, one Confederate army refused to acknowledge defeat and for months stubbornly fought on. It was led not by one of the wealthy white southerners who made up much of the Confederacy's officer class - but by a Native American chief called Stand Watie. So how did a leader of a people facing systematic persecution come to fight for a cause founded on racism and the right to own slaves? The story illustrates how in the Civil War, the presence of a common enemy caused unexpected alliances to be formed, including an alliance Paul Chaat Smith, a curator at the National Museum of the Native American, has characterised as a "mangy, snarling dog standing between you and a crowd-pleasing Watie was himself a plantation holder and slave owner, and had settled in Oklahoma after playing a central role in events that resulted in the eviction of thousands of Native Americans from their land in what is now Georgia. He was born in 1806 in Cherokee country near what is now Rome, Georgia, and was given the Cherokee name Degataga, meaning "stand firm." His father - also a slave owner - was baptized, giving his son the Christian name Isaac S Uwatie. Dropping the 'U' and combining it with his Cherokee name, his son took the name Stand Watie. In 1835, Watie was one of the Cherokee leaders to sign the treaty of New Echota handing over Cherokee ancestral territory to the federal government. In exchange they were granted land to resettle the nation west, in Indian Territory, in what is now Oklahoma. Some refused to leave and were forcibly removed by the government. It is believed that nearly 4,000 Cherokee died attempting to make the journey to Indian Territory after 1838 in what has become known as the Trail of Tears. Four years after the treaty, the Cherokee turned against those who had signed away their land, assassinating three of them. Watie survived. Cherokee chief John Ross, who opposed the treaty, became an adamant enemy of Watie. In 1861, Georgia ceded from the Union, becoming one of the original seven states that formed the slave-owning Confederacy. That same year, Watie raised a force of Native Americans to fight for the Confederacy as North and South went to war. It was the federal government, responsible for robbing Cherokee of their ancestral land, which Watie - in common with many of his people - saw as his main enemy, not the Confederacy. And shockingly, many Cherokee were themselves slave owners, with some taking their slaves with them to Indian Territory after the forced resettlements west. Smith has described the Cherokee as "deeply committed to slavery." He told the Smithsonian Magazine they "established their own racialized black codes, immediately reestablished slavery when they arrived in Indian territory, rebuilt their nations with slave labor, crushed slave rebellions, and enthusiastically sided with the Confederacy in the Civil War." Watie's force earned a fearsome reputation, performing audacious raids behind enemies lines and attacking Native American settlements loyal to the Union. Even as the majority of Cherokee repudiated the alliance with the Confederacy in 1862, Watie remained loyal. So successful was he as a military commander that in 1865 Waite was promoted to the rank of brigadier general, one of only two native Americans to achieve the rank in the conflict. In wasn't until June 23, 1865 - 154 years ago today - that Watie surrendered to Union forces in Doaksville, Oklahoma. In doing so, he became the last Confederate general to lay down his arms in the Civil War. His force at the time comprised Creek, Seminole, Cherokee, and Osage Indians. Watie led a delegation of his Cherokee faction in Washington DC in 1866 to negotiate a new treaty with US government. Their loyalty to the Confederacy meant the old treaties had been torn up. The new treaty signed by Watie granted former slaves tribal citizenship. After the war, Watie spent the rest of his life as a businessman and plantation owner, and collecting his people's folk tales and legends. He died in 1871.	<urn:uuid:bc1a5d35-1939-4544-ab59-c1afbd3b96af>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://amp.businessinsider.com/how-native-americans-ended-up-fighting-for-the-confederacy-2019-6	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251788528.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129041149-20200129071149-00372.warc.gz	en	0.98037	986	3.671875	4	[ -0.41415828466415405, 0.5925650596618652, 0.2779974937438965, 0.2292899191379547, -0.2896825075149536, 0.01582259312272072, 0.5167946815490723, -0.3716171383857727, -0.2870365381240845, 0.11126142740249634, 0.3755512237548828, -0.03488995134830475, 0.34498733282089233, -0.04136446118354797...	1	- Exactly 154 years ago today, on June 23, 1865, the last Confederate forces surrendered to the Union. - The army was made up of Native American soldiers, and was led by Cherokee General Stand Watie. - Like many Native Americans, Watie regarded the federal government, which had stripped his people of its ancestral land, as their chief enemy. - His army was renowned for its raids behind enemy lines, and on Native Americans who backed the Union. - Visit Business Insider's homepage for more stories. Even after Confederate commander Robert E. Lee surrendered in Appomattox Court House, Virginia, on April 9, 1865, one Confederate army refused to acknowledge defeat and for months stubbornly fought on. It was led not by one of the wealthy white southerners who made up much of the Confederacy's officer class - but by a Native American chief called Stand Watie. So how did a leader of a people facing systematic persecution come to fight for a cause founded on racism and the right to own slaves? The story illustrates how in the Civil War, the presence of a common enemy caused unexpected alliances to be formed, including an alliance Paul Chaat Smith, a curator at the National Museum of the Native American, has characterised as a "mangy, snarling dog standing between you and a crowd-pleasing Watie was himself a plantation holder and slave owner, and had settled in Oklahoma after playing a central role in events that resulted in the eviction of thousands of Native Americans from their land in what is now Georgia. He was born in 1806 in Cherokee country near what is now Rome, Georgia, and was given the Cherokee name Degataga, meaning "stand firm." His father - also a slave owner - was baptized, giving his son the Christian name Isaac S Uwatie. Dropping the 'U' and combining it with his Cherokee name, his son took the name Stand Watie. In 1835, Watie was one of the Cherokee leaders to sign the treaty of New Echota handing over Cherokee ancestral territory to the federal government. In exchange they were granted land to resettle the nation west, in Indian Territory, in what is now Oklahoma. Some refused to leave and were forcibly removed by the government. It is believed that nearly 4,000 Cherokee died attempting to make the journey to Indian Territory after 1838 in what has become known as the Trail of Tears. Four years after the treaty, the Cherokee turned against those who had signed away their land, assassinating three of them. Watie survived. Cherokee chief John Ross, who opposed the treaty, became an adamant enemy of Watie. In 1861, Georgia ceded from the Union, becoming one of the original seven states that formed the slave-owning Confederacy. That same year, Watie raised a force of Native Americans to fight for the Confederacy as North and South went to war. It was the federal government, responsible for robbing Cherokee of their ancestral land, which Watie - in common with many of his people - saw as his main enemy, not the Confederacy. And shockingly, many Cherokee were themselves slave owners, with some taking their slaves with them to Indian Territory after the forced resettlements west. Smith has described the Cherokee as "deeply committed to slavery." He told the Smithsonian Magazine they "established their own racialized black codes, immediately reestablished slavery when they arrived in Indian territory, rebuilt their nations with slave labor, crushed slave rebellions, and enthusiastically sided with the Confederacy in the Civil War." Watie's force earned a fearsome reputation, performing audacious raids behind enemies lines and attacking Native American settlements loyal to the Union. Even as the majority of Cherokee repudiated the alliance with the Confederacy in 1862, Watie remained loyal. So successful was he as a military commander that in 1865 Waite was promoted to the rank of brigadier general, one of only two native Americans to achieve the rank in the conflict. In wasn't until June 23, 1865 - 154 years ago today - that Watie surrendered to Union forces in Doaksville, Oklahoma. In doing so, he became the last Confederate general to lay down his arms in the Civil War. His force at the time comprised Creek, Seminole, Cherokee, and Osage Indians. Watie led a delegation of his Cherokee faction in Washington DC in 1866 to negotiate a new treaty with US government. Their loyalty to the Confederacy meant the old treaties had been torn up. The new treaty signed by Watie granted former slaves tribal citizenship. After the war, Watie spent the rest of his life as a businessman and plantation owner, and collecting his people's folk tales and legends. He died in 1871.	1,021	ENGLISH	1
The second HMS Mersey was commissioned in 1858, just six years after the first Mersey had been broken up. She and her sister ship the Orlando were the longest wooden warships built for the Royal Navy. At 336 feet in length, HMS Mersey was nearly twice the size of HMS Victory, the flagship of Admiral Horatio Nelson at the Battle of Trafalgar. At 5643 tons displacement, she was certainly a large and impressive looking ship in her day. She was heavily armed, and in comparison to many of her counterparts was quite fast with an approximate speed of 12½ knots, achieving 13½ on trials. The length, the unique aspect of the ship, was actually an Achilles' heel of the Mersey and Orlando. The extreme length of the ship put enormous strains on her hull due to the unusual merging of heavy machinery, and a lengthy wooden hull, resulting in her seams opening up. They were pushing the limits of what was possible in wooden ship construction: Even the biggest of the 5,000-6,000-ton wooden battleships of the mid-to-late 19th century and the 5,000-ton wooden motorships constructed in the United States during World War I did not exceed 340 feet in length or 60 feet in width. The longest of these ships, the Mersey-class frigates, were unsuccessful, and one, HMS Orlando, showed signs of structural failure after an 1863 voyage to the United States. The Orlando was scrapped in 1871 and the Mersey soon after. Both the Mersey-class frigates and the largest of the wooden battleships, the 121-gun Victoria class, required internal iron strapping to support the hull, as did many other ships of this kind. In short, the construction and use histories of these ships indicated that they were already pushing or had exceeded the practical limits for the size of wooden ships. Britain had built two long frigates in 1858 - HMS Mersey and HMS Orlando - the longest, largest and most powerful single-decked wooden fighting ships. Although only 335 feet long, they suffered from the strain of their length, proving too weak to face a ship of the line in close quarters. In 1875 Mersey was laid up and sold for breaking. Some of her masts were installed on HMS Endymion, which was then being refitted at Portsmouth.	<urn:uuid:2d1c86dc-8d76-4e78-9919-47f34f8816bb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://alchetron.com/HMS-Mersey-%281858%29	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00190.warc.gz	en	0.982708	480	3.4375	3	[ -0.06669475883245468, 0.2614075839519501, 0.28289544582366943, -0.4429265558719635, -0.20572975277900696, -0.04211049899458885, -0.5979902148246765, 0.20643438398838043, 0.08150703459978104, -0.22008740901947021, 0.2120942622423172, -0.44014325737953186, -0.2633037865161896, 0.143048480153...	2	The second HMS Mersey was commissioned in 1858, just six years after the first Mersey had been broken up. She and her sister ship the Orlando were the longest wooden warships built for the Royal Navy. At 336 feet in length, HMS Mersey was nearly twice the size of HMS Victory, the flagship of Admiral Horatio Nelson at the Battle of Trafalgar. At 5643 tons displacement, she was certainly a large and impressive looking ship in her day. She was heavily armed, and in comparison to many of her counterparts was quite fast with an approximate speed of 12½ knots, achieving 13½ on trials. The length, the unique aspect of the ship, was actually an Achilles' heel of the Mersey and Orlando. The extreme length of the ship put enormous strains on her hull due to the unusual merging of heavy machinery, and a lengthy wooden hull, resulting in her seams opening up. They were pushing the limits of what was possible in wooden ship construction: Even the biggest of the 5,000-6,000-ton wooden battleships of the mid-to-late 19th century and the 5,000-ton wooden motorships constructed in the United States during World War I did not exceed 340 feet in length or 60 feet in width. The longest of these ships, the Mersey-class frigates, were unsuccessful, and one, HMS Orlando, showed signs of structural failure after an 1863 voyage to the United States. The Orlando was scrapped in 1871 and the Mersey soon after. Both the Mersey-class frigates and the largest of the wooden battleships, the 121-gun Victoria class, required internal iron strapping to support the hull, as did many other ships of this kind. In short, the construction and use histories of these ships indicated that they were already pushing or had exceeded the practical limits for the size of wooden ships. Britain had built two long frigates in 1858 - HMS Mersey and HMS Orlando - the longest, largest and most powerful single-decked wooden fighting ships. Although only 335 feet long, they suffered from the strain of their length, proving too weak to face a ship of the line in close quarters. In 1875 Mersey was laid up and sold for breaking. Some of her masts were installed on HMS Endymion, which was then being refitted at Portsmouth.	522	ENGLISH	1
After the Spanish American War, members of the United States Army Yellow Fever Commission ventured to Cuba. The group was looking to study yellow fever due to the large amount of casualties during the war caused by the disease. This commission was led by Major Walter Reed, a U.S. Army surgeon during the Spanish American War. While many have never heard of Walter Reed, his story was once well known. Yellow Fever in the 19th Century Reed attended college and became a doctor in the U.S. Marine Corps, remaining there for almost 20 years. Although, it’s what Reed did after being an Army Surgeon that led to his recognition. After being an army surgeon, Reed chose to focus his career on biomedical research. The position led him to head the yellow fever commission in Cuba after the Spanish American War. According to the University of Virginia, “Yellow fever, like Walter Reed, is not well-known in the United States today. In the 18th and 19th centuries, though, outbreaks of yellow fever were common in this country.” Yellow fever wasn’t the worst illness at the time. There were many others, like cholera and tuberculosis, that proved much deadlier. But, it was fear that yellow fever caused. The mosquito-borne virus could move rapidly through a region. According to the University of Virginia, the virus could wipe out 20% of a city’s population in months. During the 1850s the virus devastated New Orleans, causing thousands of deaths. Yellow fever once had a series of outbreaks in the 1790s, which caused the federal government to shut down. In 1878, it had an even worse outbreak, killing over 13,000 Americans in the lower Mississippi Valley alone. Not only were these outbreaks killing thousands, but it brought about a lot of fear, because no one knew what was causing the disease. Understanding the severity of the yellow fever shows why it’s so important today that Reed discovered the cause over a century ago. At the end of the 19th century, when the commission had started, Reed and his colleagues thought yellow fever might spread through fomites. Simply, objects infected with the virus could spread it to others. “However, after decades of research, there was no scientific evidence to support this theory,” according to the University of Virginia. The Real Source of Yellow Fever It wasn’t until 1881 that someone found the true source of yellow fever. It was in this year that Carlos Finlay, a Cuban physician at the yellow fever commission believed the disease could be spread by mosquitoes. Nineteen years later, Reed and his colleagues came to the same conclusion after their fomite theory failed to control the spread of yellow fever. It wasn’t until James Carrol, a researcher under Reed, infected himself and a U.S. soldier with yellow fever through a mosquito that the commission had an answer. The group found that yellow fever was spread by mosquitoes. William Crawford Gorgas, a Colonel in the U.S. Army Medical Corps, wrote about the discovery: “They… found out that [a man], before he had been bitten by the yellow-fever mosquito, could sleep in the bed in which a patient had died of yellow fever, could be covered with a black vomit from a yellow-fever patient, or be exposed to the emanations from yellow fever in any other way, and as long as he was kept safe from the bite of the mosquito he would not have yellow fever; but this same man, after all this exposure, if afterwards bitten by an infected mosquito, would very certainly catch the disease.” After these revelations, Reed set out to prove the theory. He did this by conducting extensive research and testing on many volunteers. Reed’s experiments to prove the mosquito theory didn’t begin until November of 1900. It wasn’t until 1901 that Reed made history. According to the University of Virginia, it didn’t even take a year to get yellow fever out of Havana. Success in the Cuban city was the final proof they needed to prove the mosquito-theory correct. Attempts to control yellow fever then spread across the region with the new information proving key. Other researchers were able to use the information to create a vaccine for yellow fever. While the virus is still active today in many countries, the vaccine offers the best defense against yellow fever. Despite saving millions with his research, Walter Reed has gone mostly forgotten today. Written for Passport Health by Elle Johnson. Elle Johnson is a senior multimedia journalism student at the University of South Carolina. Johnson is graduating with a bachelor’s degree in December and is a freelance writer in her free time.	<urn:uuid:699ddc07-4301-45a0-a231-2fead5c36218>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.passporthealthusa.com/2019/12/walter-reed-and-the-cause-of-yellow-fever/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00500.warc.gz	en	0.980024	992	3.40625	3	[ -0.2891521453857422, 0.25247669219970703, 0.289375364780426, 0.2913649082183838, 0.5566200017929077, -0.2639690041542053, 0.32024115324020386, 0.5108572840690613, -0.07656687498092651, -0.09150867164134979, 0.10200384259223938, -0.09624776989221573, -0.1616126298904419, 0.47154760360717773...	11	After the Spanish American War, members of the United States Army Yellow Fever Commission ventured to Cuba. The group was looking to study yellow fever due to the large amount of casualties during the war caused by the disease. This commission was led by Major Walter Reed, a U.S. Army surgeon during the Spanish American War. While many have never heard of Walter Reed, his story was once well known. Yellow Fever in the 19th Century Reed attended college and became a doctor in the U.S. Marine Corps, remaining there for almost 20 years. Although, it’s what Reed did after being an Army Surgeon that led to his recognition. After being an army surgeon, Reed chose to focus his career on biomedical research. The position led him to head the yellow fever commission in Cuba after the Spanish American War. According to the University of Virginia, “Yellow fever, like Walter Reed, is not well-known in the United States today. In the 18th and 19th centuries, though, outbreaks of yellow fever were common in this country.” Yellow fever wasn’t the worst illness at the time. There were many others, like cholera and tuberculosis, that proved much deadlier. But, it was fear that yellow fever caused. The mosquito-borne virus could move rapidly through a region. According to the University of Virginia, the virus could wipe out 20% of a city’s population in months. During the 1850s the virus devastated New Orleans, causing thousands of deaths. Yellow fever once had a series of outbreaks in the 1790s, which caused the federal government to shut down. In 1878, it had an even worse outbreak, killing over 13,000 Americans in the lower Mississippi Valley alone. Not only were these outbreaks killing thousands, but it brought about a lot of fear, because no one knew what was causing the disease. Understanding the severity of the yellow fever shows why it’s so important today that Reed discovered the cause over a century ago. At the end of the 19th century, when the commission had started, Reed and his colleagues thought yellow fever might spread through fomites. Simply, objects infected with the virus could spread it to others. “However, after decades of research, there was no scientific evidence to support this theory,” according to the University of Virginia. The Real Source of Yellow Fever It wasn’t until 1881 that someone found the true source of yellow fever. It was in this year that Carlos Finlay, a Cuban physician at the yellow fever commission believed the disease could be spread by mosquitoes. Nineteen years later, Reed and his colleagues came to the same conclusion after their fomite theory failed to control the spread of yellow fever. It wasn’t until James Carrol, a researcher under Reed, infected himself and a U.S. soldier with yellow fever through a mosquito that the commission had an answer. The group found that yellow fever was spread by mosquitoes. William Crawford Gorgas, a Colonel in the U.S. Army Medical Corps, wrote about the discovery: “They… found out that [a man], before he had been bitten by the yellow-fever mosquito, could sleep in the bed in which a patient had died of yellow fever, could be covered with a black vomit from a yellow-fever patient, or be exposed to the emanations from yellow fever in any other way, and as long as he was kept safe from the bite of the mosquito he would not have yellow fever; but this same man, after all this exposure, if afterwards bitten by an infected mosquito, would very certainly catch the disease.” After these revelations, Reed set out to prove the theory. He did this by conducting extensive research and testing on many volunteers. Reed’s experiments to prove the mosquito theory didn’t begin until November of 1900. It wasn’t until 1901 that Reed made history. According to the University of Virginia, it didn’t even take a year to get yellow fever out of Havana. Success in the Cuban city was the final proof they needed to prove the mosquito-theory correct. Attempts to control yellow fever then spread across the region with the new information proving key. Other researchers were able to use the information to create a vaccine for yellow fever. While the virus is still active today in many countries, the vaccine offers the best defense against yellow fever. Despite saving millions with his research, Walter Reed has gone mostly forgotten today. Written for Passport Health by Elle Johnson. Elle Johnson is a senior multimedia journalism student at the University of South Carolina. Johnson is graduating with a bachelor’s degree in December and is a freelance writer in her free time.	961	ENGLISH	1
History and Effects of Witchcraft Prejudice and Intolerance on Early Modern Women Gender played a significant role in the witch hunts that took place in Early-Modern Europe as well as in Salem. Carol Karlsen, pointed out that “between 1645 and 1647, several hundred people had been hanged in the wake of England’s most serious witchcraft outbreak. More than 90 percent of these English witches were women.” Although these statistics are one of the highest, women were targets in other countries during the heights of the witch hunts. The Early-Modern European views on women played a significant role in the accusations. Early-Modern European views that played a role include their roles within society, the vulnerability of their soul, and an inability to fit into a male-dominated society. Women also had a stricter view of sin during this time frame than men did, which led to higher confessions amongst women. It was not until women and men began to view sin similarly that witch hunts ended. Many of the impacts that occurred during this time frame, also happened during the Salem Witch Trials as well. Roles of Women During Early-Modern Europe Women had responsibilities surrounding tasks that dealt with the survival of the community, such as preparing food, being a midwife or lying in maid, and tending animals. Because of this, many believed that witches had considerable control over the health and life of others. Because these were all jobs that had the potential of going very wrong, when someone died or became sick, they blamed the nearest person who was usually a woman. A midwife who delivered a deformed or stillborn child could very well become targeted. A mother may want to blame someone for their tragedy, and since the midwife was present, they are subject to being accused of doing something supernatural to cause this. Women As Sexual Objects: Satan As Sexual Aggressor Puritans believed that Satan assaulted the body through sexual transgressions. Many viewed Satan and his imps as male, which influenced the idea that witches were usually women, because witches supposedly had sex with the “devil’s imp,” and giving her body to Satan. Also, witches’ familiars were believed to have had “sucked at the breasts, [as well as]… latch onto any unusual markings or witch’s teat.” Suckling provided nourishment to their familiars and imps. Because women provided the nourishment for infants, this idea of suckling only reinforced the idea that witches were women. Suckling was believed to be used for sexual pleasure, as well. Reis pointed out that men were not completely immune to these ideas of suckling and sensual pleasure, because “their bodies were searched during the trials, and the investigations occasionally found evidence of such activity,” although such findings were rare. As a result, many believed that men’s “bodies were more difficult and less tempting objects of the devil’s attacks.” Ignorance about Anatomy One characteristic that both men and women shared regarding the witch-hunts was the idea that their souls were feminine. Therefore, men's souls were viewed just as evil as women’s. In the eighteenth century, many believed women's anatomy was as identical to men’s except pointing inward. Consequently, they thought that “inwardness meant femaleness,” which was why the soul was believed to be feminine. Although this should cause men and women to be viewed as equally susceptible to sin, this was not the case. Puritans believed that the body protected the soul. If the body was strong, then the soul was better protected. Therefore, men who were created physically stronger were viewed to be less susceptible to Satan’s attacks. The Weaker Sex and Gender Bias Females, as a whole, were considered more accessible targets for Satan due to being viewed as weaker than men physically, spiritually, and morally. Puritans “believed that Satan attacked the soul by assaulting the body.” “Not only was the body the path to the soul’s possession; it was the very expression of the devil’s attack.” As a result, their spiritual and moral selves were considered more vulnerable because of their weaker bodies, which left them more susceptible to the devil's traps, and Satan could more easily possess their souls. Although men’s bodies were seen as more difficult to tempt, this did not exempt all men. Even though witchcraft was not considered to be inherited, often people who were closely related to a previously accused witch were thought to be witches themselves, such as daughters, sisters, and even male relatives of the accused. Karlsen pointed out that, “nearly half the males [accused] were husbands, sons, or other male relatives of the accused women.” Still, these men were a minority. Not only were men’s bodies viewed as being able to fight off Satan’s attacks more readily, but men could have certain female qualities. Women, on the other hand, were not allowed to possess masculine traits without being seen as odd and not fit easily within society. Reis explains this further: Men were not required to adopt outwardly feminine traits and risk compromising their masculinity, but man’s soul, his inner self, could safely display female virtues. Passivity and receptivity to Christ’s advances resided in men’s’ (female) souls, but their bodies—and sense of themselves—remained masculine. In other words, men could maintain their perception of masculinity, despite having a feminine soul. Their feminine soul allowed them to be submissive to Christ without appearing feminine to their neighbors. Women, in contrast, were not permitted to show masculine characteristics without being viewed negatively by society. Witch Hunt and Gender: Outcasted Women The women that were most likely to be accused were those who did not fit easily into society. Women during this period were expected to be quiet, submissive, and under the male head of the household. Therefore, when a woman used coarse language or was self-sufficient, she was seen as odd, which ultimately put her at a higher risk of being accused. Also, because women were beginning to live longer, there was not yet a role that allowed older women to fit easily into society. Therefore, there was a massive increase in the number of witch accusations for those over the age of forty. Although there were accusations of women under forty, less than a quarter would face a trial. On the other hand, forty percent of women over the age of forty would face a trial, and more than half of these women would become convicted. These statistics are believed to be a result of the fact that women over forty were no longer of childbearing age. Therefore, they did not have a specific purpose within society any longer. Many of these women were also widowed, which meant they were no longer under the care of a man. Many accused widowed women because they had inherited large sums of money or property when their husbands had passed away. They were then capable of supporting themselves financially, and many chose not to remarry even if they had the opportunity. These women, in particular, caused tensions amongst the core beliefs within the Puritan society. Puritan leaders felt that women owning land was a breaking up of their community by not having a male head of the house. The resulting tensions caused witchcraft accusations. Young women played a different role in the witchcraft accusations. They also did not fit easily into society, especially within Salem. These young women felt oppressed and unheard. Reis points out that “these young women perhaps feared for their future, worrying that they would end up alone, with no one to establish their dowries and find them, husbands.” Even though it started with them experimenting with magic, they eventually began exhibiting signs of being possessed. The fits they would go into while being “possessed” allowed them to be able to act in ways their society prohibited and say things they usually never could, which allowed them to have at least some power within a community that repressed them. Pressures to blame someone for these possessions increased until accusations of “witches” occurred. Many times these young women had never met those that they named. Because they could more easily say a woman’s name than a man’s due to the patriarchal society, this further increased the likelihood that women were the ones on trial. Why Did People Believe Women Were More Apt To Follow Satan? Another reason that women were more often executed for witchcraft was that women and men regarded sin differently. The differing ideas regarding sin contributed to how each sex confessed or denied witchcraft accusations, which affected how others viewed a person and, ultimately, the outcome of a trial. Many saw men for who they were and not as the sins they had committed. Although they would repent of their sins, they did not internalize the minister’s message like women did. Women were more apt to view their sins as having been in obedience to Satan and against God, no matter how ordinary the sin may be. Alice Lake was an excellent example of this. She had convinced herself “that her sexual transgression was enough to make her a witch. Although she had not signed an explicit compact with Satan… she had covenanted with him through the commission of sin.” One reason that women confused sin with witchcraft is that they viewed themselves as inherently evil. It was their natural evilness that caused them to sin. Men, on the other hand, believed that their sin corrupted their souls; therefore, they could readily repent for their shortcomings and salvation. It is not surprising due to women’s belief in inherent evilness that “they could more easily imagine that other women were equally damned.” For that reason, women more easily accused other women of witchcraft. If accused of witchcraft, due to women’s “guilt over their perceived spiritual inadequacies, [they might]… confess to specific transgressions they had not committed,” such as witchcraft. Societies View On Women Even the confessions themselves were perceived differently by the judges and magistrates, as Karlsen pointed out. She states although women and “men who confessed to witchcraft outside of the Salem outbreak were punished… most confessing women were taken at their word and executed, confessing men were almost all rebuked as liars.” Even amongst similar cases, the punishments were much more severe and long-lasting for a woman than for a man. Women were also more apt than men to be charged repeatedly once the courts of a witchcraft accusation exonerated them. Evolving Gender Stereotypes During the eighteenth century, ideas regarding gender and sin evolved. When combined with the scientific revolution, witch-hunts became less prevalent until they stopped altogether. One of the most profound changes was a decreased emphasis on Satan. Instead, there became an increased focus on fearing God. Instead of Satan possessing their bodies for sin, God would punish them. Also, they began to feel that they were not battling Satan, but their selves, which shows a shift in both the way that women and men viewed sin. Their views became more similar; therefore, neither sex was persecuted more than the other. Reis also points out that “even women—who perhaps still perceived the devil’s threats more palpably than men—were able to select Christ.” This shift in ideas was most likely due to the scientific revolutions focus on “enlightened” and “rational” thinking. Oppressed Finding Their Place Men and women, who had previously felt oppressed, found roles within society. The Victorian woman was no longer considered inherently evil but encouraged to “spread their moral influence as the ‘mothers of civilization’” for their husbands who worked in the sinful world. Young people were also more capable of providing for themselves because they were being encouraged to find their independence. Adolescent girls, in particular, had new social outlets. They no longer felt the suffocating pressures that society had placed on them during the seventeenth century and earlier. Even women who were no longer of childbearing age had a changing role within society. They were now responsible for educating the boys who would soon be the heads of their households. These women no longer were viewed as a hindrance to society, but necessary citizens. All these people who were stressed within the community now found a comfortable place in society. As tensions dissipated, so did accusations. Although some men were victims during the witch-hunts, these hunts were mostly due to prejudices against women, especially those women who did not fit neatly inside of the patriarchal society of the seventeenth century. This vast victimization of witches is essential to be studied today because it brings attention to the unfair treatment of others. Although the majority of people in today’s modern society do not believe that witches ever existed, they still place blame and oppress specific individuals and groups. Each society needs to be aware of who are the modern-day witches amongst them. This realization is not meant to persecute, but to protect the victims from being harmed either emotionally or physically. All people should be valued regardless of belief, race, or income status. Karlsen, Carol. The Devil in the Shape of a Woman. (New York: Vintage Books, 1989). Reis, Elizabeth. Damned Women: Sinners and Witches in Puritan New England.( New York: Cornell University Press, 1999). This article is accurate and true to the best of the author’s knowledge. Content is for informational or entertainment purposes only and does not substitute for personal counsel or professional advice in business, financial, legal, or technical matters. Questions & Answers How do I cite your page? Chicago Style and MLA: Schultz, Angela Michelle. "History and Effects of Witchcraft Prejudice and Intolerance on Early Modern Women." Exemplore. 2010. Accessed September 24, 2018. https://hubpages.com/wicca-witchcraft/Gender-Bias-...Helpful 8 Is it okay for me to use this essay, referenced of course, as a part of my academic research on the witch craze? Yes, as long as you cite my work.Helpful 3 © 2010 Angela Michelle Schultz	<urn:uuid:861ffeef-5edc-4b34-8338-79dbb0e7ab42>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://exemplore.com/wicca-witchcraft/Gender-Bias-in-Witch-hunts	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00353.warc.gz	en	0.988725	2,963	3.453125	3	[ 0.1508406698703766, 0.5307255983352661, 0.4115604758262634, 0.04991158843040466, 0.10621263086795807, 0.3909938633441925, 0.32943588495254517, 0.18602320551872253, -0.01637839525938034, 0.03856681287288666, -0.1193048432469368, -0.037466876208782196, -0.2896994352340698, 0.2858206629753113...	2	History and Effects of Witchcraft Prejudice and Intolerance on Early Modern Women Gender played a significant role in the witch hunts that took place in Early-Modern Europe as well as in Salem. Carol Karlsen, pointed out that “between 1645 and 1647, several hundred people had been hanged in the wake of England’s most serious witchcraft outbreak. More than 90 percent of these English witches were women.” Although these statistics are one of the highest, women were targets in other countries during the heights of the witch hunts. The Early-Modern European views on women played a significant role in the accusations. Early-Modern European views that played a role include their roles within society, the vulnerability of their soul, and an inability to fit into a male-dominated society. Women also had a stricter view of sin during this time frame than men did, which led to higher confessions amongst women. It was not until women and men began to view sin similarly that witch hunts ended. Many of the impacts that occurred during this time frame, also happened during the Salem Witch Trials as well. Roles of Women During Early-Modern Europe Women had responsibilities surrounding tasks that dealt with the survival of the community, such as preparing food, being a midwife or lying in maid, and tending animals. Because of this, many believed that witches had considerable control over the health and life of others. Because these were all jobs that had the potential of going very wrong, when someone died or became sick, they blamed the nearest person who was usually a woman. A midwife who delivered a deformed or stillborn child could very well become targeted. A mother may want to blame someone for their tragedy, and since the midwife was present, they are subject to being accused of doing something supernatural to cause this. Women As Sexual Objects: Satan As Sexual Aggressor Puritans believed that Satan assaulted the body through sexual transgressions. Many viewed Satan and his imps as male, which influenced the idea that witches were usually women, because witches supposedly had sex with the “devil’s imp,” and giving her body to Satan. Also, witches’ familiars were believed to have had “sucked at the breasts, [as well as]… latch onto any unusual markings or witch’s teat.” Suckling provided nourishment to their familiars and imps. Because women provided the nourishment for infants, this idea of suckling only reinforced the idea that witches were women. Suckling was believed to be used for sexual pleasure, as well. Reis pointed out that men were not completely immune to these ideas of suckling and sensual pleasure, because “their bodies were searched during the trials, and the investigations occasionally found evidence of such activity,” although such findings were rare. As a result, many believed that men’s “bodies were more difficult and less tempting objects of the devil’s attacks.” Ignorance about Anatomy One characteristic that both men and women shared regarding the witch-hunts was the idea that their souls were feminine. Therefore, men's souls were viewed just as evil as women’s. In the eighteenth century, many believed women's anatomy was as identical to men’s except pointing inward. Consequently, they thought that “inwardness meant femaleness,” which was why the soul was believed to be feminine. Although this should cause men and women to be viewed as equally susceptible to sin, this was not the case. Puritans believed that the body protected the soul. If the body was strong, then the soul was better protected. Therefore, men who were created physically stronger were viewed to be less susceptible to Satan’s attacks. The Weaker Sex and Gender Bias Females, as a whole, were considered more accessible targets for Satan due to being viewed as weaker than men physically, spiritually, and morally. Puritans “believed that Satan attacked the soul by assaulting the body.” “Not only was the body the path to the soul’s possession; it was the very expression of the devil’s attack.” As a result, their spiritual and moral selves were considered more vulnerable because of their weaker bodies, which left them more susceptible to the devil's traps, and Satan could more easily possess their souls. Although men’s bodies were seen as more difficult to tempt, this did not exempt all men. Even though witchcraft was not considered to be inherited, often people who were closely related to a previously accused witch were thought to be witches themselves, such as daughters, sisters, and even male relatives of the accused. Karlsen pointed out that, “nearly half the males [accused] were husbands, sons, or other male relatives of the accused women.” Still, these men were a minority. Not only were men’s bodies viewed as being able to fight off Satan’s attacks more readily, but men could have certain female qualities. Women, on the other hand, were not allowed to possess masculine traits without being seen as odd and not fit easily within society. Reis explains this further: Men were not required to adopt outwardly feminine traits and risk compromising their masculinity, but man’s soul, his inner self, could safely display female virtues. Passivity and receptivity to Christ’s advances resided in men’s’ (female) souls, but their bodies—and sense of themselves—remained masculine. In other words, men could maintain their perception of masculinity, despite having a feminine soul. Their feminine soul allowed them to be submissive to Christ without appearing feminine to their neighbors. Women, in contrast, were not permitted to show masculine characteristics without being viewed negatively by society. Witch Hunt and Gender: Outcasted Women The women that were most likely to be accused were those who did not fit easily into society. Women during this period were expected to be quiet, submissive, and under the male head of the household. Therefore, when a woman used coarse language or was self-sufficient, she was seen as odd, which ultimately put her at a higher risk of being accused. Also, because women were beginning to live longer, there was not yet a role that allowed older women to fit easily into society. Therefore, there was a massive increase in the number of witch accusations for those over the age of forty. Although there were accusations of women under forty, less than a quarter would face a trial. On the other hand, forty percent of women over the age of forty would face a trial, and more than half of these women would become convicted. These statistics are believed to be a result of the fact that women over forty were no longer of childbearing age. Therefore, they did not have a specific purpose within society any longer. Many of these women were also widowed, which meant they were no longer under the care of a man. Many accused widowed women because they had inherited large sums of money or property when their husbands had passed away. They were then capable of supporting themselves financially, and many chose not to remarry even if they had the opportunity. These women, in particular, caused tensions amongst the core beliefs within the Puritan society. Puritan leaders felt that women owning land was a breaking up of their community by not having a male head of the house. The resulting tensions caused witchcraft accusations. Young women played a different role in the witchcraft accusations. They also did not fit easily into society, especially within Salem. These young women felt oppressed and unheard. Reis points out that “these young women perhaps feared for their future, worrying that they would end up alone, with no one to establish their dowries and find them, husbands.” Even though it started with them experimenting with magic, they eventually began exhibiting signs of being possessed. The fits they would go into while being “possessed” allowed them to be able to act in ways their society prohibited and say things they usually never could, which allowed them to have at least some power within a community that repressed them. Pressures to blame someone for these possessions increased until accusations of “witches” occurred. Many times these young women had never met those that they named. Because they could more easily say a woman’s name than a man’s due to the patriarchal society, this further increased the likelihood that women were the ones on trial. Why Did People Believe Women Were More Apt To Follow Satan? Another reason that women were more often executed for witchcraft was that women and men regarded sin differently. The differing ideas regarding sin contributed to how each sex confessed or denied witchcraft accusations, which affected how others viewed a person and, ultimately, the outcome of a trial. Many saw men for who they were and not as the sins they had committed. Although they would repent of their sins, they did not internalize the minister’s message like women did. Women were more apt to view their sins as having been in obedience to Satan and against God, no matter how ordinary the sin may be. Alice Lake was an excellent example of this. She had convinced herself “that her sexual transgression was enough to make her a witch. Although she had not signed an explicit compact with Satan… she had covenanted with him through the commission of sin.” One reason that women confused sin with witchcraft is that they viewed themselves as inherently evil. It was their natural evilness that caused them to sin. Men, on the other hand, believed that their sin corrupted their souls; therefore, they could readily repent for their shortcomings and salvation. It is not surprising due to women’s belief in inherent evilness that “they could more easily imagine that other women were equally damned.” For that reason, women more easily accused other women of witchcraft. If accused of witchcraft, due to women’s “guilt over their perceived spiritual inadequacies, [they might]… confess to specific transgressions they had not committed,” such as witchcraft. Societies View On Women Even the confessions themselves were perceived differently by the judges and magistrates, as Karlsen pointed out. She states although women and “men who confessed to witchcraft outside of the Salem outbreak were punished… most confessing women were taken at their word and executed, confessing men were almost all rebuked as liars.” Even amongst similar cases, the punishments were much more severe and long-lasting for a woman than for a man. Women were also more apt than men to be charged repeatedly once the courts of a witchcraft accusation exonerated them. Evolving Gender Stereotypes During the eighteenth century, ideas regarding gender and sin evolved. When combined with the scientific revolution, witch-hunts became less prevalent until they stopped altogether. One of the most profound changes was a decreased emphasis on Satan. Instead, there became an increased focus on fearing God. Instead of Satan possessing their bodies for sin, God would punish them. Also, they began to feel that they were not battling Satan, but their selves, which shows a shift in both the way that women and men viewed sin. Their views became more similar; therefore, neither sex was persecuted more than the other. Reis also points out that “even women—who perhaps still perceived the devil’s threats more palpably than men—were able to select Christ.” This shift in ideas was most likely due to the scientific revolutions focus on “enlightened” and “rational” thinking. Oppressed Finding Their Place Men and women, who had previously felt oppressed, found roles within society. The Victorian woman was no longer considered inherently evil but encouraged to “spread their moral influence as the ‘mothers of civilization’” for their husbands who worked in the sinful world. Young people were also more capable of providing for themselves because they were being encouraged to find their independence. Adolescent girls, in particular, had new social outlets. They no longer felt the suffocating pressures that society had placed on them during the seventeenth century and earlier. Even women who were no longer of childbearing age had a changing role within society. They were now responsible for educating the boys who would soon be the heads of their households. These women no longer were viewed as a hindrance to society, but necessary citizens. All these people who were stressed within the community now found a comfortable place in society. As tensions dissipated, so did accusations. Although some men were victims during the witch-hunts, these hunts were mostly due to prejudices against women, especially those women who did not fit neatly inside of the patriarchal society of the seventeenth century. This vast victimization of witches is essential to be studied today because it brings attention to the unfair treatment of others. Although the majority of people in today’s modern society do not believe that witches ever existed, they still place blame and oppress specific individuals and groups. Each society needs to be aware of who are the modern-day witches amongst them. This realization is not meant to persecute, but to protect the victims from being harmed either emotionally or physically. All people should be valued regardless of belief, race, or income status. Karlsen, Carol. The Devil in the Shape of a Woman. (New York: Vintage Books, 1989). Reis, Elizabeth. Damned Women: Sinners and Witches in Puritan New England.( New York: Cornell University Press, 1999). This article is accurate and true to the best of the author’s knowledge. Content is for informational or entertainment purposes only and does not substitute for personal counsel or professional advice in business, financial, legal, or technical matters. Questions & Answers How do I cite your page? Chicago Style and MLA: Schultz, Angela Michelle. "History and Effects of Witchcraft Prejudice and Intolerance on Early Modern Women." Exemplore. 2010. Accessed September 24, 2018. https://hubpages.com/wicca-witchcraft/Gender-Bias-...Helpful 8 Is it okay for me to use this essay, referenced of course, as a part of my academic research on the witch craze? Yes, as long as you cite my work.Helpful 3 © 2010 Angela Michelle Schultz	2,874	ENGLISH	1
Over the years, the well known Santa has been called by many different names. There is much more to the man in the red suit than some may know. Listed below is a brief overview of the different names of Mr. Claus himself. Jolly old Saint Nicholas was born in the third century in what we now consider Turkey. At the time, he served as a bishop in the early church as he helped members who were poor and sick. He was well known for his protection, gifts, and miracles. He later became a saint in the Catholic church in 900 A.D. The reason he was relevant to the winter season was because many saw him as the “gift giver” of the winter solstice as he left coins and treats in the shoes of kids at night. Religious Protestant leaders assumed people were missing the true meaning of Christmas and giving too much attention to Saint Nick. They ended up replacing Saint Nick with the angel baby Kristkindt, who later was called “Kris Kringle.” Women started to get concerned with the thought of a naked baby running around alone, so they later reintroduced Saint Nicholas as his guide. At one point, Protestants attempted to cancel the celebration of Christmas overall. This caused people to protest, many started to write songs about a jolly, plump, old man with a big fluffy beard. This figure was known as “Father Christmas” and he wore a big, green, fur-lined suit and spread cheer through all homes. Dutch immigrants ended up introducing Sinterklaas (Santa Claus). They presented him as a bearded figure who rode a horse upon rooftops. Legend says if children left their boots outside by the chimney filled with carrots, then Sinterklaas would exchange the carrots with gifts or money. The image of the Santa we know today has been largely influenced by Clement Clark Moore’s book, The Night Before Christmas. The illustration came from Thomas Nast (Harper’s Magazine) and Haddon Sundblom (Coca-Cola Company). The Santa we love and cherish today is a happy, plump old man who lives in the North Pole with his loving wife Mrs. Claus. They oversee the elves in the workshop as they prepare for Christmas Eve. Santa rides out on his sleigh with his reindeer and leaves presents for all of the kids.	<urn:uuid:9281a2d7-6d12-476c-9a84-3e26995c6ed7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.thegriffonnews.com/2019/12/who-is-santa/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00044.warc.gz	en	0.98422	492	3.265625	3	[ 0.11783652007579803, 0.30605047941207886, 0.3329029381275177, -0.09439419955015182, 0.09569618850946426, -0.15712320804595947, 0.45106953382492065, 0.19607780873775482, -0.029073631390929222, -0.1764719933271408, 0.02466586045920849, 0.2857590317726135, 0.057984769344329834, 0.150851041078...	3	Over the years, the well known Santa has been called by many different names. There is much more to the man in the red suit than some may know. Listed below is a brief overview of the different names of Mr. Claus himself. Jolly old Saint Nicholas was born in the third century in what we now consider Turkey. At the time, he served as a bishop in the early church as he helped members who were poor and sick. He was well known for his protection, gifts, and miracles. He later became a saint in the Catholic church in 900 A.D. The reason he was relevant to the winter season was because many saw him as the “gift giver” of the winter solstice as he left coins and treats in the shoes of kids at night. Religious Protestant leaders assumed people were missing the true meaning of Christmas and giving too much attention to Saint Nick. They ended up replacing Saint Nick with the angel baby Kristkindt, who later was called “Kris Kringle.” Women started to get concerned with the thought of a naked baby running around alone, so they later reintroduced Saint Nicholas as his guide. At one point, Protestants attempted to cancel the celebration of Christmas overall. This caused people to protest, many started to write songs about a jolly, plump, old man with a big fluffy beard. This figure was known as “Father Christmas” and he wore a big, green, fur-lined suit and spread cheer through all homes. Dutch immigrants ended up introducing Sinterklaas (Santa Claus). They presented him as a bearded figure who rode a horse upon rooftops. Legend says if children left their boots outside by the chimney filled with carrots, then Sinterklaas would exchange the carrots with gifts or money. The image of the Santa we know today has been largely influenced by Clement Clark Moore’s book, The Night Before Christmas. The illustration came from Thomas Nast (Harper’s Magazine) and Haddon Sundblom (Coca-Cola Company). The Santa we love and cherish today is a happy, plump old man who lives in the North Pole with his loving wife Mrs. Claus. They oversee the elves in the workshop as they prepare for Christmas Eve. Santa rides out on his sleigh with his reindeer and leaves presents for all of the kids.	473	ENGLISH	1
The Donut Dollies were an organization that participated in the Vietnam War. An all-female assembly was sent to help with the morale of US soldiers battling in Vietnam, providing positive emotions and home-like manners. Red Cross Organization The organization first developed during World War II, where a group of women serving under the Red Cross was sent to the battlefields, not to fight, but to deliver coffee and donuts. So the name ‘’Donut Dollies’’ was created. In 1965, the United States was already ten years deep into the Vietnam War, a long and exhausting conflict that lasted for twenty years. The Defense Department requested that the Red Cross rehabilitates the Donut Dollies and start sending women to Vietnam. Interestingly, most of the women that went as Donut Dollies to serve in Vietnam volunteered themselves. A lot of women also wanted to participate in the ‘’real’’ fight, but the US Army was not recruiting women at the time. The women found inspiration in John F. Kennedy’s call to duty. They also saw it as a measure to delay the responsibilities of marriage and childbirth, which was still a role expected to be fulfilled in the 1960s. It also served as an opportunity to receive a college education and all the benefits one could receive as a Vietnam War veteran. In the seven years span (1965-1972), more than 600 women served under the Donut Dollies organization. The group mostly consisted of young and single women, and part of their job was to act in Vietnam as they were the soldiers’ mothers, sisters, or girlfriends. Most of them were stationed in large military bases where they would engage in playing games with the soldiers there, listening to music, or just sitting and talking. Some of the Donut Dollies traveled in pairs to more battle-active areas, where they would land with a helicopter and bring games and refreshments for the troops that were close to the first lines of battle. Staying Positive In War The Donut Dollies were instructed by the Red Cross that they should be a reminder of home, and not serve as sexual objects. They were dressed in light-blue uniforms and had to constantly appear positive and smiling when around the soldiers. Some of them were even instructed to wear perfumes when working with wounded soldiers in hospitals, bringing more feelings from home in those difficult situations. The experience of Donut Dollies during the Vietnam War is hard to put into words. Their job was to keep a positive attitude in situations where lives were lost every single day. They had to act differently, ignoring all horrors of war that became a part of their everyday life. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	<urn:uuid:44bf4994-2565-4d8a-b8d3-fd1069cab79f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/donut-dollies-the-unsung-heroes-of-world-war-ii.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597230.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120023523-20200120051523-00349.warc.gz	en	0.985094	581	3.59375	4	[ -0.49160200357437134, 0.11888424307107925, 0.334507018327713, -0.3256267309188843, -0.002786475233733654, 0.362346351146698, -0.048918239772319794, 0.04452446848154068, -0.20745021104812622, -0.14039473235607147, -0.03372606635093689, -0.056577958166599274, 0.1726783812046051, -0.017031542...	1	The Donut Dollies were an organization that participated in the Vietnam War. An all-female assembly was sent to help with the morale of US soldiers battling in Vietnam, providing positive emotions and home-like manners. Red Cross Organization The organization first developed during World War II, where a group of women serving under the Red Cross was sent to the battlefields, not to fight, but to deliver coffee and donuts. So the name ‘’Donut Dollies’’ was created. In 1965, the United States was already ten years deep into the Vietnam War, a long and exhausting conflict that lasted for twenty years. The Defense Department requested that the Red Cross rehabilitates the Donut Dollies and start sending women to Vietnam. Interestingly, most of the women that went as Donut Dollies to serve in Vietnam volunteered themselves. A lot of women also wanted to participate in the ‘’real’’ fight, but the US Army was not recruiting women at the time. The women found inspiration in John F. Kennedy’s call to duty. They also saw it as a measure to delay the responsibilities of marriage and childbirth, which was still a role expected to be fulfilled in the 1960s. It also served as an opportunity to receive a college education and all the benefits one could receive as a Vietnam War veteran. In the seven years span (1965-1972), more than 600 women served under the Donut Dollies organization. The group mostly consisted of young and single women, and part of their job was to act in Vietnam as they were the soldiers’ mothers, sisters, or girlfriends. Most of them were stationed in large military bases where they would engage in playing games with the soldiers there, listening to music, or just sitting and talking. Some of the Donut Dollies traveled in pairs to more battle-active areas, where they would land with a helicopter and bring games and refreshments for the troops that were close to the first lines of battle. Staying Positive In War The Donut Dollies were instructed by the Red Cross that they should be a reminder of home, and not serve as sexual objects. They were dressed in light-blue uniforms and had to constantly appear positive and smiling when around the soldiers. Some of them were even instructed to wear perfumes when working with wounded soldiers in hospitals, bringing more feelings from home in those difficult situations. The experience of Donut Dollies during the Vietnam War is hard to put into words. Their job was to keep a positive attitude in situations where lives were lost every single day. They had to act differently, ignoring all horrors of war that became a part of their everyday life. Your MLA Citation Your APA Citation Your Chicago Citation Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation.	576	ENGLISH	1
In the U.S. we have a quaint idea of the way the first Thanksgiving happened. The table was set with a bounty of different foods, life with Indians was peaceful, and everyone shared in the duties of bringing in the fall harvest for the celebration of the new settlers in America. However, the real question is, what was that first Thanksgiving really like? What Was the First Thanksgiving About? Thanksgiving is a largely religious term given to a weekday or annual day during which followers give thanks to their deities. Using that definition, thanksgivings were almost common in America long before the Pilgrims, but that is not what our Thanksgiving is about. We celebrate with family and community feasts, a tradition that typically is not present in religious thanksgivings. Therefore, the origins of our Thanksgiving traditions are certainly the Pilgrims’ harvest feast of 1621. This part of the story we learned is absolutely true. The Pilgrims were learning New World agriculture and hunting from their Native American friends the Wampanoag’s, their leader Massasoit and their Pawtuxet guest Squanto. When they reaped their harvest in 1621, about 50 Pilgrims celebrated with close to 100 natives in a three-day feast. We only feast for one day, but most of what we learned fits this description. What Did the Pilgrims Eat? Today, we eat turkey, stuffing, cranberry sauce and vegetables as the base feast for our Thanksgivings. We also tend to have lots of pies and breads. We often see this same feast depicted in “historical” representations of the holiday. It has gotten to the point that turkeys are like the Easter bunnies of Thanksgiving. The feast of 1621 looked very different, though in some ways the same, as our feasts today. Fowling for Turkey Let’s start with the all-important turkey. People on Massachusetts’ South Shore will tell you that wild turkeys are plentiful. Furthermore, one contemporary report of the feast says that some of the revelers went “fowling” and came back with “fowl.” For all we know, he could have meant cardinals, but there is a chance turkeys made their way onto the table in 1621. Seafood Thanksgiving Feast What we do know for sure is that shellfish played a way bigger role in the first Thanksgiving than turkey. Pilgrims relied heavily on fish, thanks to the teachings of Squanto. We know they had cod, bass and other fish. They may also have had mussels and lobster. Vegetable and Fruit Harvest The harvest is what this thing was all about, but we know very little about it except that it contained “Indian corn.” Historians believe this was most likely crushed up into cornmeal and made into porridge. There are many grinding stones used by the natives in the area, so it is likely the natives taught them this trick. Other crops likely included gourds, turnips, carrots, beans, spinach, and lettuce. There were definitely no potatoes of any kind. Sorry, spud lovers. Lastly, there may have been some local fruit on the table. Cranberries are common, so traditionalists can keep their cranberries. There were also grapes (native grapes are terrible, so go for something store-bought), blueberries and raspberries. The Pilgrims lacked butter, flour, and even ovens, so they didn’t bake pies. The First Thanksgiving Attire We have a specific picture of Thanksgiving, largely due to paintings, movies and our education. This picture is of painted savages with feathers poking out of their headdresses eating with a bunch of people looking like they are ready for a funeral. The truth is not completely different, but it is different enough. Clothing Made From Skins Most of the clothing the Wampanoag wore they made from deerskin. They wore deerskin breechcloths, which you may be able to visualize as loincloths featuring a butt flap as well. Women wore deerskin skirts held up with belts. Most young boys ran around naked until they were about 10 years old. In the winter, people wore mantles, which were deerskins attached at the shoulder, wrapped around the body and sometimes secured with a belt. They did paint their faces using red, yellow, black and white face paint. Sometimes they sported tattoos and wore jewelry made from shells, feathers, and glass beads. They even painted their clothing brightly. Some special and brave warriors were awarded a prized eagle feather, which they wore proudly in their headdresses. However, the giant plumage of feathered headdresses often seen in artistic depictions of the first Thanksgiving was probably embellished by the artist. Wools and Linens The Pilgrims dressed rather similarly to the depictions we see of them. They wore heavy wools and linens. Most of their children wore dresses at a young age, so boys and girls were indistinguishable. They all wore aprons; men preferring short, leather ones. The caps and hats were typical as well, though the buckles on every male costume of the era are overkill. They were not leprechauns. The biggest difference is the color. Black was a difficult color to dye clothing. The clothes were usually grey, white, blue or brown. They reserved black for finery. Therefore, the Pilgrims were not as colorful or naked as their native friends were, but they were not in funerary attire, either. The conclusion is what we learned about Thanksgiving is not a total disaster. Just try not to run around with feathers on your head eating potatoes if you want historians to take you seriously.	<urn:uuid:5ade6456-ca08-4fae-beab-7e339bbd8cc5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.historicmysteries.com/first-thanksgiving/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00038.warc.gz	en	0.982721	1,204	3.53125	4	[ 0.27739405632019043, 0.15900108218193054, 0.20429804921150208, -0.22418935596942902, 0.011727494187653065, -0.05454113334417343, 0.02373477816581726, 0.1957605481147766, 0.22420325875282288, 0.25591057538986206, -0.14972227811813354, 0.20060111582279205, -0.4221068024635315, 0.120790950953...	1	In the U.S. we have a quaint idea of the way the first Thanksgiving happened. The table was set with a bounty of different foods, life with Indians was peaceful, and everyone shared in the duties of bringing in the fall harvest for the celebration of the new settlers in America. However, the real question is, what was that first Thanksgiving really like? What Was the First Thanksgiving About? Thanksgiving is a largely religious term given to a weekday or annual day during which followers give thanks to their deities. Using that definition, thanksgivings were almost common in America long before the Pilgrims, but that is not what our Thanksgiving is about. We celebrate with family and community feasts, a tradition that typically is not present in religious thanksgivings. Therefore, the origins of our Thanksgiving traditions are certainly the Pilgrims’ harvest feast of 1621. This part of the story we learned is absolutely true. The Pilgrims were learning New World agriculture and hunting from their Native American friends the Wampanoag’s, their leader Massasoit and their Pawtuxet guest Squanto. When they reaped their harvest in 1621, about 50 Pilgrims celebrated with close to 100 natives in a three-day feast. We only feast for one day, but most of what we learned fits this description. What Did the Pilgrims Eat? Today, we eat turkey, stuffing, cranberry sauce and vegetables as the base feast for our Thanksgivings. We also tend to have lots of pies and breads. We often see this same feast depicted in “historical” representations of the holiday. It has gotten to the point that turkeys are like the Easter bunnies of Thanksgiving. The feast of 1621 looked very different, though in some ways the same, as our feasts today. Fowling for Turkey Let’s start with the all-important turkey. People on Massachusetts’ South Shore will tell you that wild turkeys are plentiful. Furthermore, one contemporary report of the feast says that some of the revelers went “fowling” and came back with “fowl.” For all we know, he could have meant cardinals, but there is a chance turkeys made their way onto the table in 1621. Seafood Thanksgiving Feast What we do know for sure is that shellfish played a way bigger role in the first Thanksgiving than turkey. Pilgrims relied heavily on fish, thanks to the teachings of Squanto. We know they had cod, bass and other fish. They may also have had mussels and lobster. Vegetable and Fruit Harvest The harvest is what this thing was all about, but we know very little about it except that it contained “Indian corn.” Historians believe this was most likely crushed up into cornmeal and made into porridge. There are many grinding stones used by the natives in the area, so it is likely the natives taught them this trick. Other crops likely included gourds, turnips, carrots, beans, spinach, and lettuce. There were definitely no potatoes of any kind. Sorry, spud lovers. Lastly, there may have been some local fruit on the table. Cranberries are common, so traditionalists can keep their cranberries. There were also grapes (native grapes are terrible, so go for something store-bought), blueberries and raspberries. The Pilgrims lacked butter, flour, and even ovens, so they didn’t bake pies. The First Thanksgiving Attire We have a specific picture of Thanksgiving, largely due to paintings, movies and our education. This picture is of painted savages with feathers poking out of their headdresses eating with a bunch of people looking like they are ready for a funeral. The truth is not completely different, but it is different enough. Clothing Made From Skins Most of the clothing the Wampanoag wore they made from deerskin. They wore deerskin breechcloths, which you may be able to visualize as loincloths featuring a butt flap as well. Women wore deerskin skirts held up with belts. Most young boys ran around naked until they were about 10 years old. In the winter, people wore mantles, which were deerskins attached at the shoulder, wrapped around the body and sometimes secured with a belt. They did paint their faces using red, yellow, black and white face paint. Sometimes they sported tattoos and wore jewelry made from shells, feathers, and glass beads. They even painted their clothing brightly. Some special and brave warriors were awarded a prized eagle feather, which they wore proudly in their headdresses. However, the giant plumage of feathered headdresses often seen in artistic depictions of the first Thanksgiving was probably embellished by the artist. Wools and Linens The Pilgrims dressed rather similarly to the depictions we see of them. They wore heavy wools and linens. Most of their children wore dresses at a young age, so boys and girls were indistinguishable. They all wore aprons; men preferring short, leather ones. The caps and hats were typical as well, though the buckles on every male costume of the era are overkill. They were not leprechauns. The biggest difference is the color. Black was a difficult color to dye clothing. The clothes were usually grey, white, blue or brown. They reserved black for finery. Therefore, the Pilgrims were not as colorful or naked as their native friends were, but they were not in funerary attire, either. The conclusion is what we learned about Thanksgiving is not a total disaster. Just try not to run around with feathers on your head eating potatoes if you want historians to take you seriously.	1,190	ENGLISH	1
On this day in 1911, Odysseas Elytis (ne Odysseus Alepoudelis), the Greek poet, was born in Heraklion on the island of Crete. Elytis was the son of a prosperous family from Lesbos, but he abandoned his family name as a young man in order to dissociate his writing from his family’s soap business. Frank J. Prial of the New York Times explained that the poet’s pseudonymous name was actually “a composite made up of elements of Ellas, the Greek word for Greece; elpida, the word for hope; eleftheria, the word for freedom, and Eleni, the name of a figure that, in Greek mythology, personifies beauty and sensuality.” Elytis first became interested in poetry around the age of seventeen. At the same time he discovered surrealism, a school of thought just emerging in France. He began publishing verse in the 1930s – notably in Nea Grammata. This magazine was a prime vehicle for the Generation of the 30s, an influential school that included George Seferis, who in 1963 became the first Nobel Laureate for literature. When Nazi Germany occupied Greece in 1941, Elytis fought against the Italians in Albania. He became something of a bard among young Greeks – who considered his poems anthems to the cause of freedom. During and after the Greek Civil War, he lapsed into literary silence for almost 15 years – returning to print in 1959 with a long poem in which the speaker explores the essence of his being as well as the identity of his country and people. This poem, set to music by Mikis Theodorakis, became immensely popular and helped Elytis earn the Nobel prize in 1979. Also on this day in 1916, Al Campanis, the Greek major league baseball player and executive, was born in Kos. Campanis moved to New York City at age 6 with his family, where he spent his youth. He attended New York University and graduated in 1940. Campanis began his long career (44 years) with the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1943 and was their second baseman for a short time. Campanis is most famous for his position as being the general manager of the Los Angeles Dodgers from 1968 to 1987 – from which he was fired on April 8, 1987, as a result of remarks perceived as racist regarding African Americans in baseball that he made during an interview on ABC News’ Nightline two days earlier. On this day in 1968, the ex-premier of Greece, Georgios Papandreou was buried. Papandreou was a Greek politician and the founder of the Papandreou political dynasty. His political career spanned more than five decades – including serving as Greece’s prime minister three times. He studied law in Athens and political science in Berlin. His political philosophy was heavily influenced by German social democracy and as a result, he was adamantly opposed to the monarchy and supported generous social policies (but at the same time was very much against communism). Papandreou’s progressive policies as premier aroused much opposition in conservative circles. In 1965, a crisis developed over Papandreou’s insistence on giving posts to his son Andreas. In the same year, he also clashed with Greek King Constantine II over the control of rightist officers in the army. In July of 1965, the king dismissed Papandreou from the prime ministry, after which a period of political instability ensued in Greece. Two years later, when it became clear that Papandreou’s party was against headed for victory in the upcoming general elections, a military junta seized power in Greece and arrested Papandreou and his son Andreas. They were later released, but the elder Papandreou died soon afterward. His funeral was attended by a million people who marched in defiance of the military dictatorship – the largest anti-junta demonstration. On this day in 1914, Great Britain annexed Cyprus. In 1571, the mostly Greek-populated island of Cyprus was conquered by the Ottoman Empire, following the Ottoman-Venetian War. After 300 years of Ottoman rule, the island and its population was leased to Britain by the Cyprus Convention, an agreement reached during the Congress of Berlin in 1878 between the United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire. Britain formally annexed Cyprus on November 5, 1914 as a reaction to the Ottoman Empire’s decision to join the First World War on the side of the Central Powers. Subsequently, the island became a British Crown colony, known as British Cyprus.	<urn:uuid:83b0e9c3-67b2-4f6a-a30b-1a2c0ef7d8ba>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thenationalherald.com/266612/this-week-in-history-november-1st-to-november-7th/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00442.warc.gz	en	0.98432	936	3.6875	4	[ 0.1654266119003296, 0.27981433272361755, 0.12340711057186127, -0.15047231316566467, -0.24975961446762085, 0.03112831525504589, 0.17658761143684387, 0.2928711771965027, -0.15542565286159515, -0.1825317144393921, -0.36071088910102844, 0.06745129823684692, -0.07524444162845612, 0.395068645477...	3	On this day in 1911, Odysseas Elytis (ne Odysseus Alepoudelis), the Greek poet, was born in Heraklion on the island of Crete. Elytis was the son of a prosperous family from Lesbos, but he abandoned his family name as a young man in order to dissociate his writing from his family’s soap business. Frank J. Prial of the New York Times explained that the poet’s pseudonymous name was actually “a composite made up of elements of Ellas, the Greek word for Greece; elpida, the word for hope; eleftheria, the word for freedom, and Eleni, the name of a figure that, in Greek mythology, personifies beauty and sensuality.” Elytis first became interested in poetry around the age of seventeen. At the same time he discovered surrealism, a school of thought just emerging in France. He began publishing verse in the 1930s – notably in Nea Grammata. This magazine was a prime vehicle for the Generation of the 30s, an influential school that included George Seferis, who in 1963 became the first Nobel Laureate for literature. When Nazi Germany occupied Greece in 1941, Elytis fought against the Italians in Albania. He became something of a bard among young Greeks – who considered his poems anthems to the cause of freedom. During and after the Greek Civil War, he lapsed into literary silence for almost 15 years – returning to print in 1959 with a long poem in which the speaker explores the essence of his being as well as the identity of his country and people. This poem, set to music by Mikis Theodorakis, became immensely popular and helped Elytis earn the Nobel prize in 1979. Also on this day in 1916, Al Campanis, the Greek major league baseball player and executive, was born in Kos. Campanis moved to New York City at age 6 with his family, where he spent his youth. He attended New York University and graduated in 1940. Campanis began his long career (44 years) with the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1943 and was their second baseman for a short time. Campanis is most famous for his position as being the general manager of the Los Angeles Dodgers from 1968 to 1987 – from which he was fired on April 8, 1987, as a result of remarks perceived as racist regarding African Americans in baseball that he made during an interview on ABC News’ Nightline two days earlier. On this day in 1968, the ex-premier of Greece, Georgios Papandreou was buried. Papandreou was a Greek politician and the founder of the Papandreou political dynasty. His political career spanned more than five decades – including serving as Greece’s prime minister three times. He studied law in Athens and political science in Berlin. His political philosophy was heavily influenced by German social democracy and as a result, he was adamantly opposed to the monarchy and supported generous social policies (but at the same time was very much against communism). Papandreou’s progressive policies as premier aroused much opposition in conservative circles. In 1965, a crisis developed over Papandreou’s insistence on giving posts to his son Andreas. In the same year, he also clashed with Greek King Constantine II over the control of rightist officers in the army. In July of 1965, the king dismissed Papandreou from the prime ministry, after which a period of political instability ensued in Greece. Two years later, when it became clear that Papandreou’s party was against headed for victory in the upcoming general elections, a military junta seized power in Greece and arrested Papandreou and his son Andreas. They were later released, but the elder Papandreou died soon afterward. His funeral was attended by a million people who marched in defiance of the military dictatorship – the largest anti-junta demonstration. On this day in 1914, Great Britain annexed Cyprus. In 1571, the mostly Greek-populated island of Cyprus was conquered by the Ottoman Empire, following the Ottoman-Venetian War. After 300 years of Ottoman rule, the island and its population was leased to Britain by the Cyprus Convention, an agreement reached during the Congress of Berlin in 1878 between the United Kingdom and the Ottoman Empire. Britain formally annexed Cyprus on November 5, 1914 as a reaction to the Ottoman Empire’s decision to join the First World War on the side of the Central Powers. Subsequently, the island became a British Crown colony, known as British Cyprus.	1,008	ENGLISH	1
"Come and learn what Laban the Aramean sought to do to our father, Jacob. For Pharaoh issued his edict against only the males, but Laban sought to uproot us all, as it is said, ‘An Aramean would have destroyed my father, and he went down to Egypt and he became there a great nation, strong and numerous.’" One of the most difficult texts in the Haggadah is "arami oved avi." The Haggadah includes the Rabbinic interpretation of the verse, reading it as "An Aramean tried to destroy my father." This verse, is at the center of the Haggadah and its rabbinic interpretation differs dramatically from the Torah text. The traditional Haggadah provides a long section of midrash, rabbinic interpretation, in which the verses of Deuteronomy 26:5-8 are examined in light of the spiritual and political history of the Jewish people. The midrash tells us that if you change the vowels from "oved" to "ibed," the meaning is changed from "wandering" to "destroyed." Thus, " A wandering Aramean was my father" will read, "An Aramean tried to destroy my father." Jacob lived in Aram, in Mesopotamia, while courting Rachel and Leah and working for their father Laban, an Aramean. Consequently, Laban is usually seen as the Aramean who would have sought to destroy Jacob, reminding us of the treachery of Laban, who tricked Jacob into marrying Leah before Rachel, then tricked him into twenty years of servitude, and finally tried to deny him his dowry. Laban may be viewed as the symbol of everyone who has tried to destroy the Jewish People. While Rashi accepted this reading, Ibn Ezra strongly rejected it, in favor of the interpretation that the verse refers to Jacob, who, when he was in Aram, was lost. Rashbam also rejected Rashi’s interpretation, but argued that the verse more appropriately applies to Abraham, who can correctly be identified as an Aramean. Why does the Haggadah consider Laban worse than Pharaoh? R. Azriel Hildesheimer, a nineteenth century German Rabbi, explains that Jacob and his sons went down to Egypt because Joseph was already there. Joseph had been sold by his brothers into Egypt because his brothers had envied the way their father favored their youngest brother, who was born in Jacob’s old age. Joseph was born in Jacob’s old age because Rachel’s marriage had been delayed. Rachel’s marriage had been delayed because Laban tricked Jacob by giving him Leah rather than Rachel as a wife. Had Jacob married Rachel first, Joseph would have been the firstborn and his brothers wouldn’t have envied him and wouldn’t have sold him into slavery. If he had not been sold into slavery, Jacob and his sons would not have gone down to Egypt. If they had not gone down to Egypt, their descendants would not have been enslaved under Pharaoh. We learn from all this that if it had not been for the act of deceit of Laban, there would not have been a Pharaoah as we know him. Haggadot.com is a project of Custom & Craft Jewish Rituals, Inc (EIN: 82-4765805), a 501(c)(3) tax-exempt California public benefit corporation. Your gift is tax deductible to the extent allowed by law. Anyone you invite to collaborate with you will see everything posted to this haggadah and will have full access to edit clips.	<urn:uuid:1cbdda78-0c3e-4214-b2a2-685e8b2d014d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.haggadot.com/clip/my-father-was-wandering-aramean-0	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251789055.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129071944-20200129101944-00433.warc.gz	en	0.986105	762	3.46875	3	[ -0.20559176802635193, 0.8329644799232483, 0.045302651822566986, -0.30364131927490234, -0.46653684973716736, -0.14402547478675842, 0.4476188123226166, 0.37624645233154297, -0.28176063299179077, -0.20975181460380554, -0.11437350511550903, -0.20917640626430511, -0.00822078064084053, 0.4973483...	1	"Come and learn what Laban the Aramean sought to do to our father, Jacob. For Pharaoh issued his edict against only the males, but Laban sought to uproot us all, as it is said, ‘An Aramean would have destroyed my father, and he went down to Egypt and he became there a great nation, strong and numerous.’" One of the most difficult texts in the Haggadah is "arami oved avi." The Haggadah includes the Rabbinic interpretation of the verse, reading it as "An Aramean tried to destroy my father." This verse, is at the center of the Haggadah and its rabbinic interpretation differs dramatically from the Torah text. The traditional Haggadah provides a long section of midrash, rabbinic interpretation, in which the verses of Deuteronomy 26:5-8 are examined in light of the spiritual and political history of the Jewish people. The midrash tells us that if you change the vowels from "oved" to "ibed," the meaning is changed from "wandering" to "destroyed." Thus, " A wandering Aramean was my father" will read, "An Aramean tried to destroy my father." Jacob lived in Aram, in Mesopotamia, while courting Rachel and Leah and working for their father Laban, an Aramean. Consequently, Laban is usually seen as the Aramean who would have sought to destroy Jacob, reminding us of the treachery of Laban, who tricked Jacob into marrying Leah before Rachel, then tricked him into twenty years of servitude, and finally tried to deny him his dowry. Laban may be viewed as the symbol of everyone who has tried to destroy the Jewish People. While Rashi accepted this reading, Ibn Ezra strongly rejected it, in favor of the interpretation that the verse refers to Jacob, who, when he was in Aram, was lost. Rashbam also rejected Rashi’s interpretation, but argued that the verse more appropriately applies to Abraham, who can correctly be identified as an Aramean. Why does the Haggadah consider Laban worse than Pharaoh? R. Azriel Hildesheimer, a nineteenth century German Rabbi, explains that Jacob and his sons went down to Egypt because Joseph was already there. Joseph had been sold by his brothers into Egypt because his brothers had envied the way their father favored their youngest brother, who was born in Jacob’s old age. Joseph was born in Jacob’s old age because Rachel’s marriage had been delayed. Rachel’s marriage had been delayed because Laban tricked Jacob by giving him Leah rather than Rachel as a wife. Had Jacob married Rachel first, Joseph would have been the firstborn and his brothers wouldn’t have envied him and wouldn’t have sold him into slavery. If he had not been sold into slavery, Jacob and his sons would not have gone down to Egypt. If they had not gone down to Egypt, their descendants would not have been enslaved under Pharaoh. We learn from all this that if it had not been for the act of deceit of Laban, there would not have been a Pharaoah as we know him. Haggadot.com is a project of Custom & Craft Jewish Rituals, Inc (EIN: 82-4765805), a 501(c)(3) tax-exempt California public benefit corporation. Your gift is tax deductible to the extent allowed by law. Anyone you invite to collaborate with you will see everything posted to this haggadah and will have full access to edit clips.	755	ENGLISH	1
Pssst… we can write an original essay just for you. Any subject. Any type of essay. We’ll even meet a 3-hour deadline.Get your price 121 writers online In their respective writings, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Frederick Douglass learn to operate and rebel in their own, personal political communities and are both ostracized by their political convictions. Douglass, a slave living in antebellum America, learns to read and write; his literacy in itself is a form of rebellion and he uses his newfound language against the system that educated as well as oppressed him. Emerson is also an outsider, but by choice; the ideals expressed in his writings necessitate his separation from his community. Both Douglass and Emerson are revolutionaries in their own right, defying their communities and consequential politics to pursue their personal ideologies. However, because of their respective positions in society, Douglass and Emerson approach politics and revolution in differing ways—Douglass must maneuver and rebel within the confines of the politics established by his community, while Emerson is able to redefine the political structure entirely, essentially existing outside the laws of his community. Douglass, because of his position in his community as a former slave, must work within the existing political guidelines to fashion his rebellion. Douglass must abide by the laws of his masters; he can only defy them while operating within the very political community they had established to subjugate Douglass. Because of Douglass’s suppression, he has no license, inclination, or impulse to act outside of the political community into which he has been forced. Instead, he rebels within the constraints of his community, and his revolutionary actions are therefore exceedingly recognizable as such. For example, as Douglass’s mistress, Mrs. Auld, teaches him to read and write, he begins to discover the politics surrounding his enslavement: “I now understood what had been to me a most perplexing difficulty—to wit, the white man’s power to enslave the black man. It was a good achievement and I prized it highly” (29). As Douglass acquires his own utility by becoming literate, he learns the politics of the community that enslaves him. What’s more, Douglass is proud of this realization and guards it steadfastly because his newfound knowledge will allow him to challenge these politics, his community, and his master by rebelling against them. The fact that Douglass’s form of revolution occurs within the confines of the politics of his community in manifested in the syntax of his rhetoric. He states, “What he [Douglass’s master] most dreaded, that I most desired. What he most loves, that I most hated. That which to him was a great evil, to be carefully shunned, was to me a great good, to be diligently sought” (29-30). Through his rhetoric, Douglass aligns himself with his master, with the white man, with power and utility, and learns to rebel. The parallel structure of Douglass’s phrasing leads the reader to envision Douglass as the equal of his master, as a worthy adversary. Yet, by employing such a structure and syntax, Douglass demonstrates his adherence to the politics of his community. Douglass works within the confines of his political community, only able to defy his master through a carefully constructed equation. Douglass does not and cannot envision himself superior to his master; that would be a revolution completely unsupported and illogical within his political community because of his status as a black man, as a slave. Instead, he employs a structure that allows him to equate himself to his master, which is both revolutionary and possible within his political community. Emerson, on the other hand, as a prominent, white figure in academia, is able to manipulate his community’s politics. He is, therefore, able to fashion his own political community, living in a self-created world, by self-created laws. Unlike Douglass, Emerson is not subject to the politics of his community because he has the authority and status, through his position in society, to create his own political community. In his essay “Self Reliance,” Emerson argues that, “society everywhere is in conspiracy against the manhood of every one of its members… The virtue in most request is conformity. Self-reliance is its aversion” (261). That is, Emerson proposes a new type of politics. Instead of working within the type of community that has always exists—instead of simply accepting the notion of “society”—Emerson creates a new ideology: where man stands alone, self-reliant and independent. Emerson is able to accomplish this task, to live outside the politics of his community as a voluntary exile, because of his position in society. As an educated scholar established firmly in the realm of academia, Emerson not only has the ability to create these new politics, but the authority and the confidence, as well. He states, “To be great is to be misunderstood” (265). Emerson’s view of the self within the community is revolutionary because it is far removed from any type of ideology the reader is familiar with and, while Douglass’s attempts to convey his autobiography is complete clarity about his position within his community, Emerson’s essay is far more interpretive. There is room to peruse and explore within Emerson’s essay because it is his creation. There is opportunity to “misunderstand” Emerson because of the freedom of his thought and rhetoric. Emerson’s view of politics and the community is not more or less revolutionary than Douglass’s. Both Douglass and Emerson manage their own type of revolution, yet Douglass does so within the established politics of his community, whereas Emerson is able to redefine the ideas of “politics” and “community” entirely, creating for himself a new set of guidelines by which to live, a new notion of what society actually is or should be. Emerson’s essay “Self-Reliance” is written with an air of freedom and entitlement; after all, he creates for himself a community where the individual is king. Douglass’s brand of revolution, on the other hand, is confined and dictated by his community. His political station within his community is reinforced by the sentence structure he employs. That is, his ideas of revolution are informed and determined by his social standing as a slave—even in his rebellion While Emerson plays God, creating for himself a new politic, Douglass maneuvers within the constraints of his community, locating revolution by playing by the rules of his masters. To export a reference to this article please select a referencing style below: Sorry, copying is not allowed on our website. If you’d like this or any other sample, we’ll happily email it to you. Your essay sample has been sent. Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now Are you interested in getting a customized paper?Check it out!	<urn:uuid:725cb7e1-dda9-4ada-97bb-991adf30a8c7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gradesfixer.com/free-essay-examples/the-political-station-in-douglasss-narrative-of-the-life-and-emersons-self-reliance-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00173.warc.gz	en	0.984195	1,478	3.75	4	[ -0.3161797523498535, -0.017339278012514114, -0.09302598237991333, -0.08045105636119843, -0.030905522406101227, 0.2668308615684509, -0.0024640297051519156, 0.02069397270679474, 0.04298301041126251, 0.07045025378465652, 0.14474567770957947, 0.11379897594451904, -0.013280657120049, 0.16612313...	1	Pssst… we can write an original essay just for you. Any subject. Any type of essay. We’ll even meet a 3-hour deadline.Get your price 121 writers online In their respective writings, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Frederick Douglass learn to operate and rebel in their own, personal political communities and are both ostracized by their political convictions. Douglass, a slave living in antebellum America, learns to read and write; his literacy in itself is a form of rebellion and he uses his newfound language against the system that educated as well as oppressed him. Emerson is also an outsider, but by choice; the ideals expressed in his writings necessitate his separation from his community. Both Douglass and Emerson are revolutionaries in their own right, defying their communities and consequential politics to pursue their personal ideologies. However, because of their respective positions in society, Douglass and Emerson approach politics and revolution in differing ways—Douglass must maneuver and rebel within the confines of the politics established by his community, while Emerson is able to redefine the political structure entirely, essentially existing outside the laws of his community. Douglass, because of his position in his community as a former slave, must work within the existing political guidelines to fashion his rebellion. Douglass must abide by the laws of his masters; he can only defy them while operating within the very political community they had established to subjugate Douglass. Because of Douglass’s suppression, he has no license, inclination, or impulse to act outside of the political community into which he has been forced. Instead, he rebels within the constraints of his community, and his revolutionary actions are therefore exceedingly recognizable as such. For example, as Douglass’s mistress, Mrs. Auld, teaches him to read and write, he begins to discover the politics surrounding his enslavement: “I now understood what had been to me a most perplexing difficulty—to wit, the white man’s power to enslave the black man. It was a good achievement and I prized it highly” (29). As Douglass acquires his own utility by becoming literate, he learns the politics of the community that enslaves him. What’s more, Douglass is proud of this realization and guards it steadfastly because his newfound knowledge will allow him to challenge these politics, his community, and his master by rebelling against them. The fact that Douglass’s form of revolution occurs within the confines of the politics of his community in manifested in the syntax of his rhetoric. He states, “What he [Douglass’s master] most dreaded, that I most desired. What he most loves, that I most hated. That which to him was a great evil, to be carefully shunned, was to me a great good, to be diligently sought” (29-30). Through his rhetoric, Douglass aligns himself with his master, with the white man, with power and utility, and learns to rebel. The parallel structure of Douglass’s phrasing leads the reader to envision Douglass as the equal of his master, as a worthy adversary. Yet, by employing such a structure and syntax, Douglass demonstrates his adherence to the politics of his community. Douglass works within the confines of his political community, only able to defy his master through a carefully constructed equation. Douglass does not and cannot envision himself superior to his master; that would be a revolution completely unsupported and illogical within his political community because of his status as a black man, as a slave. Instead, he employs a structure that allows him to equate himself to his master, which is both revolutionary and possible within his political community. Emerson, on the other hand, as a prominent, white figure in academia, is able to manipulate his community’s politics. He is, therefore, able to fashion his own political community, living in a self-created world, by self-created laws. Unlike Douglass, Emerson is not subject to the politics of his community because he has the authority and status, through his position in society, to create his own political community. In his essay “Self Reliance,” Emerson argues that, “society everywhere is in conspiracy against the manhood of every one of its members… The virtue in most request is conformity. Self-reliance is its aversion” (261). That is, Emerson proposes a new type of politics. Instead of working within the type of community that has always exists—instead of simply accepting the notion of “society”—Emerson creates a new ideology: where man stands alone, self-reliant and independent. Emerson is able to accomplish this task, to live outside the politics of his community as a voluntary exile, because of his position in society. As an educated scholar established firmly in the realm of academia, Emerson not only has the ability to create these new politics, but the authority and the confidence, as well. He states, “To be great is to be misunderstood” (265). Emerson’s view of the self within the community is revolutionary because it is far removed from any type of ideology the reader is familiar with and, while Douglass’s attempts to convey his autobiography is complete clarity about his position within his community, Emerson’s essay is far more interpretive. There is room to peruse and explore within Emerson’s essay because it is his creation. There is opportunity to “misunderstand” Emerson because of the freedom of his thought and rhetoric. Emerson’s view of politics and the community is not more or less revolutionary than Douglass’s. Both Douglass and Emerson manage their own type of revolution, yet Douglass does so within the established politics of his community, whereas Emerson is able to redefine the ideas of “politics” and “community” entirely, creating for himself a new set of guidelines by which to live, a new notion of what society actually is or should be. Emerson’s essay “Self-Reliance” is written with an air of freedom and entitlement; after all, he creates for himself a community where the individual is king. Douglass’s brand of revolution, on the other hand, is confined and dictated by his community. His political station within his community is reinforced by the sentence structure he employs. That is, his ideas of revolution are informed and determined by his social standing as a slave—even in his rebellion While Emerson plays God, creating for himself a new politic, Douglass maneuvers within the constraints of his community, locating revolution by playing by the rules of his masters. To export a reference to this article please select a referencing style below: Sorry, copying is not allowed on our website. If you’d like this or any other sample, we’ll happily email it to you. Your essay sample has been sent. Want us to write one just for you? We can custom edit this essay into an original, 100% plagiarism free essay.Order now Are you interested in getting a customized paper?Check it out!	1,417	ENGLISH	1
FREE Catholic Classes The name given to the subscribers (practically the whole Scottish nation) of the two Covenants, the National Covenant of 1638 and the Solemn League and Covenant of 1643. Though the covenants as national bonds ceased with the conquest of Scotland by Cromwell, a number continued to uphold them right through the period following the Restoration, and these too are known as Covenanters. The object of the Covenants was to band the whole nation together in defense of its religion against the attempts of the king to impose upon it an episcopal system of church government and a new and less anti-Roman liturgy. The struggle that ensued was a struggle for supremacy, viz.: as to who should have the last word, the King or the Kirk, in deciding the religion of the country. How this struggle arose must first be briefly explained. The causes of this Protestant conflict between Church and State must be sought in the circumstances of the Scottish Reformation. (For a summary of the history of the Scottish reformation down to 1601 see ch. ii of Gardiner's "History of England ".) Owing to the fact that Scotland, unlike England, has accepted Protestantism, not at the dictates of her rulers, but in opposition to them, the reformation was not merely an ecclesiastical revolution, but a rebellion. It was, therefore, perhaps no mere chance that made the Scottish nation, under the guidance of John Knox and later Andrew Melville, adopt that form of Protestantism which was, in its doctrine, farthest removed from Rome, to which their French regents adhered, and which in its theory of church government was most democratic. Presbyterianism meant the subordination of the State to the Kirk, as Melville plainly told James VI at Cupar in 1596, on the famous occasion when he seized his sovereign by the sleeve and called him " God's silly vassal". In the church, king and beggar were on an equal footing and of equal importance; king or beggar might equally and without distinction be excommunicated, and be submitted to a degrading ceremonial if he wished to be released from the censure; in this system the preacher was supreme. The civil power was to be the secular arm, the instrument, of the Kirk, and was required to inflict the penalties which the preacher imposed on such as contemned the censure and discipline of the Church. The Kirk, therefore, believed that the Presbyterian system, with its preachers, lay elders, and deacons, kirk sessions, synods, and general assemblies, was the one, Divinely appointed means to salvation, claimed to be absolute and supreme. Such a theory of the Divine right of Presbytery was not likely to meet with the approval of the kings of the Stuart line with their exaggerated idea of their own right Divine and prerogative. Nor could a church where the ministers and their elders in the kirk assemblies judged, censured, and punished all offenders high or low, craftsman or nobleman, be pleasing to an aristocracy that looked with feudal contempt on all forms of labour. Both noble and king were therefore anxious to humble the ministers and deprive them of some of their influence. James VI was soon taught the spirit of the Presbyterian clergy ; in 1592 he was compelled formally to sanction the establishment of Presbytery ; he was threatened with rebellion if he failed to rule according to the Gospel as interpreted by the ministers. If his kingly authority was to endure, James saw that he must seek for some means by which he could check their excessive claims. He first tried to draw together the two separate representative institutions in Scotland — the Parliament, representing the king and the nobility, and the General Assembly, representing the Kirk and the majority of the nation — by granting the clergy a vote in Parliament. Owing, however, to the hostility of clergy and nobility, the scheme fell through. James now adopted that policy which was to be so fruitful of disaster;he determined to re-introduce episcopacy in Scotland as the only possible means of brining the clergy to submit to his own authority. He had already gone some way towards accomplishing his object when his accession to the English throne still further strengthened his resolve. For he considered the assimilation of the two Churches both in their form of government and in their doctrine essential to the furtherance of his great design, the union of the two kingdoms. By 1612, James had succeeded in carrying out the first part of his policy, the re-establishment of diocesan episcopacy. Before his death he had also gone a long way towards effecting changes in the ritual and doctrine of Presbyterianism. On Black Saturday, 4 Aug., 1621, the Five Articles of Perth were ratified by the Estates. Imposed as these were upon an unwilling nation by means of a packed Assembly and Parliament, they were to be the source of much trouble and bloodshed in Scotland. Distrust of their rulers, hatred of bishops, and hatred of all ecclesiastical changes was the legacy bequeathed by James to his son. James had sowed the wind, and Charles I was soon to reap the whirlwind. Charles' very first action, his "matching himself with the daughter of Heth", i.e., France (see Leighton, "Sion's Plea against Prelacy" quoted by Gardiner, "Hist. of England, ed. 1884, VII, 146), aroused suspicion as to his orthodoxy, and in the light of that suspicion every act of his religious policy was interpreted, wrongly we know, as some subtle means of favoring popery. His wisest course would have been to annul the hated Five Articles of Perth, which to Scotchmen were but so many injunctions to commit idolatry. In spite of concessions, however, he let it be known that the articles were to remain (Row, Historie of the Kirk of Scotland, p. 340; Balfour, Annals, II, 142; Privy Council Register, N. S., I, 91-93). Further, he took the unwise step of increasing the powers of the bishops ; five were given a place in the Privy Council; and the Archbishop Spottiswoode was made President of the Exchequer and ordered as Primate to take precedence of every other subject. This proceeding not only roused the indignation of Protestants, who in the words of Row, considered bishops "bellie-gods", but it further offended the aristocracy, who felt themselves thus slighted. But a persecution of the Kirk and its preachers would not have brought about as rebellion. Charles could always count on his subservient bishops, and on the nobles ever willing to humble the ministers. But he now took a step which alienated his only allies. James had always been careful to keep the nobles on his side by lavish grants of the old church lands. By the Act of Revocation, which passed the Privy Seal, 12 October, 1625 (Privy Council Register I, 193), Charles I touched the pockets of the nobility, raised at once a serious opposition, and led the barons to form an alliance with the Kirk against the common enemy, the king. It was a fatal step and proved "the ground-stone of all the mischief that followed after, both to this king's government and family (Balfour, Annals, II, 128). Thus, before he had set foot in Scotland, Charles had offended every class of his people. His visit to Scotland made matters worse; Scotchmen were horrified to see at the coronation service such "popish rags" as "white rochets and white sleeves and copes of gold having blue silk to their foot" worn by the presiding bishops which "bred great fear of inbringing of popery" (Spaulding, Hist. of the Troubles in England and Scotland, 1624-45, I, 36). Acts, too, were passed through Parliament which plainly showed the king's determination to change the ecclesiastical system of Scotland. Scotland was therefore ready for an explosion. The spark was the New Service Book. Both Charles and Laud had been shocked at the bare walls and pillars of the churches, all clad with dust, sweepings, and cobwebs; at the trafficking which went on in the Scottish churches; at the lengthy "conceived prayers " often spoken by ignorant men and not infrequently as seditious as the sermons (Baillie, O. S. B., writing in 1627, cited by William Kintoch, "Studies in Scottish Ecclesiastical History ", pp. 23, 24; also, "Large Declaration", p. 16). The king desired to have decency, orderliness, uniformity. Hence he ordered a new service book, prepared by himself and Laud, to be adopted by Scotland. The imposition of the New Service Book was a piece of sheer despotism on the part of the king; it had no ecclesiastical sanction whatever, for the General Assembly, and even the bishops as a body, had not been consulted; neither had it any lay authority, for it had not the approval of Parliament; it went counter to all the religious feeling of the majority of the Scottish people; it offended their national sentiment, for it was English. Rowe summed up the objections to it by calling it a "Popish-English-Scotish-Mass-Service-Book" (op. cit., p. 398). There could, therefore, be very little doubt as to how Scotland would receive the new liturgy. The famous riot at St. Giles, Edinburgh, 23 July, 1637 (account of it in the King's "Large Declaration", and Gordon's "Hist. of Scots Affairs", I, 7), when at the solemn inauguration of the new service, somebody, probably a woman, threw the stool at the deacon's head, was but an indication of the general feeling of the country. From all classes and ranks, and from every part of the country except the north-east, the petitions came pouring into the Council for the withdrawal of the liturgy. Every attempt to enforce the prayer book led to a riot. In a word, the resistance was general. The Council was powerless. It was suggested therefore that each of the four orders — nobles, lairds, burghers, and ministers — should choose four commissioners to represent them and transact business with the Council, and that then the crowd of petitioners should return to their homes. Accordingly, four committees, or "Tables" (Row, pp. 465,6) were chosen, the petitioners dispersed, and the riots in Edinburgh ceased. But this arrangement also gave the opposition the one thing necessary for a successful action, a government. The sixteen could, if only united, direct the mobs effectively. The effect of having a guiding hand was at once seen. The demands of the supplicants became more definite and peremptory and on 21 December the Tables presented the Council a collective "Supplication" which not only demanded the recall of the liturgy, but, further, the removal of the bishops from the council on the ground that, as they were parties in the case, they should not be judges (Balfour, Annals, II, 244-5: Rothes, Relation, etc., pp. 26 sqq., gives an account of the formation of the "Tables"). The supplicants, in other words, look upon the quarrel between king and subjects as a lawsuit. Charles' answer to the "Supplication" was read at Sterling, on 19 February, 1638. He defended the prayer book and declared all protesting meetings illegal and treasonable. A counter proclamation had been deliberately prepared by the supplicants and no sooner had the king's answer been read than Lords Home and Lindsay, in the name of the four orders, lodged a formal protestation. The same form was gone through in Linlithgow and Edinburgh. By these formal protestations, the petitioners were virtually setting up a government against the government, and as there was no middle party to appeal to, it became necessary to prove to the king that the supplicants, and not he, had the nation behind them. The means was ready to hand. The nobility and gentry of Scotland had been in the habit for entering into "bands" for mutual protection. Archibald Johnson of Warristoun is said to have suggested that such a band or covenant now be adopted, but not as heretofore by nobles and lairds only, but by the whole Scottish people; it was to be a national covenant, taking as its basis the Negative Confession of Faith which had been drawn up by the order of James VI in 1581. The great document was composed. After reciting the reason of the band, that the innovations and evils contained in the supplications had no warrant in the word of God, they promise and swear to continue in the profession and obedience of the aforesaid religion, that we shall defend the same, and resist all those contrary errors and corruptions, according to our vocation, and to the uttermost of that power which God has put in our hands all the days of our life". Yet, whilst uttering oaths that seem scarcely compatible with loyalty to the king, they likewise promised and swore that we shall, to the utmost of our power with our means and lives, stand to the defense of our dread sovereign, his person and authority, in defense of the foresaid true religion, liberties and laws of the kingdom" (Large Declaration, p. 57), and they further swore to mutual defense and assistance. In these professions of loyalty, the Covenanters, for so we must now call the supplicants, were probably sincere; during the whole course of the struggle the great majority never wished to touch the throne, they only wished to carry out their own idea of the strictly limited nature of the king's authority. Charles was the king, and they would obey, if he did as they commanded. The success of the Covenant was great and immediate. It was completed on 28 February and carried for signature to Greyfriars church. Tradition tells how the parchment was unrolled on a tombstone in the churchyard and how the people came in crowds weeping with emotion to sign the band. This strange seen was soon witnessed in almost every parish in Scotland, if we except the Highlands and the North-East. Several copies of the Covenant were distributed for signature. "Gentlemen and noblemen carried copies of it in portmantles and pockets requiring subscriptions thereunto, and using their utmost endeavours with their friends in private for to subscribe." "And such was the zeal of many subscribers, that for a while many subscribed with tears on their cheeks" and it is even said that some did draw their blood, and use it in place of ink to underwrite their name" (Gordon, Scots Affairs, I, 46). Not all, however, were willing subscribers to the Covenant. For many persuasion was sufficient to make them join the cause; other required rougher treatment. All those who refused to sign were not only looked upon as ungodly, but as traitors to their country, as ready to help the foreign invader. And as the greater that the number of subscribers grew, the more imperious they were in exacting subscriptions from others who refused to subscribe, so that by degrees they proceeded to contumelies and reproaches, and some were threatened and beaten who durst refuse, especially in the greatest cities" (Ibid, p. 45). No blood, however, was shed until the outbreak of the war. Ministers who refused to sign were silenced, ill-treated, and driven from their homes. Toleration and freedom of conscience was hated by both parties and by none more fanatically than the Scottish Presbyterians. Scotland was in truth a covenanted nation. A few great land-owners, a few of the clergy, especially the Doctors of Aberdeen who feared that their quiet studies and intellectual freedom would be overwhelmed, stood aloof from the movement. Many, no doubt, signed in ignorance of what they were doing, some because they were frightened, but more still because they were swayed by an overpowering excitement and frenzy. Neither side could now retreat, but Charles was not ready for war. So to gain time he made a show of concession and promised a General Assembly. The Assembly met at Glasgow 21 Nov., and immediately brought matters to a head. It attacked the bishops, accusing them of all manner of crimes; in consequence Hamilton, as commissioner, dissolved it. Nothing daunted, the Assembly then resolved that it was entitled to remain in session and competent to judge the bishops, and it proceeded to pull down the whole ecclesiastical edifice built up by James and Charles. The Service Book, Book of Canons, the Articles of Perth were swept away; the episcopacy was declared forever abolished and all assemblies held under episcopal jurisdiction were null and void; the bishops were all ejected and some excommunicated ; Presbyterian government was again establis hed. FREE Catholic Classes Pick a class, you can learn anything War was now inevitable. In spite of their protestations of loyalty, the Covenanters had practically set up a theory in opposition to the monarchy. The question at issue, as Charles pointed out in his proclamation, was whether he was to be king or not? Toleration was the only basis of compromise possible; but toleration was deemed a heresy by both parties, and hence there was no other course but to fight it out. In two short wars, known as the Bishops' Wars, the Covenanters in arms brought the king to his knees, and for the next ten years Charles was only nominally sovereign of Scotland. A united nation could not be made to change its religion at the command of a king. The triumph of the Covenants, however, was destined to be short-lived. The outbreak of the Civil War in England was soon to break the Covenanting party in twain. Men were to be divided between their allegiance to monarchy and their allegiance to the Covenant. Scotchmen in spite of their past actions still firmly adhered to the monarchical form of government, and there cannot be much doubt that they would much rather have acted as mediators between the king and his Parliament than have interfered actively. But the royalist successes of 1643 alarmed them. Presbyterianism would not endure long in Scotland if Charles won. For this reason the majority of the nation sided with the Parliament, but it was with reluctance that the Covenanters agreed to give the English brotherly assistance. This assistance they were determined to give only on one condition, namely that England should reform its religion according to the Scottish pattern. To this end England and Scotland entered into the Solemn League and Covenant (17 Aug., 1643). It would have been well for Scotland if she had never entered the League to enforce her own church system on England. If she had been satisfied with a simple alliance and assistance, all would have been well. But by materially helping the English Parliament to win at Marsten Moor she had helped to place the decision of affairs of state in the hands of the army, which was predominantly Independent, and hated presbyters as much as bishops.If the Scotch had recrossed the Tweed in 1646 and had left the Parliament and the army to fight out for themselves the question of ecclesiastical government, England would not have interfered with their religion; but the Covenanters thought it their duty to extirpate idolatry and Baal-worship and establish the true religion in England, and so came in conflict with those who wielded the sword. The result was that England not only did not become Presbyterian, but Scotland herself became a conquered country. In military matters the Covenanters were successful in England, but in their own country they were sorely tried for a year (1644) by the brilliant career of Montrose (an account of the career of Montrose in given in A. Lang, Hist. of Scot., III, v). On account of the nature of the troops engaged, the encounters were fought with a vindictive ferocity unknown in the English part of the Civil War. Not only was the number of slain very great, but both sides slaked their thirst for vengeance in plunder, murder, and wholesale massacres. In this respect the Covenanters must bear the greater share of the blame. The Catholic Celts whom Montrose led undoubtedly committed outrages, especially against their personal enemies the Campbells, during the winter campaigns of Inverlochy (Patrick Gordon, Britane's Distemper, pp. 95 sqq.), but restrained by Montrose, they never perpetrated such perfidy as the Covenanters after Philiphaugh, and the slaughter of three hundred women, "married wives of the Irish ". Montrose's success and the fact that he was a leader of Scoto-Irish lashed the hatred of the preachers into fury. They raved for the blood of the Malignants. The preachers, with a fanaticism revoltingly blasphemous, and as ferocious as that of Islam, believed that more blood must be shed to propitiate the Deity (Balfour, Annals, III, 311). The victory of Philiphaugh (13 Sept., 1645), removed the immediate danger to the Covenanters and likewise extinguished the last glimmer of hope for the Royalist cause, which had suffered irreparable defeat a few weeks earlier at Naseby. But the very triumph of the Parliamentary forces in England was fatal to the cause of the Solemn League and Covenant. The victory had been gained by the army which was not Presbyterian but independent, and capable now of resisting the infliction of an intolerant and tyrannical church government upon itself and upon England. When, therefore, the Scottish army recrossed the Tweed, February, 1647, it was with its main purpose unfulfilled. England had not been thoroughly reformed; heresy, especially in the army, was still rampant. The Solemn League and Covenant had been a failure, and the Scots had fought in vain. Worse than this, the Covenanters themselves were divided. The success of the Covenant had been due to the alliance between the Kirk and the nobility. The latter had joined the cause from jealousy of the authority of the bishops and from fear of the loss of their estates by the Act of Revocation. But now, bishops there were none, and the nobility were still in the possession of their estates. Since the causes for further cooperation were thus wanting, the feudal instincts of the nobility, love of monarchical government, contempt for the lower orders to which the majority of the Kirk belonged, naturally reasserted themselves. To this must be added their intense jealousy of Argyll, who owed his influence to the support he gave the Kirk. a Royalist part began thus to be formed among the Covenanters. The cleavage in their ranks was shown in the dispute over the question of the surrender of Charles I to the Parliament (1646). Hamilton had pressed the Estates to give the king honour and shelter in Scotland, but Argyll, backed by the preachers, opposed him. There must be no uncovenanted king in Scotland. The breach was widened when Charles fell into the hands of the heretical army. To many, it now seemed best to support the king, for if the army should prove successful, Presbyterianism would be lost. Accordingly Scottish commissioners Loudoun, Lanark, and Lauderdale visited Charles at Carisbrooke and signed the hopeless and foolish "Engagement" (27 Dec. 1647). In Scotland the Engagers had a large following, and a majority in the Estates. In the Parliament the Hamiltonian party could carry all before it and was ready to take immediate action for the king. But the Kirk, with Argyll and some ten nobles, remained immovably on the other side. They would not defile themselves by making common cause with the uncovenanted. The preachers cursed and thundered against the Engagers and the levies that were being raised for an invasion of England. Scotland thus divided against itself had not much chance against the veterans of Cromwell and Lambert. After Preston, Wigan, and Warrington (17-19 Aug., 1648) the Scottish Royalist forces were no more. The destruction of Hamilton's force was a triumph for the Kirk and the anti-Engagers. But an event now occurred that once more divided the nation. On 30 January, 1649, Charles I was executed. Scotchmen of whatever party looked upon the deed as a crime and as a national insult. The day after the news reached Scotland, they proclaimed Charles II king, not only of Scotland, but of England and Ireland. The acceptance of Charles II, however, had been saddled with the condition that he should pledge himself to the two Covenants. After some hesitation, and after the failure of all his hopes to use Ireland as the basis of an invasion of England Charles II swore to the Covenants, 11 June, 1650. To the more extreme portion of the Covenanters, this agreement with the king seemed hypocrisy, an insult to Heaven. They knew he was no true convert to the Covenants, that he had no intention of keeping them, that he had perjured himself, and they refused to have dealings with the king. Argyll with the more moderate wing, still anxious to avoid a definite rupture with the extremists, had perforce to make concessions to these feelings; he made the unfortunate prince walk through the very depths of humiliation (Peterkin, Records, p. 599). This split was to prove fatal. Only a united Scotland could have defeated Cromwell. Instead, to propitiate the Deity, Charles was kept apart from the army, and while every available man was wanted to meet the soldiers of Cromwell, the fanatics were "purging" the army of all Royalists and Malignants (op cit. p. 623). To allow them to fight would be to court disaster. How could Jehovah give victory to the children of Israel , if they fought side by side with the idolatrous Amalekites? The purgings of the army went merrily on daily, and the preachers promised in God's name a victory over the erroneous and blasphemous sectaries. Like the Scots Cromwell also looked upon war as an appeal to the god of battle, and the judgment was delivered at Dunbar, 3 Sept., 1650. "Surely it's probable the Kirk had done their do. I believe their king will set up upon his own score now." This was Cromwell's comment upon his victory, and he was right. The route of Dunbar destroyed the ascendancy of the Covenanters. The preachers had promised victory, but Jehovah had sent them defeat. The extremists, under such leaders as Johnston of Warristoun, James Guthrie, and Patrick Gillespie, attributing their defeat to the unholy alliance with the Malignants grew in vehemence and presented to the Committee of the Estates (30 Oct., 1650) a "Remonstrance" arraigning the whole policy of Argyll's government and refusing to accept Charles as their king "till he should give satisfactory evidence of his real change" (ibid.). Seeing his power gone with the "Remonstrants" or "Protesters", Argyll determined definitely to go over to the king; Malignant and Covenanter had joined hands. In answer to the Remonstrance, the Committee of Estates passed, 25 November, a resolution con demning it and resolved to crown Charles at Scone. On 1 January, 1651, the coronation took place. Cromwell's answer was the battle or Worcester, 3 September, 1651. For nine years Scotland was a conquered country kept under by the military saints. It was a sad time for the Presbyterians. The English soldiers allowed all Protestants, as long as they did not disturb the peace, to worship in their own way. In October, 1651, Monk forbade the preachers to impose oaths and covenants on the lieges, and prohibited civil magistrates from molesting excommunicated persons, or seizing their goods, or boycotting them. Lest the Remonstrants or the Revolutioners, who all the while with increasing bitterness quarrelled as to who was the true inheritor of the Covenants, should cause trouble to the commonwealth, the General Assembly was broken up (July, 1653), and all such assemblies forbidden for the future (Kirkton, Secret and True History of the Church of Scotland, p. 54). Dunbar, Worcester, and the Cromwellian domination destroyed the ascendancy of the Covenanters. But not on that account did the extreme wing, the Remonstrants, abate a jot of their pretensions; they still believed in the eternally binding force of the two Covenants. On the other hand, neither had the king fully learned the lesson from his father's fate. Like him he considered it his right to force his ecclesiastical views upon his people. Episcopacy was restored, but without the prayerbook, and the meetings of the synods were forbidden. Partly because he had the support of the nobility and gentry, partly because even many Presbyterians had wearied of the strife, and party because of his dishonesty Charles succeeded in gaining his ends, but at the cost of straining to the utmost his relations with his subjects. It only required the attempt of James II to introduce hated Catholicism into the country to sweep the Stuarts forever from the throne of Scotland. The history of the Covenanters from the Restoration to the Revolution is a history of fierce persecution varied with occasional milder treatment to win the weaker members to the moderate side. As the Covenanters would no longer meet in the churches, they began to meet in their own homes and have private conventicles. Against these proceedings an act was passed (1663) declaring preaching by "ousted" ministers seditious, and it was rigorously enforced by quartering soldiers under Sir James Turner in the houses of recusants. (For Turner's methods, see Lauderdale papers, II, 82.) Driven from their homes the Covenanters took to holding their gatherings in the open air, in distant glens, known as field-meetings, or conventicles. The Pentland Rising (1666) was the result of these measures and proved to the Government that its severities had been unsuccessful. On the advice of Lauderdale, Charles issued Letters of Indulgence, June, 1669, and again in August, 1672, allowing such "ousted ministers as had lived peaceably and orderly to return to their livings" (Woodrow, Hist. of the Sufferings, etc. II, 130). These indulgences were disastrous to the Conventiclers, for many of the ministers yielded and conformed. Stung by the secessions the remnant became more irreconcilable; their sermons were simply political party orations denunciatory of kings and bishops. They were especially wroth against the indulged ministers ; they broke into their houses; bullied and tortured them to force them to swear that they would cease from their ministrations. These Lauderdale determined to crush by a persecution of utmost severity. Soldiers were quartered in the disaffected districts (the West and South-West), ministers were imprisoned, and finally, as conventicles still increased, a band of half-savage highlanders, "The Highland Host" (Lauderdale Papers, III, 93 sqq.) was let loose on the wretched inhabitants of the Western Lowlands, where they marauded and plundered at will. The Covenanters now became reckless and wild, for again torn asunder by the "cess" controversy (a dispute arose as to whether it was lawful to pay the tax or "cess" raised for an unlawful object, the carrying on of a Government persecuting the true Kirk) they were but a remnant of the once powerful Kirk, and every year became less capable of effective resistance. They patrolled the country in arms protecting conventicles; and their leaders, Welsh, Cameron and others, went about as "soldiers of Christ", organizing rebellion, even murdering the soldiers of Claverhouse, who was engaged in dispersing the conventicles. The murder of Archbishop Sharpe (2 May, 1679), regarded by them as a glorious action and inspired by the spirit of God, was the signal for a general rising in the Western Lowlands. In Rutherglen they publicly burnt the Acts of the Government which had overthrown the Covenants, and at Louden Hill, or Drumclog, defeated the troops under Claverhouse. It was therefore deemed necessary to send a strong force under Monmouth to suppress the rebellion. At Bothwell Bridge (22 June, 1679) the insurgents were utterly defeated. There followed a third Act of Indulgence which again cut deep into the rank of the Covenanters. But in spite of persecutions and secessions a minority continued faithful to the Covenant and the fundamental principles of Presbyterianism. Under the leadership of Richard Cameron and Donald Cargill, and styling themselves the "Society People", they continued to defy the royal authority. At Sanquhar they published a declaration, 22 June 1680, (Wodrow, III, 213) disowning the king on the ground of his " perjury and breach of covenant to God and his Kirk". At a conventicle held at Torwood (1680) Cargill solemnly excommunicated the king, the Duke of York, Monmouth, and others (ibid, III, 219). These proceedings served no further purpose than to embitter parties and make the Government all the more determined to extirpate the sect. But what roused the Government more than anything else was the "Apologetical Declaration" (ibid, IV, 148) of October, 1684, inspired by Renwick who had taken up the standard of Cameron. The document threatened that anyone connected with the Government, if caught, would be judged and punished according to his offenses. These threats were carried out by the Cameronians or Renwickites; they attacked and slew dragoons, and punished such of the conformist ministers as they could get hold of. It was at this period that the "killing time " properly began. Courts of justice were dispensed with and officers having commissions from the Council were empowered to execute anyone who refused to take the oath of abjuration of the Declaration. With the accession of James II to the English throne the persecution waxed fiercer. An act was passed which made attendance at field-coventicles a capital offense. Claverhouse carried out his instructions faithfully, may were summarily executed, while many more were shipped off to the American plantations. The last victim for the Covenant was James Renwick (Jan., 1688). His followers kept to their principles and even at the Revolution they refused to accept an uncovenanted king; one last brief day of triumph and vengeance they had, when they "rabbled" the conformist curates. The day of the Covenants had long since passed. How much the ancient spirit of Presbyterianism was broken was clearly seen by the subservient letter in which James was thanked for the Indulgence of 1687, for allowing all "to serve God after their own way and manner" (Wodrow, IV, 428, note). The majority had learned to submit to compromise, and thus at the Revolution the Scottish nation forgot the Covenants and was allowed to retain Presbyterianism. The strife of a century between Kirk and State had come to an end. Both sides in the struggle had in fact won and lost. The king had been defeated in his attempt to dictate the religion of his subjects; Presbyterianism became the established religion. But it had been equally proved that the subjugation of the State to the Church, the supremacy, political as well as ecclesiastical, of the Kirk, was an impossibility. In this the Covenants had failed. Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited. Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. Your Catholic Voice Foundation has been granted a recognition of tax exemption under Section 501(c)(3) of the Internal Revenue Code. Federal Tax Identification Number: 81-0596847. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law.	<urn:uuid:460beb30-d002-4a9f-a057-d0b69f4d6c9c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.catholic.org/encyclopedia/view.php?id=3458	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00028.warc.gz	en	0.981314	7,593	3.640625	4	[ -0.1536734700202942, -0.049860358238220215, -0.03377971425652504, -0.1575649082660675, -0.07029365003108978, -0.465928316116333, -0.08928903937339783, 0.38146090507507324, 0.07105885446071625, 0.2925913631916046, -0.21746554970741272, -0.3128962516784668, 0.16100166738033295, 0.12746664881...	1	FREE Catholic Classes The name given to the subscribers (practically the whole Scottish nation) of the two Covenants, the National Covenant of 1638 and the Solemn League and Covenant of 1643. Though the covenants as national bonds ceased with the conquest of Scotland by Cromwell, a number continued to uphold them right through the period following the Restoration, and these too are known as Covenanters. The object of the Covenants was to band the whole nation together in defense of its religion against the attempts of the king to impose upon it an episcopal system of church government and a new and less anti-Roman liturgy. The struggle that ensued was a struggle for supremacy, viz.: as to who should have the last word, the King or the Kirk, in deciding the religion of the country. How this struggle arose must first be briefly explained. The causes of this Protestant conflict between Church and State must be sought in the circumstances of the Scottish Reformation. (For a summary of the history of the Scottish reformation down to 1601 see ch. ii of Gardiner's "History of England ".) Owing to the fact that Scotland, unlike England, has accepted Protestantism, not at the dictates of her rulers, but in opposition to them, the reformation was not merely an ecclesiastical revolution, but a rebellion. It was, therefore, perhaps no mere chance that made the Scottish nation, under the guidance of John Knox and later Andrew Melville, adopt that form of Protestantism which was, in its doctrine, farthest removed from Rome, to which their French regents adhered, and which in its theory of church government was most democratic. Presbyterianism meant the subordination of the State to the Kirk, as Melville plainly told James VI at Cupar in 1596, on the famous occasion when he seized his sovereign by the sleeve and called him " God's silly vassal". In the church, king and beggar were on an equal footing and of equal importance; king or beggar might equally and without distinction be excommunicated, and be submitted to a degrading ceremonial if he wished to be released from the censure; in this system the preacher was supreme. The civil power was to be the secular arm, the instrument, of the Kirk, and was required to inflict the penalties which the preacher imposed on such as contemned the censure and discipline of the Church. The Kirk, therefore, believed that the Presbyterian system, with its preachers, lay elders, and deacons, kirk sessions, synods, and general assemblies, was the one, Divinely appointed means to salvation, claimed to be absolute and supreme. Such a theory of the Divine right of Presbytery was not likely to meet with the approval of the kings of the Stuart line with their exaggerated idea of their own right Divine and prerogative. Nor could a church where the ministers and their elders in the kirk assemblies judged, censured, and punished all offenders high or low, craftsman or nobleman, be pleasing to an aristocracy that looked with feudal contempt on all forms of labour. Both noble and king were therefore anxious to humble the ministers and deprive them of some of their influence. James VI was soon taught the spirit of the Presbyterian clergy ; in 1592 he was compelled formally to sanction the establishment of Presbytery ; he was threatened with rebellion if he failed to rule according to the Gospel as interpreted by the ministers. If his kingly authority was to endure, James saw that he must seek for some means by which he could check their excessive claims. He first tried to draw together the two separate representative institutions in Scotland — the Parliament, representing the king and the nobility, and the General Assembly, representing the Kirk and the majority of the nation — by granting the clergy a vote in Parliament. Owing, however, to the hostility of clergy and nobility, the scheme fell through. James now adopted that policy which was to be so fruitful of disaster;he determined to re-introduce episcopacy in Scotland as the only possible means of brining the clergy to submit to his own authority. He had already gone some way towards accomplishing his object when his accession to the English throne still further strengthened his resolve. For he considered the assimilation of the two Churches both in their form of government and in their doctrine essential to the furtherance of his great design, the union of the two kingdoms. By 1612, James had succeeded in carrying out the first part of his policy, the re-establishment of diocesan episcopacy. Before his death he had also gone a long way towards effecting changes in the ritual and doctrine of Presbyterianism. On Black Saturday, 4 Aug., 1621, the Five Articles of Perth were ratified by the Estates. Imposed as these were upon an unwilling nation by means of a packed Assembly and Parliament, they were to be the source of much trouble and bloodshed in Scotland. Distrust of their rulers, hatred of bishops, and hatred of all ecclesiastical changes was the legacy bequeathed by James to his son. James had sowed the wind, and Charles I was soon to reap the whirlwind. Charles' very first action, his "matching himself with the daughter of Heth", i.e., France (see Leighton, "Sion's Plea against Prelacy" quoted by Gardiner, "Hist. of England, ed. 1884, VII, 146), aroused suspicion as to his orthodoxy, and in the light of that suspicion every act of his religious policy was interpreted, wrongly we know, as some subtle means of favoring popery. His wisest course would have been to annul the hated Five Articles of Perth, which to Scotchmen were but so many injunctions to commit idolatry. In spite of concessions, however, he let it be known that the articles were to remain (Row, Historie of the Kirk of Scotland, p. 340; Balfour, Annals, II, 142; Privy Council Register, N. S., I, 91-93). Further, he took the unwise step of increasing the powers of the bishops ; five were given a place in the Privy Council; and the Archbishop Spottiswoode was made President of the Exchequer and ordered as Primate to take precedence of every other subject. This proceeding not only roused the indignation of Protestants, who in the words of Row, considered bishops "bellie-gods", but it further offended the aristocracy, who felt themselves thus slighted. But a persecution of the Kirk and its preachers would not have brought about as rebellion. Charles could always count on his subservient bishops, and on the nobles ever willing to humble the ministers. But he now took a step which alienated his only allies. James had always been careful to keep the nobles on his side by lavish grants of the old church lands. By the Act of Revocation, which passed the Privy Seal, 12 October, 1625 (Privy Council Register I, 193), Charles I touched the pockets of the nobility, raised at once a serious opposition, and led the barons to form an alliance with the Kirk against the common enemy, the king. It was a fatal step and proved "the ground-stone of all the mischief that followed after, both to this king's government and family (Balfour, Annals, II, 128). Thus, before he had set foot in Scotland, Charles had offended every class of his people. His visit to Scotland made matters worse; Scotchmen were horrified to see at the coronation service such "popish rags" as "white rochets and white sleeves and copes of gold having blue silk to their foot" worn by the presiding bishops which "bred great fear of inbringing of popery" (Spaulding, Hist. of the Troubles in England and Scotland, 1624-45, I, 36). Acts, too, were passed through Parliament which plainly showed the king's determination to change the ecclesiastical system of Scotland. Scotland was therefore ready for an explosion. The spark was the New Service Book. Both Charles and Laud had been shocked at the bare walls and pillars of the churches, all clad with dust, sweepings, and cobwebs; at the trafficking which went on in the Scottish churches; at the lengthy "conceived prayers " often spoken by ignorant men and not infrequently as seditious as the sermons (Baillie, O. S. B., writing in 1627, cited by William Kintoch, "Studies in Scottish Ecclesiastical History ", pp. 23, 24; also, "Large Declaration", p. 16). The king desired to have decency, orderliness, uniformity. Hence he ordered a new service book, prepared by himself and Laud, to be adopted by Scotland. The imposition of the New Service Book was a piece of sheer despotism on the part of the king; it had no ecclesiastical sanction whatever, for the General Assembly, and even the bishops as a body, had not been consulted; neither had it any lay authority, for it had not the approval of Parliament; it went counter to all the religious feeling of the majority of the Scottish people; it offended their national sentiment, for it was English. Rowe summed up the objections to it by calling it a "Popish-English-Scotish-Mass-Service-Book" (op. cit., p. 398). There could, therefore, be very little doubt as to how Scotland would receive the new liturgy. The famous riot at St. Giles, Edinburgh, 23 July, 1637 (account of it in the King's "Large Declaration", and Gordon's "Hist. of Scots Affairs", I, 7), when at the solemn inauguration of the new service, somebody, probably a woman, threw the stool at the deacon's head, was but an indication of the general feeling of the country. From all classes and ranks, and from every part of the country except the north-east, the petitions came pouring into the Council for the withdrawal of the liturgy. Every attempt to enforce the prayer book led to a riot. In a word, the resistance was general. The Council was powerless. It was suggested therefore that each of the four orders — nobles, lairds, burghers, and ministers — should choose four commissioners to represent them and transact business with the Council, and that then the crowd of petitioners should return to their homes. Accordingly, four committees, or "Tables" (Row, pp. 465,6) were chosen, the petitioners dispersed, and the riots in Edinburgh ceased. But this arrangement also gave the opposition the one thing necessary for a successful action, a government. The sixteen could, if only united, direct the mobs effectively. The effect of having a guiding hand was at once seen. The demands of the supplicants became more definite and peremptory and on 21 December the Tables presented the Council a collective "Supplication" which not only demanded the recall of the liturgy, but, further, the removal of the bishops from the council on the ground that, as they were parties in the case, they should not be judges (Balfour, Annals, II, 244-5: Rothes, Relation, etc., pp. 26 sqq., gives an account of the formation of the "Tables"). The supplicants, in other words, look upon the quarrel between king and subjects as a lawsuit. Charles' answer to the "Supplication" was read at Sterling, on 19 February, 1638. He defended the prayer book and declared all protesting meetings illegal and treasonable. A counter proclamation had been deliberately prepared by the supplicants and no sooner had the king's answer been read than Lords Home and Lindsay, in the name of the four orders, lodged a formal protestation. The same form was gone through in Linlithgow and Edinburgh. By these formal protestations, the petitioners were virtually setting up a government against the government, and as there was no middle party to appeal to, it became necessary to prove to the king that the supplicants, and not he, had the nation behind them. The means was ready to hand. The nobility and gentry of Scotland had been in the habit for entering into "bands" for mutual protection. Archibald Johnson of Warristoun is said to have suggested that such a band or covenant now be adopted, but not as heretofore by nobles and lairds only, but by the whole Scottish people; it was to be a national covenant, taking as its basis the Negative Confession of Faith which had been drawn up by the order of James VI in 1581. The great document was composed. After reciting the reason of the band, that the innovations and evils contained in the supplications had no warrant in the word of God, they promise and swear to continue in the profession and obedience of the aforesaid religion, that we shall defend the same, and resist all those contrary errors and corruptions, according to our vocation, and to the uttermost of that power which God has put in our hands all the days of our life". Yet, whilst uttering oaths that seem scarcely compatible with loyalty to the king, they likewise promised and swore that we shall, to the utmost of our power with our means and lives, stand to the defense of our dread sovereign, his person and authority, in defense of the foresaid true religion, liberties and laws of the kingdom" (Large Declaration, p. 57), and they further swore to mutual defense and assistance. In these professions of loyalty, the Covenanters, for so we must now call the supplicants, were probably sincere; during the whole course of the struggle the great majority never wished to touch the throne, they only wished to carry out their own idea of the strictly limited nature of the king's authority. Charles was the king, and they would obey, if he did as they commanded. The success of the Covenant was great and immediate. It was completed on 28 February and carried for signature to Greyfriars church. Tradition tells how the parchment was unrolled on a tombstone in the churchyard and how the people came in crowds weeping with emotion to sign the band. This strange seen was soon witnessed in almost every parish in Scotland, if we except the Highlands and the North-East. Several copies of the Covenant were distributed for signature. "Gentlemen and noblemen carried copies of it in portmantles and pockets requiring subscriptions thereunto, and using their utmost endeavours with their friends in private for to subscribe." "And such was the zeal of many subscribers, that for a while many subscribed with tears on their cheeks" and it is even said that some did draw their blood, and use it in place of ink to underwrite their name" (Gordon, Scots Affairs, I, 46). Not all, however, were willing subscribers to the Covenant. For many persuasion was sufficient to make them join the cause; other required rougher treatment. All those who refused to sign were not only looked upon as ungodly, but as traitors to their country, as ready to help the foreign invader. And as the greater that the number of subscribers grew, the more imperious they were in exacting subscriptions from others who refused to subscribe, so that by degrees they proceeded to contumelies and reproaches, and some were threatened and beaten who durst refuse, especially in the greatest cities" (Ibid, p. 45). No blood, however, was shed until the outbreak of the war. Ministers who refused to sign were silenced, ill-treated, and driven from their homes. Toleration and freedom of conscience was hated by both parties and by none more fanatically than the Scottish Presbyterians. Scotland was in truth a covenanted nation. A few great land-owners, a few of the clergy, especially the Doctors of Aberdeen who feared that their quiet studies and intellectual freedom would be overwhelmed, stood aloof from the movement. Many, no doubt, signed in ignorance of what they were doing, some because they were frightened, but more still because they were swayed by an overpowering excitement and frenzy. Neither side could now retreat, but Charles was not ready for war. So to gain time he made a show of concession and promised a General Assembly. The Assembly met at Glasgow 21 Nov., and immediately brought matters to a head. It attacked the bishops, accusing them of all manner of crimes; in consequence Hamilton, as commissioner, dissolved it. Nothing daunted, the Assembly then resolved that it was entitled to remain in session and competent to judge the bishops, and it proceeded to pull down the whole ecclesiastical edifice built up by James and Charles. The Service Book, Book of Canons, the Articles of Perth were swept away; the episcopacy was declared forever abolished and all assemblies held under episcopal jurisdiction were null and void; the bishops were all ejected and some excommunicated ; Presbyterian government was again establis hed. FREE Catholic Classes Pick a class, you can learn anything War was now inevitable. In spite of their protestations of loyalty, the Covenanters had practically set up a theory in opposition to the monarchy. The question at issue, as Charles pointed out in his proclamation, was whether he was to be king or not? Toleration was the only basis of compromise possible; but toleration was deemed a heresy by both parties, and hence there was no other course but to fight it out. In two short wars, known as the Bishops' Wars, the Covenanters in arms brought the king to his knees, and for the next ten years Charles was only nominally sovereign of Scotland. A united nation could not be made to change its religion at the command of a king. The triumph of the Covenants, however, was destined to be short-lived. The outbreak of the Civil War in England was soon to break the Covenanting party in twain. Men were to be divided between their allegiance to monarchy and their allegiance to the Covenant. Scotchmen in spite of their past actions still firmly adhered to the monarchical form of government, and there cannot be much doubt that they would much rather have acted as mediators between the king and his Parliament than have interfered actively. But the royalist successes of 1643 alarmed them. Presbyterianism would not endure long in Scotland if Charles won. For this reason the majority of the nation sided with the Parliament, but it was with reluctance that the Covenanters agreed to give the English brotherly assistance. This assistance they were determined to give only on one condition, namely that England should reform its religion according to the Scottish pattern. To this end England and Scotland entered into the Solemn League and Covenant (17 Aug., 1643). It would have been well for Scotland if she had never entered the League to enforce her own church system on England. If she had been satisfied with a simple alliance and assistance, all would have been well. But by materially helping the English Parliament to win at Marsten Moor she had helped to place the decision of affairs of state in the hands of the army, which was predominantly Independent, and hated presbyters as much as bishops.If the Scotch had recrossed the Tweed in 1646 and had left the Parliament and the army to fight out for themselves the question of ecclesiastical government, England would not have interfered with their religion; but the Covenanters thought it their duty to extirpate idolatry and Baal-worship and establish the true religion in England, and so came in conflict with those who wielded the sword. The result was that England not only did not become Presbyterian, but Scotland herself became a conquered country. In military matters the Covenanters were successful in England, but in their own country they were sorely tried for a year (1644) by the brilliant career of Montrose (an account of the career of Montrose in given in A. Lang, Hist. of Scot., III, v). On account of the nature of the troops engaged, the encounters were fought with a vindictive ferocity unknown in the English part of the Civil War. Not only was the number of slain very great, but both sides slaked their thirst for vengeance in plunder, murder, and wholesale massacres. In this respect the Covenanters must bear the greater share of the blame. The Catholic Celts whom Montrose led undoubtedly committed outrages, especially against their personal enemies the Campbells, during the winter campaigns of Inverlochy (Patrick Gordon, Britane's Distemper, pp. 95 sqq.), but restrained by Montrose, they never perpetrated such perfidy as the Covenanters after Philiphaugh, and the slaughter of three hundred women, "married wives of the Irish ". Montrose's success and the fact that he was a leader of Scoto-Irish lashed the hatred of the preachers into fury. They raved for the blood of the Malignants. The preachers, with a fanaticism revoltingly blasphemous, and as ferocious as that of Islam, believed that more blood must be shed to propitiate the Deity (Balfour, Annals, III, 311). The victory of Philiphaugh (13 Sept., 1645), removed the immediate danger to the Covenanters and likewise extinguished the last glimmer of hope for the Royalist cause, which had suffered irreparable defeat a few weeks earlier at Naseby. But the very triumph of the Parliamentary forces in England was fatal to the cause of the Solemn League and Covenant. The victory had been gained by the army which was not Presbyterian but independent, and capable now of resisting the infliction of an intolerant and tyrannical church government upon itself and upon England. When, therefore, the Scottish army recrossed the Tweed, February, 1647, it was with its main purpose unfulfilled. England had not been thoroughly reformed; heresy, especially in the army, was still rampant. The Solemn League and Covenant had been a failure, and the Scots had fought in vain. Worse than this, the Covenanters themselves were divided. The success of the Covenant had been due to the alliance between the Kirk and the nobility. The latter had joined the cause from jealousy of the authority of the bishops and from fear of the loss of their estates by the Act of Revocation. But now, bishops there were none, and the nobility were still in the possession of their estates. Since the causes for further cooperation were thus wanting, the feudal instincts of the nobility, love of monarchical government, contempt for the lower orders to which the majority of the Kirk belonged, naturally reasserted themselves. To this must be added their intense jealousy of Argyll, who owed his influence to the support he gave the Kirk. a Royalist part began thus to be formed among the Covenanters. The cleavage in their ranks was shown in the dispute over the question of the surrender of Charles I to the Parliament (1646). Hamilton had pressed the Estates to give the king honour and shelter in Scotland, but Argyll, backed by the preachers, opposed him. There must be no uncovenanted king in Scotland. The breach was widened when Charles fell into the hands of the heretical army. To many, it now seemed best to support the king, for if the army should prove successful, Presbyterianism would be lost. Accordingly Scottish commissioners Loudoun, Lanark, and Lauderdale visited Charles at Carisbrooke and signed the hopeless and foolish "Engagement" (27 Dec. 1647). In Scotland the Engagers had a large following, and a majority in the Estates. In the Parliament the Hamiltonian party could carry all before it and was ready to take immediate action for the king. But the Kirk, with Argyll and some ten nobles, remained immovably on the other side. They would not defile themselves by making common cause with the uncovenanted. The preachers cursed and thundered against the Engagers and the levies that were being raised for an invasion of England. Scotland thus divided against itself had not much chance against the veterans of Cromwell and Lambert. After Preston, Wigan, and Warrington (17-19 Aug., 1648) the Scottish Royalist forces were no more. The destruction of Hamilton's force was a triumph for the Kirk and the anti-Engagers. But an event now occurred that once more divided the nation. On 30 January, 1649, Charles I was executed. Scotchmen of whatever party looked upon the deed as a crime and as a national insult. The day after the news reached Scotland, they proclaimed Charles II king, not only of Scotland, but of England and Ireland. The acceptance of Charles II, however, had been saddled with the condition that he should pledge himself to the two Covenants. After some hesitation, and after the failure of all his hopes to use Ireland as the basis of an invasion of England Charles II swore to the Covenants, 11 June, 1650. To the more extreme portion of the Covenanters, this agreement with the king seemed hypocrisy, an insult to Heaven. They knew he was no true convert to the Covenants, that he had no intention of keeping them, that he had perjured himself, and they refused to have dealings with the king. Argyll with the more moderate wing, still anxious to avoid a definite rupture with the extremists, had perforce to make concessions to these feelings; he made the unfortunate prince walk through the very depths of humiliation (Peterkin, Records, p. 599). This split was to prove fatal. Only a united Scotland could have defeated Cromwell. Instead, to propitiate the Deity, Charles was kept apart from the army, and while every available man was wanted to meet the soldiers of Cromwell, the fanatics were "purging" the army of all Royalists and Malignants (op cit. p. 623). To allow them to fight would be to court disaster. How could Jehovah give victory to the children of Israel , if they fought side by side with the idolatrous Amalekites? The purgings of the army went merrily on daily, and the preachers promised in God's name a victory over the erroneous and blasphemous sectaries. Like the Scots Cromwell also looked upon war as an appeal to the god of battle, and the judgment was delivered at Dunbar, 3 Sept., 1650. "Surely it's probable the Kirk had done their do. I believe their king will set up upon his own score now." This was Cromwell's comment upon his victory, and he was right. The route of Dunbar destroyed the ascendancy of the Covenanters. The preachers had promised victory, but Jehovah had sent them defeat. The extremists, under such leaders as Johnston of Warristoun, James Guthrie, and Patrick Gillespie, attributing their defeat to the unholy alliance with the Malignants grew in vehemence and presented to the Committee of the Estates (30 Oct., 1650) a "Remonstrance" arraigning the whole policy of Argyll's government and refusing to accept Charles as their king "till he should give satisfactory evidence of his real change" (ibid.). Seeing his power gone with the "Remonstrants" or "Protesters", Argyll determined definitely to go over to the king; Malignant and Covenanter had joined hands. In answer to the Remonstrance, the Committee of Estates passed, 25 November, a resolution con demning it and resolved to crown Charles at Scone. On 1 January, 1651, the coronation took place. Cromwell's answer was the battle or Worcester, 3 September, 1651. For nine years Scotland was a conquered country kept under by the military saints. It was a sad time for the Presbyterians. The English soldiers allowed all Protestants, as long as they did not disturb the peace, to worship in their own way. In October, 1651, Monk forbade the preachers to impose oaths and covenants on the lieges, and prohibited civil magistrates from molesting excommunicated persons, or seizing their goods, or boycotting them. Lest the Remonstrants or the Revolutioners, who all the while with increasing bitterness quarrelled as to who was the true inheritor of the Covenants, should cause trouble to the commonwealth, the General Assembly was broken up (July, 1653), and all such assemblies forbidden for the future (Kirkton, Secret and True History of the Church of Scotland, p. 54). Dunbar, Worcester, and the Cromwellian domination destroyed the ascendancy of the Covenanters. But not on that account did the extreme wing, the Remonstrants, abate a jot of their pretensions; they still believed in the eternally binding force of the two Covenants. On the other hand, neither had the king fully learned the lesson from his father's fate. Like him he considered it his right to force his ecclesiastical views upon his people. Episcopacy was restored, but without the prayerbook, and the meetings of the synods were forbidden. Partly because he had the support of the nobility and gentry, partly because even many Presbyterians had wearied of the strife, and party because of his dishonesty Charles succeeded in gaining his ends, but at the cost of straining to the utmost his relations with his subjects. It only required the attempt of James II to introduce hated Catholicism into the country to sweep the Stuarts forever from the throne of Scotland. The history of the Covenanters from the Restoration to the Revolution is a history of fierce persecution varied with occasional milder treatment to win the weaker members to the moderate side. As the Covenanters would no longer meet in the churches, they began to meet in their own homes and have private conventicles. Against these proceedings an act was passed (1663) declaring preaching by "ousted" ministers seditious, and it was rigorously enforced by quartering soldiers under Sir James Turner in the houses of recusants. (For Turner's methods, see Lauderdale papers, II, 82.) Driven from their homes the Covenanters took to holding their gatherings in the open air, in distant glens, known as field-meetings, or conventicles. The Pentland Rising (1666) was the result of these measures and proved to the Government that its severities had been unsuccessful. On the advice of Lauderdale, Charles issued Letters of Indulgence, June, 1669, and again in August, 1672, allowing such "ousted ministers as had lived peaceably and orderly to return to their livings" (Woodrow, Hist. of the Sufferings, etc. II, 130). These indulgences were disastrous to the Conventiclers, for many of the ministers yielded and conformed. Stung by the secessions the remnant became more irreconcilable; their sermons were simply political party orations denunciatory of kings and bishops. They were especially wroth against the indulged ministers ; they broke into their houses; bullied and tortured them to force them to swear that they would cease from their ministrations. These Lauderdale determined to crush by a persecution of utmost severity. Soldiers were quartered in the disaffected districts (the West and South-West), ministers were imprisoned, and finally, as conventicles still increased, a band of half-savage highlanders, "The Highland Host" (Lauderdale Papers, III, 93 sqq.) was let loose on the wretched inhabitants of the Western Lowlands, where they marauded and plundered at will. The Covenanters now became reckless and wild, for again torn asunder by the "cess" controversy (a dispute arose as to whether it was lawful to pay the tax or "cess" raised for an unlawful object, the carrying on of a Government persecuting the true Kirk) they were but a remnant of the once powerful Kirk, and every year became less capable of effective resistance. They patrolled the country in arms protecting conventicles; and their leaders, Welsh, Cameron and others, went about as "soldiers of Christ", organizing rebellion, even murdering the soldiers of Claverhouse, who was engaged in dispersing the conventicles. The murder of Archbishop Sharpe (2 May, 1679), regarded by them as a glorious action and inspired by the spirit of God, was the signal for a general rising in the Western Lowlands. In Rutherglen they publicly burnt the Acts of the Government which had overthrown the Covenants, and at Louden Hill, or Drumclog, defeated the troops under Claverhouse. It was therefore deemed necessary to send a strong force under Monmouth to suppress the rebellion. At Bothwell Bridge (22 June, 1679) the insurgents were utterly defeated. There followed a third Act of Indulgence which again cut deep into the rank of the Covenanters. But in spite of persecutions and secessions a minority continued faithful to the Covenant and the fundamental principles of Presbyterianism. Under the leadership of Richard Cameron and Donald Cargill, and styling themselves the "Society People", they continued to defy the royal authority. At Sanquhar they published a declaration, 22 June 1680, (Wodrow, III, 213) disowning the king on the ground of his " perjury and breach of covenant to God and his Kirk". At a conventicle held at Torwood (1680) Cargill solemnly excommunicated the king, the Duke of York, Monmouth, and others (ibid, III, 219). These proceedings served no further purpose than to embitter parties and make the Government all the more determined to extirpate the sect. But what roused the Government more than anything else was the "Apologetical Declaration" (ibid, IV, 148) of October, 1684, inspired by Renwick who had taken up the standard of Cameron. The document threatened that anyone connected with the Government, if caught, would be judged and punished according to his offenses. These threats were carried out by the Cameronians or Renwickites; they attacked and slew dragoons, and punished such of the conformist ministers as they could get hold of. It was at this period that the "killing time " properly began. Courts of justice were dispensed with and officers having commissions from the Council were empowered to execute anyone who refused to take the oath of abjuration of the Declaration. With the accession of James II to the English throne the persecution waxed fiercer. An act was passed which made attendance at field-coventicles a capital offense. Claverhouse carried out his instructions faithfully, may were summarily executed, while many more were shipped off to the American plantations. The last victim for the Covenant was James Renwick (Jan., 1688). His followers kept to their principles and even at the Revolution they refused to accept an uncovenanted king; one last brief day of triumph and vengeance they had, when they "rabbled" the conformist curates. The day of the Covenants had long since passed. How much the ancient spirit of Presbyterianism was broken was clearly seen by the subservient letter in which James was thanked for the Indulgence of 1687, for allowing all "to serve God after their own way and manner" (Wodrow, IV, 428, note). The majority had learned to submit to compromise, and thus at the Revolution the Scottish nation forgot the Covenants and was allowed to retain Presbyterianism. The strife of a century between Kirk and State had come to an end. Both sides in the struggle had in fact won and lost. The king had been defeated in his attempt to dictate the religion of his subjects; Presbyterianism became the established religion. But it had been equally proved that the subjugation of the State to the Church, the supremacy, political as well as ecclesiastical, of the Kirk, was an impossibility. In this the Covenants had failed. Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. All materials contained on this site, whether written, audible or visual are the exclusive property of Catholic Online and are protected under U.S. and International copyright laws, © Copyright 2020 Catholic Online. Any unauthorized use, without prior written consent of Catholic Online is strictly forbidden and prohibited. Catholic Online is a Project of Your Catholic Voice Foundation, a Not-for-Profit Corporation. 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At the first rehearsal of Beethoven's fifth symphony, the performers were more amused than shocked at the sound and intensity of its opening. A few years earlier, reactions would have been more hostile but by 1805, social attitudes were becoming more enlightened following the impact of the French Revolution. Beethoven was the man to exploit this new freedom, and with his originality and vision, he would become the greatest influence on Romantic and nineteenth century music. Beethoven grew up during the great Classical period of the late eighteenth century, with its sophisticated musical forms. He left Bonn for Vienna in the early 1790s where he was taught briefly by Joseph Haydn. His early compositions showed a special admiration for Mozart's works. In particular, sonata form as then established was to be the model for the first movement of all symphonies, and so remained well into the twentieth century. Its logic was its strength. Song has always tended to be more interesting for having two contrasting melodies. In the symphony, so-called sonata form strengthened this with two subjects or groups of themes. The first was to be developed, leading to a climax then a resolution. It was optional whether the finale followed that pattern. Variety was assured at first by a sequence of tempi in the four movement symphony: slow introduction, then a brisk first movement (allegro); next slower (andante) or slow (lento); then minuet and trio; finally a finale (allegro) or very fast (presto). The last three movements had freer use of two themes (ABA, ABAB or ABABA), contrasting in shape, mood, pace and key. It was the most perfectly satisfying form for a work lasting some half an hour. Chamber music conformed to sonata form but tended to omit the third movement, the dance. This, the stately minuet, was unsuited to Beethoven who decided to replace that 3/4 rhythm with a very energetic one, a scherzo, Italian for joke. Genius is privileged to break rules; Haydn would have recognised he had one on his hands though he found him a difficult pupil. Beethoven had started his composing life, choosing the piano sonata as the main form for developing his creative skills. This early phase of composing lasted roughly until 1803, the date of his Eroica Symphony. Conceived on a larger scale, more powerful than anything beforehand, it had been dedicated to Napoleon, but when he made himself Emperor of the French in 1804, Beethoven furiously tore out the title page. Freedom meant that much to him, both politically and for his creative self. At first sympathetic to the Revolution, with the French advancing and briefly occupying Vienna, he was in full political disillusion, and he gradually turned to religion. Those were the years when his impending deafness ended his career as a pianist, and threatened his composing facility. There were also disappointments in love, so that Beethoven was facing one of several critical phases in his emotional life. Yet this had a positive effect on his creativity, and his middle period is now considered as having lasted until about 1815. It passed the bands of traditional harmony, form and emotional restraint during the first of these years. The Fifth Symphony's power was startling, the orchestra was at times used percussively. Other creative high points included the Appassionata Sonata, his opera, Fidelio, and the Triple Concerto. Later came the Seventh Symphony, a sequence of dances, and two very commanding works, the Fifth Piano Concerto and probably the greatest of all piano trios, the opus 97, named after his friend, the musician Archduke Rudolph. He had shown ways to break the Classical mould, influencing the early Romantics who came to prominence a few years after his death in 1827. Beethoven could not live comfortably with other humans, a state of depression around 1815 curtailing his composing for some two years. He then came back helped by a much stronger model, a six-octave Broadwood grand piano, and his Hammerklavier Sonata exploited this power to the full, so marking the start of his final period. Yet three more sonatas completed his purposes for the instrument. For the short period remaining to his life, he turned his attention to the string quartet, and he composed no other chamber music afterwards. There were to be five quartets, uniquely complex in style and development, not understood by many at the time, but related to intense spiritual experiences. They included a movement in which Beethoven gave thanksgiving to God for recovery from an illness. He was experimenting with melody and harmonies. The Grosse Fuge which was to be the finale of the opus 130 quartet was so dominant that Beethoven was advised to separate it from the other movements, so that it became his final publication. One century later, Stravinsky praised it as a masterpiece of his own speciality, rhythm. Beethoven cared for the fate of humanity, eventually finding inspiration for grand statements by 1823 in his Missa Solemnis and Ninth Symphony, the Choral. This was larger and more complex than any previous symphony. Though the first three movements are very imposing, they are then subjected to an unprecedented ritual. In a sequence of orchestral recitative, their themes are in turn rejected, then a soloist in a moment of great drama introduces the dominant melody to the words of Schiller's Ode to Joy, the Choral finale. This movement eclipsed his Choral Fantasy written years earlier, a most original single movement, vigorous and extrovert, later regarded as an apparent run-in. The Ninth Symphony and the Missa Solemnis with the last sonatas and quartets are works that the music world is still learning from two centuries later. Copyright © 16 December 2019	<urn:uuid:6a680ff0-28fd-4e1d-9171-b26b8048e77c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.classicalmusicdaily.com/2019/12/influence.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00513.warc.gz	en	0.982283	1,225	3.828125	4	[ -0.05422466993331909, -0.09044435620307922, 0.41143983602523804, -0.2022329419851303, -0.8704749345779419, 0.30753445625305176, -0.3521461486816406, 0.19965678453445435, 0.617363691329956, -0.49914661049842834, 0.29851871728897095, 0.30085980892181396, -0.23932981491088867, -0.046271853148...	9	At the first rehearsal of Beethoven's fifth symphony, the performers were more amused than shocked at the sound and intensity of its opening. A few years earlier, reactions would have been more hostile but by 1805, social attitudes were becoming more enlightened following the impact of the French Revolution. Beethoven was the man to exploit this new freedom, and with his originality and vision, he would become the greatest influence on Romantic and nineteenth century music. Beethoven grew up during the great Classical period of the late eighteenth century, with its sophisticated musical forms. He left Bonn for Vienna in the early 1790s where he was taught briefly by Joseph Haydn. His early compositions showed a special admiration for Mozart's works. In particular, sonata form as then established was to be the model for the first movement of all symphonies, and so remained well into the twentieth century. Its logic was its strength. Song has always tended to be more interesting for having two contrasting melodies. In the symphony, so-called sonata form strengthened this with two subjects or groups of themes. The first was to be developed, leading to a climax then a resolution. It was optional whether the finale followed that pattern. Variety was assured at first by a sequence of tempi in the four movement symphony: slow introduction, then a brisk first movement (allegro); next slower (andante) or slow (lento); then minuet and trio; finally a finale (allegro) or very fast (presto). The last three movements had freer use of two themes (ABA, ABAB or ABABA), contrasting in shape, mood, pace and key. It was the most perfectly satisfying form for a work lasting some half an hour. Chamber music conformed to sonata form but tended to omit the third movement, the dance. This, the stately minuet, was unsuited to Beethoven who decided to replace that 3/4 rhythm with a very energetic one, a scherzo, Italian for joke. Genius is privileged to break rules; Haydn would have recognised he had one on his hands though he found him a difficult pupil. Beethoven had started his composing life, choosing the piano sonata as the main form for developing his creative skills. This early phase of composing lasted roughly until 1803, the date of his Eroica Symphony. Conceived on a larger scale, more powerful than anything beforehand, it had been dedicated to Napoleon, but when he made himself Emperor of the French in 1804, Beethoven furiously tore out the title page. Freedom meant that much to him, both politically and for his creative self. At first sympathetic to the Revolution, with the French advancing and briefly occupying Vienna, he was in full political disillusion, and he gradually turned to religion. Those were the years when his impending deafness ended his career as a pianist, and threatened his composing facility. There were also disappointments in love, so that Beethoven was facing one of several critical phases in his emotional life. Yet this had a positive effect on his creativity, and his middle period is now considered as having lasted until about 1815. It passed the bands of traditional harmony, form and emotional restraint during the first of these years. The Fifth Symphony's power was startling, the orchestra was at times used percussively. Other creative high points included the Appassionata Sonata, his opera, Fidelio, and the Triple Concerto. Later came the Seventh Symphony, a sequence of dances, and two very commanding works, the Fifth Piano Concerto and probably the greatest of all piano trios, the opus 97, named after his friend, the musician Archduke Rudolph. He had shown ways to break the Classical mould, influencing the early Romantics who came to prominence a few years after his death in 1827. Beethoven could not live comfortably with other humans, a state of depression around 1815 curtailing his composing for some two years. He then came back helped by a much stronger model, a six-octave Broadwood grand piano, and his Hammerklavier Sonata exploited this power to the full, so marking the start of his final period. Yet three more sonatas completed his purposes for the instrument. For the short period remaining to his life, he turned his attention to the string quartet, and he composed no other chamber music afterwards. There were to be five quartets, uniquely complex in style and development, not understood by many at the time, but related to intense spiritual experiences. They included a movement in which Beethoven gave thanksgiving to God for recovery from an illness. He was experimenting with melody and harmonies. The Grosse Fuge which was to be the finale of the opus 130 quartet was so dominant that Beethoven was advised to separate it from the other movements, so that it became his final publication. One century later, Stravinsky praised it as a masterpiece of his own speciality, rhythm. Beethoven cared for the fate of humanity, eventually finding inspiration for grand statements by 1823 in his Missa Solemnis and Ninth Symphony, the Choral. This was larger and more complex than any previous symphony. Though the first three movements are very imposing, they are then subjected to an unprecedented ritual. In a sequence of orchestral recitative, their themes are in turn rejected, then a soloist in a moment of great drama introduces the dominant melody to the words of Schiller's Ode to Joy, the Choral finale. This movement eclipsed his Choral Fantasy written years earlier, a most original single movement, vigorous and extrovert, later regarded as an apparent run-in. The Ninth Symphony and the Missa Solemnis with the last sonatas and quartets are works that the music world is still learning from two centuries later. Copyright © 16 December 2019	1,228	ENGLISH	1
On October 16, 1854, the eccentric and fervently revered Oscar Fingal O’Flahertie Wills Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. Wilde’s work as a dramatist, novelist, and poet was marked by controversial wit, and was often the subject of moral outrage in Europe. Much of his writing reflected his own life and his protest against societal norms happening during the nineteenth century. His only novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray, was greatly attacked for having themes of homoeroticism, and was part of the history that actualized his notoriety. However, the questions posed by his work and his life, are still relevant now as they were a hundred years ago (Ellmann, xvii). Wilde’s interests were greatly influenced by the work of his parents during his upbringing. His father, Sir William Wilde, worked as Ireland’s leading ear and eye surgeon, and published multiple books on archaeology and folklore (“Oscar Wilde,” Encyclopedia Britannica). Wilde’s mother, Jane Francesca Agnes, was a gifted poet who wrote mostly myth and folklore. Her work was often published under the pseudonym, Speranza (“Oscar Wilde,” Encyclopedia Britannica). With two strong literary and professional role models, Wilde went on to study at Trinity College in Dublin (1871-74), and Magdalen College in Oxford (1874-78). He received a degree with honors, and established himself as a brilliant scholar, a poet, and a wit after receiving the Newdigate Prize (1878) for his long poem, Ravenna (“Oscar Wilde,” Encyclopedia Britannica). It was also during this time that Wilde began exploring his feelings of homosexuality. Wilde had several relationships with men that turned him into a target for blackmail. Unfortunately for Wilde, the Victorian Era was polluted with ideas of homosexuality being immoral and an act against God. Yet, he chose to live bravely and continue his relationships with younger men. This was exceedingly dangerous considering sodomy was against the law under the Criminal Law Amendment Act during this time (Fuller, 174). The Labouchère Amendment, also known as the “Blackmailer’s Charter,” made sexual relations between men punishable by two years in prison, with or without hard labor (McKenna 81). This amendment trapped Oscar Wilde in his own trial and imprisonment, and led to the fall of his reputation and his career. In writing The Picture of Dorian Gray, Wilde used much inspiration from aspects of his own life. Dorian Gray was originally published in 1890 in Lippincott’s Magazine (Gifford). This original version was extremely revealing, and critics at the time responded harshly to the practically blatant themes of homoeroticism. In order to quell the rising suspicions that the character Lord Henry Wotton was merely a picture Wilde drew of himself, he made many edits to the original and added several chapters, including most of the subplot concerning Sibyl Vane and her brother, James (Gifford). By publishing this second edition in 1891, Wilde obfuscated the earnestness of the first...	<urn:uuid:921e688a-064e-4959-b9f8-b0544b8aa86f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/the-homosexual-legacy-of-oscar-wilde	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00075.warc.gz	en	0.987176	661	4.125	4	[ -0.12865516543388367, 0.4230368435382843, 0.18160918354988098, -0.04845283180475235, -0.029260342940688133, 0.08770732581615448, 0.08264529705047607, -0.14859062433242798, 0.3339909017086029, -0.046722911298274994, -0.1284501552581787, -0.04592081904411316, 0.18394368886947632, 0.130251914...	1	On October 16, 1854, the eccentric and fervently revered Oscar Fingal O’Flahertie Wills Wilde was born in Dublin, Ireland. Wilde’s work as a dramatist, novelist, and poet was marked by controversial wit, and was often the subject of moral outrage in Europe. Much of his writing reflected his own life and his protest against societal norms happening during the nineteenth century. His only novel, The Picture of Dorian Gray, was greatly attacked for having themes of homoeroticism, and was part of the history that actualized his notoriety. However, the questions posed by his work and his life, are still relevant now as they were a hundred years ago (Ellmann, xvii). Wilde’s interests were greatly influenced by the work of his parents during his upbringing. His father, Sir William Wilde, worked as Ireland’s leading ear and eye surgeon, and published multiple books on archaeology and folklore (“Oscar Wilde,” Encyclopedia Britannica). Wilde’s mother, Jane Francesca Agnes, was a gifted poet who wrote mostly myth and folklore. Her work was often published under the pseudonym, Speranza (“Oscar Wilde,” Encyclopedia Britannica). With two strong literary and professional role models, Wilde went on to study at Trinity College in Dublin (1871-74), and Magdalen College in Oxford (1874-78). He received a degree with honors, and established himself as a brilliant scholar, a poet, and a wit after receiving the Newdigate Prize (1878) for his long poem, Ravenna (“Oscar Wilde,” Encyclopedia Britannica). It was also during this time that Wilde began exploring his feelings of homosexuality. Wilde had several relationships with men that turned him into a target for blackmail. Unfortunately for Wilde, the Victorian Era was polluted with ideas of homosexuality being immoral and an act against God. Yet, he chose to live bravely and continue his relationships with younger men. This was exceedingly dangerous considering sodomy was against the law under the Criminal Law Amendment Act during this time (Fuller, 174). The Labouchère Amendment, also known as the “Blackmailer’s Charter,” made sexual relations between men punishable by two years in prison, with or without hard labor (McKenna 81). This amendment trapped Oscar Wilde in his own trial and imprisonment, and led to the fall of his reputation and his career. In writing The Picture of Dorian Gray, Wilde used much inspiration from aspects of his own life. Dorian Gray was originally published in 1890 in Lippincott’s Magazine (Gifford). This original version was extremely revealing, and critics at the time responded harshly to the practically blatant themes of homoeroticism. In order to quell the rising suspicions that the character Lord Henry Wotton was merely a picture Wilde drew of himself, he made many edits to the original and added several chapters, including most of the subplot concerning Sibyl Vane and her brother, James (Gifford). By publishing this second edition in 1891, Wilde obfuscated the earnestness of the first...	655	ENGLISH	1
Dolley Todd Madison (née Payne; May 20, 1768 – July 12, 1849) was the wife of James Madison, President of the United States from 1809 to 1817. She was noted for holding Washington social functions in which she invited members of both political parties, essentially spearheading the concept of bipartisan cooperation, albeit before that term was in use, in the United States. While previously, founders such as Thomas Jefferson would only meet with members of one party at a time, and politics could often be a violent affair resulting in physical altercations and even duels, Madison helped to create the idea that members of each party could amicably socialize, network, and negotiate with each other without resulting in violence. By innovating political institutions as the wife of James Madison, Dolley Madison did much to define the role of the President’s spouse, known only much later by the title First Lady—a function she had sometimes performed earlier for the widowed Thomas Jefferson. Consequently, she is the only woman to have functioned as U.S. presidential First Lady for two different administrations. Dolley also helped to furnish the newly constructed White House. When the British set fire to it in 1814, she was credited with saving the classic portrait of George Washington; she directed her personal slave Paul Jennings to save it. In widowhood, she often lived in poverty, partially relieved by the sale of her late husband’s papers.	<urn:uuid:31d358dc-51a8-4b7e-a0f5-f99bda45b2a6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://goodquotes.me/authors/dolley-madison/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00352.warc.gz	en	0.984227	298	3.765625	4	[ -0.32694530487060547, 0.18858905136585236, 0.5402798056602478, -0.6447858214378357, -0.23555932939052582, 0.32371827960014343, 0.020636238157749176, -0.12295396625995636, -0.10123037546873093, -0.1893225610256195, 0.4859086573123932, 0.3051334619522095, 0.06389027088880539, 0.3026960194110...	2	Dolley Todd Madison (née Payne; May 20, 1768 – July 12, 1849) was the wife of James Madison, President of the United States from 1809 to 1817. She was noted for holding Washington social functions in which she invited members of both political parties, essentially spearheading the concept of bipartisan cooperation, albeit before that term was in use, in the United States. While previously, founders such as Thomas Jefferson would only meet with members of one party at a time, and politics could often be a violent affair resulting in physical altercations and even duels, Madison helped to create the idea that members of each party could amicably socialize, network, and negotiate with each other without resulting in violence. By innovating political institutions as the wife of James Madison, Dolley Madison did much to define the role of the President’s spouse, known only much later by the title First Lady—a function she had sometimes performed earlier for the widowed Thomas Jefferson. Consequently, she is the only woman to have functioned as U.S. presidential First Lady for two different administrations. Dolley also helped to furnish the newly constructed White House. When the British set fire to it in 1814, she was credited with saving the classic portrait of George Washington; she directed her personal slave Paul Jennings to save it. In widowhood, she often lived in poverty, partially relieved by the sale of her late husband’s papers.	308	ENGLISH	1
On April 12th, 1961, a Russian man named Yuri Gagarin made history aboard a Soviet Vostok 3KA-3 spacecraft. For years, the United States and Soviet Union had been using the barrier between our world and beyond as a benchmark to test each nation’s greatest technological and engineering advances, and on that day, Gagarin achieved an incredible victory for the communist nation: he flew in space. The space race was about far more than national pride, however, it was truly about global supremacy. Each nation recognized the final frontier as both a tactical advantage for military operations and a public relations necessity – competition put the American people behind spending the money required to go up against the Red giant, and victory would benefit morale nationwide. However, the Soviets did not need the public’s approval for expenditures, opting instead to announce each mission toward the unknown only after its successful completion, leaving their people under the impression that the Soviet program was incapable of failure. In recent years, however, stories have begun to emerge about failed Soviet space missions and their policy of ensuring the media, the public, and their American competition never learned of their missteps. Photographs surfaced in the 1970s depicting early Cosmonauts (Soviet Astronauts) at work and on vacation with one another, but because of confusion regarding which photographs had been published, Soviet news managers accidentally released never before seen versions of the images. When previously published images were compared to the images that were released in the seventies, inconsistencies began to surface. Most notable among these issues were missing Cosmonauts; the Soviet government had actually airbrushed entire people out of group photographs, opting to pretend these men were never a part of the program to begin with. When confronted about these alterations, the Soviet Government made a number of fumbled attempts at explaining why they felt the need to forge the images released to the public. Finally, in the final years of Soviet reign, Gorbachev instructed Soviet journalists and historians to determine what truly happened to these “missing” and omitted men. Their research revealed that most had been expelled from the program for behavior that made them unsuitable to be seen as heroes for the nation or had developed medical conditions that prohibited them from participating in space flight. According to reports, the Soviet government had opted to remove them from records completely rather than explain away their failures in public. All of this did little to sway American beliefs that the Soviets, even years after America claimed victory in the space race by landing on the moon, had more to hide than they were letting on. While some Americans have gone so far as to travel to Russia to meet with some of these redacted cosmonauts to verify Soviet stories, not all of the men can be accounted for officially. American author and former NASA mission control scientist, James Oberg, was one of the first to notice the inconsistencies in the Soviet images and, although he has written at length about his beliefs regarding these “lost” cosmonauts in books like “Uncovering Soviet Disasters,” he seems fairly convinced in recent years that the Soviets were telling the truth about these redactions, and that most, if not all, of these missing cosmonauts were simply removed from the space program photographs to protect their flawless reputation. Possibly the most damning, or at least the most controversial, evidence to suggest that the Soviet space program was not nearly as flawless as they contended at the time, were reports of a pair of Italian brothers that recorded radio transmissions prior to and after Gagarin’s historic flight that seemed to indicate manned orbital missions going awry. The Judica-Cordiglia brothers were amateur hand radio operators that released a number of recordings in 1963 that they claimed were recorded during the Soviet’s most intense period of attempts to put a cosmonaut in space; attempts which they claim began in 1960, nearly a year prior to Gagarin’s successful mission. According to the brothers, in May of 1960 they recorded a Morse code message indicating that a manned Soviet spacecraft had drifted dangerously off course. Then, on November 28th, 1960, another Morse code signal, this time an SOS distress call, was recorded as another spacecraft reportedly left Earth’s orbit. In February of 1961, they recorded a cosmonaut audibly suffocating to death while attempting to contact mission control, then in April, they tracked Gagarin’s vessel as it made three successful orbits around Earth before reentering. The Soviets announced Gagarin’s success three days after the brothers claim to have tracked his flight path. The recordings did not stop there, however. In May, the brothers claimed to have recorded another craft’s distress call as it slipped out of orbit, then again in October and November. In November of 1963, the brothers said they recorded a female cosmonaut pleading for help as her craft burned up during reentry. A final death, according to these brothers, occurred in April of 1964, again due to failed heat shielding during the return flight. There are confirmed reports of Soviets dying in their pursuit of space flight, but these reports were often not confirmed until after the fall of the Soviet Union and in the face of overwhelming evidence. Gagarin’s own best friend died in an orbital mission. According to claims, he was aware that his mission was likely to fail due to a number of structural issues on the vessel, but opted to fly anyway to prevent his friend and backup pilot, the Soviet hero Gagarin, from having to take the risk. While it is confirmed that Vladimir Kamarov died during the failed re-entry of his Soyuz 1 capsule, rumors continue to surface about his final minutes, in which many claim he railed against the Soviet regime and faulted them for his impending death. Twenty-two Americans have died as a result of our own efforts to extend mankind’s reach beyond our tiny blue dot. The task is incredibly dangerous and the men and women of every nation’s space program should be heralded for their bravery, but if claims about Soviet efforts to erase the lives of men and women that were lost in pursuit of victory over America are even partially true, it would add a dark lens to how we perceive all Soviet accomplishments during the era. Featured image courtesy of WikiMedia Commons	<urn:uuid:8e5c7517-8e62-4b9d-a6cf-d19d8a8f0c29>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://sofrep.com/fightersweep/soviet-secrets-are-there-dead-cosmonauts-in-orbit-above-earth/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672440.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125101544-20200125130544-00416.warc.gz	en	0.983206	1,299	3.34375	3	[ -0.04217301309108734, 0.34749656915664673, 0.0614263080060482, 0.19846680760383606, 0.07152748852968216, 0.2079460471868515, 0.17886731028556824, 0.3196564316749573, -0.22663402557373047, 0.16010454297065735, 0.2616042494773865, 0.18439282476902008, 0.4548342227935791, 0.25519734621047974,...	7	On April 12th, 1961, a Russian man named Yuri Gagarin made history aboard a Soviet Vostok 3KA-3 spacecraft. For years, the United States and Soviet Union had been using the barrier between our world and beyond as a benchmark to test each nation’s greatest technological and engineering advances, and on that day, Gagarin achieved an incredible victory for the communist nation: he flew in space. The space race was about far more than national pride, however, it was truly about global supremacy. Each nation recognized the final frontier as both a tactical advantage for military operations and a public relations necessity – competition put the American people behind spending the money required to go up against the Red giant, and victory would benefit morale nationwide. However, the Soviets did not need the public’s approval for expenditures, opting instead to announce each mission toward the unknown only after its successful completion, leaving their people under the impression that the Soviet program was incapable of failure. In recent years, however, stories have begun to emerge about failed Soviet space missions and their policy of ensuring the media, the public, and their American competition never learned of their missteps. Photographs surfaced in the 1970s depicting early Cosmonauts (Soviet Astronauts) at work and on vacation with one another, but because of confusion regarding which photographs had been published, Soviet news managers accidentally released never before seen versions of the images. When previously published images were compared to the images that were released in the seventies, inconsistencies began to surface. Most notable among these issues were missing Cosmonauts; the Soviet government had actually airbrushed entire people out of group photographs, opting to pretend these men were never a part of the program to begin with. When confronted about these alterations, the Soviet Government made a number of fumbled attempts at explaining why they felt the need to forge the images released to the public. Finally, in the final years of Soviet reign, Gorbachev instructed Soviet journalists and historians to determine what truly happened to these “missing” and omitted men. Their research revealed that most had been expelled from the program for behavior that made them unsuitable to be seen as heroes for the nation or had developed medical conditions that prohibited them from participating in space flight. According to reports, the Soviet government had opted to remove them from records completely rather than explain away their failures in public. All of this did little to sway American beliefs that the Soviets, even years after America claimed victory in the space race by landing on the moon, had more to hide than they were letting on. While some Americans have gone so far as to travel to Russia to meet with some of these redacted cosmonauts to verify Soviet stories, not all of the men can be accounted for officially. American author and former NASA mission control scientist, James Oberg, was one of the first to notice the inconsistencies in the Soviet images and, although he has written at length about his beliefs regarding these “lost” cosmonauts in books like “Uncovering Soviet Disasters,” he seems fairly convinced in recent years that the Soviets were telling the truth about these redactions, and that most, if not all, of these missing cosmonauts were simply removed from the space program photographs to protect their flawless reputation. Possibly the most damning, or at least the most controversial, evidence to suggest that the Soviet space program was not nearly as flawless as they contended at the time, were reports of a pair of Italian brothers that recorded radio transmissions prior to and after Gagarin’s historic flight that seemed to indicate manned orbital missions going awry. The Judica-Cordiglia brothers were amateur hand radio operators that released a number of recordings in 1963 that they claimed were recorded during the Soviet’s most intense period of attempts to put a cosmonaut in space; attempts which they claim began in 1960, nearly a year prior to Gagarin’s successful mission. According to the brothers, in May of 1960 they recorded a Morse code message indicating that a manned Soviet spacecraft had drifted dangerously off course. Then, on November 28th, 1960, another Morse code signal, this time an SOS distress call, was recorded as another spacecraft reportedly left Earth’s orbit. In February of 1961, they recorded a cosmonaut audibly suffocating to death while attempting to contact mission control, then in April, they tracked Gagarin’s vessel as it made three successful orbits around Earth before reentering. The Soviets announced Gagarin’s success three days after the brothers claim to have tracked his flight path. The recordings did not stop there, however. In May, the brothers claimed to have recorded another craft’s distress call as it slipped out of orbit, then again in October and November. In November of 1963, the brothers said they recorded a female cosmonaut pleading for help as her craft burned up during reentry. A final death, according to these brothers, occurred in April of 1964, again due to failed heat shielding during the return flight. There are confirmed reports of Soviets dying in their pursuit of space flight, but these reports were often not confirmed until after the fall of the Soviet Union and in the face of overwhelming evidence. Gagarin’s own best friend died in an orbital mission. According to claims, he was aware that his mission was likely to fail due to a number of structural issues on the vessel, but opted to fly anyway to prevent his friend and backup pilot, the Soviet hero Gagarin, from having to take the risk. While it is confirmed that Vladimir Kamarov died during the failed re-entry of his Soyuz 1 capsule, rumors continue to surface about his final minutes, in which many claim he railed against the Soviet regime and faulted them for his impending death. Twenty-two Americans have died as a result of our own efforts to extend mankind’s reach beyond our tiny blue dot. The task is incredibly dangerous and the men and women of every nation’s space program should be heralded for their bravery, but if claims about Soviet efforts to erase the lives of men and women that were lost in pursuit of victory over America are even partially true, it would add a dark lens to how we perceive all Soviet accomplishments during the era. Featured image courtesy of WikiMedia Commons	1,305	ENGLISH	1
The Celtic year was broken up into eight parts; Quarter days were determined by astrology and were celebrated during the winter and summer solstice, and the spring and autumn equinox. Cross quarter days were celebrated at the mid-point between these dates and had significance with agriculture but particularly with the raising of livestock. Cross Quarter Days The four cross quarter days are known as Samhain (Oct 31- 01 Nov) Imbrolic (Jan 31 – 01 Feb), Beltane (April 30 – 01 May), and Lughnadh (Jul 31 – 01 Aug); each has two dates as the Celts believed the new day started at sunset. Beltane, when cattle are put to pasture in the spring; and Samhain when they are brought in for the winter were/are liminal dates and it was believed that at this time the boundary between the living and the dead was fluid. Certain observances had to be made to keep spirits, particularly those, of your ancestors appeased. Samhain was the gateway from summer to winter but belonged to neither, it was also when someone with second sight was believed to have the most powerful powers of prophesy or divination. As it marked the gateway into winter, Samhain always had an association with death. This was a time for livestock to be slaughtered and salted, in preparation for the cold weather; and family members who had died would be remembered and honoured. This was the time of the third and final harvest; anything still left in the field after Samhain was left for spirits, but as a final cull, an armful of dead plants and straw would be brought home and fashioned into a human shape representing the Winter King. He would have a place set for him at the table on Samhain evening, and he represented the family’s dead relatives. After the meal was finished, the uneaten portion of his meal would be left outside for spirits and faeries. The Winter King’s reign lasted until Beltane, and the effigy would be kept until then, when it would ceremonially be cast into the flames and burnt in the Beltane bonfire signalling the return of light with Lugh, the Sun God. After the rise of Christianity, when the Western Church moved All Souls Day from May to October, traditions began to morph. What started as an honouring of the dead, changed to it’s present association with the devil. Samhain became Halloween, from All Hallows Eve and a shift in emphasis started to take shape as Christians tried to discourage pagan traditions. Some of the ancient traditions associated with Samhain, invoked an element of prophesy or divination like eating an apple on Samhain night looking in the mirror could result in seeing the reflection of your future spouse. If you looked too long you could see the image of Donn who was regarded as both the God of the dead, and also the ancestor of the Gaels, as time went on Donn was removed and the imagery changed to that of Satan. These fire festivals have been celebrated in Ireland at least as long as 4 century BC, but there is some speculation that Samhain in particular dates back much further and is related to the Indian festival of Diwali. The Irish took these traditions with them to America during the mass emigration after the Potato Famine. Jack o Lanterns were traditionally made from hollowed turnips and had been used both to carry an ember from the sacred ‘bone fire’ back home. Ordinarily, good fire management was part of a woman’s household duties, letting a fire go out overnight would have been regarded as very slack, but not following a fire festival. On these dates people extinguished their fires and relit them from the sacred fire. Once in America, it became apparent that pumpkins were much easier to carve out and so the tradition of Pumpkin Jacks began. This has come full circle, just like the wheel of the year, as we now hollow pumpkins on Halloween here in Ireland, rather than the turnips I remember struggling with at school.	<urn:uuid:d5adaca6-b3ae-4906-ab09-c0c83a0f11f6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://losingtheplotweb.wordpress.com/2018/10/30/samhain/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00193.warc.gz	en	0.984394	847	3.5625	4	[ -0.3538869619369507, 0.1955677568912506, 0.32860037684440613, 0.03270635008811951, -0.13630923628807068, -0.093398317694664, 0.1903315782546997, -0.06621579825878143, -0.04216701164841652, 0.0669974684715271, -0.13605108857154846, -0.13530664145946503, 0.1951163411140442, 0.386923223733902...	3	The Celtic year was broken up into eight parts; Quarter days were determined by astrology and were celebrated during the winter and summer solstice, and the spring and autumn equinox. Cross quarter days were celebrated at the mid-point between these dates and had significance with agriculture but particularly with the raising of livestock. Cross Quarter Days The four cross quarter days are known as Samhain (Oct 31- 01 Nov) Imbrolic (Jan 31 – 01 Feb), Beltane (April 30 – 01 May), and Lughnadh (Jul 31 – 01 Aug); each has two dates as the Celts believed the new day started at sunset. Beltane, when cattle are put to pasture in the spring; and Samhain when they are brought in for the winter were/are liminal dates and it was believed that at this time the boundary between the living and the dead was fluid. Certain observances had to be made to keep spirits, particularly those, of your ancestors appeased. Samhain was the gateway from summer to winter but belonged to neither, it was also when someone with second sight was believed to have the most powerful powers of prophesy or divination. As it marked the gateway into winter, Samhain always had an association with death. This was a time for livestock to be slaughtered and salted, in preparation for the cold weather; and family members who had died would be remembered and honoured. This was the time of the third and final harvest; anything still left in the field after Samhain was left for spirits, but as a final cull, an armful of dead plants and straw would be brought home and fashioned into a human shape representing the Winter King. He would have a place set for him at the table on Samhain evening, and he represented the family’s dead relatives. After the meal was finished, the uneaten portion of his meal would be left outside for spirits and faeries. The Winter King’s reign lasted until Beltane, and the effigy would be kept until then, when it would ceremonially be cast into the flames and burnt in the Beltane bonfire signalling the return of light with Lugh, the Sun God. After the rise of Christianity, when the Western Church moved All Souls Day from May to October, traditions began to morph. What started as an honouring of the dead, changed to it’s present association with the devil. Samhain became Halloween, from All Hallows Eve and a shift in emphasis started to take shape as Christians tried to discourage pagan traditions. Some of the ancient traditions associated with Samhain, invoked an element of prophesy or divination like eating an apple on Samhain night looking in the mirror could result in seeing the reflection of your future spouse. If you looked too long you could see the image of Donn who was regarded as both the God of the dead, and also the ancestor of the Gaels, as time went on Donn was removed and the imagery changed to that of Satan. These fire festivals have been celebrated in Ireland at least as long as 4 century BC, but there is some speculation that Samhain in particular dates back much further and is related to the Indian festival of Diwali. The Irish took these traditions with them to America during the mass emigration after the Potato Famine. Jack o Lanterns were traditionally made from hollowed turnips and had been used both to carry an ember from the sacred ‘bone fire’ back home. Ordinarily, good fire management was part of a woman’s household duties, letting a fire go out overnight would have been regarded as very slack, but not following a fire festival. On these dates people extinguished their fires and relit them from the sacred fire. Once in America, it became apparent that pumpkins were much easier to carve out and so the tradition of Pumpkin Jacks began. This has come full circle, just like the wheel of the year, as we now hollow pumpkins on Halloween here in Ireland, rather than the turnips I remember struggling with at school.	840	ENGLISH	1
Benjamin is an old and pessimistic donkey. No one on the farm knows exactly how old he is but it is hinted that he has been around for a very long time. He is never enthusiastic when things go well for the animals; likewise, he is never surprised or upset when things go wrong. He often gives vague answers. Some might say that he is a realist. He is close friends with Boxer and plans to spend his retirement with him. He calls all the other animals to help when Boxer is being taken away by the horse slaughterer. \|How is Benjamin like this?\|\|Evidence from the text\|\|Analysis\| \|Vague\|\|Benjamin is often vague with the other animals. For example, when they ask if he is happier now Mr Jones has gone he doesn’t give a straight answer.\|\|"Donkeys live a long time. None of you has ever seen a dead donkey."\|\|It is not until we have finished the novel that it becomes clear that Benjamin has seen rebellions come and go in the past and he knows that the happiness they feel after the Rebellion will be short-lived. His comment that they have never seen a ‘dead donkey’ is a hint that he has seen similar events in the past and so he is not as excited as the other animals.\| \|Pessimistic\|\|Benjamin’s responses are often negative, he doesn’t share in the enthusiasm of the other animals even in their victories.\|\|He said, life would go on as it always had gone on - that is, badly.\|\|Benjamin’s suggestion that life ‘always’ goes on ‘badly’ reveals that he has a pessimistic view on life, he does not see the Rebellion, the windmill or victories in battle as being positive things – he sees them as struggles.\| \|Realistic\|\|In the end, it turns out that Benjamin was right to be so negative about the Rebellion. Although conditions seemed better initially – they soon went back to ‘normal’. Benjamin was not negative, just realistic.\|\|Only old Benjamin professed to remember every detail of his long life and to know that things never had been, nor ever could be much better or much worse – hunger, hardship, and disappointment being, so he said, the unalterable law of life.\|\|By this point in the novel it becomes clear that Benjamin was realistic when he was negative about the Rebellion. He is right to believe that things will never change, they are 'unalterable' this explains his attitude toward the changes on the farm and why he is never as enthusiastic as the other animals.\|	<urn:uuid:cf2014e8-9aa8-4392-ba85-4050c1767ac3>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zh6c97h/revision/8	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251705142.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127174507-20200127204507-00527.warc.gz	en	0.982606	549	3.375	3	[ -0.27240079641342163, 0.2659313678741455, 0.16724979877471924, 0.3434414565563202, 0.04283737391233444, -0.11437418311834335, 0.10927186906337738, 0.15311595797538757, 0.23909619450569153, 0.42846906185150146, 0.06542887538671494, -0.30225077271461487, 0.2643553614616394, 0.226694419980049...	2	Benjamin is an old and pessimistic donkey. No one on the farm knows exactly how old he is but it is hinted that he has been around for a very long time. He is never enthusiastic when things go well for the animals; likewise, he is never surprised or upset when things go wrong. He often gives vague answers. Some might say that he is a realist. He is close friends with Boxer and plans to spend his retirement with him. He calls all the other animals to help when Boxer is being taken away by the horse slaughterer. \|How is Benjamin like this?\|\|Evidence from the text\|\|Analysis\| \|Vague\|\|Benjamin is often vague with the other animals. For example, when they ask if he is happier now Mr Jones has gone he doesn’t give a straight answer.\|\|"Donkeys live a long time. None of you has ever seen a dead donkey."\|\|It is not until we have finished the novel that it becomes clear that Benjamin has seen rebellions come and go in the past and he knows that the happiness they feel after the Rebellion will be short-lived. His comment that they have never seen a ‘dead donkey’ is a hint that he has seen similar events in the past and so he is not as excited as the other animals.\| \|Pessimistic\|\|Benjamin’s responses are often negative, he doesn’t share in the enthusiasm of the other animals even in their victories.\|\|He said, life would go on as it always had gone on - that is, badly.\|\|Benjamin’s suggestion that life ‘always’ goes on ‘badly’ reveals that he has a pessimistic view on life, he does not see the Rebellion, the windmill or victories in battle as being positive things – he sees them as struggles.\| \|Realistic\|\|In the end, it turns out that Benjamin was right to be so negative about the Rebellion. Although conditions seemed better initially – they soon went back to ‘normal’. Benjamin was not negative, just realistic.\|\|Only old Benjamin professed to remember every detail of his long life and to know that things never had been, nor ever could be much better or much worse – hunger, hardship, and disappointment being, so he said, the unalterable law of life.\|\|By this point in the novel it becomes clear that Benjamin was realistic when he was negative about the Rebellion. He is right to believe that things will never change, they are 'unalterable' this explains his attitude toward the changes on the farm and why he is never as enthusiastic as the other animals.\|	529	ENGLISH	1
By Simba Jama THE traditions and cultures of numerous nations were destroyed by the Greeks. Today we shall look at how the Greeks persecuted the blacks of Judea. The blacks of Judea were the remaining true Israelites in that land after the dispersal of the northern kingdom of Israel to places like north and West Africa in 8th century BC. Judea is in modern day Palestine and would be the southern most part which borders Egypt. Between the two lands is the Sinai Peninsula (Arabian dessert). Thus it should not be surprising that the original inhabitants of the Holy land were black as there is not even an ocean to separate Judea from Egypt. After Alexander the so-called Greats’ death, Judea was first controlled by the Ptolemy dynasty. By 277 BC there were only three major Hellenistic (Greek) kingdoms namely Egypt, Syria and Greece. These were all put under one administration of Antigonids between 277 and 168 BC. Judea was later on governed by Seleucids of Syria between 198 and 142 BC. Each of the above Hellenistic kingdoms survived until the rise of the Roman Empire in about 68BC. Under Greek rule the blacks of Judea faced their most trying times. The experiences that these black Israelites faced at the hands of the Greeks were so gruesome that the books in which the atrocities were recorded were in the 1800s systematically removed from the modern day Bible as they projected the white man as barbaric. It is these books that were excised from the Bible that are known as the books of the Apocrypha. Between 175 and 164 BC, there was an evil Greek ruler called Antiochus IV Epiphanes who had no honour of royalty, but had unjustly seized power from the Seleucids who were in control of Judea. He attacked Jerusalem and massacred many. Antiochus IV proceeded to take from the temple all the precious ornaments made of gold and silver. Two years after this, he sent a tax collector who also massacred many Judeans and took away a lot of their wealth as spoils of war. The houses of the black Judeans were destroyed and their walls were pulled down. Their women and children were taken captive and the slave markets were filled with these blacks. Their livestock was stolen. The Greeks then proceeded to fill the land of Judea with sinful white strangers. A lot of the Israelites fled the land and the white strangers fortified the city of David with walls. From these walls they stalked and murdered many innocent Israelites. Antiochus wrote to all the nations under his charge directing that all nations were to become one. He dictated that every nation shall abandon its laws and adopt the new laws of the land dictated by himself. The Greeks also introduced a new religion while defiling that of the Judeans. The penalty for not following the new commandments was death and Antiochus set up officers to monitor the Israelites everywhere. Making burnt and drink offerings was prohibited. Observing the Sabbath Day and traditional festivals were all banned. This forced a great number of Israelites to flee to secret places for refuge. The Hellenists also set up altars, groves and chapels of idols in the holy shrines and the sacred places of the Israelites. They also sacrificed swine flesh and other unclean beasts just to defile the religion of the black Judeans. This is exactly the same strategy that was adopted by Cecil Rhodes when he colonised Zimbabwe and the reason why his remains were interred at Matopo Hills where Njelele, the holiest shrine of the Mwari religion is sited. These were the measures the Greeks took to obliterate the culture and way of life of the blacks of Judea – a culture which for centuries had been revered in the Persian Empire. It was a culture of the chosen people of the living God. The Greeks wished for the black Israelites of Judea to completely forget their laws and ordinances. Not long after this, there came what was known as the ‘Abomination that caused desolation’. This was when idol altars were built on the holy places of Jerusalem. The books of the laws that would later make up the Bible were burnt and anyone found with them was put to death. The Israelites had prophesied this turning point in their history and, as such, most chose to endure in their beliefs rather than convert to the religions of the white man. As a result, many of them were ruthlessly killed. Circumcision was outlawed and punishable by death. People who refused to eat swine meat were killed. The Greeks also introduced many more abominations that persuaded most of the blacks of Judea to flee to Africa and many other places. This account of Greek misconduct and cruelty can be found in the Apocryphal books of Maccabeus. It challenges the notion that Greeks were world civilisers and exposes them as barbarians and heathens at the time of their prime. No wonder, therefore, why the Apocrypha was excluded from the Bible by the white man. ‘Apocrypha’ is another word for ‘apocalypse,’ which means revelations. The likes of Daniel of the Bible had earlier on prophesied the downfall of the Persian Empire and the rise of Greece. He dreamt of a two – horned ram which was defeated by a one – horned goat. The ram symbolised the kingdoms of Media and Persia, while the goat symbolised Greece. The goat first had one horn, but suddenly the horn was taken away and in its place came out four. Alexander led Greece to victory over the great kingdom of Persia and the subsequent division of the kingdom into four on Alexander’s death was the fulfillment of Daniels prophecy, according to the Israelites. The story of Alexander and the Greek conquests is in itself a biblical account of the Old Testament which was deliberately left out of the present day English version of the Bible possibly because of his black origins and his general liking of black people. Western civilisation is always attributed to Greece and yet the Israelites in the Bible portray Greeks as destroyers of civilisation and heathens. It is quite clear that whites seek to hide the facts about the history of mankind by presenting black achievements as their own. The books that contain biblical stories of people like Alexander were censored out by the British in the 19th century. A few centuries earlier in the 1600s, King James of England and Scotland, who was black, had translated the Bible from Hebrew, Greek and Latin into English and made it a crime punishable by imprisonment or heavy fine for anyone to publish the English Bible without the books of the Apocrypha. Books of the Apocrypha help us understand why terms like ‘Jew’ and ‘Roman’ suddenly show up in the New Testament yet they are nowhere to be found in the Old Testament. The black Israelites of the land of Judea were referred to as Jews in Apocryphal books like Maccabeus. The Romans were confirmed as Edomites and of the seed of Abraham and were also known as the Lacedemonians. Because of the above reason, all the books of the Apocrypha (including the story of Alexander) are still in the Roman Catholic Bible. The removal of the Apocrypha leaves about a 300-year gap between the last books of the Old Testament and the books of the New Testament in the English Bible. The missing link is this story of how whites (Greeks and later the Romans) came to be world powers before the time of Yahshua (Jesus). With the Apocryphal books included, the bible works as an almost complete historical document, documenting events stretching from the beginning of time and to the aftermath of Yahshua. This brings us to the current era (CE) which is often marked as AD (after death) because the West started counting the years from the year Yahshua was crucified.	<urn:uuid:fa73d51a-e664-4a26-95e4-9a5429b47235>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.thepatriot.co.zw/old_posts/why-the-apocrypha-was-scrapped-2/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601615.66/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121044233-20200121073233-00540.warc.gz	en	0.981199	1,675	3.765625	4	[ 0.15311568975448608, 0.5355950593948364, 0.19832411408424377, 0.01334605272859335, -0.1972571313381195, -0.5085040330886841, -0.13225913047790527, 0.253432959318161, 0.09594123065471649, 0.3817176818847656, -0.24551616609096527, -0.6087536215782166, 0.0006471632514148951, 0.232109427452087...	2	By Simba Jama THE traditions and cultures of numerous nations were destroyed by the Greeks. Today we shall look at how the Greeks persecuted the blacks of Judea. The blacks of Judea were the remaining true Israelites in that land after the dispersal of the northern kingdom of Israel to places like north and West Africa in 8th century BC. Judea is in modern day Palestine and would be the southern most part which borders Egypt. Between the two lands is the Sinai Peninsula (Arabian dessert). Thus it should not be surprising that the original inhabitants of the Holy land were black as there is not even an ocean to separate Judea from Egypt. After Alexander the so-called Greats’ death, Judea was first controlled by the Ptolemy dynasty. By 277 BC there were only three major Hellenistic (Greek) kingdoms namely Egypt, Syria and Greece. These were all put under one administration of Antigonids between 277 and 168 BC. Judea was later on governed by Seleucids of Syria between 198 and 142 BC. Each of the above Hellenistic kingdoms survived until the rise of the Roman Empire in about 68BC. Under Greek rule the blacks of Judea faced their most trying times. The experiences that these black Israelites faced at the hands of the Greeks were so gruesome that the books in which the atrocities were recorded were in the 1800s systematically removed from the modern day Bible as they projected the white man as barbaric. It is these books that were excised from the Bible that are known as the books of the Apocrypha. Between 175 and 164 BC, there was an evil Greek ruler called Antiochus IV Epiphanes who had no honour of royalty, but had unjustly seized power from the Seleucids who were in control of Judea. He attacked Jerusalem and massacred many. Antiochus IV proceeded to take from the temple all the precious ornaments made of gold and silver. Two years after this, he sent a tax collector who also massacred many Judeans and took away a lot of their wealth as spoils of war. The houses of the black Judeans were destroyed and their walls were pulled down. Their women and children were taken captive and the slave markets were filled with these blacks. Their livestock was stolen. The Greeks then proceeded to fill the land of Judea with sinful white strangers. A lot of the Israelites fled the land and the white strangers fortified the city of David with walls. From these walls they stalked and murdered many innocent Israelites. Antiochus wrote to all the nations under his charge directing that all nations were to become one. He dictated that every nation shall abandon its laws and adopt the new laws of the land dictated by himself. The Greeks also introduced a new religion while defiling that of the Judeans. The penalty for not following the new commandments was death and Antiochus set up officers to monitor the Israelites everywhere. Making burnt and drink offerings was prohibited. Observing the Sabbath Day and traditional festivals were all banned. This forced a great number of Israelites to flee to secret places for refuge. The Hellenists also set up altars, groves and chapels of idols in the holy shrines and the sacred places of the Israelites. They also sacrificed swine flesh and other unclean beasts just to defile the religion of the black Judeans. This is exactly the same strategy that was adopted by Cecil Rhodes when he colonised Zimbabwe and the reason why his remains were interred at Matopo Hills where Njelele, the holiest shrine of the Mwari religion is sited. These were the measures the Greeks took to obliterate the culture and way of life of the blacks of Judea – a culture which for centuries had been revered in the Persian Empire. It was a culture of the chosen people of the living God. The Greeks wished for the black Israelites of Judea to completely forget their laws and ordinances. Not long after this, there came what was known as the ‘Abomination that caused desolation’. This was when idol altars were built on the holy places of Jerusalem. The books of the laws that would later make up the Bible were burnt and anyone found with them was put to death. The Israelites had prophesied this turning point in their history and, as such, most chose to endure in their beliefs rather than convert to the religions of the white man. As a result, many of them were ruthlessly killed. Circumcision was outlawed and punishable by death. People who refused to eat swine meat were killed. The Greeks also introduced many more abominations that persuaded most of the blacks of Judea to flee to Africa and many other places. This account of Greek misconduct and cruelty can be found in the Apocryphal books of Maccabeus. It challenges the notion that Greeks were world civilisers and exposes them as barbarians and heathens at the time of their prime. No wonder, therefore, why the Apocrypha was excluded from the Bible by the white man. ‘Apocrypha’ is another word for ‘apocalypse,’ which means revelations. The likes of Daniel of the Bible had earlier on prophesied the downfall of the Persian Empire and the rise of Greece. He dreamt of a two – horned ram which was defeated by a one – horned goat. The ram symbolised the kingdoms of Media and Persia, while the goat symbolised Greece. The goat first had one horn, but suddenly the horn was taken away and in its place came out four. Alexander led Greece to victory over the great kingdom of Persia and the subsequent division of the kingdom into four on Alexander’s death was the fulfillment of Daniels prophecy, according to the Israelites. The story of Alexander and the Greek conquests is in itself a biblical account of the Old Testament which was deliberately left out of the present day English version of the Bible possibly because of his black origins and his general liking of black people. Western civilisation is always attributed to Greece and yet the Israelites in the Bible portray Greeks as destroyers of civilisation and heathens. It is quite clear that whites seek to hide the facts about the history of mankind by presenting black achievements as their own. The books that contain biblical stories of people like Alexander were censored out by the British in the 19th century. A few centuries earlier in the 1600s, King James of England and Scotland, who was black, had translated the Bible from Hebrew, Greek and Latin into English and made it a crime punishable by imprisonment or heavy fine for anyone to publish the English Bible without the books of the Apocrypha. Books of the Apocrypha help us understand why terms like ‘Jew’ and ‘Roman’ suddenly show up in the New Testament yet they are nowhere to be found in the Old Testament. The black Israelites of the land of Judea were referred to as Jews in Apocryphal books like Maccabeus. The Romans were confirmed as Edomites and of the seed of Abraham and were also known as the Lacedemonians. Because of the above reason, all the books of the Apocrypha (including the story of Alexander) are still in the Roman Catholic Bible. The removal of the Apocrypha leaves about a 300-year gap between the last books of the Old Testament and the books of the New Testament in the English Bible. The missing link is this story of how whites (Greeks and later the Romans) came to be world powers before the time of Yahshua (Jesus). With the Apocryphal books included, the bible works as an almost complete historical document, documenting events stretching from the beginning of time and to the aftermath of Yahshua. This brings us to the current era (CE) which is often marked as AD (after death) because the West started counting the years from the year Yahshua was crucified.	1,666	ENGLISH	1
Biography of Mary Cassatt In 1904, Mary Cassatt was awarded the Légion d’honneur for her services to art. One of only a handful of women who achieved success during the Impressionist movement, Cassatt bought a new perspective to the scenes of ordinary life that the impressionists sought to depict. Strong-willed and experimental, she focussed entirely on female figures, showing them as worthy subjects in their own right. Despite her achievements, however, her role in Impressionism has largely been forgotten in France and much of Europe. During her life from 1844 to 1926, Cassatt challenged the expectations of what it meant to be a middle-class woman, moving to Paris and devoting her life to becoming a professional artist. She did away with the privileged, leisurely lifestyle of her family and friends, choosing not to marry in order to focus on her career. Of all the impressionists, she was the only American artist in the movement and she brought her own perspective and distinctive style to this era of French art. Cassatt refused to conform to the expectations of what a woman should be in the 19th century and in this sense, she was revolutionary. Cassatt’s world and work was defined by the women around her. The boldness of her work gives her sitters agency and independence, which is portrayed not just through her compositions but also her use of colour. 1. Cassatt's early years Cassatt was born in Allegheny City in Pennsylvania, U.S. She spent her early years in America, as well as spending five years in Europe. The Cassatts saw travel as a key component in a complete education and they insisted on taking their children to visit the most prominent capital cities in Europe. They stayed in France and Germany from 1851 to 1855 and it was here that Cassatt learned German and French. Her father, Robert Simpson Cassatt, was a wealthy stockbroker whilst her mother, Katherine Kelso Johnston, was part of a successful banking family. From an early age, Cassatt had ambitions to become a professional artist but her father greatly feared the impact that a career in art would have on his daughter. He mistrusted the morals of the male art community and was concerned about the backlash from society his family would receive if his daughter were to become an artist. At the same time, he believed that pursuing art on an amateur level was a worthwhile pastime for a young lady. Being talented at painting was considered a virtue for a society woman. This gave Cassatt some leeway to study as she wished but she signed her early works with her initials or middle name - Stevenson - to avoid scandal. Her earliest art training was from the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts which she attended from 1861-65. However, Cassatt quickly became bored of this form of education and in 1866 she left the U.S. to seek out a European education. Her interest in European art is thought to have originated in her earliest years when living abroad with her family. In the 19th century, women were forbidden to study in the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. As a result, Cassatt was forced to study privately. Undeterred, she worked with Jean-Léon Gérôme and other prominent French artists including Charles Chaplin and Thomas Couture. Her painting ‘A Mandoline Player’ was accepted to the Paris Salon in 1868. She also exhibited and successfully sold ‘Two Women Throwing Flowers During Carnival’ at the Paris Salon of 1872. In total, Cassatt had her works selected for the Salon four times. In spite of this, she was criticised for being outspoken against the Salon’s heavy-handed politics and strict conventions, which she felt, were greatly restricting. By 1874, Cassatt had chosen Paris as her permanent residence, firmly aligning her future with the impressionist movement and making clear her aims to become a prominent artist in her own right. 2. Cassatt’s Impressionism Cassatt broke from the Salon in the late 1870s when she began exhibiting at the impressionist exhibitions. She first premiered at the fourth impressionist exhibition held in 1879, also showing her work in the 1880 (fifth) and 1881 (sixth) exhibitions to follow. This acceptance into the movement had the effect of freeing her from stylistic constraints and she described how: “I accepted with joy. I began to live. At last I could work in absolute independence”. Cassatt and Degas One of Cassatt’s earliest champions was Edgar Degas. He admired her drawing and her artistic eye, which he saw as similar to his own. Degas was the first to invite Cassatt to exhibit her work at the impressionist exhibition of 1879 and the two artists became friends thanks to their shared aesthetic, focussed on striking compositional structure and asymmetry. Despite their closeness, it is necessary to question how equal the relationship was, especially in light of comments from Degas like: “I will not admit that a woman will draw so well.” Cassatt was likely a very tolerant individual: Degas was a surly and truculent individual, who revealed himself as an anti-Semite in later life. Paintings of women Whilst undoubtedly avant-garde, Cassatt’s works deviated from the other impressionists in their imagery. She depicted modern women going about their daily lives, usually backed by blocks of colour or prints. The women in her artworks stand alone, as mothers and as individuals. Referring to her mural titled ‘Modern Woman’ from 1893, one American friend asked Cassatt “in a rather huffy [affronted] tone the other day, ‘Then this is a woman apart from her relationships to man?’ I told him it was.”She was unafraid of creating images of women pursuing their own interests and spending time solely in the company of other women. It is thought that this focus on women and frequently mothers led to much of Cassatt’s work being passed over in later exhibitions of impressionist art in France. Her work was ignored due to its all-female subject matter and not recognised for her stylistic innovations. The impressionism Cassatt embraced was partly influenced by the limitations imposed on her by French society. Like her friend and contemporary, Berthe Morisot, Cassatt was not allowed to paint or even be in public spaces without a male chaperone. The consequence of such restrictions was that many of her paintings necessarily focussed on the domestic sphere. Nevertheless, she continued to experiment with painting ‘en plein air’ (outdoors), characteristic of the impressionists, as much as she could. The colour black Cassatt’s paintings often utilised a light colour palette and quick brushwork that was common to the impressionist movement. On the other hand, she did not shy away from black hues in many of her compositions, which set her apart from all of the other impressionists with the exceptions of Degas and Edouard Manet. This is most evident in works like ‘A Woman in Black at the Opera’ from 1880 where the solid black of the woman’s fashionable dress and bonnet dominates the painting and is set against the red background. She enjoyed the drama that black could create. 3. Cassatt’s drawings Some of Cassatt’s finest works are her pastel drawings. Taking inspiration from Degas, who encouraged Cassatt to do away with unnecessary details and helped to shape her work into ever more striking portraits, Cassatt experimented heavily with pastels. Introduction to pastels When she was first introduced to the medium in the 1870s, its revival was just beginning to gather momentum. Cassatt pushed pastel drawing forward, creating ever more inventive works that centred on spontaneity and contrasting colours. Indeed, many of Cassatt’s pastel drawings bring an entirely new approach to the medium. In works like ‘Mother and Child’ from 1914, Cassatt juxtaposed complementary colours in order to make her drawing richer and more intense. The greens of the background clash with the pink of the mother and baby’s flesh, touched with blue in the areas of shadow. The weight Cassatt placed on drawing, etching and pastels in turn fed into her painting style. She preferred to use bold, solid lines in her paintings rather than the broken, feathery technique common to Impressionist paintings at this time. There is also a clear evolution in Cassatt’s works, moving towards increasingly fearless styles as she pushed the boundaries of her pastels further. Cassatt and Degas’s drawings were both influenced by Japanese art. Parallels can be drawn between both artists’ vignettes of women washing, often nude or half-naked, and the bathing women common to Japanese prints. They diverge in the sensuality of their works, however. Degas built on the voyeuristic nature of Japanese art as evident in his ‘La Toilette’ series. In contrast, Cassatt’s works have a more linear quality that reduces the explicitly sexualised aspects of the works. Her abstract portrayals of unclothed women, as in ‘Woman Bathing’ from 1890-91, turn the nude bodies into studies of shapes and colour rather than seduction. Nude artworks were highly unconventional for female artists at this time. For instance, women were not permitted to draw from nude models at the Académie Julian (a highly reputable art college). Cassatt subtly subverted the social norms imposed on her by depicting her nude women in a domestic, bourgeois setting. In this way, she was able to study the female form in a semi-respectable way, using the stylised technique of Japanese art to further remove herself from the European tradition. Whilst her male contemporaries studied women in brothels and bath houses, Cassatt brought the illusion of decorum to her nudes, allowing her to paint as she wanted. 4. Cassatt’s Japanese prints In 1890, she visited an exhibition of Japanese woodcut prints in Paris and the works she saw inspired her to make her own. Using the figures of the French women who were her regular subjects, Cassatt embarked on a new style of etching. The Japanese theme of ‘ukiyo-e’, meaning the floating world, regularly depicted scenes of everyday life. Drawing on the work of the Japanese masters, including Utamaro and Toyokuni in particular, Cassatt aligned herself with this novel artistic movement in the 1890s. At the same time, she experimented with bringing her own distinct edge to her works, capturing women in their homes. The women in her prints possess the same independence as in her earlier paintings. In doing so, Cassatt was able to create a unique version of the popular Japanese prints. Her works from this period diverged from Impressionism completely. Cassatt’s enthusiastic embrace of Japanese artwork can be seen as part of a wider movement in Western art in the late 1800s, thanks to a flood of Japanese imports into the U.S. and Europe. A treaty signed in 1854 between the U.S. and Japan marked the end of Japanese isolation from the rest of the world. Consequently, Japanese culture became extremely fashionable and pervasive throughout Europe, so much so that the term ‘Japonisme’ became used to describe its influence on Western art from the 1870s onwards. However, unlike other artists famous for their Japonisme, Cassatt did not use Japanese subject matter in her works. Her scenes and models were firmly European, drawing on the European tradition of the ‘Madonna and Child’, an image that had been popular since the Renaissance period. Similarly, the clothing and arrangement of the women’s hair clearly reflected their European context. One example of this interweaving of cultural influences can be seen in ‘The Letter’ from 1890-91. The bold patterns and colours in the print borrow from Japanese prints. The personal, private act of writing a letter creates a personal story within the artwork that one can even link to Cassatt’s life as an expatriate in Paris. During this period, Cassatt also developed her own technique of etching using drypoint that she called ‘à la poupée’ or doll-like. She would trace her original sketch onto copper, as one would for making an etching, and then apply all the colours at once, using rags tied over small sticks. With the help of her printer, she would then run the plates through the press by hand. This allowed her to create the flat colour and linear style that made her prints so effective and so typical of Japonisme. Cassatt’s work shifts from a focus on form to pattern during this time. This is not only evident in her prints but also in paintings such as ‘The Child’s Bath’ from 1893. The work combines different patterns, from the fabric of the mother’s clothing to the woven rug to the print on the wall, creating a patchwork of impressions. It also has the same flattened style that is characteristic of her etchings. 5. Cassatt’s later works & legacy Due to her failing eyesight, Cassatt’s later works were somewhat limited. Having purchased a chateau in Le Mesnil-Théribus in 1894, bought with the proceeds from her art sales, Cassatt began spending more time in the countryside, splitting her time between her rural home and the Paris. Despite this move, many of Cassatt’s later works are her most daring. They exemplify the spontaneous expression that she built on through her career. In her pastels, she used broken, unblended lines to build up her compositions, at times using zig-zag and hatching to create the tones in her paintings and experimenting heavily with contrasting colours. By 1914, Cassatt was forced to stop working as a result of her eye problems. Instead, she became involved in political movements to fight for women’s right to vote. She was also able to see the rise of a group of Canadian artists who were inspired by her work. The all-female group based in Montreal became known as the Beaver Hall Group and was the first Canadian art association that championed professional women artists. Similarly, Cassatt inspired Lucy Bacon to study with the Impressionists in Paris. In her work, Cassatt confronted the traditions of the male gaze in art: her subjects are not pretty women put on display but independent actors in their own right. This daring development sets her apart from others in the Impressionist movement and is reason enough to take note of her art. However, she also innovated in both her choice of medium and style. By constantly revising and challenging her style, experimenting with pastels, Japanese prints and bold oil paintings, Cassatt enjoyed commercial successes that were out of reach to many other women artists at this time. Furthermore, as an American impressionist Cassatt had an enormous influence on developing the tastes of the American art market. She frequently sent paintings back the the U.S and encouraged her network of wealthy acquaintances to purchase Impressionist paintings. She advised them on which works to acquire and in doing so, was central to informing the collections of many prominent families. The H.O. Havemeyer Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City was almost entirely grown by Cassatt. Like her fellow female contemporaries, Cassatt’s works were largely passed over after her death thanks to the art establishment’s tendency to ignore the role of women in art. However, she enjoyed more recognition from the later 20th century onwards and is now considered to be one of the most important American expatriate artists from this era.	<urn:uuid:e7af072f-1a6b-4c47-9ca8-95434a9edba0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://impressionistarts.com/mary-cassatt-biography.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00439.warc.gz	en	0.981034	3,338	3.84375	4	[ 0.452931672334671, 0.22499588131904602, 0.44505664706230164, 0.17699302732944489, -0.3714984655380249, 0.478456974029541, 0.1799737513065338, -0.014465589076280594, 0.14150048792362213, -0.3884291350841522, 0.01582806557416916, -0.38180604577064514, 0.07782328873872757, 0.06479637324810028...	1	Biography of Mary Cassatt In 1904, Mary Cassatt was awarded the Légion d’honneur for her services to art. One of only a handful of women who achieved success during the Impressionist movement, Cassatt bought a new perspective to the scenes of ordinary life that the impressionists sought to depict. Strong-willed and experimental, she focussed entirely on female figures, showing them as worthy subjects in their own right. Despite her achievements, however, her role in Impressionism has largely been forgotten in France and much of Europe. During her life from 1844 to 1926, Cassatt challenged the expectations of what it meant to be a middle-class woman, moving to Paris and devoting her life to becoming a professional artist. She did away with the privileged, leisurely lifestyle of her family and friends, choosing not to marry in order to focus on her career. Of all the impressionists, she was the only American artist in the movement and she brought her own perspective and distinctive style to this era of French art. Cassatt refused to conform to the expectations of what a woman should be in the 19th century and in this sense, she was revolutionary. Cassatt’s world and work was defined by the women around her. The boldness of her work gives her sitters agency and independence, which is portrayed not just through her compositions but also her use of colour. 1. Cassatt's early years Cassatt was born in Allegheny City in Pennsylvania, U.S. She spent her early years in America, as well as spending five years in Europe. The Cassatts saw travel as a key component in a complete education and they insisted on taking their children to visit the most prominent capital cities in Europe. They stayed in France and Germany from 1851 to 1855 and it was here that Cassatt learned German and French. Her father, Robert Simpson Cassatt, was a wealthy stockbroker whilst her mother, Katherine Kelso Johnston, was part of a successful banking family. From an early age, Cassatt had ambitions to become a professional artist but her father greatly feared the impact that a career in art would have on his daughter. He mistrusted the morals of the male art community and was concerned about the backlash from society his family would receive if his daughter were to become an artist. At the same time, he believed that pursuing art on an amateur level was a worthwhile pastime for a young lady. Being talented at painting was considered a virtue for a society woman. This gave Cassatt some leeway to study as she wished but she signed her early works with her initials or middle name - Stevenson - to avoid scandal. Her earliest art training was from the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts which she attended from 1861-65. However, Cassatt quickly became bored of this form of education and in 1866 she left the U.S. to seek out a European education. Her interest in European art is thought to have originated in her earliest years when living abroad with her family. In the 19th century, women were forbidden to study in the École des Beaux-Arts in Paris. As a result, Cassatt was forced to study privately. Undeterred, she worked with Jean-Léon Gérôme and other prominent French artists including Charles Chaplin and Thomas Couture. Her painting ‘A Mandoline Player’ was accepted to the Paris Salon in 1868. She also exhibited and successfully sold ‘Two Women Throwing Flowers During Carnival’ at the Paris Salon of 1872. In total, Cassatt had her works selected for the Salon four times. In spite of this, she was criticised for being outspoken against the Salon’s heavy-handed politics and strict conventions, which she felt, were greatly restricting. By 1874, Cassatt had chosen Paris as her permanent residence, firmly aligning her future with the impressionist movement and making clear her aims to become a prominent artist in her own right. 2. Cassatt’s Impressionism Cassatt broke from the Salon in the late 1870s when she began exhibiting at the impressionist exhibitions. She first premiered at the fourth impressionist exhibition held in 1879, also showing her work in the 1880 (fifth) and 1881 (sixth) exhibitions to follow. This acceptance into the movement had the effect of freeing her from stylistic constraints and she described how: “I accepted with joy. I began to live. At last I could work in absolute independence”. Cassatt and Degas One of Cassatt’s earliest champions was Edgar Degas. He admired her drawing and her artistic eye, which he saw as similar to his own. Degas was the first to invite Cassatt to exhibit her work at the impressionist exhibition of 1879 and the two artists became friends thanks to their shared aesthetic, focussed on striking compositional structure and asymmetry. Despite their closeness, it is necessary to question how equal the relationship was, especially in light of comments from Degas like: “I will not admit that a woman will draw so well.” Cassatt was likely a very tolerant individual: Degas was a surly and truculent individual, who revealed himself as an anti-Semite in later life. Paintings of women Whilst undoubtedly avant-garde, Cassatt’s works deviated from the other impressionists in their imagery. She depicted modern women going about their daily lives, usually backed by blocks of colour or prints. The women in her artworks stand alone, as mothers and as individuals. Referring to her mural titled ‘Modern Woman’ from 1893, one American friend asked Cassatt “in a rather huffy [affronted] tone the other day, ‘Then this is a woman apart from her relationships to man?’ I told him it was.”She was unafraid of creating images of women pursuing their own interests and spending time solely in the company of other women. It is thought that this focus on women and frequently mothers led to much of Cassatt’s work being passed over in later exhibitions of impressionist art in France. Her work was ignored due to its all-female subject matter and not recognised for her stylistic innovations. The impressionism Cassatt embraced was partly influenced by the limitations imposed on her by French society. Like her friend and contemporary, Berthe Morisot, Cassatt was not allowed to paint or even be in public spaces without a male chaperone. The consequence of such restrictions was that many of her paintings necessarily focussed on the domestic sphere. Nevertheless, she continued to experiment with painting ‘en plein air’ (outdoors), characteristic of the impressionists, as much as she could. The colour black Cassatt’s paintings often utilised a light colour palette and quick brushwork that was common to the impressionist movement. On the other hand, she did not shy away from black hues in many of her compositions, which set her apart from all of the other impressionists with the exceptions of Degas and Edouard Manet. This is most evident in works like ‘A Woman in Black at the Opera’ from 1880 where the solid black of the woman’s fashionable dress and bonnet dominates the painting and is set against the red background. She enjoyed the drama that black could create. 3. Cassatt’s drawings Some of Cassatt’s finest works are her pastel drawings. Taking inspiration from Degas, who encouraged Cassatt to do away with unnecessary details and helped to shape her work into ever more striking portraits, Cassatt experimented heavily with pastels. Introduction to pastels When she was first introduced to the medium in the 1870s, its revival was just beginning to gather momentum. Cassatt pushed pastel drawing forward, creating ever more inventive works that centred on spontaneity and contrasting colours. Indeed, many of Cassatt’s pastel drawings bring an entirely new approach to the medium. In works like ‘Mother and Child’ from 1914, Cassatt juxtaposed complementary colours in order to make her drawing richer and more intense. The greens of the background clash with the pink of the mother and baby’s flesh, touched with blue in the areas of shadow. The weight Cassatt placed on drawing, etching and pastels in turn fed into her painting style. She preferred to use bold, solid lines in her paintings rather than the broken, feathery technique common to Impressionist paintings at this time. There is also a clear evolution in Cassatt’s works, moving towards increasingly fearless styles as she pushed the boundaries of her pastels further. Cassatt and Degas’s drawings were both influenced by Japanese art. Parallels can be drawn between both artists’ vignettes of women washing, often nude or half-naked, and the bathing women common to Japanese prints. They diverge in the sensuality of their works, however. Degas built on the voyeuristic nature of Japanese art as evident in his ‘La Toilette’ series. In contrast, Cassatt’s works have a more linear quality that reduces the explicitly sexualised aspects of the works. Her abstract portrayals of unclothed women, as in ‘Woman Bathing’ from 1890-91, turn the nude bodies into studies of shapes and colour rather than seduction. Nude artworks were highly unconventional for female artists at this time. For instance, women were not permitted to draw from nude models at the Académie Julian (a highly reputable art college). Cassatt subtly subverted the social norms imposed on her by depicting her nude women in a domestic, bourgeois setting. In this way, she was able to study the female form in a semi-respectable way, using the stylised technique of Japanese art to further remove herself from the European tradition. Whilst her male contemporaries studied women in brothels and bath houses, Cassatt brought the illusion of decorum to her nudes, allowing her to paint as she wanted. 4. Cassatt’s Japanese prints In 1890, she visited an exhibition of Japanese woodcut prints in Paris and the works she saw inspired her to make her own. Using the figures of the French women who were her regular subjects, Cassatt embarked on a new style of etching. The Japanese theme of ‘ukiyo-e’, meaning the floating world, regularly depicted scenes of everyday life. Drawing on the work of the Japanese masters, including Utamaro and Toyokuni in particular, Cassatt aligned herself with this novel artistic movement in the 1890s. At the same time, she experimented with bringing her own distinct edge to her works, capturing women in their homes. The women in her prints possess the same independence as in her earlier paintings. In doing so, Cassatt was able to create a unique version of the popular Japanese prints. Her works from this period diverged from Impressionism completely. Cassatt’s enthusiastic embrace of Japanese artwork can be seen as part of a wider movement in Western art in the late 1800s, thanks to a flood of Japanese imports into the U.S. and Europe. A treaty signed in 1854 between the U.S. and Japan marked the end of Japanese isolation from the rest of the world. Consequently, Japanese culture became extremely fashionable and pervasive throughout Europe, so much so that the term ‘Japonisme’ became used to describe its influence on Western art from the 1870s onwards. However, unlike other artists famous for their Japonisme, Cassatt did not use Japanese subject matter in her works. Her scenes and models were firmly European, drawing on the European tradition of the ‘Madonna and Child’, an image that had been popular since the Renaissance period. Similarly, the clothing and arrangement of the women’s hair clearly reflected their European context. One example of this interweaving of cultural influences can be seen in ‘The Letter’ from 1890-91. The bold patterns and colours in the print borrow from Japanese prints. The personal, private act of writing a letter creates a personal story within the artwork that one can even link to Cassatt’s life as an expatriate in Paris. During this period, Cassatt also developed her own technique of etching using drypoint that she called ‘à la poupée’ or doll-like. She would trace her original sketch onto copper, as one would for making an etching, and then apply all the colours at once, using rags tied over small sticks. With the help of her printer, she would then run the plates through the press by hand. This allowed her to create the flat colour and linear style that made her prints so effective and so typical of Japonisme. Cassatt’s work shifts from a focus on form to pattern during this time. This is not only evident in her prints but also in paintings such as ‘The Child’s Bath’ from 1893. The work combines different patterns, from the fabric of the mother’s clothing to the woven rug to the print on the wall, creating a patchwork of impressions. It also has the same flattened style that is characteristic of her etchings. 5. Cassatt’s later works & legacy Due to her failing eyesight, Cassatt’s later works were somewhat limited. Having purchased a chateau in Le Mesnil-Théribus in 1894, bought with the proceeds from her art sales, Cassatt began spending more time in the countryside, splitting her time between her rural home and the Paris. Despite this move, many of Cassatt’s later works are her most daring. They exemplify the spontaneous expression that she built on through her career. In her pastels, she used broken, unblended lines to build up her compositions, at times using zig-zag and hatching to create the tones in her paintings and experimenting heavily with contrasting colours. By 1914, Cassatt was forced to stop working as a result of her eye problems. Instead, she became involved in political movements to fight for women’s right to vote. She was also able to see the rise of a group of Canadian artists who were inspired by her work. The all-female group based in Montreal became known as the Beaver Hall Group and was the first Canadian art association that championed professional women artists. Similarly, Cassatt inspired Lucy Bacon to study with the Impressionists in Paris. In her work, Cassatt confronted the traditions of the male gaze in art: her subjects are not pretty women put on display but independent actors in their own right. This daring development sets her apart from others in the Impressionist movement and is reason enough to take note of her art. However, she also innovated in both her choice of medium and style. By constantly revising and challenging her style, experimenting with pastels, Japanese prints and bold oil paintings, Cassatt enjoyed commercial successes that were out of reach to many other women artists at this time. Furthermore, as an American impressionist Cassatt had an enormous influence on developing the tastes of the American art market. She frequently sent paintings back the the U.S and encouraged her network of wealthy acquaintances to purchase Impressionist paintings. She advised them on which works to acquire and in doing so, was central to informing the collections of many prominent families. The H.O. Havemeyer Collection in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City was almost entirely grown by Cassatt. Like her fellow female contemporaries, Cassatt’s works were largely passed over after her death thanks to the art establishment’s tendency to ignore the role of women in art. However, she enjoyed more recognition from the later 20th century onwards and is now considered to be one of the most important American expatriate artists from this era.	3,274	ENGLISH	1
NEWCASTLE WITCHES HISTORY AND FOLKLORE What we know about the Newcastle Witchcraft Trials of 1649 and 1650 The Newcastle witchcraft trials occurred in a period of economic, political and religious unrest. Political and religious turmoil was caused by defeat for the Scottish army in the Second English Civil War and the rise to power of the radical Kirk party in Scotland, who attempted to create a "godly society", a puritan society rooting out witches and other offenders in. They passed a new Witchcraft Act in 1649 and encouraged local presbyteries to seek out witches. The intense period of witch hunting began in 1649 and continued into 1650, being largely confined to the Lowlands, particularly Lothian and Fife, but spilled over into northern England, where Scottish witch prickers were active. The period of rule by the Kirk party ended when Cromwell led an army across the border in July 1650. Some 612 records of accusations of witchcraft are known for Scotland in the years 1649 and 1650 and over 300 witches were executed in the trials. Most of these were in ad-hoc courts that had a much higher execution rate than those run by professional lawyers. Most of the witches were women and most of these of relatively low social status. The Devil featured relatively rarely in witchcraft trials, which were mainly concerned with perceived harm through witchcraft. Most of the trials were initiated by the local minister and his session or consistory, who aimed to obtain proof or a confession from the accused person. Accused witches would often name other persons who were then tested for the crime, widening the hunt. The Chancellor, John Campbell, 1st Earl of Loudoun expressed reservations about these confessions. In the later stages of the hunt the Parliament and its representative body the Committee of Estates supervised the trials more closely, and instead of issuing commissions of judiciary to local gentlemen, it began to send Sheriff Deputes to hold special justice courts in the localities. After 1650 witch trials entered a new phase, with a reduction in the total number of trails and the abandonment of local trials in favour of mixed central-local trials. Scottish witchcraft trials were notable for their use of pricking of a Devil's mark through which they could not feel pain. This process could turn into a form of torture in which a subject could be repeatedly pricked until they confessed. Newcastle during this time was known as Newcastle of Northumberland and was part of Scotland for a short term, In Scottland they did not just hang witches they would burn on pires. It was a very dark time in history. HOW THE NEWCASTLE WITCH TRIALS TRULY STARTED! Its believed that the Newcastle witchcraft trails started at Inverkeithing where the puritan minister Walter Bruce demonstrated an interest in witch hunting, being suspended for preaching that witches walked among the common people, they cursed and killed cattle and fed infant babies to the devil and lay with him and they too ate the flesh of dead children, this seems to have came from France who Scotland was very close with. At the execution of witch's Margaret Henderson, Lady Pittadro in March 1649 in Scotland his preaching of the witches, the rhetoric spilled out and stories of witches spread far and wide. If witches were real then to the folk of these areas it explained the famine, the worst winter in decades that had killed off the crops, the wars and plague that had ravished this holly land. This interest seems to have spread to neighbouring parishes Including Berwick upon Tweed, Holly Island and Newcastle along with Gateshead. It actually took hold of Northumberland and Scotland and many would die, some were witches others criminals and beggars others had land and riches. It allowed the greedy to strike and accuse a person and then take the land, homes or ships they owned along with live stock and crops. Some 612 records of accusations of witchcraft are known for Scotland, Northumberland including Newcastle and Gateshead in the years 1649 and 1650. Of these most, 399, are from 1649. They include 556 named persons and another 243 unnamed persons. According to Christine Larner, 1649 was "the year which may have seen the greatest number of executions in the whole of Scottish witch-hunting". More than 300 witches were executed in the trials, with as many as 200 executions in Lothian alone. The Newcastle witch trials involved 30 persons, claiming 20 victims, and was the last intense hunt in England. Out of the 30 witches there were confessions of demonic pacts in the court records and the Devil was an important figure in the witch hunt, where several women confessed to associations with the Devil, renouncing their baptism and even to having sexual intercourse with him. As a result of these confessions five women were rapidly executed in 1649. Although 30 witches were accused in Newcastle after the town crier was sent into the town by the council and asked for anyone with an accusation against thy neighbours to step forward. Many were accused but they settled on 30 people in total, 28 would die from either starvation, suicide or torture with 14 women and 1 man hung on the Newcastle Town Moor as witches. HOW THEY GOT THE EVIDENCE OF WITCHCRAFT Scottish and Newcastle witchcraft trials were notable for their use of pricking, in which a suspect's skin was pierced with needles, pins and bodkins as it was believed that they would possess a Devil's mark through which they could not feel pain. The witches' mark (not to be confused with a witches' teat) indicated that an individual was a witch. The witches' mark and the devil's mark are both terms applied to essentially the same mark. The beliefs about the mark differ depending on the trial location and the accusation made against the witch. Evidence of the witches' mark is found earliest in the 16th century, and reached its peak in 1645, then essentially disappeared by 1700. The Witch or Devil's mark was believed to be the permanent marking of the Devil on his initiates to seal their obedience and service to him. He created the mark by raking his claw across their flesh, or by making a blue or red brand using a hot iron. Sometimes, the mark was believed to have been left by the Devil licking the individual. The Devil was thought to mark the individual at the end of nocturnal initiation rites. The witches' teat was a raised bump somewhere on a witch's body. It is often depicted as having a wart-like appearance. and quite large. Thie pricking was often undertaken by professional witch prickers, such as John Kincaid, who was active in finding marks on the Newcastle witches but this is still debated, he found marks on Patrick Watson and Manie Halieburton at Dirleton Castle before June 1649 and George Cathie, who was operating in Lanarkshire in November 1649. The Newcastle trials began after the town council engaged a Scottish witch pricker, who was paid 20 shilling for each guilty witch he found, but his methods raised the suspicions of the English Lieutenant-Colonel Hobson and he was eventually forced to flee. from the court house. According to Newcastle notable Ralph Gairdiner, he continued to operate in Northumberland, was arrested, escaped and fled to Scotland. There he was again arrested and later executed, having admitted to having caused the death through fraudulent means of 220 women accused of witchcraft in Scotland and England. He was eventually captured in Edinburgh and dragged through the streets and stoned before being hung at the gallows. You can see the haunted artefact, a Scottish witch prickers needle on the tour. In Newcastle they would hold the witch in front of a jury of men only, there undergarments would be removed along with any under skirts and they would then claim that if this person was a witch they would have no blood as the devil himself had suckled her dry through the witches teat. They would then insert the needle in to the witches thigh and remove the needle. If she did not bleed, her dress would be placed back down and found guilty of witchcraft. On the 16th witch the judge was changed out and the English Lieutenant-Colonel Hobson who had medical knowledge through his time in the military seen how the witch pricker claimed to be John Kincaid and his aid were basically conning the court. By lifting the witches frock and baring her private parts to a all male jury the women would become embarrassed and her face would flush, the pricker would insert the needle and with a lack of blood lose due to body naturally redirecting the blood she was found guilty but the English Lieutenant-Colonel Hobson called John Kincaid's, Cuthbert Nicholson, Thomas Shovel's bluff and challenged the men, they fled by stealing horses and hid within Northumberland where John Kincaid was almost arrested again but fled only to be caught 2 years later in Scotland and killed. HOW THEY TORTURED THE WITCH'S Pricking could turn into a form of torture in which a subject could be repeatedly pricked or stabbed until they confessed; many of the confessions gained in the 1649–50 trials were obtained in this way. In 1649 the Committee of Estates passed an Act that prevented torture in cases of witchcraft, but it was probably never implemented. In 1652, after the English occupation, it was reported in England that six witches had been whipped, their feet and heads burnt with lighted candles while they were strung up by their thumbs with their hands behind their backs. This, like most torture, was carried out by local clergy and magistrates without a warrant from the central courts, usually in trying to obtain an initial confession. B. P. Levack argues that torture was more common in "panic years" like 1649, leading to a growth of hunts as confessions and the names of other potential witches were obtained. In the case of Newcastle witch Mathew Bonner who was accused of the typical crimes of the time, intended to shock such as shape shifting into a black cat where he would lure children away for ritual sacrifice, he was accused of necromancery, child abduction and killing children to summon demons along with grave robbery. Mathew Bonner, sometimes called Bulmer in his case was forced to walk barefoot over broken brick while been led by a mule in the dungeon at the Newcastle Keep Jail. He was tortured like this for 24 hours. Eventually his bones came out of his feet. Some women were sodomised while locked up, others beaten. Often people see witch dunkings as execution on a chair but it was actually classed a torture. This is where a witch in some cases had there thumbs tied to there big tows, crouched over and then dunked to see if they would float, if a witch floated then the witch was guilty, if the witch sand and drowned then the witch was innocent. This took place in Washington Tyne and Wear during the 1649 trials where 3 women were killed in the village pond. A dunking chair was used to lower the witch into the water and see if she could survive. Another form was to place a witch in a large barrel of holly water, a crucifix was placed over the barrel embedded in to the gate that sealed the barrel closed. If the witch pushed her face against it or kissed the cross then she was Innocent but if she /he did not the witch would drown and be found guilty and her body burned “John Willis of Ipswich upon his Oath said, that he this Deponent was in Newcastle six months ago, and there he saw one Ann Watson a witch drove through the streets by an Officer of the same Corporation, holding a rope in his hand, the other end fastened to an Engine called the Branks, which is like a Crown, it being of Iron, which was muzzled over the head and face, with a great gap or tongue of Iron forced into her mouth, which forced the blood out. And that is the punishment which the Magistrates do inflict upon chiding, and scolding women, and that he hath often seen the like done to others". THE NAMES WE SHALL ALWAYS REMEMBER The Names of the Executed Newcastle witches, note how we have two males very similar but listed separately, some believe it is two males executed and other scholars believe it is the same man. We sadly do not have the full list of names of every witch accused. Many committed suicide, others died of starvation, caught illness and died in prison. We know 30 were arrested and 28 actually died. NOTE: Only 14 witches were hung, sometimes it reads as if we hung 14 women and 1 man, that man was included in the 14 executions of 1649 and 1650 witchcraft trials. We also see that the press and other sites claim the date 1650 however, all deaths are listed as 1649. Mathew Bulmer was Hanged and burnt at Newcastle in 1649 Isab' Brown Hung for witchcraft, Newcastle town moor 1649 Margrit Maddeson Hung for witchcraft, Newcastle town moor 1649 Ann Watson Hung for witchcraft and using magick to have her wicked way with a lord, Executed Newcastle Town moor 1649 Ellenor Henderson Accused of witchcraft, Newcastle town moor 1649 Ellenor Rogers Hung for witchcraft, Newcastle town moor 1649 Ellsabeth Dobson Hung for witchcraft, Newcastle town moor 1649 Mathew Bonner Executed for wizzadry and shape shifting, Newcastle 1649 Mrs Ellsabeth Anderson Hung for witchcraft, Newcastle town moor 1649 Jane Hunter Hung for witchcraft, Newcastle town moor 1649 Jane Koupling Hung for witchcraft, Newcastle town moor 1649 Margrit Brown Hung for witchcraft, Newcastle town moor 1649 Margrit Moffit Hung for witchcraft, Newcastle town moor 1649 Ellenor Robson Hung for witchcraft & blood letting, Newcastle town moor 1649 Margaret Brown surrendered to God and cursed that some remarkable sign might be seen at the time of her execution, to give evidence of her innocence, and as soon as ever she was turned off the Ladder, her blood gushed out upon the people to admiration of the beholders. Somehow the rope opened up her jugular vane and she covered the crowd in blood as she span. She was the cut down but we can't say if she was innocent or not. VISIT THE NEWCASTLE WITCHERY TOUR! Once upon a time in a land scored by war, where rats with flees of death ran freely from the frigates that heaved within the riverside as ladies of the night consorted with pirates and smugglers. Puritan men seen fit to brand your flesh as a fornicator or hang and burn you as a witch. Overshadowed by the Castle in ruins through war and the sounds of dog fights and bear bating along with illegal taverns fill the dank rotten air from the raw sewage that fills the sides of streets, the smoke from the chimney stacks weighs heavy upon your chest as you flee, scared in the night. You have been accused of giving yourself to the devil, that you were seen dancing with foul beasts that danced on there hind legs like cats and dogs, goats as crows flocked above you, you were seen dancing naked by a neighbour who heard you denounce your baptism and call out to the dark man who the bestowed gifts of the witch upon you, you then had a witches familiar who suckled your blood and aided you in sinister ways. Your now been hunted like a dog with no where to hide, face either burning or hanging but first torture... This is a true story, hear all about this and so much more during The Newcastle Witchery Tour. Click Here to find out more!	<urn:uuid:eb36db55-2877-49be-b2d0-7d5674181a91>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.newcastleghostwalks.co.uk/newcastle-witches-history	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598217.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120081337-20200120105337-00462.warc.gz	en	0.980796	3,245	3.859375	4	[ -0.09278739243745804, 0.29415813088417053, 0.00891932938247919, 0.12911292910575867, -0.026876959949731827, 0.19008582830429077, 0.2373569756746292, -0.13019917905330658, -0.03705168515443802, -0.000056668068282306194, -0.4268885850906372, -0.23934857547283173, -0.2933884859085083, 0.04582...	11	NEWCASTLE WITCHES HISTORY AND FOLKLORE What we know about the Newcastle Witchcraft Trials of 1649 and 1650 The Newcastle witchcraft trials occurred in a period of economic, political and religious unrest. Political and religious turmoil was caused by defeat for the Scottish army in the Second English Civil War and the rise to power of the radical Kirk party in Scotland, who attempted to create a "godly society", a puritan society rooting out witches and other offenders in. They passed a new Witchcraft Act in 1649 and encouraged local presbyteries to seek out witches. The intense period of witch hunting began in 1649 and continued into 1650, being largely confined to the Lowlands, particularly Lothian and Fife, but spilled over into northern England, where Scottish witch prickers were active. The period of rule by the Kirk party ended when Cromwell led an army across the border in July 1650. Some 612 records of accusations of witchcraft are known for Scotland in the years 1649 and 1650 and over 300 witches were executed in the trials. Most of these were in ad-hoc courts that had a much higher execution rate than those run by professional lawyers. Most of the witches were women and most of these of relatively low social status. The Devil featured relatively rarely in witchcraft trials, which were mainly concerned with perceived harm through witchcraft. Most of the trials were initiated by the local minister and his session or consistory, who aimed to obtain proof or a confession from the accused person. Accused witches would often name other persons who were then tested for the crime, widening the hunt. The Chancellor, John Campbell, 1st Earl of Loudoun expressed reservations about these confessions. In the later stages of the hunt the Parliament and its representative body the Committee of Estates supervised the trials more closely, and instead of issuing commissions of judiciary to local gentlemen, it began to send Sheriff Deputes to hold special justice courts in the localities. After 1650 witch trials entered a new phase, with a reduction in the total number of trails and the abandonment of local trials in favour of mixed central-local trials. Scottish witchcraft trials were notable for their use of pricking of a Devil's mark through which they could not feel pain. This process could turn into a form of torture in which a subject could be repeatedly pricked until they confessed. Newcastle during this time was known as Newcastle of Northumberland and was part of Scotland for a short term, In Scottland they did not just hang witches they would burn on pires. It was a very dark time in history. HOW THE NEWCASTLE WITCH TRIALS TRULY STARTED! Its believed that the Newcastle witchcraft trails started at Inverkeithing where the puritan minister Walter Bruce demonstrated an interest in witch hunting, being suspended for preaching that witches walked among the common people, they cursed and killed cattle and fed infant babies to the devil and lay with him and they too ate the flesh of dead children, this seems to have came from France who Scotland was very close with. At the execution of witch's Margaret Henderson, Lady Pittadro in March 1649 in Scotland his preaching of the witches, the rhetoric spilled out and stories of witches spread far and wide. If witches were real then to the folk of these areas it explained the famine, the worst winter in decades that had killed off the crops, the wars and plague that had ravished this holly land. This interest seems to have spread to neighbouring parishes Including Berwick upon Tweed, Holly Island and Newcastle along with Gateshead. It actually took hold of Northumberland and Scotland and many would die, some were witches others criminals and beggars others had land and riches. It allowed the greedy to strike and accuse a person and then take the land, homes or ships they owned along with live stock and crops. Some 612 records of accusations of witchcraft are known for Scotland, Northumberland including Newcastle and Gateshead in the years 1649 and 1650. Of these most, 399, are from 1649. They include 556 named persons and another 243 unnamed persons. According to Christine Larner, 1649 was "the year which may have seen the greatest number of executions in the whole of Scottish witch-hunting". More than 300 witches were executed in the trials, with as many as 200 executions in Lothian alone. The Newcastle witch trials involved 30 persons, claiming 20 victims, and was the last intense hunt in England. Out of the 30 witches there were confessions of demonic pacts in the court records and the Devil was an important figure in the witch hunt, where several women confessed to associations with the Devil, renouncing their baptism and even to having sexual intercourse with him. As a result of these confessions five women were rapidly executed in 1649. Although 30 witches were accused in Newcastle after the town crier was sent into the town by the council and asked for anyone with an accusation against thy neighbours to step forward. Many were accused but they settled on 30 people in total, 28 would die from either starvation, suicide or torture with 14 women and 1 man hung on the Newcastle Town Moor as witches. HOW THEY GOT THE EVIDENCE OF WITCHCRAFT Scottish and Newcastle witchcraft trials were notable for their use of pricking, in which a suspect's skin was pierced with needles, pins and bodkins as it was believed that they would possess a Devil's mark through which they could not feel pain. The witches' mark (not to be confused with a witches' teat) indicated that an individual was a witch. The witches' mark and the devil's mark are both terms applied to essentially the same mark. The beliefs about the mark differ depending on the trial location and the accusation made against the witch. Evidence of the witches' mark is found earliest in the 16th century, and reached its peak in 1645, then essentially disappeared by 1700. The Witch or Devil's mark was believed to be the permanent marking of the Devil on his initiates to seal their obedience and service to him. He created the mark by raking his claw across their flesh, or by making a blue or red brand using a hot iron. Sometimes, the mark was believed to have been left by the Devil licking the individual. The Devil was thought to mark the individual at the end of nocturnal initiation rites. The witches' teat was a raised bump somewhere on a witch's body. It is often depicted as having a wart-like appearance. and quite large. Thie pricking was often undertaken by professional witch prickers, such as John Kincaid, who was active in finding marks on the Newcastle witches but this is still debated, he found marks on Patrick Watson and Manie Halieburton at Dirleton Castle before June 1649 and George Cathie, who was operating in Lanarkshire in November 1649. The Newcastle trials began after the town council engaged a Scottish witch pricker, who was paid 20 shilling for each guilty witch he found, but his methods raised the suspicions of the English Lieutenant-Colonel Hobson and he was eventually forced to flee. from the court house. According to Newcastle notable Ralph Gairdiner, he continued to operate in Northumberland, was arrested, escaped and fled to Scotland. There he was again arrested and later executed, having admitted to having caused the death through fraudulent means of 220 women accused of witchcraft in Scotland and England. He was eventually captured in Edinburgh and dragged through the streets and stoned before being hung at the gallows. You can see the haunted artefact, a Scottish witch prickers needle on the tour. In Newcastle they would hold the witch in front of a jury of men only, there undergarments would be removed along with any under skirts and they would then claim that if this person was a witch they would have no blood as the devil himself had suckled her dry through the witches teat. They would then insert the needle in to the witches thigh and remove the needle. If she did not bleed, her dress would be placed back down and found guilty of witchcraft. On the 16th witch the judge was changed out and the English Lieutenant-Colonel Hobson who had medical knowledge through his time in the military seen how the witch pricker claimed to be John Kincaid and his aid were basically conning the court. By lifting the witches frock and baring her private parts to a all male jury the women would become embarrassed and her face would flush, the pricker would insert the needle and with a lack of blood lose due to body naturally redirecting the blood she was found guilty but the English Lieutenant-Colonel Hobson called John Kincaid's, Cuthbert Nicholson, Thomas Shovel's bluff and challenged the men, they fled by stealing horses and hid within Northumberland where John Kincaid was almost arrested again but fled only to be caught 2 years later in Scotland and killed. HOW THEY TORTURED THE WITCH'S Pricking could turn into a form of torture in which a subject could be repeatedly pricked or stabbed until they confessed; many of the confessions gained in the 1649–50 trials were obtained in this way. In 1649 the Committee of Estates passed an Act that prevented torture in cases of witchcraft, but it was probably never implemented. In 1652, after the English occupation, it was reported in England that six witches had been whipped, their feet and heads burnt with lighted candles while they were strung up by their thumbs with their hands behind their backs. This, like most torture, was carried out by local clergy and magistrates without a warrant from the central courts, usually in trying to obtain an initial confession. B. P. Levack argues that torture was more common in "panic years" like 1649, leading to a growth of hunts as confessions and the names of other potential witches were obtained. In the case of Newcastle witch Mathew Bonner who was accused of the typical crimes of the time, intended to shock such as shape shifting into a black cat where he would lure children away for ritual sacrifice, he was accused of necromancery, child abduction and killing children to summon demons along with grave robbery. Mathew Bonner, sometimes called Bulmer in his case was forced to walk barefoot over broken brick while been led by a mule in the dungeon at the Newcastle Keep Jail. He was tortured like this for 24 hours. Eventually his bones came out of his feet. Some women were sodomised while locked up, others beaten. Often people see witch dunkings as execution on a chair but it was actually classed a torture. This is where a witch in some cases had there thumbs tied to there big tows, crouched over and then dunked to see if they would float, if a witch floated then the witch was guilty, if the witch sand and drowned then the witch was innocent. This took place in Washington Tyne and Wear during the 1649 trials where 3 women were killed in the village pond. A dunking chair was used to lower the witch into the water and see if she could survive. Another form was to place a witch in a large barrel of holly water, a crucifix was placed over the barrel embedded in to the gate that sealed the barrel closed. If the witch pushed her face against it or kissed the cross then she was Innocent but if she /he did not the witch would drown and be found guilty and her body burned “John Willis of Ipswich upon his Oath said, that he this Deponent was in Newcastle six months ago, and there he saw one Ann Watson a witch drove through the streets by an Officer of the same Corporation, holding a rope in his hand, the other end fastened to an Engine called the Branks, which is like a Crown, it being of Iron, which was muzzled over the head and face, with a great gap or tongue of Iron forced into her mouth, which forced the blood out. And that is the punishment which the Magistrates do inflict upon chiding, and scolding women, and that he hath often seen the like done to others". THE NAMES WE SHALL ALWAYS REMEMBER The Names of the Executed Newcastle witches, note how we have two males very similar but listed separately, some believe it is two males executed and other scholars believe it is the same man. We sadly do not have the full list of names of every witch accused. Many committed suicide, others died of starvation, caught illness and died in prison. We know 30 were arrested and 28 actually died. NOTE: Only 14 witches were hung, sometimes it reads as if we hung 14 women and 1 man, that man was included in the 14 executions of 1649 and 1650 witchcraft trials. We also see that the press and other sites claim the date 1650 however, all deaths are listed as 1649. Mathew Bulmer was Hanged and burnt at Newcastle in 1649 Isab' Brown Hung for witchcraft, Newcastle town moor 1649 Margrit Maddeson Hung for witchcraft, Newcastle town moor 1649 Ann Watson Hung for witchcraft and using magick to have her wicked way with a lord, Executed Newcastle Town moor 1649 Ellenor Henderson Accused of witchcraft, Newcastle town moor 1649 Ellenor Rogers Hung for witchcraft, Newcastle town moor 1649 Ellsabeth Dobson Hung for witchcraft, Newcastle town moor 1649 Mathew Bonner Executed for wizzadry and shape shifting, Newcastle 1649 Mrs Ellsabeth Anderson Hung for witchcraft, Newcastle town moor 1649 Jane Hunter Hung for witchcraft, Newcastle town moor 1649 Jane Koupling Hung for witchcraft, Newcastle town moor 1649 Margrit Brown Hung for witchcraft, Newcastle town moor 1649 Margrit Moffit Hung for witchcraft, Newcastle town moor 1649 Ellenor Robson Hung for witchcraft & blood letting, Newcastle town moor 1649 Margaret Brown surrendered to God and cursed that some remarkable sign might be seen at the time of her execution, to give evidence of her innocence, and as soon as ever she was turned off the Ladder, her blood gushed out upon the people to admiration of the beholders. Somehow the rope opened up her jugular vane and she covered the crowd in blood as she span. She was the cut down but we can't say if she was innocent or not. VISIT THE NEWCASTLE WITCHERY TOUR! Once upon a time in a land scored by war, where rats with flees of death ran freely from the frigates that heaved within the riverside as ladies of the night consorted with pirates and smugglers. Puritan men seen fit to brand your flesh as a fornicator or hang and burn you as a witch. Overshadowed by the Castle in ruins through war and the sounds of dog fights and bear bating along with illegal taverns fill the dank rotten air from the raw sewage that fills the sides of streets, the smoke from the chimney stacks weighs heavy upon your chest as you flee, scared in the night. You have been accused of giving yourself to the devil, that you were seen dancing with foul beasts that danced on there hind legs like cats and dogs, goats as crows flocked above you, you were seen dancing naked by a neighbour who heard you denounce your baptism and call out to the dark man who the bestowed gifts of the witch upon you, you then had a witches familiar who suckled your blood and aided you in sinister ways. Your now been hunted like a dog with no where to hide, face either burning or hanging but first torture... This is a true story, hear all about this and so much more during The Newcastle Witchery Tour. Click Here to find out more!	3,427	ENGLISH	1
Cassini-Huygens was a dual mission that was sent to Saturn. It was launched in 1997 and was active until 2017 when it burned up in Saturn's atmosphere. However, in the 13 years that it was active, it has provided scientists with loads of information. They are still studying it and publishing papers based on their understandings. When Cassini moved closer to Saturn in its final year, it observed intricate details on the rings of Saturn. The findings have been published in three papers in the journal Science. The more that scientists are looking into the rings, the more they see. "The new observations give scientists an even more intimate view of the rings than they had before, and each examination reveals new complexities," said Cassini Project Scientist Linda Spilker, based at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California. Saturn’s rings were named in the order they were discovered. What is more interesting is that there are tiny moons embedded in Saturn’s rings and they interact with the particles around them. Cassini was in space for 20 years and has provided information that scientists are still studying and understanding. The outer-most ring, F-ring, was formed by impacts that struck the ring at the same time. The ring is formed by objects that orbit Saturn and they are not just debris that just crashed into the ring and stayed there. Another observation made was that there is a lot of texture in the belts. In an interview with Space.com, Spilker said, "What's fascinating is as we got ever closer, we just saw more and more structure in the rings.” They are clumpy, smooth and streaky. They have patterns and pop out of the images. The reason they formed this way is not clear and Spilker wants to revisit Saturn in the future so that they can get answers to all their questions. All the observations that Cassini provided are still helping scientists understand Saturn, its rings, and moons but also the solar system on the whole. Cassini's dive into the atmosphere was intentional. It was running out of fuel and the scientists managing the probe decided to take the plunge while gathering as much information as possible. It sent information about Saturn's atmosphere as it fell. The probe was handled by three agencies — NASA, European Space Agency and Italian Space Agency as well as the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Caltech, USA.	<urn:uuid:79d26438-68bd-4c59-8462-abc8faf7227e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://ucnews.in/news/NASAs-Cassini-mission-data-is-still-helping-scientists-understand-the-rings-of--Saturn/1238689436058540.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694071.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126230255-20200127020255-00013.warc.gz	en	0.983236	487	3.859375	4	[ -0.11092376708984375, 0.09407641738653183, 0.047326140105724335, -0.14135804772377014, -0.4557451605796814, 0.10800399631261826, -0.007423386909067631, 0.24181059002876282, -0.016297152265906334, -0.34817880392074585, -0.08165103942155838, -0.19466499984264374, 0.20974865555763245, 0.67555...	2	Cassini-Huygens was a dual mission that was sent to Saturn. It was launched in 1997 and was active until 2017 when it burned up in Saturn's atmosphere. However, in the 13 years that it was active, it has provided scientists with loads of information. They are still studying it and publishing papers based on their understandings. When Cassini moved closer to Saturn in its final year, it observed intricate details on the rings of Saturn. The findings have been published in three papers in the journal Science. The more that scientists are looking into the rings, the more they see. "The new observations give scientists an even more intimate view of the rings than they had before, and each examination reveals new complexities," said Cassini Project Scientist Linda Spilker, based at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California. Saturn’s rings were named in the order they were discovered. What is more interesting is that there are tiny moons embedded in Saturn’s rings and they interact with the particles around them. Cassini was in space for 20 years and has provided information that scientists are still studying and understanding. The outer-most ring, F-ring, was formed by impacts that struck the ring at the same time. The ring is formed by objects that orbit Saturn and they are not just debris that just crashed into the ring and stayed there. Another observation made was that there is a lot of texture in the belts. In an interview with Space.com, Spilker said, "What's fascinating is as we got ever closer, we just saw more and more structure in the rings.” They are clumpy, smooth and streaky. They have patterns and pop out of the images. The reason they formed this way is not clear and Spilker wants to revisit Saturn in the future so that they can get answers to all their questions. All the observations that Cassini provided are still helping scientists understand Saturn, its rings, and moons but also the solar system on the whole. Cassini's dive into the atmosphere was intentional. It was running out of fuel and the scientists managing the probe decided to take the plunge while gathering as much information as possible. It sent information about Saturn's atmosphere as it fell. The probe was handled by three agencies — NASA, European Space Agency and Italian Space Agency as well as the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Caltech, USA.	488	ENGLISH	1
Until today, many “folktales” were adopted in textbook as the closer text for children. But, there is case that “folktales” have a political power and used by a man of power. For example, “The three years hill” which was used by colonial education. This story was forced to change by Governor-General of Chosen. In detail, to add following sentence; It is a really shameful thing for highly civilized citizens to blindly believe in superstitions. Government-General of Chosen adding to depictions about iconoclasm and Japanization by using falktales. This Therefore, the principal aim of this study was to clear these questions; How “folktales” were used by education and Why “folktales” were used by education. To solve these research question, this study carry out analytical works by following the steps described below; 1) To clarify historical background about “folktales” and to define what literary works were called “folktales”. 2) To consider what problems and argument did “folktales” cause by materializing. In detail, to pick up 1981’s issue about attacking “folktales” in the textbook by main political party. 3) To compare recreated “folktales” with original “folktales”, especially “Kasako-Zizo”, “YU-zuru” and “Berodashi-chonma” witch were attacked. 4) To clear about a real property about “folktales”. The results of my investigation are as follows: 1) “Folktales” were outstanding media because they changed their presentations within a history of literature transition. 2) “Folktales” were regarded as ideology media by main political party because writers were regarded as socialist. 3) “Folktales” were structural media to have many motifs. 4) “Folktales” were tools which are easy to operate by writer and a man of power.	<urn:uuid:38ed1119-751c-4c43-9639-16642753dd9c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ir.lib.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/en/journal/BullGradSchEducHU-Part1/--/65/article/41601	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00268.warc.gz	en	0.98289	445	3.40625	3	[ -0.25655773282051086, 0.1653389036655426, 0.24052922427654266, -0.11453443020582199, 0.2881802022457123, 0.18178293108940125, -0.3670228123664856, 0.17491337656974792, -0.3177317976951599, 0.18371857702732086, 0.04861634969711304, 0.26565980911254883, -0.014448109082877636, 0.1001254990696...	4	Until today, many “folktales” were adopted in textbook as the closer text for children. But, there is case that “folktales” have a political power and used by a man of power. For example, “The three years hill” which was used by colonial education. This story was forced to change by Governor-General of Chosen. In detail, to add following sentence; It is a really shameful thing for highly civilized citizens to blindly believe in superstitions. Government-General of Chosen adding to depictions about iconoclasm and Japanization by using falktales. This Therefore, the principal aim of this study was to clear these questions; How “folktales” were used by education and Why “folktales” were used by education. To solve these research question, this study carry out analytical works by following the steps described below; 1) To clarify historical background about “folktales” and to define what literary works were called “folktales”. 2) To consider what problems and argument did “folktales” cause by materializing. In detail, to pick up 1981’s issue about attacking “folktales” in the textbook by main political party. 3) To compare recreated “folktales” with original “folktales”, especially “Kasako-Zizo”, “YU-zuru” and “Berodashi-chonma” witch were attacked. 4) To clear about a real property about “folktales”. The results of my investigation are as follows: 1) “Folktales” were outstanding media because they changed their presentations within a history of literature transition. 2) “Folktales” were regarded as ideology media by main political party because writers were regarded as socialist. 3) “Folktales” were structural media to have many motifs. 4) “Folktales” were tools which are easy to operate by writer and a man of power.	409	ENGLISH	1
We don’t know the name of Lot’s wife, but we do know that she was a wife, and mother ... and when she looked back at the rain of sulfur and fire upon the city from which she had just escaped, she turned into n’tziv melach – a pillar of salt. The outcry from Sodom and Gomorrah is great and their crime is very grave. And God’s messengers have come to assess and ultimately save Lot and his family. Lot is told of the forthcoming destruction to save his family. Upon hearing his warnings, his sons-in-law do not take him seriously. As dawn breaks on the morning of destruction, Lot is unsure, and the messenger takes Lot and his wife and two unmarried daughters by the hand to outside the city. They are told to “flee for your life and do not look back” (Gen. 19:17). “As the sun rose over Sodom and Gomorrah, sulfur and fire rained down from the heavens, overthrowing these cities and the entire plain, all the cities’ inhabitants and what grew in the soil. And his wife looked behind him and became a pillar of salt” (Gen. 24-26). What would you have done? Could you really not look back? What must the destruction have sounded and looked like? And what about her married daughters that stayed behind? Might there have been grandchildren? How could you not look back? Perhaps we can read Lot’s wife turning into a pillar of salt as a metaphor for what happens when a person becomes so focused on the sadness of the past – what is behind them – that their tears become overwhelming, turning them into, so to speak, a pillar of salt. The art exhibit at the Roe Green Gallery at the Jewish Federation of Cleveland features the work of Israeli artist Sigalit Landau. She has taken garments and objects and soaked them in the Dead Sea – the Salt Sea – until they become salt-encrusted shapes. There are those who also become so “soaked” in the tears of their sadness that they cannot move forward in their lives. N’tziv melach – a pillar of salt – is Torah’s description. In Hebrew, n’tziv is in the same family of words, meaning to stand ready or a monument. A gravestone is called a matzevah. It is possible Lot’s wife serves as a gravestone, a monument, to the terrible loss of life. As we revisit the monument, we are indeed sad for her loss, and the loss of so many. We shed tears, set a small stone to acknowledge our visit, and then, looking forward, step into our future. Enid C. Lader is the rabbi at Beth Israel-The West Temple in Cleveland.	<urn:uuid:7662acfe-b536-4010-a366-8c34338b1200>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://m.clevelandjewishnews.com/features/religious_life/torah/grieve-but-don-t-become-a-monument-to-loss/article_7a9cee6a-04bd-11ea-94e7-43b61e0bf850.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00558.warc.gz	en	0.983108	596	3.546875	4	[ -0.23985201120376587, 0.27393871545791626, -0.3349449038505554, -0.21822407841682434, 0.0911942720413208, 0.47578945755958557, 0.8401986360549927, -0.1446872055530548, -0.09234178066253662, -0.3379223346710205, 0.04579857736825943, -0.0172255989164114, 0.22122547030448914, 0.04702666029334...	2	We don’t know the name of Lot’s wife, but we do know that she was a wife, and mother ... and when she looked back at the rain of sulfur and fire upon the city from which she had just escaped, she turned into n’tziv melach – a pillar of salt. The outcry from Sodom and Gomorrah is great and their crime is very grave. And God’s messengers have come to assess and ultimately save Lot and his family. Lot is told of the forthcoming destruction to save his family. Upon hearing his warnings, his sons-in-law do not take him seriously. As dawn breaks on the morning of destruction, Lot is unsure, and the messenger takes Lot and his wife and two unmarried daughters by the hand to outside the city. They are told to “flee for your life and do not look back” (Gen. 19:17). “As the sun rose over Sodom and Gomorrah, sulfur and fire rained down from the heavens, overthrowing these cities and the entire plain, all the cities’ inhabitants and what grew in the soil. And his wife looked behind him and became a pillar of salt” (Gen. 24-26). What would you have done? Could you really not look back? What must the destruction have sounded and looked like? And what about her married daughters that stayed behind? Might there have been grandchildren? How could you not look back? Perhaps we can read Lot’s wife turning into a pillar of salt as a metaphor for what happens when a person becomes so focused on the sadness of the past – what is behind them – that their tears become overwhelming, turning them into, so to speak, a pillar of salt. The art exhibit at the Roe Green Gallery at the Jewish Federation of Cleveland features the work of Israeli artist Sigalit Landau. She has taken garments and objects and soaked them in the Dead Sea – the Salt Sea – until they become salt-encrusted shapes. There are those who also become so “soaked” in the tears of their sadness that they cannot move forward in their lives. N’tziv melach – a pillar of salt – is Torah’s description. In Hebrew, n’tziv is in the same family of words, meaning to stand ready or a monument. A gravestone is called a matzevah. It is possible Lot’s wife serves as a gravestone, a monument, to the terrible loss of life. As we revisit the monument, we are indeed sad for her loss, and the loss of so many. We shed tears, set a small stone to acknowledge our visit, and then, looking forward, step into our future. Enid C. Lader is the rabbi at Beth Israel-The West Temple in Cleveland.	569	ENGLISH	1
By April 9th, 1865, Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia was in a state of desperation. Union forces had occupied both Petersburg and the Confederate capital of Richmond and Lee's army was forced west in a last-ditch attempt to join forces with Confederate General Joseph Johnston in North Carolina. The Confederate government had fled toward Danville in southern Virginia. Lee's Last Stand; Surrender on Generous Terms Union forces under Ulysses S. Grant cut off Lee's retreat at the village of Appomattox Courthouse. Lee originally thought his pursuers only consisted of cavalry, but when it became clear the cavalry was backed by two infantry corps, and that his weak, tired, and bedraggled army was in no shape to continue the fight, Lee had no choice but to surrender. His only option was to negotiate as favorable terms as possible for this army. On the afternoon of April 9th, Lee surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia to General Grant in the parlor of the Wilmer McLean House. Surrender terms authorized by Ulysses S. Grant were generous. No soldiers in Lee's army would be imprisoned or punished. Officers were allowed to keep their pistols and soldiers were allowed to keep their horses. In addition, Grant provided rations and food to the starving Confederate army. Lee Surrenders to Grant Although there would be several small skirmishes following Lee's surrender, the Confederacy was defeated and within the next two months, it would be completely dissolved.	<urn:uuid:20a3ec13-6527-478a-ae58-77083a4c2329>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://mrnussbaum.com/surrender-at-appomattox-courthouse	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00221.warc.gz	en	0.988527	306	3.578125	4	[ -0.6610305905342102, 0.37224143743515015, 0.13415397703647614, 0.12772448360919952, 0.24608679115772247, 0.08349165320396423, -0.029762184247374535, -0.3910207152366638, -0.27133795619010925, 0.09005188941955566, 0.30710622668266296, -0.08355189859867096, 0.49186384677886963, 0.07833662629...	2	By April 9th, 1865, Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia was in a state of desperation. Union forces had occupied both Petersburg and the Confederate capital of Richmond and Lee's army was forced west in a last-ditch attempt to join forces with Confederate General Joseph Johnston in North Carolina. The Confederate government had fled toward Danville in southern Virginia. Lee's Last Stand; Surrender on Generous Terms Union forces under Ulysses S. Grant cut off Lee's retreat at the village of Appomattox Courthouse. Lee originally thought his pursuers only consisted of cavalry, but when it became clear the cavalry was backed by two infantry corps, and that his weak, tired, and bedraggled army was in no shape to continue the fight, Lee had no choice but to surrender. His only option was to negotiate as favorable terms as possible for this army. On the afternoon of April 9th, Lee surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia to General Grant in the parlor of the Wilmer McLean House. Surrender terms authorized by Ulysses S. Grant were generous. No soldiers in Lee's army would be imprisoned or punished. Officers were allowed to keep their pistols and soldiers were allowed to keep their horses. In addition, Grant provided rations and food to the starving Confederate army. Lee Surrenders to Grant Although there would be several small skirmishes following Lee's surrender, the Confederacy was defeated and within the next two months, it would be completely dissolved.	312	ENGLISH	1
For millennia, the Vuntut Gwitchin of Old Crow travelled their traditional territory on foot or by water. Life was attuned to the seasons: when the fish were running in the river, when the caribou were migrating, and when berries and other plants were ready to harvest. When European traders entered their land and built trading posts, life became a little more focussed on places where people could trade furs and other products from the land for manufactured goods and items such as tea, tobacco and sugar. When the Exhams moved to Old Crow, air travel was becoming commonplace but people still lived a largely traditional life on the land, tied to the seasons and the annual movements of the salmon and caribou. Fetching water and cutting wood for heat and cooking was part of daily life. There was a grocery store, but much of the food still came from the land. In spring, families trapped muskrat at the Old Crow Flats and the whole town became involved in the hunt when the caribou were migrating near the town. With little outside contact, social activities were important to the community. Dances, visiting and working together to harvest food were characteristic of life in Old Crow. People had family ties up and down the river in little camps and settlements from Alaska, through the Yukon and into the Northwest Territories. Every arrival of a plane, supply boat, or visiting family was a social event. Visiting was an important activity for the Anglican minister as well as community elders. In this way people kept in touch with neighbours, worked together on sewing projects, passed on stories and traditions, and learned when anyone in the community needed help. The gallery below is a selection of photos from Beth-Ann Exham's collection. Stephen Frost catching muskrat for the "cat" skinning contest. The women of Old Crow pull together in the July 1st tug-o-war against the men of the village. . Exham Coll.	<urn:uuid:46ac0308-9d93-4291-8ac9-f3d6ed2fbd6a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.exhamexhibit.com/daily-life	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00461.warc.gz	en	0.983285	406	3.625	4	[ 0.27615034580230713, 0.2906206250190735, 0.444280743598938, 0.05875594541430473, 0.17012116312980652, -0.057712770998477936, 0.17885303497314453, -0.03652253374457359, -0.8341844081878662, 0.19150517880916595, -0.21101266145706177, -0.3621595501899719, 0.025389552116394043, 0.1315988153219...	6	For millennia, the Vuntut Gwitchin of Old Crow travelled their traditional territory on foot or by water. Life was attuned to the seasons: when the fish were running in the river, when the caribou were migrating, and when berries and other plants were ready to harvest. When European traders entered their land and built trading posts, life became a little more focussed on places where people could trade furs and other products from the land for manufactured goods and items such as tea, tobacco and sugar. When the Exhams moved to Old Crow, air travel was becoming commonplace but people still lived a largely traditional life on the land, tied to the seasons and the annual movements of the salmon and caribou. Fetching water and cutting wood for heat and cooking was part of daily life. There was a grocery store, but much of the food still came from the land. In spring, families trapped muskrat at the Old Crow Flats and the whole town became involved in the hunt when the caribou were migrating near the town. With little outside contact, social activities were important to the community. Dances, visiting and working together to harvest food were characteristic of life in Old Crow. People had family ties up and down the river in little camps and settlements from Alaska, through the Yukon and into the Northwest Territories. Every arrival of a plane, supply boat, or visiting family was a social event. Visiting was an important activity for the Anglican minister as well as community elders. In this way people kept in touch with neighbours, worked together on sewing projects, passed on stories and traditions, and learned when anyone in the community needed help. The gallery below is a selection of photos from Beth-Ann Exham's collection. Stephen Frost catching muskrat for the "cat" skinning contest. The women of Old Crow pull together in the July 1st tug-o-war against the men of the village. . Exham Coll.	398	ENGLISH	1
Homo sapiens were the most advance form of humans about 2.5 million years ago. To adapt to many of the geographical changes in the world they had to think more. They created tools, at first using sticks and rocks but then progressing to use bones and wood. Life was not easy back then and they also had to use several other ways to survive. One of the ways to survive that they used was agriculture. Only a few areas in the world actually used agriculture but eventually it started to spread. It began in places like North America and Europe. Several other areas used it as well though. Metalworking also helped in the advancement of agriculture. Agriculture led to many more people being fed which in turn led to more people doing different jobs. As all of this happened it led to changes, which led to Civilizations. These civilizations formed in five different sites. Four of these sights arose along the shores of the great rivers, yet they all formed independently of the others. As all of these civilizations were arising, there were still more ways to survive needed. A couple of these were hunting and foraging (gathering). There were advantages and disadvantages to this. For example a disadvantage would be that the food supply would often decrease rapidly which would lead to people moving more often. An advantage, however, would be that there was more free time left over after short workdays. As movement to different areas was underway and the food supply kept decreasing women learned to start planting seeds. This is how agriculture was started. Agriculture led to many more jobs to be done and this lead to people wanting to invent. One of the items…	<urn:uuid:a3a7655f-e63a-4cf0-9fec-e2a162f2ce14>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.majortests.com/essay/Peopling-Of-The-Earth-530788.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00529.warc.gz	en	0.990198	333	3.796875	4	[ -0.13914740085601807, 0.16422992944717407, 0.33450761437416077, 0.11096622794866562, 0.2262660413980484, -0.08576441556215286, -0.10960838198661804, 0.057799823582172394, -0.16157224774360657, 0.1551242470741272, 0.13294127583503723, -0.17011968791484833, 0.09774789214134216, -0.0619900263...	1	Homo sapiens were the most advance form of humans about 2.5 million years ago. To adapt to many of the geographical changes in the world they had to think more. They created tools, at first using sticks and rocks but then progressing to use bones and wood. Life was not easy back then and they also had to use several other ways to survive. One of the ways to survive that they used was agriculture. Only a few areas in the world actually used agriculture but eventually it started to spread. It began in places like North America and Europe. Several other areas used it as well though. Metalworking also helped in the advancement of agriculture. Agriculture led to many more people being fed which in turn led to more people doing different jobs. As all of this happened it led to changes, which led to Civilizations. These civilizations formed in five different sites. Four of these sights arose along the shores of the great rivers, yet they all formed independently of the others. As all of these civilizations were arising, there were still more ways to survive needed. A couple of these were hunting and foraging (gathering). There were advantages and disadvantages to this. For example a disadvantage would be that the food supply would often decrease rapidly which would lead to people moving more often. An advantage, however, would be that there was more free time left over after short workdays. As movement to different areas was underway and the food supply kept decreasing women learned to start planting seeds. This is how agriculture was started. Agriculture led to many more jobs to be done and this lead to people wanting to invent. One of the items…	330	ENGLISH	1
Did the 1914 Christmas Truce Really Happen? Every Christmas season, the media fills with heartwarming stories of holiday cheer. None is more ubiquitous than the famous 1914 Christmas Truce, the story of British and German soldiers in World War I who set their rifles aside and stepped out of the trenches for an unprecedented moment of mutual good will. They sang Christmas carols and shared warm drinks, and even played a game of football (soccer to you Americans) — an element of the story repeated more often than any other — said to have been won by the Germans with a score of 3-2. It's the kind of story that we all want to hear so much that many of us never think to wonder how much truth there is behind it. Such an event would stand in glowing contrast to the other memories from World War I. It was a terrible war, in large part because of where it fell in the timeline of weapons technology. We didn't yet have the ways to kill so quickly and efficiently as we did in World War II, yet we'd found ways to be even bloodier since the days of swords and arrows. World War I was the war of chlorine gas, mustard gas, and bayonets: you could die slowly and brutally at close range or far away. Whenever it was warm enough that the snow wasn't causing frostbite, the mud was deep enough to make every little task laborious, to pack every scratch with infectious bacteria, and to fill every boot with trench foot. We have more than enough documentary evidence to know that the 1914 Christmas Truce did indeed happen to some degree. We have many personal accounts from the men who were there, in multiple languages. Nobody pretends the truce was universal; it was mainly a matter of nationalities. There was deep, long-standing distrust between the Germans and the French; consequently, there was almost no fraternization between these two sides. German animosity with the Russians was even worse. For the British, however, it was a different matter. Germany had not invaded Britain. Many German soldiers had lived in Britain and spoke the language. Circumstances found them on opposite sides in this conflict, but their actual differences were minimal. Nevertheless, there is still plenty of room for skepticism about the stories told today. And in what part of the story does our skepticism uncover pseudohistory? Not, as we might expect, in the part that portrays men peacefully shaking hands and sharing Christmas cheer; but in the part of the story that frames this as all that different from their normal day. It turns out that the 1914 Christmas Truce was only marginally more peaceful at a time in the war when fraternization — at least between the British and the Germans — was commonplace. To understand this, let's set the stage for Christmas 1914. World War I is best known for its trench warfare, and this reputation is well deserved. Pull up any map of World War I and you'll see a wavy 750km line that represents the Western Front, the fronts being named relative to the primary aggressor, Germany. That line starts at the English Channel, cuts down through a corner of Belgium, and winds a wavy line gouging a great chunk out of France, then curves back toward Germany and goes all the way south to Switzerland. To the east of this line were the Germans, and to the west were the French, British, and Belgians, plus scatterings of their allies. This line was established very quickly, in the first three months of war, and was to last — almost unaltered — for three years, until the Allies finally started pushing the Germans back out of France. During those years, the trenches developed into semi-permanent fortifications. In November of 1914, only a few months into the war, the Germans gave up on their last great attempt to push the front westward, which was the First Battle of Ypres. They couldn't make any headway. Seeing this, the German chief of staff, General Erich von Falkenhayn, decided the war was unwinnable. This was the point at which organized major offensives on both sides basically stopped. From the end of November 1914 and into the opening months of 1915, the Western Front was relatively quiet. The British stayed in their trenches and the Germans stayed in theirs. Everyone hoped the war was essentially over. And despite plenty of casualties on both sides up until this point, the worst parts of trench warfare hadn't happened yet. Although non-lethal tear gas had been used by both sides since the beginning of the war, it wasn't until April 1915 that the first use of deadly chlorine gas appeared. If we were forced to draw a single line between when the war was merely bloody and when it became truly barbaric, this was it. By the time of Christmas 1914, the kind of hatred that only chlorine gas can inspire did not yet exist in the war. Not even the mud — so often and prominently mentioned as one of the worst parts of the trench war — had made its first big appearance yet. As Alan Wakefield at London's Imperial War Museum put it: And thus, the Christmas season of 1914 found the Western Front in an apathetic stalemate. Troops wiled away their days in the trenches, officially still under orders to fight, yet the generals held back as the bureaucrats hoped for a diplomatic end to the hostilities. Many hoped the worst was behind them and they might all be going home soon. Listen to this diary excerpt from German soldier Gottfried Rinker, translated into English, from December 1st, nearly a month before the Christmas truce: Tony Ashworth's book Trench Warfare, 1914-1918: The Live and Let Live System recounts many, many such tales; including one section of the line where there was a strict 30-minute truce every evening for both sides to deliver food. Compounding the British and German soldiers' already-existing proclivity for mutual non-aggression were a number of high-profile international calls for a truce, especially for a Christmas truce. None of these carried more weight than that of Pope Benedict XV, perhaps the world's most influential and most active opponent throughout the war he described as "the suicide of civilized Europe." In December, he made a special plea to all the nations involved "that the guns may fall silent at least upon the night the angels sang." His epistle drew no official notice, but among the men in the trenches, it solidified what was destined to happen anyway. On Christmas Eve day, every British soldier received a card from King George V and a small brass box of gifts from Princess Mary. The Germans as well received gift boxes from home. While French, Belgian, and Russian troops continued patrols along their parts of the line and skirmished with their German counterparts, British and German parts of the line were still. Hardly a shot was fired all day. Christmas Eve was quiet, and the night was clear. "It was a Christmas card Christmas eve," wrote one British soldier. "There was white beautiful moonlight, frost on the ground — almost white everywhere." The singing began on both sides, in many locations; schnapps, brandy, and cognac were plentiful. Some traditional carols of both nations were to the same tune; the British sang "O Come All Ye Faithful" while the Germans sang "Adeste Fideles", and the British sang "Silent Night" while the Germans joined in with "Stille Nacht". Eventually the soldiers transformed themselves into boys awaiting Santa Claus, and turned in for the night. It was a scene that was repeated the length of the British and German lines. About those football matches? Innumerable anecdotes tell of makeshift balls, empty "bully beef" cans, and anything else close to round being kicked about. Football was a national pastime for both countries, then as now. But so far as games sufficiently organized for scores to have been kept, it's not very likely and no first-hand accounts exist. There were no goals and no record of even a single proper ball, and certainly nothing like a flat surface on the cratered, snowy landscape. It hardly mattered. The formality of any football hijinks is scarcely a crucial aspect of what happened that December day. And then the war resumed, with a malevolent new character in which civilians were bombed and torpedoed, and troops were burned and gassed, and there were no more Christmas truces. The 1914 Christmas Truce was not a moment where soldiers laid their weapons aside and let their humanity triumph over their orders. Modern popular tellings of the tale giving it that characterization do it a disservice; they portray it merely as a heartwarming anecdote. It was much more. It was the peak of a great wave of native humanitarianism, a rejection of a war thrust upon men who had no part in it. It was what might have been, and what can always be, wherever men follow their hearts. Cite this article: Copyright ©2020 Skeptoid Media, Inc. All Rights Reserved.	<urn:uuid:47d53d3c-b279-475d-955b-265f4a00cde8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://skeptoid.com/episodes/4498	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593937.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118193018-20200118221018-00451.warc.gz	en	0.981861	1,857	3.46875	3	[ 0.1633579581975937, 0.4051594138145447, 0.1488034725189209, -0.08705758303403854, 0.23455514013767242, 0.08118264377117157, 0.014429578557610512, 0.3244580030441284, 0.19631770253181458, -0.20456770062446594, 0.14489081501960754, -0.05294489115476608, 0.15338249504566193, 0.480927944183349...	4	Did the 1914 Christmas Truce Really Happen? Every Christmas season, the media fills with heartwarming stories of holiday cheer. None is more ubiquitous than the famous 1914 Christmas Truce, the story of British and German soldiers in World War I who set their rifles aside and stepped out of the trenches for an unprecedented moment of mutual good will. They sang Christmas carols and shared warm drinks, and even played a game of football (soccer to you Americans) — an element of the story repeated more often than any other — said to have been won by the Germans with a score of 3-2. It's the kind of story that we all want to hear so much that many of us never think to wonder how much truth there is behind it. Such an event would stand in glowing contrast to the other memories from World War I. It was a terrible war, in large part because of where it fell in the timeline of weapons technology. We didn't yet have the ways to kill so quickly and efficiently as we did in World War II, yet we'd found ways to be even bloodier since the days of swords and arrows. World War I was the war of chlorine gas, mustard gas, and bayonets: you could die slowly and brutally at close range or far away. Whenever it was warm enough that the snow wasn't causing frostbite, the mud was deep enough to make every little task laborious, to pack every scratch with infectious bacteria, and to fill every boot with trench foot. We have more than enough documentary evidence to know that the 1914 Christmas Truce did indeed happen to some degree. We have many personal accounts from the men who were there, in multiple languages. Nobody pretends the truce was universal; it was mainly a matter of nationalities. There was deep, long-standing distrust between the Germans and the French; consequently, there was almost no fraternization between these two sides. German animosity with the Russians was even worse. For the British, however, it was a different matter. Germany had not invaded Britain. Many German soldiers had lived in Britain and spoke the language. Circumstances found them on opposite sides in this conflict, but their actual differences were minimal. Nevertheless, there is still plenty of room for skepticism about the stories told today. And in what part of the story does our skepticism uncover pseudohistory? Not, as we might expect, in the part that portrays men peacefully shaking hands and sharing Christmas cheer; but in the part of the story that frames this as all that different from their normal day. It turns out that the 1914 Christmas Truce was only marginally more peaceful at a time in the war when fraternization — at least between the British and the Germans — was commonplace. To understand this, let's set the stage for Christmas 1914. World War I is best known for its trench warfare, and this reputation is well deserved. Pull up any map of World War I and you'll see a wavy 750km line that represents the Western Front, the fronts being named relative to the primary aggressor, Germany. That line starts at the English Channel, cuts down through a corner of Belgium, and winds a wavy line gouging a great chunk out of France, then curves back toward Germany and goes all the way south to Switzerland. To the east of this line were the Germans, and to the west were the French, British, and Belgians, plus scatterings of their allies. This line was established very quickly, in the first three months of war, and was to last — almost unaltered — for three years, until the Allies finally started pushing the Germans back out of France. During those years, the trenches developed into semi-permanent fortifications. In November of 1914, only a few months into the war, the Germans gave up on their last great attempt to push the front westward, which was the First Battle of Ypres. They couldn't make any headway. Seeing this, the German chief of staff, General Erich von Falkenhayn, decided the war was unwinnable. This was the point at which organized major offensives on both sides basically stopped. From the end of November 1914 and into the opening months of 1915, the Western Front was relatively quiet. The British stayed in their trenches and the Germans stayed in theirs. Everyone hoped the war was essentially over. And despite plenty of casualties on both sides up until this point, the worst parts of trench warfare hadn't happened yet. Although non-lethal tear gas had been used by both sides since the beginning of the war, it wasn't until April 1915 that the first use of deadly chlorine gas appeared. If we were forced to draw a single line between when the war was merely bloody and when it became truly barbaric, this was it. By the time of Christmas 1914, the kind of hatred that only chlorine gas can inspire did not yet exist in the war. Not even the mud — so often and prominently mentioned as one of the worst parts of the trench war — had made its first big appearance yet. As Alan Wakefield at London's Imperial War Museum put it: And thus, the Christmas season of 1914 found the Western Front in an apathetic stalemate. Troops wiled away their days in the trenches, officially still under orders to fight, yet the generals held back as the bureaucrats hoped for a diplomatic end to the hostilities. Many hoped the worst was behind them and they might all be going home soon. Listen to this diary excerpt from German soldier Gottfried Rinker, translated into English, from December 1st, nearly a month before the Christmas truce: Tony Ashworth's book Trench Warfare, 1914-1918: The Live and Let Live System recounts many, many such tales; including one section of the line where there was a strict 30-minute truce every evening for both sides to deliver food. Compounding the British and German soldiers' already-existing proclivity for mutual non-aggression were a number of high-profile international calls for a truce, especially for a Christmas truce. None of these carried more weight than that of Pope Benedict XV, perhaps the world's most influential and most active opponent throughout the war he described as "the suicide of civilized Europe." In December, he made a special plea to all the nations involved "that the guns may fall silent at least upon the night the angels sang." His epistle drew no official notice, but among the men in the trenches, it solidified what was destined to happen anyway. On Christmas Eve day, every British soldier received a card from King George V and a small brass box of gifts from Princess Mary. The Germans as well received gift boxes from home. While French, Belgian, and Russian troops continued patrols along their parts of the line and skirmished with their German counterparts, British and German parts of the line were still. Hardly a shot was fired all day. Christmas Eve was quiet, and the night was clear. "It was a Christmas card Christmas eve," wrote one British soldier. "There was white beautiful moonlight, frost on the ground — almost white everywhere." The singing began on both sides, in many locations; schnapps, brandy, and cognac were plentiful. Some traditional carols of both nations were to the same tune; the British sang "O Come All Ye Faithful" while the Germans sang "Adeste Fideles", and the British sang "Silent Night" while the Germans joined in with "Stille Nacht". Eventually the soldiers transformed themselves into boys awaiting Santa Claus, and turned in for the night. It was a scene that was repeated the length of the British and German lines. About those football matches? Innumerable anecdotes tell of makeshift balls, empty "bully beef" cans, and anything else close to round being kicked about. Football was a national pastime for both countries, then as now. But so far as games sufficiently organized for scores to have been kept, it's not very likely and no first-hand accounts exist. There were no goals and no record of even a single proper ball, and certainly nothing like a flat surface on the cratered, snowy landscape. It hardly mattered. The formality of any football hijinks is scarcely a crucial aspect of what happened that December day. And then the war resumed, with a malevolent new character in which civilians were bombed and torpedoed, and troops were burned and gassed, and there were no more Christmas truces. The 1914 Christmas Truce was not a moment where soldiers laid their weapons aside and let their humanity triumph over their orders. Modern popular tellings of the tale giving it that characterization do it a disservice; they portray it merely as a heartwarming anecdote. It was much more. It was the peak of a great wave of native humanitarianism, a rejection of a war thrust upon men who had no part in it. It was what might have been, and what can always be, wherever men follow their hearts. Cite this article: Copyright ©2020 Skeptoid Media, Inc. All Rights Reserved.	1,909	ENGLISH	1
The Story of a Mathematical Circle for Preschoolers introduces a programming language called Kid (p100). The language is a set of cards with symbols representing actions, such as Move Forward and Turn Left. Children have to arrange the cards to instruct a card robot to move about on a grid. Oxygen and Ossicones has done something similar, and I had been meaning to try my own version for a while. I even got as far as making my own cards, but hadn't actually played with it. So I was very pleased when my my 5 year old got Bits & Bytes for Christmas. The aim of the game is to move your character (Bit, Byte, Data or Perl) from their starting position to the home planet of RAM. Each turn, you move your character by showing one of four movement cards. The grid you move on consists of around 60 face down cards. As you move forward you reveal the cards, which may allow you move, block you, or send you back to your starting spot. Our first game was very quick and not much happened. Maybe because I hadn't shuffled the cards enough, we only revealed wall and blank cards. Despite this, my 5 year old loved it and we immediately played again. For the second game I changed the grid layout, moving the planet from the middle to the opposite end from our two characters. I also gave the cards a good shuffle and made sure the cards we didn't use were blank (so we were more likely to hit non-blank cards). This time, the game was a lot more fun, and we encountered bugs and the dreaded CPU (which sends everyone back to the start). ... we found an infinite loop bug in game. For the third game, I made the grid longer and narrower, pushing the planet even further out of reach. This time we found an infinite loop bug in the game. I was one space from winning, when I uncovered the CPU, which sent us both back to out starting spots. Because of the arrangement of walls, I got back to the path to the planet one space ahead my son. However, to reach the planet and win, I had to go around the CPU. My five year old couldn't overtake me, but he could land on the CPU and send us both back to the beginning. There was no way for him to win, but there was also no way to stop him stopping me from winning. It was quite an interesting lesson in how computers can go wrong. In the end, I went a different way, and he able to win. I later realised that you are supposed to turn all the cards face down when you hit the CPU card. That wouldn't necessarily affect the outcome, we'd just have to rely on our memories. The next day, I read about the advanced rules on the website, so when he asked to play again, we gave them a go. In this version of the game, you put down as many move cards as you want on your turn. These represent your program, which you then run by moving your character step by step according to the cards until you hit a wall or bug. If you do, then you go back to the beginning and it's the other player's turn. Their rules say you flip the cards back over after your turn, but we left them visible so we could concentrate on programming. This version of the game feels like a much better simulation of programming because you "write your program" as a series of instructions, and then run it to see if it works. It is also more a challenge, as you have to visualise where your character will be as you're writing your program. My son found it quite tricky. His most common mistake was to forget that when you turn left or right your character doesn't move a square, just change its orientation. Most of the times when he made a mistake, I pointed it out, which maybe I should have resisted. A few times I let him run a program I knew was wrong, so he could see his character wonder off in the wrong direction. In those cases I let him have another go, so he didn't get too frustrated about making mistakes. The picture shows our game near towards the end. At the bottom is my "program" to get my character from the bottom right of the grid to the planet. We were very unlucky and planet was almost completely walled in. To speed up the game I removed the CPU cards after we'd revealed them, but it still took us a long time. It would have required 25 moves for my son's character to get to the planet, travelling around most of the board. Another good thing about these rules is that you can demonstrates the advantage of formatting your code to be more readable by organising your move forward cards into groups. When we played it a second time, I removed the CPU cards as they didn't seem to make sense for this game. I also made sure that at least four of the eight cards around the planet where blank (though this meant that there were more walls near the start This time my son played while I acted as the computer, running his programs. Rather than use the cards, he decided to write out his code using arrows. I thought this was a nice adaptation as it was quicker and even more like writing code. He did cheat a little by using the arrows to point the direction the character should move rather than have the character change orientation. Another adaptation he introduced was to end the code with the word 'win', which is similar how some languages have an END command to indicate the end of the program. This worked beautifully as a delimiter when he wrote one program after another with no spaces. The first thing to say is that my 5 year old loves this game and wanted to play it again and again. When I had other things to do, he used the cards to invent his own games. I found the game was pretty enjoyable, enough to play quite a few games. I like the mechanic of using face down cards as a board because it makes adapting the game very easy. The game was occasionally frustrating because of the walls. The rules say that if you are completely blocked in you can remove an obstacle, but you can spend many turns charting every corner of your world before finding all routes are blocked. I didn't want to reduce the number of walls too much as then the game is over too quickly. I wonder if we could introduce a card that allows you to cross a wall (but you can only use it if there is a wall in front of you). In terms of introducing programming concepts, I'm a pretty sceptical. The website says that because the planet is called RAM and the antagonist is called CPU "...children learn by association and understand how computers actually work", which seems optimistic. Having said that, my son did ask what bits and bytes meant, so I was able to attempt to explain binary numbers. I found that the simple version of the game only had a very tenuous connection to programming, though it was fun to play. The advanced rules are much better for introducing the idea of writing a set of step-by-step instructions for a computer to follow. And there was value in both writing the program and being the computer interpreting the program. For a real introduction the programming concepts, I think the Kid language is much better - having for loops and if statements. I know there are function gems, which can work like if statements, but they seemed a bit tacked on and unsatisfactory, so I didn't try. I should probably try them before I write them off. The most valuable thing about the game was that it really inspired my son. He kept wanting to play, and invented his own games using the cards. Afterwards, I went to the library and got an introduction to coding book, which explains how to use Scratch and the turtle library in Python. He was really excited about Scratch, though I had to do most of the work. At one point, he asked when we were going to play the game. Apparently he thought that programming meant playing a game like Bits & Bytes. I said that there wasn't any game unless we made one ourselves. Then he really wanted to make a game...	<urn:uuid:a83b7cac-6f9e-443e-b64f-b2200a1e0564>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://petercollingridge.co.uk/blog/recreational-maths-young-children/game-review-bits-and-bytes/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00422.warc.gz	en	0.987254	1,687	3.265625	3	[ -0.5511043071746826, -0.23765349388122559, -0.08009912073612213, -0.3941103219985962, -0.5390576124191284, 0.12298636883497238, -0.1471600979566574, 0.12072388827800751, 0.253971129655838, 0.2821010649204254, 0.10423055291175842, -0.051835279911756516, 0.06650005280971527, 0.03990551456809...	3	The Story of a Mathematical Circle for Preschoolers introduces a programming language called Kid (p100). The language is a set of cards with symbols representing actions, such as Move Forward and Turn Left. Children have to arrange the cards to instruct a card robot to move about on a grid. Oxygen and Ossicones has done something similar, and I had been meaning to try my own version for a while. I even got as far as making my own cards, but hadn't actually played with it. So I was very pleased when my my 5 year old got Bits & Bytes for Christmas. The aim of the game is to move your character (Bit, Byte, Data or Perl) from their starting position to the home planet of RAM. Each turn, you move your character by showing one of four movement cards. The grid you move on consists of around 60 face down cards. As you move forward you reveal the cards, which may allow you move, block you, or send you back to your starting spot. Our first game was very quick and not much happened. Maybe because I hadn't shuffled the cards enough, we only revealed wall and blank cards. Despite this, my 5 year old loved it and we immediately played again. For the second game I changed the grid layout, moving the planet from the middle to the opposite end from our two characters. I also gave the cards a good shuffle and made sure the cards we didn't use were blank (so we were more likely to hit non-blank cards). This time, the game was a lot more fun, and we encountered bugs and the dreaded CPU (which sends everyone back to the start). ... we found an infinite loop bug in game. For the third game, I made the grid longer and narrower, pushing the planet even further out of reach. This time we found an infinite loop bug in the game. I was one space from winning, when I uncovered the CPU, which sent us both back to out starting spots. Because of the arrangement of walls, I got back to the path to the planet one space ahead my son. However, to reach the planet and win, I had to go around the CPU. My five year old couldn't overtake me, but he could land on the CPU and send us both back to the beginning. There was no way for him to win, but there was also no way to stop him stopping me from winning. It was quite an interesting lesson in how computers can go wrong. In the end, I went a different way, and he able to win. I later realised that you are supposed to turn all the cards face down when you hit the CPU card. That wouldn't necessarily affect the outcome, we'd just have to rely on our memories. The next day, I read about the advanced rules on the website, so when he asked to play again, we gave them a go. In this version of the game, you put down as many move cards as you want on your turn. These represent your program, which you then run by moving your character step by step according to the cards until you hit a wall or bug. If you do, then you go back to the beginning and it's the other player's turn. Their rules say you flip the cards back over after your turn, but we left them visible so we could concentrate on programming. This version of the game feels like a much better simulation of programming because you "write your program" as a series of instructions, and then run it to see if it works. It is also more a challenge, as you have to visualise where your character will be as you're writing your program. My son found it quite tricky. His most common mistake was to forget that when you turn left or right your character doesn't move a square, just change its orientation. Most of the times when he made a mistake, I pointed it out, which maybe I should have resisted. A few times I let him run a program I knew was wrong, so he could see his character wonder off in the wrong direction. In those cases I let him have another go, so he didn't get too frustrated about making mistakes. The picture shows our game near towards the end. At the bottom is my "program" to get my character from the bottom right of the grid to the planet. We were very unlucky and planet was almost completely walled in. To speed up the game I removed the CPU cards after we'd revealed them, but it still took us a long time. It would have required 25 moves for my son's character to get to the planet, travelling around most of the board. Another good thing about these rules is that you can demonstrates the advantage of formatting your code to be more readable by organising your move forward cards into groups. When we played it a second time, I removed the CPU cards as they didn't seem to make sense for this game. I also made sure that at least four of the eight cards around the planet where blank (though this meant that there were more walls near the start This time my son played while I acted as the computer, running his programs. Rather than use the cards, he decided to write out his code using arrows. I thought this was a nice adaptation as it was quicker and even more like writing code. He did cheat a little by using the arrows to point the direction the character should move rather than have the character change orientation. Another adaptation he introduced was to end the code with the word 'win', which is similar how some languages have an END command to indicate the end of the program. This worked beautifully as a delimiter when he wrote one program after another with no spaces. The first thing to say is that my 5 year old loves this game and wanted to play it again and again. When I had other things to do, he used the cards to invent his own games. I found the game was pretty enjoyable, enough to play quite a few games. I like the mechanic of using face down cards as a board because it makes adapting the game very easy. The game was occasionally frustrating because of the walls. The rules say that if you are completely blocked in you can remove an obstacle, but you can spend many turns charting every corner of your world before finding all routes are blocked. I didn't want to reduce the number of walls too much as then the game is over too quickly. I wonder if we could introduce a card that allows you to cross a wall (but you can only use it if there is a wall in front of you). In terms of introducing programming concepts, I'm a pretty sceptical. The website says that because the planet is called RAM and the antagonist is called CPU "...children learn by association and understand how computers actually work", which seems optimistic. Having said that, my son did ask what bits and bytes meant, so I was able to attempt to explain binary numbers. I found that the simple version of the game only had a very tenuous connection to programming, though it was fun to play. The advanced rules are much better for introducing the idea of writing a set of step-by-step instructions for a computer to follow. And there was value in both writing the program and being the computer interpreting the program. For a real introduction the programming concepts, I think the Kid language is much better - having for loops and if statements. I know there are function gems, which can work like if statements, but they seemed a bit tacked on and unsatisfactory, so I didn't try. I should probably try them before I write them off. The most valuable thing about the game was that it really inspired my son. He kept wanting to play, and invented his own games using the cards. Afterwards, I went to the library and got an introduction to coding book, which explains how to use Scratch and the turtle library in Python. He was really excited about Scratch, though I had to do most of the work. At one point, he asked when we were going to play the game. Apparently he thought that programming meant playing a game like Bits & Bytes. I said that there wasn't any game unless we made one ourselves. Then he really wanted to make a game...	1,670	ENGLISH	1
Today, as the student's gather in our community area, I will ask them to think about and discuss, with their shoulder partners, ways they think they might be able to turn the flow of electricity on and off. As they discuss, I will listen for ideas of a switch, even if it is disconnecting a wire, as this will be my springboard for the lesson. Also, I will be setting the stage, again, for having students reflect on not only what works, but what doesn't, as these moments actually push our thinking and understanding even more. Be sure to see the closing for this. As a lesson, I will remind the students of what they found out in our previous lesson about circuits and what makes them work. As a class, we will discuss this as I draw several complete and incomplete circuits on the board. During this conversation, I will be sure to review, if the students don't, that there must be a source of stored energy, wires to allow transpiration of that energy, and a receiver to use the energy. All of these components must be in a connected circuit in order to be successful. Next, I will show the students a switch from our FOSS kit. I will explain that they will need to figure out how to use this component in order to control the flow of electricity in a circuit that has a light receiver. As the students work, I simply roam the room and insert myself into group work as it is happening. My district works with the FOSS kits, and I modify my lessons to make them a bit more student focused. Instead of telling the students what to do in each step of the lesson, I explain what our learning target is and let them have at it. In this lesson, I am looking for students to find a consistent way of building a complete circuit that contains a switch. In this clip, the students are grappling with turning the circuit on and off. I had to chuckle because when I arrived, one of the wires was loose and when the team moved the "unhooked" switch, the light went out. It took a moment for the team to assess why they couldn't consistently control the receiver. These students are doing a fantastic job communicating and using talking moves, but they completely forgot to add the receiver into the model! In this series of 4 short videos, you will see a team working through an interesting challenge. They were able to get their bulb to light, but their method was not standard. With some prompting, they were able to revise their thinking. While this same group was working here, they were trying to figure out how another wire could help them. Notice that at no time did I tell them how to do this. I simply asked what they might do with one more wire. As the children worked here, they were discussing with each other how to manage the materials and were really working with each other's ideas. Finally, even though one student is stuck on the "negative and positive side", the team was able to complete the circuit with a switch. In between all of their tries, I was elsewhere in the classroom. I was so happy they finally got it. This student was doing a great job explaining how a circuit worked. All he needed was some review, during a real conversation using precise vocabulary words, about what the components did to make the circuit successful. One of my favorite ways to close a lesson is to ask "What didn't work today?". In this clip, my student is able to assess her team's trials and errors and use that information to guide them into a successful investigation.	<urn:uuid:a66598ad-d7b1-44d5-aaf0-525c6ecf602d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://betterlesson.com/lesson/640154/on-again-off-again?from=master_teacher_curriculum	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00220.warc.gz	en	0.985116	742	3.6875	4	[ -0.13160963356494904, 0.0682639479637146, 0.4822222590446472, -0.24219757318496704, -0.17865648865699768, 0.07839319854974747, 0.12030636519193649, 0.4552251398563385, -0.006972816307097673, 0.049733616411685944, 0.057451631873846054, -0.17064307630062103, -0.16247963905334473, 0.292441964...	1	Today, as the student's gather in our community area, I will ask them to think about and discuss, with their shoulder partners, ways they think they might be able to turn the flow of electricity on and off. As they discuss, I will listen for ideas of a switch, even if it is disconnecting a wire, as this will be my springboard for the lesson. Also, I will be setting the stage, again, for having students reflect on not only what works, but what doesn't, as these moments actually push our thinking and understanding even more. Be sure to see the closing for this. As a lesson, I will remind the students of what they found out in our previous lesson about circuits and what makes them work. As a class, we will discuss this as I draw several complete and incomplete circuits on the board. During this conversation, I will be sure to review, if the students don't, that there must be a source of stored energy, wires to allow transpiration of that energy, and a receiver to use the energy. All of these components must be in a connected circuit in order to be successful. Next, I will show the students a switch from our FOSS kit. I will explain that they will need to figure out how to use this component in order to control the flow of electricity in a circuit that has a light receiver. As the students work, I simply roam the room and insert myself into group work as it is happening. My district works with the FOSS kits, and I modify my lessons to make them a bit more student focused. Instead of telling the students what to do in each step of the lesson, I explain what our learning target is and let them have at it. In this lesson, I am looking for students to find a consistent way of building a complete circuit that contains a switch. In this clip, the students are grappling with turning the circuit on and off. I had to chuckle because when I arrived, one of the wires was loose and when the team moved the "unhooked" switch, the light went out. It took a moment for the team to assess why they couldn't consistently control the receiver. These students are doing a fantastic job communicating and using talking moves, but they completely forgot to add the receiver into the model! In this series of 4 short videos, you will see a team working through an interesting challenge. They were able to get their bulb to light, but their method was not standard. With some prompting, they were able to revise their thinking. While this same group was working here, they were trying to figure out how another wire could help them. Notice that at no time did I tell them how to do this. I simply asked what they might do with one more wire. As the children worked here, they were discussing with each other how to manage the materials and were really working with each other's ideas. Finally, even though one student is stuck on the "negative and positive side", the team was able to complete the circuit with a switch. In between all of their tries, I was elsewhere in the classroom. I was so happy they finally got it. This student was doing a great job explaining how a circuit worked. All he needed was some review, during a real conversation using precise vocabulary words, about what the components did to make the circuit successful. One of my favorite ways to close a lesson is to ask "What didn't work today?". In this clip, my student is able to assess her team's trials and errors and use that information to guide them into a successful investigation.	729	ENGLISH	1
History has many common themes; persecution, genocide and discrimination are just a few of them. The Holocaust is one event that intertwines these three themes. The Jewish people have been persecuted numerous times throughout history. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "How The Holocaust Happened" essay for youCreate order There have also been genocides that killed as many or more people as the Holocaust, such as; the depopulation of the USSR under Stalin between 1929-1939 that claimed approximately 20 million lives, or the killing of the North and South American Indians in the 16th century that claimed 100 million lives. Six million Jewish men, women and children died in the Holocaust. Anti semitism was not unique to 20th Century Germany. Throughout history in Egypt, in the Roman Empire, and all throughout Europe and the Middle East, the Jews were at the very least not wanted and at the most persecuted for being who they are. The Holocaust, if put in all these contexts, is not unique. However there is one circumstance that only the Holocaust had. As Steven T. Katz says in his book, The Holocaust in Historical Context, The Holocaust is phenomenologically unique by virtue of the fact that never before has a state set out, as a matter of intentional principle and actualized policy, to annihilate physically every man, women, and child belonging to a specific people. The Holocaust was the first time in history an organized government tried to completely exterminate a group of people. How could something like the Holocaust be allowed to happen? How could a young European country in the midst of a world war create an incredible killing machine? There are a number of unique and not so unique circumstances that led to the Holocaust. The Holocaust was a tipping point of anti semitic attitudes throughout Germany and Europe as a whole that was possible because of the rise to power of an autocratic leader in a country desperate for change. The Holocaust wasn’t the first time the Jewish people had been persecuted. Just about everywhere they went throughout history, Jews were persecuted for being different. They were a monotheistic people in a world where polytheism was the norm. They engaged in strange customs and traditions that confused outsiders. The Jews also refer to themselves as The Chosen People so it can be assumed that other groups took offense to a group of people blatantly saying that they are better than others. Some of the earliest recorded persecution of the Jews occurred in ancient Egypt, where they were slaves until the Exodus. When they lived under Alexander the Great’s rule, they were discouraged from practicing their religion because it made them different from the other populations Alexander conquered. This went against Alexander’s dream of uniformity for his kingdom. When Jesus of Nazareth died, it was a common myth that it was the will of a Jewish committee. This myth persists in many to this day, despite the fact that the Catholic Church officially disavowed that belief in 1965. Eventually, when Christianity became the official religion of Rome in 323 AD, Jews living in the Roman empire were persecuted and ridiculed for following their dated religion. Over time the Jewish people spread throughout Europe. They moved to places such as Spain, France, Germany, Poland, Russia, Hungary, and others. However, in many of their new homes, they were not entirely welcome. It was not uncommon for Jewish people to be ran out of towns in France and Germany, although some towns were more welcoming than others. People would accuse them of killing the messiah and question their practicing of certain customs. Places where they did receive some solace, however, was Poland and Russia. The local leaders there saw that the Jewish populations, despite their beliefs and customs, built shops, traded, and helped the villages and towns economically. They remained all over Europe, however there were higher concentrations of Jews in Eastern Europe. Throughout the years, people’s dislike for Jews was limited to blaming them for the death of Jesus of Nazareth, disagreements in their customs and beliefs, and the perception that they always had more money than non-Jews. This began to change in the mid 1800’s when a German linguist coined the term Semite. This term in and of itself was just a term for people of a language background that contained more languages than just those of Romantic and Germanic origin. However, the linguist also attributed the qualities of exclusivity and egoism to semites. This same linguist also attributed the qualities of tolerance and altruism to speakers of Indo-European languages. Although the the definition of semite does not specify Jewish people, it was widely understood that if one used the term, they were referring to Jews. Around the same time, Charles Darwin and and Herbert Spencer were publishing their ideas and research about survival of the most adaptable and survival of the strongest, respectively. Herbert Spencer’s ideas of survival of the strongest would become the basis for Social Darwinism. Social Darwinism was the idea that groups of people, whether it be racial groups or otherwise, would undergo the same processes of natural selection as other living things. The beliefs that semites were inferior to Indo-Europeans and Social Darwinism together provided the basis for anti-Jewish racism in Germany and Europe as a whole Many post-enlightenment thinkers were secular. As a result, they were ideologically opposed to the conservative and religious nature of the Jews. Many adopted these racist beliefs that had already been laid out by prior thinkers, but wanted to deepen them even more. They began to use imagery of blood and inheritance when talking about Jews, things that make a Jewish person inherently different than a non-Jew. Blood couldn’t be changed and was inherited. They said that Jews were subhuman, many comparing them to rats or other beasts. As the hatred for Jews grew in Germany, this increasingly scientific community found the need for a more scientific name for Jew hatred. The current term, Judenhass (directly translating to Jew hatred), was, Unclean. Many desired a term that didn’t include the word Jew in it at all. Eventually, they coined a new, scientific sounding term: Anti semitism. To add on to historic anti semitism, Germany’s economy wasn’t in the best shape after World War I. Due to the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the national debt Germany had accumulated fighting the war, demobilizing their army, converting to a peacetime economy, and supporting veterans and widows, Germany experienced a high amount of unemployment and inflation. By 1923 the German currency wasn’t even worth the paper it was printed on, with the exchange rate being 4.2 trillion reichsmark to one dollar. By 1932, when Germany was on the brink of a depression, the unemployment rate had reached a staggering 32%. The reparations Germany faced after the war didn’t help these issues either. The Allies expected the Germans to pay 12.5 billion in reparations, with the estimated payback period to be between 17 and 36 years. In addition to war reparations, the German government also owed its own people 41.5 billion in war bonds. Between 1918 and 1931, Germany’s debt amounted to 38% of the country’s total national income. In 1922 Germany collected only one fifth of its budget outlays. Germany had a gigantic debt over its head a lot of difficulty trying to pay it. They couldn’t raise taxes out of fear for a revolution, and they couldn’t borrow money because no one would loan to a government already in so much debt. Germany also couldn’t export its goods because tariffs made them too expensive. The only thing they could do in the first ten or so years after the war was print more money. The shambles that Germany was left in following World War I allowed a radical political party with a hate filled leader to rise to power. It can be argued that the a key factor to the Holocaust was Adolf Hitler himself. After fighting in World War 1, an antisocial Hitler did his best to stay out of the general population. He enlisted as a propaganda officer in Munich, the Bavarian capital of Germany. During this time, he realised, ironically, that he had a knack for public speaking. He continued to develop this skill while he remained enlisted with the army. When he was eventually discharged in 1920, he joined the National Socialist Party. At the time, it was just a fringe far left wing political party with no real power. Hitler began to speak at their rallies and drew bigger and bigger audiences with his speeches. In less than a year, he had worked his way up to leader of the party. He continued to give political speeches, and by 1923 the Nationalist Socialist German Workers Party had 55,000 members. In these speeches, Hitler would often ask for support from the Bavarian Government to help him overthrow the current democratic government in Berlin. Unfortunately for Hitler, they largely ignored these requests. One day, Hitler found a number of Bavarian leaders having a meeting in a beer hall. Hitler then proceeded to hold them at gunpoint with the help of some members of the Nationalist Socialist Party and demand that they help him march on Berlin and install him as leader of Germany. They played along with him up until one of the Nationalist Socialists mistakenly let them out of the beer hall. They then rescinded their offer to help Hitler, and Hitler was charged with the crime of high treason. Lucky for Hitler, the judge that would be presiding over the trial was Georg Neithardt, who was known for his contempt for the current German Republic. Georg heavily favored Hitler during the trial, often allowing him to go on lengthy political tirades whilst ignoring pleas for objections from the state prosecutors. This trial was widely covered in the German media due to the severity of the crime and the fact that Hitler was already locally famous. This trial put him into headlines for the duration of the trial, and made his name a household one. At the end of the trial, Georg only sentenced Hitler to a meager 5 years in prison. Hitler would only end up serving 13 months of those 5 years due to his good behavior during his stay. However, those 13 months were long enough to finish an autobiographical book by the name of Mein Kampf (Or My Struggle in English). Mein Kampf explained where his anti semitism came from as well as described his future plans for Germany. Although he released this book on his release from prison, it didn’t become a bestseller until after he rose to power. Upon his release, Hitler gained many followers who believed that he was the change that Germany needed. He continued to give his speeches and he continued to generate more and more membership for the Nazi party. Curious to find out why the members of the Nazi party supported the party, an American sociologist traveled to Germany and hosted an essay writing contest. He challenged Nazi party members to write essays describing why they supported the party and Hitler, with the top essays receiving a cash prize. After receiving and reading the essays, the sociologist found that the three major themes were the sense of national community the party gave them, the idea of a strict chain of command and leadership structure, and anti semitism. With their growing support and the lack of public support for the current German Republic, it was only a matter of time until the Nazis took control. Germany during the 1930s was transformed into a National Socialist state. The Nazi party in Germany was a combination of fascism with anti semitism and a rallying of the working class. In 1933 Hitler became the chancellor of Germany, and in the subsequent years to come he would further increase his power. Also in 1933 The Enabling Act went into law, allowing Hitler to pass laws without the interference of the German Parliament. By 1934 Hitler governed as the exclusive leader of Germany and as the Fuhrerprinzip. Being the Fuhrerprinzip meant that Hitler and only Hitler spoke for the German people and that only he truly knew what was best for them. Under this principle, Hitler was supposed to have supreme unrestricted power and the commands he gave and decisions he made were to be treated as laws. Overall, the principles of the Nazi party were greatly shaped by Hitler’s own world view. Hitler believed that racial hierarchies were real and valuable. He thought that some races were inherently better than others and that those races that were better, had a duty to rule over the lesser races. In Hitler’s eye the supreme race was the Aryan race. Aryan’s were tall, strong, beautiful, blonde haired, blue eyed people from the northern area of Europe. Hitler believed that in the German nation had a duty to protect the Aryan race and instill them into power over other races. This was very ironic because Hitler and many of the Nazi party members were about as far from members of the Aryan race as someone could get. Another principle the Nazis and Hitler believed in was rebuilding the German nation and enhancing its power. Hitler and the Nazis believed that war was both a positive and beneficial force, and that the Germans should become powerful enough to win any war against its racial enemies. Hitler also wanted to deal with the Jewish threat. Hitler actually believed that the Jewish people were the true enemies and that every misfortune that had occured was their fault. Hitler wasn’t the only German politician that tried to blame the Jews for the country’s problems. In 1916 the German high command tried to say that Germany was unable to win the war because Jews were avoiding the draft. So they initiated the Jew Count. What this count actually found was that Jews were actually overrepresented in the military. There were actually 100,000 Jews in the army, 80,000 in combat, 35,000 decorated and 12,000 dead. When the German High Command received these figures they were disappointed and sealed the results, allowing fake results to be printed by the media. Another manifestation of anti semitism occurred in 1935 in the form of the Nuremberg laws. These laws were unanimously passed by the Reichstag and limited the freedoms of German Jews. These laws included rules prohibiting marriage between and extramarital sex between Jews and non Jews. These laws also prohibited Jewish children from attending German schools, and banned Jewish teachers from teaching. This segregation turned the Jews into outcasts in German society, and made life as a Jew even more difficult than it already was. Another factor culminating in the Holocaust was human nature. There have been numerous psychological studies that have tried to make sense out of how everyday people could allow the Holocaust to happen. Surely not every person in Germany or every person who participated in the Holocaust was a Nazi or a radical anti semite? The answer to that question lies in human nature. In 1963 Stanley Milgram conducted his famous obedience experiment to try and understand how the German people could allow and or participate in the Holocaust. The participants in the experiments were the teachers who had to teach the learner word pairs. The learner was thought by the participant to be another participant, but was actually a confederate of the experiment. For every word pair the learner got wrong, the participant was supposed to administer an electric shock to the learner ranging from 15 volts, a slight shock, to 375 volts, a severe shock to 450, labeled a lethal shock. The aim of the experiment was to see how far a normal person was willing to go in obeying instructions if those instructions were to harm another person. When Milgram first designed the experiment he hypothesized that only 1-3% of participants would administer the lethal shock. However after repeating the experiment 18 times the results showed the 65% of people would administer the lethal shock if they weren’t responsible for the learner. In other words, if the administerer of the experiment claimed responsibility for the well being of the person receiving the shock, the participant would more often than not deliver a lethal shock. Also when there was a second teacher in the room that the participant could instruct to administer shocks, 92.5 of participants would administer the 450 volt shock. What the Milgram experiment showed was that when people aren’t held responsible for their actions or when the harm their causing isn’t very personal, almost anyone is capable of doing awful things. The fact that almost anyone is capable of doing awful things isn’t to say that the people who participated in the experiments were bad people. What it does reveal though is that humans tend to obey authority figures. More evidence to support these ideas comes in Christopher Browning’s book Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland. In this book Browning follows the men of Reserve Police Battalion 101 who were by every account ordinary men. These men were not killers by nature, before the war they were just regular citizens, business owners, doctors, lawyers, etc. They weren’t all extremely anti semitic, most weren’t even members of the Nazi party. These men participated in the Holocaust for a number of reasons. Some were anti semitic, some participated because of peer pressure, some because they didn’t want to seem like lesser men and some participated because they feared they wouldn’t have a career with the police after the war if they didn’t. They also participated because there was no open objection to what was going on. No one was speaking out against what was happening. Some people found ways to avoid participation but they never tried to stop anyone else from participating. Another reason why it was easy for these men to participate in the Holocaust was because they weren’t killing day in and day out. Yes, the men of Reserve Police Battalion 101 did kill Jews and even massacre the elderly and women and children, but that wasn’t part of their day to day affairs. Most of the time these men were rounding up Jews in Ghettos and shipping them to concentration camps. The only killing done in the Ghettos was of those who couldn’t make it to the trains, and the majority of that killing was done by the Hiwis, the ones who did actually enjoy killing. Over time some men in the battalion did come to like killing but they didn’t start out that way. The men of Reserve Police Battalion 101 were products of their situation and of human nature. put in their shoes, most people who probably act as they did. Bauer, Yehuda, and Nili Keren. A History of the Holocaust Revised Edition. New York, NY: Franklin Watts, 2001. Browning, Christopher R. Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland. New York: Harper Perennial, 1992. Hayes, Peter. Why? Explaining the Holocaust. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, 2017. Hughes, Michael J. Fascists States That Rose During the Interwar Period. Class Lecture, History 368: Europe in the Contemporary World, Iona College, New Rochelle, New York, November 8, 2018. Katz, Steven T. The Holocaust in Historical Context, The Holocaust and Mass Death Before the Modern Age. Vol. 1. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1994. McLeod, Saul. “”The Milgram Experiment.”” Simplypsychology. 2017. McMillian, Dan. How Could This Happen, Explaining the Holocaust. New York, NY: Basic Books, 2014. Riley, Karen L. “”A History of The Holocaust.”” OAH Magazine of History, Teaching and Learning About Religion, 6, no. 3 (Winter 1992): 41-46. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	<urn:uuid:1533b801-dfe3-42ae-bce9-25b8036f3fc2>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://studydriver.com/how-the-holocaust-happened/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00139.warc.gz	en	0.982991	4,072	3.546875	4	[ -0.09763214737176895, 0.6119030714035034, -0.03393787518143654, 0.35136863589286804, -0.20366786420345306, 0.23338928818702698, -0.03919505327939987, 0.24846495687961578, 0.1805538833141327, -0.008637893944978714, 0.4258144497871399, 0.13226942718029022, -0.2191620171070099, 0.067883916199...	1	History has many common themes; persecution, genocide and discrimination are just a few of them. The Holocaust is one event that intertwines these three themes. The Jewish people have been persecuted numerous times throughout history. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "How The Holocaust Happened" essay for youCreate order There have also been genocides that killed as many or more people as the Holocaust, such as; the depopulation of the USSR under Stalin between 1929-1939 that claimed approximately 20 million lives, or the killing of the North and South American Indians in the 16th century that claimed 100 million lives. Six million Jewish men, women and children died in the Holocaust. Anti semitism was not unique to 20th Century Germany. Throughout history in Egypt, in the Roman Empire, and all throughout Europe and the Middle East, the Jews were at the very least not wanted and at the most persecuted for being who they are. The Holocaust, if put in all these contexts, is not unique. However there is one circumstance that only the Holocaust had. As Steven T. Katz says in his book, The Holocaust in Historical Context, The Holocaust is phenomenologically unique by virtue of the fact that never before has a state set out, as a matter of intentional principle and actualized policy, to annihilate physically every man, women, and child belonging to a specific people. The Holocaust was the first time in history an organized government tried to completely exterminate a group of people. How could something like the Holocaust be allowed to happen? How could a young European country in the midst of a world war create an incredible killing machine? There are a number of unique and not so unique circumstances that led to the Holocaust. The Holocaust was a tipping point of anti semitic attitudes throughout Germany and Europe as a whole that was possible because of the rise to power of an autocratic leader in a country desperate for change. The Holocaust wasn’t the first time the Jewish people had been persecuted. Just about everywhere they went throughout history, Jews were persecuted for being different. They were a monotheistic people in a world where polytheism was the norm. They engaged in strange customs and traditions that confused outsiders. The Jews also refer to themselves as The Chosen People so it can be assumed that other groups took offense to a group of people blatantly saying that they are better than others. Some of the earliest recorded persecution of the Jews occurred in ancient Egypt, where they were slaves until the Exodus. When they lived under Alexander the Great’s rule, they were discouraged from practicing their religion because it made them different from the other populations Alexander conquered. This went against Alexander’s dream of uniformity for his kingdom. When Jesus of Nazareth died, it was a common myth that it was the will of a Jewish committee. This myth persists in many to this day, despite the fact that the Catholic Church officially disavowed that belief in 1965. Eventually, when Christianity became the official religion of Rome in 323 AD, Jews living in the Roman empire were persecuted and ridiculed for following their dated religion. Over time the Jewish people spread throughout Europe. They moved to places such as Spain, France, Germany, Poland, Russia, Hungary, and others. However, in many of their new homes, they were not entirely welcome. It was not uncommon for Jewish people to be ran out of towns in France and Germany, although some towns were more welcoming than others. People would accuse them of killing the messiah and question their practicing of certain customs. Places where they did receive some solace, however, was Poland and Russia. The local leaders there saw that the Jewish populations, despite their beliefs and customs, built shops, traded, and helped the villages and towns economically. They remained all over Europe, however there were higher concentrations of Jews in Eastern Europe. Throughout the years, people’s dislike for Jews was limited to blaming them for the death of Jesus of Nazareth, disagreements in their customs and beliefs, and the perception that they always had more money than non-Jews. This began to change in the mid 1800’s when a German linguist coined the term Semite. This term in and of itself was just a term for people of a language background that contained more languages than just those of Romantic and Germanic origin. However, the linguist also attributed the qualities of exclusivity and egoism to semites. This same linguist also attributed the qualities of tolerance and altruism to speakers of Indo-European languages. Although the the definition of semite does not specify Jewish people, it was widely understood that if one used the term, they were referring to Jews. Around the same time, Charles Darwin and and Herbert Spencer were publishing their ideas and research about survival of the most adaptable and survival of the strongest, respectively. Herbert Spencer’s ideas of survival of the strongest would become the basis for Social Darwinism. Social Darwinism was the idea that groups of people, whether it be racial groups or otherwise, would undergo the same processes of natural selection as other living things. The beliefs that semites were inferior to Indo-Europeans and Social Darwinism together provided the basis for anti-Jewish racism in Germany and Europe as a whole Many post-enlightenment thinkers were secular. As a result, they were ideologically opposed to the conservative and religious nature of the Jews. Many adopted these racist beliefs that had already been laid out by prior thinkers, but wanted to deepen them even more. They began to use imagery of blood and inheritance when talking about Jews, things that make a Jewish person inherently different than a non-Jew. Blood couldn’t be changed and was inherited. They said that Jews were subhuman, many comparing them to rats or other beasts. As the hatred for Jews grew in Germany, this increasingly scientific community found the need for a more scientific name for Jew hatred. The current term, Judenhass (directly translating to Jew hatred), was, Unclean. Many desired a term that didn’t include the word Jew in it at all. Eventually, they coined a new, scientific sounding term: Anti semitism. To add on to historic anti semitism, Germany’s economy wasn’t in the best shape after World War I. Due to the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, the national debt Germany had accumulated fighting the war, demobilizing their army, converting to a peacetime economy, and supporting veterans and widows, Germany experienced a high amount of unemployment and inflation. By 1923 the German currency wasn’t even worth the paper it was printed on, with the exchange rate being 4.2 trillion reichsmark to one dollar. By 1932, when Germany was on the brink of a depression, the unemployment rate had reached a staggering 32%. The reparations Germany faced after the war didn’t help these issues either. The Allies expected the Germans to pay 12.5 billion in reparations, with the estimated payback period to be between 17 and 36 years. In addition to war reparations, the German government also owed its own people 41.5 billion in war bonds. Between 1918 and 1931, Germany’s debt amounted to 38% of the country’s total national income. In 1922 Germany collected only one fifth of its budget outlays. Germany had a gigantic debt over its head a lot of difficulty trying to pay it. They couldn’t raise taxes out of fear for a revolution, and they couldn’t borrow money because no one would loan to a government already in so much debt. Germany also couldn’t export its goods because tariffs made them too expensive. The only thing they could do in the first ten or so years after the war was print more money. The shambles that Germany was left in following World War I allowed a radical political party with a hate filled leader to rise to power. It can be argued that the a key factor to the Holocaust was Adolf Hitler himself. After fighting in World War 1, an antisocial Hitler did his best to stay out of the general population. He enlisted as a propaganda officer in Munich, the Bavarian capital of Germany. During this time, he realised, ironically, that he had a knack for public speaking. He continued to develop this skill while he remained enlisted with the army. When he was eventually discharged in 1920, he joined the National Socialist Party. At the time, it was just a fringe far left wing political party with no real power. Hitler began to speak at their rallies and drew bigger and bigger audiences with his speeches. In less than a year, he had worked his way up to leader of the party. He continued to give political speeches, and by 1923 the Nationalist Socialist German Workers Party had 55,000 members. In these speeches, Hitler would often ask for support from the Bavarian Government to help him overthrow the current democratic government in Berlin. Unfortunately for Hitler, they largely ignored these requests. One day, Hitler found a number of Bavarian leaders having a meeting in a beer hall. Hitler then proceeded to hold them at gunpoint with the help of some members of the Nationalist Socialist Party and demand that they help him march on Berlin and install him as leader of Germany. They played along with him up until one of the Nationalist Socialists mistakenly let them out of the beer hall. They then rescinded their offer to help Hitler, and Hitler was charged with the crime of high treason. Lucky for Hitler, the judge that would be presiding over the trial was Georg Neithardt, who was known for his contempt for the current German Republic. Georg heavily favored Hitler during the trial, often allowing him to go on lengthy political tirades whilst ignoring pleas for objections from the state prosecutors. This trial was widely covered in the German media due to the severity of the crime and the fact that Hitler was already locally famous. This trial put him into headlines for the duration of the trial, and made his name a household one. At the end of the trial, Georg only sentenced Hitler to a meager 5 years in prison. Hitler would only end up serving 13 months of those 5 years due to his good behavior during his stay. However, those 13 months were long enough to finish an autobiographical book by the name of Mein Kampf (Or My Struggle in English). Mein Kampf explained where his anti semitism came from as well as described his future plans for Germany. Although he released this book on his release from prison, it didn’t become a bestseller until after he rose to power. Upon his release, Hitler gained many followers who believed that he was the change that Germany needed. He continued to give his speeches and he continued to generate more and more membership for the Nazi party. Curious to find out why the members of the Nazi party supported the party, an American sociologist traveled to Germany and hosted an essay writing contest. He challenged Nazi party members to write essays describing why they supported the party and Hitler, with the top essays receiving a cash prize. After receiving and reading the essays, the sociologist found that the three major themes were the sense of national community the party gave them, the idea of a strict chain of command and leadership structure, and anti semitism. With their growing support and the lack of public support for the current German Republic, it was only a matter of time until the Nazis took control. Germany during the 1930s was transformed into a National Socialist state. The Nazi party in Germany was a combination of fascism with anti semitism and a rallying of the working class. In 1933 Hitler became the chancellor of Germany, and in the subsequent years to come he would further increase his power. Also in 1933 The Enabling Act went into law, allowing Hitler to pass laws without the interference of the German Parliament. By 1934 Hitler governed as the exclusive leader of Germany and as the Fuhrerprinzip. Being the Fuhrerprinzip meant that Hitler and only Hitler spoke for the German people and that only he truly knew what was best for them. Under this principle, Hitler was supposed to have supreme unrestricted power and the commands he gave and decisions he made were to be treated as laws. Overall, the principles of the Nazi party were greatly shaped by Hitler’s own world view. Hitler believed that racial hierarchies were real and valuable. He thought that some races were inherently better than others and that those races that were better, had a duty to rule over the lesser races. In Hitler’s eye the supreme race was the Aryan race. Aryan’s were tall, strong, beautiful, blonde haired, blue eyed people from the northern area of Europe. Hitler believed that in the German nation had a duty to protect the Aryan race and instill them into power over other races. This was very ironic because Hitler and many of the Nazi party members were about as far from members of the Aryan race as someone could get. Another principle the Nazis and Hitler believed in was rebuilding the German nation and enhancing its power. Hitler and the Nazis believed that war was both a positive and beneficial force, and that the Germans should become powerful enough to win any war against its racial enemies. Hitler also wanted to deal with the Jewish threat. Hitler actually believed that the Jewish people were the true enemies and that every misfortune that had occured was their fault. Hitler wasn’t the only German politician that tried to blame the Jews for the country’s problems. In 1916 the German high command tried to say that Germany was unable to win the war because Jews were avoiding the draft. So they initiated the Jew Count. What this count actually found was that Jews were actually overrepresented in the military. There were actually 100,000 Jews in the army, 80,000 in combat, 35,000 decorated and 12,000 dead. When the German High Command received these figures they were disappointed and sealed the results, allowing fake results to be printed by the media. Another manifestation of anti semitism occurred in 1935 in the form of the Nuremberg laws. These laws were unanimously passed by the Reichstag and limited the freedoms of German Jews. These laws included rules prohibiting marriage between and extramarital sex between Jews and non Jews. These laws also prohibited Jewish children from attending German schools, and banned Jewish teachers from teaching. This segregation turned the Jews into outcasts in German society, and made life as a Jew even more difficult than it already was. Another factor culminating in the Holocaust was human nature. There have been numerous psychological studies that have tried to make sense out of how everyday people could allow the Holocaust to happen. Surely not every person in Germany or every person who participated in the Holocaust was a Nazi or a radical anti semite? The answer to that question lies in human nature. In 1963 Stanley Milgram conducted his famous obedience experiment to try and understand how the German people could allow and or participate in the Holocaust. The participants in the experiments were the teachers who had to teach the learner word pairs. The learner was thought by the participant to be another participant, but was actually a confederate of the experiment. For every word pair the learner got wrong, the participant was supposed to administer an electric shock to the learner ranging from 15 volts, a slight shock, to 375 volts, a severe shock to 450, labeled a lethal shock. The aim of the experiment was to see how far a normal person was willing to go in obeying instructions if those instructions were to harm another person. When Milgram first designed the experiment he hypothesized that only 1-3% of participants would administer the lethal shock. However after repeating the experiment 18 times the results showed the 65% of people would administer the lethal shock if they weren’t responsible for the learner. In other words, if the administerer of the experiment claimed responsibility for the well being of the person receiving the shock, the participant would more often than not deliver a lethal shock. Also when there was a second teacher in the room that the participant could instruct to administer shocks, 92.5 of participants would administer the 450 volt shock. What the Milgram experiment showed was that when people aren’t held responsible for their actions or when the harm their causing isn’t very personal, almost anyone is capable of doing awful things. The fact that almost anyone is capable of doing awful things isn’t to say that the people who participated in the experiments were bad people. What it does reveal though is that humans tend to obey authority figures. More evidence to support these ideas comes in Christopher Browning’s book Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland. In this book Browning follows the men of Reserve Police Battalion 101 who were by every account ordinary men. These men were not killers by nature, before the war they were just regular citizens, business owners, doctors, lawyers, etc. They weren’t all extremely anti semitic, most weren’t even members of the Nazi party. These men participated in the Holocaust for a number of reasons. Some were anti semitic, some participated because of peer pressure, some because they didn’t want to seem like lesser men and some participated because they feared they wouldn’t have a career with the police after the war if they didn’t. They also participated because there was no open objection to what was going on. No one was speaking out against what was happening. Some people found ways to avoid participation but they never tried to stop anyone else from participating. Another reason why it was easy for these men to participate in the Holocaust was because they weren’t killing day in and day out. Yes, the men of Reserve Police Battalion 101 did kill Jews and even massacre the elderly and women and children, but that wasn’t part of their day to day affairs. Most of the time these men were rounding up Jews in Ghettos and shipping them to concentration camps. The only killing done in the Ghettos was of those who couldn’t make it to the trains, and the majority of that killing was done by the Hiwis, the ones who did actually enjoy killing. Over time some men in the battalion did come to like killing but they didn’t start out that way. The men of Reserve Police Battalion 101 were products of their situation and of human nature. put in their shoes, most people who probably act as they did. Bauer, Yehuda, and Nili Keren. A History of the Holocaust Revised Edition. New York, NY: Franklin Watts, 2001. Browning, Christopher R. Ordinary Men: Reserve Police Battalion 101 and the Final Solution in Poland. New York: Harper Perennial, 1992. Hayes, Peter. Why? Explaining the Holocaust. New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, 2017. Hughes, Michael J. Fascists States That Rose During the Interwar Period. Class Lecture, History 368: Europe in the Contemporary World, Iona College, New Rochelle, New York, November 8, 2018. Katz, Steven T. The Holocaust in Historical Context, The Holocaust and Mass Death Before the Modern Age. Vol. 1. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1994. McLeod, Saul. “”The Milgram Experiment.”” Simplypsychology. 2017. McMillian, Dan. How Could This Happen, Explaining the Holocaust. New York, NY: Basic Books, 2014. Riley, Karen L. “”A History of The Holocaust.”” OAH Magazine of History, Teaching and Learning About Religion, 6, no. 3 (Winter 1992): 41-46. We will send an essay sample to you in 2 Hours. If you need help faster you can always use our custom writing service.Get help with my paper	4,163	ENGLISH	1
In Platos The Allegory of the Cave, he allows an individual to realize that which they already know. The situation in the cave seems dark and gloomy, like a place no one would ever want to go. However, the reality is that some people are at a point in their lives, in their own cave. The people that are in Platos cave, the prisoners, have always been there. They all have their legs and necks chained and cannot move. They cannot turn their necks or bodies to look around them. The cave is very dark and there is a fire in the distance. There is a wall in front of them and men are frequently carrying tools and vessels and various shaped objects with them. This creates different shaped shadows for the prisoners to see. All that they have seen or ever known is what is in front of them, a two-dimensional world. A two-dimensional world would represent people that only saw what was in front of them. According to Plato, one could only imagine, never seeing or having any previous knowledge of people or objects. Like some people today, all the prisoners know is what is in front of them, a warped view of reality. If a person only accepts what is in front of them, they too are living in a two-dimensional world. The shadows are reality to the prisoners because it is all that they have ever known. They dont know that they are distorted and are a reflection of something that is real. One example that Plato might use if he were alive today would be a movie theatre. The movie projector would be the fire. The film showing would be the shadows reflected on the wall. The viewers are the prisoners. The shadows on the wall can be compared to most movies that are viewed today because they are not reality but a warped representation of it. If the viewer or prisoner chooses to accept what is in front of them as reality then they are in a sense choosing to live in a two-dimensional world. A prisoner would have to believe that there is more to life than what has been put in front of them in order to change the situation and advance into a three-dimensional world. In a three-dimensional world people are able to interact with one another and use their senses. One would accept and be able to understand a new reality. For example, if the prisoners were released, they would be curious to turn around and look behind them or walk towards the light, which is human nature. At the same time, It would also be hard to do. The light would burn their eyes and the outside world would be a major change and might be hard to accept. Naturally, the prisoners would be scared and hesitant, but in order to move into the next world, one must be strong and escape from the cave in order to find a true reality. Once they seek the knowledge and good things in life that make a person happy, they will be living in a three-dimensional world. Plato thought, my opinion is that in the world of knowledge the idea of good appears last of all, and is seen only with an effort; and, when seen, is also inferred to be the universal author of all things beautiful and right. For one to live in a three dimensional world, they would not sit back and choose to accept what is in front of them as reality. A person that lives in a two-dimensional world is not truly happy. They have not sought out knowledge or searched for true happiness. For the prisoners trapped in the cave to not ever dream or imagine other realities is showing that they accept where they are in life. It takes a person to truly search for better things in life and simple pleasures to break free from their two-dimensional world and live in a much more pleasant three-dimensional world. With the previous knowledge of a two dimensional world and a three dimensional world one can certainly not rule out the possibility of a fourth dimensional world. People are always in a constant search for truth. Like the prisoners in the cave to get up and walk towards the light, most people today believe and search for a light to lead them in to the next reality. It is very possible for a person to be released and set free into a fourth dimension. No one knows for sure if it exists or not or if the world today is reality, just like the prisoners in the cave. They thought the shadows were real until they were exposed to something that proved to them that they were not reality. It is very possible that Plato is accurate in stating that the world today is not reality. It will take a fourth dimension to prove that the third dimension is not real. Perhaps all of the realities that people face today, such as love and hatred, it is possible that it is all an image, a mere dream. It is possible for one to accept the idea of seeking and discovering a higher realm. One must seek the truth in order to go into another level, perhaps a fourth dimension. It is also possible that each individual is given a chance to control his own destiny. For example, a prisoner could have chosen to stay in the cave and not walk towards the light and person watching a movie in a theatre can choose to accept it as reality or decide to seek the truth and leave the theatre. One must want to discover new ideas and strive for an ultimate truth to escape the limitations of the cave. Plato believes that there are invisible truths lying under what we normally see. It requires efforts to discover the origin that everything exists.	<urn:uuid:121a4529-8667-4d22-a883-6f74e2dc72f0>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://shinybookreview.com/review-of-the-allegory-of-the-cave-by-plato/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00358.warc.gz	en	0.982017	1,108	3.671875	4	[ -0.2838754653930664, 0.18184959888458252, -0.007798422127962112, 0.283260315656662, -0.21829597651958466, -0.010710506699979305, 0.4721030294895172, 0.00686658825725317, -0.15790848433971405, -0.011279169470071793, 0.319755494594574, -0.11419081687927246, -0.23204147815704346, 0.5718734264...	1	In Platos The Allegory of the Cave, he allows an individual to realize that which they already know. The situation in the cave seems dark and gloomy, like a place no one would ever want to go. However, the reality is that some people are at a point in their lives, in their own cave. The people that are in Platos cave, the prisoners, have always been there. They all have their legs and necks chained and cannot move. They cannot turn their necks or bodies to look around them. The cave is very dark and there is a fire in the distance. There is a wall in front of them and men are frequently carrying tools and vessels and various shaped objects with them. This creates different shaped shadows for the prisoners to see. All that they have seen or ever known is what is in front of them, a two-dimensional world. A two-dimensional world would represent people that only saw what was in front of them. According to Plato, one could only imagine, never seeing or having any previous knowledge of people or objects. Like some people today, all the prisoners know is what is in front of them, a warped view of reality. If a person only accepts what is in front of them, they too are living in a two-dimensional world. The shadows are reality to the prisoners because it is all that they have ever known. They dont know that they are distorted and are a reflection of something that is real. One example that Plato might use if he were alive today would be a movie theatre. The movie projector would be the fire. The film showing would be the shadows reflected on the wall. The viewers are the prisoners. The shadows on the wall can be compared to most movies that are viewed today because they are not reality but a warped representation of it. If the viewer or prisoner chooses to accept what is in front of them as reality then they are in a sense choosing to live in a two-dimensional world. A prisoner would have to believe that there is more to life than what has been put in front of them in order to change the situation and advance into a three-dimensional world. In a three-dimensional world people are able to interact with one another and use their senses. One would accept and be able to understand a new reality. For example, if the prisoners were released, they would be curious to turn around and look behind them or walk towards the light, which is human nature. At the same time, It would also be hard to do. The light would burn their eyes and the outside world would be a major change and might be hard to accept. Naturally, the prisoners would be scared and hesitant, but in order to move into the next world, one must be strong and escape from the cave in order to find a true reality. Once they seek the knowledge and good things in life that make a person happy, they will be living in a three-dimensional world. Plato thought, my opinion is that in the world of knowledge the idea of good appears last of all, and is seen only with an effort; and, when seen, is also inferred to be the universal author of all things beautiful and right. For one to live in a three dimensional world, they would not sit back and choose to accept what is in front of them as reality. A person that lives in a two-dimensional world is not truly happy. They have not sought out knowledge or searched for true happiness. For the prisoners trapped in the cave to not ever dream or imagine other realities is showing that they accept where they are in life. It takes a person to truly search for better things in life and simple pleasures to break free from their two-dimensional world and live in a much more pleasant three-dimensional world. With the previous knowledge of a two dimensional world and a three dimensional world one can certainly not rule out the possibility of a fourth dimensional world. People are always in a constant search for truth. Like the prisoners in the cave to get up and walk towards the light, most people today believe and search for a light to lead them in to the next reality. It is very possible for a person to be released and set free into a fourth dimension. No one knows for sure if it exists or not or if the world today is reality, just like the prisoners in the cave. They thought the shadows were real until they were exposed to something that proved to them that they were not reality. It is very possible that Plato is accurate in stating that the world today is not reality. It will take a fourth dimension to prove that the third dimension is not real. Perhaps all of the realities that people face today, such as love and hatred, it is possible that it is all an image, a mere dream. It is possible for one to accept the idea of seeking and discovering a higher realm. One must seek the truth in order to go into another level, perhaps a fourth dimension. It is also possible that each individual is given a chance to control his own destiny. For example, a prisoner could have chosen to stay in the cave and not walk towards the light and person watching a movie in a theatre can choose to accept it as reality or decide to seek the truth and leave the theatre. One must want to discover new ideas and strive for an ultimate truth to escape the limitations of the cave. Plato believes that there are invisible truths lying under what we normally see. It requires efforts to discover the origin that everything exists.	1,096	ENGLISH	1
In February 1944 a lend-leased M4A2 Sherman tank was ambushed by German anti-tank gun when it was on the ice of the swampy Gniloy Tikich river in Cherkasy Oblast of Ukraine. The tank was hit twice — in the tracks and in the turret. The turret was knocked off the hull, three crew members were killed instantly. The driver survived but the next day he was found and shot by SS troops. This tank was found in 1998 and in November 2004 after a lot of effort it was dragged out from the swamp of the old riverbed on the bank by the team of enthusiasts supported by Ukrainian Army. In the gun barrel the found a 75 mm shell and they decided to unscrew the fuse and then hit the shell out with a sledge hammer! The M4 Sherman was distributed in the thousands by the Americans during WW II to the Allied forces and the Russians. The designers punted that the tanks had durability, middleweight, and size, a limited number of variations, so the parts and spares were standardized, and they were easy to produce. This tank took point on many of the major offensives launched by the Allied and Russian forces from 1942 onwards. The name ‘Sherman’ again was given by the British and came from the Civil War General, William Sherman. The M4 was the first armored vehicle to carry a gyroscopically stabilized gun and sight. This device only worked vertically and could not automatically slew the turret. The Central Museum of Armed Forces of Ukraine in Kiev there is a unique tank – an American M4A2 Sherman. She was received in January 1944 from the US Lend-Lease agreement. According to archive documents, the Soviet Sherman company consisting of nine Shermans was sent to to block the advance of elements of the SS “Viking” Division. The Sherman drove onto the frozen river of Gniloy Tikich. The Germans were waiting with a self-propelled gun, camouflaged in a cottage on the outskirts of the village. Slipping his gun barrel through a broken window, the Germans were watching every move. Opened fired and destroyed the tank. It had lay hidden for 60 years until it was recovered. The hull and the turret sunk and, sat in the marsh at the distance of 70 meters from the river bank and with time they were completely covered with the mud, restored and can now be seen at National Defence Academy of Ukraine, Kiev.	<urn:uuid:98f232c5-a9c9-478d-9a81-045eb09b7a64>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.warhistoryonline.com/war-articles/lend-lease-sherman-pulled-from-a-russian-bog.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00222.warc.gz	en	0.985438	506	3.453125	3	[ -0.11603379994630814, 0.015814704820513725, 0.08512098342180252, -0.24891269207000732, -0.23398740589618683, -0.4469318985939026, -0.24397939443588257, 0.28699901700019836, -0.3956619203090668, -0.2595958113670349, -0.11977728456258774, -0.42779597640037537, 0.07442457228899002, 0.13012331...	6	In February 1944 a lend-leased M4A2 Sherman tank was ambushed by German anti-tank gun when it was on the ice of the swampy Gniloy Tikich river in Cherkasy Oblast of Ukraine. The tank was hit twice — in the tracks and in the turret. The turret was knocked off the hull, three crew members were killed instantly. The driver survived but the next day he was found and shot by SS troops. This tank was found in 1998 and in November 2004 after a lot of effort it was dragged out from the swamp of the old riverbed on the bank by the team of enthusiasts supported by Ukrainian Army. In the gun barrel the found a 75 mm shell and they decided to unscrew the fuse and then hit the shell out with a sledge hammer! The M4 Sherman was distributed in the thousands by the Americans during WW II to the Allied forces and the Russians. The designers punted that the tanks had durability, middleweight, and size, a limited number of variations, so the parts and spares were standardized, and they were easy to produce. This tank took point on many of the major offensives launched by the Allied and Russian forces from 1942 onwards. The name ‘Sherman’ again was given by the British and came from the Civil War General, William Sherman. The M4 was the first armored vehicle to carry a gyroscopically stabilized gun and sight. This device only worked vertically and could not automatically slew the turret. The Central Museum of Armed Forces of Ukraine in Kiev there is a unique tank – an American M4A2 Sherman. She was received in January 1944 from the US Lend-Lease agreement. According to archive documents, the Soviet Sherman company consisting of nine Shermans was sent to to block the advance of elements of the SS “Viking” Division. The Sherman drove onto the frozen river of Gniloy Tikich. The Germans were waiting with a self-propelled gun, camouflaged in a cottage on the outskirts of the village. Slipping his gun barrel through a broken window, the Germans were watching every move. Opened fired and destroyed the tank. It had lay hidden for 60 years until it was recovered. The hull and the turret sunk and, sat in the marsh at the distance of 70 meters from the river bank and with time they were completely covered with the mud, restored and can now be seen at National Defence Academy of Ukraine, Kiev.	522	ENGLISH	1
Skara Brae Neolithic Village is about 5,000 years old (it was occupied from c3100 BC to c2500 BC) and is one of the earliest known farming villages in Britain. It is sited on the west coast of Mainland, Orkney close to the beach of the Bay of Skaill although it would originally have been much further back from the coast. It consists of a closely knit arrangement of 6 houses linked by passages, with a single separate detached workshop. The remains of the village survived to the present day because the houses were built into a large mound of midden material which helped to protect the structure and, following its abandonment, the site was filled and covered by sand dunes. The village was first discovered following a storm in the winter of 1850 when it was partially exposed and the laird of Skaill, William Watt, began exploration of the site. Modern archaeological excavation began with the work of Professor Gordon Childe in the 1920s and has continued to the present time with the use of modern radiocarbon dating techniques. In 1999 the site was accorded World Heritage Site status by UNESCO as part of the Heart of Neolithic Orkney World Heritage Site.	<urn:uuid:5dd14ddd-ceed-42eb-b3bd-793e0864f3d8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-house-5-at-skara-brae-neolithic-village-on-mainland-orkney-with-skaill-58700528.html	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00145.warc.gz	en	0.984869	244	3.484375	3	[ -0.021217888221144676, 0.050461310893297195, 0.07867198437452316, 0.0733969584107399, 0.4817550480365753, -0.16907227039337158, -0.4571365714073181, -0.272672563791275, -0.31419992446899414, -0.027952654287219048, 0.1600036472082138, -0.864561915397644, 0.21594183146953583, 0.6033728122711...	1	Skara Brae Neolithic Village is about 5,000 years old (it was occupied from c3100 BC to c2500 BC) and is one of the earliest known farming villages in Britain. It is sited on the west coast of Mainland, Orkney close to the beach of the Bay of Skaill although it would originally have been much further back from the coast. It consists of a closely knit arrangement of 6 houses linked by passages, with a single separate detached workshop. The remains of the village survived to the present day because the houses were built into a large mound of midden material which helped to protect the structure and, following its abandonment, the site was filled and covered by sand dunes. The village was first discovered following a storm in the winter of 1850 when it was partially exposed and the laird of Skaill, William Watt, began exploration of the site. Modern archaeological excavation began with the work of Professor Gordon Childe in the 1920s and has continued to the present time with the use of modern radiocarbon dating techniques. In 1999 the site was accorded World Heritage Site status by UNESCO as part of the Heart of Neolithic Orkney World Heritage Site.	265	ENGLISH	1
Milan spent much of its history at the beginning of the Renaissance engaged in a series of wars against its neighbours. Amongst their rivals, Milan often fought against Florence and Venice. As a result, Milan became a major center of the weapons industry throughout Europe and was known for their production of high quality swords and armor, as well as early firearms. Milan was also known as a major manufacturing hub for Southern Europe. Like Genoa, they wove silk and traded in textiles as well. Milan was a very wealthy community throughout the Italian Renaissance. The ruling families of Milan during this period were the Visconti and Sforza. Members of these families were both political and religious leaders. Francesco Sforza was particularly effective, helping turn Milan into a powerful metropolis during his time as ruler he commissioned the Sforza Castle, the Ospedale Maggiore and the Santa Maria delle Grazie, home to Leonardo Da Vinci's, The Last Supper. The Milan Cathedral, pictured in the background, began to be built in the late 14th Century under the rule of the Visconti family and took 600 years to complete! Milan in the Renaissance, as it remains today, was a center of art and culture. Leonardo Da Vinci worked in Milan at the court of Ludovico Sforza from 1482 until 1499. While in Milan, Da Vinci painted The Last Supper and engaged in many engineering projects, including designing floats and pageants for special occasions. To Sforza, Da Vinci explained many of his abilities as a Renaissance Man, telling him, "I can construct bridges… a kind of cannon… with which to hurl small stones like hail. I can noiselessly construct… subterranean passages. I can make armoured wagons… I can give you as complete satisfaction as anyone else in the construction of buildings, both public and private." - Nick Trend, 2011. Sforza Castle, home to one of the great families of the Renaissance period. The Last Supper. This is a restored version so as to be more visible. One of Leonardo Da Vinci's most famous works was created and rests in Milan.	<urn:uuid:420bb5b9-552f-45d4-b895-ba1fbb1aee9b>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.mrberrigan.com/milan	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700675.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127112805-20200127142805-00347.warc.gz	en	0.980566	451	3.328125	3	[ -0.2046244740486145, 0.5119794011116028, -0.012981421314179897, 0.21039023995399475, -0.42558106780052185, 0.0689157098531723, 0.12922221422195435, 0.5965253114700317, -0.0026998608373105526, -0.2457515448331833, -0.01662791147828102, -0.3821207582950592, 0.20282451808452606, 0.52953618764...	10	Milan spent much of its history at the beginning of the Renaissance engaged in a series of wars against its neighbours. Amongst their rivals, Milan often fought against Florence and Venice. As a result, Milan became a major center of the weapons industry throughout Europe and was known for their production of high quality swords and armor, as well as early firearms. Milan was also known as a major manufacturing hub for Southern Europe. Like Genoa, they wove silk and traded in textiles as well. Milan was a very wealthy community throughout the Italian Renaissance. The ruling families of Milan during this period were the Visconti and Sforza. Members of these families were both political and religious leaders. Francesco Sforza was particularly effective, helping turn Milan into a powerful metropolis during his time as ruler he commissioned the Sforza Castle, the Ospedale Maggiore and the Santa Maria delle Grazie, home to Leonardo Da Vinci's, The Last Supper. The Milan Cathedral, pictured in the background, began to be built in the late 14th Century under the rule of the Visconti family and took 600 years to complete! Milan in the Renaissance, as it remains today, was a center of art and culture. Leonardo Da Vinci worked in Milan at the court of Ludovico Sforza from 1482 until 1499. While in Milan, Da Vinci painted The Last Supper and engaged in many engineering projects, including designing floats and pageants for special occasions. To Sforza, Da Vinci explained many of his abilities as a Renaissance Man, telling him, "I can construct bridges… a kind of cannon… with which to hurl small stones like hail. I can noiselessly construct… subterranean passages. I can make armoured wagons… I can give you as complete satisfaction as anyone else in the construction of buildings, both public and private." - Nick Trend, 2011. Sforza Castle, home to one of the great families of the Renaissance period. The Last Supper. This is a restored version so as to be more visible. One of Leonardo Da Vinci's most famous works was created and rests in Milan.	448	ENGLISH	1
Pico Della Mirandola was born in 1463 and lived through to 1494. He was born in a royal family in Italy. During his youth, he paid visits to prominent French and Italian universities. He also challenged scholars to a debate of his nine hundred theses in Rome in 1846. However, the Pope forbade any such debates because of the heretical nature of some of the theses. Consequently, he suffered prosecution and was absolved by Alexander VI in 1943. Pico sought knowledge and his works are compounded with mysticism. He was a theologian, philosopher and a humanist. He also sought after knowledge. He wrote different types of works such as sonnets and elegies. He wanted to reconcile philosophy and religion. His work on oration on the dignity of man claimed that man was a miraculous and wonderful being. This discussion shall look at the reasons why Pico considered man a miraculous and wonderful being and whether human beings are truly free. Pico considers a human being a wonderful creature. He urges that man is a miraculous being because he can choose what he wills. God granted man the power to choose. Thus, man can choose to be good or evil because God created him with seeds of all possibilities. This means that man can become whatever he cultivates be it bad or good. For example, some men turn out to be plants, others become brutish and others become angelic and sons of God. Man can also recollect himself if not satisfied with all the creatures. Then become one in spirit with God. The ability of man to transform himself made Pico claim that man was a wonderful being. Man is a miraculous being because he was created in the image of God. The creation story tells about all the things that God created during the first six days and on the seventh day, he desired to create a creature that resembled him so that he could have a relationship with it. The creature that he saw fit for his desire was a human being whom he fashioned in his own image. Thus, man is the only being created in God’s image thus making him a wonderful creature. Man is a miraculous creature because he can take many forms. In both Christian and mosaic writings, man is sometimes called all flesh and other times every creature. A man is called by these different terms because he is able to fashion, mold himself, and assume any characteristic that he so desires. In this regard, Evantes concurred with Pico when he said that a man is born with no specific semblance but has many according to his will. Man is unique and cannot be classified as heavenly or earthly. Furthermore, man does not fit into the categories of immortal and mortal. God created man this way because he wanted him to be free to be the shaper of himself into whatever form he preferred. Man can attain any level he desires such as become the least of all creatures or be reborn in the divine order. Pico came up with a new creation allegory that depicted Adam as a man who had unlimited choices. Among all the creatures, that God created only man can admire nature. Man has the ability to admire the vast creation of God and marvel at its beauty. That is why God created him after He had finished creating all the things in the universe. He felt a need of having a creature that would be like him. He created man in a unique way and he did not fashion him from any archetype on earth. God wanted to create a being that would contemplate about the universe and man was the answer to that need. Man was placed at the center of the universe. God placed man at the center so that he could easily see whatever was in the earth. Man is the only creature with the ability to look around his surrounding and admire it making him a wonderful creature. Pico is of the contention that humans are to be envied by angels. He says that angels should envy human beings because a man can choose their destiny unlike the angels who are destined to serve God and cannot change their form. I think that angels can envy human beings because man has the power to power to admire the universe unlike the angels. Angels can also envy man because he has the power to become like them or attain their level by observing the life of angels. On the other hand, angels are destined to serve God and are thus assured of a life in heaven unlike man who has to decide his destiny through his actions. If man is not careful, he can become a brute or a plant and therefore fail to enjoy the things in the high levels. A man has to live through life in which he faces many things and it might become difficult for him to focus on doing good in order to become like angles in a world full of so many evils. Still, man is a being to be envied by angels even by all other creatures because of his unique nature and ability to shape his destiny. Pico posits that man has freedom but must observe the universal law to enjoy the freedom. God created man and give him the freedom. Freedom is the essence of dignity in man. It places man in high rank because only man has the ability to be free in the cosmos. Man is able to realize the possibility that is heavenly through his actions. Man can reach this divine possibility by meditation, which ignites compassion, intuitive and intelligence. A man who aims to be one with God will activate the three qualities by practicing moral science and purifying the soul and abandoning dialectical reasoning. Thus, man is free to choose if he wants to be one with God or separate. Pico urges that man is a free being because he has many gods within him and can choose whatever he wills. Pico asserts that the essence of man’s freedom was to enable man to die in flesh and live in God in form of the mind. Man is free to choose to either follow the nature within him that pulls him towards divinity or low sphere of trouble. If he chooses to be driven by discord, he will be separated from gods and banished into the deep realm. On the other hand, if he chooses to follow the moral philosophy that teaches love he will be able to attain peace. If all men choose to practice moral philosophy then the world will become peaceful and men can live like brothers and sisters. Freedom gives man an opportunity to live wherever he so wishes. When God created man, he placed him at the center of the earth. From this position, man is able to see all the things that are the world. God placed him there so that he could in accordance to his own judgment and desires choose any place to call home. The freedom that God gave man set him free unlike animals that are constrained by laws he has no limits. It means that only man can choose the limits to place in his nature. Thus, he has the freedom to occupy whichever place he desires. For instance, man has been able to reclaim the sea and build cities because he has the freedom to do so yet no other creature can do such a thing. When God created man, he wished to have a relationship with him forever. Thus, he gave man freedom of will so that he could choose salvation and live with God forever. Man can acquire salvation through his deeds and just as God told Adam when he created him, it was upon him to choose and live his life according to his own will. Thus, freedom can enable man to attain salvation. Lastly, a man is free to choose his destiny unlike the other creatures that are controlled by external factors. Man defines and fashions his own destiny. I think is the highest trait in man that distinguishes him from all other creatures that walk on the face of the earth. The freedom innately found in man truly makes him a wonderful being. On the other hand, hand can be evil and make the life of his fellow miserable through his actions such as hatred and even wars that lead to so much suffering. However, I do not think that man is truly free because some men are controlled by other men and have no say in whatever they are asked to do. For example, some men have been turned into slaves by others and denied the freedom to think or even do, as they will. Their masters dictate what they should do and in this case, such men cannot be said to be truly free. They carry out the evil deeds due to a command because they are not given a choice and failure to carry out the orders may result in sever punishment. For example, some perpetrators of atrocities during the Nazi era claim they were only obeying orders. Were such men truly free? Nonetheless, man is a free being and can choose to be whatever he wills.	<urn:uuid:b52f8f86-d205-4bd6-a1ad-474311db058e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://virginiaangerclass.com/pico-della-mirandola/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250590107.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117180950-20200117204950-00331.warc.gz	en	0.983656	1,774	3.6875	4	[ -0.3568190336227417, 0.5846284627914429, 0.05663815513253212, 0.13746698200702667, -0.47544628381729126, -0.04206594079732895, 0.4029117226600647, 0.15010297298431396, -0.20830038189888, 0.2045179009437561, -0.08641409873962402, -0.2401726245880127, 0.12809062004089355, 0.6210249662399292,...	2	Pico Della Mirandola was born in 1463 and lived through to 1494. He was born in a royal family in Italy. During his youth, he paid visits to prominent French and Italian universities. He also challenged scholars to a debate of his nine hundred theses in Rome in 1846. However, the Pope forbade any such debates because of the heretical nature of some of the theses. Consequently, he suffered prosecution and was absolved by Alexander VI in 1943. Pico sought knowledge and his works are compounded with mysticism. He was a theologian, philosopher and a humanist. He also sought after knowledge. He wrote different types of works such as sonnets and elegies. He wanted to reconcile philosophy and religion. His work on oration on the dignity of man claimed that man was a miraculous and wonderful being. This discussion shall look at the reasons why Pico considered man a miraculous and wonderful being and whether human beings are truly free. Pico considers a human being a wonderful creature. He urges that man is a miraculous being because he can choose what he wills. God granted man the power to choose. Thus, man can choose to be good or evil because God created him with seeds of all possibilities. This means that man can become whatever he cultivates be it bad or good. For example, some men turn out to be plants, others become brutish and others become angelic and sons of God. Man can also recollect himself if not satisfied with all the creatures. Then become one in spirit with God. The ability of man to transform himself made Pico claim that man was a wonderful being. Man is a miraculous being because he was created in the image of God. The creation story tells about all the things that God created during the first six days and on the seventh day, he desired to create a creature that resembled him so that he could have a relationship with it. The creature that he saw fit for his desire was a human being whom he fashioned in his own image. Thus, man is the only being created in God’s image thus making him a wonderful creature. Man is a miraculous creature because he can take many forms. In both Christian and mosaic writings, man is sometimes called all flesh and other times every creature. A man is called by these different terms because he is able to fashion, mold himself, and assume any characteristic that he so desires. In this regard, Evantes concurred with Pico when he said that a man is born with no specific semblance but has many according to his will. Man is unique and cannot be classified as heavenly or earthly. Furthermore, man does not fit into the categories of immortal and mortal. God created man this way because he wanted him to be free to be the shaper of himself into whatever form he preferred. Man can attain any level he desires such as become the least of all creatures or be reborn in the divine order. Pico came up with a new creation allegory that depicted Adam as a man who had unlimited choices. Among all the creatures, that God created only man can admire nature. Man has the ability to admire the vast creation of God and marvel at its beauty. That is why God created him after He had finished creating all the things in the universe. He felt a need of having a creature that would be like him. He created man in a unique way and he did not fashion him from any archetype on earth. God wanted to create a being that would contemplate about the universe and man was the answer to that need. Man was placed at the center of the universe. God placed man at the center so that he could easily see whatever was in the earth. Man is the only creature with the ability to look around his surrounding and admire it making him a wonderful creature. Pico is of the contention that humans are to be envied by angels. He says that angels should envy human beings because a man can choose their destiny unlike the angels who are destined to serve God and cannot change their form. I think that angels can envy human beings because man has the power to power to admire the universe unlike the angels. Angels can also envy man because he has the power to become like them or attain their level by observing the life of angels. On the other hand, angels are destined to serve God and are thus assured of a life in heaven unlike man who has to decide his destiny through his actions. If man is not careful, he can become a brute or a plant and therefore fail to enjoy the things in the high levels. A man has to live through life in which he faces many things and it might become difficult for him to focus on doing good in order to become like angles in a world full of so many evils. Still, man is a being to be envied by angels even by all other creatures because of his unique nature and ability to shape his destiny. Pico posits that man has freedom but must observe the universal law to enjoy the freedom. God created man and give him the freedom. Freedom is the essence of dignity in man. It places man in high rank because only man has the ability to be free in the cosmos. Man is able to realize the possibility that is heavenly through his actions. Man can reach this divine possibility by meditation, which ignites compassion, intuitive and intelligence. A man who aims to be one with God will activate the three qualities by practicing moral science and purifying the soul and abandoning dialectical reasoning. Thus, man is free to choose if he wants to be one with God or separate. Pico urges that man is a free being because he has many gods within him and can choose whatever he wills. Pico asserts that the essence of man’s freedom was to enable man to die in flesh and live in God in form of the mind. Man is free to choose to either follow the nature within him that pulls him towards divinity or low sphere of trouble. If he chooses to be driven by discord, he will be separated from gods and banished into the deep realm. On the other hand, if he chooses to follow the moral philosophy that teaches love he will be able to attain peace. If all men choose to practice moral philosophy then the world will become peaceful and men can live like brothers and sisters. Freedom gives man an opportunity to live wherever he so wishes. When God created man, he placed him at the center of the earth. From this position, man is able to see all the things that are the world. God placed him there so that he could in accordance to his own judgment and desires choose any place to call home. The freedom that God gave man set him free unlike animals that are constrained by laws he has no limits. It means that only man can choose the limits to place in his nature. Thus, he has the freedom to occupy whichever place he desires. For instance, man has been able to reclaim the sea and build cities because he has the freedom to do so yet no other creature can do such a thing. When God created man, he wished to have a relationship with him forever. Thus, he gave man freedom of will so that he could choose salvation and live with God forever. Man can acquire salvation through his deeds and just as God told Adam when he created him, it was upon him to choose and live his life according to his own will. Thus, freedom can enable man to attain salvation. Lastly, a man is free to choose his destiny unlike the other creatures that are controlled by external factors. Man defines and fashions his own destiny. I think is the highest trait in man that distinguishes him from all other creatures that walk on the face of the earth. The freedom innately found in man truly makes him a wonderful being. On the other hand, hand can be evil and make the life of his fellow miserable through his actions such as hatred and even wars that lead to so much suffering. However, I do not think that man is truly free because some men are controlled by other men and have no say in whatever they are asked to do. For example, some men have been turned into slaves by others and denied the freedom to think or even do, as they will. Their masters dictate what they should do and in this case, such men cannot be said to be truly free. They carry out the evil deeds due to a command because they are not given a choice and failure to carry out the orders may result in sever punishment. For example, some perpetrators of atrocities during the Nazi era claim they were only obeying orders. Were such men truly free? Nonetheless, man is a free being and can choose to be whatever he wills.	1,765	ENGLISH	1
In the mid- 1800s, Europeans and other nations became interested in African lands. They used Direct control whose goal was assimilation. In 1853 war broke out between the Ottoman's and the Russians. France and Britain helped They feared that the Russians were becoming too powerful and no longer wanted them obtaining anymore land The Sepoy Mutiny occurred in 1857. It was between the Britains and the Sepoy's. The Sepoy's did not believe in British rule and decided to rebel The Suez Canal was built in 1869. It was designed to connect the Mediterranean Sea and the Red sea to make a more direct trade or shipping route. The Great Game was a race to claim Muslim lands. The race was between the British and the Russians. At the time, the British controlled Afghanistan and they had just signed a peace treaty with the soviet union. The Berlin Conference The Berlin Conference was held in 1884 and it was held to decide on how they were to divide Africa.	<urn:uuid:da753db7-7fbc-4324-9472-a3b5286274a7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/f7858469/imperialism-storyboard--honors-history	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00126.warc.gz	en	0.99069	206	3.734375	4	[ -0.42647236585617065, 0.2638801634311676, 0.128289133310318, -0.24382638931274414, -0.28304317593574524, -0.4055635929107666, 0.07555307447910309, 0.011710410006344318, -0.16340751945972443, -0.02004176378250122, 0.13243553042411804, -0.5370303392410278, 0.0781819224357605, 0.1271239370107...	1	In the mid- 1800s, Europeans and other nations became interested in African lands. They used Direct control whose goal was assimilation. In 1853 war broke out between the Ottoman's and the Russians. France and Britain helped They feared that the Russians were becoming too powerful and no longer wanted them obtaining anymore land The Sepoy Mutiny occurred in 1857. It was between the Britains and the Sepoy's. The Sepoy's did not believe in British rule and decided to rebel The Suez Canal was built in 1869. It was designed to connect the Mediterranean Sea and the Red sea to make a more direct trade or shipping route. The Great Game was a race to claim Muslim lands. The race was between the British and the Russians. At the time, the British controlled Afghanistan and they had just signed a peace treaty with the soviet union. The Berlin Conference The Berlin Conference was held in 1884 and it was held to decide on how they were to divide Africa.	219	ENGLISH	1
(Last Updated on : 24/03/2010) The Mallas were a powerful people of East India at the time of Gautama Buddha. There has been ample mention of the Mallas in Buddhist literature . The Mallas were divided into two confederacies one with headquarters Pava, and the other with headquarters at Kusinara. The territory of the Mallas of Kusinara and Pava was on the mountain slopes to the east of the Sakya land and to the north of the Vajjian confederation. Another town of the Mallas was Anupiya, where Lord Buddha resided for some time. This Anupiya may be the same as the mango-grove called Anupiya, where Gautama had spent the first seven days after his renunciation, on his way to Rajagriha The Mallas belonged to the Kshatriya caste; and they are repeatedly addressed by Lord Buddha as well as by Ananda and others as Vasetthas or Vasisthas showing that, like the Icchavis, they belonged to the Vasistha gotra. The Mallas have been described by Manus as born of a Kshatriya mother and of a Kshatriya father who was a vratya i.e. who had not gone through the ceremony of Vedic initiation at the proper age. Historical records state that Kautaliya believed that the Mallas were a sangha or corporation of which the members called them rajas, just as, the Licchavis did. It is said that the Mallas of Pava and Kusinara, then, had their respective Council-Halls, where all matters, both political and religious, were discussed. The Mahaparinibadna Suttanta has mentioned that there is a set of Purusas among the Mallas of Kusmara. It seems that the Mallas were a martial race and were devoted to manly sports like wrestling. But the Mallas cultivated learning as well as political culture within their tribe. Historical records testify that before the advent of Jainism and Buddhism, the Mallas were worshippers like their neighbours. One of their shrines called Makuta Bandhana, to the east of Kusmara. Jainism found many followers among the Mallas. The Mallas were much attached to the founder of Jainism. Buddhism also attracted many devotees among the Mallas some of whom, like the venerable Dabba, attained a high and respected position among the brethren. It is said that Mallas then met together in their Council-Hall to devise some means of honouring the earthly remains of the Lord in a stable manner, and carried them with music to the shrine of the Jatakas, called the Makuta-bandhana, to the east of their city. The Mallas appear to have usually been on friendly terms with their neighbours, the Licchavis, with whom they had many ties of kinship, though, as was inevitable, there were occasional rivalries between the two States. It has been recorded in History that the Mallas appear to have lost their independence to the ambitious monarch of Magadha , and their dominion was annexed to the Magadhan Empire.	<urn:uuid:06dc8b1a-429e-4a4b-900a-c9cf510a2289>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.indianetzone.com/46/malla_tribe.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00053.warc.gz	en	0.987417	674	3.703125	4	[ -0.033542633056640625, 0.19272421300411224, -0.16323119401931763, -0.157817542552948, -0.4934808611869812, -0.0032179688569158316, 0.5826697945594788, -0.21605455875396729, 0.42649781703948975, 0.06275468319654465, -0.23531216382980347, -0.406735360622406, -0.07491233199834824, 0.213794127...	1	(Last Updated on : 24/03/2010) The Mallas were a powerful people of East India at the time of Gautama Buddha. There has been ample mention of the Mallas in Buddhist literature . The Mallas were divided into two confederacies one with headquarters Pava, and the other with headquarters at Kusinara. The territory of the Mallas of Kusinara and Pava was on the mountain slopes to the east of the Sakya land and to the north of the Vajjian confederation. Another town of the Mallas was Anupiya, where Lord Buddha resided for some time. This Anupiya may be the same as the mango-grove called Anupiya, where Gautama had spent the first seven days after his renunciation, on his way to Rajagriha The Mallas belonged to the Kshatriya caste; and they are repeatedly addressed by Lord Buddha as well as by Ananda and others as Vasetthas or Vasisthas showing that, like the Icchavis, they belonged to the Vasistha gotra. The Mallas have been described by Manus as born of a Kshatriya mother and of a Kshatriya father who was a vratya i.e. who had not gone through the ceremony of Vedic initiation at the proper age. Historical records state that Kautaliya believed that the Mallas were a sangha or corporation of which the members called them rajas, just as, the Licchavis did. It is said that the Mallas of Pava and Kusinara, then, had their respective Council-Halls, where all matters, both political and religious, were discussed. The Mahaparinibadna Suttanta has mentioned that there is a set of Purusas among the Mallas of Kusmara. It seems that the Mallas were a martial race and were devoted to manly sports like wrestling. But the Mallas cultivated learning as well as political culture within their tribe. Historical records testify that before the advent of Jainism and Buddhism, the Mallas were worshippers like their neighbours. One of their shrines called Makuta Bandhana, to the east of Kusmara. Jainism found many followers among the Mallas. The Mallas were much attached to the founder of Jainism. Buddhism also attracted many devotees among the Mallas some of whom, like the venerable Dabba, attained a high and respected position among the brethren. It is said that Mallas then met together in their Council-Hall to devise some means of honouring the earthly remains of the Lord in a stable manner, and carried them with music to the shrine of the Jatakas, called the Makuta-bandhana, to the east of their city. The Mallas appear to have usually been on friendly terms with their neighbours, the Licchavis, with whom they had many ties of kinship, though, as was inevitable, there were occasional rivalries between the two States. It has been recorded in History that the Mallas appear to have lost their independence to the ambitious monarch of Magadha , and their dominion was annexed to the Magadhan Empire.	672	ENGLISH	1
Thomas Paine's "Common Sense" was written in 1776 in order to persuade the colonists to gain independence from Great Britain. His impassioned pamphlet sold over 100,000 copies throughout all of the colonies. The colonists at that time were split in opinion of whether to separate completely with Britain, or to gain reconciliation with Britain. Throughout his essay he provides evidence to give him reason to give up hope on reconciliation with Britain. He also writes this pamphlet in a certain form in order to persuade the reader's opinion. Thomas Paine presents evidence that gives him a basis for losing hope of gaining reconciliation with Great Britain. First of all, Paine tells his readers that he used to want to be peaceful with England, but that after the Battles of Lexington and Concord he realized that the relationship and present circumstances between America and Great Britain had depreciated too much for reconciliation. He also said that Britain would always keep on imposing oppressive laws and taxes, by proving that England has done it to them before and they will not stop. Paine means that if they make peace now, there will be more trouble later. This pamphlet was one of the most important pieces of literature in early America because it was extremely influential to many people throughout all of the American colonies. In "Common Sense", Paine convinces his audience that it is common sense for the colonists to break completely with Great Britain. Hefirst uses the Bible to convince people, considering basically all of the colonists were Christians. He argues that a monarchy is terrible, and to have a king is not only an unsuccessful way to rule a nation, but it is also a sin. He says that the God did not want a king for the people and that God is the only ruler. He also states that independence is much simpler than reconciliation, and that it will be more worth fighting for in	<urn:uuid:21dd949e-ce38-483f-8b3f-238a7bd890bb>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://gemmarketingsolutions.com/common-sense-4/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00243.warc.gz	en	0.982691	371	3.5	4	[ 0.025371909141540527, 0.03886261209845543, 0.34449270367622375, -0.010994984768331051, -0.08574433624744415, -0.31048184633255005, 0.20635774731636047, 0.004094119183719158, 0.10815947502851486, -0.07355343550443649, -0.04460890591144562, -0.24056383967399597, 0.09047297388315201, 0.218037...	1	Thomas Paine's "Common Sense" was written in 1776 in order to persuade the colonists to gain independence from Great Britain. His impassioned pamphlet sold over 100,000 copies throughout all of the colonies. The colonists at that time were split in opinion of whether to separate completely with Britain, or to gain reconciliation with Britain. Throughout his essay he provides evidence to give him reason to give up hope on reconciliation with Britain. He also writes this pamphlet in a certain form in order to persuade the reader's opinion. Thomas Paine presents evidence that gives him a basis for losing hope of gaining reconciliation with Great Britain. First of all, Paine tells his readers that he used to want to be peaceful with England, but that after the Battles of Lexington and Concord he realized that the relationship and present circumstances between America and Great Britain had depreciated too much for reconciliation. He also said that Britain would always keep on imposing oppressive laws and taxes, by proving that England has done it to them before and they will not stop. Paine means that if they make peace now, there will be more trouble later. This pamphlet was one of the most important pieces of literature in early America because it was extremely influential to many people throughout all of the American colonies. In "Common Sense", Paine convinces his audience that it is common sense for the colonists to break completely with Great Britain. Hefirst uses the Bible to convince people, considering basically all of the colonists were Christians. He argues that a monarchy is terrible, and to have a king is not only an unsuccessful way to rule a nation, but it is also a sin. He says that the God did not want a king for the people and that God is the only ruler. He also states that independence is much simpler than reconciliation, and that it will be more worth fighting for in	383	ENGLISH	1
The Red Scare was a point in history where America’s politics and society changed. The Red Scare is most commonly referred to as Truman’s Cold War. It mainly took place from 1945 to 1965, yet its influence can still be seen today. America’s politics drastically changed. After World War II, America pointed all its anger and frustration away from Germany and towards its former ally, Russia. America’s foreign policy was the exact opposite of Russia’s. Nothing proposed in the Senate as a peace plan at the one end of the military budget to the other could be enacted unless it could be demonstrated that the Russians would not like it. On March 25, 1947, Truman passed Executive Order 9835 that launched the Federal Employees Loyalty program. Loyal oaths were given to all federal employees. These oaths were not the only thing that affected federal employees. It got much worse when Eisenhower was elected into office. He said that he thought Truman was being too soft, and passed Executive Order 10450 that mandated that any employees would be immediately suspended for any behavior, activities, or associations which tend to show that the individual is not reliable or trust worthy. Once this Executive Order passed, Eisenhower decided that the order was too lenient and added on to the order. He added that exercising an article of the Bill of Rights as a reason for automatic dismissal. So, any employee that stood before the congressional committee that pleaded the Fifth Amendment, the right not to incriminate him or herself, would be fired. In 1946, Joseph McCarthy was elected to the senate. Before he became a well known public figure, he was tutored by Richard Nixon. Nixon said that he tried to teach McCarthy to show restrain in most political aspects. McCarthy was almost invisible until a historical day in February of 1950. On this day, McCarthy saw how the hunt for communism had taken on a life of its own and seized the opportunity that presented itself. It was in Wheeling, West Virginia that he finally seized this opportunity. McCarthy said that he had a list of 205 names that belonged to the Communist Party that were known to the Secretary of the State and who are still working and shaping the policies at the State Department. McCarthy is very widely known as man who fed on the ambitions of America and held two presidents hostage. Eisenhower is widely known for not liking McCarthy, but Eisenhower never stood up to him because of the fear that he would lose half of his supporter for doing so. McCarthy finally lost his control when he accused the United States Army of holding communists. Army Counsel Joseph N. Welch stood up to him on live television and said that the senator had done enough and had no sense of decency. McCarthy’s career was over. In the weeks following that, the newspapers came up with the term McCarthyism as a way to describe Joseph McCarthy’s type of politics. McCarthyism is defined as political attitude characterized chiefly by...	<urn:uuid:4522e1a8-2823-4daf-a7b7-a15ef74a8da7>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://brightkite.com/essay-on/red-scare-4	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00162.warc.gz	en	0.987121	593	3.796875	4	[ -0.4660836160182953, 0.0016353065147995949, -0.0226014144718647, 0.12946903705596924, 0.18461120128631592, 0.5315788388252258, 0.5800594091415405, 0.12465464323759079, -0.17745403945446014, -0.1567094326019287, 0.4373071789741516, 0.9887704849243164, 0.22053033113479614, 0.4893089234828949...	1	The Red Scare was a point in history where America’s politics and society changed. The Red Scare is most commonly referred to as Truman’s Cold War. It mainly took place from 1945 to 1965, yet its influence can still be seen today. America’s politics drastically changed. After World War II, America pointed all its anger and frustration away from Germany and towards its former ally, Russia. America’s foreign policy was the exact opposite of Russia’s. Nothing proposed in the Senate as a peace plan at the one end of the military budget to the other could be enacted unless it could be demonstrated that the Russians would not like it. On March 25, 1947, Truman passed Executive Order 9835 that launched the Federal Employees Loyalty program. Loyal oaths were given to all federal employees. These oaths were not the only thing that affected federal employees. It got much worse when Eisenhower was elected into office. He said that he thought Truman was being too soft, and passed Executive Order 10450 that mandated that any employees would be immediately suspended for any behavior, activities, or associations which tend to show that the individual is not reliable or trust worthy. Once this Executive Order passed, Eisenhower decided that the order was too lenient and added on to the order. He added that exercising an article of the Bill of Rights as a reason for automatic dismissal. So, any employee that stood before the congressional committee that pleaded the Fifth Amendment, the right not to incriminate him or herself, would be fired. In 1946, Joseph McCarthy was elected to the senate. Before he became a well known public figure, he was tutored by Richard Nixon. Nixon said that he tried to teach McCarthy to show restrain in most political aspects. McCarthy was almost invisible until a historical day in February of 1950. On this day, McCarthy saw how the hunt for communism had taken on a life of its own and seized the opportunity that presented itself. It was in Wheeling, West Virginia that he finally seized this opportunity. McCarthy said that he had a list of 205 names that belonged to the Communist Party that were known to the Secretary of the State and who are still working and shaping the policies at the State Department. McCarthy is very widely known as man who fed on the ambitions of America and held two presidents hostage. Eisenhower is widely known for not liking McCarthy, but Eisenhower never stood up to him because of the fear that he would lose half of his supporter for doing so. McCarthy finally lost his control when he accused the United States Army of holding communists. Army Counsel Joseph N. Welch stood up to him on live television and said that the senator had done enough and had no sense of decency. McCarthy’s career was over. In the weeks following that, the newspapers came up with the term McCarthyism as a way to describe Joseph McCarthy’s type of politics. McCarthyism is defined as political attitude characterized chiefly by...	613	ENGLISH	1
May 25, 1997 Rome also known as the ancient city was the capital of the greatest empire of the ancient world. It was a great and prosperous city that was filled with at least one million people. Many people believe that the height of the city of Rome reached its height near the time that emperor constantius the second had seen it for the first time. When he had seen all the sights such as the sanctuary of Jupiter capitolinus, the public baths, the coliseum and the circus maximus and the dome of the pantheon. And then once he saw the forum built by Trajan he started to complain about all of the wonderful stories he was told about Rome and those stories were not giving Rome enough credit. Julius Caius Caesar lived from a questionable 102? Before Christ44 before Christ , Julius Caesar was a roman statesman and a general. Julius caeser was born into the Julian Gens family one of the oldest aristocratic families in Rome, Julius Caesar was always a member of the democratic or also known as the popular party. In 82 Before Christ., Sulla condemned Julius Caesar, who fled from Rome when Sulla died in 78 Before Christ. Julius Caesar returned back to Rome and began his political career as a member of the popular party. In 69 Before C. Julius Caesar helped Pompey to obtain the supreme command for the war in the East. When Julius Caesar returned to Rome from Spain in 68 Before Christ he created one of his greatest contributions to history the Julian calendar. In 60 Before Christ Julius Caesar organized a union that was known as the First triad, made up of Pompey, commander and chief of the army, Marcus Licinius Crassus the wealthiest person in Rome, and Julius Caesar himself. In the years 58 to 49 Before Christ Julius Caesar made his reputation in the Gallic wars. Caesar made explorations into Britain in 55 and 54 Before Christ and defeated the Britains. By the end of the Gallic wars Julius Caesar had reduced all of Gaul to Roman control. The battles of the Gallic wars Julius Caesar one of the greatest military commanders of all time developed the personal devotion of the Roman legions to him self. Crassus’s death in 53 Before Christ ended the First Triad and put Pompey and Caesar at each others throats. In 50 Before Christ the senate ordered Caesar to disperse his army, but two tribunes faithful to Caesar, 1.Marc Antony and Quintus Cassius Longinus, vetoed the bill. They fled to Caesar, who assembled his army and got the support of the soldiers against the senate. On Jan. 19, 49 Before Christ, Caesar crossed the Rubicon, the stream holding his province from entering Italy, once he crossed this stream the civil war began. Julius Caesars march to Rome was a triumphant one filled with happiness and joy in the Romans part although I cant say that for the Italians. At Pharsala in 48 B.C., Caesar defeated Pompey, when he was defeated he fled to Egypt, where he was killed by Julius Caesar . Caesar, having pursued Pompey to Egypt, remained there for some time, living with Cleopatra who lived from 69 Before Christ30 Before Christ she was the queen of Egypt, and one of the most well known heroines of history. Cleopatra was The daughter of Ptolemy the eleventh, Cleopatra was forced by custom marry her younger brother Ptolemy the twelth. By revolting against Ptolemy the twelth with the help of Julius Caesar, Cleopatra won the kingdom of Egypt although Egypt remained a henchmen of Rome. After Cleopatras husband died, she married another brother, Ptolemy the thirteenth but during this time she was the mistress of Julius Caesar, and in Rome she had a son of which she named Caesarion later named as Ptolemy the fourteenth of which she said was his own son. On Julius Caesars return to Rome, he set about reorganized the living conditions of the people by passing Agrarian laws and also by improving the housing of the Romans . In 44 Before Christ he became dictator for life. This meant until he died he would own and	<urn:uuid:a20822f7-b6d7-4cad-973b-13174c8f164e>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://artscolumbia.org/essays/rome-essay-2-75269/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00441.warc.gz	en	0.981357	861	3.40625	3	[ -0.024868473410606384, 0.34323930740356445, 0.6498477458953857, 0.2935323715209961, -0.43751436471939087, -0.21972277760505676, 0.051447972655296326, 0.4292199909687042, 0.25031083822250366, -0.13262836635112762, -0.04386809468269348, -0.2452547550201416, -0.1057412400841713, 0.35372707247...	1	May 25, 1997 Rome also known as the ancient city was the capital of the greatest empire of the ancient world. It was a great and prosperous city that was filled with at least one million people. Many people believe that the height of the city of Rome reached its height near the time that emperor constantius the second had seen it for the first time. When he had seen all the sights such as the sanctuary of Jupiter capitolinus, the public baths, the coliseum and the circus maximus and the dome of the pantheon. And then once he saw the forum built by Trajan he started to complain about all of the wonderful stories he was told about Rome and those stories were not giving Rome enough credit. Julius Caius Caesar lived from a questionable 102? Before Christ44 before Christ , Julius Caesar was a roman statesman and a general. Julius caeser was born into the Julian Gens family one of the oldest aristocratic families in Rome, Julius Caesar was always a member of the democratic or also known as the popular party. In 82 Before Christ., Sulla condemned Julius Caesar, who fled from Rome when Sulla died in 78 Before Christ. Julius Caesar returned back to Rome and began his political career as a member of the popular party. In 69 Before C. Julius Caesar helped Pompey to obtain the supreme command for the war in the East. When Julius Caesar returned to Rome from Spain in 68 Before Christ he created one of his greatest contributions to history the Julian calendar. In 60 Before Christ Julius Caesar organized a union that was known as the First triad, made up of Pompey, commander and chief of the army, Marcus Licinius Crassus the wealthiest person in Rome, and Julius Caesar himself. In the years 58 to 49 Before Christ Julius Caesar made his reputation in the Gallic wars. Caesar made explorations into Britain in 55 and 54 Before Christ and defeated the Britains. By the end of the Gallic wars Julius Caesar had reduced all of Gaul to Roman control. The battles of the Gallic wars Julius Caesar one of the greatest military commanders of all time developed the personal devotion of the Roman legions to him self. Crassus’s death in 53 Before Christ ended the First Triad and put Pompey and Caesar at each others throats. In 50 Before Christ the senate ordered Caesar to disperse his army, but two tribunes faithful to Caesar, 1.Marc Antony and Quintus Cassius Longinus, vetoed the bill. They fled to Caesar, who assembled his army and got the support of the soldiers against the senate. On Jan. 19, 49 Before Christ, Caesar crossed the Rubicon, the stream holding his province from entering Italy, once he crossed this stream the civil war began. Julius Caesars march to Rome was a triumphant one filled with happiness and joy in the Romans part although I cant say that for the Italians. At Pharsala in 48 B.C., Caesar defeated Pompey, when he was defeated he fled to Egypt, where he was killed by Julius Caesar . Caesar, having pursued Pompey to Egypt, remained there for some time, living with Cleopatra who lived from 69 Before Christ30 Before Christ she was the queen of Egypt, and one of the most well known heroines of history. Cleopatra was The daughter of Ptolemy the eleventh, Cleopatra was forced by custom marry her younger brother Ptolemy the twelth. By revolting against Ptolemy the twelth with the help of Julius Caesar, Cleopatra won the kingdom of Egypt although Egypt remained a henchmen of Rome. After Cleopatras husband died, she married another brother, Ptolemy the thirteenth but during this time she was the mistress of Julius Caesar, and in Rome she had a son of which she named Caesarion later named as Ptolemy the fourteenth of which she said was his own son. On Julius Caesars return to Rome, he set about reorganized the living conditions of the people by passing Agrarian laws and also by improving the housing of the Romans . In 44 Before Christ he became dictator for life. This meant until he died he would own and	904	ENGLISH	1
According to President Trump, “They bring drugs, crime, some may be good.” In his campaign he was against immigrants to an extent that he built a wall to keep them out. He said, “Without a wall, there was no country,” and he expanded deportation. He wanted to end catch and release of families. Hence, the zero tolerance policy that facilitated separations of families at the border through John Kelly from homeland security secretary. The zero tolerance policy is on the extreme side. More children being ripped off from their families have resulted in horrifying stories where a baby, only one year old, is separated from its mother while others cry in separate rooms to be reunited to their family members. This is a serious violation of children rights and an arbitrary interference in the lives of families. There are better more humane solutions to immigration than creating a public health crisis of individuals who are at risk of depression at a young age. 1.) What does it say about the people who are willing to risk their lives, often leading to death, disease, and rape (6 in 10 girls are raped) in order to make the journey from countries like El Salvador to the United States to seek asylum? These individuals go through horrendous times moving and it takes courage and persistence. For some of the children who had to cope with the murders in El Salvador, they are forced to seek the help of a psychologist to deal with the traumatic memories. These children get mentally stressed because of the nightmares. The asylum processes are taking too long but these families are hopeful that they would regain their freedom away from threat by gangs and would finally have peace. The parents are afraid to be separated from their children and are getting away from the endangered places so that their children can have a future. 2.) How has the Separation Policy affected the children who have been separated from their parents? Separation of children has been done for long time about 34 years but that was when the child’s life was in danger. Now it is on a broader scale. The children are sent in shelters- better than the detention centers. These children will have lasting traumatic effects. One child and her mother were taken to an ice box jail- cold as the name suggests. Then Jocelyn was separated from her daughter within 20 hours. But they told Jocelyn’s daughter nothing just that she was being taken to a shelter and that she would never see her again. Jocelyn’s daughter cries in this video a clear depiction of the pain she suffered. For the young children in detained in separate cells from their parents, they did not know what was going on and were distraught. We also see that children as young as one year olds have no adult taking care of them and are treated same as other older children. In a tape released children cry and some wish that they could at least call their aunts. 3.) Clearly, there is no easy solution to fixing the broken immigration system; and while Trump and his supporters feel that border enforcement is never enough, the left believe that it is never humanitarian enough. What do you think would be the best way to handle this situation? For years family detention have been seen as the only options. Some like New Delhi centers however, were built like prisons; high walls, high lights, high fences and harsh conditions. However, I believe the best way into fixing this broken system is to first help these immigrants by donating to these individuals. There should also be more funds directed to ensuring that the asylum system works in response to the crisis. Working closely with Mexico whose perspective under its new leadership has changed to focus on economic development and human rights is a move into the right direction. Issuance of work permits to the immigrants support Mexico’s shortage of labor. Though their capacity to implement these goals are insufficient, training and support could be offered by the United Nations Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) as well as the Migration International Organization (IOM) to strengthens Mexico’s ability to support its asylum and immigration agency. PLACE THIS ORDER OR A SIMILAR ORDER WITH GRADE VALLEY TODAY AND GET AN AMAZING DISCOUNT	<urn:uuid:0722a783-cde7-4931-9d0d-7487e9ec1ea5>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.brookwriters.com/problems-associated-with-immigration-analysis/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251796127.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129102701-20200129132701-00119.warc.gz	en	0.983489	848	3.28125	3	[ 0.10517184436321259, -0.01747092604637146, 0.21940982341766357, -0.23264582455158234, 0.3477674126625061, 0.30242013931274414, -0.12194840610027313, -0.03981957584619522, 0.020413873717188835, 0.11099131405353546, 0.32681065797805786, 0.45488935708999634, 0.008815731853246689, 0.1453691124...	1	According to President Trump, “They bring drugs, crime, some may be good.” In his campaign he was against immigrants to an extent that he built a wall to keep them out. He said, “Without a wall, there was no country,” and he expanded deportation. He wanted to end catch and release of families. Hence, the zero tolerance policy that facilitated separations of families at the border through John Kelly from homeland security secretary. The zero tolerance policy is on the extreme side. More children being ripped off from their families have resulted in horrifying stories where a baby, only one year old, is separated from its mother while others cry in separate rooms to be reunited to their family members. This is a serious violation of children rights and an arbitrary interference in the lives of families. There are better more humane solutions to immigration than creating a public health crisis of individuals who are at risk of depression at a young age. 1.) What does it say about the people who are willing to risk their lives, often leading to death, disease, and rape (6 in 10 girls are raped) in order to make the journey from countries like El Salvador to the United States to seek asylum? These individuals go through horrendous times moving and it takes courage and persistence. For some of the children who had to cope with the murders in El Salvador, they are forced to seek the help of a psychologist to deal with the traumatic memories. These children get mentally stressed because of the nightmares. The asylum processes are taking too long but these families are hopeful that they would regain their freedom away from threat by gangs and would finally have peace. The parents are afraid to be separated from their children and are getting away from the endangered places so that their children can have a future. 2.) How has the Separation Policy affected the children who have been separated from their parents? Separation of children has been done for long time about 34 years but that was when the child’s life was in danger. Now it is on a broader scale. The children are sent in shelters- better than the detention centers. These children will have lasting traumatic effects. One child and her mother were taken to an ice box jail- cold as the name suggests. Then Jocelyn was separated from her daughter within 20 hours. But they told Jocelyn’s daughter nothing just that she was being taken to a shelter and that she would never see her again. Jocelyn’s daughter cries in this video a clear depiction of the pain she suffered. For the young children in detained in separate cells from their parents, they did not know what was going on and were distraught. We also see that children as young as one year olds have no adult taking care of them and are treated same as other older children. In a tape released children cry and some wish that they could at least call their aunts. 3.) Clearly, there is no easy solution to fixing the broken immigration system; and while Trump and his supporters feel that border enforcement is never enough, the left believe that it is never humanitarian enough. What do you think would be the best way to handle this situation? For years family detention have been seen as the only options. Some like New Delhi centers however, were built like prisons; high walls, high lights, high fences and harsh conditions. However, I believe the best way into fixing this broken system is to first help these immigrants by donating to these individuals. There should also be more funds directed to ensuring that the asylum system works in response to the crisis. Working closely with Mexico whose perspective under its new leadership has changed to focus on economic development and human rights is a move into the right direction. Issuance of work permits to the immigrants support Mexico’s shortage of labor. Though their capacity to implement these goals are insufficient, training and support could be offered by the United Nations Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) as well as the Migration International Organization (IOM) to strengthens Mexico’s ability to support its asylum and immigration agency. PLACE THIS ORDER OR A SIMILAR ORDER WITH GRADE VALLEY TODAY AND GET AN AMAZING DISCOUNT	832	ENGLISH	1
How did Harper Lee contribute to American Literature? Harper Lee's greatest contribution to American Literature has to be To Kill a Mockingbird. The book's impact was felt then as it is today, echoed in reviews that the book received: "A hundred pounds of sermons on tolerance, or an equal measure of invective deploring the lack of it, will weigh far less in the scale of enlightenment than a mere 18 ounces of a new fiction bearing the title To Kill a Mockingbird." As she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, former President Bush spoke of Harper Lee's contribution to American Literature: Forty-six years after winning the Pulitzer... (The entire section contains 385 words.) check Approved by eNotes Editorial Harper Lee was an amazing woman. Her contributions to the American society in general in the mid-1900's are still highly viewed today. She is most known for her contributions to American Literature, however she also was a well-known airline reservation clerk. Her greatest novel to date is To Kill A Mockingbird, published in 1960. This novel received great critical attention when it was written and even up to today. The novel is about a court case in which a black man (Tom Robinson) is wrongly accused of raping a girl. The story is narrated from the point of view of Tom's lawyer's daughter, Scout. Perhaps the greatest reason as to why this novel is a great contribution to American literature is because it was written and published during the Civil Rights Movement, and the entire novel is about a black man who does not receive proper treatment from others because of the color of his skin. As a controversial topic, it is reasonable to see why it gained so much attention.	<urn:uuid:50a4fc35-2764-4665-8ffc-925b94ea3c12>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/how-did-harper-lee-contribute-american-literature-471870?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=topics_related_hh_questions&en_category=internal_campaign	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251700988.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127143516-20200127173516-00094.warc.gz	en	0.982237	354	3.6875	4	[ -0.006807435303926468, 0.4867165982723236, 0.048437606543302536, 0.14927516877651215, 0.20193593204021454, 0.40721821784973145, 0.29160305857658386, 0.44653525948524475, -0.17360973358154297, 0.1599864512681961, 0.13834017515182495, 0.18567444384098053, -0.06821314990520477, 0.046383880078...	1	How did Harper Lee contribute to American Literature? Harper Lee's greatest contribution to American Literature has to be To Kill a Mockingbird. The book's impact was felt then as it is today, echoed in reviews that the book received: "A hundred pounds of sermons on tolerance, or an equal measure of invective deploring the lack of it, will weigh far less in the scale of enlightenment than a mere 18 ounces of a new fiction bearing the title To Kill a Mockingbird." As she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom, former President Bush spoke of Harper Lee's contribution to American Literature: Forty-six years after winning the Pulitzer... (The entire section contains 385 words.) check Approved by eNotes Editorial Harper Lee was an amazing woman. Her contributions to the American society in general in the mid-1900's are still highly viewed today. She is most known for her contributions to American Literature, however she also was a well-known airline reservation clerk. Her greatest novel to date is To Kill A Mockingbird, published in 1960. This novel received great critical attention when it was written and even up to today. The novel is about a court case in which a black man (Tom Robinson) is wrongly accused of raping a girl. The story is narrated from the point of view of Tom's lawyer's daughter, Scout. Perhaps the greatest reason as to why this novel is a great contribution to American literature is because it was written and published during the Civil Rights Movement, and the entire novel is about a black man who does not receive proper treatment from others because of the color of his skin. As a controversial topic, it is reasonable to see why it gained so much attention.	356	ENGLISH	1
Cottonwood Elementary 6th grade students were recently assigned a science project that was taken to another level, in a literal sense. Cottonwood teacher Emily Lehnardt assigned her students the task of designing a product that would make it easier for astronauts to live and work in space. Mrs. Lehnardt is also a NASA ambassador, and her students’ imaginations took them places she never would have thought. She reminded her students that there are no bad ideas, and to think outside of the box. Failure can be helpful–just because it didn’t work right away here is still room to improve and learn to work through some problems. One student designed a project that melts and heats polar ice using a series of chambers, along with a small shower for astronauts to use after working out. Another group designed a small water heater to use in space. Another student created a solar panel to heat up water. The solar panel/spinner was the energy holder and was connected to the water tank. This project took around a week and half, and Mrs. Lehnardt saw engagement in every student. Her students really enjoyed this project and worked hard with excitement. Students were able to put their ideas to life and create the ideas they had. They were able to understand why they were doing this assignment and see how it really could be used in the real world. Plus, the whole activity fit in perfectly with a specific standard, and her students soared from there. Awesome work, to Mrs. Lehnardt and her students!	<urn:uuid:8eb7d30c-e998-46a1-859a-4b35ed354788>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.graniteschools.org/blog/2020/01/14/sixth-grade-students-work-to-improve-life-for-astronauts/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00146.warc.gz	en	0.984689	321	3.65625	4	[ -0.22789372503757477, -0.04936153441667557, 0.15577030181884766, -0.39079564809799194, -0.10556766390800476, -0.04838148131966591, -0.023139458149671555, 0.31951668858528137, -0.2992227375507355, 0.04672769457101822, 0.7059270143508911, -0.04241454601287842, -0.24171145260334015, 0.1234731...	14	Cottonwood Elementary 6th grade students were recently assigned a science project that was taken to another level, in a literal sense. Cottonwood teacher Emily Lehnardt assigned her students the task of designing a product that would make it easier for astronauts to live and work in space. Mrs. Lehnardt is also a NASA ambassador, and her students’ imaginations took them places she never would have thought. She reminded her students that there are no bad ideas, and to think outside of the box. Failure can be helpful–just because it didn’t work right away here is still room to improve and learn to work through some problems. One student designed a project that melts and heats polar ice using a series of chambers, along with a small shower for astronauts to use after working out. Another group designed a small water heater to use in space. Another student created a solar panel to heat up water. The solar panel/spinner was the energy holder and was connected to the water tank. This project took around a week and half, and Mrs. Lehnardt saw engagement in every student. Her students really enjoyed this project and worked hard with excitement. Students were able to put their ideas to life and create the ideas they had. They were able to understand why they were doing this assignment and see how it really could be used in the real world. Plus, the whole activity fit in perfectly with a specific standard, and her students soared from there. Awesome work, to Mrs. Lehnardt and her students!	310	ENGLISH	1
Kurucz Sándor was around 7 when, in 1938, German soldiers came to his town in what was then Czechoslovakia. One by one, Sándor’s friends and neighbors, who were members of the Roma ethnic group, were taken away by the Einsatzgruppen, who were Nazi security forces. They were supposedly taken to check their IDs, but they never came back. By the age of 10, Sándor had seen many of his remaining neighbors murdered. But the boy had musical talent, and the soldiers liked to listen to him play. On stage, hands trembling as he held his violin, he would witness the horrors of the German Reich, seeing Roma women led past his stage to be raped by the Nazis. Sándor, who died in 2000, was able to survive Nazi persecution because of his music, but hundreds of thousands of Roma were murdered during the Holocaust. Many more faced persecution, displacement, forced labor, forced medical experimentation and sterilization, violence and imprisonment.	<urn:uuid:cfe86b3e-ea21-403f-ab98-078a89469470>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.romatimes.news/index.php/en/categories/antigypsyism/4304-the-persecution-of-the-roma-is-often-left-out-of-the-holocaust-story-victims-families-are-fighting-to-change-that	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00051.warc.gz	en	0.996261	216	3.609375	4	[ 0.08521833270788193, 0.6321864128112793, -0.092156782746315, 0.21624323725700378, 0.2589344084262848, 0.26090002059936523, 0.2298336923122406, 0.2271839827299118, -0.06890209764242172, -0.405691921710968, 0.3155301809310913, -0.2501313388347626, 0.05100053921341896, 0.2627565264701843, -...	2	Kurucz Sándor was around 7 when, in 1938, German soldiers came to his town in what was then Czechoslovakia. One by one, Sándor’s friends and neighbors, who were members of the Roma ethnic group, were taken away by the Einsatzgruppen, who were Nazi security forces. They were supposedly taken to check their IDs, but they never came back. By the age of 10, Sándor had seen many of his remaining neighbors murdered. But the boy had musical talent, and the soldiers liked to listen to him play. On stage, hands trembling as he held his violin, he would witness the horrors of the German Reich, seeing Roma women led past his stage to be raped by the Nazis. Sándor, who died in 2000, was able to survive Nazi persecution because of his music, but hundreds of thousands of Roma were murdered during the Holocaust. Many more faced persecution, displacement, forced labor, forced medical experimentation and sterilization, violence and imprisonment.	214	ENGLISH	1
The Long March 长征 cháng zhēng 1934-35 A Communist cadre leader addressing survivors of the Long March. Image available under a Creative Commons License ➚ Rarely does one historical event have such an impact. The Long March of 1935 can be compared with the Dunkirk evacuation ➚ and the Cuban Missile Crisis ➚. The after effects reverberated on for 50 years and shaped China's position in the world. Although historians can agree on its importance, there the unanimity ends, the facts of the Long March continue to be hotly debated. By dogged determination and sheer good luck the Communists escaped their doom, surrounded and outnumbered at the Jiangxi Soviet to arrive at Shaanxi as war-hardened leaders to drive forward Communist Party policy for fifty years. The veterans of the Long March held the reins of power for the rest of their lifetimes. They gave an outward show of solidarity and unity which bestowed China with much needed stability and a springboard for rapid economic development. Shared hardship forged bonds of loyalty and understanding. Just as importantly Mao Zedong emerged from the Long March as a wily and effective leader who went on to lead the party and then the country for 35 years without much opposition. Although unintentional, it did turn out to be a very Long March, covering the distance of New York to San Francisco – and back 6,000 miles [9,656 kms] in just one year. The events of the Long March became such a potent symbol of Communist Chinese determination that no-one was permitted to question its achievements. The spirit of the Long March was for many years used to urge people to greater effort, to honor their sacrifice. Any suggestion that the Long Marchers fell short of heroism was regarded as deeply unpatriotic; making it hard to uncover the true facts. At times some of the marchers did not live up to the high ideals, and some events were over-dramatized for propaganda purposes. However even if the achievements Long March were not as impressive as has been claimed the symbolic power has been just as important. The GMD (KMT) Threat Zhu De and CMC Chairman Mao Zedong (left) , accompanied by Brigadier Wang Zhen reviewed the troops,1931. Image available under a Creative Commons License ➚ The annihilation campaigns of the early 1930s led by Chiang Kaishek of the Guomindang (GMD) /Kuomintang (KMT) were the reason for the Long March. His view was that the Communists were terrorists and deserved no mercy, they were not ‘honorable’ opponents. His decision to exterminate rather than capture them and put them on trial certainly added to Communist determination, it was a life and death struggle. In October 1930, a GMD commander He Jian captured Mao's wife Yang Kaihui and their son Mao Anying. Mao Anying was forced to watch the torture and execution of his mother; Zhu De's first wife Wu Ruolin was arrested and executed - such was the brutality of the GMD. A massacre in Shanghai on 12th April 1927 of about 5,000 unsuspecting Communists (the 'White Terror ➚') is one of the worst atrocities of the campaign. Chiang was seeking to bring China under his control, he either attacked or negotiated with the many local warlords who ruled much of China during this period. The small pockets of Communists were an unwelcome irritation jeopardizing a united Republic under his leadership. Here is an example of the propaganda used against them: “Chiang Kaishek has come to save you. Only the terrorist leaders Zhu De and Mao Zedong will be killed... Rise up quickly and kill all the red terrorists to regain your freedom. Terrorist soldiers come quickly to join the Revolutionary Army. Each brigand who comes with a rifle will be rewarded. Red terrorists are low and mean.” Comintern military adviser German Otto Braun known by Chinese name Li De. Image available under a Creative Commons License ➚ In the 1930s the Communists had been driven out of the cities following poorly thought out campaigns to capture and convert the cities to Communism based on Moscow's strategy for revolution. The Communists held out in a few rural areas (Jiangxi and Eyuwan ➚, Hunan) where they menaced the region with guerrilla raids. The Jiangxi Soviet founded in October 1927 was the most successful and it was here under Zhou Enlai's leadership that they came under a series of determined attacks by the GMD. At one time Mao Zedong (in disguise) was captured and released after a ransom was paid. The Communists took the pragmatic choice of alliances with local bandits who knew the area well. Zhu De became established as the effective and well respected military commander. The partnership of Zhu De and Mao Zedong was complimentary, Zhu headed the military operations while Mao planned and developed strategy, the bond was so close that the leadership was referred to as ‘Zhu-Mao’. Successful guerrilla tactics were developed and made famous by the mantra: “The enemy advances, we retreat; the enemy camps, we harass; the enemy tires, we attack; the enemy retreats, we attack.”. This was allied with the Three Rules of Discipline: “Obey orders; Don’t take from workers or peasants; Hand in everything taken from landlords and gentry”. [Note: a Soviet is a general term for an area under revolutionary, communist control and has no ‘Russian’ connotation.] Their inspiration came from previous ‘peasant’ led campaigns in Chinese history. Zhe De as a boy, heard of the efforts of the Taiping rebels to bring reform and learned about their military strategy 共产党 gòng chǎn dǎng. In the 1920s the ‘poor peasants’ represented 80% of rural population had been crushed by ruinous rent and interest rates from landlords and the Jiangxi soviet had tapped into a groundswell of grassroots anger at such exploitation. Their enemies the Nationalists or GMD were also republicans, and many Communists had served under them, including Zhu De and Zhou Enlai. However their vision was focused on industrial development in the cities not bringing relief to the majority who toiled in the fields. Chiang Kaishek had emerged from Sun Yatsen's shadow as the strongman who would, by force, unite and modernize China. Mount Gongga, Sichuan The Long March went over mountains almost as high as this The GMD strategy was to encircle and then close in on their opponents. After repulsing four major campaigns, the fifth launched in September 1933 under German and Russian guidance built block-houses that could withstand guerrilla attack and offer safe fallback positions from counter-attack. About 900,000 GMD soldiers hemmed in about 100,000 Communists. The Communists decided that their position was untenable and they must break-out or be killed. A long journey begins with a single step The Communists had no idea that the March to the West would become an epic Long March. Their options were always dictated by limited opportunities whenever they arose. The Western portion of the GMD's encirclement was judged weakest and so on 16th October 1934 they broke out towards Guizhou with the aim of turning north to join a Soviet in North-west Hunan. 6,000 troops were left behind at Jiangxi to disguise the break-out, it took a vital few weeks before the GMD worked out that most had left. The remnant fought a desperate rearguard effort. Mao Zedong's own brother Mao Zetan was one who stayed behind and was captured and executed on April 25th 1935. The start of the Long March The March was immensely grueling, often covering 17 miles [27 kms] each day on foot, day after day through mountainous terrain and severe weather. Many marches were at night to avoid enemy detection and aerial bombing. On average they took one day's rest for every 114 miles [183 kms] covered. Some of the leaders traveled on horseback except for the steepest terrain. Some of the sick, including Mao who suffered from malaria, was carried by stretcher at least part of the way. The very sick were left behind in the care of the villagers. Only one fully Western trained doctor accompanied them. Most of the wives and children were left behind but some of the wives of the leaders were the exception including Mao's He Zizhen ➚ and Zhu De's Kang Keqing ➚. Some boy soldiers as young as 11 took part. It is estimated 53% were aged 16-23; 44% 24-40; and only 4% over 40 years old. Only about a quarter were actually members of the Communist party. Discipline was strict, soldiers were sometimes executed for disobeying orders. Soldiers could not steal from the locals, who they relied on for their welfare and defense. Many non-combatants traveled with the soldiers; they needed to take everything with them so the entourage included tailors; cobblers; printers; doctors; gunsmiths etc.. They carried substantial amounts of gold and silver to pay for supplies along the way. Initially they carried heavy equipment including printing presses, but these were soon abandoned as they were impractical to carry over the mountains. The non-military and the leaders usually traveled in the central portion protected on all sides by military units. Mao Zedong during Long March. 1934-1936. Image available under a Creative Commons License ➚ The total numbers involved in the March are hard to tie down as many left and many joined along the way. About 60,000 set out together with 20,000 non-combatants and only about 7,000 reached Shaanxi. Part of the Communist effort was to spread support, so leaving people behind to organize local resistance was part of the plan. They covered about 6,000 miles [9,656 kms] through remote Western China and lost many men to the weather and terrain. The crossing of the Xiang River costs many lives, how many is open to debate some say up to 50,000 in 5 days, the then Comintern ➚ leader Otto Braun ➚ took the blame for this debacle. Under Mao's leadership the army took efforts to keep the rural peasants on their side. Each soldier was inculcated with the eight rules: 1) Speak politely and help people whenever you can; 2) Return doors and straw matting to their owners [doors were used as beds]; 3) Pay for any damage caused; 4) Pay a fair price for all goods; 5) Be sanitary; build a latrine away from houses; 6) Don't take liberties with the women; 7) Don't ill-treat prisoners; 8) Don't damage the crops. The Army seemed to have generally kept to these principles but in areas where the locals were entirely hostile then they did whatever was needed to survive. A pivotal moment came when the 1st Front Army reached Zunyi, in northern Guizhou. For once the GMD were not in hot pursuit and the leadership reflected upon their position and tactics. Here on 6th Jan 1935 Mao was given military leadership of the Long March, some say ➚ he also took leadership of the whole Chinese Communist Party (CCP). It seems Mao later used this event to legitimize his control of the Communist Party against the claims of rivals. This seems a shrewd political re-writing of events, it is most unlikely that he was given such a command as only a few of the CCP leadership were present. Up until then they were led by the strategy of Russian advisers and Russian trained officers such as Wang Ming ➚. Mao's guerrilla tactics at Jiangxi had proven far more successful than the urban revolutions advocated by Otto Braun ➚ (known by Chinese name Li De). The meeting rejected the Russian advice and backed Mao's leadership. Long March crosses the Yangzi River A woman walking her herd of cows, Jinsha jiang, Yunnan, 2011. Image by timquijano ➚ available under a Creative Commons License ➚ Their initial plan was to join up with a Soviet in Sichuan, but GMD forces held all the crossings over the Yangzi, and the GMD expected them to make for the crossing at Chongqing. So they were forced to break out West into Yunnan to cross the river there and take the long route through mountains into northern Sichuan. It was on this trek that the Long Marchers met their hardest challenges. They had to take the heavily defended crossings of the Yangzi and Dadu rivers. In Yunnan, where the Yangzi is called the Jinsha ‘The River of Golden Sands’ they made a brave crossing at Jiaopingdu 皎平渡 taking ten days non-stop for everyone to cross in a handful of small boats. After crossing into Sichuan they came under attack from the local non-Han Chinese tribes particularly the Yi ('Lolo') people and they were subject to skirmishes with them. The tribes had suffered badly at the hands of GMD and viewed all Han Chinese as enemies. A key factor that gave the Communists the edge during the march was the use of radio communications. Intercepting GMD communications enabled the group to remain one crucial step ahead of their GMD pursuers. The Luding Bridge over the Dadu River in Luding County, Sichuan. Image by fsyzh ➚ available under a Creative Commons License ➚ The taking of the Luding bridge at Dadu has been portrayed as the most heroic event of the Long March. It was not actually quite so difficult as was described but even so it was another occasion when the GMD thought they had the Red Army trapped and GMD victory inevitable. It was here that a Taiping Army had been blocked at the river crossing and annihilated 70 years previously. Good luck played its part, one stick of dynamite could have brought down the bridge and trapped the Communists. However the locals did not want to lose their precious bridge and instead they just removed some of the planking, believing that would prove an adequate defense. It was not, the Communists crawled over the chains that hung precariously over the surging water; even though under heavy gunfire they managed to take control of the crossing. On many occasions the local warlords who ruled Western China although technically loyal to GMD often made a more selfish calculation; if they attacked the Communists they risked weakening their own forces which were vital to the warlord's power, and so the attacks ordered by the GMD on the Long Marchers were often half-hearted. The Communists exploited the rivalries within the GMD controlled areas to choose a route through the territory of the least 'loyal' warlord. Mao's tactical genius mis-directed the GMD on many occasions, with a series of feints and apparent about turns he successfully hid his intended strategy leaving Chiang Kaishek continually wrong-footed. Zhang Guotao (left) and Mao Zedong (right) in Yan'an. 1937. Image available under a Creative Commons License ➚ Many men were lost crossing the snow covered mountains of Sichuan, a high proportion of the followers were southerners unused to the bitter cold of the Great Snow Mountain 夹金山 which rises to 13,497 feet [4,114 meters]. Many had just straw shoes for footwear. This was one area where they were hindered rather than aided by the local tribes. Starvation and fatigue took many victims. When they met up with the 4th Route Army they discovered that Zhang Guotao ➚ had been forced out of their Soviet area in Sichuan by the GMD. Zhang had a much larger army (40,000 compared to Mao's 10,000) and it seems he would not accept Mao's overall leadership and what should have been a great celebration turned decidedly chilly. Zhang's style of leadership was much closer to the GMD model, he seemed to Mao's group an opportunist warlord in the making. His army had not been subject to the same horrors as the 1st Route Army. A break in contact with Comintern's leadership in Moscow allowed the rivalry for leadership to continue between him and Mao; agreements were made only to be immediately broken. Mao led his much reduced 1st Route Army with some 4th Route Army personnel north to Shaanxi while Zhang took a route towards Chengdu and then further west in Qinghai refusing Mao's orders to move north. Zhu De was apparently held against his will as hostage by Zhang although the truth of this is disputed. The marshy grasslands of north-eastern Sichuan took a heavy toll of few who had so far survived the march. Mao describes it as his darkest hour, there was no food or clean water and the marsh was treacherous, despite being August, the nights were cold with snow and the wretched soldiers had to sleep squatting on grassy tussocks as there were no trees, no dry land, no firewood. The soldiers that did not starve to death took desperate measures to find sustenance. The local Tibetan tribes had fled leaving nothing of value behind. Some say that the PRC took revenge for their ill treatment when Tibet was overrun in 1951. As many died in the grasslands as on the high mountains. Zhang's column of troops turned back finding it too arduous a passage. Zhou Enlai and others decided to break away from Zhang to rejoin Mao. The First and Fourth Route armies went their separate ways. What turned out to be the last major hurdle was the Lazikou Pass on the Bailongjiang (White Dragon River) in NE Sichuan where a narrow defile between cliffs barred access to the north-east. It was heavily defended by the GMD and a frontal assault did not succeed. Once again Mao chose a daring strategy to take an apparently impregnable river valley. He sent climbers up the steep cliff at night to bypass the defenses and take the defenders by surprise. Arrival in Shaanxi The remaining lean and hardened stragglers at last reached one of the very few Communist controlled areas - Zhidan (aka Bao'an) in northern Shaanxi. It was a good strategic base far away from GMD and later Japanese forces. It was much closer to overland routes to the USSR from where they could receive much needed supplies. The friable loess soil allowed them to easily build caves offering secure cover from air raids. January 1939 He Long and Nie Rongzhen in Fuping. Image available under a Creative Commons License ➚ Shaanxi had been ravaged by famine in the 1920s when as many as 3 million had starved to death. It proved fertile ground for the Communist message of the reform of land ownership. An important historical perspective is that for hundreds of years revolution took place in southern China, not the north, this may have been a decisive factor in the years that followed. Certainly it helped the Communists take Manchuria when Japan was defeated. Here they were joined by another Red Army completing their own Long March, the 2nd Front Army led by He Long ➚ 贺龙 had set off from Hunan in November 1935, by June 1936 it met and joined Zhang's army. They took a more westerly route through Yunnan traveling through Lijiang. Their trials and tribulations have not been recorded in anything like the level of detail as Mao's group. Move to Yan'an In December 1936, the Communist H.Q. moved to Yan'an. In a coincidence of Chinese history that would not have been lost on the CCP leadership it was at a village near Yan'an that Li Zicheng was born, he was a rebel leader who brought down the Ming dynasty in 1644. Here Mao developed policies that centered on self-criticism and self-improvement that were imposed rigorously; some were adapted from those of the Taiping Rebels. Zhou Enlai was one among many who were forced to openly proclaim their mistakes. Decisions were made democratically and there was gender equality. Land reform was initially limited to capping rents rather than redistributing land ownership. Then the leadership threat to Mao of Zhang Guotao ➚ was conveniently removed when Zhang led an ill-planned campaign into Xinjiang to be wiped out by GMD backed Muslim warlords. The threat of a new GMD encirclement and annihilation campaign of the Shaanxi Soviet was called off only because of the invasion of the Japanese in 1937. At this time the GMD must have thought they had the victory, the Communist bases in southern China had been wiped out; the Communist party was restricted to a few small rural areas in the far north; and the size of the Communist party was at its lowest ebb of 40,000 members. The story of the Communists after the Long March demonstrates how a small but focused force can take on a larger and better equipped enemy. The legacy of the Long March Bo Gu, Zhu De, Zhou Enlai and Mao Zedong. Northern Shaanxi 1930s. Image available under a Creative Commons License ➚ The legacy of the Long March was immense in many ways: the leadership role of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) was foremost - the heroism and dedication of the Army led to the belief that ‘impossible’ projects could be achieved; Mao's leadership position went without serious challenge for the next forty years and it represented an all-Chinese modern achievement unifying the people. Discipline and loyalty within the PLA allowed sweeping reforms to be introduced quickly and efficiently bypassing the stalling tactics of the centuries old civil service. Mao's guerrilla tactics were applied to the country as a whole - take the unexpected way to achieve the inconceivable - for example the Great Leap Forward. He continued to rely more on ordinary peasants than the intellectual elite that he deeply distrusted. Mao's unchallenged grip on power was immense, it is a rare event in world politics to see such long term leadership. Although Zhu De took a back seat after 1949 the other Long March leaders were given key positions in the PRC; including Zhou Enlai, Lin Biao, Deng Xiaoping, Liu Shaoqi and Peng Dehuai. However their comradeship and sacrifice did not save them from the madness of the Cultural Revolution 1966-75, Liu Shaoqi, He Long, Peng Dehuai were all tortured and killed, even Zhou and Deng were under house arrest and narrowly escaped death. The New Long March In late 1966 at the start of the Cultural Revolution many teenage Red Guards recreated the Long March as the ‘New Long March ➚’ is a show of solidarity with the sufferings of the original Long Marchers. Groups from all over China converged on the Jiangxi Soviet area forming mass camps. Unfortunately an outbreak of meningitis caused the authorities to break up the camps and send the youngsters (some only twelve years old) back home. At the Jiangxi Soviet and during the Long March the leadership and tactics of the Russian trained advisers came under scrutiny. The Chinese Communist leadership took the decisive step of developing their own Chinese ideas breaking free of Comintern control. The rivalry of China and Russia proved immensely influential in the years that followed. What emerged was a rural based revolution, with a distrust of all that is urban, ancient and foreign; the Long Marchers were not great international travelers, both Mao and Lin Biao had only been briefly visited one foreign country - Russia. During the Long March the leadership learned at first hand the antipathy of minority people at the fringes of China, it became a priority to bring them into the Han Chinese world. The survivors of the Long March had learned that group effort was essential, personal ambitions and differences were put aside when the greater good demanded it. It set the tone for much of the next phase of Chinese history. Copyright © Chinasage 2012 to 2020 Downloading information about character	<urn:uuid:49347b16-26c0-4aa3-a0c1-ed61faac0673>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://chinasage.info/the-long-march.htm	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601628.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121074002-20200121103002-00294.warc.gz	en	0.983331	4,994	3.484375	3	[ -0.2784825563430786, 0.39476045966148376, 0.1367185264825821, 0.5629792213439941, 0.07570172846317291, 0.3297114670276642, -0.20887279510498047, 0.07366085797548294, -0.0270022451877594, -0.3045558035373688, 0.5377421379089355, 0.13983485102653503, 0.25786998867988586, 0.5187196731567383, ...	2	The Long March 长征 cháng zhēng 1934-35 A Communist cadre leader addressing survivors of the Long March. Image available under a Creative Commons License ➚ Rarely does one historical event have such an impact. The Long March of 1935 can be compared with the Dunkirk evacuation ➚ and the Cuban Missile Crisis ➚. The after effects reverberated on for 50 years and shaped China's position in the world. Although historians can agree on its importance, there the unanimity ends, the facts of the Long March continue to be hotly debated. By dogged determination and sheer good luck the Communists escaped their doom, surrounded and outnumbered at the Jiangxi Soviet to arrive at Shaanxi as war-hardened leaders to drive forward Communist Party policy for fifty years. The veterans of the Long March held the reins of power for the rest of their lifetimes. They gave an outward show of solidarity and unity which bestowed China with much needed stability and a springboard for rapid economic development. Shared hardship forged bonds of loyalty and understanding. Just as importantly Mao Zedong emerged from the Long March as a wily and effective leader who went on to lead the party and then the country for 35 years without much opposition. Although unintentional, it did turn out to be a very Long March, covering the distance of New York to San Francisco – and back 6,000 miles [9,656 kms] in just one year. The events of the Long March became such a potent symbol of Communist Chinese determination that no-one was permitted to question its achievements. The spirit of the Long March was for many years used to urge people to greater effort, to honor their sacrifice. Any suggestion that the Long Marchers fell short of heroism was regarded as deeply unpatriotic; making it hard to uncover the true facts. At times some of the marchers did not live up to the high ideals, and some events were over-dramatized for propaganda purposes. However even if the achievements Long March were not as impressive as has been claimed the symbolic power has been just as important. The GMD (KMT) Threat Zhu De and CMC Chairman Mao Zedong (left) , accompanied by Brigadier Wang Zhen reviewed the troops,1931. Image available under a Creative Commons License ➚ The annihilation campaigns of the early 1930s led by Chiang Kaishek of the Guomindang (GMD) /Kuomintang (KMT) were the reason for the Long March. His view was that the Communists were terrorists and deserved no mercy, they were not ‘honorable’ opponents. His decision to exterminate rather than capture them and put them on trial certainly added to Communist determination, it was a life and death struggle. In October 1930, a GMD commander He Jian captured Mao's wife Yang Kaihui and their son Mao Anying. Mao Anying was forced to watch the torture and execution of his mother; Zhu De's first wife Wu Ruolin was arrested and executed - such was the brutality of the GMD. A massacre in Shanghai on 12th April 1927 of about 5,000 unsuspecting Communists (the 'White Terror ➚') is one of the worst atrocities of the campaign. Chiang was seeking to bring China under his control, he either attacked or negotiated with the many local warlords who ruled much of China during this period. The small pockets of Communists were an unwelcome irritation jeopardizing a united Republic under his leadership. Here is an example of the propaganda used against them: “Chiang Kaishek has come to save you. Only the terrorist leaders Zhu De and Mao Zedong will be killed... Rise up quickly and kill all the red terrorists to regain your freedom. Terrorist soldiers come quickly to join the Revolutionary Army. Each brigand who comes with a rifle will be rewarded. Red terrorists are low and mean.” Comintern military adviser German Otto Braun known by Chinese name Li De. Image available under a Creative Commons License ➚ In the 1930s the Communists had been driven out of the cities following poorly thought out campaigns to capture and convert the cities to Communism based on Moscow's strategy for revolution. The Communists held out in a few rural areas (Jiangxi and Eyuwan ➚, Hunan) where they menaced the region with guerrilla raids. The Jiangxi Soviet founded in October 1927 was the most successful and it was here under Zhou Enlai's leadership that they came under a series of determined attacks by the GMD. At one time Mao Zedong (in disguise) was captured and released after a ransom was paid. The Communists took the pragmatic choice of alliances with local bandits who knew the area well. Zhu De became established as the effective and well respected military commander. The partnership of Zhu De and Mao Zedong was complimentary, Zhu headed the military operations while Mao planned and developed strategy, the bond was so close that the leadership was referred to as ‘Zhu-Mao’. Successful guerrilla tactics were developed and made famous by the mantra: “The enemy advances, we retreat; the enemy camps, we harass; the enemy tires, we attack; the enemy retreats, we attack.”. This was allied with the Three Rules of Discipline: “Obey orders; Don’t take from workers or peasants; Hand in everything taken from landlords and gentry”. [Note: a Soviet is a general term for an area under revolutionary, communist control and has no ‘Russian’ connotation.] Their inspiration came from previous ‘peasant’ led campaigns in Chinese history. Zhe De as a boy, heard of the efforts of the Taiping rebels to bring reform and learned about their military strategy 共产党 gòng chǎn dǎng. In the 1920s the ‘poor peasants’ represented 80% of rural population had been crushed by ruinous rent and interest rates from landlords and the Jiangxi soviet had tapped into a groundswell of grassroots anger at such exploitation. Their enemies the Nationalists or GMD were also republicans, and many Communists had served under them, including Zhu De and Zhou Enlai. However their vision was focused on industrial development in the cities not bringing relief to the majority who toiled in the fields. Chiang Kaishek had emerged from Sun Yatsen's shadow as the strongman who would, by force, unite and modernize China. Mount Gongga, Sichuan The Long March went over mountains almost as high as this The GMD strategy was to encircle and then close in on their opponents. After repulsing four major campaigns, the fifth launched in September 1933 under German and Russian guidance built block-houses that could withstand guerrilla attack and offer safe fallback positions from counter-attack. About 900,000 GMD soldiers hemmed in about 100,000 Communists. The Communists decided that their position was untenable and they must break-out or be killed. A long journey begins with a single step The Communists had no idea that the March to the West would become an epic Long March. Their options were always dictated by limited opportunities whenever they arose. The Western portion of the GMD's encirclement was judged weakest and so on 16th October 1934 they broke out towards Guizhou with the aim of turning north to join a Soviet in North-west Hunan. 6,000 troops were left behind at Jiangxi to disguise the break-out, it took a vital few weeks before the GMD worked out that most had left. The remnant fought a desperate rearguard effort. Mao Zedong's own brother Mao Zetan was one who stayed behind and was captured and executed on April 25th 1935. The start of the Long March The March was immensely grueling, often covering 17 miles [27 kms] each day on foot, day after day through mountainous terrain and severe weather. Many marches were at night to avoid enemy detection and aerial bombing. On average they took one day's rest for every 114 miles [183 kms] covered. Some of the leaders traveled on horseback except for the steepest terrain. Some of the sick, including Mao who suffered from malaria, was carried by stretcher at least part of the way. The very sick were left behind in the care of the villagers. Only one fully Western trained doctor accompanied them. Most of the wives and children were left behind but some of the wives of the leaders were the exception including Mao's He Zizhen ➚ and Zhu De's Kang Keqing ➚. Some boy soldiers as young as 11 took part. It is estimated 53% were aged 16-23; 44% 24-40; and only 4% over 40 years old. Only about a quarter were actually members of the Communist party. Discipline was strict, soldiers were sometimes executed for disobeying orders. Soldiers could not steal from the locals, who they relied on for their welfare and defense. Many non-combatants traveled with the soldiers; they needed to take everything with them so the entourage included tailors; cobblers; printers; doctors; gunsmiths etc.. They carried substantial amounts of gold and silver to pay for supplies along the way. Initially they carried heavy equipment including printing presses, but these were soon abandoned as they were impractical to carry over the mountains. The non-military and the leaders usually traveled in the central portion protected on all sides by military units. Mao Zedong during Long March. 1934-1936. Image available under a Creative Commons License ➚ The total numbers involved in the March are hard to tie down as many left and many joined along the way. About 60,000 set out together with 20,000 non-combatants and only about 7,000 reached Shaanxi. Part of the Communist effort was to spread support, so leaving people behind to organize local resistance was part of the plan. They covered about 6,000 miles [9,656 kms] through remote Western China and lost many men to the weather and terrain. The crossing of the Xiang River costs many lives, how many is open to debate some say up to 50,000 in 5 days, the then Comintern ➚ leader Otto Braun ➚ took the blame for this debacle. Under Mao's leadership the army took efforts to keep the rural peasants on their side. Each soldier was inculcated with the eight rules: 1) Speak politely and help people whenever you can; 2) Return doors and straw matting to their owners [doors were used as beds]; 3) Pay for any damage caused; 4) Pay a fair price for all goods; 5) Be sanitary; build a latrine away from houses; 6) Don't take liberties with the women; 7) Don't ill-treat prisoners; 8) Don't damage the crops. The Army seemed to have generally kept to these principles but in areas where the locals were entirely hostile then they did whatever was needed to survive. A pivotal moment came when the 1st Front Army reached Zunyi, in northern Guizhou. For once the GMD were not in hot pursuit and the leadership reflected upon their position and tactics. Here on 6th Jan 1935 Mao was given military leadership of the Long March, some say ➚ he also took leadership of the whole Chinese Communist Party (CCP). It seems Mao later used this event to legitimize his control of the Communist Party against the claims of rivals. This seems a shrewd political re-writing of events, it is most unlikely that he was given such a command as only a few of the CCP leadership were present. Up until then they were led by the strategy of Russian advisers and Russian trained officers such as Wang Ming ➚. Mao's guerrilla tactics at Jiangxi had proven far more successful than the urban revolutions advocated by Otto Braun ➚ (known by Chinese name Li De). The meeting rejected the Russian advice and backed Mao's leadership. Long March crosses the Yangzi River A woman walking her herd of cows, Jinsha jiang, Yunnan, 2011. Image by timquijano ➚ available under a Creative Commons License ➚ Their initial plan was to join up with a Soviet in Sichuan, but GMD forces held all the crossings over the Yangzi, and the GMD expected them to make for the crossing at Chongqing. So they were forced to break out West into Yunnan to cross the river there and take the long route through mountains into northern Sichuan. It was on this trek that the Long Marchers met their hardest challenges. They had to take the heavily defended crossings of the Yangzi and Dadu rivers. In Yunnan, where the Yangzi is called the Jinsha ‘The River of Golden Sands’ they made a brave crossing at Jiaopingdu 皎平渡 taking ten days non-stop for everyone to cross in a handful of small boats. After crossing into Sichuan they came under attack from the local non-Han Chinese tribes particularly the Yi ('Lolo') people and they were subject to skirmishes with them. The tribes had suffered badly at the hands of GMD and viewed all Han Chinese as enemies. A key factor that gave the Communists the edge during the march was the use of radio communications. Intercepting GMD communications enabled the group to remain one crucial step ahead of their GMD pursuers. The Luding Bridge over the Dadu River in Luding County, Sichuan. Image by fsyzh ➚ available under a Creative Commons License ➚ The taking of the Luding bridge at Dadu has been portrayed as the most heroic event of the Long March. It was not actually quite so difficult as was described but even so it was another occasion when the GMD thought they had the Red Army trapped and GMD victory inevitable. It was here that a Taiping Army had been blocked at the river crossing and annihilated 70 years previously. Good luck played its part, one stick of dynamite could have brought down the bridge and trapped the Communists. However the locals did not want to lose their precious bridge and instead they just removed some of the planking, believing that would prove an adequate defense. It was not, the Communists crawled over the chains that hung precariously over the surging water; even though under heavy gunfire they managed to take control of the crossing. On many occasions the local warlords who ruled Western China although technically loyal to GMD often made a more selfish calculation; if they attacked the Communists they risked weakening their own forces which were vital to the warlord's power, and so the attacks ordered by the GMD on the Long Marchers were often half-hearted. The Communists exploited the rivalries within the GMD controlled areas to choose a route through the territory of the least 'loyal' warlord. Mao's tactical genius mis-directed the GMD on many occasions, with a series of feints and apparent about turns he successfully hid his intended strategy leaving Chiang Kaishek continually wrong-footed. Zhang Guotao (left) and Mao Zedong (right) in Yan'an. 1937. Image available under a Creative Commons License ➚ Many men were lost crossing the snow covered mountains of Sichuan, a high proportion of the followers were southerners unused to the bitter cold of the Great Snow Mountain 夹金山 which rises to 13,497 feet [4,114 meters]. Many had just straw shoes for footwear. This was one area where they were hindered rather than aided by the local tribes. Starvation and fatigue took many victims. When they met up with the 4th Route Army they discovered that Zhang Guotao ➚ had been forced out of their Soviet area in Sichuan by the GMD. Zhang had a much larger army (40,000 compared to Mao's 10,000) and it seems he would not accept Mao's overall leadership and what should have been a great celebration turned decidedly chilly. Zhang's style of leadership was much closer to the GMD model, he seemed to Mao's group an opportunist warlord in the making. His army had not been subject to the same horrors as the 1st Route Army. A break in contact with Comintern's leadership in Moscow allowed the rivalry for leadership to continue between him and Mao; agreements were made only to be immediately broken. Mao led his much reduced 1st Route Army with some 4th Route Army personnel north to Shaanxi while Zhang took a route towards Chengdu and then further west in Qinghai refusing Mao's orders to move north. Zhu De was apparently held against his will as hostage by Zhang although the truth of this is disputed. The marshy grasslands of north-eastern Sichuan took a heavy toll of few who had so far survived the march. Mao describes it as his darkest hour, there was no food or clean water and the marsh was treacherous, despite being August, the nights were cold with snow and the wretched soldiers had to sleep squatting on grassy tussocks as there were no trees, no dry land, no firewood. The soldiers that did not starve to death took desperate measures to find sustenance. The local Tibetan tribes had fled leaving nothing of value behind. Some say that the PRC took revenge for their ill treatment when Tibet was overrun in 1951. As many died in the grasslands as on the high mountains. Zhang's column of troops turned back finding it too arduous a passage. Zhou Enlai and others decided to break away from Zhang to rejoin Mao. The First and Fourth Route armies went their separate ways. What turned out to be the last major hurdle was the Lazikou Pass on the Bailongjiang (White Dragon River) in NE Sichuan where a narrow defile between cliffs barred access to the north-east. It was heavily defended by the GMD and a frontal assault did not succeed. Once again Mao chose a daring strategy to take an apparently impregnable river valley. He sent climbers up the steep cliff at night to bypass the defenses and take the defenders by surprise. Arrival in Shaanxi The remaining lean and hardened stragglers at last reached one of the very few Communist controlled areas - Zhidan (aka Bao'an) in northern Shaanxi. It was a good strategic base far away from GMD and later Japanese forces. It was much closer to overland routes to the USSR from where they could receive much needed supplies. The friable loess soil allowed them to easily build caves offering secure cover from air raids. January 1939 He Long and Nie Rongzhen in Fuping. Image available under a Creative Commons License ➚ Shaanxi had been ravaged by famine in the 1920s when as many as 3 million had starved to death. It proved fertile ground for the Communist message of the reform of land ownership. An important historical perspective is that for hundreds of years revolution took place in southern China, not the north, this may have been a decisive factor in the years that followed. Certainly it helped the Communists take Manchuria when Japan was defeated. Here they were joined by another Red Army completing their own Long March, the 2nd Front Army led by He Long ➚ 贺龙 had set off from Hunan in November 1935, by June 1936 it met and joined Zhang's army. They took a more westerly route through Yunnan traveling through Lijiang. Their trials and tribulations have not been recorded in anything like the level of detail as Mao's group. Move to Yan'an In December 1936, the Communist H.Q. moved to Yan'an. In a coincidence of Chinese history that would not have been lost on the CCP leadership it was at a village near Yan'an that Li Zicheng was born, he was a rebel leader who brought down the Ming dynasty in 1644. Here Mao developed policies that centered on self-criticism and self-improvement that were imposed rigorously; some were adapted from those of the Taiping Rebels. Zhou Enlai was one among many who were forced to openly proclaim their mistakes. Decisions were made democratically and there was gender equality. Land reform was initially limited to capping rents rather than redistributing land ownership. Then the leadership threat to Mao of Zhang Guotao ➚ was conveniently removed when Zhang led an ill-planned campaign into Xinjiang to be wiped out by GMD backed Muslim warlords. The threat of a new GMD encirclement and annihilation campaign of the Shaanxi Soviet was called off only because of the invasion of the Japanese in 1937. At this time the GMD must have thought they had the victory, the Communist bases in southern China had been wiped out; the Communist party was restricted to a few small rural areas in the far north; and the size of the Communist party was at its lowest ebb of 40,000 members. The story of the Communists after the Long March demonstrates how a small but focused force can take on a larger and better equipped enemy. The legacy of the Long March Bo Gu, Zhu De, Zhou Enlai and Mao Zedong. Northern Shaanxi 1930s. Image available under a Creative Commons License ➚ The legacy of the Long March was immense in many ways: the leadership role of the People's Liberation Army (PLA) was foremost - the heroism and dedication of the Army led to the belief that ‘impossible’ projects could be achieved; Mao's leadership position went without serious challenge for the next forty years and it represented an all-Chinese modern achievement unifying the people. Discipline and loyalty within the PLA allowed sweeping reforms to be introduced quickly and efficiently bypassing the stalling tactics of the centuries old civil service. Mao's guerrilla tactics were applied to the country as a whole - take the unexpected way to achieve the inconceivable - for example the Great Leap Forward. He continued to rely more on ordinary peasants than the intellectual elite that he deeply distrusted. Mao's unchallenged grip on power was immense, it is a rare event in world politics to see such long term leadership. Although Zhu De took a back seat after 1949 the other Long March leaders were given key positions in the PRC; including Zhou Enlai, Lin Biao, Deng Xiaoping, Liu Shaoqi and Peng Dehuai. However their comradeship and sacrifice did not save them from the madness of the Cultural Revolution 1966-75, Liu Shaoqi, He Long, Peng Dehuai were all tortured and killed, even Zhou and Deng were under house arrest and narrowly escaped death. The New Long March In late 1966 at the start of the Cultural Revolution many teenage Red Guards recreated the Long March as the ‘New Long March ➚’ is a show of solidarity with the sufferings of the original Long Marchers. Groups from all over China converged on the Jiangxi Soviet area forming mass camps. Unfortunately an outbreak of meningitis caused the authorities to break up the camps and send the youngsters (some only twelve years old) back home. At the Jiangxi Soviet and during the Long March the leadership and tactics of the Russian trained advisers came under scrutiny. The Chinese Communist leadership took the decisive step of developing their own Chinese ideas breaking free of Comintern control. The rivalry of China and Russia proved immensely influential in the years that followed. What emerged was a rural based revolution, with a distrust of all that is urban, ancient and foreign; the Long Marchers were not great international travelers, both Mao and Lin Biao had only been briefly visited one foreign country - Russia. During the Long March the leadership learned at first hand the antipathy of minority people at the fringes of China, it became a priority to bring them into the Han Chinese world. The survivors of the Long March had learned that group effort was essential, personal ambitions and differences were put aside when the greater good demanded it. It set the tone for much of the next phase of Chinese history. Copyright © Chinasage 2012 to 2020 Downloading information about character	5,151	ENGLISH	1
Over the last couple of years here at the National Tramway Museum, Crich we have been exploring the history of Britain’s tramways during the First World War. Our current exhibition Tramway Tommies and Clippie Girls, which runs until October 2016, explores how the tramways were affected by the War, the loss of staff, Zeppelin raids, lighting restrictions, as well as restrictions on trading with the enemy. This era of tramway history is really ground breaking, as the number of men going off to War, meant a shortage of crews to operate the trams. Many tram way systems were instrumental in being a form of transport that transported workers to the munitions factories and many other manufacturing areas that were all manufacturing products for the War effort. In order to keep the tramways operating, women were employed all over the country, firstly as conductresses, (or clippies as they became known), and then later in some areas as drivers. Never before had a woman crewed a tramcar in Britain, this was a real break from tradition in order to keep the tramways operating, and whilst contentious in many areas, it was successful as the trams kept running and more and more women were employed. The shortage in crews was due, as it was across all areas of the country, because tramway employees had enlisted with the army or were conscripted. Whole groups of men joined the War effort, and in Glasgow the 15th Highland Light Infantry, became known as the Glasgow Tramways Battalion, which consisted entirely of Glasgow Corporation tramway staff. How You Can Help For our next exhibition, we want to focus on the personal stories of the men and women who were involved with the tramways, the men fighting abroad and the women who kept the trams running. Whilst we have quite a few photos and journal articles in our archive, we have very few personal items or accounts from people. We know that it is rare to find items from this period, but we would be absolutely delighted to hear from anyone who had a relative who was a tramway employee and went to fight at the front, and might have any personal items belonging to their relatives from this period. Perhaps there is a release from employment note, a photo of your relative in uniform, or even military medals for service that you might be able to share with us. Or was your Grandmother/ Great Grandmother a conductress or driver on the trams, and perhaps you have a photo of her, or stories about her time as a conductress, or maybe even a wage slip. We would also be fascinated to hear what happened to your relatives once they came back from the War, – did they take up employment again with the tramways, or did they go on to do different jobs. We really want to shine a light on people’s personal stories, and as part of the exhibition we will be incorporating as many names and photographs as we can of tramway staff from all over the country, who were associated with the tramway during the First World War. We will also be remembering those who lost their lives, by making the Tramway Roll of Honours available to see, which appeared in the regularly published journals of the time. We really hope that people will be able to help us by sharing their family’s tramway stories with us, and the objects that they still have to remember their relatives. If you can help, please contact Laura Waters, Curator at Crich Tramway Village, Tel: 01773 854337 or email: email@example.com	<urn:uuid:fa2e11c9-25c9-4651-a4dc-7b543c32c177>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.tramway.co.uk/2016/08/16/the-national-tramway-museum-first-world-war-activities-we-need-you/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00079.warc.gz	en	0.98878	746	3.28125	3	[ 0.2427489161491394, 0.23810988664627075, 0.6612803936004639, 0.12263387441635132, 0.29934197664260864, 0.3739379048347473, 0.21605607867240906, 0.14276473224163055, -0.26349854469299316, -0.4968794584274292, 0.26732420921325684, -0.2895709276199341, -0.09300121665000916, 0.2657148241996765...	1	Over the last couple of years here at the National Tramway Museum, Crich we have been exploring the history of Britain’s tramways during the First World War. Our current exhibition Tramway Tommies and Clippie Girls, which runs until October 2016, explores how the tramways were affected by the War, the loss of staff, Zeppelin raids, lighting restrictions, as well as restrictions on trading with the enemy. This era of tramway history is really ground breaking, as the number of men going off to War, meant a shortage of crews to operate the trams. Many tram way systems were instrumental in being a form of transport that transported workers to the munitions factories and many other manufacturing areas that were all manufacturing products for the War effort. In order to keep the tramways operating, women were employed all over the country, firstly as conductresses, (or clippies as they became known), and then later in some areas as drivers. Never before had a woman crewed a tramcar in Britain, this was a real break from tradition in order to keep the tramways operating, and whilst contentious in many areas, it was successful as the trams kept running and more and more women were employed. The shortage in crews was due, as it was across all areas of the country, because tramway employees had enlisted with the army or were conscripted. Whole groups of men joined the War effort, and in Glasgow the 15th Highland Light Infantry, became known as the Glasgow Tramways Battalion, which consisted entirely of Glasgow Corporation tramway staff. How You Can Help For our next exhibition, we want to focus on the personal stories of the men and women who were involved with the tramways, the men fighting abroad and the women who kept the trams running. Whilst we have quite a few photos and journal articles in our archive, we have very few personal items or accounts from people. We know that it is rare to find items from this period, but we would be absolutely delighted to hear from anyone who had a relative who was a tramway employee and went to fight at the front, and might have any personal items belonging to their relatives from this period. Perhaps there is a release from employment note, a photo of your relative in uniform, or even military medals for service that you might be able to share with us. Or was your Grandmother/ Great Grandmother a conductress or driver on the trams, and perhaps you have a photo of her, or stories about her time as a conductress, or maybe even a wage slip. We would also be fascinated to hear what happened to your relatives once they came back from the War, – did they take up employment again with the tramways, or did they go on to do different jobs. We really want to shine a light on people’s personal stories, and as part of the exhibition we will be incorporating as many names and photographs as we can of tramway staff from all over the country, who were associated with the tramway during the First World War. We will also be remembering those who lost their lives, by making the Tramway Roll of Honours available to see, which appeared in the regularly published journals of the time. We really hope that people will be able to help us by sharing their family’s tramway stories with us, and the objects that they still have to remember their relatives. If you can help, please contact Laura Waters, Curator at Crich Tramway Village, Tel: 01773 854337 or email: email@example.com	736	ENGLISH	1
Do you remember learning about the Roman emperor Nero? Well, have you ever wondered how he acquired the throne? Agrippina the Younger, Nero’s mother, played a key role in her son’s achievement of success and wealth. As a compelling political influencer and powerful person in ancient Rome, Agrippina the Younger was an important woman in history that you might’ve not even known about. of women in ancient Rome during the rule of Germanicus slightly differed from other cultures’ vision of an “ideal” woman. Women in ancient Rome were expected to have their lives mainly revolve around family life and status, but could also consider other hobbies and interests. Many girls were educated from a young age alongside boys, and were taught social behavior and etiquette. Students were also taught both Greek and Latin, and were encouraged to take part in multiple activities and sports. Although, once children were formally of age, the differences between male and female lifestyle became more prominent. Women were taught to take pride in their domestic lives and achievements, rather than showing off their intellectual skill and talents. Women in ancient Rome were also not allowed to vote or partake in political ordeals. the Younger was born into the ruling family of the Roman empire in 15 A.D. A daughter to Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder, Agrippina the Younger and her family were often in the spotlight of society, as her father Germanicus was a famous general of Rome and son to the emperor Tiberius. Agrippina herself was not very well known until her adult life, but recognized herself as prominent in Roman life and society since her youth. This was mainly brought on by her brother Caligula’s success after he succeeded his grandfather for the throne. By the time Caligula was in power, his only two brothers had already passed, so he had his remaining siblings, Agrippina and 2 other sisters, put under high honors. Although, two years into his rule, Agrippina the Younger, her sisters, and all three of their husbands were caught plotting against Caligula. They were stripped of their high honors, access to anyone in Rome, and exiled to an island in the Tyrrhenian sea.	<urn:uuid:005764eb-080a-489b-af78-f9d604b43cb4>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://maryelizabethbodycare.com/do-success-and-wealth-as-a-compelling-political-influencer/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607314.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122161553-20200122190553-00518.warc.gz	en	0.988891	492	3.765625	4	[ -0.19401051104068756, 0.4992111921310425, 0.7289028763771057, -0.05143874138593674, -0.21817857027053833, -0.046333760023117065, 0.07252931594848633, 0.31921395659446716, -0.14550091326236725, -0.37859687209129333, 0.056496333330869675, -0.412082701921463, -0.05492250993847847, 0.451625198...	4	Do you remember learning about the Roman emperor Nero? Well, have you ever wondered how he acquired the throne? Agrippina the Younger, Nero’s mother, played a key role in her son’s achievement of success and wealth. As a compelling political influencer and powerful person in ancient Rome, Agrippina the Younger was an important woman in history that you might’ve not even known about. of women in ancient Rome during the rule of Germanicus slightly differed from other cultures’ vision of an “ideal” woman. Women in ancient Rome were expected to have their lives mainly revolve around family life and status, but could also consider other hobbies and interests. Many girls were educated from a young age alongside boys, and were taught social behavior and etiquette. Students were also taught both Greek and Latin, and were encouraged to take part in multiple activities and sports. Although, once children were formally of age, the differences between male and female lifestyle became more prominent. Women were taught to take pride in their domestic lives and achievements, rather than showing off their intellectual skill and talents. Women in ancient Rome were also not allowed to vote or partake in political ordeals. the Younger was born into the ruling family of the Roman empire in 15 A.D. A daughter to Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder, Agrippina the Younger and her family were often in the spotlight of society, as her father Germanicus was a famous general of Rome and son to the emperor Tiberius. Agrippina herself was not very well known until her adult life, but recognized herself as prominent in Roman life and society since her youth. This was mainly brought on by her brother Caligula’s success after he succeeded his grandfather for the throne. By the time Caligula was in power, his only two brothers had already passed, so he had his remaining siblings, Agrippina and 2 other sisters, put under high honors. Although, two years into his rule, Agrippina the Younger, her sisters, and all three of their husbands were caught plotting against Caligula. They were stripped of their high honors, access to anyone in Rome, and exiled to an island in the Tyrrhenian sea.	484	ENGLISH	1
The Magic Penny Imagine with me if you were asked to consider this proposition: You have the opportunity to pay $100,000 to receive $1,000,000 at the end of the month or you could pay $10,000 to receive a magic penny today. Let’s imagine that you, and we’ll say your name is Tom, and another fellow, and let’s say his name is Bob, were both given this opportunity. Tom chooses the penny and Bob chooses to pay $100,000. So at the start of the month Tom has spent $10,000 for a magic penny and Bob has spent $100,000 for a future $1 million. Now this magic penny is interesting. It doubles every day. At the end of 10 days, it has become 512 pennies. Tom is beginning to wonder if he made a smart choice. Bob is counting on that $1 million. At the end of 21 days Tom has $10,000, and has made his money back. Bob is still counting on that $1 million. Tom is now happy, because every day his money is doubling. It still is not the million dollars that Bob will have, but at least he’s not out any money. Bob is still out the $100,000. At the end of four weeks, Tom has over $1,300,000. Bob is still waiting for his million dollars..If the month has 31 days, Bob receives $1 million, and Tom has $10,737,418. If the month only has 30 days, Bob receives a $1 million and Tom has $5,368,709.In any event, Tom made the smart choice. Now let’s add a wrinkle to the exercise. Suppose for a moment that Tom must do certain things to control the speed of the doubling. If he does everything right, the penny doubles every day, and the result is what we just said. But suppose he omits one of the necessary actions and the penny doubles every week instead of every day. Tom would still get to the five or $10 million, but it would take 31 weeks. Suppose Tom omits two of the necessary actions and the penny doubles every other week. Tom would still get the big money, but it would take more than a year.Suppose Tom omits three of the necessary actions and now the penny doubles every month. It would now take almost 3 years to reach the big money. That is still better than the 40 to 50 plan. What is the point of the story? You are the magic penny. More specifically, your network marketing business is the magic penny. By performing or not performing the correct actions, you control the rate of duplication.That is why it is important to find a mentor and do what they say. Suppose Tom had taken 10 months to reach 512 pennies. At that rate, at the end of one year he would have a little over $20. That could be discouraging and he might throw the penny away. How sad that he didn’t give it one more year. At the end of that year, he would have over $83,000. The moral of the story is, find someone in your company who has been successful and ask them how they did it. If your company, like mine, has a proven plan then follow it. Plan on giving this a 2 to 4 year commitment doing your best every day.	<urn:uuid:518ea6de-9e10-4753-8838-4a6c5aca2855>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://popsnpat.com/the-magic-penny/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690095.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126165718-20200126195718-00252.warc.gz	en	0.981062	712	3.515625	4	[ -0.701959490776062, -0.1301397979259491, -0.1321508288383484, -0.11841267347335815, -0.3232537508010864, 0.1774282306432724, 0.2076188176870346, -0.019301975145936012, 0.284557044506073, 0.10909310728311539, 0.3274760842323303, 0.16959096491336823, -0.13648290932178497, 0.05118695646524429...	2	The Magic Penny Imagine with me if you were asked to consider this proposition: You have the opportunity to pay $100,000 to receive $1,000,000 at the end of the month or you could pay $10,000 to receive a magic penny today. Let’s imagine that you, and we’ll say your name is Tom, and another fellow, and let’s say his name is Bob, were both given this opportunity. Tom chooses the penny and Bob chooses to pay $100,000. So at the start of the month Tom has spent $10,000 for a magic penny and Bob has spent $100,000 for a future $1 million. Now this magic penny is interesting. It doubles every day. At the end of 10 days, it has become 512 pennies. Tom is beginning to wonder if he made a smart choice. Bob is counting on that $1 million. At the end of 21 days Tom has $10,000, and has made his money back. Bob is still counting on that $1 million. Tom is now happy, because every day his money is doubling. It still is not the million dollars that Bob will have, but at least he’s not out any money. Bob is still out the $100,000. At the end of four weeks, Tom has over $1,300,000. Bob is still waiting for his million dollars..If the month has 31 days, Bob receives $1 million, and Tom has $10,737,418. If the month only has 30 days, Bob receives a $1 million and Tom has $5,368,709.In any event, Tom made the smart choice. Now let’s add a wrinkle to the exercise. Suppose for a moment that Tom must do certain things to control the speed of the doubling. If he does everything right, the penny doubles every day, and the result is what we just said. But suppose he omits one of the necessary actions and the penny doubles every week instead of every day. Tom would still get to the five or $10 million, but it would take 31 weeks. Suppose Tom omits two of the necessary actions and the penny doubles every other week. Tom would still get the big money, but it would take more than a year.Suppose Tom omits three of the necessary actions and now the penny doubles every month. It would now take almost 3 years to reach the big money. That is still better than the 40 to 50 plan. What is the point of the story? You are the magic penny. More specifically, your network marketing business is the magic penny. By performing or not performing the correct actions, you control the rate of duplication.That is why it is important to find a mentor and do what they say. Suppose Tom had taken 10 months to reach 512 pennies. At that rate, at the end of one year he would have a little over $20. That could be discouraging and he might throw the penny away. How sad that he didn’t give it one more year. At the end of that year, he would have over $83,000. The moral of the story is, find someone in your company who has been successful and ask them how they did it. If your company, like mine, has a proven plan then follow it. Plan on giving this a 2 to 4 year commitment doing your best every day.	761	ENGLISH	1
The earliest motorized American fire engines, which appeared around 1910, used an engine called the T-Head: a single row of four to six pistons were cast in sets of two in the shape of a large “T”. One side of the T contained valves for the fuel intake, and the other side had valves for the exhaust. It was a simple matter to remove the valves, and the twin cylinders could also be disconnected from the engine’s crank case. T-heads were easy to repair but operated at a fairly low RPM, which made it difficult to match to the speed of a centrifugal pump. They were also expensive to build because of the difficulty of casting the pairs of cylinders without flaws. During the late 1920s and early 30s new engine designs appeared—the L-Head and the V-Head. L heads were more compact and employed less expensive cylinder heads. V’s arranged their cylinders in two banks which greatly reduced the length of the crank shaft. This engine uses a V-12 engine which was designed in 1931. The American La France Type 400 Senior appeared in 1934 as the nation’s most advanced fire engine, with powerful pumps and the huge, powerful V-12 motor. Of equal impact was the engine’s design, which was based on the styling of the elegant Packard, Cadillac and Duisenberg automobiles of the 30s. Less than 200 of the pricy rigs were built between 1934 and 1938, when La France introduced a new model. This engine was used in Burlington, Iowa and was completely restored by Mr. Bernie Lowe. Bernie donated the rig to the Hall of Flame in May of 2009.	<urn:uuid:7899256c-ee34-435a-a2db-13824cb2a74d>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://hallofflame.org/project/type-400-senior-fire-engine-used-in-burlington-ia/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251801423.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129164403-20200129193403-00305.warc.gz	en	0.985368	345	3.3125	3	[ -0.4361944794654846, 0.4800545871257782, 0.12704069912433624, -0.4521883428096771, -0.391575425863266, 0.26804468035697937, -0.17388074100017548, 0.46558210253715515, -0.3584548830986023, -0.14019599556922913, -0.023531924933195114, -0.006733417510986328, -0.1512659341096878, 0.12752012908...	12	The earliest motorized American fire engines, which appeared around 1910, used an engine called the T-Head: a single row of four to six pistons were cast in sets of two in the shape of a large “T”. One side of the T contained valves for the fuel intake, and the other side had valves for the exhaust. It was a simple matter to remove the valves, and the twin cylinders could also be disconnected from the engine’s crank case. T-heads were easy to repair but operated at a fairly low RPM, which made it difficult to match to the speed of a centrifugal pump. They were also expensive to build because of the difficulty of casting the pairs of cylinders without flaws. During the late 1920s and early 30s new engine designs appeared—the L-Head and the V-Head. L heads were more compact and employed less expensive cylinder heads. V’s arranged their cylinders in two banks which greatly reduced the length of the crank shaft. This engine uses a V-12 engine which was designed in 1931. The American La France Type 400 Senior appeared in 1934 as the nation’s most advanced fire engine, with powerful pumps and the huge, powerful V-12 motor. Of equal impact was the engine’s design, which was based on the styling of the elegant Packard, Cadillac and Duisenberg automobiles of the 30s. Less than 200 of the pricy rigs were built between 1934 and 1938, when La France introduced a new model. This engine was used in Burlington, Iowa and was completely restored by Mr. Bernie Lowe. Bernie donated the rig to the Hall of Flame in May of 2009.	367	ENGLISH	1
- Classical Mythology. the wife of Odysseus, who remained faithful to him during his long absence at Troy. - a faithful wife. - a female given name: from a Greek word meaning “weaver.” - Greek myth the wife of Odysseus, who remained true to him during his long absence despite the importunities of many suitors fem. proper name, name of the faithful wife in the “Odyssey,” from Greek Penelopeia, probably related to pene “thread on the bobbin,” from penos “web,” cognate with Latin pannus “cloth garment” (see pane (n.)). Used in English as the type of the virtuous wife (1580) as it was in Latin. The wife of Odysseus in classical mythology. Penelope remained true to her husband for the ten years he spent fighting in the Trojan War (see also Trojan War) and for the ten years it took him to return from Troy, even though she was harassed by men who wanted to marry her. She promised to choose a suitor after she had finished weaving a shroud for her father-in-law, but every night she unraveled what she had woven during the day. After three years, her trick was discovered, but she still managed to put her suitors off until Odysseus returned and killed them.	<urn:uuid:d7d59b72-4f33-4d57-9665-25153eaa299a>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.liberaldictionary.com/penelope/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00395.warc.gz	en	0.989483	298	3.375	3	[ -0.04975488409399986, 0.08642660826444626, 0.15611043572425842, 0.09191007912158966, -0.5177506804466248, -0.3527069389820099, 0.22076405584812164, 0.6192992925643921, 0.20800822973251343, -0.29660534858703613, -0.23565855622291565, -0.5707144737243652, -0.3721408545970917, 0.1912997066974...	3	- Classical Mythology. the wife of Odysseus, who remained faithful to him during his long absence at Troy. - a faithful wife. - a female given name: from a Greek word meaning “weaver.” - Greek myth the wife of Odysseus, who remained true to him during his long absence despite the importunities of many suitors fem. proper name, name of the faithful wife in the “Odyssey,” from Greek Penelopeia, probably related to pene “thread on the bobbin,” from penos “web,” cognate with Latin pannus “cloth garment” (see pane (n.)). Used in English as the type of the virtuous wife (1580) as it was in Latin. The wife of Odysseus in classical mythology. Penelope remained true to her husband for the ten years he spent fighting in the Trojan War (see also Trojan War) and for the ten years it took him to return from Troy, even though she was harassed by men who wanted to marry her. She promised to choose a suitor after she had finished weaving a shroud for her father-in-law, but every night she unraveled what she had woven during the day. After three years, her trick was discovered, but she still managed to put her suitors off until Odysseus returned and killed them.	281	ENGLISH	1
Malakoff Head (reproductions) These objects are three cast plaster replicas of stone carvings found in Malakoff, Texas in the Depression Era. Each object was found in a deep gravel pit by quarry workers and had human-like features carved into them. After the first head was found, geologist Elias H. Sellards was called in to take a look and he determined it to not only be authentic, but also dated it at 50,000-100,000 years old. This made the find extremely important as the oldest known Native American artifacts at the time only went back 12,000 years. The find, if authentic, would push Native American history in the Americas back thousands of years. Further investigation of the site produced a second “head” in 1935 at which time archaeologist Glenn Evans was called in to do an excavation. He found a third head by 1939 but failed to discover anymore artifacts. More recent study of the heads has called their authenticity into question. The first head is believed to have been carved by modern, metal tools which means it is likely a hoax. The second head wasn’t studied further, though it too is believed to have been made like the first one. The final head is believed to be a naturally eroded rock and could have no connection to the other two at all. Further research on the on the site itself also revealed it to not be as old as Sellards had said; instead it was dated to the Pleistocene era which is when Paleo-Indians were known to have been in the Americas. No other artifacts were found at the site, though other “heads” have been reported throughout Texas and northern Mexico. The Paleo-Indians were various native groups living in North America roughly between 15,000-9,000 years ago, which is known as the Pleistocene period. The dates are difficult to say with certainty, but evidence of Native American peoples living across the Americas have been found and verified during this time period. They are thought to be the earliest humans in the Americas and arrived here by crossing the once exposed land bridge under the Bering Strait. The earliest inhabitants of Texas are collectively called Clovis. The Clovis culture and people are connected by their use of a stone tool called the Clovis Point. In Texas, Clovis Points have been found that date back 13,500 years. The Clovis culture was made up of many Native American groups, many who are still around today and are related to these very early Paleo-Indians that lived across North and South America. Many people still argue whether the Malakoff heads are authentic or an archaeological hoax. Archaeological and historical hoaxes are not new, in fact a few years before the Malakoff heads were discovered a similar mystery was brewing in the state of New York. In 1869 a large stone man was discovered while men were digging a well on the farm of William Newell. The stone man was believed to be the petrified remains of a giant, like those mentioned in the Bible, but others believed it was either a statue built by missionaries to impress Native Americans or an ancient Native American sculpture. The stone man, nicknamed the Cardiff Giant, ended up being a hoax made up by a man named George Hull. Hull thought of the idea after he got into an argument with a priest. To spite the priest and make some money along the way, Hull came up with the idea and brought several people, including Newell into the plot. Once the giant was discovered, Hull’s plan to make money went into effect as people flocked to see the giant. Even when charging 50 cents per person the crowds could not be turned away and kept going to see the giant. Even when the stone giant was declared a hoax people still traveled and paid to see it. Today the giant can be seen in Cooperstown, New York at the Farmer’s Museum. Although we have new technology to help accurately date artifacts, as well as identify how they were made, many hoaxes and myths still live on. [Briana Miano edited by Joscelynn Garcia]	<urn:uuid:822206a0-6aba-422c-b221-726a5efc351f>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	http://www.texancultures.com/object-malakoff-head-reproductions/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00088.warc.gz	en	0.986665	846	3.671875	4	[ -0.15458407998085022, 0.2303345650434494, 0.39782246947288513, 0.14992371201515198, -0.22344015538692474, 0.10056367516517639, 0.09984730929136276, -0.2710508406162262, -0.40583962202072144, 0.010350393131375313, 0.24297034740447998, -0.4004814624786377, 0.07856883108615875, 0.335400760173...	8	Malakoff Head (reproductions) These objects are three cast plaster replicas of stone carvings found in Malakoff, Texas in the Depression Era. Each object was found in a deep gravel pit by quarry workers and had human-like features carved into them. After the first head was found, geologist Elias H. Sellards was called in to take a look and he determined it to not only be authentic, but also dated it at 50,000-100,000 years old. This made the find extremely important as the oldest known Native American artifacts at the time only went back 12,000 years. The find, if authentic, would push Native American history in the Americas back thousands of years. Further investigation of the site produced a second “head” in 1935 at which time archaeologist Glenn Evans was called in to do an excavation. He found a third head by 1939 but failed to discover anymore artifacts. More recent study of the heads has called their authenticity into question. The first head is believed to have been carved by modern, metal tools which means it is likely a hoax. The second head wasn’t studied further, though it too is believed to have been made like the first one. The final head is believed to be a naturally eroded rock and could have no connection to the other two at all. Further research on the on the site itself also revealed it to not be as old as Sellards had said; instead it was dated to the Pleistocene era which is when Paleo-Indians were known to have been in the Americas. No other artifacts were found at the site, though other “heads” have been reported throughout Texas and northern Mexico. The Paleo-Indians were various native groups living in North America roughly between 15,000-9,000 years ago, which is known as the Pleistocene period. The dates are difficult to say with certainty, but evidence of Native American peoples living across the Americas have been found and verified during this time period. They are thought to be the earliest humans in the Americas and arrived here by crossing the once exposed land bridge under the Bering Strait. The earliest inhabitants of Texas are collectively called Clovis. The Clovis culture and people are connected by their use of a stone tool called the Clovis Point. In Texas, Clovis Points have been found that date back 13,500 years. The Clovis culture was made up of many Native American groups, many who are still around today and are related to these very early Paleo-Indians that lived across North and South America. Many people still argue whether the Malakoff heads are authentic or an archaeological hoax. Archaeological and historical hoaxes are not new, in fact a few years before the Malakoff heads were discovered a similar mystery was brewing in the state of New York. In 1869 a large stone man was discovered while men were digging a well on the farm of William Newell. The stone man was believed to be the petrified remains of a giant, like those mentioned in the Bible, but others believed it was either a statue built by missionaries to impress Native Americans or an ancient Native American sculpture. The stone man, nicknamed the Cardiff Giant, ended up being a hoax made up by a man named George Hull. Hull thought of the idea after he got into an argument with a priest. To spite the priest and make some money along the way, Hull came up with the idea and brought several people, including Newell into the plot. Once the giant was discovered, Hull’s plan to make money went into effect as people flocked to see the giant. Even when charging 50 cents per person the crowds could not be turned away and kept going to see the giant. Even when the stone giant was declared a hoax people still traveled and paid to see it. Today the giant can be seen in Cooperstown, New York at the Farmer’s Museum. Although we have new technology to help accurately date artifacts, as well as identify how they were made, many hoaxes and myths still live on. [Briana Miano edited by Joscelynn Garcia]	863	ENGLISH	1
Founding Father: John Hancock John Hancock’s Early Life John Hancock was born on January 12, 1737 to a very wealthy family in Braintree Massachusetts, which is now called Quincy. John Hancock had a very happy childhood with his mother, father, and two siblings. John Hancock often studied and played with his friend, John Adams, who later went on to become the first Vice-President and the second President of the United States. John Hancock’s father died when he was 7 years old, and his mother was too poor to keep the family together, so John went to live with his aunt and uncle, Lydia and Thomas Hancock. John Hancock’s aunt and uncle raised him as though he was their own son. John Hancock’s Education and Early Career John Hancock went to Boston Latin school, where he graduated in 1750 and went on to Harvard University. While he was at Harvard, John Hancock was known for being a John Hancock very good student who was also popular with his classmates. John Hancock received his degree from Harvard in 1754. After John Hancock graduated, he worked for his uncle at the Thomas Hancock & Company firm. He found people to do business with that made his uncle’s firm successful even during the French and Indian War. When his uncle died, John Hancock took over the real estate and shipping business. At the age of 27, John Hancock managed this company and became the richest man in Massachusetts. Although John Hancock became powerful and rich very quickly, he still cared about his friends and his community. He often donated money to schools, churches, and the poor people in Massachusetts. His generosity made him very popular among the people in Boston. Using this attention, John Hancock used his leadership skills and soon became interested in politics. John Hancock’s Political Career Hancock caught people’s political attention first in the 1760s when he protested the Stamp act and the Sugar Act, which were two tax acts passed by the British Parliament to tax the colonies. John Hancock joined the Sons of Liberty where he protested against the British. John Hancock career in politics started in 1766 when he became a member of the Boston Assembly. For the next 30 years, John Hancock worked to climb the political ladder. In 1773, John Hancock eventually became President for the Congress of Massachusetts. Two years later, he became the President of the Continental Congress. With his power, popularity, and wealth, John Hancock made a very big impact during the American Revolution. John Hancock is most famous for his very large, stylish signature on the Declaration of Independence. Many important documents came out of the Continental Congress during the American Revolution. As the president of the Continental Congress, John Hancock got to preside over many debates among delegates. John Hancock proved his drive and courage during the Revolutionary War. John Hancock was against the British and he was promoted to major general in the Massachusetts militia. John Hancock worked to find supplies and money for the colonial soldiers. His leadership skills helped create the United States we know today. After the Revolutionary War, John Hancock returned to Massachusetts. In 1780, he was elected as the first governor. He was then re-elected 11 times until his death on October 3, 1793. Fun Facts about John Hancock • John Hancock’s signature was so big on the Declaration of Independence, that today the slang term for a signature is “your John Hancock.” • John Hancock was the only person who signed the Declaration of Independence on July 4. Everyone else had signed it a few weeks later.	<urn:uuid:bd0ead74-b2a2-48ca-94b2-62295ed2d4b6>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://kids.laws.com/john-hancock	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00289.warc.gz	en	0.991655	734	3.4375	3	[ -0.1438618302345276, 0.7240086793899536, 0.45055705308914185, -0.7433962821960449, -0.7419198751449585, 0.4324353337287903, 0.42164838314056396, -0.3000645637512207, -0.14628301560878754, -0.33771342039108276, -0.2365362048149109, 0.36901968717575073, 0.3144024908542633, 0.0561090111732482...	4	Founding Father: John Hancock John Hancock’s Early Life John Hancock was born on January 12, 1737 to a very wealthy family in Braintree Massachusetts, which is now called Quincy. John Hancock had a very happy childhood with his mother, father, and two siblings. John Hancock often studied and played with his friend, John Adams, who later went on to become the first Vice-President and the second President of the United States. John Hancock’s father died when he was 7 years old, and his mother was too poor to keep the family together, so John went to live with his aunt and uncle, Lydia and Thomas Hancock. John Hancock’s aunt and uncle raised him as though he was their own son. John Hancock’s Education and Early Career John Hancock went to Boston Latin school, where he graduated in 1750 and went on to Harvard University. While he was at Harvard, John Hancock was known for being a John Hancock very good student who was also popular with his classmates. John Hancock received his degree from Harvard in 1754. After John Hancock graduated, he worked for his uncle at the Thomas Hancock & Company firm. He found people to do business with that made his uncle’s firm successful even during the French and Indian War. When his uncle died, John Hancock took over the real estate and shipping business. At the age of 27, John Hancock managed this company and became the richest man in Massachusetts. Although John Hancock became powerful and rich very quickly, he still cared about his friends and his community. He often donated money to schools, churches, and the poor people in Massachusetts. His generosity made him very popular among the people in Boston. Using this attention, John Hancock used his leadership skills and soon became interested in politics. John Hancock’s Political Career Hancock caught people’s political attention first in the 1760s when he protested the Stamp act and the Sugar Act, which were two tax acts passed by the British Parliament to tax the colonies. John Hancock joined the Sons of Liberty where he protested against the British. John Hancock career in politics started in 1766 when he became a member of the Boston Assembly. For the next 30 years, John Hancock worked to climb the political ladder. In 1773, John Hancock eventually became President for the Congress of Massachusetts. Two years later, he became the President of the Continental Congress. With his power, popularity, and wealth, John Hancock made a very big impact during the American Revolution. John Hancock is most famous for his very large, stylish signature on the Declaration of Independence. Many important documents came out of the Continental Congress during the American Revolution. As the president of the Continental Congress, John Hancock got to preside over many debates among delegates. John Hancock proved his drive and courage during the Revolutionary War. John Hancock was against the British and he was promoted to major general in the Massachusetts militia. John Hancock worked to find supplies and money for the colonial soldiers. His leadership skills helped create the United States we know today. After the Revolutionary War, John Hancock returned to Massachusetts. In 1780, he was elected as the first governor. He was then re-elected 11 times until his death on October 3, 1793. Fun Facts about John Hancock • John Hancock’s signature was so big on the Declaration of Independence, that today the slang term for a signature is “your John Hancock.” • John Hancock was the only person who signed the Declaration of Independence on July 4. Everyone else had signed it a few weeks later.	735	ENGLISH	1
The first South Dakota class was a group of six battleships that were laid down in 1920 for the U.S. Navy, but were never completed. They would have been the largest, most heavily armed and armored battleships in the world and, designed to achieve 23 knots (43 km/h; 26 mph), represented an attempt to catch up with the increasing fleet speeds of its main rivals, the British Royal Navy and Imperial Japanese Navy. The South Dakotas were authorized in 1917, but work was postponed so that the U.S. Navy could incorporate information gained from the Battle of Jutland, fought in mid-1916, in their design. Work was further postponed to give destroyers and other small fighting vessels priority as they were needed urgently to fight German U-boats in the North Atlantic. Construction started only in 1920. As the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 both restricted the total battleship tonnage allowed the U.S. Navy, and limited individual ship size to 35,000 long tons (36,000 t), construction was halted in early 1922. The unfinished hulls were scrapped the following year, the guns were transferred to the U.S. Army and their boilers and armor were used to modernize older battleships. wiki USS South Dakota BB-49 FH Print - Limited Edition Giclee on archival art paper Paper size 16X24" S/N 400 $135.00 Open Edition on photo paper Paper size 11"X14" apx $35.00	<urn:uuid:e2f3021c-cfb5-4ecb-9b28-d389e3c23227>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.warmachinetees.com/product-page/uss-south-dakota-bb-49-fh-print	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00057.warc.gz	en	0.982242	310	3.34375	3	[ 0.008403866551816463, -0.04396575316786766, 0.10015634447336197, -0.9850210547447205, 0.18682238459587097, -0.2811264097690582, -0.6208509206771851, 0.2074674516916275, -0.3914625644683838, -0.1571560800075531, 0.5534380078315735, 0.17880357801914215, 0.21927189826965332, 0.310365438461303...	4	The first South Dakota class was a group of six battleships that were laid down in 1920 for the U.S. Navy, but were never completed. They would have been the largest, most heavily armed and armored battleships in the world and, designed to achieve 23 knots (43 km/h; 26 mph), represented an attempt to catch up with the increasing fleet speeds of its main rivals, the British Royal Navy and Imperial Japanese Navy. The South Dakotas were authorized in 1917, but work was postponed so that the U.S. Navy could incorporate information gained from the Battle of Jutland, fought in mid-1916, in their design. Work was further postponed to give destroyers and other small fighting vessels priority as they were needed urgently to fight German U-boats in the North Atlantic. Construction started only in 1920. As the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 both restricted the total battleship tonnage allowed the U.S. Navy, and limited individual ship size to 35,000 long tons (36,000 t), construction was halted in early 1922. The unfinished hulls were scrapped the following year, the guns were transferred to the U.S. Army and their boilers and armor were used to modernize older battleships. wiki USS South Dakota BB-49 FH Print - Limited Edition Giclee on archival art paper Paper size 16X24" S/N 400 $135.00 Open Edition on photo paper Paper size 11"X14" apx $35.00	348	ENGLISH	1
Buchanan Family TIMELINE The history of the James Buchanan family "is representative of the social, cultural, and political changes that occurred in Middle Tennessee from the time of frontier settlement through the Civil War and Reconstruction. The history of the Buchanan family, and the construction and expansion of the Buchanan Log House, is representative of the lives of many early settlers that struggled to establish homes for themselves and their families in the Cumberland settlement, Davidson County, and Middle Tennessee area. This family also shared in the hardships and struggles that many Nashvillians faced during the Union occupation of Nashville during the Civil War." (1) James Buchanan (1763-1841) was one of these early settlers. James was born in Virginia on July 16, 1763, to Archibald Buchanan and his wife, Agnes Bowen Buchanan. James was the second child, and only son, born to Archibald and Agnes. By the age of seventeen, and still subject to militia duty, in 1780, James had journeyed to the Cumberland settlement area of Tennessee and was one of 256 settlers to sign the Cumberland Compact. The Cumberland Compact (left) was signed by 256 men above the age of sixteen and established a temporary government in the Middle Tennessee area until 1783, when the Cumberland government petitioned the North Carolina legislature for official recognition, which resulted in the formation of Davidson County the same year. Life was not easy for the early settlers that lived in the Cumberland settlement, and later, Davidson County, in the 1770s and 1780s. Although no Native American nation specifically lived on this land, the Cherokees, Creeks, and Chickasaws all used the land on which the pioneers settled. The threat of attacks was a persistent fear among the early settlers which were often justified, as the Chickasaws and Chickamaugans attacked several of the Cumberland settlements, resulting in loss of life, as well as settlers choosing to relocate, in the early-1780s. Arrange Your Free Tour James Buchanan was largely acquiring land and constructing his home during the last years of the first decade of the nineteenth century, On April 24, 1810, James marries Lucinda East, with whom he would have sixteen children, ten daughters and six sons, over the next twenty-two years. (Left, Addison and another child are missing.) Like many thousand Tennesseans, James Buchanan and his family were involved in the War of 1812. James was a member of Captain Thomas’s Davidson County Militia Company during the War of 1812 (while Andrew Jackson was leading Indian campaigns, and fighting the British in the 1815 Battle of New Orleans.) With a growing family, a one-and-a-half story, one-room addition to the west side of the residence was added in 1820. The hardwood logs used were carefully hewn in a similar size and manner as the earlier ones (but were not as thick). The 1830s saw the birth of the two last children, both daughters. James passed away in 1841. During his adult life, James Buchanan was active in both his community and the church. He was an active member of the Ephesus Church, which was located at The Hermitage. In the 1830s, James was elected and ordained an “elder” in the church. The family matriarch, Lucinda East Buchanan, passes away at the age of 73 and buried in the family cemetery. - - - - - - - - - (1)MTSU TCWNHA Assessment 2011	<urn:uuid:7b050941-64cf-4780-98ce-959c47be99e8>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://www.buchananloghouse.com/family	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778272.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128122813-20200128152813-00267.warc.gz	en	0.981791	741	3.421875	3	[ -0.2713836431503296, 0.37930867075920105, 0.6775966882705688, -0.4344056248664856, -0.01087363250553608, 0.1921185851097107, -0.03419586643576622, -0.14876176416873932, -0.2622131109237671, 0.4050527513027191, 0.6167696714401245, 0.009779257699847221, 0.5003198981285095, 0.3135614395141601...	11	Buchanan Family TIMELINE The history of the James Buchanan family "is representative of the social, cultural, and political changes that occurred in Middle Tennessee from the time of frontier settlement through the Civil War and Reconstruction. The history of the Buchanan family, and the construction and expansion of the Buchanan Log House, is representative of the lives of many early settlers that struggled to establish homes for themselves and their families in the Cumberland settlement, Davidson County, and Middle Tennessee area. This family also shared in the hardships and struggles that many Nashvillians faced during the Union occupation of Nashville during the Civil War." (1) James Buchanan (1763-1841) was one of these early settlers. James was born in Virginia on July 16, 1763, to Archibald Buchanan and his wife, Agnes Bowen Buchanan. James was the second child, and only son, born to Archibald and Agnes. By the age of seventeen, and still subject to militia duty, in 1780, James had journeyed to the Cumberland settlement area of Tennessee and was one of 256 settlers to sign the Cumberland Compact. The Cumberland Compact (left) was signed by 256 men above the age of sixteen and established a temporary government in the Middle Tennessee area until 1783, when the Cumberland government petitioned the North Carolina legislature for official recognition, which resulted in the formation of Davidson County the same year. Life was not easy for the early settlers that lived in the Cumberland settlement, and later, Davidson County, in the 1770s and 1780s. Although no Native American nation specifically lived on this land, the Cherokees, Creeks, and Chickasaws all used the land on which the pioneers settled. The threat of attacks was a persistent fear among the early settlers which were often justified, as the Chickasaws and Chickamaugans attacked several of the Cumberland settlements, resulting in loss of life, as well as settlers choosing to relocate, in the early-1780s. Arrange Your Free Tour James Buchanan was largely acquiring land and constructing his home during the last years of the first decade of the nineteenth century, On April 24, 1810, James marries Lucinda East, with whom he would have sixteen children, ten daughters and six sons, over the next twenty-two years. (Left, Addison and another child are missing.) Like many thousand Tennesseans, James Buchanan and his family were involved in the War of 1812. James was a member of Captain Thomas’s Davidson County Militia Company during the War of 1812 (while Andrew Jackson was leading Indian campaigns, and fighting the British in the 1815 Battle of New Orleans.) With a growing family, a one-and-a-half story, one-room addition to the west side of the residence was added in 1820. The hardwood logs used were carefully hewn in a similar size and manner as the earlier ones (but were not as thick). The 1830s saw the birth of the two last children, both daughters. James passed away in 1841. During his adult life, James Buchanan was active in both his community and the church. He was an active member of the Ephesus Church, which was located at The Hermitage. In the 1830s, James was elected and ordained an “elder” in the church. The family matriarch, Lucinda East Buchanan, passes away at the age of 73 and buried in the family cemetery. - - - - - - - - - (1)MTSU TCWNHA Assessment 2011	775	ENGLISH	1
The book on the department stores and making modern Canada offers a clear view of what was going on in the region, as well describes the efforts taken those who were against the activities that were going on in the sector of consumerism (Abella 87). The writer focuses on exacting hypotheses giving examples that emphasize on his point of view. The writer introduces Belisle as an activist who was ready to fight for equality in the region as well as improve the field of consumerism in the region. Belisle gave major emphases to a variety of manipulative, as well as paternalistic relations that came into being in the Canadian division stores in the early twentieth century. Belisle was not alone in the effort to do away with the poor management in the area but there were others like Fudge and Abella who had a similar opinion on the stores in Canada. Through Belisle many theories, for instance, gender and modesty were negotiated. However, this did not require much efforts as the affairs were compromised. She hoped to do away with the issue of consumerism which had dominated in the region, as well as end the naivety and passiveness portrayal of the consumer. In the book, there was no biasness as the writer was free to do her investigations from many sources despite the fact that she was a minor member of the society and was also able to put up her findings, which were intended at changing the situation in the store without her being interrupted by anyone. There are a number of thought as well as opinions presented in the book that are reliable and influential to the kind of governance that was in the departmental stores in Canada (Abella 95). The ideas are brought out clearly and help the reader to view the kind of business that was taking place in Canada, as well as the efforts that the characters put in to change the lifestyle of the citizens. Belisle being a professor of femininity and women’s studies from Athabasca University had great influence on the way women were treated in Canadian department stores. In her efforts she put much attention especially on women who had been discriminated in a particular way in the stores. In her efforts Belisle came up with the idea of thrusting past the issue of activeness in opposition to the issue of inactiveness among the consumers. This was a factor that had taken over the historiography of the customer in the Canadian scenery, she hoped to diminish it so as to improve the living standards of the Canadians. To succeed in the idea she came up with a multifaceted network of business, business condition as well as consumer welfare. She maintained that the approach was aimed at shunning the customer’s naïve portrayal that was either inert or unconventional (Belisle 124). This kind of idea had been brought in by other activists Abella and Fudge, who had also supported the same kind of thought. However, this was not easily achieved and this is the reason why Belisle was adding value to their thoughts. Both the activist had a positive approach so as to bring some change in the Canadian stores which they thought were poorly managed with those in power since early twentieth century doing very little to improve the market or even to make the stores competitive. This is better elaborated by Belisle where she claiming that the stores had much capabilities and were as well accountable for generating a better Canadian identity, as well as an important sector for creating a better way of living for the Canadians. The stores were also thought to promote their lives as entrepreneurial whites as well as those in the middle class. Belisle thought that this was one area where discrimination was highly portrayed and thus had led to the stores being not as productive as expected, since those in the management did very little to improve the state of the stores since the early twentieth century. The activists felt that coming theories, would enhance better understanding on when and where certain theories could be applied. In her work Belisle lighted on hypothesis with multiple illustrations indicative of how exacting hypothesis had been engaged in historical schemes all over the globe. The book contributes to the issue of equality in the region, where she argued that there was a lot of discrimination on the women and this could be viewed by the gap that existed between the employees and consumers. She further explains on how women’s bodies were used for marketing of the industry. According to Belisle, this was something that was not supposed to be practiced as all people in the stores were the same and each had a right to access the departmental stores regardless of their class or the language. In the departmental stores, there existed a gap between the women where the English-speaking, health as well as white females held the higher positions in the labor force. This clearly indicated that in the Canadian departmental stores, some people had more powers than others. It shows the gap between the employees and the consumers as those in the power did not give the take time to consider the feeling of the consumers (Abella 87). This as she described could have been the reason why there were little improvements in the stores since the early twentieth century. The issue of discrimination is also a theme that played a great role in demoralizing the marketing in the Canada and depending on the fact that the departmental stores had been in existence since the early twentieth century, thus indicating that it ought to have stabilized and being in a position to evolve and bringing a better image to the community. Belisle and the other activists played a great role in trying to improve the situation at the stores, as well as to the lifestyle of the people in the region. This was achieved through research, literature, marketing of the departmental stores as well as through poetry. In the book, the issue of paternalism is found to dominate. She looked at the issue and did all she could do to diminish it although it appeared hard for her. She was not the only activist who aimed to eliminate the problem but none succeeded in this. For instance, Eaton together with other stores, was among the stores that had done much in uplifting the lives of the people in the Canadian departmental stores via supplying them with contributions, inexpensive goods which they could easily afford, aids as well as organizing special occasions for the public. Despite all this, positive change was hardly experienced in the region as no developments were taking place in the area. However the desperate situations of the stores in Canada, other companies like Eaton worked hard to change the issue. This was done via the company trying to change the staff into customers by placing public notices in disburse envelops (Fudge and Tucker 64). The employees were also encouraged to engage in activities that could help improve the association among the people, as well as make people more engaged in the company activities. Some of the activities that the people were encouraged to participate in by the company included; sports, camp as well as other activities that could motivate the workers. According to Belisle, the application of these activities was one way of improving the situation in the Canadian department stores. The industry looked at this issue as it could help minimize the low states of the store as well as promote marketing of the stores. In her research, Benson analyzed the problems women in Canada faced; she did an analysis of a saleswoman in the United States where they were able to discuss issues concerning labor, trend as well as the various produces they worked with. In spite of seldom moving past entry stage of sales person as well as diminished with humiliating outlook form both the consumers and the supervisors, the female employees were in a position to use their specific skills in fighting prejudice that was going on in the region. Belisle looked at the origin as well as the end results of Canada department stores on the workers and clients, where their from time to time had common characteristics in startling means. She argued that the department stores were means of patriotism as well as transformation—opened in a cautious and organized manner. contrasting other studies of similar kind that were done by other activists such as William Leach’s Land of Desire, much stress was put on the deception as well as on dramatic way of the early department stores of America (Belisle 89). Initially, Belisle had listed all the department stores in Canada cities that were situated in Calgary, Vancouver, Toronto and Montreal. She found out that departmental stores like Simpson and the Hudson’s Bay Company, were among the crucial companies in the region’s economy. For instance, by the Second World War, Eaton appeared to hold the third most number of workers in Canada. The aim of the author was to emphasize the issue of national identity as well as utilization, keeping up that the Canadian department stores held distinguishing cultural principles. Race was also a factor that distinguished the citizens in Canada where the white consumers were guaranteed of contemporary stores of courteousness where their workers would make an impression due to factors like high quality background among others (Fudge and Tucker 65). Her chronological descriptions of transformation put a racist conversation into a spotlight more efficiently than similar studies concerning the matter that had taken place in the area. Author’s textual scrutiny of public notices disclosed the manner in which First Nations citizens as well as African people were lowly portrayed in conducts that attempted to lawfully dictate regal consumerism. Belisle also looked at paternalism, which attributed powerfully all through the book. The paternalism dragged collectively a variety of facades of the Canadian department store. Belisle paid great attention to clients’ and workers’ daily experiences when inside or out of the department stores. The writer brings out Belisle and other people in the book who participated in changing the life of citizens in Canada as patriotic as well as people who put other people’s interests before theirs. This is out of the way they worked in research with no interests or any gain. They toiled in their work to diminish the negative practices that were taking place in Canada and mostly in the department stores. The activists on the kind of treatment that was happening in the stores made the characters to have some interest in changing the image of the people as well as those of the companies. This was enhanced by the fact that in the region the activists were not biased and so they had liberty to disclose what was not to be done in the right way. The writer of the book aimed at bringing up the major issues that were happening in the region interfering with the developments of the stores in the region (Abella 78). He put forward characters that would help bringing out the problems that people go through in their daily lives. In the current world, problem of racial discrimination, gender inequality, as well as corruption are the major problems that occur in every part of the world. The author also portrays the characters as people who are determined to fight them (Abella 56). Similarly in every part of the world, there are usually people who devote themselves to fight for the nation as a whole expecting nothing in return. The author tries to bring up the theme of patriotism and devotion for a group or the nation at large aiming at succeeding. He brings out poor ruling as one of the factors that determine the destiny of a region. Also the potential as well as the determination of those heading an organization normally have the power to determine its direction either for the benefit of the citizens or the vise versa. She bring forward in investigation of the sources of problems as well as the way out, thus a way of advising leaders and other people who have the urge to bring a change in a given area that is experiencing such problems. The goals of the writer were achieved as she was able to bring out the themes out. However the characters used did not make it to change the way of life of the Canadians but made it to change the way people perceived things as well as their thinking. In the various arguments by characters like Belisle, the reader’s mind is prepared on the way forward in case he or she is faced by a similar kind of a problem. In conclusion, thoughts and opinions of Belisle played a great role in the region as she helped bring out the themes on the issues that were affecting the Canadians (Fudge and Tucker 98). The issues of corruption, gender inequality as well as discrimination were brought out to be as the major problems in the department stores in Canada and ought to be solved to ensure a smooth life for the citizens. In addition, the author elaborate on various theories that helped him portray the issues in the region. Abella, Irving M. On strike; six key labour struggles in Canada, 1919-1949. New York: James Lorimer & Company, 1974. Print. Belisle, Donica. Retail Nation: Department Stores and the Making of Modern Canada. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. 2011. Print. Fudge, Judy and Eric Tucker. Labour Before the Law: The Regulation of Workers’ Collective Action in Canada, 1900-1948. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2001. Print.	<urn:uuid:7986653d-b2d4-49c7-8956-cd7e411dc11c>	CC-MAIN-2020-05	https://ivypanda.com/essays/how-did-retail-giants-reshape-the-canadian-society-by-the-book-of-donica-belisle-book-review/	s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610004.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123101110-20200123130110-00146.warc.gz	en	0.98936	2,639	3.390625	3	[ -0.10334525257349014, 0.3791508972644806, 0.44899892807006836, 0.2081991732120514, 0.1252436339855194, -0.038011107593774796, 0.05161665752530098, 0.696665346622467, -0.2627835273742676, -0.09235377609729767, 0.05089707672595978, -0.12116682529449463, 0.0392216220498085, -0.038315519690513...	1	The book on the department stores and making modern Canada offers a clear view of what was going on in the region, as well describes the efforts taken those who were against the activities that were going on in the sector of consumerism (Abella 87). The writer focuses on exacting hypotheses giving examples that emphasize on his point of view. The writer introduces Belisle as an activist who was ready to fight for equality in the region as well as improve the field of consumerism in the region. Belisle gave major emphases to a variety of manipulative, as well as paternalistic relations that came into being in the Canadian division stores in the early twentieth century. Belisle was not alone in the effort to do away with the poor management in the area but there were others like Fudge and Abella who had a similar opinion on the stores in Canada. Through Belisle many theories, for instance, gender and modesty were negotiated. However, this did not require much efforts as the affairs were compromised. She hoped to do away with the issue of consumerism which had dominated in the region, as well as end the naivety and passiveness portrayal of the consumer. In the book, there was no biasness as the writer was free to do her investigations from many sources despite the fact that she was a minor member of the society and was also able to put up her findings, which were intended at changing the situation in the store without her being interrupted by anyone. There are a number of thought as well as opinions presented in the book that are reliable and influential to the kind of governance that was in the departmental stores in Canada (Abella 95). The ideas are brought out clearly and help the reader to view the kind of business that was taking place in Canada, as well as the efforts that the characters put in to change the lifestyle of the citizens. Belisle being a professor of femininity and women’s studies from Athabasca University had great influence on the way women were treated in Canadian department stores. In her efforts she put much attention especially on women who had been discriminated in a particular way in the stores. In her efforts Belisle came up with the idea of thrusting past the issue of activeness in opposition to the issue of inactiveness among the consumers. This was a factor that had taken over the historiography of the customer in the Canadian scenery, she hoped to diminish it so as to improve the living standards of the Canadians. To succeed in the idea she came up with a multifaceted network of business, business condition as well as consumer welfare. She maintained that the approach was aimed at shunning the customer’s naïve portrayal that was either inert or unconventional (Belisle 124). This kind of idea had been brought in by other activists Abella and Fudge, who had also supported the same kind of thought. However, this was not easily achieved and this is the reason why Belisle was adding value to their thoughts. Both the activist had a positive approach so as to bring some change in the Canadian stores which they thought were poorly managed with those in power since early twentieth century doing very little to improve the market or even to make the stores competitive. This is better elaborated by Belisle where she claiming that the stores had much capabilities and were as well accountable for generating a better Canadian identity, as well as an important sector for creating a better way of living for the Canadians. The stores were also thought to promote their lives as entrepreneurial whites as well as those in the middle class. Belisle thought that this was one area where discrimination was highly portrayed and thus had led to the stores being not as productive as expected, since those in the management did very little to improve the state of the stores since the early twentieth century. The activists felt that coming theories, would enhance better understanding on when and where certain theories could be applied. In her work Belisle lighted on hypothesis with multiple illustrations indicative of how exacting hypothesis had been engaged in historical schemes all over the globe. The book contributes to the issue of equality in the region, where she argued that there was a lot of discrimination on the women and this could be viewed by the gap that existed between the employees and consumers. She further explains on how women’s bodies were used for marketing of the industry. According to Belisle, this was something that was not supposed to be practiced as all people in the stores were the same and each had a right to access the departmental stores regardless of their class or the language. In the departmental stores, there existed a gap between the women where the English-speaking, health as well as white females held the higher positions in the labor force. This clearly indicated that in the Canadian departmental stores, some people had more powers than others. It shows the gap between the employees and the consumers as those in the power did not give the take time to consider the feeling of the consumers (Abella 87). This as she described could have been the reason why there were little improvements in the stores since the early twentieth century. The issue of discrimination is also a theme that played a great role in demoralizing the marketing in the Canada and depending on the fact that the departmental stores had been in existence since the early twentieth century, thus indicating that it ought to have stabilized and being in a position to evolve and bringing a better image to the community. Belisle and the other activists played a great role in trying to improve the situation at the stores, as well as to the lifestyle of the people in the region. This was achieved through research, literature, marketing of the departmental stores as well as through poetry. In the book, the issue of paternalism is found to dominate. She looked at the issue and did all she could do to diminish it although it appeared hard for her. She was not the only activist who aimed to eliminate the problem but none succeeded in this. For instance, Eaton together with other stores, was among the stores that had done much in uplifting the lives of the people in the Canadian departmental stores via supplying them with contributions, inexpensive goods which they could easily afford, aids as well as organizing special occasions for the public. Despite all this, positive change was hardly experienced in the region as no developments were taking place in the area. However the desperate situations of the stores in Canada, other companies like Eaton worked hard to change the issue. This was done via the company trying to change the staff into customers by placing public notices in disburse envelops (Fudge and Tucker 64). The employees were also encouraged to engage in activities that could help improve the association among the people, as well as make people more engaged in the company activities. Some of the activities that the people were encouraged to participate in by the company included; sports, camp as well as other activities that could motivate the workers. According to Belisle, the application of these activities was one way of improving the situation in the Canadian department stores. The industry looked at this issue as it could help minimize the low states of the store as well as promote marketing of the stores. In her research, Benson analyzed the problems women in Canada faced; she did an analysis of a saleswoman in the United States where they were able to discuss issues concerning labor, trend as well as the various produces they worked with. In spite of seldom moving past entry stage of sales person as well as diminished with humiliating outlook form both the consumers and the supervisors, the female employees were in a position to use their specific skills in fighting prejudice that was going on in the region. Belisle looked at the origin as well as the end results of Canada department stores on the workers and clients, where their from time to time had common characteristics in startling means. She argued that the department stores were means of patriotism as well as transformation—opened in a cautious and organized manner. contrasting other studies of similar kind that were done by other activists such as William Leach’s Land of Desire, much stress was put on the deception as well as on dramatic way of the early department stores of America (Belisle 89). Initially, Belisle had listed all the department stores in Canada cities that were situated in Calgary, Vancouver, Toronto and Montreal. She found out that departmental stores like Simpson and the Hudson’s Bay Company, were among the crucial companies in the region’s economy. For instance, by the Second World War, Eaton appeared to hold the third most number of workers in Canada. The aim of the author was to emphasize the issue of national identity as well as utilization, keeping up that the Canadian department stores held distinguishing cultural principles. Race was also a factor that distinguished the citizens in Canada where the white consumers were guaranteed of contemporary stores of courteousness where their workers would make an impression due to factors like high quality background among others (Fudge and Tucker 65). Her chronological descriptions of transformation put a racist conversation into a spotlight more efficiently than similar studies concerning the matter that had taken place in the area. Author’s textual scrutiny of public notices disclosed the manner in which First Nations citizens as well as African people were lowly portrayed in conducts that attempted to lawfully dictate regal consumerism. Belisle also looked at paternalism, which attributed powerfully all through the book. The paternalism dragged collectively a variety of facades of the Canadian department store. Belisle paid great attention to clients’ and workers’ daily experiences when inside or out of the department stores. The writer brings out Belisle and other people in the book who participated in changing the life of citizens in Canada as patriotic as well as people who put other people’s interests before theirs. This is out of the way they worked in research with no interests or any gain. They toiled in their work to diminish the negative practices that were taking place in Canada and mostly in the department stores. The activists on the kind of treatment that was happening in the stores made the characters to have some interest in changing the image of the people as well as those of the companies. This was enhanced by the fact that in the region the activists were not biased and so they had liberty to disclose what was not to be done in the right way. The writer of the book aimed at bringing up the major issues that were happening in the region interfering with the developments of the stores in the region (Abella 78). He put forward characters that would help bringing out the problems that people go through in their daily lives. In the current world, problem of racial discrimination, gender inequality, as well as corruption are the major problems that occur in every part of the world. The author also portrays the characters as people who are determined to fight them (Abella 56). Similarly in every part of the world, there are usually people who devote themselves to fight for the nation as a whole expecting nothing in return. The author tries to bring up the theme of patriotism and devotion for a group or the nation at large aiming at succeeding. He brings out poor ruling as one of the factors that determine the destiny of a region. Also the potential as well as the determination of those heading an organization normally have the power to determine its direction either for the benefit of the citizens or the vise versa. She bring forward in investigation of the sources of problems as well as the way out, thus a way of advising leaders and other people who have the urge to bring a change in a given area that is experiencing such problems. The goals of the writer were achieved as she was able to bring out the themes out. However the characters used did not make it to change the way of life of the Canadians but made it to change the way people perceived things as well as their thinking. In the various arguments by characters like Belisle, the reader’s mind is prepared on the way forward in case he or she is faced by a similar kind of a problem. In conclusion, thoughts and opinions of Belisle played a great role in the region as she helped bring out the themes on the issues that were affecting the Canadians (Fudge and Tucker 98). The issues of corruption, gender inequality as well as discrimination were brought out to be as the major problems in the department stores in Canada and ought to be solved to ensure a smooth life for the citizens. In addition, the author elaborate on various theories that helped him portray the issues in the region. Abella, Irving M. On strike; six key labour struggles in Canada, 1919-1949. New York: James Lorimer & Company, 1974. Print. Belisle, Donica. Retail Nation: Department Stores and the Making of Modern Canada. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press. 2011. Print. Fudge, Judy and Eric Tucker. Labour Before the Law: The Regulation of Workers’ Collective Action in Canada, 1900-1948. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2001. Print.	2,623	ENGLISH	1

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