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By Al Hemingway
On the morning of September 2, 1649, peering over the immense 20-foot-high wall that surrounded the Irish city of Drogheda, English Royalist general Sir Arthur Aston did not like what he saw. Arrayed before him was a large Protestant army under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, who had arrived in the country a few weeks earlier like an avenging angel—or devil. With the help of 11 massive 48-pounder siege guns delivered up the Boyne River by a fleet of English warships helmed by Sir George Ayscue, Cromwell intended to pound the rebellious Irish and their Royalist allies into submission.[text_ad]
Ireland Joins in the English Civil War
Ireland had been at war with England, off and on, since 1641. Throughout that period, the English government had also experienced problems at home. In 1642, open civil war had erupted between the forces of Parliament and the supporters of King Charles I. For the next seven years, the two sides fought a series of pitched battles for control of the country. Finally, on January 30, 1649, the captured king was beheaded in London and his son, Charles II, desperately fled the country for the European continent. Almost immediately, Charles II signed a pact with Irish confederates to join forces with them to retake England and restore the monarchy.
The English Parliament moved quickly to quell the unrest in Ireland. This would prove to be an arduous task. More than 80 percent of the country was held by Irish Catholics and their Royalist partners. Parliament fully understood that this threat to their power had to be eradicated. They appointed rising strongman Oliver Cromwell, a stern and merciless hero of the English Civil War, lord lieutenant of Ireland and ordered him to handle the task. Cromwell, in turn, gathered an impressive army of 8,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry and a large artillery train that included several heavy siege guns. “Ironsides,” as Cromwell was called by admirers, counted on other soldiers already in Ireland to rally to his assistance when he arrived.
Cromwell’s Practical Approach
Cromwell was correct in his assumptions. Lt. Gen. Michael Jones had arrived in Ireland in 1647 with a 5,500-man expeditionary force to battle the Irish rebels. When Royalist commander James Butler, the Earl of Ormonde, moved to seize Baggotrath Castle, located between Dublin and Rathmines, Jones wasted no time in moving to defeat him. On August 2, 1649—just 10 days before Cromwell arrived in Ireland—Jones inflicted a humiliating defeat on Ormonde at Rathmines. More than 600 of Ormonde’s men were killed and another 2,500 taken prisoner. Most of his artillery was captured as well, along with his personal papers and journals. Jones’s dazzling victory secured a port for Cromwell’s army to land safely.
On August 15, the deafening roar of cannon filled the air as an armada of 35 English ships sailed unchallenged into the harbor at Ringsend, not far from Dublin. A few days later Cromwell’s son-in-law, Henry Ireton, followed with an additional 77 vessels. From there, the party advanced to Dublin, where Cromwell was warmly greeted (Jones already had driven the loyal Irish out of Dublin). The formidable Cromwell addressed the remaining citizens concerning his mission to Ireland. He vowed to restore to the Irish and Anglo-Irish Protestants “their just liberty and property,” both of which had been lost after the 1641 revolt. He further assured his supporters, many of them absentee landowners from England who claimed title to large swaths of Irish land, that he and his men were prepared to undertake “the great work against the barbarous and bloodthirsty Irish, and the rest of their adherents and confederates.” He promised that the “bleeding nation” would be restored “to its former happiness and tranquility,” under the “favor and protection from the Parliament of England.”
Despite his inherent disdain for the Irish, whom he considered “a priest-ridden, drunken, barbarous, vicious bunch of men,” Cromwell was no fool. He fully realized that he needed the peasants residing in the countryside to remain neutral—or at least placid—and not interfere with his army’s movements. He immediately established an edict forbidding his soldiers from harming what he somewhat condescendingly termed the “country people.” He assured the peasants that they could sell their wares at market without any hindrance from his occupying force. To show that he meant business—he always meant business—Cromwell hanged five soldiers for stealing chickens during the initial advance. His practicality would reap immeasurable dividends in the weeks to come.
Drogheda: the Beginning of a Bloody Campaign
To begin his conquest of Ireland, Cromwell eyed as his first prize the walled city of Drogheda, located 30 miles due north of Dublin at the mouth of the Boyne River. In early September, his contingent of Roundheads (Puritans who cropped their hair) set out to seize the city, whose name in Gaelic means “the bridge of the ford.” Justifying its keystone name, Drogheda was important for several reasons. From its port, huge quantities of butter and eggs were shipped to England. It housed many linen producers and also nurtured a large farming district. It was also located just south of Ulster, a hotbed of Royalist activity. Eight years earlier, the city had endured a three-month-long siege by Irish rebels. Ironically, English forces had broken the siege and relieved the townsmen.
Convinced that he was on a divine mission to rid Ireland of Catholic heretics and Royalist holdouts, Cromwell led his formidable and battle-tested New Model Army toward the city with revenge on his mind. Coupled with the fact he had not had a good ocean voyage (he was seasick most of the time), his bilious mood set the stage for the upcoming battle. Behind him trailed eight full infantry and six cavalry regiments, along with a long artillery train containing 11 siege guns and 12 field pieces. Iron-disciplined and well-equipped, the New Model Army had grown from Cromwell’s original cavalry unit, dubbed “the Ironsides” for their armored horses. Like their commander, the soldiers were rock-ribbed Puritans who did not drink, swear, or blaspheme. The army was remarkably democratic for its time, drawing its officers from a wide spectrum of tradesmen and craftsmen. Most of the aristocrats had followed the king, and many had died before him in a series of losing battles against the Protestant host.
Drogheda, ironically, was an English-favoring city whose streets and canals reminded one visitor of a Dutch town, “fair and commodious.” It was actually two cities in one, completely surrounded by a 20-foot-high stone wall, 11/2 miles long and six feet thick. The wall tapered to two feet at the top to enable defenders to stand on its ramparts and fire down on attackers. Numerous guard towers were strategically placed all along the formidable wall to repel any attack. Separating the two cities was the River Boyne, which snaked its way from west to east. In the southern sector, a heavily populated residential area stood upon a hill. In the southeast was St. Mary’s Church, which was virtually embedded in the wall surrounding city. The structure boasted a towering steeple that commanded a spectacular view of the countryside. From this position, lookouts could see any approaching army. Running alongside the entire eastern wall of the southern end of the town was a precipitous gully called the Dale, which residents used as convenient garbage dump. Northwest of St. Mary’s Church was the Mill Mount, a horseshoe-shaped, manmade hill that was also used as a fortification.
The northern area of Drogheda was laced with narrow cobblestone streets. Situated in the northeastern part of town was St. Peter’s Church. Directly north of it was the St. Sunday Steeple. As with its southern neighbor, the massive wall was lined with lookout towers and seemingly impregnable gates. A drawbridge spanned the river, connecting the two parts of the city.
“Colonel Hunger and Major Sickness”
Commanding the Royalist garrison at Drogheda was Sir Arthur Aston, a veteran of numerous battles against the Turks in Poland and against his own countrymen during the English Civil War. Although a Catholic, Aston had risen to become governor of Oxford in 1643. Unfortunately for him, Aston was not well liked by the residents of the ancient university town, or even by his own men. His harsh and domineering attitude toward the civilian population did not endear him to them, and he was placed under house arrest after he physically accosted the mayor of the town in 1644. Aston was finally relieved as governor after his leg had to be amputated following a riding accident.
Aston immediately went to Ireland and took up arms with the rebel forces under Ormonde, who envisioned the country as a new Royalist power base. With an army of 3,000 men, many of whom were English Catholics, the Protestant-born Ormonde appointed Aston governor of Drogheda and ordered him to defend the city while Ormonde reorganized the army in the wake of the Rathmines debacle. Aston had his men construct three parallel ditches, each 150 yards long, astride the road to Dublin. The new defensive works would delay an enemy advance long enough to give defenders a better chance of repulsing the attack. The trenches were also deep enough to stop the cavalry in its tracks—a particular consideration given Cromwell’s well-earned reputation as a commander of horse.
Confident that he could defeat Cromwell despite being outnumbered 4-to-1, Aston bragged: “He who could take Drogheda could take Hell.” Aston figured that Drogheda’s superior position, coupled with the undesirable effects of a long siege, would fatally weaken Cromwell’s forces. As Ormonde put it, “Colonel Hunger and Major Sickness” would play a pivotal role in demoralizing the Parliamentarian forces camped outside the city’s gates.
Despite these important factors and Aston’s outward display of bravado, the governor faced several serious problems of his own. Ormonde could not afford to bolster the contingent at Drogheda, and Aston was running low on supplies and weapons. More ominously, numerous citizens within the city’s walls failed to rally behind the Royalists, including Aston’s own grandmother, Lady Wilmot, who even concocted a “ladies’ plot” to undermine her own grandson. When Aston discovered his relative’s disloyalty, he ordered her to leave Drogheda posthaste before he “made powder of her.” Ormonde quickly interceded in the family matter and sent the old woman away safely out of “the consideration and respect we retain for her years and quality.”
The Regulations of War
Cromwell had no intention of enduring a costly and lengthy siege at the walls of Drogheda. Familiar with lightning-fast cavalry tactics, “Ironsides” had little experience with siege warfare. Even if he had, Cromwell could little afford to be delayed at Drogheda. Winter was fast approaching and Cromwell wanted to achieve his conquest of Ireland with the least number of casualties among his troops, whether from battle injuries or the wide variety of ailments they would be exposed to in the cold, damp weather.
On September 10, Cromwell sent a proclamation to Aston demanding the capitulation of Drogheda. The message read bluntly: “Sir, having brought the army of the Parliament of England before this place, to reduce it to obedience, I thought it fit to summon you to deliver the same into my hands to their use. If this be refused, you will have no cause to blame me. I expect your answer and remain your servant, O. Cromwell.”
Aston wasted no time in refusing to surrender the city. The rules of warfare during that period were explicit; if an army would not relinquish a city under siege, then no quarter would be given to the defenders if the town was captured by the attackers. The prevailing logic dictated that many lives would be spared by avoiding a long, drawn-out affair. The regulations of war were introduced to protect soldiers, not civilians, and the situation of the civilian inhabitants of Drogheda could best be described as highly vulnerable. As for the soldiers, they understood to a man that refusing to surrender during a siege made them fair game to their attackers. They had no reason to expect anything less from the grim Puritans swarming industriously outside the walls.
Aston, however, was adamant about not relinquishing Drogheda. He informed Ormonde that he and his officers “were unanimous in their resolution to perish rather than to deliver up the place.” Cromwell quickly answered Aston’s reply by lowering the white flag of truce and raising the red one of battle. The stage was set for one of the bloodiest and most controversial days in Irish history.
Hammering the Defenders
The English gunners rolled one battery of long-range 48-pounder siege guns into position at the southern end of the town and concentrated their fire on the wall situated between the Duleek Gate and St. Mary’s Church. Cromwell wanted the imposing tower obliterated quickly to prevent the rebels from observing the movement of his troops. A second battery of artillery was brought up to lob shells east of St. Mary’s Cathedral. Cromwell hoped that his guns could weaken the stone walls and enable his soldiers to assault the southeast corner of Drogheda. If the cannonade could punch some openings into the thick walls, Cromwell vowed, then he and his army would “do our utmost the next day to make such breaches assaultable, and by the help of God to storm them.”
By five o’clock the following afternoon, the English artillery pieces had toppled the imposing steeple of St. Mary’s Church. The projectiles had also created some small gaps in the southern and eastern bulwarks themselves. Seizing the first opportunity, Cromwell gave the order to advance through the breaches and take the town. Colonel James Castle, leading an infantry regiment, struck the southern portion of the wall. Meanwhile, Colonel Isaac Ewer’s men lent support. Colonel John Hewson’s soldiers set out across the Dale and assaulted the same position from an easterly direction. Protestant horsemen ranged north of the city to prevent any last-minute reinforcements from Ormonde.
“No Quarter! No Quarter”
Despite the attackers’ superiority in numbers, the defenders repelled two vicious assaults from the Roundheads. Hewson’s men were driven back across the ravine but, realizing he was in serious trouble, the other two units came to his aid. The fighting was hand-to-hand as the Parliamentarians forced their way through the breaches. Because the openings were small, the cavalry could not get through to support the infantry. The attack suddenly faltered when Colonel Castle was struck in the head by a bullet and killed. Enraged, “Ironsides” himself led the next charge through the opening, climbing down from his horse and swinging a blood-stained sword right and left as he advanced wild-eyed into the fray. As Ewer’s troops came up to reinforce the others, the Parliamentarians poured through the breach and entered the town.
On the Royalist side, Colonel William Wall, a popular leader, was killed. With his death, many defenders lost heart and began laying down their arms. Ormonde heard later that some form of pardon had been promised to the soldiers and officers if they surrendered, a point that has been argued by historians ever since. Unfortunately for the defenders, the rules of no quarter had been irrevocably established when Aston refused Cromwell’s offer a day earlier, and even if a suggestion of clemency had been put to him, Cromwell would never have agreed. Instead, in a white heat of passion, he screamed to his men: “No quarter! No quarter!” With so many of his own men and officers dead or wounded, Cromwell wanted revenge.
Aston and some 250 of his followers found refuge in the Mill Mount and fought on. An informal parley began, with Aston negotiating for the safe surrender of company-grade officers. (It is unclear whether he included himself in the offer.) Once again, Cromwell nixed any proffer of mercy, ordering a new attack. Overwhelmed by the sheer numbers of Cromwell’s men, Aston and his men were all cut down. Aston was beaten to death with his wooden leg, which Cromwell’s soldiers had mistakenly believed was filled with gold coins. Enraged to find that it was solid wood, the Roundheads put it to deadly use. They did not go away entirely empty-handed—a money belt containing 200 gold sovereigns was found on Aston’s corpse.
By this time, thousands of Roundheads were running through the streets of Drogheda, making their way into the northern section of the city. The retreating army realized too late that their comrades had failed to raise the drawbridge to block the enemy advance. Cromwell issued new orders to kill anyone who was found to be armed, while positioning his cavalry outside the northern walls to prohibit anyone from escaping the slaughter taking place within.
Catholic clergymen were given no special treatment; they were summarily executed on the spot. Approximately 100 priests and defenders made their way to St. Peter’s Church in the northern part of Drogheda, taking refuge in the steeple. Cromwell told his men to gather the wooden pews from inside the cathedral and set them ablaze to burn the occupants from their sanctuary. As the flames crept skyward, some tried to flee, but they were run through with swords or speared with pikes. The remainder perished in the roaring fire. As the screams of the dying permeated the air, one unfortunate individual was heard to exclaim: “God damn me, God confound me; I burn, I burn!” A more enterprising soul leaped from the tower and landed heavily, but miraculously suffered only a broken leg. Cromwell was so astonished by the man’s bravery that he pardoned him on the spot “for the extraordinariness of the thing,”
Many innocent civilians died during the massacre. Anthony Wood, a Parliamentarian officer, later said that he had discovered numerous women hiding in a church, the “flower and choicest of the women and ladies belonging to the town: amongst whom, a most handsome virgin, arrayed in costly and gorgeous apparel, kneeled down to him with tears and prayers to save her life.” Overcome with pity, Wood displayed mercy and tried to protect her as they left the building. Suddenly, one Roundhead rushed the female captive and “thrust his sword into her body,” killing the young woman instantly. Wood’s compassion was short-lived—he rifled the body for any money and jewelry and then “flung her down over the rocks.” Wood also described how his soldiers picked up children and used them as human shields “to save themselves from being shot or brained” while they ascended the lofts and galleries of the church.
By dusk the majority of the Royalist forces had been killed or captured, with the exception of a few survivors skulking atop the towers and walls. Originally, these soldiers were not pursued, Cromwell assuming that they would eventually give themselves up when they became hungry and tired. Some of these defenders, however, had no intention of surrendering and fired down on the Roundheads, killing and wounding several. When the small group finally capitulated, Cromwell’s orders were quick and unmerciful. “Their officers were knocked on the head, and every tenth man of the soldiers killed, and the rest shipped for the Barbadoes,” Cromwell later wrote in a letter to Parliament. An untold number of prisoners, probably several dozen, spent the rest of their lives as white slaves on West Indies sugar plantations.
Following the battle, a handful of English Royalist officers were singled out for special punishment. Lt. Col. Edmund Verney, after surrendering, was removed from Cromwell’s immediate presence and stabbed to death. Another Drogheda defender, Colonel Michael Byrne, was invited to dine with the newly installed English governor, Lord Henry Moore. At the close of the meal, one of Cromwell’s officers bent down and whispered into Byrne’s ear. Byrne rose quietly to leave the table. When Moore’s wife asked innocently where he was going, Byrne replied with perfect gentlemanly composure: “Madam, to die.”
The Strategic Outcome of the Slaughter
Figures vary, but somewhere between 2,000 and 4,000 Irish and Royalist soldiers and civilians died at Drogheda. Cromwell’s army suffered 150 killed and an unknown number wounded. Cromwell later justified the slaughter in a letter to William Lenthall, speaker of the Parliament, by saying that the victory at Drogheda belonged to the Almighty. “I am persuaded that this is a righteous judgment of God upon these barbarous wretches,” Cromwell wrote to Lenthall, “who have imbrued their hands in so much innocent blood for the future, which are the satisfactory grounds to such actions, which otherwise cannot but work remorse and regret.”
Cromwell’s strategy was brutally simple. By giving no quarter to the enemy, he believed that other Irish towns in his path would waste no time in laying down their arms to avoid further bloodshed. In the beginning, the plan worked extremely well. The slaughter at Drogheda had a tremendous negative impact upon the Irish, at least for the time being. Immediately following Drogheda, the towns of Trim, Dundalk, Carlingford, and Newry all surrendered without a struggle.
At the same time, Ormonde had a difficult time convincing his troops to fight Cromwell’s soldiers and defend their country. “It is not to be imagined how great the terror is that those successes and the power of the rebels [the English] have struck into this people,” he informed King Charles II. “They are yet so stupefied, that it is with great difficulty I can persuade them to act anything like men towards their own preservation.”
When Cromwell’s army reached Wexford, the Royalist commander there, David Sinnott, refused to give up the town without a fight. Once again, the Parliamentarians fought their way into the city (after an eight-day siege) and killed another 2,000 soldiers and citizens in the marketplace. Cromwell left Ireland soon afterward, leaving behind a distinctly mixed legacy. For Irish Catholics and English Royalists, the slaughter of innocents at Drogheda and Wexford took on the air of religious martyrdom. Stories spread throughout the countryside of the wicked English commander who butchered women and children with no remorse. When the news reached England, however, the population was overjoyed and declared a day of thanksgiving to celebrate the fact that the heinous Irish rebels had received their just rewards.
“Curse of Cromwell”: Drogheda Remembered
Historians have argued that the stern but upright Cromwell who had fought in England and Scotland during the civil war was not the same bloodthirsty tyrant who conducted the Irish campaign. Cromwell biographer Antonia Fraser has written: “The conclusion cannot be escaped that Cromwell lost his self-control at Drogheda, literally saw red—the red of his comrades’ blood—after the failure of the first assaults.”
There is no doubt that Cromwell lost his self-control at Drogheda. His irrational actions, so unlike his earlier campaigns in England and Scotland, resulted in the deaths of hundreds of innocent civilians. “The death rate in military engagements in England was usually between five and 10 percent,” wrote John Morrill, professor of British and Irish History at the University of Cambridge and past president of the Oliver Cromwell Association. “At Drogheda and Wexford, it must have been 80 percent. By Cromwell’s own admission, these included non-combatants killed in the knowledge that they were non-combatants.”
His deep hatred for the Irish certainly clouded Cromwell’s judgment. Incensed by the massacre of Protestants in 1641 by Irish Catholics, Cromwell fervently believed that his mission was a divine one, sanctioned by God to deliver a just punishment upon the barbaric Irish. Ironically, many of the defenders of Drogheda were not Irish, but English Catholics. They almost certainly had not taken part in the killing of the Protestant settlers eight years before. This did not matter to Cromwell. In his mind, the inhabitants of the town were to blame for their own murders.
Some historians have claimed that Cromwell was well within his rights to deny quarter to the soldiers of Drogheda and Wexford because they had refused his petitions for surrender. One Cromwell defender has even claimed that some of the lurid tales of massacre that have been passed down through the centuries have been fabricated. He points to the fact that the remains of the dead have never been found. Most historians, however, vehemently disagree with that assessment. “There may have been good military reasons for behaving as he did, but they were not the motives which encouraged him at Drogheda, during the day and night of organised butchery,” historian Eugene Coyle has concluded. “Cromwell knew exactly what he was doing at Drogheda whether the order for ‘no quarter’ was given or not.”
Heated emotions are still very much in evidence in Ireland today whenever Cromwell’s name is brought up in conversation. On the 400th anniversary of his birth on April 25, 1999, protesters picketed celebrations of the event. To this day, the “Curse of Cromwell” looms like an evil specter between the two countries. As English author G.K. Chesterton once remarked, “The tragedy of the English conquest of Ireland in the 17th century is that the Irish can never forget it and the English can never remember it.” | <urn:uuid:e615b092-5153-4428-8940-049faeeca5a3> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/2016/06/15/no-quarter-at-drogheda/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594391.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119093733-20200119121733-00528.warc.gz | en | 0.980615 | 5,663 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.346986... | 4 | By Al Hemingway
On the morning of September 2, 1649, peering over the immense 20-foot-high wall that surrounded the Irish city of Drogheda, English Royalist general Sir Arthur Aston did not like what he saw. Arrayed before him was a large Protestant army under the leadership of Oliver Cromwell, who had arrived in the country a few weeks earlier like an avenging angel—or devil. With the help of 11 massive 48-pounder siege guns delivered up the Boyne River by a fleet of English warships helmed by Sir George Ayscue, Cromwell intended to pound the rebellious Irish and their Royalist allies into submission.[text_ad]
Ireland Joins in the English Civil War
Ireland had been at war with England, off and on, since 1641. Throughout that period, the English government had also experienced problems at home. In 1642, open civil war had erupted between the forces of Parliament and the supporters of King Charles I. For the next seven years, the two sides fought a series of pitched battles for control of the country. Finally, on January 30, 1649, the captured king was beheaded in London and his son, Charles II, desperately fled the country for the European continent. Almost immediately, Charles II signed a pact with Irish confederates to join forces with them to retake England and restore the monarchy.
The English Parliament moved quickly to quell the unrest in Ireland. This would prove to be an arduous task. More than 80 percent of the country was held by Irish Catholics and their Royalist partners. Parliament fully understood that this threat to their power had to be eradicated. They appointed rising strongman Oliver Cromwell, a stern and merciless hero of the English Civil War, lord lieutenant of Ireland and ordered him to handle the task. Cromwell, in turn, gathered an impressive army of 8,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry and a large artillery train that included several heavy siege guns. “Ironsides,” as Cromwell was called by admirers, counted on other soldiers already in Ireland to rally to his assistance when he arrived.
Cromwell’s Practical Approach
Cromwell was correct in his assumptions. Lt. Gen. Michael Jones had arrived in Ireland in 1647 with a 5,500-man expeditionary force to battle the Irish rebels. When Royalist commander James Butler, the Earl of Ormonde, moved to seize Baggotrath Castle, located between Dublin and Rathmines, Jones wasted no time in moving to defeat him. On August 2, 1649—just 10 days before Cromwell arrived in Ireland—Jones inflicted a humiliating defeat on Ormonde at Rathmines. More than 600 of Ormonde’s men were killed and another 2,500 taken prisoner. Most of his artillery was captured as well, along with his personal papers and journals. Jones’s dazzling victory secured a port for Cromwell’s army to land safely.
On August 15, the deafening roar of cannon filled the air as an armada of 35 English ships sailed unchallenged into the harbor at Ringsend, not far from Dublin. A few days later Cromwell’s son-in-law, Henry Ireton, followed with an additional 77 vessels. From there, the party advanced to Dublin, where Cromwell was warmly greeted (Jones already had driven the loyal Irish out of Dublin). The formidable Cromwell addressed the remaining citizens concerning his mission to Ireland. He vowed to restore to the Irish and Anglo-Irish Protestants “their just liberty and property,” both of which had been lost after the 1641 revolt. He further assured his supporters, many of them absentee landowners from England who claimed title to large swaths of Irish land, that he and his men were prepared to undertake “the great work against the barbarous and bloodthirsty Irish, and the rest of their adherents and confederates.” He promised that the “bleeding nation” would be restored “to its former happiness and tranquility,” under the “favor and protection from the Parliament of England.”
Despite his inherent disdain for the Irish, whom he considered “a priest-ridden, drunken, barbarous, vicious bunch of men,” Cromwell was no fool. He fully realized that he needed the peasants residing in the countryside to remain neutral—or at least placid—and not interfere with his army’s movements. He immediately established an edict forbidding his soldiers from harming what he somewhat condescendingly termed the “country people.” He assured the peasants that they could sell their wares at market without any hindrance from his occupying force. To show that he meant business—he always meant business—Cromwell hanged five soldiers for stealing chickens during the initial advance. His practicality would reap immeasurable dividends in the weeks to come.
Drogheda: the Beginning of a Bloody Campaign
To begin his conquest of Ireland, Cromwell eyed as his first prize the walled city of Drogheda, located 30 miles due north of Dublin at the mouth of the Boyne River. In early September, his contingent of Roundheads (Puritans who cropped their hair) set out to seize the city, whose name in Gaelic means “the bridge of the ford.” Justifying its keystone name, Drogheda was important for several reasons. From its port, huge quantities of butter and eggs were shipped to England. It housed many linen producers and also nurtured a large farming district. It was also located just south of Ulster, a hotbed of Royalist activity. Eight years earlier, the city had endured a three-month-long siege by Irish rebels. Ironically, English forces had broken the siege and relieved the townsmen.
Convinced that he was on a divine mission to rid Ireland of Catholic heretics and Royalist holdouts, Cromwell led his formidable and battle-tested New Model Army toward the city with revenge on his mind. Coupled with the fact he had not had a good ocean voyage (he was seasick most of the time), his bilious mood set the stage for the upcoming battle. Behind him trailed eight full infantry and six cavalry regiments, along with a long artillery train containing 11 siege guns and 12 field pieces. Iron-disciplined and well-equipped, the New Model Army had grown from Cromwell’s original cavalry unit, dubbed “the Ironsides” for their armored horses. Like their commander, the soldiers were rock-ribbed Puritans who did not drink, swear, or blaspheme. The army was remarkably democratic for its time, drawing its officers from a wide spectrum of tradesmen and craftsmen. Most of the aristocrats had followed the king, and many had died before him in a series of losing battles against the Protestant host.
Drogheda, ironically, was an English-favoring city whose streets and canals reminded one visitor of a Dutch town, “fair and commodious.” It was actually two cities in one, completely surrounded by a 20-foot-high stone wall, 11/2 miles long and six feet thick. The wall tapered to two feet at the top to enable defenders to stand on its ramparts and fire down on attackers. Numerous guard towers were strategically placed all along the formidable wall to repel any attack. Separating the two cities was the River Boyne, which snaked its way from west to east. In the southern sector, a heavily populated residential area stood upon a hill. In the southeast was St. Mary’s Church, which was virtually embedded in the wall surrounding city. The structure boasted a towering steeple that commanded a spectacular view of the countryside. From this position, lookouts could see any approaching army. Running alongside the entire eastern wall of the southern end of the town was a precipitous gully called the Dale, which residents used as convenient garbage dump. Northwest of St. Mary’s Church was the Mill Mount, a horseshoe-shaped, manmade hill that was also used as a fortification.
The northern area of Drogheda was laced with narrow cobblestone streets. Situated in the northeastern part of town was St. Peter’s Church. Directly north of it was the St. Sunday Steeple. As with its southern neighbor, the massive wall was lined with lookout towers and seemingly impregnable gates. A drawbridge spanned the river, connecting the two parts of the city.
“Colonel Hunger and Major Sickness”
Commanding the Royalist garrison at Drogheda was Sir Arthur Aston, a veteran of numerous battles against the Turks in Poland and against his own countrymen during the English Civil War. Although a Catholic, Aston had risen to become governor of Oxford in 1643. Unfortunately for him, Aston was not well liked by the residents of the ancient university town, or even by his own men. His harsh and domineering attitude toward the civilian population did not endear him to them, and he was placed under house arrest after he physically accosted the mayor of the town in 1644. Aston was finally relieved as governor after his leg had to be amputated following a riding accident.
Aston immediately went to Ireland and took up arms with the rebel forces under Ormonde, who envisioned the country as a new Royalist power base. With an army of 3,000 men, many of whom were English Catholics, the Protestant-born Ormonde appointed Aston governor of Drogheda and ordered him to defend the city while Ormonde reorganized the army in the wake of the Rathmines debacle. Aston had his men construct three parallel ditches, each 150 yards long, astride the road to Dublin. The new defensive works would delay an enemy advance long enough to give defenders a better chance of repulsing the attack. The trenches were also deep enough to stop the cavalry in its tracks—a particular consideration given Cromwell’s well-earned reputation as a commander of horse.
Confident that he could defeat Cromwell despite being outnumbered 4-to-1, Aston bragged: “He who could take Drogheda could take Hell.” Aston figured that Drogheda’s superior position, coupled with the undesirable effects of a long siege, would fatally weaken Cromwell’s forces. As Ormonde put it, “Colonel Hunger and Major Sickness” would play a pivotal role in demoralizing the Parliamentarian forces camped outside the city’s gates.
Despite these important factors and Aston’s outward display of bravado, the governor faced several serious problems of his own. Ormonde could not afford to bolster the contingent at Drogheda, and Aston was running low on supplies and weapons. More ominously, numerous citizens within the city’s walls failed to rally behind the Royalists, including Aston’s own grandmother, Lady Wilmot, who even concocted a “ladies’ plot” to undermine her own grandson. When Aston discovered his relative’s disloyalty, he ordered her to leave Drogheda posthaste before he “made powder of her.” Ormonde quickly interceded in the family matter and sent the old woman away safely out of “the consideration and respect we retain for her years and quality.”
The Regulations of War
Cromwell had no intention of enduring a costly and lengthy siege at the walls of Drogheda. Familiar with lightning-fast cavalry tactics, “Ironsides” had little experience with siege warfare. Even if he had, Cromwell could little afford to be delayed at Drogheda. Winter was fast approaching and Cromwell wanted to achieve his conquest of Ireland with the least number of casualties among his troops, whether from battle injuries or the wide variety of ailments they would be exposed to in the cold, damp weather.
On September 10, Cromwell sent a proclamation to Aston demanding the capitulation of Drogheda. The message read bluntly: “Sir, having brought the army of the Parliament of England before this place, to reduce it to obedience, I thought it fit to summon you to deliver the same into my hands to their use. If this be refused, you will have no cause to blame me. I expect your answer and remain your servant, O. Cromwell.”
Aston wasted no time in refusing to surrender the city. The rules of warfare during that period were explicit; if an army would not relinquish a city under siege, then no quarter would be given to the defenders if the town was captured by the attackers. The prevailing logic dictated that many lives would be spared by avoiding a long, drawn-out affair. The regulations of war were introduced to protect soldiers, not civilians, and the situation of the civilian inhabitants of Drogheda could best be described as highly vulnerable. As for the soldiers, they understood to a man that refusing to surrender during a siege made them fair game to their attackers. They had no reason to expect anything less from the grim Puritans swarming industriously outside the walls.
Aston, however, was adamant about not relinquishing Drogheda. He informed Ormonde that he and his officers “were unanimous in their resolution to perish rather than to deliver up the place.” Cromwell quickly answered Aston’s reply by lowering the white flag of truce and raising the red one of battle. The stage was set for one of the bloodiest and most controversial days in Irish history.
Hammering the Defenders
The English gunners rolled one battery of long-range 48-pounder siege guns into position at the southern end of the town and concentrated their fire on the wall situated between the Duleek Gate and St. Mary’s Church. Cromwell wanted the imposing tower obliterated quickly to prevent the rebels from observing the movement of his troops. A second battery of artillery was brought up to lob shells east of St. Mary’s Cathedral. Cromwell hoped that his guns could weaken the stone walls and enable his soldiers to assault the southeast corner of Drogheda. If the cannonade could punch some openings into the thick walls, Cromwell vowed, then he and his army would “do our utmost the next day to make such breaches assaultable, and by the help of God to storm them.”
By five o’clock the following afternoon, the English artillery pieces had toppled the imposing steeple of St. Mary’s Church. The projectiles had also created some small gaps in the southern and eastern bulwarks themselves. Seizing the first opportunity, Cromwell gave the order to advance through the breaches and take the town. Colonel James Castle, leading an infantry regiment, struck the southern portion of the wall. Meanwhile, Colonel Isaac Ewer’s men lent support. Colonel John Hewson’s soldiers set out across the Dale and assaulted the same position from an easterly direction. Protestant horsemen ranged north of the city to prevent any last-minute reinforcements from Ormonde.
“No Quarter! No Quarter”
Despite the attackers’ superiority in numbers, the defenders repelled two vicious assaults from the Roundheads. Hewson’s men were driven back across the ravine but, realizing he was in serious trouble, the other two units came to his aid. The fighting was hand-to-hand as the Parliamentarians forced their way through the breaches. Because the openings were small, the cavalry could not get through to support the infantry. The attack suddenly faltered when Colonel Castle was struck in the head by a bullet and killed. Enraged, “Ironsides” himself led the next charge through the opening, climbing down from his horse and swinging a blood-stained sword right and left as he advanced wild-eyed into the fray. As Ewer’s troops came up to reinforce the others, the Parliamentarians poured through the breach and entered the town.
On the Royalist side, Colonel William Wall, a popular leader, was killed. With his death, many defenders lost heart and began laying down their arms. Ormonde heard later that some form of pardon had been promised to the soldiers and officers if they surrendered, a point that has been argued by historians ever since. Unfortunately for the defenders, the rules of no quarter had been irrevocably established when Aston refused Cromwell’s offer a day earlier, and even if a suggestion of clemency had been put to him, Cromwell would never have agreed. Instead, in a white heat of passion, he screamed to his men: “No quarter! No quarter!” With so many of his own men and officers dead or wounded, Cromwell wanted revenge.
Aston and some 250 of his followers found refuge in the Mill Mount and fought on. An informal parley began, with Aston negotiating for the safe surrender of company-grade officers. (It is unclear whether he included himself in the offer.) Once again, Cromwell nixed any proffer of mercy, ordering a new attack. Overwhelmed by the sheer numbers of Cromwell’s men, Aston and his men were all cut down. Aston was beaten to death with his wooden leg, which Cromwell’s soldiers had mistakenly believed was filled with gold coins. Enraged to find that it was solid wood, the Roundheads put it to deadly use. They did not go away entirely empty-handed—a money belt containing 200 gold sovereigns was found on Aston’s corpse.
By this time, thousands of Roundheads were running through the streets of Drogheda, making their way into the northern section of the city. The retreating army realized too late that their comrades had failed to raise the drawbridge to block the enemy advance. Cromwell issued new orders to kill anyone who was found to be armed, while positioning his cavalry outside the northern walls to prohibit anyone from escaping the slaughter taking place within.
Catholic clergymen were given no special treatment; they were summarily executed on the spot. Approximately 100 priests and defenders made their way to St. Peter’s Church in the northern part of Drogheda, taking refuge in the steeple. Cromwell told his men to gather the wooden pews from inside the cathedral and set them ablaze to burn the occupants from their sanctuary. As the flames crept skyward, some tried to flee, but they were run through with swords or speared with pikes. The remainder perished in the roaring fire. As the screams of the dying permeated the air, one unfortunate individual was heard to exclaim: “God damn me, God confound me; I burn, I burn!” A more enterprising soul leaped from the tower and landed heavily, but miraculously suffered only a broken leg. Cromwell was so astonished by the man’s bravery that he pardoned him on the spot “for the extraordinariness of the thing,”
Many innocent civilians died during the massacre. Anthony Wood, a Parliamentarian officer, later said that he had discovered numerous women hiding in a church, the “flower and choicest of the women and ladies belonging to the town: amongst whom, a most handsome virgin, arrayed in costly and gorgeous apparel, kneeled down to him with tears and prayers to save her life.” Overcome with pity, Wood displayed mercy and tried to protect her as they left the building. Suddenly, one Roundhead rushed the female captive and “thrust his sword into her body,” killing the young woman instantly. Wood’s compassion was short-lived—he rifled the body for any money and jewelry and then “flung her down over the rocks.” Wood also described how his soldiers picked up children and used them as human shields “to save themselves from being shot or brained” while they ascended the lofts and galleries of the church.
By dusk the majority of the Royalist forces had been killed or captured, with the exception of a few survivors skulking atop the towers and walls. Originally, these soldiers were not pursued, Cromwell assuming that they would eventually give themselves up when they became hungry and tired. Some of these defenders, however, had no intention of surrendering and fired down on the Roundheads, killing and wounding several. When the small group finally capitulated, Cromwell’s orders were quick and unmerciful. “Their officers were knocked on the head, and every tenth man of the soldiers killed, and the rest shipped for the Barbadoes,” Cromwell later wrote in a letter to Parliament. An untold number of prisoners, probably several dozen, spent the rest of their lives as white slaves on West Indies sugar plantations.
Following the battle, a handful of English Royalist officers were singled out for special punishment. Lt. Col. Edmund Verney, after surrendering, was removed from Cromwell’s immediate presence and stabbed to death. Another Drogheda defender, Colonel Michael Byrne, was invited to dine with the newly installed English governor, Lord Henry Moore. At the close of the meal, one of Cromwell’s officers bent down and whispered into Byrne’s ear. Byrne rose quietly to leave the table. When Moore’s wife asked innocently where he was going, Byrne replied with perfect gentlemanly composure: “Madam, to die.”
The Strategic Outcome of the Slaughter
Figures vary, but somewhere between 2,000 and 4,000 Irish and Royalist soldiers and civilians died at Drogheda. Cromwell’s army suffered 150 killed and an unknown number wounded. Cromwell later justified the slaughter in a letter to William Lenthall, speaker of the Parliament, by saying that the victory at Drogheda belonged to the Almighty. “I am persuaded that this is a righteous judgment of God upon these barbarous wretches,” Cromwell wrote to Lenthall, “who have imbrued their hands in so much innocent blood for the future, which are the satisfactory grounds to such actions, which otherwise cannot but work remorse and regret.”
Cromwell’s strategy was brutally simple. By giving no quarter to the enemy, he believed that other Irish towns in his path would waste no time in laying down their arms to avoid further bloodshed. In the beginning, the plan worked extremely well. The slaughter at Drogheda had a tremendous negative impact upon the Irish, at least for the time being. Immediately following Drogheda, the towns of Trim, Dundalk, Carlingford, and Newry all surrendered without a struggle.
At the same time, Ormonde had a difficult time convincing his troops to fight Cromwell’s soldiers and defend their country. “It is not to be imagined how great the terror is that those successes and the power of the rebels [the English] have struck into this people,” he informed King Charles II. “They are yet so stupefied, that it is with great difficulty I can persuade them to act anything like men towards their own preservation.”
When Cromwell’s army reached Wexford, the Royalist commander there, David Sinnott, refused to give up the town without a fight. Once again, the Parliamentarians fought their way into the city (after an eight-day siege) and killed another 2,000 soldiers and citizens in the marketplace. Cromwell left Ireland soon afterward, leaving behind a distinctly mixed legacy. For Irish Catholics and English Royalists, the slaughter of innocents at Drogheda and Wexford took on the air of religious martyrdom. Stories spread throughout the countryside of the wicked English commander who butchered women and children with no remorse. When the news reached England, however, the population was overjoyed and declared a day of thanksgiving to celebrate the fact that the heinous Irish rebels had received their just rewards.
“Curse of Cromwell”: Drogheda Remembered
Historians have argued that the stern but upright Cromwell who had fought in England and Scotland during the civil war was not the same bloodthirsty tyrant who conducted the Irish campaign. Cromwell biographer Antonia Fraser has written: “The conclusion cannot be escaped that Cromwell lost his self-control at Drogheda, literally saw red—the red of his comrades’ blood—after the failure of the first assaults.”
There is no doubt that Cromwell lost his self-control at Drogheda. His irrational actions, so unlike his earlier campaigns in England and Scotland, resulted in the deaths of hundreds of innocent civilians. “The death rate in military engagements in England was usually between five and 10 percent,” wrote John Morrill, professor of British and Irish History at the University of Cambridge and past president of the Oliver Cromwell Association. “At Drogheda and Wexford, it must have been 80 percent. By Cromwell’s own admission, these included non-combatants killed in the knowledge that they were non-combatants.”
His deep hatred for the Irish certainly clouded Cromwell’s judgment. Incensed by the massacre of Protestants in 1641 by Irish Catholics, Cromwell fervently believed that his mission was a divine one, sanctioned by God to deliver a just punishment upon the barbaric Irish. Ironically, many of the defenders of Drogheda were not Irish, but English Catholics. They almost certainly had not taken part in the killing of the Protestant settlers eight years before. This did not matter to Cromwell. In his mind, the inhabitants of the town were to blame for their own murders.
Some historians have claimed that Cromwell was well within his rights to deny quarter to the soldiers of Drogheda and Wexford because they had refused his petitions for surrender. One Cromwell defender has even claimed that some of the lurid tales of massacre that have been passed down through the centuries have been fabricated. He points to the fact that the remains of the dead have never been found. Most historians, however, vehemently disagree with that assessment. “There may have been good military reasons for behaving as he did, but they were not the motives which encouraged him at Drogheda, during the day and night of organised butchery,” historian Eugene Coyle has concluded. “Cromwell knew exactly what he was doing at Drogheda whether the order for ‘no quarter’ was given or not.”
Heated emotions are still very much in evidence in Ireland today whenever Cromwell’s name is brought up in conversation. On the 400th anniversary of his birth on April 25, 1999, protesters picketed celebrations of the event. To this day, the “Curse of Cromwell” looms like an evil specter between the two countries. As English author G.K. Chesterton once remarked, “The tragedy of the English conquest of Ireland in the 17th century is that the Irish can never forget it and the English can never remember it.” | 5,500 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Critical Essay – Macbeth
In William Shakespeare’s “Macbeth,” the vicious leader battles with his fiery ambition causing him to lose all respect he once had. Shakespeare represents the loss of respect throughout the play, particularly in the most iconic scenes. At the start of Act I Scene 5 Macbeth has sent a letter to his beloved Lady Macbeth about the witches’ predictions that he wants to pursue, however she does not believe that he has got it in him to carry out such an evil act to become King, this alone shows she doesn’t respect Macbeth the way he does for her.
She then goes into one of her most famous soliloquies calling upon demonic forces to make her more like a man, to be able to kill Duncan. When Macbeth tells her that he will not kill Duncan as it is a double betrayal by killing the King and a guest, he also says that he has worried about it too much and the only thing keeping him on task is his “vaulting ambition. ” Lady Macbeth manipulates him by ridiculing him for not joining in on her cold-blooded plans.
This just shows that all she wants is to have Macbeth as King, her as Queen and will be ruthless to those in her way even if it’s Macbeth himself. King Duncan arrives at the castle, after dining with the Macbeth’s and other thanes, Lady Macbeth tells Macbeth that she has got the guards drunk and that it’s time for him to murder Duncan. On his way there he imagines a bloody dagger showing the way to where the King is sleeping, upon killing Duncan he returns to Lady Macbeth covered in blood with the dagger in his hand, so she takes it off of him and plants it on the unconscious guard.
When Macduff finds the dead King everyone starts to panic and they go to arrest the bloody guards however Macbeth had already gotten there and killed them saying he was taken over by rage, leading the thanes and lords to become suspicious of Macbeth. Later Macbeth invites everyone to his banquet included is best friend Banquo, who is also suspicious, he reluctantly accepts the invite. Macbeth remembers that Banquo also got is future read by the witches and realizes that he is also in his way to become King. Macbeth hires two murderers to kill Banquo and his son, Fleance.
They were only able to kill Banquo as Fleance fled. They start banquet without Banquo, Macbeth goes to sit down but finds that the murderer has good news, after the murderer leaves he makes his way to sit down but sees that there is no place for him, the slaughtered ghost Banquo was sitting in his place and he breaks down and shouts at the ghost, Lady Macbeth apologizes for his behavior and again to the side questions his manhood and reminds him that they have guests, he gets back up and makes a toast to Banquo.
This stint has made Lady Macbeth less respectful of him and the lords now feel as if it was Macbeth behind the killings. By the end (Act v Scene 9) Macbeth has become a loathed tyrant losing all his respect, Army and Lady Macbeth. Macduff has joined forces with the English Army to get rid of Macbeth. They camouflage themselves by cutting down the trees of Dunsinane. Macbeth has been waiting and it’s finally to time to fight what was coming to him, they start fighting each other.
During the fight Macbeth is confident he’ll win as the witches told him nobody born by woman could kill him, he tells Macduff this who informs Macbeth that he was caesarean born which terrifies him, however he won’t back down but Macduff slays Macbeth. The Macbeth’s dead nature is restored and Duncan eldest son- Malcolm is crowned King of Scotland. Although by the end Macbeth lost almost everything he had he didn’t lose his honour and was going down swinging. | <urn:uuid:2b2a57aa-b4e7-4a7b-b901-682b8a37b991> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://freebooksummary.com/critical-essay-macbeth-119336 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00231.warc.gz | en | 0.985782 | 874 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.0983209535479... | 2 | Critical Essay – Macbeth
In William Shakespeare’s “Macbeth,” the vicious leader battles with his fiery ambition causing him to lose all respect he once had. Shakespeare represents the loss of respect throughout the play, particularly in the most iconic scenes. At the start of Act I Scene 5 Macbeth has sent a letter to his beloved Lady Macbeth about the witches’ predictions that he wants to pursue, however she does not believe that he has got it in him to carry out such an evil act to become King, this alone shows she doesn’t respect Macbeth the way he does for her.
She then goes into one of her most famous soliloquies calling upon demonic forces to make her more like a man, to be able to kill Duncan. When Macbeth tells her that he will not kill Duncan as it is a double betrayal by killing the King and a guest, he also says that he has worried about it too much and the only thing keeping him on task is his “vaulting ambition. ” Lady Macbeth manipulates him by ridiculing him for not joining in on her cold-blooded plans.
This just shows that all she wants is to have Macbeth as King, her as Queen and will be ruthless to those in her way even if it’s Macbeth himself. King Duncan arrives at the castle, after dining with the Macbeth’s and other thanes, Lady Macbeth tells Macbeth that she has got the guards drunk and that it’s time for him to murder Duncan. On his way there he imagines a bloody dagger showing the way to where the King is sleeping, upon killing Duncan he returns to Lady Macbeth covered in blood with the dagger in his hand, so she takes it off of him and plants it on the unconscious guard.
When Macduff finds the dead King everyone starts to panic and they go to arrest the bloody guards however Macbeth had already gotten there and killed them saying he was taken over by rage, leading the thanes and lords to become suspicious of Macbeth. Later Macbeth invites everyone to his banquet included is best friend Banquo, who is also suspicious, he reluctantly accepts the invite. Macbeth remembers that Banquo also got is future read by the witches and realizes that he is also in his way to become King. Macbeth hires two murderers to kill Banquo and his son, Fleance.
They were only able to kill Banquo as Fleance fled. They start banquet without Banquo, Macbeth goes to sit down but finds that the murderer has good news, after the murderer leaves he makes his way to sit down but sees that there is no place for him, the slaughtered ghost Banquo was sitting in his place and he breaks down and shouts at the ghost, Lady Macbeth apologizes for his behavior and again to the side questions his manhood and reminds him that they have guests, he gets back up and makes a toast to Banquo.
This stint has made Lady Macbeth less respectful of him and the lords now feel as if it was Macbeth behind the killings. By the end (Act v Scene 9) Macbeth has become a loathed tyrant losing all his respect, Army and Lady Macbeth. Macduff has joined forces with the English Army to get rid of Macbeth. They camouflage themselves by cutting down the trees of Dunsinane. Macbeth has been waiting and it’s finally to time to fight what was coming to him, they start fighting each other.
During the fight Macbeth is confident he’ll win as the witches told him nobody born by woman could kill him, he tells Macduff this who informs Macbeth that he was caesarean born which terrifies him, however he won’t back down but Macduff slays Macbeth. The Macbeth’s dead nature is restored and Duncan eldest son- Malcolm is crowned King of Scotland. Although by the end Macbeth lost almost everything he had he didn’t lose his honour and was going down swinging. | 806 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1969 Sir George Wiliams protest was Canada's civil rights reckoning
Fifty years ago, police in Montreal stormed a university building where students had been staging a sit-in to protest what they saw as the school’s failure to adequately address allegations of racism against a professor.
When it was all over, the computer center at Sir George Williams University had been destroyed, 97 students had been arrested — and Canada faced a reckoning of sorts.
“The myth that there is no racism in Canada was exposed for all to see,” says Selwyn Jacob, producer of "Ninth Floor," a 2015 film about what became known as the “Sir George Williams Affair” or simply the “computer riot.”
The seeds of the conflict were sown in the spring of 1968, when six Caribbean students at the university — which has since been renamed Concordia University — accused biology professor Perry Anderson of giving black students lower grades simply because of their race.
Rodney John, one of the six, says there was no avoiding Anderson’s class if you wanted to go to medical school. He says other students had warned him that Anderson was biased against students from the West Indies.
“We began comparing notes and eventually decided to take the matter to the proper authorities,” says John, a native of the Caribbean island of Saint Vincent who lives in Toronto.
The university agreed to establish a committee to investigate, but disagreements arose over the composition of that committee and students believed the university was dragging its feet.
Black History Month:We got distracted, but there were high points. Here's what we missed
On Jan. 29, 1969, several hundred students, both black and white, occupied the ninth-floor computer room in the Henry F. Hall Building, and later a seventh-floor faculty lounge.
For 14 days, the sit-in was largely peaceful. But on Feb. 11, riot police stormed the building. Students threw items out the windows. Computer punch cards and papers fluttered to the ground. A fire started, and smoke billowed out. Damage was estimated at $2 million.
David Austin, a professor in the department of humanities, philosophy, and religion at John Abbott College in Quebec and author of "Fear of a Black Nation," says the student protest was one of the most important of that era and the first of its kind in Canada.
“Canada recognized that it had a problem — growing immigration, large numbers of people coming from many other parts of the world (who were) not being allowed to integrate into the mainstream of society,” says Austin, who also wrote "Moving Against the System: The 1968 Congress of Black Writers and the Making of Global Consciousness."
Anderson, who had been suspended, was cleared by the university and reinstated. Some protesters were deported to their home countries, and others were jailed.
“People definitely put this kind of filter on my dad as being this kind of activist type. But when I speak to my family about him, my mother says they were just students who wanted to be treated fairly,” Nantali Indongo says of her father, Kennedy Frederick of Grenada, one of the six original complainants. Facing a harsh sentence, he left Canada.
Protester Anne Cools, who later became the first black person to serve in Canada’s Senate, spent four months in jail but then was pardoned. Roosevelt Douglas was sentenced to two years for his role in the affair and was deported to his home country of Dominica, where he became prime minister before his death in 2000.
The sit-in followed two conferences in Montreal in late 1968 that focused on the challenges blacks faced in Canada. The Black Writers congress, held at McGill University, featured a speech by Stokely Carmichael, a Trinidadian-American and a principal leader of the U.S. Black Power Movement.
The confrontation prompted Canadian universities to become more sensitive to the fact that their campuses were diversifying, Jacob says. Most created an ombudsman position to address human rights issues.
“It was now possible to talk about race and racism in public,” Jacob says. | <urn:uuid:25209b80-a018-410e-8b69-ac825ac85d64> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/investigations/2019/03/27/black-history-sir-george-williams-affair-canada-civil-rights/2809147002/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00346.warc.gz | en | 0.983199 | 859 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.21911513805389... | 4 | 1969 Sir George Wiliams protest was Canada's civil rights reckoning
Fifty years ago, police in Montreal stormed a university building where students had been staging a sit-in to protest what they saw as the school’s failure to adequately address allegations of racism against a professor.
When it was all over, the computer center at Sir George Williams University had been destroyed, 97 students had been arrested — and Canada faced a reckoning of sorts.
“The myth that there is no racism in Canada was exposed for all to see,” says Selwyn Jacob, producer of "Ninth Floor," a 2015 film about what became known as the “Sir George Williams Affair” or simply the “computer riot.”
The seeds of the conflict were sown in the spring of 1968, when six Caribbean students at the university — which has since been renamed Concordia University — accused biology professor Perry Anderson of giving black students lower grades simply because of their race.
Rodney John, one of the six, says there was no avoiding Anderson’s class if you wanted to go to medical school. He says other students had warned him that Anderson was biased against students from the West Indies.
“We began comparing notes and eventually decided to take the matter to the proper authorities,” says John, a native of the Caribbean island of Saint Vincent who lives in Toronto.
The university agreed to establish a committee to investigate, but disagreements arose over the composition of that committee and students believed the university was dragging its feet.
Black History Month:We got distracted, but there were high points. Here's what we missed
On Jan. 29, 1969, several hundred students, both black and white, occupied the ninth-floor computer room in the Henry F. Hall Building, and later a seventh-floor faculty lounge.
For 14 days, the sit-in was largely peaceful. But on Feb. 11, riot police stormed the building. Students threw items out the windows. Computer punch cards and papers fluttered to the ground. A fire started, and smoke billowed out. Damage was estimated at $2 million.
David Austin, a professor in the department of humanities, philosophy, and religion at John Abbott College in Quebec and author of "Fear of a Black Nation," says the student protest was one of the most important of that era and the first of its kind in Canada.
“Canada recognized that it had a problem — growing immigration, large numbers of people coming from many other parts of the world (who were) not being allowed to integrate into the mainstream of society,” says Austin, who also wrote "Moving Against the System: The 1968 Congress of Black Writers and the Making of Global Consciousness."
Anderson, who had been suspended, was cleared by the university and reinstated. Some protesters were deported to their home countries, and others were jailed.
“People definitely put this kind of filter on my dad as being this kind of activist type. But when I speak to my family about him, my mother says they were just students who wanted to be treated fairly,” Nantali Indongo says of her father, Kennedy Frederick of Grenada, one of the six original complainants. Facing a harsh sentence, he left Canada.
Protester Anne Cools, who later became the first black person to serve in Canada’s Senate, spent four months in jail but then was pardoned. Roosevelt Douglas was sentenced to two years for his role in the affair and was deported to his home country of Dominica, where he became prime minister before his death in 2000.
The sit-in followed two conferences in Montreal in late 1968 that focused on the challenges blacks faced in Canada. The Black Writers congress, held at McGill University, featured a speech by Stokely Carmichael, a Trinidadian-American and a principal leader of the U.S. Black Power Movement.
The confrontation prompted Canadian universities to become more sensitive to the fact that their campuses were diversifying, Jacob says. Most created an ombudsman position to address human rights issues.
“It was now possible to talk about race and racism in public,” Jacob says. | 845 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By John H. Daniels Fellow, Professor Mike Cronin, Boston College
As an historian of Ireland, I have been the lead researcher in the Irish government’s digital history offering for the period 1913-23, namely the decade of upheaval that led to the creation of an independent Irish state. The project, named Century Ireland, explores the day to day history of Ireland in real-time on the web and twitter. The period begins in 1913, when Ireland was in a state of turmoil. The Home Rule bill, that would potentially lead to Ireland’s independence was working its way through the British Parliament, but had met with a violent response from the unionists of Ireland (those people, mainly Protestants, who wished to remain part of Britain). There was a major general strike that was ongoing in Dublin, a housing crisis that was symbolised by the deaths of seven people in the collapse of a tenement building, and levels of poverty and illness that led Dublin to be unfavourably compared to the destitution of contemporary Calcutta. To many observers in the press there was a sense that Ireland was in utter crisis, and many writers and politicians argued that the country was heading towards civil war. This would be fought by those nationalists and Catholics who desired an Ireland independent of Britain, against the unionists and Protestants who wanted Ireland to remain part of Britain and Empire. The threat of civil war was not idly made, as both sides had spent much of 1912 and 1913 arming themselves and organising their men into private armies.
In the event the threat of civil war in Ireland was side-lined by the outbreak of World War One. Some 210,000 Irishmen, both Catholics and Protestants fought against Germany and her allies, and some 35,000 of them would die. At the end of World War One, Ireland did not find peace. Between 1919 and 1921 a War of Independence was fought against the British. When this did not produce the complete freedom that many Irish had dreamt of, the nation drifted into civil war which would run from 1922 into 1923. The end result of this decade of upheaval was a tremendous loss of life, the destruction of much of the national infrastructure and a political settlement that created a truncated Irish independence. The southern twenty-six counties of Ireland were formed into a sovereign state, titled the Irish Free State, while the six northern counties, renamed Northern Ireland, remained part of Britain. The island was split by a border along ethno-sectarian lines. The Free State was predominantly Catholic, while in Northern Ireland a Protestant majority held sway. As a result of the fighting and upheaval many Protestants, around 60,000 people, could not see a future in the Irish Free State and left for Northern Ireland or a home elsewhere.
So how is all this relevant to the collection at the National Sporting Library and Museum? I was fascinated to see, when I looked at the Library catalogue, that Harry Worcester Smith had visited Ireland and had written about his experiences. Travel writing is not unusual, but the date of Smith’s journey and the social world into which he entered were extraordinary. Ireland had been in a state of political and economic turmoil ever since the Great Famine of 1845-51. Indeed, as one writer noted in the pages of Baily’s Magazine of Sport and Pastimes in 1896, the upheavals in the country meant that ‘the fair land of Erin is even now almost a terra incognita to the great majority of travellers.’ The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Houghton, had even gone so far to give the country the name ‘unvisited Ireland’. That Smith chose to live in Ireland when he did is quite remarkable as it was not a country often embraced by outsiders.
Smith took the job of Master of the Westmeath Hunt for a year, arriving in Dublin in August 1912 and departing for England, and a stop at Aintree’s famous Grand National, in March 1913, before his return to the United States. What Smith offers in his two volume A Sporting Tour Through Ireland, England, Wales and France (Columbia: State Company, 1925) is a unique insight into the lives of a hunting and racing fraternity in 1912 and 1913 which, due to the chaos of the revolutionary period in Ireland and the loss of life during World War One, had all but disappeared by the time the book was published.
Against the backdrop of political upheaval and the gathering storm clouds of war, Smith enjoyed a full season of hunting in Ireland. He hunted across the island, in Westmeath where he was based, across to Galway and down to Cork and beyond. His book recounts not only the hunts themselves, but the hectic social life that accompanied the Irish hunt season. He wined and dined (and sometimes danced) with the elite of Anglo-Irish society. There were days at the Dublin Horse Show, masked balls at the Rotunda in Dublin, meetings with the British Vice Regent and dinners with the British military top brass stationed in Ireland. His book is a journey through the world of Irish Lords and Ladies, the landed elite whose presence in Ireland was so problematic to the nationalists who wanted independence for their nation. Smith, nor the Anglo-Irish elite he hunted and socialised with, would have realised it in 1912/13, but most of them were enjoying their last ever hunting season in Ireland.
The description of the hunt balls in Volume 2, shortly before Smith leaves Ireland is most revealing. Drinks prior to the hunt ball of Smith’s own Westmeath hunt, for example, were hosted by Sir Richard and Lady Levinge at Knockdrin Castle, a 12,000-acre estate which had been in the family since the late seventeenth century. Sir Richard, the 10th Baronet of Knockdrin, like many of his social standing (including all four of his brothers), was among the first to sign up to fight in World War One. He was killed in the third month of the war, on 24 October 1914, by sniper fire in France. By the end of the war his younger brother had also been killed, and a further brother had lost his leg. In the wake of her husband’s death, Lady Levinge left Ireland for London and rented out Knockdrin. During World War Two it was commandeered by the Irish state to house troops, and finally, in 1946, the Levinge family sold the estate.
Equally telling, in Volume 1, just after Smith’s arrival in Ireland, is his attendance at the famed Dublin Horse Show. There he met Lord Castlemaine of Moydrum Castle, which sat in the east of County Westmeath. Castlemaine was a subscriber to the Westmeath Hunt, and he and Smith would meet often during the latter’s stay in Ireland. Moydrum Castle had been completed in 1814, and Lord Castlemaine was the fifth baron to occupy, overseeing an estate of some 11,000 acres. On 4 July 1921, at the height of the Irish War of Independence, Republican forces targeted Moydrum Castle, as a symbol of British rule in Ireland, and set fire to the building, which was completely destroyed. The family left Ireland for Britain, and the remaining estate was taken off them by the new Irish state in the 1920s, and sold on. Between 1919 and 1923, approximately 170 of the ‘big houses’, with which Smith would have been so familiar, and wrote about in depth, were destroyed by military action.
Smith enjoyed a life as a huntsman and, as is clear in the holdings of the Library and Museum in Middleburg, was a prodigious collector and recorder of the hunting he experienced. His two volumes recounting his Irish experience fit into the pattern of his life. What makes the books, and the associated notes and photographs in the archive, is that Smith was observing a way of life, a social elite at play in Ireland, that would cease to exist. Smith was not simply recording the hunting life of Ireland in 1912/13, but rather he was unknowingly recording a collection of hunts, social and sporting events, people and buildings that would be largely erased from history by World War One and the specific train of events in Ireland between 1916 and 1923. This is a work and a collection to be treasured for unwittingly capturing a key moment, a last bright blooming, of an Anglo-Irish way of life.
Michael Cronin is a professor at Boston College, teaching in Dublin, Ireland. During his John H. Daniels fellowship at NSLM he worked on a project about the life of James Brendan Connolly, the first modern Olympic champion. His research at NSLM served to set Connolly’s life within the broader sporting context during the period from 1890 to 1914. | <urn:uuid:8597ab01-32f6-4996-be05-6d98ba5eabee> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://nslmblog.wordpress.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00329.warc.gz | en | 0.98244 | 1,810 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.48920... | 4 | By John H. Daniels Fellow, Professor Mike Cronin, Boston College
As an historian of Ireland, I have been the lead researcher in the Irish government’s digital history offering for the period 1913-23, namely the decade of upheaval that led to the creation of an independent Irish state. The project, named Century Ireland, explores the day to day history of Ireland in real-time on the web and twitter. The period begins in 1913, when Ireland was in a state of turmoil. The Home Rule bill, that would potentially lead to Ireland’s independence was working its way through the British Parliament, but had met with a violent response from the unionists of Ireland (those people, mainly Protestants, who wished to remain part of Britain). There was a major general strike that was ongoing in Dublin, a housing crisis that was symbolised by the deaths of seven people in the collapse of a tenement building, and levels of poverty and illness that led Dublin to be unfavourably compared to the destitution of contemporary Calcutta. To many observers in the press there was a sense that Ireland was in utter crisis, and many writers and politicians argued that the country was heading towards civil war. This would be fought by those nationalists and Catholics who desired an Ireland independent of Britain, against the unionists and Protestants who wanted Ireland to remain part of Britain and Empire. The threat of civil war was not idly made, as both sides had spent much of 1912 and 1913 arming themselves and organising their men into private armies.
In the event the threat of civil war in Ireland was side-lined by the outbreak of World War One. Some 210,000 Irishmen, both Catholics and Protestants fought against Germany and her allies, and some 35,000 of them would die. At the end of World War One, Ireland did not find peace. Between 1919 and 1921 a War of Independence was fought against the British. When this did not produce the complete freedom that many Irish had dreamt of, the nation drifted into civil war which would run from 1922 into 1923. The end result of this decade of upheaval was a tremendous loss of life, the destruction of much of the national infrastructure and a political settlement that created a truncated Irish independence. The southern twenty-six counties of Ireland were formed into a sovereign state, titled the Irish Free State, while the six northern counties, renamed Northern Ireland, remained part of Britain. The island was split by a border along ethno-sectarian lines. The Free State was predominantly Catholic, while in Northern Ireland a Protestant majority held sway. As a result of the fighting and upheaval many Protestants, around 60,000 people, could not see a future in the Irish Free State and left for Northern Ireland or a home elsewhere.
So how is all this relevant to the collection at the National Sporting Library and Museum? I was fascinated to see, when I looked at the Library catalogue, that Harry Worcester Smith had visited Ireland and had written about his experiences. Travel writing is not unusual, but the date of Smith’s journey and the social world into which he entered were extraordinary. Ireland had been in a state of political and economic turmoil ever since the Great Famine of 1845-51. Indeed, as one writer noted in the pages of Baily’s Magazine of Sport and Pastimes in 1896, the upheavals in the country meant that ‘the fair land of Erin is even now almost a terra incognita to the great majority of travellers.’ The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Houghton, had even gone so far to give the country the name ‘unvisited Ireland’. That Smith chose to live in Ireland when he did is quite remarkable as it was not a country often embraced by outsiders.
Smith took the job of Master of the Westmeath Hunt for a year, arriving in Dublin in August 1912 and departing for England, and a stop at Aintree’s famous Grand National, in March 1913, before his return to the United States. What Smith offers in his two volume A Sporting Tour Through Ireland, England, Wales and France (Columbia: State Company, 1925) is a unique insight into the lives of a hunting and racing fraternity in 1912 and 1913 which, due to the chaos of the revolutionary period in Ireland and the loss of life during World War One, had all but disappeared by the time the book was published.
Against the backdrop of political upheaval and the gathering storm clouds of war, Smith enjoyed a full season of hunting in Ireland. He hunted across the island, in Westmeath where he was based, across to Galway and down to Cork and beyond. His book recounts not only the hunts themselves, but the hectic social life that accompanied the Irish hunt season. He wined and dined (and sometimes danced) with the elite of Anglo-Irish society. There were days at the Dublin Horse Show, masked balls at the Rotunda in Dublin, meetings with the British Vice Regent and dinners with the British military top brass stationed in Ireland. His book is a journey through the world of Irish Lords and Ladies, the landed elite whose presence in Ireland was so problematic to the nationalists who wanted independence for their nation. Smith, nor the Anglo-Irish elite he hunted and socialised with, would have realised it in 1912/13, but most of them were enjoying their last ever hunting season in Ireland.
The description of the hunt balls in Volume 2, shortly before Smith leaves Ireland is most revealing. Drinks prior to the hunt ball of Smith’s own Westmeath hunt, for example, were hosted by Sir Richard and Lady Levinge at Knockdrin Castle, a 12,000-acre estate which had been in the family since the late seventeenth century. Sir Richard, the 10th Baronet of Knockdrin, like many of his social standing (including all four of his brothers), was among the first to sign up to fight in World War One. He was killed in the third month of the war, on 24 October 1914, by sniper fire in France. By the end of the war his younger brother had also been killed, and a further brother had lost his leg. In the wake of her husband’s death, Lady Levinge left Ireland for London and rented out Knockdrin. During World War Two it was commandeered by the Irish state to house troops, and finally, in 1946, the Levinge family sold the estate.
Equally telling, in Volume 1, just after Smith’s arrival in Ireland, is his attendance at the famed Dublin Horse Show. There he met Lord Castlemaine of Moydrum Castle, which sat in the east of County Westmeath. Castlemaine was a subscriber to the Westmeath Hunt, and he and Smith would meet often during the latter’s stay in Ireland. Moydrum Castle had been completed in 1814, and Lord Castlemaine was the fifth baron to occupy, overseeing an estate of some 11,000 acres. On 4 July 1921, at the height of the Irish War of Independence, Republican forces targeted Moydrum Castle, as a symbol of British rule in Ireland, and set fire to the building, which was completely destroyed. The family left Ireland for Britain, and the remaining estate was taken off them by the new Irish state in the 1920s, and sold on. Between 1919 and 1923, approximately 170 of the ‘big houses’, with which Smith would have been so familiar, and wrote about in depth, were destroyed by military action.
Smith enjoyed a life as a huntsman and, as is clear in the holdings of the Library and Museum in Middleburg, was a prodigious collector and recorder of the hunting he experienced. His two volumes recounting his Irish experience fit into the pattern of his life. What makes the books, and the associated notes and photographs in the archive, is that Smith was observing a way of life, a social elite at play in Ireland, that would cease to exist. Smith was not simply recording the hunting life of Ireland in 1912/13, but rather he was unknowingly recording a collection of hunts, social and sporting events, people and buildings that would be largely erased from history by World War One and the specific train of events in Ireland between 1916 and 1923. This is a work and a collection to be treasured for unwittingly capturing a key moment, a last bright blooming, of an Anglo-Irish way of life.
Michael Cronin is a professor at Boston College, teaching in Dublin, Ireland. During his John H. Daniels fellowship at NSLM he worked on a project about the life of James Brendan Connolly, the first modern Olympic champion. His research at NSLM served to set Connolly’s life within the broader sporting context during the period from 1890 to 1914. | 1,915 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paper type: Essay Pages: 7 (1614 words)
The two novels, Christopher Marlowe’s ‘The Jew of Malta’ and William Shakespeare’s ‘The Merchant of Venice’, the main characters are Jews, a characteristic that makes the comparison of the books easier. However, the way the characters are presented has made the two stories have deep and active anti-Semitic notions and messages. Right from the beginning of the play, we can see some clear negative stereotypes towards Jews. Barabbas is undoubtedly portrayed as a man who loves money to an extent that he seems addicted to them.
In the opening, we see a merchant, counting his money with passion, and later on complaining about not having made enough by his recent business activities. Marlowe straightly defines his whole character and attitude by this portrayal, showing us that Barabbas is nothing more than a greedy Jew. As the story progresses and the plot unfolds, the character of Barabbas also unfolds, showing us how he doesn’t even hesitate doing unethical and heartless things just so that he can protect himself from losing money.
When his wealth is taken away, after he refuses to give half of it like the other Jews did, he unleashes his ruthless effort to regain his wealth.
He doesn’t hesitate using his daughter to retrieve the gold and jewels he has hidden in his house, and it is meaningful to see how he reacts after Abigail throws him the bags of gold out of the window and he embraces them while ignoring his own daughter. Although this is not the only example of how he puts money over more important things, the fact that he seems to place money above Abigail, his own daughter, shows his general attitude. But of course it doesn’t stop there, as apart from his avaricious self, he has to quench his thirst for revenge and execute his plan for retaliation.
His plan consists mainly of taking revenge from the man who took away the most precious thing he has, his wealth. That man of course is Ferneze, the governor of Malta. So, Barabbas decides to kill Ferneze’s son, Lodowick, that way taking the revenge he so passionately seeks. Once again he uses his own daughter as decoy, to execute his plan, showing that she has mainly a functional purpose for him. After he completes his plan and kills not only Lodowick but also Mathias, the man that his daughter loves, he feels betrayed by his daughter, as she converts to Christianity.
I believe that this is where the insanity and sickness of Barabbas reaches a peak. He is determined to kill his own daughter, because he feels that she disrespects her family’s name. The epilogue to this madness comes when finally Barabbas gets killed by his own evil plots. In the end of the story we can easily identify the negative characteristics that Barabbas has, which are also strongly connected to the fact that he is Jewish. His elitist nature, his illogical actions that are all driven by his avarice, and his lack of sentiments towards other people, make him fit
ideally the stereotypes of Jews that existed at the time. So, every single part of his hateful and insane being, is justified by the fact that he is Jewish, and thus it is natural that he is unstable and inferior to Christians. The next example of anti-Semitic portrayals comes from ‘The Merchant of Venice’. The main character, Shylock is portrayed as a greedy Jewish moneylender that is just like Barabbas, when it comes to hate towards Christians and other people in general. He is also a heartless man, not feeling pity for anyone, showing a rather sadistic nature.
The hate he feels for Antonio is so immense that makes us question to what extent he is actually rational at all. Throughout the development of the plot he seems to hold so many negative values that it is impossible not to make a connection between his character and the fact that he is a Jew. Just like Marlowe, Shakespeare makes the fact that he is Jewish the root of all evil, as from that very fact all the other negative traits arise. As Bloom mentions in his essay, Shylock is a walking nightmare, and that should be the only way that anyone portrays him. As we can see
from his speeches, he clearly has a great love for his wealth and he is not jeopardizing his financial position for any reason. It is not a coincidence that when Jessica runs away with his money, he mostly worries about his wealth and not so much about his daughter. Also, the fact that Jessica had to run away shows that Shylock is far from an ideal father. His speeches also show that he has an extremely negative attitude towards Christians that he justifies as the retaliation for all the anti-Semitism he has faced. He seems very resentful towards the people that have acted in a bad way towards him and as I mentioned earlier, especially Antonio. So, his actions are mainly driven by his rage and what he thinks as retribution.
By the portrayal of Barabbas and Shylock, a logical question approaches. Are the two writers inspired and influenced by racism and the anti-Semitic ideas of their time? In ‘The Jew of Malta’ it is hard not to recognize all the negative Jewish stereotypes presented in the form of a very unappealing character, Barabbas. Barabbas is not just an unethical and evil man, he is the typical money-loving Jew, with all the disgusting characteristics that the racist society of the two writers has attributed to Jews.
Such a racist society had created all these negative stereotyping for Jews, making them seem like greedy monsters. So I find it impossible that Marlowe as an author hasn’t been affected and influenced by the stereotypes of his time. That is mainly because in societies that racism towards a specific religion is so acceptable, there is very high tolerance for reproduction of such ideas and thus such a portrayal would not arise any questions or hate. Such situation reminds me of what happens with many fictional evil characters like the devil.
I doubt that even a single reader would object if a writer attributed evil characteristics to the devil! Although it may seem like an oversimplified example, I believe it captures the very essence of the attitude of people at the time. That is, because the society had condemned Jews of being the cause of everything bad. Such portrayals are very similar to what Carl Marx has written hundreds of years later, describing Jews as mere worshipers of money.
Although in our days the Jew of Malta can be viewed as a cynical work, I seriously doubt that Marlowe has such an intention, as he characterized it atragedy. It is clear to me that no matter how anti-Semitism is viewed today after many important events like the Holocaust, the play was influenced by a lot of religious racism and prejudice, and Barabbas’ characteristics were nothing but the actual portrayal of ‘evil Jews’ as the English at the time viewed them. Consequently, Barabbas seems like the epitome of a real ‘Jew’, the epitome of evil, greed and lack of conscience. The case is similar in ‘The Merchant of Venice’, as Shylock is also portrayed like a perfect example of a Jew, as stereotyped in the Elizabethan times.
I personally feel that Shakespeare was also influenced by the general anti-Semitic environment he lived in. Although a verdict of whether he was actually racist in his story is hard to be reached, I find it impossible that a play meant for Christians would not follow the trends of the time. The examples in the story are numerous and clear, straightforwardly proving the position of the Jews. From the fact that the Jews are presented the way they are, up to the point that they are forced to convert to Christianity or give up a part of their wealth, it is evident how negative the Jewish religion was as a characteristic.
The fact that it was the same thing for the government to gain wealth and convert a Jew, show the deep-rooted hatred against this religious group, and the fact that Christians simply wanted to get rid of them as they viewed them like parasites. Such sort of treatment reminds us, newer generations, of the Nazis and their monstrous acts but at the time of the original play, as aforementioned, racism was perfectly fine! Nevertheless, Shakespeare does act in a racist way, if we assume that a writer is judged by what he actually writes.
I would strongly doubt that Shakespeare intended to make his play anything similar to a parody or a criticism of stereotypes, and I believe that he expresses what he purely thinks. As we have seen from the two plays, the Jewish protagonists, Barabbas and Shylock have a very negative and unethical personality. Their vile and evil acts, paired with their appalling characters, seem to be the actual description of a negative stereotype towards the Jews.
Although it may seem ambiguous whether these portrayals are actual and literal or simply ironic, it is clear to me that the answer is simple. The two authors have no intention at all of criticizing racism and simply portray Jews just as a normal Elizabethan would. So, the two stories, although politically incorrect and really prejudiced, are the result of truthful portrayals and honest approaches of the description of characters with a Jewish religion. No matter how wrong and inaccurate, these descriptions were made with complete seriousness by writers living in an environment were such sort of prejudice was rooted from many years ago and continued to bloom.
Cite this page
Relation between jew of malta and merchant of venice. (2017, Jan 10). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/relation-between-jew-of-malta-and-merchant-of-venice-essay | <urn:uuid:4094a319-f3ec-4936-9403-dfc8dcdee596> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/relation-between-jew-of-malta-and-merchant-of-venice-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00384.warc.gz | en | 0.982963 | 2,034 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.12357866764... | 1 | Paper type: Essay Pages: 7 (1614 words)
The two novels, Christopher Marlowe’s ‘The Jew of Malta’ and William Shakespeare’s ‘The Merchant of Venice’, the main characters are Jews, a characteristic that makes the comparison of the books easier. However, the way the characters are presented has made the two stories have deep and active anti-Semitic notions and messages. Right from the beginning of the play, we can see some clear negative stereotypes towards Jews. Barabbas is undoubtedly portrayed as a man who loves money to an extent that he seems addicted to them.
In the opening, we see a merchant, counting his money with passion, and later on complaining about not having made enough by his recent business activities. Marlowe straightly defines his whole character and attitude by this portrayal, showing us that Barabbas is nothing more than a greedy Jew. As the story progresses and the plot unfolds, the character of Barabbas also unfolds, showing us how he doesn’t even hesitate doing unethical and heartless things just so that he can protect himself from losing money.
When his wealth is taken away, after he refuses to give half of it like the other Jews did, he unleashes his ruthless effort to regain his wealth.
He doesn’t hesitate using his daughter to retrieve the gold and jewels he has hidden in his house, and it is meaningful to see how he reacts after Abigail throws him the bags of gold out of the window and he embraces them while ignoring his own daughter. Although this is not the only example of how he puts money over more important things, the fact that he seems to place money above Abigail, his own daughter, shows his general attitude. But of course it doesn’t stop there, as apart from his avaricious self, he has to quench his thirst for revenge and execute his plan for retaliation.
His plan consists mainly of taking revenge from the man who took away the most precious thing he has, his wealth. That man of course is Ferneze, the governor of Malta. So, Barabbas decides to kill Ferneze’s son, Lodowick, that way taking the revenge he so passionately seeks. Once again he uses his own daughter as decoy, to execute his plan, showing that she has mainly a functional purpose for him. After he completes his plan and kills not only Lodowick but also Mathias, the man that his daughter loves, he feels betrayed by his daughter, as she converts to Christianity.
I believe that this is where the insanity and sickness of Barabbas reaches a peak. He is determined to kill his own daughter, because he feels that she disrespects her family’s name. The epilogue to this madness comes when finally Barabbas gets killed by his own evil plots. In the end of the story we can easily identify the negative characteristics that Barabbas has, which are also strongly connected to the fact that he is Jewish. His elitist nature, his illogical actions that are all driven by his avarice, and his lack of sentiments towards other people, make him fit
ideally the stereotypes of Jews that existed at the time. So, every single part of his hateful and insane being, is justified by the fact that he is Jewish, and thus it is natural that he is unstable and inferior to Christians. The next example of anti-Semitic portrayals comes from ‘The Merchant of Venice’. The main character, Shylock is portrayed as a greedy Jewish moneylender that is just like Barabbas, when it comes to hate towards Christians and other people in general. He is also a heartless man, not feeling pity for anyone, showing a rather sadistic nature.
The hate he feels for Antonio is so immense that makes us question to what extent he is actually rational at all. Throughout the development of the plot he seems to hold so many negative values that it is impossible not to make a connection between his character and the fact that he is a Jew. Just like Marlowe, Shakespeare makes the fact that he is Jewish the root of all evil, as from that very fact all the other negative traits arise. As Bloom mentions in his essay, Shylock is a walking nightmare, and that should be the only way that anyone portrays him. As we can see
from his speeches, he clearly has a great love for his wealth and he is not jeopardizing his financial position for any reason. It is not a coincidence that when Jessica runs away with his money, he mostly worries about his wealth and not so much about his daughter. Also, the fact that Jessica had to run away shows that Shylock is far from an ideal father. His speeches also show that he has an extremely negative attitude towards Christians that he justifies as the retaliation for all the anti-Semitism he has faced. He seems very resentful towards the people that have acted in a bad way towards him and as I mentioned earlier, especially Antonio. So, his actions are mainly driven by his rage and what he thinks as retribution.
By the portrayal of Barabbas and Shylock, a logical question approaches. Are the two writers inspired and influenced by racism and the anti-Semitic ideas of their time? In ‘The Jew of Malta’ it is hard not to recognize all the negative Jewish stereotypes presented in the form of a very unappealing character, Barabbas. Barabbas is not just an unethical and evil man, he is the typical money-loving Jew, with all the disgusting characteristics that the racist society of the two writers has attributed to Jews.
Such a racist society had created all these negative stereotyping for Jews, making them seem like greedy monsters. So I find it impossible that Marlowe as an author hasn’t been affected and influenced by the stereotypes of his time. That is mainly because in societies that racism towards a specific religion is so acceptable, there is very high tolerance for reproduction of such ideas and thus such a portrayal would not arise any questions or hate. Such situation reminds me of what happens with many fictional evil characters like the devil.
I doubt that even a single reader would object if a writer attributed evil characteristics to the devil! Although it may seem like an oversimplified example, I believe it captures the very essence of the attitude of people at the time. That is, because the society had condemned Jews of being the cause of everything bad. Such portrayals are very similar to what Carl Marx has written hundreds of years later, describing Jews as mere worshipers of money.
Although in our days the Jew of Malta can be viewed as a cynical work, I seriously doubt that Marlowe has such an intention, as he characterized it atragedy. It is clear to me that no matter how anti-Semitism is viewed today after many important events like the Holocaust, the play was influenced by a lot of religious racism and prejudice, and Barabbas’ characteristics were nothing but the actual portrayal of ‘evil Jews’ as the English at the time viewed them. Consequently, Barabbas seems like the epitome of a real ‘Jew’, the epitome of evil, greed and lack of conscience. The case is similar in ‘The Merchant of Venice’, as Shylock is also portrayed like a perfect example of a Jew, as stereotyped in the Elizabethan times.
I personally feel that Shakespeare was also influenced by the general anti-Semitic environment he lived in. Although a verdict of whether he was actually racist in his story is hard to be reached, I find it impossible that a play meant for Christians would not follow the trends of the time. The examples in the story are numerous and clear, straightforwardly proving the position of the Jews. From the fact that the Jews are presented the way they are, up to the point that they are forced to convert to Christianity or give up a part of their wealth, it is evident how negative the Jewish religion was as a characteristic.
The fact that it was the same thing for the government to gain wealth and convert a Jew, show the deep-rooted hatred against this religious group, and the fact that Christians simply wanted to get rid of them as they viewed them like parasites. Such sort of treatment reminds us, newer generations, of the Nazis and their monstrous acts but at the time of the original play, as aforementioned, racism was perfectly fine! Nevertheless, Shakespeare does act in a racist way, if we assume that a writer is judged by what he actually writes.
I would strongly doubt that Shakespeare intended to make his play anything similar to a parody or a criticism of stereotypes, and I believe that he expresses what he purely thinks. As we have seen from the two plays, the Jewish protagonists, Barabbas and Shylock have a very negative and unethical personality. Their vile and evil acts, paired with their appalling characters, seem to be the actual description of a negative stereotype towards the Jews.
Although it may seem ambiguous whether these portrayals are actual and literal or simply ironic, it is clear to me that the answer is simple. The two authors have no intention at all of criticizing racism and simply portray Jews just as a normal Elizabethan would. So, the two stories, although politically incorrect and really prejudiced, are the result of truthful portrayals and honest approaches of the description of characters with a Jewish religion. No matter how wrong and inaccurate, these descriptions were made with complete seriousness by writers living in an environment were such sort of prejudice was rooted from many years ago and continued to bloom.
Cite this page
Relation between jew of malta and merchant of venice. (2017, Jan 10). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/relation-between-jew-of-malta-and-merchant-of-venice-essay | 1,971 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Welcome to Year 5
Read all about the work we have been doing.
WHEN LIFE GIVES YOU LEMONS - MAKE LEMONADE
Year Five have been exploring the rainforest this term. As part of our work, we have started to find out about resources and how they are traded. We decided to find out about the ingredients in lemonade. As a science experiment we found out how lemonade is made and then tested what the effect of reducing the amount of sugar content in lemonade would be on the taste. Once we made the lemonade, we all tasted it to see if reducing the sugar content made it less tasty. In general we did find that too much sugar made it too sweet for us and too little made it too bitter for us. We preferred the 'Goldilocks' lemonade - with just the right amount of sugar!
Now we are planning to make lots more try to sell it to help people cool down in the summer sun. Watch this space for an update on our enterprise project.
Growing Success in Year Five
As part of our Rainforest topic work we have been finding out about the layers of the forest. To explore each layer we created a giant forest collage of our own. It was tricky work and we had to work together as a team to make sure we had all the coorrect parts required for each section. We soon realised that some people were better at different tasks and we arranged ourselves into a production line. The finished collage is on display in KS2.
All the plants in a rainforest are in competition with eachother. They are all trying to get the best sunlight.We have been growing sunflowers so that we can experiment with them. We want to find out if some plants actually grow more quickly when they have less sunlight. In a rainforest plants have adapted to grow very rapidly so that they can reach the sunlight in the higher layers. We are going to restrict the sunlight that some of our sunflowers get to see if it causes them to grow more quickly. What do you think might happen?
2016 has seen some important debates in Europe and America. In Britain, there was a referendum on membership of the European Union and in America there was a Presidential election. For the children of Year 5 these debates may well shape their future, so it is important that they begin to understand the process and values of democracy.
We have discussed the meaning of British Values; democracy, the rule of law, individual liberty and mutual respect for and tolerance of those with different faiths and beliefs and for those without faith. After investigating the reasons put forward by the campaigns to leave the EU and to remain part of the EU, the children held their own referendum on the issue. Later, we explored the policies put forward by the candidates in the US Presidential contest and again held our own ballot. Our votes on these matters were interesting, but some children began to raise questions about why children are not allowed to vote.
Following this theme, we learnt about the development of democracy in the Ancient Greek city states. A lot of the principles we still use today in the way we run our country were developed in Greece more than 2000 years ago. However, we did find out that many more people were not allowed to vote back then, including women. Children were not allowed to vote and in many cities, they had to join the army when they were as young as 8 years old.
We also found out that some debates take a long time to be resolved. The British Museum has on display a group of marble stone statues and carvings. These are some of the most important sources of primary evidence about how the people of the ancient Greek city of Athens lived. They are referred to as the Elgin Marbles because Lord Elgin took them from Athens and brought them to England. There are many reasons why the statues should stay in England but the Greek government would like them returned to Athens, and there are good reasons for that to happen also. We debated the issue and then decided to write to the British and the Greek governments to persuade them to find a way to resolve the dispute.
These debates have been fun and the children of Year 5 have begun to see how important decisions are made. | <urn:uuid:57ef794d-6d64-4196-b7fa-a3b9a7d1dcdf> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://ladbrooke.herts.sch.uk/year-groups/year-5 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00467.warc.gz | en | 0.980007 | 862 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.296008616685867... | 1 | Welcome to Year 5
Read all about the work we have been doing.
WHEN LIFE GIVES YOU LEMONS - MAKE LEMONADE
Year Five have been exploring the rainforest this term. As part of our work, we have started to find out about resources and how they are traded. We decided to find out about the ingredients in lemonade. As a science experiment we found out how lemonade is made and then tested what the effect of reducing the amount of sugar content in lemonade would be on the taste. Once we made the lemonade, we all tasted it to see if reducing the sugar content made it less tasty. In general we did find that too much sugar made it too sweet for us and too little made it too bitter for us. We preferred the 'Goldilocks' lemonade - with just the right amount of sugar!
Now we are planning to make lots more try to sell it to help people cool down in the summer sun. Watch this space for an update on our enterprise project.
Growing Success in Year Five
As part of our Rainforest topic work we have been finding out about the layers of the forest. To explore each layer we created a giant forest collage of our own. It was tricky work and we had to work together as a team to make sure we had all the coorrect parts required for each section. We soon realised that some people were better at different tasks and we arranged ourselves into a production line. The finished collage is on display in KS2.
All the plants in a rainforest are in competition with eachother. They are all trying to get the best sunlight.We have been growing sunflowers so that we can experiment with them. We want to find out if some plants actually grow more quickly when they have less sunlight. In a rainforest plants have adapted to grow very rapidly so that they can reach the sunlight in the higher layers. We are going to restrict the sunlight that some of our sunflowers get to see if it causes them to grow more quickly. What do you think might happen?
2016 has seen some important debates in Europe and America. In Britain, there was a referendum on membership of the European Union and in America there was a Presidential election. For the children of Year 5 these debates may well shape their future, so it is important that they begin to understand the process and values of democracy.
We have discussed the meaning of British Values; democracy, the rule of law, individual liberty and mutual respect for and tolerance of those with different faiths and beliefs and for those without faith. After investigating the reasons put forward by the campaigns to leave the EU and to remain part of the EU, the children held their own referendum on the issue. Later, we explored the policies put forward by the candidates in the US Presidential contest and again held our own ballot. Our votes on these matters were interesting, but some children began to raise questions about why children are not allowed to vote.
Following this theme, we learnt about the development of democracy in the Ancient Greek city states. A lot of the principles we still use today in the way we run our country were developed in Greece more than 2000 years ago. However, we did find out that many more people were not allowed to vote back then, including women. Children were not allowed to vote and in many cities, they had to join the army when they were as young as 8 years old.
We also found out that some debates take a long time to be resolved. The British Museum has on display a group of marble stone statues and carvings. These are some of the most important sources of primary evidence about how the people of the ancient Greek city of Athens lived. They are referred to as the Elgin Marbles because Lord Elgin took them from Athens and brought them to England. There are many reasons why the statues should stay in England but the Greek government would like them returned to Athens, and there are good reasons for that to happen also. We debated the issue and then decided to write to the British and the Greek governments to persuade them to find a way to resolve the dispute.
These debates have been fun and the children of Year 5 have begun to see how important decisions are made. | 859 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The record of females in colonial Virginia starts with Native Us americans and slowly includes European and women that are african. The experiences of those females differed w >slaves labored in the tobacco areas alongs >planter elite had separated on their own through the remainder of Virginia’s residents along with their landed wealth, enslaved laborers, and spouses whom handled their domiciles. Although middling females (ladies of moderate means) proceeded to the office alongside their husbands within the areas and run taverns as well as other companies well in to the eighteenth century, all classes of females became relegated to your personal sphere while their husbands increasingly dominated the general public globe. Because of the conclusion associated with colonial duration, ladies, whether rich or poor, metropolitan or rural, were likely to skillfully handle a family group and supply an illustration with their children—acts that bolstered patriarchal authority in colonial Virginia. MORE.
The very first ladies in colonial Virginia were Virginia Indians. For their interactions that are regular the English colonists, scholars understand the many concerning the Algonquian-speaking Indians of Tsenacomoco. At the beginning of Virginia Indian society, sex functions had been obviously defined because both women and men necessary to work as partners to survive. Females bore and looked after young ones and prepared meals, however they additionally farmed; foraged for extra food; built domiciles; made pottery, mats, baskets, home implements, and furnishings ; and accumulated firewood. Indian females are not limited to the house, as English women frequently had been; these were expected to travel by walking and also by canoe outside their houses and towns. Guys hunted, fished, and took part in governmental and councils that are military. | <urn:uuid:15e3af18-ef0b-4374-978c-935456f8310c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.internocortile.it/category/mail-order-bride-definition-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251669967.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125041318-20200125070318-00123.warc.gz | en | 0.98007 | 350 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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0.07785826921463013... | 3 | The record of females in colonial Virginia starts with Native Us americans and slowly includes European and women that are african. The experiences of those females differed w >slaves labored in the tobacco areas alongs >planter elite had separated on their own through the remainder of Virginia’s residents along with their landed wealth, enslaved laborers, and spouses whom handled their domiciles. Although middling females (ladies of moderate means) proceeded to the office alongside their husbands within the areas and run taverns as well as other companies well in to the eighteenth century, all classes of females became relegated to your personal sphere while their husbands increasingly dominated the general public globe. Because of the conclusion associated with colonial duration, ladies, whether rich or poor, metropolitan or rural, were likely to skillfully handle a family group and supply an illustration with their children—acts that bolstered patriarchal authority in colonial Virginia. MORE.
The very first ladies in colonial Virginia were Virginia Indians. For their interactions that are regular the English colonists, scholars understand the many concerning the Algonquian-speaking Indians of Tsenacomoco. At the beginning of Virginia Indian society, sex functions had been obviously defined because both women and men necessary to work as partners to survive. Females bore and looked after young ones and prepared meals, however they additionally farmed; foraged for extra food; built domiciles; made pottery, mats, baskets, home implements, and furnishings ; and accumulated firewood. Indian females are not limited to the house, as English women frequently had been; these were expected to travel by walking and also by canoe outside their houses and towns. Guys hunted, fished, and took part in governmental and councils that are military. | 346 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Stopping a teen bully seems like it shouldn’t be complicated. In the movies, all it takes is a single act. Another teen just has to step up and say, “Hey, that’s not okay.” But in real life, it’s often not so simple to embrace our inner heroes. Friends may suddenly decide not to help. They may even worry about becoming the next victim. What makes a teen more likely to intervene when they witness bullying? A supportive school with trusted teachers and clear guidance from a kid’s family both help. That’s the finding of a new study.
And knowing what works could help schools support brave teens — and kiss bullies goodbye.
People might think of bullying as one kid shoving another in the hallway. As the victims know, it can be far more than that.
Kelly Lynn Mulvey studies developmental psychology — how the mind develops and how people behave — at North Carolina State University in Raleigh. She describes bullying as “repeated forms of aggression.” It also tends to reflect “a power imbalance” between the bully and the victim. That aggression can be physical threats or attacks. Bullying also can be verbal or emotional, as one person tries to wield power over another. No matter what form bullying takes, someone gets hurt. It’s not just about the bullied kids, either. Unchecked bullying can hurt the bullies and those watching from the sidelines.
Kids often are told that they need to say something when they witness bullying, and also get a teacher or a parent. But much bullying takes place when adults aren’t around, Mulvey notes. Kids get bullied on the playground. Or on the bus. Bullying also happens online — where adults can’t see it at all.
“Because adults often are not there to observe it, we need the kids to be the ones to stand up and say it’s not okay,” Mulvey says. It sounds like a scary thing to do. But peer intervention really works. Speaking up and standing up to bullies tends to reduce the attacks, she says.
Heroes in the making
What might make a teen step in when bullying happens? To find out, Mulvey and her colleagues partnered with several schools in North Carolina. They gave online surveys to 896 sixth- and ninth-grade students. The survey took 40 minutes, but “we had a very high rate of participation,” Mulvey says. The students recognized what a problem bullying can be.
All read eight stories about kids bullying each other, either in person or online. For each story they answered a list of questions. Was the person who acted aggressively being a bully or not? Would it be a good idea for someone to step in and defend the victim? If the victim fought back, how okay would that be? The students also were asked how likely they would be to try and stop the bully, and if they would step in if the victim tried to retaliate.
But that wasn’t all. They scientists also asked students about their families and schools. The students had to say whether they had a lot of rules at home and how their parents reacted when they did things that were wrong. They were asked whether they liked their teachers and whether the teachers kept good discipline or treated some students better than others. The students also were asked about the social environment at school and if people there felt connected to each other.
A recipe for bravery
Girls, it turned out, were more likely than boys to say that any form of aggression was not okay. It didn’t matter if the bullying was physical, verbal or online. Girls also were more likely to think that someone should intervene to stop bullying. Older boys, in contrast, tended to think that physical aggression was okay, and said that they probably wouldn’t want to step in.
When it came to actually confronting a bully, sixth graders were more likely than ninth graders to say they would stand up to an aggressor. By ninth grade, Mulvey says, the teens were more concerned about what their friends would think of them. That means they might keep quiet.
Kids’ families and school environments also influenced whether someone said he’d stand up to a bully. Students from families with clear rules were more likely to say bullying wasn’t okay. They also were more likely to say they would step in on behalf of someone being bullied. And students who felt comfortable at school — with teachers they trusted — were more likely to say they would help stop a bully.
Mulvey and her colleagues published their findings October 16, 2018, in the Journal of Youth and Adolescence.
From survey to school
“Communication is key,” Mulvey says. “We need to help kids feel comfortable communicating with their family as well as teachers.” If kids feel supported, she says, they will feel able to “speak up” and challenge bullies “when they see aggression happening.”
The findings also imply that anti-bullying efforts should not stop in middle school, Mulvey notes. There often is less emphasis on tackling bullying in high school. Yet her findings suggest that this is where kids may need help most.
Research has largely ignored how and whether teens intervene when bullies attack, notes Nicola Abbott. She’s a psychologist at University College London in England. Abbott believes “key for stopping bullying” is getting onlookers to challenge these attacks whenever they witness them.
But she understands why schools and teachers might hesitate to tell kids to step up. “There’s a bit of fear around encouraging your child to stand up,” she says. Schools and parents may worry that a kid who steps in could end up in a fight. Or that a teen’s efforts might backfire if the bully chooses the would-be hero as a new victim. But, Abbott says, “there isn’t a great deal of evidence that is the case.” Instead, bystanders who step in often can stop a bad situation from getting worse.
Of course, it’s easier to say on a survey that you’d stand up to a bully than it is to be brave in real life. Mulvey and her colleagues are working with students now to find out who actually intervenes when a bully attacks. They also hope to figure out if the movies are right — that maybe a single hero can shut down a bully’s bad behavior.
Note: This article was updated on February 20, 2019, to correct a misspelling of Nicola Abbott. | <urn:uuid:76862ee7-9c16-4c94-815e-37b81ece09e1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/article/friendly-adults-help-teens-stand-against-bullies | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00308.warc.gz | en | 0.980685 | 1,373 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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-0.172605... | 11 | Stopping a teen bully seems like it shouldn’t be complicated. In the movies, all it takes is a single act. Another teen just has to step up and say, “Hey, that’s not okay.” But in real life, it’s often not so simple to embrace our inner heroes. Friends may suddenly decide not to help. They may even worry about becoming the next victim. What makes a teen more likely to intervene when they witness bullying? A supportive school with trusted teachers and clear guidance from a kid’s family both help. That’s the finding of a new study.
And knowing what works could help schools support brave teens — and kiss bullies goodbye.
People might think of bullying as one kid shoving another in the hallway. As the victims know, it can be far more than that.
Kelly Lynn Mulvey studies developmental psychology — how the mind develops and how people behave — at North Carolina State University in Raleigh. She describes bullying as “repeated forms of aggression.” It also tends to reflect “a power imbalance” between the bully and the victim. That aggression can be physical threats or attacks. Bullying also can be verbal or emotional, as one person tries to wield power over another. No matter what form bullying takes, someone gets hurt. It’s not just about the bullied kids, either. Unchecked bullying can hurt the bullies and those watching from the sidelines.
Kids often are told that they need to say something when they witness bullying, and also get a teacher or a parent. But much bullying takes place when adults aren’t around, Mulvey notes. Kids get bullied on the playground. Or on the bus. Bullying also happens online — where adults can’t see it at all.
“Because adults often are not there to observe it, we need the kids to be the ones to stand up and say it’s not okay,” Mulvey says. It sounds like a scary thing to do. But peer intervention really works. Speaking up and standing up to bullies tends to reduce the attacks, she says.
Heroes in the making
What might make a teen step in when bullying happens? To find out, Mulvey and her colleagues partnered with several schools in North Carolina. They gave online surveys to 896 sixth- and ninth-grade students. The survey took 40 minutes, but “we had a very high rate of participation,” Mulvey says. The students recognized what a problem bullying can be.
All read eight stories about kids bullying each other, either in person or online. For each story they answered a list of questions. Was the person who acted aggressively being a bully or not? Would it be a good idea for someone to step in and defend the victim? If the victim fought back, how okay would that be? The students also were asked how likely they would be to try and stop the bully, and if they would step in if the victim tried to retaliate.
But that wasn’t all. They scientists also asked students about their families and schools. The students had to say whether they had a lot of rules at home and how their parents reacted when they did things that were wrong. They were asked whether they liked their teachers and whether the teachers kept good discipline or treated some students better than others. The students also were asked about the social environment at school and if people there felt connected to each other.
A recipe for bravery
Girls, it turned out, were more likely than boys to say that any form of aggression was not okay. It didn’t matter if the bullying was physical, verbal or online. Girls also were more likely to think that someone should intervene to stop bullying. Older boys, in contrast, tended to think that physical aggression was okay, and said that they probably wouldn’t want to step in.
When it came to actually confronting a bully, sixth graders were more likely than ninth graders to say they would stand up to an aggressor. By ninth grade, Mulvey says, the teens were more concerned about what their friends would think of them. That means they might keep quiet.
Kids’ families and school environments also influenced whether someone said he’d stand up to a bully. Students from families with clear rules were more likely to say bullying wasn’t okay. They also were more likely to say they would step in on behalf of someone being bullied. And students who felt comfortable at school — with teachers they trusted — were more likely to say they would help stop a bully.
Mulvey and her colleagues published their findings October 16, 2018, in the Journal of Youth and Adolescence.
From survey to school
“Communication is key,” Mulvey says. “We need to help kids feel comfortable communicating with their family as well as teachers.” If kids feel supported, she says, they will feel able to “speak up” and challenge bullies “when they see aggression happening.”
The findings also imply that anti-bullying efforts should not stop in middle school, Mulvey notes. There often is less emphasis on tackling bullying in high school. Yet her findings suggest that this is where kids may need help most.
Research has largely ignored how and whether teens intervene when bullies attack, notes Nicola Abbott. She’s a psychologist at University College London in England. Abbott believes “key for stopping bullying” is getting onlookers to challenge these attacks whenever they witness them.
But she understands why schools and teachers might hesitate to tell kids to step up. “There’s a bit of fear around encouraging your child to stand up,” she says. Schools and parents may worry that a kid who steps in could end up in a fight. Or that a teen’s efforts might backfire if the bully chooses the would-be hero as a new victim. But, Abbott says, “there isn’t a great deal of evidence that is the case.” Instead, bystanders who step in often can stop a bad situation from getting worse.
Of course, it’s easier to say on a survey that you’d stand up to a bully than it is to be brave in real life. Mulvey and her colleagues are working with students now to find out who actually intervenes when a bully attacks. They also hope to figure out if the movies are right — that maybe a single hero can shut down a bully’s bad behavior.
Note: This article was updated on February 20, 2019, to correct a misspelling of Nicola Abbott. | 1,298 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ebola is a disease that can infect both humans and primates resulting in a large number of fatalities all around the world. Ebola is a viral ailment caused by four strains of the ebolavirus genus. Evidence indicates that the natural host for the ebolavirus is the fruit bat and three species, in particular, is thought to have the highest concentration of the virus in the world. The research also indicates that despite having stores of the virus, the bats do not exhibit any symptoms of the disease. Scientists are investigating the possibility of other organisms being hosts of the virus. The first recorded instance of the ebolavirus was in 1976 when the disease affected the nations of Sudan and Zaire. The primary means individuals get infected with Ebola is interacting directly with body fluids from infected individuals or interacting with contaminated objects. Ebola's incubation period generally lasts anywhere from two days to nearly three weeks with patients then exhibiting symptoms such as rashes and muscular pain. Significant outbreaks of Ebola typically occur within African countries.
Ebola Afflicted Countries
In 1976, Sudan became the world's first nation to have individuals suffer from Ebola. The first Sudanese town to be affected by the disease was Nzara, and it later spread to other regions such as Juba and Tumbura. The first individuals to be infected with Ebola worked in a cotton manufacturing company. Large numbers of medical professionals were affected by the virus due to the lack of proper information on how it spreads. The first Ebola outbreak affected around 284 people, and 151 people died. Sudan was also affected by Ebola in 1979 as the disease once again afflicted individuals living in Nzara and Maridi. About 34 people were infected with the virus, and the death rate was approximately 65%. The next outbreak in Sudan occurred in 2004 in Yambio County. The disease affected only 17 people with a fatality rate of about 41%. At the time, a measles outbreak was also affecting the region which complicated the treatment of the disease as several cases of measles were wrongly diagnosed as Ebola.
Democratic Republic of Congo
In 1976, the Democratic Republic of Congo then referred to as Zaire, became the second nation in the world to have confirmed cases of Ebola. The first area in the country to be afflicted with the disease was Yambuku a village approximately 682 miles from Kinshasa. The first resident of Yambuku to be infected with the virus was a local headmaster who was wrongly diagnosed as having malaria. He would later be the first Ebola fatality in Congo. The survival rate for the first outbreak of Ebola in the nation was approximately 12% as nearly 280 people out of the 318 infected died. In 1995, the country had a second outbreak of the disease which affected 315 people. The second major outbreak occurred in the Kikwit area and spread rapidly among family members and those in hospitals. The fatality rate reduced from 88% in the first outbreak to about 81%. The Kasai-Occidental province was the site of the third major outbreak of Ebola in the country in 2007 which resulted in the infection of about 264 people. The death rate was significantly lower than in previous epidemics as it was approximately 71%. The province was once again the center of a major outbreak that lasted from 2008 to 2009 which affected 32 people with only 14 fatalities. A subsequent outbreak occurred in 2012 with a death rate of about 47%. The country also had Ebola outbreaks in 2014 and 2018 with death rates of 74% and 61% respectively. As of August 2018, the nation was in the midst of an Ebola outbreak.
In 1994, Gabon became the third country to be the center of a major Ebola outbreak. During the initial days of the epidemic, patients were wrongly diagnosed as having yellow fever. People living in the Makokou region, as well as gold miners working close to the Ivindo River, were the ones at the highest risk from the disease at the time. Out of 52 people infected with the virus, 31 died which was a death rate of roughly 60%. In 1996, Gabon was the center of two Ebola outbreaks the first from January to April and the second from July to March the subsequent year. The death rates were 57% and 75% respectively. An outbreak occurred from 2001 to 2002 that affected residents in both Gabon and the Republic of the Congo with 107 fatalities out of the 135 infected people.
Republic of the Congo
The first recorded instance of Ebola in the Republic of the Congo lasted from 2001 to 2002 with a death rate of about 79%. In December of 2002 to April the following year, an Ebola outbreak affected the nation, particularly in the Kelle and Mbomo districts. The outbreak was one of the most fatal in the nation's history as the fatalities were nearly 90%. From November to December 2003, about 35 individuals were affected with the disease, 29 of whom died.
The 2013-2016 Ebola Outbreak
The deadliest outbreak of Ebola in the world occurred between 2013 and 2016 and mainly affected nations in West Africa with the most affected being Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Liberia. According to data from the World Health Organization, 28,616 people were infected with the virus with about 11,300 fatalities. Several European nations such as the United Kingdom and Italy also had confirmed Ebola cases although due to proper treatment, there were no fatalities in those countries. The United States had four confirmed cases with only a single casualty. Research indicates that the first confirmed case was of a one-year-old boy who later died from the disease. To properly manage the outbreak, several countries, as well as international organizations, worked together to provide treatment to the infected.
Prevention of Ebola
To prevent the spread of the disease from spreading, it is advisable for those responsible for treating the sick to wear protective clothing. The infected people should also be quarantined to avoid the virus spreading to other people. Adequate information should be provided to the communities living in areas vulnerable to the disease. The corpses of those who died from Ebola should also be handled properly to avoid infecting others.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
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... | 3 | Ebola is a disease that can infect both humans and primates resulting in a large number of fatalities all around the world. Ebola is a viral ailment caused by four strains of the ebolavirus genus. Evidence indicates that the natural host for the ebolavirus is the fruit bat and three species, in particular, is thought to have the highest concentration of the virus in the world. The research also indicates that despite having stores of the virus, the bats do not exhibit any symptoms of the disease. Scientists are investigating the possibility of other organisms being hosts of the virus. The first recorded instance of the ebolavirus was in 1976 when the disease affected the nations of Sudan and Zaire. The primary means individuals get infected with Ebola is interacting directly with body fluids from infected individuals or interacting with contaminated objects. Ebola's incubation period generally lasts anywhere from two days to nearly three weeks with patients then exhibiting symptoms such as rashes and muscular pain. Significant outbreaks of Ebola typically occur within African countries.
Ebola Afflicted Countries
In 1976, Sudan became the world's first nation to have individuals suffer from Ebola. The first Sudanese town to be affected by the disease was Nzara, and it later spread to other regions such as Juba and Tumbura. The first individuals to be infected with Ebola worked in a cotton manufacturing company. Large numbers of medical professionals were affected by the virus due to the lack of proper information on how it spreads. The first Ebola outbreak affected around 284 people, and 151 people died. Sudan was also affected by Ebola in 1979 as the disease once again afflicted individuals living in Nzara and Maridi. About 34 people were infected with the virus, and the death rate was approximately 65%. The next outbreak in Sudan occurred in 2004 in Yambio County. The disease affected only 17 people with a fatality rate of about 41%. At the time, a measles outbreak was also affecting the region which complicated the treatment of the disease as several cases of measles were wrongly diagnosed as Ebola.
Democratic Republic of Congo
In 1976, the Democratic Republic of Congo then referred to as Zaire, became the second nation in the world to have confirmed cases of Ebola. The first area in the country to be afflicted with the disease was Yambuku a village approximately 682 miles from Kinshasa. The first resident of Yambuku to be infected with the virus was a local headmaster who was wrongly diagnosed as having malaria. He would later be the first Ebola fatality in Congo. The survival rate for the first outbreak of Ebola in the nation was approximately 12% as nearly 280 people out of the 318 infected died. In 1995, the country had a second outbreak of the disease which affected 315 people. The second major outbreak occurred in the Kikwit area and spread rapidly among family members and those in hospitals. The fatality rate reduced from 88% in the first outbreak to about 81%. The Kasai-Occidental province was the site of the third major outbreak of Ebola in the country in 2007 which resulted in the infection of about 264 people. The death rate was significantly lower than in previous epidemics as it was approximately 71%. The province was once again the center of a major outbreak that lasted from 2008 to 2009 which affected 32 people with only 14 fatalities. A subsequent outbreak occurred in 2012 with a death rate of about 47%. The country also had Ebola outbreaks in 2014 and 2018 with death rates of 74% and 61% respectively. As of August 2018, the nation was in the midst of an Ebola outbreak.
In 1994, Gabon became the third country to be the center of a major Ebola outbreak. During the initial days of the epidemic, patients were wrongly diagnosed as having yellow fever. People living in the Makokou region, as well as gold miners working close to the Ivindo River, were the ones at the highest risk from the disease at the time. Out of 52 people infected with the virus, 31 died which was a death rate of roughly 60%. In 1996, Gabon was the center of two Ebola outbreaks the first from January to April and the second from July to March the subsequent year. The death rates were 57% and 75% respectively. An outbreak occurred from 2001 to 2002 that affected residents in both Gabon and the Republic of the Congo with 107 fatalities out of the 135 infected people.
Republic of the Congo
The first recorded instance of Ebola in the Republic of the Congo lasted from 2001 to 2002 with a death rate of about 79%. In December of 2002 to April the following year, an Ebola outbreak affected the nation, particularly in the Kelle and Mbomo districts. The outbreak was one of the most fatal in the nation's history as the fatalities were nearly 90%. From November to December 2003, about 35 individuals were affected with the disease, 29 of whom died.
The 2013-2016 Ebola Outbreak
The deadliest outbreak of Ebola in the world occurred between 2013 and 2016 and mainly affected nations in West Africa with the most affected being Guinea, Sierra Leone, and Liberia. According to data from the World Health Organization, 28,616 people were infected with the virus with about 11,300 fatalities. Several European nations such as the United Kingdom and Italy also had confirmed Ebola cases although due to proper treatment, there were no fatalities in those countries. The United States had four confirmed cases with only a single casualty. Research indicates that the first confirmed case was of a one-year-old boy who later died from the disease. To properly manage the outbreak, several countries, as well as international organizations, worked together to provide treatment to the infected.
Prevention of Ebola
To prevent the spread of the disease from spreading, it is advisable for those responsible for treating the sick to wear protective clothing. The infected people should also be quarantined to avoid the virus spreading to other people. Adequate information should be provided to the communities living in areas vulnerable to the disease. The corpses of those who died from Ebola should also be handled properly to avoid infecting others.
About the Author
Benjamin Elisha Sawe holds a Bachelor of Arts in Economics and Statistics and an MBA in Strategic Management. He is a frequent World Atlas contributor.
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Your Harvard CitationRemember to italicize the title of this article in your Harvard citation. | 1,447 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Inthe first week the tree was green and lush with very few yellowleaves. Nevertheless, there were plenty of leaves. It seemed welltaken care of, very robust and had a natural appeal. In the secondand third week it was still the same way, having only shed a smallnumber of leaves. One could only predict that it would only shed afew more then go back to being green and lush, but as the seasonproceeded this was not the case.
Itslowly shed more leaves as time went by, slowly at first, then as thedays went by one could notice the exponential decrease in its sizein terms of leaves. By the seventh week, the once very green and lushtree was now much leaner than it was before. In place of the manyleaves that were once there was just some empty branches creepinginto the sky. This is the case with all deciduous trees. By lookingat it one cannot tell that this tree is actually deciduous. This isbecause there is no way of telling until the fall reaches that onecan establish this fact.
Aftertaking the last picture of the last week I did a little more researchas to why they shed leaves during the fall and learnt that this ishow they survive harsh weather conditions. Most other plants that donot have such an adaptation would have died, but this particular typeof tree can survive without its foliage (Richard, 1996). This isdespite the fact that the leaves provide food for the tree.Nevertheless, the beautiful part of nature is how it can modifyitself to deal with changes in the environment.
Richards, P. (1996). The tropical rain forest an ecological study(2.nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. | <urn:uuid:c9604187-a9be-4172-b513-c34a1478810b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sifounderregion.org/photo-diary/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00122.warc.gz | en | 0.980681 | 354 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.266242653... | 4 | Inthe first week the tree was green and lush with very few yellowleaves. Nevertheless, there were plenty of leaves. It seemed welltaken care of, very robust and had a natural appeal. In the secondand third week it was still the same way, having only shed a smallnumber of leaves. One could only predict that it would only shed afew more then go back to being green and lush, but as the seasonproceeded this was not the case.
Itslowly shed more leaves as time went by, slowly at first, then as thedays went by one could notice the exponential decrease in its sizein terms of leaves. By the seventh week, the once very green and lushtree was now much leaner than it was before. In place of the manyleaves that were once there was just some empty branches creepinginto the sky. This is the case with all deciduous trees. By lookingat it one cannot tell that this tree is actually deciduous. This isbecause there is no way of telling until the fall reaches that onecan establish this fact.
Aftertaking the last picture of the last week I did a little more researchas to why they shed leaves during the fall and learnt that this ishow they survive harsh weather conditions. Most other plants that donot have such an adaptation would have died, but this particular typeof tree can survive without its foliage (Richard, 1996). This isdespite the fact that the leaves provide food for the tree.Nevertheless, the beautiful part of nature is how it can modifyitself to deal with changes in the environment.
Richards, P. (1996). The tropical rain forest an ecological study(2.nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. | 356 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The exhibit was based on some of the millions of animal mummies found at 31 cemeteries throughout Egypt.
- Sometimes - although rarely - mummies of pets were buried with their owners (the best-known examples are from within the royal families)
- Game or farm animals were sometimes mummified as food offerings for the deceased and were included in tombs.
- Certain sacred animals (for example, they would raise a bull who was considered a god incarnate) would be mummified at death and given a royal burial
- But the most common animal mummies were votive: animals prepared for burial so that their souls would be set free to deliver messages to the gods.
To me, the really fascinating thing about that is that it shows the Egyptians thought animals had souls. Meanwhile, the exhibit said the "Hebrew, Greek, Roman and early Christian writings condemned and ridiculed the Egyptian view of animals." Pfffhtthh to that. (I'm so scholarly...)
|Baby crocodile mummy|
The exhibit said animals that represented certain gods (for example, crocodiles represented the god Sobek, a god of the Nile who brought fertility to the land) would be raised by priests in and around temples built for the gods. Then folks would come along, buy a crocodile mummy and offer up their message for the gods. In the case of the crocs, it said they would, er, dispatch the crocs when they were little, since it's obviously a lot easier to deal with the babies and mummify them over the full-grown variety.
Some of the mummies were also in wooden or bronze coffins, like this shrew coffin. (Isn't it cool?) Probably the richer you were, the more elaborate thing you would buy - cuz you wanted to make sure your message got received!
|Wooden shrew coffin|
There were also a couple of wooden cat coffins, one with gold still visible, showing that cats were “prized at all social levels in ancient Egypt.” Cats were buried in human cemeteries as far back as 4000-3000 BCE, suggesting “cats were domesticated from very early times.” The exhibit said the DNA of the mummified cats traces to today's domesticated house cat. (Of course it does, since cats KNOW they are still prized today.)
|Top: wooden cat coffin, Bottom: cat mummy & mummy X-ray|
The animals that were mummified were all ones that had a relationship with one or more deities, such as dogs and the god Anubis, the jackal-headed god of the underworld who guided and protected the spirits of the dead.
|Dog mummies, note the intricate folding on the top mummy|
The mummies were believed to act as messengers from the Egyptians to the gods, and they would pray for pretty much the same things folks do today... long life, better health, better working conditions, etc.
|Different views of an ibis mummy and X-ray|
A married couple with their pet dog
Yeah, I think I'd rather have the family pet memorialized with an engraving, rather than as a mummy.
But, hey - those ancient Egyptians weren't so different from us. They loved their cats and their dogs. (Look at the fancy little collar the dog in that stela is wearing!)
Thanks to BlogPaws for hosting Wordless Wednesday. Sorry I was so wordy, but I thought it was a super interesting exhibit! | <urn:uuid:d8268269-9237-4a81-bde2-f32173062f19> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.poochsmooches.com/2014/06/animal-mummies-fascinating-exhibit.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00368.warc.gz | en | 0.985337 | 729 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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... | 2 | The exhibit was based on some of the millions of animal mummies found at 31 cemeteries throughout Egypt.
- Sometimes - although rarely - mummies of pets were buried with their owners (the best-known examples are from within the royal families)
- Game or farm animals were sometimes mummified as food offerings for the deceased and were included in tombs.
- Certain sacred animals (for example, they would raise a bull who was considered a god incarnate) would be mummified at death and given a royal burial
- But the most common animal mummies were votive: animals prepared for burial so that their souls would be set free to deliver messages to the gods.
To me, the really fascinating thing about that is that it shows the Egyptians thought animals had souls. Meanwhile, the exhibit said the "Hebrew, Greek, Roman and early Christian writings condemned and ridiculed the Egyptian view of animals." Pfffhtthh to that. (I'm so scholarly...)
|Baby crocodile mummy|
The exhibit said animals that represented certain gods (for example, crocodiles represented the god Sobek, a god of the Nile who brought fertility to the land) would be raised by priests in and around temples built for the gods. Then folks would come along, buy a crocodile mummy and offer up their message for the gods. In the case of the crocs, it said they would, er, dispatch the crocs when they were little, since it's obviously a lot easier to deal with the babies and mummify them over the full-grown variety.
Some of the mummies were also in wooden or bronze coffins, like this shrew coffin. (Isn't it cool?) Probably the richer you were, the more elaborate thing you would buy - cuz you wanted to make sure your message got received!
|Wooden shrew coffin|
There were also a couple of wooden cat coffins, one with gold still visible, showing that cats were “prized at all social levels in ancient Egypt.” Cats were buried in human cemeteries as far back as 4000-3000 BCE, suggesting “cats were domesticated from very early times.” The exhibit said the DNA of the mummified cats traces to today's domesticated house cat. (Of course it does, since cats KNOW they are still prized today.)
|Top: wooden cat coffin, Bottom: cat mummy & mummy X-ray|
The animals that were mummified were all ones that had a relationship with one or more deities, such as dogs and the god Anubis, the jackal-headed god of the underworld who guided and protected the spirits of the dead.
|Dog mummies, note the intricate folding on the top mummy|
The mummies were believed to act as messengers from the Egyptians to the gods, and they would pray for pretty much the same things folks do today... long life, better health, better working conditions, etc.
|Different views of an ibis mummy and X-ray|
A married couple with their pet dog
Yeah, I think I'd rather have the family pet memorialized with an engraving, rather than as a mummy.
But, hey - those ancient Egyptians weren't so different from us. They loved their cats and their dogs. (Look at the fancy little collar the dog in that stela is wearing!)
Thanks to BlogPaws for hosting Wordless Wednesday. Sorry I was so wordy, but I thought it was a super interesting exhibit! | 722 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Germany: economy in 1870–71
The Gründerzeit, or founders' era is closely associated with the years 1870-71, when Germany emerged victorious from the Franco-Prussian War and received war reparations payments from France. They triggered a veritable economic boom in Germany in the following years. Huge factories were built and turned out more goods at an ever faster pace. Industrialization progressed and the bourgeoisie gained ever more influence. Widespread railway construction also boosted the economy, making mass production and the efficient distribution of goods possible. In addition to this, the demand for coal and steel grew. The founders' era also saw a rise in the importance of ship building, particularly for the German naval fleet.
Modern warships continually got faster, their plating more resilient and their guns ever more powerful. All the major military nations strived to gain a strong presence on the seas. At the time most Germans were ecstatic about the bolstered warship construction for the German naval fleet.
In the course of industrialization housing became scarce. More and more families moved from the countryside to the cities for work. Due to the great demand, housing prices ballooned to virtually unfathomable levels. As a consequence many people were forced to band together, sharing rents and living space. They lived together in very cramped conditions and had neither water nor waste water pipes, even heating was a rare luxury. People cooked, worked and bathed in one single room. And, as if that wasn't enough, beds were even sometimes let out in shifts. These paying nightly visitors were called night lodgers. They were people who couldn't afford to pay a share of permanent rent and who only had enough money to hire a bed for a few hours. That was the flip side of the founders' era boom.
Industrialists, on the other hand, lived in completely different conditions. The economic boom brought them great wealth. An example: the Krupp family villa. Alfred Krupp designed train wheels and made a fortune. He later built munitions and became the biggest armaments producer in Europe. Industrial dynasties like the Krupps were among the winners of the founders' era. | <urn:uuid:bfe08cd6-ca40-4d96-954f-01c65ee66647> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.britannica.com/video/179953/Overview-boom-Germany | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00194.warc.gz | en | 0.982781 | 438 | 4.21875 | 4 | [
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0.15969927... | 1 | Germany: economy in 1870–71
The Gründerzeit, or founders' era is closely associated with the years 1870-71, when Germany emerged victorious from the Franco-Prussian War and received war reparations payments from France. They triggered a veritable economic boom in Germany in the following years. Huge factories were built and turned out more goods at an ever faster pace. Industrialization progressed and the bourgeoisie gained ever more influence. Widespread railway construction also boosted the economy, making mass production and the efficient distribution of goods possible. In addition to this, the demand for coal and steel grew. The founders' era also saw a rise in the importance of ship building, particularly for the German naval fleet.
Modern warships continually got faster, their plating more resilient and their guns ever more powerful. All the major military nations strived to gain a strong presence on the seas. At the time most Germans were ecstatic about the bolstered warship construction for the German naval fleet.
In the course of industrialization housing became scarce. More and more families moved from the countryside to the cities for work. Due to the great demand, housing prices ballooned to virtually unfathomable levels. As a consequence many people were forced to band together, sharing rents and living space. They lived together in very cramped conditions and had neither water nor waste water pipes, even heating was a rare luxury. People cooked, worked and bathed in one single room. And, as if that wasn't enough, beds were even sometimes let out in shifts. These paying nightly visitors were called night lodgers. They were people who couldn't afford to pay a share of permanent rent and who only had enough money to hire a bed for a few hours. That was the flip side of the founders' era boom.
Industrialists, on the other hand, lived in completely different conditions. The economic boom brought them great wealth. An example: the Krupp family villa. Alfred Krupp designed train wheels and made a fortune. He later built munitions and became the biggest armaments producer in Europe. Industrial dynasties like the Krupps were among the winners of the founders' era. | 446 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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I am your new leader!
We must all unite to become a powerful force.
In 1162 AD, Genghis Khan was born. His original name was Temujin, but it later changed. Genghis Khan was born as a member of the Borjigin tribe.
Genghis Khan's father was at a feast with another tribe. When the tribe poisoned the father, Genghis immediately ran home to take the spot of his father even though he was a kid.
Genghis Khan decides he should unite all the Mongol tribes to create a powerful force. This force could later conquer strong civilizations.
Genghis Khan married a woman named Borte. Borte later was captured by another tribe and was rescued. Borte had a son named Jochi, who Genghis Khan thought was his.
Genghis Khan conquered and terrorized many parts of Asia and Europe. This created the largest empire in history. By the time he died, he conquered many places including all of northern China.
Genghis Khan died in 1227 AD. The funeral party killed anyone they saw on the way. It is said they diverted a river over the body.
Over 12 Million
Create My First Storyboard | <urn:uuid:6e617dd8-5fa3-41d4-b3a2-1a028b2a2b5b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/fa577457/genghis-khan | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614880.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124011048-20200124040048-00165.warc.gz | en | 0.981403 | 290 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.0032414302695... | 1 | View This Storyboard as a Slide Show!
Create your own!
Copy this storyboard
Like What You See?
This storyboard was created with
I am your new leader!
We must all unite to become a powerful force.
In 1162 AD, Genghis Khan was born. His original name was Temujin, but it later changed. Genghis Khan was born as a member of the Borjigin tribe.
Genghis Khan's father was at a feast with another tribe. When the tribe poisoned the father, Genghis immediately ran home to take the spot of his father even though he was a kid.
Genghis Khan decides he should unite all the Mongol tribes to create a powerful force. This force could later conquer strong civilizations.
Genghis Khan married a woman named Borte. Borte later was captured by another tribe and was rescued. Borte had a son named Jochi, who Genghis Khan thought was his.
Genghis Khan conquered and terrorized many parts of Asia and Europe. This created the largest empire in history. By the time he died, he conquered many places including all of northern China.
Genghis Khan died in 1227 AD. The funeral party killed anyone they saw on the way. It is said they diverted a river over the body.
Over 12 Million
Create My First Storyboard | 283 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Richard the Lionheart
The English king, knight and crusader Richard the Lionheart (1157-1199) died 820 years ago. His life and reign are shrouded in numerous myths and legends. Richard was more French than English; as the third son of the English Plantagenet king Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine, initially it was thought unlikely that he would ever ascend to the throne. The best-known chapter in his life is connected with his participation in a crusade to the Holy Land and his capture by enemies on the return journey. Richard’s contemporaries saw him as an ideal knight, but today we know that there was a darker side to his personality too. His relationships with women were also very complicated; he loved his mother more than any other woman in his life. Richard’s life of adventure was eventually cut short by an arrow fired “accidentally” from the crossbow of one of his own soldiers during the siege of the rather unimportant castle of Châlus. This lecture explores the life and personality of one of the best-known English kings of the Middle Ages.
Only in Czech. | <urn:uuid:44369163-c608-4cf8-b088-aa714e2e5b4f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gvuo.cz/en/news/richard-the-lionheart_nd127 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251672537.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125131641-20200125160641-00224.warc.gz | en | 0.986017 | 232 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.120275557041168... | 8 | Richard the Lionheart
The English king, knight and crusader Richard the Lionheart (1157-1199) died 820 years ago. His life and reign are shrouded in numerous myths and legends. Richard was more French than English; as the third son of the English Plantagenet king Henry II and Eleanor of Aquitaine, initially it was thought unlikely that he would ever ascend to the throne. The best-known chapter in his life is connected with his participation in a crusade to the Holy Land and his capture by enemies on the return journey. Richard’s contemporaries saw him as an ideal knight, but today we know that there was a darker side to his personality too. His relationships with women were also very complicated; he loved his mother more than any other woman in his life. Richard’s life of adventure was eventually cut short by an arrow fired “accidentally” from the crossbow of one of his own soldiers during the siege of the rather unimportant castle of Châlus. This lecture explores the life and personality of one of the best-known English kings of the Middle Ages.
Only in Czech. | 234 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Anne Bradstreet was born in March of 1612 in Northampton, England. Her birth name was Anne Dudley and her parents were Thomas Dudley, who was the steward of the Early of Lincoln, and Dorothy Yorke. Her family’s position allowed her to grow up in a well-educated household. She was consistently exposed to books and was tutored in history as well as several languages. As a young woman she was deeply moved and inspired by the writer Du Bartas, who was a courtier and poet in the mid-late 1500s in France.
Marriage and Emigration
When she was only sixteen years old she married Simon Bradstreet who would late serve as the governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The couple, alongside Anne’s parents, immigrated to America as part of the Winthrop Fleet of Puritan emigrants in 1630. It was not until June that she arrived in the New World. The family spent short periods of time in Charleston, what is now Salem, and Boston. They eventually settled in Cambridge.
It was here that Bradstreet had her first child, Samuel. He was the first of eight children to be born to the couple. Bradstreet’s health was tenuous throughout her life but she was able to achieve a high social standing and live through the delivery of all her children. The couple moved again while Bradstreet was pregnant with their sixth child and ended up in Andover Parish.
The Bradstreet’s played an important role in the founding of Harvard in 1636 and two of their sons were graduates of the institution. In 1650, Bradstreet’s work, The Tenth Muse lately Sprung Up in America was published. The author’s name was listed as “A Gentlewoman from Those Parts.” The family home burned in July of 1666, an event which Bradstreet wrote about in her poem, ‘Verses upon the Burning of our House, July 10th, 1666.’
Later Life and Legacy
In the later years of her life Bradstreet contract an illness which led to a paralysis of her joints. In 1672, Anne Bradstreet died of tuberculosis. She was sixty years old. It is like she was buried in the Old Burying Ground in North Andover.
Today, Bradstreet is remembered as the first writer in England’s North American Colonies to be published. She is also the first Puritan figure in American Literature. Her body of work, especially of a poetic nature, is quite large and led to a number of pieces being published posthumously. | <urn:uuid:9d4e8e28-2a26-45ce-82a8-49bba1b82ec5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://poemanalysis.com/biography-of-anne-bradstreet/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594603.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119122744-20200119150744-00403.warc.gz | en | 0.992894 | 533 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.15548789501190... | 3 | Anne Bradstreet was born in March of 1612 in Northampton, England. Her birth name was Anne Dudley and her parents were Thomas Dudley, who was the steward of the Early of Lincoln, and Dorothy Yorke. Her family’s position allowed her to grow up in a well-educated household. She was consistently exposed to books and was tutored in history as well as several languages. As a young woman she was deeply moved and inspired by the writer Du Bartas, who was a courtier and poet in the mid-late 1500s in France.
Marriage and Emigration
When she was only sixteen years old she married Simon Bradstreet who would late serve as the governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The couple, alongside Anne’s parents, immigrated to America as part of the Winthrop Fleet of Puritan emigrants in 1630. It was not until June that she arrived in the New World. The family spent short periods of time in Charleston, what is now Salem, and Boston. They eventually settled in Cambridge.
It was here that Bradstreet had her first child, Samuel. He was the first of eight children to be born to the couple. Bradstreet’s health was tenuous throughout her life but she was able to achieve a high social standing and live through the delivery of all her children. The couple moved again while Bradstreet was pregnant with their sixth child and ended up in Andover Parish.
The Bradstreet’s played an important role in the founding of Harvard in 1636 and two of their sons were graduates of the institution. In 1650, Bradstreet’s work, The Tenth Muse lately Sprung Up in America was published. The author’s name was listed as “A Gentlewoman from Those Parts.” The family home burned in July of 1666, an event which Bradstreet wrote about in her poem, ‘Verses upon the Burning of our House, July 10th, 1666.’
Later Life and Legacy
In the later years of her life Bradstreet contract an illness which led to a paralysis of her joints. In 1672, Anne Bradstreet died of tuberculosis. She was sixty years old. It is like she was buried in the Old Burying Ground in North Andover.
Today, Bradstreet is remembered as the first writer in England’s North American Colonies to be published. She is also the first Puritan figure in American Literature. Her body of work, especially of a poetic nature, is quite large and led to a number of pieces being published posthumously. | 537 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Fountain Head Community stands out as one of the most interesting historical landmarks of Sumner County and Middle Tennessee.
It had its beginnings before the Revolutionary War. Captain Jonathan Drake and a group of soldiers pursued Indians up a stream now known as Drake's Creek. They came upon a large bituminous spring, being fed by many large springs, and decided it would be a good place for a fort.
They called it the “Fountain Head.” Possibly Captain Drake should have the credit for the real beginning of the village that we now call Fountain Head.
Perhaps a man by the name of Benjamin Meness was one of the soldiers with Captain Drake. He was a Sergeant from Virginia in the 1st Regiment in June of 1777. From the work of Doug Drake, Jack Masters, and Bill Puryear and their “Founding of the Cumberland Settlements, The First Atlas” we learn in 1784, there was a warrant in Benjamin Meness' name to receive 640 acres of land for his military service.
This 640 acres encompassed the area surrounding the Fountain Head Spring. His service record tells us Benjamin Meness was appointed a Justice of the Peace for TN County of the Territory South of the Ohio River in December of 1790 and later served as a 2nd Major of the TN Militia in the War of 1812. Presently we don't have any further information on him but since that is not a familiar name around here now, he may have later moved on.
The James Gwinn family is most often given the credit for being the first family to settle in the area to become present-day Fountain Head. James Gwinn came to America from Wales and settled near Charleston, South Carolina. He later moved with a wagon train in 1791 to Tennessee country. He stopped and also took a large holding of land near Fountain Head (Spring) for his for his military service.
Information taken from books by former State Historian, Walter Durham, tell us that in the fall of 1799 two or three hundred pioneers started overland to make settlements in Middle Tennessee. They wanted to avoid the real mountainous route through Tennessee.
They entered Kentucky through the Cumberland Gap and traveled along the Ky Trace to Whitley's Station. They went to Drake's Creek past a large Maple Swamp to a big Bituminous Spring (Old Fountain Head); then to Red River to Kilgore's Station just west of Cross Plains; and on to Mansker's Creek and finally to French Lick (Nashboro) arriving there Dec. 25, 1799, some four months before the group that came by boat.
This shows us the Fountain Head Community was on an early pioneer trail. Let us just imagine what that trip and that Christmas of 1799 was like for those early pioneers.
Johnnie Freedle is a member of the Highland Rim Historical Society. | <urn:uuid:671a018b-27a0-413b-9a05-a4ba0bcff0e6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.theportlandsun.com/community/fountain-head-spring/article_e0009ec8-2bd7-11ea-b8fd-1f1963c69bac.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00309.warc.gz | en | 0.9814 | 586 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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... | 2 | The Fountain Head Community stands out as one of the most interesting historical landmarks of Sumner County and Middle Tennessee.
It had its beginnings before the Revolutionary War. Captain Jonathan Drake and a group of soldiers pursued Indians up a stream now known as Drake's Creek. They came upon a large bituminous spring, being fed by many large springs, and decided it would be a good place for a fort.
They called it the “Fountain Head.” Possibly Captain Drake should have the credit for the real beginning of the village that we now call Fountain Head.
Perhaps a man by the name of Benjamin Meness was one of the soldiers with Captain Drake. He was a Sergeant from Virginia in the 1st Regiment in June of 1777. From the work of Doug Drake, Jack Masters, and Bill Puryear and their “Founding of the Cumberland Settlements, The First Atlas” we learn in 1784, there was a warrant in Benjamin Meness' name to receive 640 acres of land for his military service.
This 640 acres encompassed the area surrounding the Fountain Head Spring. His service record tells us Benjamin Meness was appointed a Justice of the Peace for TN County of the Territory South of the Ohio River in December of 1790 and later served as a 2nd Major of the TN Militia in the War of 1812. Presently we don't have any further information on him but since that is not a familiar name around here now, he may have later moved on.
The James Gwinn family is most often given the credit for being the first family to settle in the area to become present-day Fountain Head. James Gwinn came to America from Wales and settled near Charleston, South Carolina. He later moved with a wagon train in 1791 to Tennessee country. He stopped and also took a large holding of land near Fountain Head (Spring) for his for his military service.
Information taken from books by former State Historian, Walter Durham, tell us that in the fall of 1799 two or three hundred pioneers started overland to make settlements in Middle Tennessee. They wanted to avoid the real mountainous route through Tennessee.
They entered Kentucky through the Cumberland Gap and traveled along the Ky Trace to Whitley's Station. They went to Drake's Creek past a large Maple Swamp to a big Bituminous Spring (Old Fountain Head); then to Red River to Kilgore's Station just west of Cross Plains; and on to Mansker's Creek and finally to French Lick (Nashboro) arriving there Dec. 25, 1799, some four months before the group that came by boat.
This shows us the Fountain Head Community was on an early pioneer trail. Let us just imagine what that trip and that Christmas of 1799 was like for those early pioneers.
Johnnie Freedle is a member of the Highland Rim Historical Society. | 607 | ENGLISH | 1 |
13 Nov Jean Désiré Gustave Courbet
Jean Désiré Gustave Courbet (10 June 1819 – 31 December 1877) was a French painter who led the Realism movement in 19th-century French painting. Committed to painting only what he could see, he rejected academic convention and the Romanticism of the previous generation of visual artists. His independence set an example that was important to later artists, such as the Impressionists and the Cubists. Courbet occupies an important place in 19th-century French painting as an innovator and as an artist willing to make bold social statements through his work.
Jean Désiré Gustave Courbet paintings of the late 1840s and early 1850s brought him his first recognition. They challenged convention by depicting unidealized peasants and workers, often on a grand scale traditionally reserved for paintings of religious or historical subjects. Courbet’s subsequent paintings were mostly of a less overtly political character: landscapes, seascapes, hunting scenes, nudes, and still lifes. An active socialist, Courbet was active in the political developments of France. He was imprisoned for six months in 1871 for his involvement with the Paris Commune and lived in exile in Switzerland from 1873 until his death.
I am fifty years old and I have always lived in freedom; let me end my life free; when I am dead let this be said of me: ‘He belonged to no school, to no church, to no institution, to no academy, least of all to any régime except the régime of liberty.’ | <urn:uuid:0c3bee75-fd7f-4560-9345-2325d2e815a7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://bestofcanvas.com/jean-desire-gustave-courbet/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681412.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125191854-20200125221854-00010.warc.gz | en | 0.982506 | 331 | 3.546875 | 4 | [
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0.63593488931655... | 2 | 13 Nov Jean Désiré Gustave Courbet
Jean Désiré Gustave Courbet (10 June 1819 – 31 December 1877) was a French painter who led the Realism movement in 19th-century French painting. Committed to painting only what he could see, he rejected academic convention and the Romanticism of the previous generation of visual artists. His independence set an example that was important to later artists, such as the Impressionists and the Cubists. Courbet occupies an important place in 19th-century French painting as an innovator and as an artist willing to make bold social statements through his work.
Jean Désiré Gustave Courbet paintings of the late 1840s and early 1850s brought him his first recognition. They challenged convention by depicting unidealized peasants and workers, often on a grand scale traditionally reserved for paintings of religious or historical subjects. Courbet’s subsequent paintings were mostly of a less overtly political character: landscapes, seascapes, hunting scenes, nudes, and still lifes. An active socialist, Courbet was active in the political developments of France. He was imprisoned for six months in 1871 for his involvement with the Paris Commune and lived in exile in Switzerland from 1873 until his death.
I am fifty years old and I have always lived in freedom; let me end my life free; when I am dead let this be said of me: ‘He belonged to no school, to no church, to no institution, to no academy, least of all to any régime except the régime of liberty.’ | 346 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How much screen time is too much?
The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that children under the age of 18 months have no screen time, other than video-chatting. At 18 to 24 months, they recommend only high-quality programming, and at the age of 2 to 5, they recommend only one hour a day. They also recommend that a caregiver watch with them and explain what they are seeing.
Despite these recommendations, children are developing TV habits, some even in infancy, that greatly exceed these guidelines. And not surprisingly, the increased use of screen time is affecting our children’s development.
In a recent study in JAMA Pediatrics looked at 3,895 children aged 1 to 3. These children’s use of screen time increased from 53 minutes at 12 months to over 150 minutes at 3 years. Sometimes, their screen time habits began in infancy.
The study also found that children that logged more screen time (and who had a larger increase in screen time as they aged) were more likely to have parents with lower educational levels, be only-children or twins, or who were at home-based child care (rather than at center-based child care). In addition, first-time mothers had children that logged more screen time, and boys were more likely than girls to watch more TV.
In another study in JAMA Pediatrics of 47 preschoolers between the age of 3 and 5, results of cognitive tests and an MRI were combined with screen time behavior. The more screen time the child logged, the lower their skills in language, literacy, imagery, and self-regulation. This was even found on a structural level – the white matter tracts within the brain were affected.
“Screen time habits appear to track from as early as infancy, emphasizing the need for earlier interventions,” says Mai-Han Trinh and co-authors. | <urn:uuid:298e9728-0245-432b-bd45-6302649b8861> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sciencemetro.com/news/screen-time-habits-start-at-a-young-age/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00214.warc.gz | en | 0.981161 | 381 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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0.5691803693771... | 2 | How much screen time is too much?
The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends that children under the age of 18 months have no screen time, other than video-chatting. At 18 to 24 months, they recommend only high-quality programming, and at the age of 2 to 5, they recommend only one hour a day. They also recommend that a caregiver watch with them and explain what they are seeing.
Despite these recommendations, children are developing TV habits, some even in infancy, that greatly exceed these guidelines. And not surprisingly, the increased use of screen time is affecting our children’s development.
In a recent study in JAMA Pediatrics looked at 3,895 children aged 1 to 3. These children’s use of screen time increased from 53 minutes at 12 months to over 150 minutes at 3 years. Sometimes, their screen time habits began in infancy.
The study also found that children that logged more screen time (and who had a larger increase in screen time as they aged) were more likely to have parents with lower educational levels, be only-children or twins, or who were at home-based child care (rather than at center-based child care). In addition, first-time mothers had children that logged more screen time, and boys were more likely than girls to watch more TV.
In another study in JAMA Pediatrics of 47 preschoolers between the age of 3 and 5, results of cognitive tests and an MRI were combined with screen time behavior. The more screen time the child logged, the lower their skills in language, literacy, imagery, and self-regulation. This was even found on a structural level – the white matter tracts within the brain were affected.
“Screen time habits appear to track from as early as infancy, emphasizing the need for earlier interventions,” says Mai-Han Trinh and co-authors. | 387 | ENGLISH | 1 |
These included the removal of monthly gold licences, replaced by a much more affordable annual miner's licence. This event is known as the Eureka stockade. Journal of Australian Colonial History. The rebellion at the Eureka Stockade took terrible casualties, but although the miners were defeated on the day, they were successful in bringing about the changes they sought. It was sent to to be restored at a cost of more than 100,000. Following a Commission of Enquiry, changes were put in place.
Do they mean Chartism or Republicanism? He was released from prison on 28 June 1855, precisely three months early. There were frequent licence hunts, during which the miners were ordered to produce proof of their licences, and this increased the sense of unrest. They built a , or stockade, on Bakery Hill above the gold diggings on the Eureka gold lead. These included abolition of monthly gold licences, replaced by an … affordable annual miner's licence. It was used during the racial riots at. Democracy was a relatively new idea in 1854 and many of the miners who had travelled to the colony were pushing for it. A Commission of Enquiry was conducted and changes were implemented.
Public Record Office Victoria, 2003. As photos of actual events are sometimes not available, I will often use photographs of similar events and objects for illustration. At 3:00am on Sunday, 3 December 1854, 276 police and military personnel and several civilians stormed the stockade in what is known as the Battle of the Eureka Stockade. Over the next thirty years, press interest in the events that had taken place at the Eureka Stockade dwindled, but Eureka was kept alive at the campfires and in the pubs, and in memorial events in Ballarat. Number of beds in a healthcare unit in-patient facility 6. Licences had to be paid whether or not a digger found gold.
There were fewer troopers on the goldfields, and intrusive spot-checks ceased. This was when the gold miners on the Ballarat goldfields rebelled against the monthly gold licence, not to mention the surprise licence checks which could result in people being thrown in gaol. There are several components of the mind to be discussed. Bentley was a friend of the local magistrate and he escaped prosecution, as did three other men from the group. Retrieved 21 August 2012 — via National Library of Australia. Less successful diggers found it difficult to pay their licence fees.
In addition, the journey to Ballarat from Melbourne was not an easy one and most people walked for over three days due to the high cost of coaches. The story supported the original problem, but equations were then brought into the story later on. Many nationalist groups have started to use the flag as a symbol. Later, Lalor was elected Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Victoria. People are concerned that it will become a symbol of leaving people out, and not a symbol of Australian. Although the rebellion itself failed in its objective, it did gain the attention of the Government. The official register of deaths in the Ballarat District Register shows 27 names associated with the stockade battle at Eureka.
An estimation of 120 miners were arrested after the Stockade, many of them being innocent. The rebellion was caused by a number of issues within the gold fields. Watt ultimately decided not to do this and always regretted it. The unusual proportion of the killed to the wounded, is owing to the butchery of the military and troopers after the surrender. It was given to the in the 1890s. The population of Victoria grew from just over 77,000 in 1851 to almost 237,000 by 1854. On the 11th of November 1854, ten thousand miners met to demand the release of the three men, the right for all males to vote and the abolition of the miners license; this meeting led to the formation of the Ballarat Reform League.
Do they mean Chartism or Republicanism? After 12 months, all but one of the demands of the Ballarat Reform League had been granted. Conditions on the Australian goldfields were extremely harsh, likeove … r-crowded dustbowls. The hostilities grew between police officers, diggers. Some weeks prior, the Victorian Government has sent the 12th and 40th Regiments to the goldfields to support the police troops who attacked. Her book Forgotten Rebels of Eureka details how Charles Evans' diary describes a funeral for a woman who was mercilessly butchered by a mounted trooper while pleading for the life of her husband during the Eureka massacre. However, thirteen of them were charged with High Treason, despite the evidence against them, not a single one of the miners were found guilty.
They were attacked by the British Army. They were attacked by the British Army. Retrieved 21 August 2012 — via National Library of Australia. There were over 1,000 miners at the stockade the previous evening, but there was not enough room for them and the majority were sent home to return the following morning. Retrieved 21 August 2012 — via National Library of Australia.
In 2008, the tried to stop the flag from being flown by supporters of the team,. Lalor stood his ground during the attack on the Eureka Stockade, and was wounded. August 1851 an official Gold licence was issued out to all Gold diggers whether they had or had not found gold. Following a Commission of Enquiry, changes were put in place. Lalor led the rebellion thatlater became known as the Eureka Stockade, and the birthplace ofAustralian democracy. Retrieved 21 August 2012 — via National Library of Australia. Official corruption was another concern for the diggers.
Eureka Tower, completed in 2006 is named in honour of the event and features symbolic aspects in its design including an architectural red stripe representing the blood spilled during the battle. E that will draw on the touchstone of Eureka and its newly restored flag, and put the Eureka Stockade into the context of 260 years of democracy. Governor Hotham sends in the military to keep the peace. Many nationalist groups have started to use the flag as a symbol. The government continued with the gold licences, making them even more expensive and instructing police to perform more checks. Retrieved 21 August 2012 — via National Library of Australia. The brigades were formed and the captains were appointed. | <urn:uuid:a6ca9de1-876c-43ef-91eb-4f846ab5924b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://inzak.com/where-was-the-eureka-stockade.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00157.warc.gz | en | 0.983865 | 1,304 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.07840609550476... | 1 | These included the removal of monthly gold licences, replaced by a much more affordable annual miner's licence. This event is known as the Eureka stockade. Journal of Australian Colonial History. The rebellion at the Eureka Stockade took terrible casualties, but although the miners were defeated on the day, they were successful in bringing about the changes they sought. It was sent to to be restored at a cost of more than 100,000. Following a Commission of Enquiry, changes were put in place.
Do they mean Chartism or Republicanism? He was released from prison on 28 June 1855, precisely three months early. There were frequent licence hunts, during which the miners were ordered to produce proof of their licences, and this increased the sense of unrest. They built a , or stockade, on Bakery Hill above the gold diggings on the Eureka gold lead. These included abolition of monthly gold licences, replaced by an … affordable annual miner's licence. It was used during the racial riots at. Democracy was a relatively new idea in 1854 and many of the miners who had travelled to the colony were pushing for it. A Commission of Enquiry was conducted and changes were implemented.
Public Record Office Victoria, 2003. As photos of actual events are sometimes not available, I will often use photographs of similar events and objects for illustration. At 3:00am on Sunday, 3 December 1854, 276 police and military personnel and several civilians stormed the stockade in what is known as the Battle of the Eureka Stockade. Over the next thirty years, press interest in the events that had taken place at the Eureka Stockade dwindled, but Eureka was kept alive at the campfires and in the pubs, and in memorial events in Ballarat. Number of beds in a healthcare unit in-patient facility 6. Licences had to be paid whether or not a digger found gold.
There were fewer troopers on the goldfields, and intrusive spot-checks ceased. This was when the gold miners on the Ballarat goldfields rebelled against the monthly gold licence, not to mention the surprise licence checks which could result in people being thrown in gaol. There are several components of the mind to be discussed. Bentley was a friend of the local magistrate and he escaped prosecution, as did three other men from the group. Retrieved 21 August 2012 — via National Library of Australia. Less successful diggers found it difficult to pay their licence fees.
In addition, the journey to Ballarat from Melbourne was not an easy one and most people walked for over three days due to the high cost of coaches. The story supported the original problem, but equations were then brought into the story later on. Many nationalist groups have started to use the flag as a symbol. Later, Lalor was elected Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Victoria. People are concerned that it will become a symbol of leaving people out, and not a symbol of Australian. Although the rebellion itself failed in its objective, it did gain the attention of the Government. The official register of deaths in the Ballarat District Register shows 27 names associated with the stockade battle at Eureka.
An estimation of 120 miners were arrested after the Stockade, many of them being innocent. The rebellion was caused by a number of issues within the gold fields. Watt ultimately decided not to do this and always regretted it. The unusual proportion of the killed to the wounded, is owing to the butchery of the military and troopers after the surrender. It was given to the in the 1890s. The population of Victoria grew from just over 77,000 in 1851 to almost 237,000 by 1854. On the 11th of November 1854, ten thousand miners met to demand the release of the three men, the right for all males to vote and the abolition of the miners license; this meeting led to the formation of the Ballarat Reform League.
Do they mean Chartism or Republicanism? After 12 months, all but one of the demands of the Ballarat Reform League had been granted. Conditions on the Australian goldfields were extremely harsh, likeove … r-crowded dustbowls. The hostilities grew between police officers, diggers. Some weeks prior, the Victorian Government has sent the 12th and 40th Regiments to the goldfields to support the police troops who attacked. Her book Forgotten Rebels of Eureka details how Charles Evans' diary describes a funeral for a woman who was mercilessly butchered by a mounted trooper while pleading for the life of her husband during the Eureka massacre. However, thirteen of them were charged with High Treason, despite the evidence against them, not a single one of the miners were found guilty.
They were attacked by the British Army. They were attacked by the British Army. Retrieved 21 August 2012 — via National Library of Australia. There were over 1,000 miners at the stockade the previous evening, but there was not enough room for them and the majority were sent home to return the following morning. Retrieved 21 August 2012 — via National Library of Australia.
In 2008, the tried to stop the flag from being flown by supporters of the team,. Lalor stood his ground during the attack on the Eureka Stockade, and was wounded. August 1851 an official Gold licence was issued out to all Gold diggers whether they had or had not found gold. Following a Commission of Enquiry, changes were put in place. Lalor led the rebellion thatlater became known as the Eureka Stockade, and the birthplace ofAustralian democracy. Retrieved 21 August 2012 — via National Library of Australia. Official corruption was another concern for the diggers.
Eureka Tower, completed in 2006 is named in honour of the event and features symbolic aspects in its design including an architectural red stripe representing the blood spilled during the battle. E that will draw on the touchstone of Eureka and its newly restored flag, and put the Eureka Stockade into the context of 260 years of democracy. Governor Hotham sends in the military to keep the peace. Many nationalist groups have started to use the flag as a symbol. The government continued with the gold licences, making them even more expensive and instructing police to perform more checks. Retrieved 21 August 2012 — via National Library of Australia. The brigades were formed and the captains were appointed. | 1,390 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In 221 BC, Shi Huangdi united the diverse Chinese kingdoms under his rule and thus became the first emperor of China. He introduced a new, national currency: round copper coins with a square hole in the middle that were called ban liang (half liang). He then ordered the mass production of ban liang, so that they would gain recognition and come into circulation as fast as possible. The Chinese government could not provide sufficient quantities of ban liang, however. To enhance their production, the ban liang became ever smaller and lighter – a tendency that finally culminated in the so-called "elm seed coins" (yujiaqian): coins so light, as vernacular had it, that the wind could carry them away. | <urn:uuid:607d6b45-dc99-4849-b02c-3f14ed9fdda8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://moneymuseum.com/en/coins?id=876 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00238.warc.gz | en | 0.982189 | 151 | 3.8125 | 4 | [
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0.34477278590202... | 13 | In 221 BC, Shi Huangdi united the diverse Chinese kingdoms under his rule and thus became the first emperor of China. He introduced a new, national currency: round copper coins with a square hole in the middle that were called ban liang (half liang). He then ordered the mass production of ban liang, so that they would gain recognition and come into circulation as fast as possible. The Chinese government could not provide sufficient quantities of ban liang, however. To enhance their production, the ban liang became ever smaller and lighter – a tendency that finally culminated in the so-called "elm seed coins" (yujiaqian): coins so light, as vernacular had it, that the wind could carry them away. | 152 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mesopotamia is a land that was founded between the rivers. The name Mesopotamia is a classical name that was given to the land that existed somewhere between the Tigris and the Euphrates in the ancient land of Assyria and Babylon. The most strange thing about Mesopotamia is that it was divided such that some part of it currently lie in the present Iraq while a part of it lie in Syria, Turkey and Iran. The Syrian Desert that is located to the west is a land that was formerly occupied by the semi-nomadic groups that kept moving from one region to the other in search of water and pasture for their animals (Curtis, 1982, p. 15). The nomadic groups included the Armenian, Arabs and the Amorites. On the eastern part of the mountains were other tribes such as the Guti and the Lullubi
The transformation and development of Mesopotamia first began to take place in the southern part, particularly in the Sumer region. The kind of transformation that took place in that region was enough to enable it transform into a first class urban society. One of the factors that transformed the region was the intensive agricultural activities that took place in that region. The Mesopotamia people practiced a lot of agricultural activities that earned those farmers a lot of income. Additionally, there was a lot of industrial production that were going on in that region that attracted even other workers from other regions (Gwendolyn, 2001, p. 6-7). Since the outsiders had nowhere to stay, they started looking for accommodation within the Mesopotamia region. Consequently, the region grew in terms of the population size and in terms of the housing facilities. The architectures had to come up with housing designs that could match the standards of the people during those times so that they could easily offer enough accommodation for the growing population.
As a result of the population that was slowly growing in that region, their emerged a state-controlled religion in Mesopotamia. As a result of the sudden growth of the population in the Mesopotamia region, the place became a region composed of a complex and stratified society that eventually resulted in the growth of a city. One of the factors that led to the development of Mesopotamia was the intense agricultural activities that ate people engaged in at that particular time. The agricultural activities played a significant role since it was the main activity that sustained the livelihoods of the large populations. Moreover, the interaction of the people from different societies led to the use of modern methods of farming that resulted in massive harvest of the farm produce. Additionally, the introduction of an education system that taught the society how to read and write was so important because it enabled them to get a formula of preserving their culture. It was also trough the education system that they were able to inherit the technological knowhow from those who invented it (Daniel, 1997, p.14). Mesopotamia was a place where development and innovations were first seen and built upon.
The neighboring regions surrounding Mesopotamia played a great part in the establishment of the region. Additionally, its lack of natural boundaries made it difficult to stop the influx of outsiders from other regions. The constant entrance of immigrants led to the increase in trade contacts and a diffusion of foreign tribes in to the country.
Order Unique Answer Now | <urn:uuid:13c7385b-2885-4faf-aa95-3368973fd44c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://uniquewritersbay.com/blog/civilization-mesopotamia-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606226.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121222429-20200122011429-00250.warc.gz | en | 0.982784 | 669 | 4 | 4 | [
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-0.079626433... | 1 | Mesopotamia is a land that was founded between the rivers. The name Mesopotamia is a classical name that was given to the land that existed somewhere between the Tigris and the Euphrates in the ancient land of Assyria and Babylon. The most strange thing about Mesopotamia is that it was divided such that some part of it currently lie in the present Iraq while a part of it lie in Syria, Turkey and Iran. The Syrian Desert that is located to the west is a land that was formerly occupied by the semi-nomadic groups that kept moving from one region to the other in search of water and pasture for their animals (Curtis, 1982, p. 15). The nomadic groups included the Armenian, Arabs and the Amorites. On the eastern part of the mountains were other tribes such as the Guti and the Lullubi
The transformation and development of Mesopotamia first began to take place in the southern part, particularly in the Sumer region. The kind of transformation that took place in that region was enough to enable it transform into a first class urban society. One of the factors that transformed the region was the intensive agricultural activities that took place in that region. The Mesopotamia people practiced a lot of agricultural activities that earned those farmers a lot of income. Additionally, there was a lot of industrial production that were going on in that region that attracted even other workers from other regions (Gwendolyn, 2001, p. 6-7). Since the outsiders had nowhere to stay, they started looking for accommodation within the Mesopotamia region. Consequently, the region grew in terms of the population size and in terms of the housing facilities. The architectures had to come up with housing designs that could match the standards of the people during those times so that they could easily offer enough accommodation for the growing population.
As a result of the population that was slowly growing in that region, their emerged a state-controlled religion in Mesopotamia. As a result of the sudden growth of the population in the Mesopotamia region, the place became a region composed of a complex and stratified society that eventually resulted in the growth of a city. One of the factors that led to the development of Mesopotamia was the intense agricultural activities that ate people engaged in at that particular time. The agricultural activities played a significant role since it was the main activity that sustained the livelihoods of the large populations. Moreover, the interaction of the people from different societies led to the use of modern methods of farming that resulted in massive harvest of the farm produce. Additionally, the introduction of an education system that taught the society how to read and write was so important because it enabled them to get a formula of preserving their culture. It was also trough the education system that they were able to inherit the technological knowhow from those who invented it (Daniel, 1997, p.14). Mesopotamia was a place where development and innovations were first seen and built upon.
The neighboring regions surrounding Mesopotamia played a great part in the establishment of the region. Additionally, its lack of natural boundaries made it difficult to stop the influx of outsiders from other regions. The constant entrance of immigrants led to the increase in trade contacts and a diffusion of foreign tribes in to the country.
Order Unique Answer Now | 694 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The world was once covered by ancient forests that were also acted as habitats for many wild animals and plants. Similarly, wood has been used for fuel as well as for construction of ships and houses. Paper production also uses about 25% of the wood harvested globally. According to Freer-Smith, Broadmeadow, & Lynch (2007), the issue of deforestation has been around for many decades and has led to massive loss of biodiversity and species of many kinds. Even though most non governmental organizations have worked very hard to try and control it, the problem continues to grow in magnitude and even cause much harm on the environment. For instance the Amazon Rainforest is being deforested at a very fast rate. In 2005, about 13 million hectares of forest were cut down and replaced with agricultural land. The Cameroon forest is also reducing at a rate of 1% every year.
As much as housing, fuel and paper might be important to human beings, one cannot deny the fact that forest are very important in environmental conservation. Trees are important carbon sinks and therefore purifiers of air. As human beings clear the forest, they increase the amount of greenhouse gases released to the atmosphere through various agricultural activities. For instance, carbon is emitted through burning and decomposition of trees. Deforestation has brought about a number of global changes. For instance, there has been an increase of 1oC in global temperature, rise in sea levels, drop in amount of ice in snow capped mountains and extreme cases of precipitation in various parts of the world (Freer-Smith, Broadmeadow, & Lynch, 2007).
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- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
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Even though there has been so much hype about deforestation, no real motivation has ever existed to act on the issue as soon as possible. It therefore stands that deforestation is a moral issue. If human beings were willing to stop deforestation by conserving the forest or planting more trees, then there is nothing that would stop them. People can still use trees for fuel and plant more trees to replace the ones that are cut down. Humphreys (1996) states that there are also alternative sources of energy like hydroelectric power and solar power. This therefore means that deforestation is not an issue of people lacking the means to conserve the forest but is all an issue of moral will. If everyone was committed to deforestation, the issue would have been dealt with very long ago. Unfortunately the same people who claim to preach against deforestation go ahead and do it.
The community should not always view the forest as a source of income or fuel. Some people may think that forests are renewable resources that will exist as long as man lives. It should be understood that if you need to benefit from the forest then you have to conserve them and even plant more trees to ensure there existence (Humphreys, 1996). People should not wait for NGOs or government to plant trees for on their behalves; change begins with you and me. As much as people may rejoice making a lot of money from selling of timber and charcoal, it is also important to also consider what will happen in future when all trees are cut down. As much as a few individual might be cutting the forests, the effects are felt by everyone including those who didn’t cut a single tree. This is the reason why everyone should be an ambassador of environmental conservation and encourage friends and families to conserve forests.
Most popular orders | <urn:uuid:44c5927f-1ac9-4726-8456-920dd49606f9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essays-expert.com/essays/environment/deforestation.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251687958.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126074227-20200126104227-00204.warc.gz | en | 0.980027 | 730 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.2202672660350799... | 1 | The world was once covered by ancient forests that were also acted as habitats for many wild animals and plants. Similarly, wood has been used for fuel as well as for construction of ships and houses. Paper production also uses about 25% of the wood harvested globally. According to Freer-Smith, Broadmeadow, & Lynch (2007), the issue of deforestation has been around for many decades and has led to massive loss of biodiversity and species of many kinds. Even though most non governmental organizations have worked very hard to try and control it, the problem continues to grow in magnitude and even cause much harm on the environment. For instance the Amazon Rainforest is being deforested at a very fast rate. In 2005, about 13 million hectares of forest were cut down and replaced with agricultural land. The Cameroon forest is also reducing at a rate of 1% every year.
As much as housing, fuel and paper might be important to human beings, one cannot deny the fact that forest are very important in environmental conservation. Trees are important carbon sinks and therefore purifiers of air. As human beings clear the forest, they increase the amount of greenhouse gases released to the atmosphere through various agricultural activities. For instance, carbon is emitted through burning and decomposition of trees. Deforestation has brought about a number of global changes. For instance, there has been an increase of 1oC in global temperature, rise in sea levels, drop in amount of ice in snow capped mountains and extreme cases of precipitation in various parts of the world (Freer-Smith, Broadmeadow, & Lynch, 2007).
First-Class Online Research Paper Writing Service
- Your research paper is written by a PhD professor
- Your requirements and targets are always met
- You are able to control the progress of your writing assignment
- You get a chance to become an excellent student!
Even though there has been so much hype about deforestation, no real motivation has ever existed to act on the issue as soon as possible. It therefore stands that deforestation is a moral issue. If human beings were willing to stop deforestation by conserving the forest or planting more trees, then there is nothing that would stop them. People can still use trees for fuel and plant more trees to replace the ones that are cut down. Humphreys (1996) states that there are also alternative sources of energy like hydroelectric power and solar power. This therefore means that deforestation is not an issue of people lacking the means to conserve the forest but is all an issue of moral will. If everyone was committed to deforestation, the issue would have been dealt with very long ago. Unfortunately the same people who claim to preach against deforestation go ahead and do it.
The community should not always view the forest as a source of income or fuel. Some people may think that forests are renewable resources that will exist as long as man lives. It should be understood that if you need to benefit from the forest then you have to conserve them and even plant more trees to ensure there existence (Humphreys, 1996). People should not wait for NGOs or government to plant trees for on their behalves; change begins with you and me. As much as people may rejoice making a lot of money from selling of timber and charcoal, it is also important to also consider what will happen in future when all trees are cut down. As much as a few individual might be cutting the forests, the effects are felt by everyone including those who didn’t cut a single tree. This is the reason why everyone should be an ambassador of environmental conservation and encourage friends and families to conserve forests.
Most popular orders | 752 | ENGLISH | 1 |
So what is stopping pupils from achieving better grades than what they are currently getting? Misconceptions are surely one of them. On this blog, we will be talking about a very common misconception which I have encountered so many times in my teaching/tutoring career. Fractions!
I was once asked to help my very first A level pupil who was predicted to get an A-A* in his exams but somehow never really managed to nail it. He was getting frustrated as all he could muster was a C on his mocks and eventually the same on his Maths Cores 1 and 2 exams. His mum decided to hire a private tutor to help her son out. I was referred to them by their family friend whose child I was tutoring at the time.
I met the young lad, who was very eager to learn, hard worker, determined to secure the grade he was predicted. He seemed to me a little bit frustrated and by then had lost a bit of his confidence too. As we worked through various topics for Cores 3 and 4, I found a consistent mistake in his Algebraic Fractions. He had a misconception which he had been carrying along with him over time which remained unchecked.
Fractions: Well, what can I say about fractions except that I consider this a very important topic. This is usually one of the first topics I tend to go over with new pupils.
The misconception below is common in KS3 and even at GCSE level.
Let us start with the basics:
A common misconception in adding or subtracting fractions is pupils treating the numerators and denominators as whole numbers so end up adding or subtracting the denominators as well (see above illustration 1 - misconception). Illustration 2 shows the right way to add fractions with different denominators. First find a common denominator before you can add the numerators. Copy the common denominator then simplify (see Right Way, illustration 2).
The same goes with subtracting fractions. Misconception is to subtract the denominators as you would the numerators as shown on illustration 3. Put this misconception right by finding a common denominator before subtracting the numerators then just copying the common denominator.
When my pupil and I got to the topic on Algebraic Fractions, a misconception was uncovered which remained uncorrected until we got into it.
There is a set of invisible brackets on both the numerator and denominator which means you cannot just cancel similar terms unless if they were factorised first.
It was this misconception that stopped my pupil from achieving that targeted grade! When this was sorted out and he was getting much better marks on the work set out by school, he regained his confidence back. Much to my surprise he decided to take on not just Cores 3 and 4 exams he was due to take but also to resit his Cores 1 and 2. He did it and to my amazement got A's on all of them! And all these were due mainly to a misconception sorted! (He did work so hard as well) After this, I made fractions one of the most important topics which I made sure all my pupils do well from the onset. | <urn:uuid:2112e667-2cff-4db3-b58f-e9ff702dadf8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.mathsticksdig.com/single-post/2017/12/31/How-Fraction-Misconceptions-can-Stop-You-from-Getting-that-Top-Mark | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00336.warc.gz | en | 0.986999 | 649 | 3.703125 | 4 | [
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0.203868180513381... | 1 | So what is stopping pupils from achieving better grades than what they are currently getting? Misconceptions are surely one of them. On this blog, we will be talking about a very common misconception which I have encountered so many times in my teaching/tutoring career. Fractions!
I was once asked to help my very first A level pupil who was predicted to get an A-A* in his exams but somehow never really managed to nail it. He was getting frustrated as all he could muster was a C on his mocks and eventually the same on his Maths Cores 1 and 2 exams. His mum decided to hire a private tutor to help her son out. I was referred to them by their family friend whose child I was tutoring at the time.
I met the young lad, who was very eager to learn, hard worker, determined to secure the grade he was predicted. He seemed to me a little bit frustrated and by then had lost a bit of his confidence too. As we worked through various topics for Cores 3 and 4, I found a consistent mistake in his Algebraic Fractions. He had a misconception which he had been carrying along with him over time which remained unchecked.
Fractions: Well, what can I say about fractions except that I consider this a very important topic. This is usually one of the first topics I tend to go over with new pupils.
The misconception below is common in KS3 and even at GCSE level.
Let us start with the basics:
A common misconception in adding or subtracting fractions is pupils treating the numerators and denominators as whole numbers so end up adding or subtracting the denominators as well (see above illustration 1 - misconception). Illustration 2 shows the right way to add fractions with different denominators. First find a common denominator before you can add the numerators. Copy the common denominator then simplify (see Right Way, illustration 2).
The same goes with subtracting fractions. Misconception is to subtract the denominators as you would the numerators as shown on illustration 3. Put this misconception right by finding a common denominator before subtracting the numerators then just copying the common denominator.
When my pupil and I got to the topic on Algebraic Fractions, a misconception was uncovered which remained uncorrected until we got into it.
There is a set of invisible brackets on both the numerator and denominator which means you cannot just cancel similar terms unless if they were factorised first.
It was this misconception that stopped my pupil from achieving that targeted grade! When this was sorted out and he was getting much better marks on the work set out by school, he regained his confidence back. Much to my surprise he decided to take on not just Cores 3 and 4 exams he was due to take but also to resit his Cores 1 and 2. He did it and to my amazement got A's on all of them! And all these were due mainly to a misconception sorted! (He did work so hard as well) After this, I made fractions one of the most important topics which I made sure all my pupils do well from the onset. | 639 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The election could go either way. The senator had a better-than-even shot at winning the presidency, but events on the other side of the globe could could sway votes as much if not more than the domestic issues that the Democratic politician campaigned for. Revolution was brewing in one nation and war was raging in another. In polling, the American public was becoming more and more sympathetic to one side of the far-off war, with stories of mistreatment and atrocities stirring their anger.
But this stirring was not enough to sway voters, or so it seemed. Most American voters wanted to stay out of it, and the senator agreed. His opponents’ criticism and push to get into the war solidified his own anti-war image, and would ultimately lead to his winning the election, albeit by a slim margin.
This was not 2008, and the senator was not Barack Obama. It was 1916, and the candidate was named Woodrow Wilson. Wilson’s policy of neutrality and isolationism kept the United States out of war, but not for long. Some believe it was that policy that actually forced us into World War I. So what about now, in 2015? Are we maintaining a quasi-isolationist policy? If not, what would a full or selective isolationist policy look like and what consequences would it hold?
In the early stages of World War I, the average American citizen, while sympathetic to the plight of the Allies in their war against Germany, were not ready for a fight. The United States had just left the era of Theodore Roosevelt and his “speak softly and carry a big stick” policy. Roosevelt believed that the U.S. had lost its status on the world stage, and he wanted to see that change, even sending the white-hulled U.S. Navy fleet around the world as a show of force. Most of Roosevelt’s foreign policy actions were done without the support or consent of Congress, which caused constant tensions.
But that all ended when Wilson came into office, and the shift had palpable consequences. Foremost among them was the weakened state of the military and our position of power in the eyes of would-be aggressors. The Wilson administration relegated the U.S. participation in the early days of the war to loans and weapons shipments, and even when he did commit troops, he did so with the stipulation that they remain independent of the British and French alliance, fighting rather “associate power.”
Other nations have tried and still practice an isolationist policy. North Korea, nicknamed “The Hermit Kingdom,” is the most infamous example of this, and like the United States under Wilson, they have paid a price for their government’s policy of remaining cut off from the rest of the world, in this case economically. They possess a formidable military, but the price for that is the starvation, extensive propaganda, and iron-hand tactics used to keep their citizens in line, as well as the scorn of (most) the rest of the world. To a lesser degree, the old Soviet Union and China both practiced selective isolationism, but this was mostly relegated to their citizens.
Not all experts agree that the U.S. was ever even in isolation. While Brandeis University professor Robert J. Arts believes that the U.S. has had an isolationist history (a category of foreign policies institutionalized by leaders who asserted that their nation’s interests were best served by keeping the affairs of other countries at a distance), others are convinced that the nation has followed a policy of unilateralism (any doctrine or agenda that supports one-sided action) or non-interventionism (abstention by a nation from interference in the affairs of other nations or in those of its own political subdivisions).
Supporters of an isolationist policy might suggest that it would give us the opportunity to put our own house in order, mainly in the areas of the economy and immigration. They might also argue that our military is stretched too thin, and that relegating them to a purely defensive posture would give them a well-deserved breather. Supporters might even agree that selective isolationism in the form of only responding to a direct attack on the homeland; no deployments except in the case of goodwill or training exercises, etc. is the way to go. Obviously, those firmly entrenched in the power-projection camp would disagree.
Some believe that, given the world we live in today, it is impossible to close ourselves off from foreign affairs. By virtue of technology and “connectivity,” many believe that what affects one affects us all globally. Trade, from technology to coffee to oil, links us in such a way that isolationism would throw it all out of balance. From a military standpoint, detractors of an isolationist policy cite that our obligation to our allies makes any change impossible. They would also point out that the U.S. military became a shell of its former self in the years after World War I and World War II due to economic struggles and a desire to avoid another “war to end all wars.” For this reason (among others), Japanese leadership felt that the time (December, 1941) was right to strike and remove us from the chessboard.
Other factors would have to be taken into serious account. Who would take advantage of a United States that has turned inward and left the rest of the world to fend for itself? Non-state actors such as al-Qaeda and ISIS have long stated that their only goal is to get the U.S. out of the Middle East and to establish their own caliphate.
If the U.S. left, would they make good on their word and stop their terrorist march across the region and around the globe? Doubtful. In fact, it might even embolden them to step up efforts to strike us here at home. Nations such as Russia, who have as of late been flexing their foreign-policy muscles, might take full advantage of our absence in the region (even more so than now) and try to regain what they once held. Regimes such as North Korea might make more aggressive moves against their southern neighbors, and China might just decide that those tiny, almost minuscule islands in the Pacific are now worth going to war with Japan over.
In some respects, it seems that the Obama administration has been pushing for an isolationist policy from the outset, even if not as aggressively as the one seen in Woodrow Wilson’s administration. The promise and delivery of the end to the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan are among the most prominent examples. But, like Wilson and his attempt to stay out of World War I, or the way that our state of readiness was perceived as weak by the Japanese in December 1941, we are being forced back down the road to war. As much as it pains many, it seems that “no rest for the weary” is an accurate assessment for the foreseeable future.
(Featured image courtesy of britannica.com) | <urn:uuid:eeff5856-56ae-4578-9632-e26dc0636885> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://sofrep.com/news/u-s-new-isolationist-policy/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606269.37/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122012204-20200122041204-00414.warc.gz | en | 0.982151 | 1,441 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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0.3039200007915497... | 8 | The election could go either way. The senator had a better-than-even shot at winning the presidency, but events on the other side of the globe could could sway votes as much if not more than the domestic issues that the Democratic politician campaigned for. Revolution was brewing in one nation and war was raging in another. In polling, the American public was becoming more and more sympathetic to one side of the far-off war, with stories of mistreatment and atrocities stirring their anger.
But this stirring was not enough to sway voters, or so it seemed. Most American voters wanted to stay out of it, and the senator agreed. His opponents’ criticism and push to get into the war solidified his own anti-war image, and would ultimately lead to his winning the election, albeit by a slim margin.
This was not 2008, and the senator was not Barack Obama. It was 1916, and the candidate was named Woodrow Wilson. Wilson’s policy of neutrality and isolationism kept the United States out of war, but not for long. Some believe it was that policy that actually forced us into World War I. So what about now, in 2015? Are we maintaining a quasi-isolationist policy? If not, what would a full or selective isolationist policy look like and what consequences would it hold?
In the early stages of World War I, the average American citizen, while sympathetic to the plight of the Allies in their war against Germany, were not ready for a fight. The United States had just left the era of Theodore Roosevelt and his “speak softly and carry a big stick” policy. Roosevelt believed that the U.S. had lost its status on the world stage, and he wanted to see that change, even sending the white-hulled U.S. Navy fleet around the world as a show of force. Most of Roosevelt’s foreign policy actions were done without the support or consent of Congress, which caused constant tensions.
But that all ended when Wilson came into office, and the shift had palpable consequences. Foremost among them was the weakened state of the military and our position of power in the eyes of would-be aggressors. The Wilson administration relegated the U.S. participation in the early days of the war to loans and weapons shipments, and even when he did commit troops, he did so with the stipulation that they remain independent of the British and French alliance, fighting rather “associate power.”
Other nations have tried and still practice an isolationist policy. North Korea, nicknamed “The Hermit Kingdom,” is the most infamous example of this, and like the United States under Wilson, they have paid a price for their government’s policy of remaining cut off from the rest of the world, in this case economically. They possess a formidable military, but the price for that is the starvation, extensive propaganda, and iron-hand tactics used to keep their citizens in line, as well as the scorn of (most) the rest of the world. To a lesser degree, the old Soviet Union and China both practiced selective isolationism, but this was mostly relegated to their citizens.
Not all experts agree that the U.S. was ever even in isolation. While Brandeis University professor Robert J. Arts believes that the U.S. has had an isolationist history (a category of foreign policies institutionalized by leaders who asserted that their nation’s interests were best served by keeping the affairs of other countries at a distance), others are convinced that the nation has followed a policy of unilateralism (any doctrine or agenda that supports one-sided action) or non-interventionism (abstention by a nation from interference in the affairs of other nations or in those of its own political subdivisions).
Supporters of an isolationist policy might suggest that it would give us the opportunity to put our own house in order, mainly in the areas of the economy and immigration. They might also argue that our military is stretched too thin, and that relegating them to a purely defensive posture would give them a well-deserved breather. Supporters might even agree that selective isolationism in the form of only responding to a direct attack on the homeland; no deployments except in the case of goodwill or training exercises, etc. is the way to go. Obviously, those firmly entrenched in the power-projection camp would disagree.
Some believe that, given the world we live in today, it is impossible to close ourselves off from foreign affairs. By virtue of technology and “connectivity,” many believe that what affects one affects us all globally. Trade, from technology to coffee to oil, links us in such a way that isolationism would throw it all out of balance. From a military standpoint, detractors of an isolationist policy cite that our obligation to our allies makes any change impossible. They would also point out that the U.S. military became a shell of its former self in the years after World War I and World War II due to economic struggles and a desire to avoid another “war to end all wars.” For this reason (among others), Japanese leadership felt that the time (December, 1941) was right to strike and remove us from the chessboard.
Other factors would have to be taken into serious account. Who would take advantage of a United States that has turned inward and left the rest of the world to fend for itself? Non-state actors such as al-Qaeda and ISIS have long stated that their only goal is to get the U.S. out of the Middle East and to establish their own caliphate.
If the U.S. left, would they make good on their word and stop their terrorist march across the region and around the globe? Doubtful. In fact, it might even embolden them to step up efforts to strike us here at home. Nations such as Russia, who have as of late been flexing their foreign-policy muscles, might take full advantage of our absence in the region (even more so than now) and try to regain what they once held. Regimes such as North Korea might make more aggressive moves against their southern neighbors, and China might just decide that those tiny, almost minuscule islands in the Pacific are now worth going to war with Japan over.
In some respects, it seems that the Obama administration has been pushing for an isolationist policy from the outset, even if not as aggressively as the one seen in Woodrow Wilson’s administration. The promise and delivery of the end to the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan are among the most prominent examples. But, like Wilson and his attempt to stay out of World War I, or the way that our state of readiness was perceived as weak by the Japanese in December 1941, we are being forced back down the road to war. As much as it pains many, it seems that “no rest for the weary” is an accurate assessment for the foreseeable future.
(Featured image courtesy of britannica.com) | 1,401 | ENGLISH | 1 |
07 in June 1981 | The bombing of the Iraqi nuclear reactor
In order to prevent Iraq from continuing the development of nuclear weapons, and after diplomatic efforts failed to stop Saddam Hussein’s plot, the Israeli government decided to destroy the nuclear reactor being built in Osirak, which was close to completion. The decision was preceded by many discussions and in-depth talks with the security officials on the prospects of success of such a bold operation. On June 7, 1981, two sets of four F-16 plains left Etzion Base and headed toward Iraq. The reactor had been totally destroyed and all the pilots flew out safely. After the Israeli government took responsibility for the operation, it was criticized both domestically and from the international community; the US even went so far as to delay for several months the supply of F-16 aircrafts to the Israeli Air Force. Begin, however, viewed the attack a rescue operation for the Children of Israel. In later years it became more widely accepted that the destruction of the reactor was also vital to ensure the security of the entire Western world. | <urn:uuid:daeecbc7-d710-41bd-bada-ccc5fa4cac4e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.begincenter.org.il/timeline/the-bombing-of-the-iraqi-nuclear-reactor/?lang=en | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00176.warc.gz | en | 0.984152 | 217 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.222449764609336... | 4 | 07 in June 1981 | The bombing of the Iraqi nuclear reactor
In order to prevent Iraq from continuing the development of nuclear weapons, and after diplomatic efforts failed to stop Saddam Hussein’s plot, the Israeli government decided to destroy the nuclear reactor being built in Osirak, which was close to completion. The decision was preceded by many discussions and in-depth talks with the security officials on the prospects of success of such a bold operation. On June 7, 1981, two sets of four F-16 plains left Etzion Base and headed toward Iraq. The reactor had been totally destroyed and all the pilots flew out safely. After the Israeli government took responsibility for the operation, it was criticized both domestically and from the international community; the US even went so far as to delay for several months the supply of F-16 aircrafts to the Israeli Air Force. Begin, however, viewed the attack a rescue operation for the Children of Israel. In later years it became more widely accepted that the destruction of the reactor was also vital to ensure the security of the entire Western world. | 225 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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GCSE: Mildred Taylor
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Racism was always stronger in the Southern States than the Northern ones. Even though it had been around seventy years since the Emancipation Proclamation had been declared, many whites did not see blacks as equal to them, even though they had never been slave owners themselves. In the novel, the books that the children receive from the county are in very poor condition. They have only been given to the black children once that are in too bad a condition to be given the white children.
- Word count: 863
Granger just because she failed him for cheating in the examination. He, as a true hypocrite, keeps using friendship as his excuse, saying, "Friends gotta trust each other, Stacey, 'cause ain't nothin' like a true friend.", when he knows nothing of what a true friend is. True to his malevolent nature, he uses his brother as a scapegoat, making Claude get admonished for all his nefarious activities, which include drinking and dancing at the Wallace's. This nature of betraying his black friends probably stems from his egotistical, wannabe white personality.
- Word count: 903
In a society where the reminiscence of slavery is still strong, land is a symbol of independence and self-sufficiency. Throughout the book, they repeat the same refrain, "We won't lose the land". Even though they didn't have enough money to pay taxes, mortgage, and live on too, they strived to make ends meet for the sake of their land. David Logan went away from home, to set tracks in Louisiana. Mary Logan taught in school. All the children, Big Ma, and Mama worked very hard picking cotton, despite their odd ages.
- Word count: 769
He thinks cheating on tests is fine and later he lies to Stacey to get Stacey's new coat from him, but at the end of the story the older Simms brothers use him how he used his friends. A good example of a black character that is good would be Mr. Morrison, He comes to the Logan's because he lost his job and papa wanted a strong man to protect his family while he was working on the tracks. Early on in the story he broke up a fight with T.J and Stacey and does not discipline Stacey's actions beyond
- Word count: 857
Also, the whites are inconsiderate, intentionally splashing mud on the blacks' clothes. The Berry's burnings is a significant incident revealing the cruel manner the white community behave towards the African Americans, burning them taking "a match to them," without any justifiable reason, portraying the discrimination between the people. At school, an important instance of racism takes place, when the students of the black school, The Great Faith Elementary School, received "new" books. These books were in the poorest condition, as they were the left-overs of the whites.
- Word count: 824
For example, if she was an adult most people wouldn't explain things to her and the readers wouldn't get to know important things like 'why the land was so important' and we learn in chapter one she 'may not understand that now', but 'Papa said that one day I would understand....I wondered'. An example of Cassie's naivety and ignorance is the Strawberry incident when she doesn't realise that the whites have to be served before the blacks and assumes that 'Mr Barnett has simply forgotten about TJ's order' so she decides to 'remind him'.
- Word count: 824
In school Mama covers the school books because Cassie and Little Man do not want to accept them as they are hand downs from the White children.Mama "trimmed the paper to the size of the books and was now digging a gray looking glue from the brown bottle onto the inside cover of one of those books."Mama covers up the front page so that the children do not have to see who the books have been handed from and in what race they were from.
- Word count: 798
How does Mildred D. Taylor present the complexities of the south through the eyes of two contrasting characters?
The reason for my choice is that I feel they are characters that in some way stand out when looking at their experiences and actions in regards to the question. They are two very diverse characters particularly physically Mr Morrison was a "human tree in height, the long trunk of his massive body, his skin the deepest of ebony" relating to where he came from which was two "strong like bulls" parents which suggested that he had a family heritage of stud farms.
- Word count: 683
Tim who at the time was ranked fifth in the world was up against Samual Taylor a young up and coming, promising fellow Englishman who was set to play his first ever professional tennis game. The game had been predicted to be a walkover and all the odds were against Samual Taylor but there were some doubters of our ability. It was a greatly important match and Tim and me were extremely confident that we would and should win conformably.
- Word count: 698
This symbol is used in the Novel to reflect on T.J's greed and how it gets him into trouble. In this instance he doesn't get the gun and it leads him into trouble and it leads other people into trouble. He also gets other people into trouble by the way he phrases things, he uses words to try and get people thinking different things so he can benefit from it. The land represents lots of different things to different things to different people. To the Logans the land means everything if the land is lost then whole family will collapse.
- Word count: 810
It is set in an isolated position and the weather is bad, giving a tense and isolated feeling. The first contrast which can be seen is at the beginning of each story. The beginning of "The Monkeys Paw" uses very descriptive language such as Without, the night was cold and wet, the blinds were drawn and the fire burned brightly This is the opening line to A Monkeys Paw whereas the opening paragraph in "A Sound Of Thunder" uses no description, and talks about the sign on the wall, Time Safari Inc Safaris to any year in the past You name the animal, we take you there You shoot it This is a large contrast between the two
- Word count: 869
Show how Don Taylor uses historical material about the political situation, the plague, and the village of Eyam and shapes it to suit his own artistic purposes in the Roses of Eyam.
The plague finished in London when the great fire started. However Don Taylor wrote the play in 1976. He created it from an idea derived from a book called "Fifty World Famous Heroic Deeds" The aim of this book was to inspire people to perform heroic deeds and be brave. The people of Eyam where brave as they cut themselves off from the world to face almost certain death. They did this to prevent the plagues spreading. Don Taylor wanted to use the play as a visual aid to show how the people of Eyam suffered. The book is a fictional book with a number of facts.
- Word count: 671
The date was also a problem. The D-day landings had not actually finished yet. At that time, not all of the landings had actually happened. This meant that Churchill's judgement on how D-day was going was affected. The truth of the matter was that the US had landed in the wrong place and completely missed Omaha beach. There was lots of other fault as well, including the very strong Nazi resistance and the problems with the very treacherous weather.
- Word count: 483
Uncle Hammer lives in Chicago where apparently black men live on equal terms with whites. Therefore Uncle Hammer finds the atmosphere in Mississippi deeply oppressive. As you know Uncle Hammer has a hasty temper and is a dangerous visitor at times of racial tension. 'I'd be hanging from the oak tree over yonder!' This shows that Uncle Hammer believes that if he had treated Lillian Jean the way Mr. Simms treated Cassie he would be hanged, just because the colour of his skin.
- Word count: 601
Ladies and gentlemen of the court, I have been charged with investigating, and bringing to the attention of the court the entire background and character of T.J. Avery from an impartial point of view. These are my findings.
T.J.'s mother questioned him about it she just said that he had gone up there to get Claude, who he said was sneaking up there to get free candy, Claude was beaten, he didn't tell his mother that it wasn't him. He shows these attributes again at the end of the school term, during exam time, T.J. had written some cheat notes, and when the teacher who happened to be Misses Logan, he gave them to Stacey Logan who is his friend, but before Stacey could hand them back, his mother saw that and interrogated him about it and then proceeded to punish him in front of the entire class.
- Word count: 763
This was a time and place when thousands of families like Cassie were poor and considered the' lower, working-class'. As you go through the book, you find that Cassie discusses and questions certain issues; for example racism and growing-up. Generally people think that informal slang speech is wrong, but it is just an alternative version to the English language. The way a person speaks is often a way of revealing how educated a person may be. The general dialect spoken within a community is a part a community's identity, for example; the "cockney" language represents the people of southeast England.
- Word count: 596
The black children at school generally did not get new materials and were usually old, rugged, ripped, and dirty. The whites at Jefferson Davis school normally got two buses to ride and to come back from school, while all the black kids at Great Faith had to walk to their school, and also walk back to home. The books the black kids got at school only had pictures of white children and people, and did not teach about any black history and slavery at all so teachers were not allowed to teach any of it.
- Word count: 667
In science we made a mess of all the experiments. I broke three beakers and two test tubes, once I squirted hydrochloric acid at the black board the mark is still there. My music teacher liked me because I was good at the essays and minor music tests. I scored a high mark in the music exam but I was awful at playing music. I blew up the keyboard adapter. We would throw water balloons at everyone in the winter and set of bangers at bonfire week. In food technology the teacher hated are cooking we never cleaned up after we had finished.
- Word count: 834
Her brothers wouldn't be out of their beds outside in the dark at night time. 'Stacey', I whispered. 'Christopher-John?'. Cassie is not talking when she says this but is whispering because she is very cautious of who is there and who is making the noise. When a sudden movement is seen near the end of the porch Cassie heads toward it. This shows she is very brave and not scared to walk up there to see who it is. Fear is building up here because the author is keeping you in suspense so you have to wait a while to find out who is there.
- Word count: 910
Morrison: "The man was a human tree in height, towering high above papa's six feet two inches. The long trunk of his massive body bulged with muscles..." The living strength and permanence of trees are a symbol of the strength which the black community draws from its history, tradition and inheritance, and the 'roots' which have been put down in their land. Thus, the description of Mr. Morrison is in keeping with such imagery. The timing of Mr. Morrison's arrival assists Mildred Taylor in developing tension and suspense.
- Word count: 596 | <urn:uuid:437cb0d4-ac58-4457-985e-93b03923db6d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.markedbyteachers.com/gcse/english/english-literature/prose-fiction/mildred-taylor/?essay_length=294 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251684146.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126013015-20200126043015-00085.warc.gz | en | 0.982146 | 2,550 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.1253022... | 1 | - Join over 1.2 million students every month
- Accelerate your learning by 29%
- Unlimited access from just £6.99 per month
GCSE: Mildred Taylor
Currently browsing by:
- Removefewer than 1000 words
Meet our team of inspirational teachers
Racism was always stronger in the Southern States than the Northern ones. Even though it had been around seventy years since the Emancipation Proclamation had been declared, many whites did not see blacks as equal to them, even though they had never been slave owners themselves. In the novel, the books that the children receive from the county are in very poor condition. They have only been given to the black children once that are in too bad a condition to be given the white children.
- Word count: 863
Granger just because she failed him for cheating in the examination. He, as a true hypocrite, keeps using friendship as his excuse, saying, "Friends gotta trust each other, Stacey, 'cause ain't nothin' like a true friend.", when he knows nothing of what a true friend is. True to his malevolent nature, he uses his brother as a scapegoat, making Claude get admonished for all his nefarious activities, which include drinking and dancing at the Wallace's. This nature of betraying his black friends probably stems from his egotistical, wannabe white personality.
- Word count: 903
In a society where the reminiscence of slavery is still strong, land is a symbol of independence and self-sufficiency. Throughout the book, they repeat the same refrain, "We won't lose the land". Even though they didn't have enough money to pay taxes, mortgage, and live on too, they strived to make ends meet for the sake of their land. David Logan went away from home, to set tracks in Louisiana. Mary Logan taught in school. All the children, Big Ma, and Mama worked very hard picking cotton, despite their odd ages.
- Word count: 769
He thinks cheating on tests is fine and later he lies to Stacey to get Stacey's new coat from him, but at the end of the story the older Simms brothers use him how he used his friends. A good example of a black character that is good would be Mr. Morrison, He comes to the Logan's because he lost his job and papa wanted a strong man to protect his family while he was working on the tracks. Early on in the story he broke up a fight with T.J and Stacey and does not discipline Stacey's actions beyond
- Word count: 857
Also, the whites are inconsiderate, intentionally splashing mud on the blacks' clothes. The Berry's burnings is a significant incident revealing the cruel manner the white community behave towards the African Americans, burning them taking "a match to them," without any justifiable reason, portraying the discrimination between the people. At school, an important instance of racism takes place, when the students of the black school, The Great Faith Elementary School, received "new" books. These books were in the poorest condition, as they were the left-overs of the whites.
- Word count: 824
For example, if she was an adult most people wouldn't explain things to her and the readers wouldn't get to know important things like 'why the land was so important' and we learn in chapter one she 'may not understand that now', but 'Papa said that one day I would understand....I wondered'. An example of Cassie's naivety and ignorance is the Strawberry incident when she doesn't realise that the whites have to be served before the blacks and assumes that 'Mr Barnett has simply forgotten about TJ's order' so she decides to 'remind him'.
- Word count: 824
In school Mama covers the school books because Cassie and Little Man do not want to accept them as they are hand downs from the White children.Mama "trimmed the paper to the size of the books and was now digging a gray looking glue from the brown bottle onto the inside cover of one of those books."Mama covers up the front page so that the children do not have to see who the books have been handed from and in what race they were from.
- Word count: 798
How does Mildred D. Taylor present the complexities of the south through the eyes of two contrasting characters?
The reason for my choice is that I feel they are characters that in some way stand out when looking at their experiences and actions in regards to the question. They are two very diverse characters particularly physically Mr Morrison was a "human tree in height, the long trunk of his massive body, his skin the deepest of ebony" relating to where he came from which was two "strong like bulls" parents which suggested that he had a family heritage of stud farms.
- Word count: 683
Tim who at the time was ranked fifth in the world was up against Samual Taylor a young up and coming, promising fellow Englishman who was set to play his first ever professional tennis game. The game had been predicted to be a walkover and all the odds were against Samual Taylor but there were some doubters of our ability. It was a greatly important match and Tim and me were extremely confident that we would and should win conformably.
- Word count: 698
This symbol is used in the Novel to reflect on T.J's greed and how it gets him into trouble. In this instance he doesn't get the gun and it leads him into trouble and it leads other people into trouble. He also gets other people into trouble by the way he phrases things, he uses words to try and get people thinking different things so he can benefit from it. The land represents lots of different things to different things to different people. To the Logans the land means everything if the land is lost then whole family will collapse.
- Word count: 810
It is set in an isolated position and the weather is bad, giving a tense and isolated feeling. The first contrast which can be seen is at the beginning of each story. The beginning of "The Monkeys Paw" uses very descriptive language such as Without, the night was cold and wet, the blinds were drawn and the fire burned brightly This is the opening line to A Monkeys Paw whereas the opening paragraph in "A Sound Of Thunder" uses no description, and talks about the sign on the wall, Time Safari Inc Safaris to any year in the past You name the animal, we take you there You shoot it This is a large contrast between the two
- Word count: 869
Show how Don Taylor uses historical material about the political situation, the plague, and the village of Eyam and shapes it to suit his own artistic purposes in the Roses of Eyam.
The plague finished in London when the great fire started. However Don Taylor wrote the play in 1976. He created it from an idea derived from a book called "Fifty World Famous Heroic Deeds" The aim of this book was to inspire people to perform heroic deeds and be brave. The people of Eyam where brave as they cut themselves off from the world to face almost certain death. They did this to prevent the plagues spreading. Don Taylor wanted to use the play as a visual aid to show how the people of Eyam suffered. The book is a fictional book with a number of facts.
- Word count: 671
The date was also a problem. The D-day landings had not actually finished yet. At that time, not all of the landings had actually happened. This meant that Churchill's judgement on how D-day was going was affected. The truth of the matter was that the US had landed in the wrong place and completely missed Omaha beach. There was lots of other fault as well, including the very strong Nazi resistance and the problems with the very treacherous weather.
- Word count: 483
Uncle Hammer lives in Chicago where apparently black men live on equal terms with whites. Therefore Uncle Hammer finds the atmosphere in Mississippi deeply oppressive. As you know Uncle Hammer has a hasty temper and is a dangerous visitor at times of racial tension. 'I'd be hanging from the oak tree over yonder!' This shows that Uncle Hammer believes that if he had treated Lillian Jean the way Mr. Simms treated Cassie he would be hanged, just because the colour of his skin.
- Word count: 601
Ladies and gentlemen of the court, I have been charged with investigating, and bringing to the attention of the court the entire background and character of T.J. Avery from an impartial point of view. These are my findings.
T.J.'s mother questioned him about it she just said that he had gone up there to get Claude, who he said was sneaking up there to get free candy, Claude was beaten, he didn't tell his mother that it wasn't him. He shows these attributes again at the end of the school term, during exam time, T.J. had written some cheat notes, and when the teacher who happened to be Misses Logan, he gave them to Stacey Logan who is his friend, but before Stacey could hand them back, his mother saw that and interrogated him about it and then proceeded to punish him in front of the entire class.
- Word count: 763
This was a time and place when thousands of families like Cassie were poor and considered the' lower, working-class'. As you go through the book, you find that Cassie discusses and questions certain issues; for example racism and growing-up. Generally people think that informal slang speech is wrong, but it is just an alternative version to the English language. The way a person speaks is often a way of revealing how educated a person may be. The general dialect spoken within a community is a part a community's identity, for example; the "cockney" language represents the people of southeast England.
- Word count: 596
The black children at school generally did not get new materials and were usually old, rugged, ripped, and dirty. The whites at Jefferson Davis school normally got two buses to ride and to come back from school, while all the black kids at Great Faith had to walk to their school, and also walk back to home. The books the black kids got at school only had pictures of white children and people, and did not teach about any black history and slavery at all so teachers were not allowed to teach any of it.
- Word count: 667
In science we made a mess of all the experiments. I broke three beakers and two test tubes, once I squirted hydrochloric acid at the black board the mark is still there. My music teacher liked me because I was good at the essays and minor music tests. I scored a high mark in the music exam but I was awful at playing music. I blew up the keyboard adapter. We would throw water balloons at everyone in the winter and set of bangers at bonfire week. In food technology the teacher hated are cooking we never cleaned up after we had finished.
- Word count: 834
Her brothers wouldn't be out of their beds outside in the dark at night time. 'Stacey', I whispered. 'Christopher-John?'. Cassie is not talking when she says this but is whispering because she is very cautious of who is there and who is making the noise. When a sudden movement is seen near the end of the porch Cassie heads toward it. This shows she is very brave and not scared to walk up there to see who it is. Fear is building up here because the author is keeping you in suspense so you have to wait a while to find out who is there.
- Word count: 910
Morrison: "The man was a human tree in height, towering high above papa's six feet two inches. The long trunk of his massive body bulged with muscles..." The living strength and permanence of trees are a symbol of the strength which the black community draws from its history, tradition and inheritance, and the 'roots' which have been put down in their land. Thus, the description of Mr. Morrison is in keeping with such imagery. The timing of Mr. Morrison's arrival assists Mildred Taylor in developing tension and suspense.
- Word count: 596 | 2,575 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Everything in Its Place, by Oliver Sacks, possesses three main themes. A theme of a text revolves around a reoccurring idea which the author wants readers to consider. In this text, the themes revolve around self-reflection, the importance of memory, and acceptance.
The theme of self-reflection is seen through Sacks examining the things in his life and the impact each event had upon whom he was and what he learned. For example, Sacks speaks about his love of museums in "Remembering South Kensington." It was through his numerous trips to these "grand museums" that Sacks came to love and appreciate imagination and nature. Through these trips, Sacks was able to reflect upon the world around him and find his place within it. He learned about human culture and science. His love of animals, mammals, and insects grew out of his numerous visits to the museums. During these visits, Sacks seemed to come to terms with his existence in the world. He realized that his existence was minuscule compared to what had come before him. Although this may make some people reflect upon their own unimportance, Sacks did not fall into this thinking. Instead, he found that his life meant something because he was a part of the greater whole. It is through this type of thinking that Sacks could help readers find their own way to reflect upon themselves.
Another theme present in the text is the importance of memory. One could state that the text exists as a collection of the author's memories. He reminisces on his love of water, first loves, libraries, and death. Through re-examining his past, Sacks is able to make sense of his life. Through this, he is...
(The entire section is 432 words.) | <urn:uuid:fdbd3a29-ccaf-4635-ad1b-55694b762f7b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/topics/everything-its-place/themes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00239.warc.gz | en | 0.988269 | 363 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.4955735802650... | 1 | Everything in Its Place, by Oliver Sacks, possesses three main themes. A theme of a text revolves around a reoccurring idea which the author wants readers to consider. In this text, the themes revolve around self-reflection, the importance of memory, and acceptance.
The theme of self-reflection is seen through Sacks examining the things in his life and the impact each event had upon whom he was and what he learned. For example, Sacks speaks about his love of museums in "Remembering South Kensington." It was through his numerous trips to these "grand museums" that Sacks came to love and appreciate imagination and nature. Through these trips, Sacks was able to reflect upon the world around him and find his place within it. He learned about human culture and science. His love of animals, mammals, and insects grew out of his numerous visits to the museums. During these visits, Sacks seemed to come to terms with his existence in the world. He realized that his existence was minuscule compared to what had come before him. Although this may make some people reflect upon their own unimportance, Sacks did not fall into this thinking. Instead, he found that his life meant something because he was a part of the greater whole. It is through this type of thinking that Sacks could help readers find their own way to reflect upon themselves.
Another theme present in the text is the importance of memory. One could state that the text exists as a collection of the author's memories. He reminisces on his love of water, first loves, libraries, and death. Through re-examining his past, Sacks is able to make sense of his life. Through this, he is...
(The entire section is 432 words.) | 358 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In honor of International Women’s Day (March 8) and March being Women’s History Month, we are going to share some of the incredible women that have shaped the nursing field into what it is today! From the nursing curriculum, the right to birth control, the founding of the American Red Cross, racial diversity, and more, nursing wouldn’t be where it is today without the women that laid down the track.
Florence Nightingale: Changing the Role of Nursing in Hospitals
Florence Nightingale was interested in nursing from a young age and went against her parents wishes to pursue a career in nursing. After gaining experience in several aspects of the nursing world from training nurses to aid in the Crimean War to working in a hospital for “gentlewomen,” she started her own school. The school was called Nightingale Training School for Nurses and was located at St. Thomas Hospital in London. Her training theories were published and became extremely popular. Her techniques can still be seen in healthcare today.
Margaret Sanger: Fighting for the Right to Birth Control
Margaret Sanger was inspired to specialize in pregnant women after her mother battled several pregnancies and miscarriages. She studied to become a nurse in New York and eventually went on to deliver women information on sex education and women’s health through a column at the New York Call. In efforts for better women’s health, she opened the first birth control clinic in 1916. She was eventually arrested and charged with “maintaining a public nuisance” which lead her to start a magazine and found the American Birth Control League. Following this, she opened a legal birth control clinic in 1921 and the first World Population Conference in Geneva where she explained the need for information on women’s health and birth control for women. Sangers efforts lead to making it legal for doctors to prescribe contraceptives in the U.S.
Clara Barton: Making Healthcare Strives in America
What didn’t Clara Barton do? She began her career at just fifteen years old where she volunteered to teach students that couldn’t afford school. She went on to become the first woman in America to hold a government post where she worked in the Patent Office in D.C. until the Civil War where she helped Federal troops by getting them provisions and distributing them on the front line. Following her incredible war efforts, President Lincoln endorsed her to lead the task of locating over 20,000 missing soldiers. After her war efforts were complete, she went on to found the American section of the Red Cross. Barton attended the Geneva Convention as an International Red Cross representative and shared her efforts with the world.
Mary Eliza Mahoney: Striving Towards a More Racially Inclusive Nursing Field
Mary Eliza Mahoney worked in a hospital from a young age, not as a nurse, but as a janitor, cook, and everything in between. When she was 33 she finally was able to attend nursing school at the hospital. After completing her education she worked as a private duty nurse and eventually became one of the founding members of the Nurses Associated Alumnae (ANA) and co founded the National Association of Colored Graduate Nurses (NACGN). Mahoney was one of the first women of color to make strives in the nursing industry and set the scene for future generations.
Feeling inspired by these influential nurses? Follow your nursing dreams and head to stabilityhealthcare.com to request a quote and see what placements are available. | <urn:uuid:f212d186-7493-4407-b6f7-f1cb70950e01> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://blog.stabilityhealthcare.com/key-women-history-nursing/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00157.warc.gz | en | 0.980339 | 722 | 3.734375 | 4 | [
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0.431304395... | 5 | In honor of International Women’s Day (March 8) and March being Women’s History Month, we are going to share some of the incredible women that have shaped the nursing field into what it is today! From the nursing curriculum, the right to birth control, the founding of the American Red Cross, racial diversity, and more, nursing wouldn’t be where it is today without the women that laid down the track.
Florence Nightingale: Changing the Role of Nursing in Hospitals
Florence Nightingale was interested in nursing from a young age and went against her parents wishes to pursue a career in nursing. After gaining experience in several aspects of the nursing world from training nurses to aid in the Crimean War to working in a hospital for “gentlewomen,” she started her own school. The school was called Nightingale Training School for Nurses and was located at St. Thomas Hospital in London. Her training theories were published and became extremely popular. Her techniques can still be seen in healthcare today.
Margaret Sanger: Fighting for the Right to Birth Control
Margaret Sanger was inspired to specialize in pregnant women after her mother battled several pregnancies and miscarriages. She studied to become a nurse in New York and eventually went on to deliver women information on sex education and women’s health through a column at the New York Call. In efforts for better women’s health, she opened the first birth control clinic in 1916. She was eventually arrested and charged with “maintaining a public nuisance” which lead her to start a magazine and found the American Birth Control League. Following this, she opened a legal birth control clinic in 1921 and the first World Population Conference in Geneva where she explained the need for information on women’s health and birth control for women. Sangers efforts lead to making it legal for doctors to prescribe contraceptives in the U.S.
Clara Barton: Making Healthcare Strives in America
What didn’t Clara Barton do? She began her career at just fifteen years old where she volunteered to teach students that couldn’t afford school. She went on to become the first woman in America to hold a government post where she worked in the Patent Office in D.C. until the Civil War where she helped Federal troops by getting them provisions and distributing them on the front line. Following her incredible war efforts, President Lincoln endorsed her to lead the task of locating over 20,000 missing soldiers. After her war efforts were complete, she went on to found the American section of the Red Cross. Barton attended the Geneva Convention as an International Red Cross representative and shared her efforts with the world.
Mary Eliza Mahoney: Striving Towards a More Racially Inclusive Nursing Field
Mary Eliza Mahoney worked in a hospital from a young age, not as a nurse, but as a janitor, cook, and everything in between. When she was 33 she finally was able to attend nursing school at the hospital. After completing her education she worked as a private duty nurse and eventually became one of the founding members of the Nurses Associated Alumnae (ANA) and co founded the National Association of Colored Graduate Nurses (NACGN). Mahoney was one of the first women of color to make strives in the nursing industry and set the scene for future generations.
Feeling inspired by these influential nurses? Follow your nursing dreams and head to stabilityhealthcare.com to request a quote and see what placements are available. | 704 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Gulf War, also called the Persian Gulf War, began on August 2, 1990 when Saddam Hussein ordered the invasion of Kuwait, and ended on February 28, 1991. This Historyplex article puts forth some information about the outcome and effects of the Persian Gulf War.
The Persian Gulf War began when Iraq invaded Kuwait on August 2, 1990. It was also called ‘Operation Desert Shield’ from August 2, 1990 – January 17, 1991, and ‘Operation Desert Storm’ from January 17, 1991 ― February 28, 1991, which was the combat phase. When we talk of the Persian Gulf War, Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait, followed by the United States’ elimination of the Iraqi presence in Kuwait ― both are included in it. This war, just like any other war, had huge repercussions on the environment, economies of the countries involved as well as on the people, both commoners as well as war veterans. Given below are the causes and effects of the Persian Gulf War.
In early 1991, the United States and many other countries felt that Saudi Arabia would be Iraq’s next target. There was a fear that if Iraq invaded both Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, the world’s oil supply would entirely be in Iraqi hands. It was also believed that Iraq had developed chemical weapons, and thus, could be a threat to the entire world. So, in order to prevent such a situation from arising, the United States finally attacked Iraqi forces and eliminated their presence from Kuwait in just a couple of days, by launching Operation Desert Storm.
Though Operation Desert Storm was initiated and led by the U.S., it wasn’t the sole participant. Saudi Arabia, who had a vested interest in the war, provided the second largest army, followed by the UK and France.
The Gulf War caused a lot of physical and emotional distress to war veterans. The soldiers who participated in the Gulf War displayed some unique characteristics, which are commonly referred to as “Gulf War illness” or “Gulf War Syndrome”. Chronic fatigue, moodiness, depression, sleeping problems, nausea, short-term memory loss, joint pains, etc., were some of the symptoms of the “Gulf War illness”, which according to research, was observed in approximately 2,63,000 soldiers.
The war had a huge impact on the common people too. Thousands of people were killed, thousands were injured, and many were taken as war prisoners. Women were raped in the midst of the war and had to bear many atrocities.
During the war, approximately 11 million barrels of oil was released into the Arabian gulf. It is estimated that as many as 80 ships carrying oil and weapons were sunk into the Arabian gulf. This disturbed the entire ecosystem, destroying marine life to a large extent. Migratory birds were killed and many marine turtles lost their lives or developed lesions. The land where the war took place, became infertile, as the desert vegetation was trampled upon by heavy artillery. Due to the accumulation of solid wastes, groundwater contamination took place on a large scale.
The atmosphere was the worst affected. There was huge air pollution caused by the fire and smoke, produced by explosives and weapons. Moreover, the Iraqis while retreating from Kuwait, set fire to approximately 600 oil wells. The pollution caused due to this barbarous act has left a huge impact on the environment and weather of the entire planet.
As for the economic effects, Iraq was the major sufferer. It not only suffered losses in military equipment, but also its infrastructure as well, which may take years and billions of dollars to rebuild. Similarly, both Kuwait and Saudi Arabia suffered some infrastructural losses, running into billions of dollars. The major economic impact of the Gulf War was perhaps on cleaning up the oil slicks, which cost a whopping $700 million to clean up. However, due to the rising oil prices and growth of the oil industry post the Persian Gulf War, Kuwait was able to make up for many of its economic losses.
As it can be seen, the Gulf War adversely affected people, environment, and economies of all the nations involved. Its aftermath can still be felt in various countries. Even after so many years, the countries that were directly involved are still trying to recover from the losses caused by the Persian Gulf War. | <urn:uuid:4d6ce346-27bb-4f24-b81f-305db04b2e3f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://historyplex.com/effects-of-persian-gulf-war | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250614086.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123221108-20200124010108-00434.warc.gz | en | 0.986629 | 886 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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... | 7 | The Gulf War, also called the Persian Gulf War, began on August 2, 1990 when Saddam Hussein ordered the invasion of Kuwait, and ended on February 28, 1991. This Historyplex article puts forth some information about the outcome and effects of the Persian Gulf War.
The Persian Gulf War began when Iraq invaded Kuwait on August 2, 1990. It was also called ‘Operation Desert Shield’ from August 2, 1990 – January 17, 1991, and ‘Operation Desert Storm’ from January 17, 1991 ― February 28, 1991, which was the combat phase. When we talk of the Persian Gulf War, Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait, followed by the United States’ elimination of the Iraqi presence in Kuwait ― both are included in it. This war, just like any other war, had huge repercussions on the environment, economies of the countries involved as well as on the people, both commoners as well as war veterans. Given below are the causes and effects of the Persian Gulf War.
In early 1991, the United States and many other countries felt that Saudi Arabia would be Iraq’s next target. There was a fear that if Iraq invaded both Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, the world’s oil supply would entirely be in Iraqi hands. It was also believed that Iraq had developed chemical weapons, and thus, could be a threat to the entire world. So, in order to prevent such a situation from arising, the United States finally attacked Iraqi forces and eliminated their presence from Kuwait in just a couple of days, by launching Operation Desert Storm.
Though Operation Desert Storm was initiated and led by the U.S., it wasn’t the sole participant. Saudi Arabia, who had a vested interest in the war, provided the second largest army, followed by the UK and France.
The Gulf War caused a lot of physical and emotional distress to war veterans. The soldiers who participated in the Gulf War displayed some unique characteristics, which are commonly referred to as “Gulf War illness” or “Gulf War Syndrome”. Chronic fatigue, moodiness, depression, sleeping problems, nausea, short-term memory loss, joint pains, etc., were some of the symptoms of the “Gulf War illness”, which according to research, was observed in approximately 2,63,000 soldiers.
The war had a huge impact on the common people too. Thousands of people were killed, thousands were injured, and many were taken as war prisoners. Women were raped in the midst of the war and had to bear many atrocities.
During the war, approximately 11 million barrels of oil was released into the Arabian gulf. It is estimated that as many as 80 ships carrying oil and weapons were sunk into the Arabian gulf. This disturbed the entire ecosystem, destroying marine life to a large extent. Migratory birds were killed and many marine turtles lost their lives or developed lesions. The land where the war took place, became infertile, as the desert vegetation was trampled upon by heavy artillery. Due to the accumulation of solid wastes, groundwater contamination took place on a large scale.
The atmosphere was the worst affected. There was huge air pollution caused by the fire and smoke, produced by explosives and weapons. Moreover, the Iraqis while retreating from Kuwait, set fire to approximately 600 oil wells. The pollution caused due to this barbarous act has left a huge impact on the environment and weather of the entire planet.
As for the economic effects, Iraq was the major sufferer. It not only suffered losses in military equipment, but also its infrastructure as well, which may take years and billions of dollars to rebuild. Similarly, both Kuwait and Saudi Arabia suffered some infrastructural losses, running into billions of dollars. The major economic impact of the Gulf War was perhaps on cleaning up the oil slicks, which cost a whopping $700 million to clean up. However, due to the rising oil prices and growth of the oil industry post the Persian Gulf War, Kuwait was able to make up for many of its economic losses.
As it can be seen, the Gulf War adversely affected people, environment, and economies of all the nations involved. Its aftermath can still be felt in various countries. Even after so many years, the countries that were directly involved are still trying to recover from the losses caused by the Persian Gulf War. | 912 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Louis Pasteur was born in Jura, France in 1822, and he was raised as a Catholic. As a young boy, he enjoyed sketching, and spent much of his time drawing his family and friends; there was initially no sign of his academic brilliance. He attended the Collège d’Arbois, and then in 1839 he started at the Royal College of Besançon to study philosophy, and science. He obtained a batchelor of letters degree, and a baccalauréat scientifique degree in 1842, in Dijon. Three years later after joining the École Normale Supérieure, he gained his Masters of Science degree, and got the post of professor at Collège de Tournon. His life changed dramatically now he’d found his purpose in life.
In 1848 he moved to Strasbourg to fill the position of professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg, and a year later married a Marie Laurent.
Louis discovered molecular asymmetry, which he believed to be one of the fundamental characteristics of life. In 1854, whilst still researching his theories, he accepted the position of professor of chemistry at the University of Lille, where he began studying fermentation of alcohol. In 1857, Louis once again had itchy feet and returned to Paris. His work in Lille had convinced him that there were living organisms in every type of fermentation, and this led him to study germs, and their effects. He figured out that by passing oxygen through the fermenting fluid he created what is now called the ‘Pasteur effect‘. This discovery led to him being commissioned by Napoleon III to study wine contamination which he concluded was caused by microbes. To remedy this problem he heated the wine to between 50-60 degrees °C, and this killed off the organisms that caused contamination. This process was named pasteurisation and is used with milk in particular, and thus began the science of bacteriology.
In 1862 he became a professor of chemistry and physics at the École Nationale Supérieure Des Beaux-arts and was given the job is finding out what was killing all of France’s silkworms, which had almost killed off their industry. He isolated the organisms that killed off the silkworms, and perfected a way of isolating the eggs so that they remained free from contamination, thus saving France’s almost deceased industry, and this set Louis on his mission to study Epidemiology (study of disease.
“Do not put forward anything that you cannot prove by experimentation” – Louis Pasteur
During his silkworm investigation, Louis suffered a stroke, which left him partially paralysed down one side of his body, but this didn’t stop him studying and researching germs, disease and how to create vaccines. He studied Anthrax and foul Cholera primarily, and experimented with chickens in his laboratory by figuring out how to attenuate the microbes that caused the infection and gradually he created a vaccine that worked. Using the same method with Anthrax, he inoculated cattle, and they survived. He’d made the breakthrough that he’d tirelessly worked for all these years.
He desired to focus on infectious diseases that affected humans, but he fretted about the ethical side and how he could approach it. He decided that if he worked on a disease that affected both humans and animals then he could work on the animal side more before moving on to humans; so he chose Rabies. Attenuation was made first with monkeys and then with rodents, but he was yet to treat a human. Joseph Meister was facing certain death from his infection, and Louis decided that if the boy was going to certainly die, what did he have to lose if the vaccine failed? The boy lived, and so did many more patients after him. Louis’ vaccination of rabies was a success, and this pleased him greatly. His discovery of weakening diseases and viruses, and causing people to become immune to stronger more powerful strains has saved perhaps more lives than any other person in history.
In 1887 he established the Pasteur Institute which specialises in infectious diseases, and it’s still a front runner in research to this day. In 1895, at the age of 72, he died from a series of strokes at Villeneuve l’Étang near Paris. | <urn:uuid:75ebfe38-7ac6-425d-b8c7-a85945211e39> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://world-of-humanism.blog/2019/10/05/a-retrospective-louis-pasteur/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00303.warc.gz | en | 0.984286 | 903 | 3.3125 | 3 | [
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0.15287069976... | 9 | Louis Pasteur was born in Jura, France in 1822, and he was raised as a Catholic. As a young boy, he enjoyed sketching, and spent much of his time drawing his family and friends; there was initially no sign of his academic brilliance. He attended the Collège d’Arbois, and then in 1839 he started at the Royal College of Besançon to study philosophy, and science. He obtained a batchelor of letters degree, and a baccalauréat scientifique degree in 1842, in Dijon. Three years later after joining the École Normale Supérieure, he gained his Masters of Science degree, and got the post of professor at Collège de Tournon. His life changed dramatically now he’d found his purpose in life.
In 1848 he moved to Strasbourg to fill the position of professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg, and a year later married a Marie Laurent.
Louis discovered molecular asymmetry, which he believed to be one of the fundamental characteristics of life. In 1854, whilst still researching his theories, he accepted the position of professor of chemistry at the University of Lille, where he began studying fermentation of alcohol. In 1857, Louis once again had itchy feet and returned to Paris. His work in Lille had convinced him that there were living organisms in every type of fermentation, and this led him to study germs, and their effects. He figured out that by passing oxygen through the fermenting fluid he created what is now called the ‘Pasteur effect‘. This discovery led to him being commissioned by Napoleon III to study wine contamination which he concluded was caused by microbes. To remedy this problem he heated the wine to between 50-60 degrees °C, and this killed off the organisms that caused contamination. This process was named pasteurisation and is used with milk in particular, and thus began the science of bacteriology.
In 1862 he became a professor of chemistry and physics at the École Nationale Supérieure Des Beaux-arts and was given the job is finding out what was killing all of France’s silkworms, which had almost killed off their industry. He isolated the organisms that killed off the silkworms, and perfected a way of isolating the eggs so that they remained free from contamination, thus saving France’s almost deceased industry, and this set Louis on his mission to study Epidemiology (study of disease.
“Do not put forward anything that you cannot prove by experimentation” – Louis Pasteur
During his silkworm investigation, Louis suffered a stroke, which left him partially paralysed down one side of his body, but this didn’t stop him studying and researching germs, disease and how to create vaccines. He studied Anthrax and foul Cholera primarily, and experimented with chickens in his laboratory by figuring out how to attenuate the microbes that caused the infection and gradually he created a vaccine that worked. Using the same method with Anthrax, he inoculated cattle, and they survived. He’d made the breakthrough that he’d tirelessly worked for all these years.
He desired to focus on infectious diseases that affected humans, but he fretted about the ethical side and how he could approach it. He decided that if he worked on a disease that affected both humans and animals then he could work on the animal side more before moving on to humans; so he chose Rabies. Attenuation was made first with monkeys and then with rodents, but he was yet to treat a human. Joseph Meister was facing certain death from his infection, and Louis decided that if the boy was going to certainly die, what did he have to lose if the vaccine failed? The boy lived, and so did many more patients after him. Louis’ vaccination of rabies was a success, and this pleased him greatly. His discovery of weakening diseases and viruses, and causing people to become immune to stronger more powerful strains has saved perhaps more lives than any other person in history.
In 1887 he established the Pasteur Institute which specialises in infectious diseases, and it’s still a front runner in research to this day. In 1895, at the age of 72, he died from a series of strokes at Villeneuve l’Étang near Paris. | 907 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Franco was born in Ferrol, Spain as the son of upper-class parents with strong connections to the Spanish Navy. Franco however joined the Spanish Army as a cadet in the Toledo Infantry Academy in 1907, graduating in 1910. He served in the Rif War and was in 1926 promoted General at age 33, the youngest in Europe. As a conservative and a monarchist, Franco opposed the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of the democratic secular republic in 1931. He nevertheless continued his position in the Republican Army and in 1934 led the brutal suppression of the miners' strike in Asturias, which sharpened the antagonism between Left and Right in the country. When the leftist Popular Front won the 1936 elections, Franco joined other Generals who launched a coup the same year, intending to overthrow the republic. The coup failed to take control of most of the country and precipitated the Spanish Civil War.
After the war had started, Franco took control of the Army of Africa, which were air-lifted to Spain. With the death of the other leading generals, Franco became his faction's only leader and was appointed Generalissimo and Head of State in the fall of 1936. In 1939 Franco won the war, which had claimed almost half a million lives. The victory extended his dictatorship to the whole country and was followed by a period of repression of political opponents and dissenters, with the result that between 100,000 to 200,000 died. Franco continued to rule Spain alone, with more power than any Spanish leader before or since, ruling almost exclusively by decree. He nurtured a cult of personality and the Movimiento Nacional became the only channel of participation in Spanish public life. During World War II, he espoused neutrality as Spain's official wartime policy, but supported the Axis — whose members Italy and Germany had supported him during the Civil War — in various ways. After the war, Spain became isolated by many other countries for nearly a decade. By the 1950s, the nature of his regime changed from being openly totalitarian and using severe repression to an authoritarian system with limited pluralism, and consequently, Spain was allowed to join the United Nations in 1955. During the Cold War Franco became one of the world's foremost anti-Communist figures.
In 1973, beset with old age and sickness and wishing to partially relinquish the burden of governing Spain, Franco resigned as Prime Minister, and was succeeded by Carrero Blanco. However, Franco remained as Head of State and Commander-in-Chief. Franco died in 1975 at the age of 82 and was buried in the Valle de los Caídos.
In parody universe
Franco is played by the spanish actors Juan Diego (young) and Manuel Aleixandre (old).
- Franco won the Spanish Civil War thanks to Hitler and Mussolini.
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... | 2 | Franco was born in Ferrol, Spain as the son of upper-class parents with strong connections to the Spanish Navy. Franco however joined the Spanish Army as a cadet in the Toledo Infantry Academy in 1907, graduating in 1910. He served in the Rif War and was in 1926 promoted General at age 33, the youngest in Europe. As a conservative and a monarchist, Franco opposed the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of the democratic secular republic in 1931. He nevertheless continued his position in the Republican Army and in 1934 led the brutal suppression of the miners' strike in Asturias, which sharpened the antagonism between Left and Right in the country. When the leftist Popular Front won the 1936 elections, Franco joined other Generals who launched a coup the same year, intending to overthrow the republic. The coup failed to take control of most of the country and precipitated the Spanish Civil War.
After the war had started, Franco took control of the Army of Africa, which were air-lifted to Spain. With the death of the other leading generals, Franco became his faction's only leader and was appointed Generalissimo and Head of State in the fall of 1936. In 1939 Franco won the war, which had claimed almost half a million lives. The victory extended his dictatorship to the whole country and was followed by a period of repression of political opponents and dissenters, with the result that between 100,000 to 200,000 died. Franco continued to rule Spain alone, with more power than any Spanish leader before or since, ruling almost exclusively by decree. He nurtured a cult of personality and the Movimiento Nacional became the only channel of participation in Spanish public life. During World War II, he espoused neutrality as Spain's official wartime policy, but supported the Axis — whose members Italy and Germany had supported him during the Civil War — in various ways. After the war, Spain became isolated by many other countries for nearly a decade. By the 1950s, the nature of his regime changed from being openly totalitarian and using severe repression to an authoritarian system with limited pluralism, and consequently, Spain was allowed to join the United Nations in 1955. During the Cold War Franco became one of the world's foremost anti-Communist figures.
In 1973, beset with old age and sickness and wishing to partially relinquish the burden of governing Spain, Franco resigned as Prime Minister, and was succeeded by Carrero Blanco. However, Franco remained as Head of State and Commander-in-Chief. Franco died in 1975 at the age of 82 and was buried in the Valle de los Caídos.
In parody universe
Franco is played by the spanish actors Juan Diego (young) and Manuel Aleixandre (old).
- Franco won the Spanish Civil War thanks to Hitler and Mussolini.
- Franco born and died at the same years as Mao Zedong, 1892 and 1975 respectively. | 652 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Battle of Jarosław was among the many battles that were fought during the Nazi invasion of Poland. For two days, Polish forces under the command of General Stanislaw Maczek successfully defended Jaroslaw against the Nazi German onslaught. The defensive measures gave enough time for the Polish 10th Motorized Cavalry Brigade to cross the San River and make a safe retreat eastwards. Polish troops were able to repel German attacks, as well as damage and destroy their tanks on the battlefield. Repeated German assaults were equally unsuccessful. Since Maczek had achieved his plan to hold off the Germans, he decided it was time to move his troops further eastward towards the Oleszyce-Lubaczów area. Polish forces blew up the bridges and the majority of troops retreated under cover of darkness, leaving a token force in Jaroslaw. By the morning of September 11 the Germans resumed their assault with heavier artillery, but upon entry into the city, they discovered that the Polish positions had already been withdrawn and were miles away at this point.
Battle of Kepa Oksywska was the bloodiest battle during the German invasion of Poland. It was fought outside the city of Gdynia, in the Oksywie Heights and lasted until September 19, 1939. The Polish army lost about 14% of its forces in the German onslaught. Polish casualties were 2,000 KIA and 7,000 WIA. Polish Col. Dabek had ordered all Polish forces to abandon Gdynia in order to save the civilians from complete annihilation. The battle ensued in the Heights. Until September 14 Polish forces gradually withdrew to the area, converging within a space of no larger than 4 square kilometers. At this juncture the Poles, who were numerically and technically overpowered by the Germans, were still able to inflict heavy casualties on German forces. Within the next five days, there were no fewer than 110 skirmishes fought in the enclosed space of 4 square kilometers. Despite successful counterattacks, the Polish troops were ordered by Col Dabek to cease-fire on September 19. The heavy German bombardment and dwindling Polish supplies left no other alternative. Col. Dąbek committed suicide, rather than surrender.
Battle of Łomża took place in Lomza on both sides of the river Narew. During the German invasion of Poland, the river line was occupied by the Polish Independent Operational Group Narew, which consisted of two infantry divisions and two cavalry brigades. The objective of the infantry was to defend the Narew line of vital bridgeheads at Różan, Ostrołęka, Osowiec Fortress, Nowogród, Łomża and Wizna, and to shield the right flank of the Modlin Army, while the Polish cavalry had to organise delaying actions along the Polish-German border and at the Biebrza River (to the north-east of Łomża). On September 3, the Luftwaffe launched several massive aerial bombing runs against Lomza, but the Poles suffered only negligible losses. German troops which broke through the the Polish Corridor into East Prussia reached the outskirts of Lomza by September 7, but their attacks were repelled by fierce Polish machine gun fire and 37mm Bofors anti-tank guns. In the ensuing battle the Germans suffered heavy casualties including the loss of 6 tanks. The next day the Germans attacked forts II and III, but were still repelled by heavy Polish fire power. By mid afternoon the German commander ordered air support from the Luftwaffe, which heavily bombed fort III and the bridge across the Narew, causing heavy Polish losses. Despite these assaults, and renewed German attacks, the Polish positions were unshakeable. On September 10, yet again the Germans repeated their attacks against the formidable forts no. II and III and even with the added support of German bombers could not destroy a single Polish bunker. Consequently, the Germans had to get out of range of Polish artillery fire. With Polish morale very high at this point, Col. Stefan Kossecki, commander of the 18th Infantry Division, ordered the Polish troops to abandon Lomza. The reason was that Germans had won the Battle of Nowogrod and the Poles failed to retake the town. German troops later captured Lomza without the use of force and on September 29, they handed the town to their Soviet allies. | <urn:uuid:385e7f57-4dde-4cec-bac4-7a61894306f9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://polishgreatness.blogspot.com/2018/09/september-10-daily-chronicles-of-history.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00015.warc.gz | en | 0.982935 | 913 | 3.75 | 4 | [
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0.4155170917510... | 4 | The Battle of Jarosław was among the many battles that were fought during the Nazi invasion of Poland. For two days, Polish forces under the command of General Stanislaw Maczek successfully defended Jaroslaw against the Nazi German onslaught. The defensive measures gave enough time for the Polish 10th Motorized Cavalry Brigade to cross the San River and make a safe retreat eastwards. Polish troops were able to repel German attacks, as well as damage and destroy their tanks on the battlefield. Repeated German assaults were equally unsuccessful. Since Maczek had achieved his plan to hold off the Germans, he decided it was time to move his troops further eastward towards the Oleszyce-Lubaczów area. Polish forces blew up the bridges and the majority of troops retreated under cover of darkness, leaving a token force in Jaroslaw. By the morning of September 11 the Germans resumed their assault with heavier artillery, but upon entry into the city, they discovered that the Polish positions had already been withdrawn and were miles away at this point.
Battle of Kepa Oksywska was the bloodiest battle during the German invasion of Poland. It was fought outside the city of Gdynia, in the Oksywie Heights and lasted until September 19, 1939. The Polish army lost about 14% of its forces in the German onslaught. Polish casualties were 2,000 KIA and 7,000 WIA. Polish Col. Dabek had ordered all Polish forces to abandon Gdynia in order to save the civilians from complete annihilation. The battle ensued in the Heights. Until September 14 Polish forces gradually withdrew to the area, converging within a space of no larger than 4 square kilometers. At this juncture the Poles, who were numerically and technically overpowered by the Germans, were still able to inflict heavy casualties on German forces. Within the next five days, there were no fewer than 110 skirmishes fought in the enclosed space of 4 square kilometers. Despite successful counterattacks, the Polish troops were ordered by Col Dabek to cease-fire on September 19. The heavy German bombardment and dwindling Polish supplies left no other alternative. Col. Dąbek committed suicide, rather than surrender.
Battle of Łomża took place in Lomza on both sides of the river Narew. During the German invasion of Poland, the river line was occupied by the Polish Independent Operational Group Narew, which consisted of two infantry divisions and two cavalry brigades. The objective of the infantry was to defend the Narew line of vital bridgeheads at Różan, Ostrołęka, Osowiec Fortress, Nowogród, Łomża and Wizna, and to shield the right flank of the Modlin Army, while the Polish cavalry had to organise delaying actions along the Polish-German border and at the Biebrza River (to the north-east of Łomża). On September 3, the Luftwaffe launched several massive aerial bombing runs against Lomza, but the Poles suffered only negligible losses. German troops which broke through the the Polish Corridor into East Prussia reached the outskirts of Lomza by September 7, but their attacks were repelled by fierce Polish machine gun fire and 37mm Bofors anti-tank guns. In the ensuing battle the Germans suffered heavy casualties including the loss of 6 tanks. The next day the Germans attacked forts II and III, but were still repelled by heavy Polish fire power. By mid afternoon the German commander ordered air support from the Luftwaffe, which heavily bombed fort III and the bridge across the Narew, causing heavy Polish losses. Despite these assaults, and renewed German attacks, the Polish positions were unshakeable. On September 10, yet again the Germans repeated their attacks against the formidable forts no. II and III and even with the added support of German bombers could not destroy a single Polish bunker. Consequently, the Germans had to get out of range of Polish artillery fire. With Polish morale very high at this point, Col. Stefan Kossecki, commander of the 18th Infantry Division, ordered the Polish troops to abandon Lomza. The reason was that Germans had won the Battle of Nowogrod and the Poles failed to retake the town. German troops later captured Lomza without the use of force and on September 29, they handed the town to their Soviet allies. | 933 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This year, we commemorate the 250th Anniversary of the birth of Benjamin Franklin, who had one of the broadest as well as one of the most creative minds of his time. The scientists of the 18th century, unable to experiment and too absorbed in logic, admired him for his practical and realistic talents. Among these were his medical theories, which received much recognition, particularly his theory on the origin of colds and their complications. No doubt his interest in colds was stimulated by the fact that in his early twenties he suffered on two occasions with pulmonary abscesses following the contraction of a cold. He observed that people seldom caught cold from exposure to air, or even dampness, stating that Indians and sailors who are continually wet never caught colds, nor is cold taken by swimming. Franklin thought that a cold was caused, in most cases, by impure air. He
FLIPPIN HF. Benjamin Franklin—"The Rhinologist". AMA Arch Otolaryngol. 1956;63(6):541–551. doi:10.1001/archotol.1956.03830120001001
Customize your JAMA Network experience by selecting one or more topics from the list below.
Create a personal account or sign in to: | <urn:uuid:c65d4fc6-7e8e-4189-af92-e4156212a9b1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaotolaryngology/article-abstract/597879 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00056.warc.gz | en | 0.983506 | 258 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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0.25375777482... | 1 | This year, we commemorate the 250th Anniversary of the birth of Benjamin Franklin, who had one of the broadest as well as one of the most creative minds of his time. The scientists of the 18th century, unable to experiment and too absorbed in logic, admired him for his practical and realistic talents. Among these were his medical theories, which received much recognition, particularly his theory on the origin of colds and their complications. No doubt his interest in colds was stimulated by the fact that in his early twenties he suffered on two occasions with pulmonary abscesses following the contraction of a cold. He observed that people seldom caught cold from exposure to air, or even dampness, stating that Indians and sailors who are continually wet never caught colds, nor is cold taken by swimming. Franklin thought that a cold was caused, in most cases, by impure air. He
FLIPPIN HF. Benjamin Franklin—"The Rhinologist". AMA Arch Otolaryngol. 1956;63(6):541–551. doi:10.1001/archotol.1956.03830120001001
Customize your JAMA Network experience by selecting one or more topics from the list below.
Create a personal account or sign in to: | 283 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Mesolithic Period- Food producers
The period of the earth’s history called the Stone Age was filled with remarkable achievements, made by early humans who roamed the globe following large animals around for food and for clothing. These early nomadic humans called hunter-gatherers needed tools and weapons that would be strong enough to take down animals much larger than what our minds can imagine today.
We call this time the Stone Age because of the tools that early humans used during the period that were crafted from stone. The period began in different places around the world, earlier in places like Africa (2.5 million years ago), and later in places like China (1.7 million years ago).
The first part of the Stone Age was called the Paleolithic Age, also known as the Old Stone Age when the world was particularly cold. You could also call this period the Ice Age, when most of the world was covered in ice. Early humans would have needed large animals for their fur in order to make clothing to keep warm and survive.
During these years in India, early humans were still hunter-gatherers, but the tools they used were much more advanced. Although tools and weapons were made from stone, they were used for more technologically advanced purposes, like constructing large structures. In India during the Paleolithic Age, early humans lived in cave-like dwellings. By the Mesolithic Period, Indians were creating structures to express their religion and culture. Caves were still used as dwellings, but by the time the period was over, they had progressed into much more sophisticated constructions. Some archaeologists classify parts of the Mesolithic Age along with the last part of the Paleolithic Age in India called the Upper Paleolithic Age, which ended in 8,000 BCE. This overlap is due to the fact that the sites that have been excavated from both periods are very similar. Nonetheless, by the time India moved into the Mesolithic Age, their world was not only warmer, but more advanced – as can be seen in the different sites that mark the period.
One distinction between Mesolithic Age sites in India from those in some other parts of the world is that there is evidence that the Neolithic Age had already begun. This New Stone Age would see the world introduced to agriculture and the domestication of animals, which allowed mankind to stop their hunting and gathering. In India, Mesolithic sites show evidence that Indians were already beginning the first stages of farming and animal husbandry of sheep as early as 6,000 BCE. The Mesolithic sites of Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan show that Indians were still hunting for food and fishing, but they also show some crude forms of farming as they slowly but surely figured out how to work the land. One famous civilization in India was called Harappa, and there is evidence that there may have been a trade network or some form of established communication between this major population hub and other areas like Bagor and Rajasthan. These were not the only areas that were being populated during the Mesolithic Age in India, as the subcontinent was a hotbed of life even during prehistoric times.
- RAS-RTS FREE Mains 2020 Tests and Notes Program
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- RAS-RTS Detailed Complete Prelims Notes | <urn:uuid:ae698a16-9ef7-47ac-ad80-2e42e2e84e5b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://rasfreenotes.in/history-booster/mesolithic-period-food-producers/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00378.warc.gz | en | 0.985653 | 696 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.3587461113929... | 2 | Mesolithic Period- Food producers
The period of the earth’s history called the Stone Age was filled with remarkable achievements, made by early humans who roamed the globe following large animals around for food and for clothing. These early nomadic humans called hunter-gatherers needed tools and weapons that would be strong enough to take down animals much larger than what our minds can imagine today.
We call this time the Stone Age because of the tools that early humans used during the period that were crafted from stone. The period began in different places around the world, earlier in places like Africa (2.5 million years ago), and later in places like China (1.7 million years ago).
The first part of the Stone Age was called the Paleolithic Age, also known as the Old Stone Age when the world was particularly cold. You could also call this period the Ice Age, when most of the world was covered in ice. Early humans would have needed large animals for their fur in order to make clothing to keep warm and survive.
During these years in India, early humans were still hunter-gatherers, but the tools they used were much more advanced. Although tools and weapons were made from stone, they were used for more technologically advanced purposes, like constructing large structures. In India during the Paleolithic Age, early humans lived in cave-like dwellings. By the Mesolithic Period, Indians were creating structures to express their religion and culture. Caves were still used as dwellings, but by the time the period was over, they had progressed into much more sophisticated constructions. Some archaeologists classify parts of the Mesolithic Age along with the last part of the Paleolithic Age in India called the Upper Paleolithic Age, which ended in 8,000 BCE. This overlap is due to the fact that the sites that have been excavated from both periods are very similar. Nonetheless, by the time India moved into the Mesolithic Age, their world was not only warmer, but more advanced – as can be seen in the different sites that mark the period.
One distinction between Mesolithic Age sites in India from those in some other parts of the world is that there is evidence that the Neolithic Age had already begun. This New Stone Age would see the world introduced to agriculture and the domestication of animals, which allowed mankind to stop their hunting and gathering. In India, Mesolithic sites show evidence that Indians were already beginning the first stages of farming and animal husbandry of sheep as early as 6,000 BCE. The Mesolithic sites of Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan show that Indians were still hunting for food and fishing, but they also show some crude forms of farming as they slowly but surely figured out how to work the land. One famous civilization in India was called Harappa, and there is evidence that there may have been a trade network or some form of established communication between this major population hub and other areas like Bagor and Rajasthan. These were not the only areas that were being populated during the Mesolithic Age in India, as the subcontinent was a hotbed of life even during prehistoric times.
- RAS-RTS FREE Mains 2020 Tests and Notes Program
- RAS-RTS FREE Prelims Exam 2020- Test Series and Notes Program
- RAS-RTS Prelims and Mains Tests Series and Notes Program
- RAS-RTS Detailed Complete Prelims Notes | 697 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Caulonia or Caulon (Ancient Greek: Καυλωνία Kaulōnía; also spelled Kaulonia or Kaulon) was an ancient city of Magna Graecia on the shore of the Ionian Sea. At some point after the destruction of the city by Rome in 200 BC, the inhabitants moved to a location further inland. There they founded Stilida, which developed into the modern town Stilo.
Since 1863 AD the name Caulonia has also been used by the city formerly known as Castelvetere. The city changed its name to Caulonia in honor of the ancient city, which was mistakenly believed to have been located in its territory. Today the ruins of the ancient city can be found near Monasterace in the Province of Reggio Calabria, Calabria, Italy. Some of the artefacts which have been excavated at the site can now be seen in the Monasterace Archeological Museum.
The city was located between the mouth of the Stilaro river to the south and the mouth of the Assi river to the north. In ancient times the mouth of the Assi was located slightly further to the south. Punta Stilo, the "Cape of Columns", is a gentle arc-shaped headland located immediately north of the site. In ancient times the shoreline of Caulonia lay 300 meter further seawards. More than one hundred fluted columns which have been discovered on the seabed in front of Caulonia stood then on a broad arc-shaped headland. This headland probably did not have natural or artificial facilities which could provide protected anchorage for ships. The recession of the coastline started around 400 BC and ended in the 1st century AD. It was the result of a tectonic phase which caused landward rise and submergence of the seafloor. The shoreline stabilized in the period from the 1st century AD to the present. The walls of the city enclosed an area of approximately 35 to 45 hectares (110 acres).
There is no literary evidence for the foundation date of Caulonia, but archeological evidence shows that it was founded early in the second half of the seventh century BC. Both Strabo and Pausanias mention that the city was founded by Achaean Greek colonists. Pausanias also gives the name of the oekist, or founder, as Typhon of Aegium. Others sources such as Pseudo-Scymnus claim that it was founded by Croton. A. J. Graham does not consider these two options to be mutually exclusive because the oekist and settlers could have been invited by Croton.
It has been thought that Caulonia was ruled by Croton for some time, but A. J. Graham considers this uncertain. The fact that Caulonia minted its own coins in the sixth century BC suggests that it was independent. Also, the claim of Croton over such a long stretch of coast close to its rival Locri would have been risky. According to Thucydides Caulonia supplied Athens with timber for ships during the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC). The store of timber at Caulonia was attacked and burned by forces from Syracuse.
In 389 BC the city was conquered by Dionysius I of Syracuse, who transplanted its citizens to Syracuse and gave them citizenship and an exemption from taxes for five years. He then levelled the city to the ground and gave its territory to his ally Locri. Apparently it was refounded by Dionysius II of Syracuse several decades later. Dionysius II probably gave control over the city to Locri. Archaeological evidence confirms that the city was deserted for some time in the fourth century BC.
This was not the end of misfortune for the city however, for it was razed two more times. It was destroyed during the Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC) and taken by the Campanians, who formed the largest contingent of allies in the army of Rome. In 200 BC the town was completely destroyed by the Romans, when it sided with Hannibal during the Punic Wars. It was probably around this time that the ancient site of Caulonia, directly on the Ionian coast, was abandoned in favor of a more protected site inland. About 200 years later when the city is mentioned by Strabo, it is described by him as "situated before a valley" and deserted.
The first archaeological excavations were conducted between 1911 and 1913 by Paolo Orsi.
The excavation area is named "Saggio SAS II" and topologically "San Marco nord-est". It is bordered by the Ionian Sea on the east, the Taranto-Reggio Calabria railway on the west, the Assi river on the north and the "casemate" area on the south.
In 1969 a mosaic depicting a dragon was discovered in what is now called the "House of the Dragon". It was first exhibited in the Museo Nazionale della Magna Grecia, but was restored and transferred to the Monasterace Archeological Museum in 2012.
In 2012 the archaeologist Francesco Cuteri and his team discovered a mosaic floor of 25 square meters. Dating to late 4th century BC, it is one of the largest mosaics from the Hellenistic period found in Southern Italy. It was discovered in what is thought to have been a thermal bathhouse. The mosaic is divided into nine polychrome squares and another space with a polychrome rosette at the entrance of the room. It depicts a dragon in its center, comparable to the mosaic discovered in 1969.
On 8 October 2013 the discovery of a bronze tablet from fifth century BC in the urban sanctuary was announced. The tablet has a dedication of eighteen lines written in the Achaean alphabet, the longest Achaean inscription ever discovered in Magna Graecia. | <urn:uuid:6cc4eda9-baa5-4606-bdc7-9170a1132782> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Caulonia-%28ancient-city%29 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00472.warc.gz | en | 0.980261 | 1,227 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.6820812821... | 1 | Caulonia or Caulon (Ancient Greek: Καυλωνία Kaulōnía; also spelled Kaulonia or Kaulon) was an ancient city of Magna Graecia on the shore of the Ionian Sea. At some point after the destruction of the city by Rome in 200 BC, the inhabitants moved to a location further inland. There they founded Stilida, which developed into the modern town Stilo.
Since 1863 AD the name Caulonia has also been used by the city formerly known as Castelvetere. The city changed its name to Caulonia in honor of the ancient city, which was mistakenly believed to have been located in its territory. Today the ruins of the ancient city can be found near Monasterace in the Province of Reggio Calabria, Calabria, Italy. Some of the artefacts which have been excavated at the site can now be seen in the Monasterace Archeological Museum.
The city was located between the mouth of the Stilaro river to the south and the mouth of the Assi river to the north. In ancient times the mouth of the Assi was located slightly further to the south. Punta Stilo, the "Cape of Columns", is a gentle arc-shaped headland located immediately north of the site. In ancient times the shoreline of Caulonia lay 300 meter further seawards. More than one hundred fluted columns which have been discovered on the seabed in front of Caulonia stood then on a broad arc-shaped headland. This headland probably did not have natural or artificial facilities which could provide protected anchorage for ships. The recession of the coastline started around 400 BC and ended in the 1st century AD. It was the result of a tectonic phase which caused landward rise and submergence of the seafloor. The shoreline stabilized in the period from the 1st century AD to the present. The walls of the city enclosed an area of approximately 35 to 45 hectares (110 acres).
There is no literary evidence for the foundation date of Caulonia, but archeological evidence shows that it was founded early in the second half of the seventh century BC. Both Strabo and Pausanias mention that the city was founded by Achaean Greek colonists. Pausanias also gives the name of the oekist, or founder, as Typhon of Aegium. Others sources such as Pseudo-Scymnus claim that it was founded by Croton. A. J. Graham does not consider these two options to be mutually exclusive because the oekist and settlers could have been invited by Croton.
It has been thought that Caulonia was ruled by Croton for some time, but A. J. Graham considers this uncertain. The fact that Caulonia minted its own coins in the sixth century BC suggests that it was independent. Also, the claim of Croton over such a long stretch of coast close to its rival Locri would have been risky. According to Thucydides Caulonia supplied Athens with timber for ships during the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC). The store of timber at Caulonia was attacked and burned by forces from Syracuse.
In 389 BC the city was conquered by Dionysius I of Syracuse, who transplanted its citizens to Syracuse and gave them citizenship and an exemption from taxes for five years. He then levelled the city to the ground and gave its territory to his ally Locri. Apparently it was refounded by Dionysius II of Syracuse several decades later. Dionysius II probably gave control over the city to Locri. Archaeological evidence confirms that the city was deserted for some time in the fourth century BC.
This was not the end of misfortune for the city however, for it was razed two more times. It was destroyed during the Pyrrhic War (280–275 BC) and taken by the Campanians, who formed the largest contingent of allies in the army of Rome. In 200 BC the town was completely destroyed by the Romans, when it sided with Hannibal during the Punic Wars. It was probably around this time that the ancient site of Caulonia, directly on the Ionian coast, was abandoned in favor of a more protected site inland. About 200 years later when the city is mentioned by Strabo, it is described by him as "situated before a valley" and deserted.
The first archaeological excavations were conducted between 1911 and 1913 by Paolo Orsi.
The excavation area is named "Saggio SAS II" and topologically "San Marco nord-est". It is bordered by the Ionian Sea on the east, the Taranto-Reggio Calabria railway on the west, the Assi river on the north and the "casemate" area on the south.
In 1969 a mosaic depicting a dragon was discovered in what is now called the "House of the Dragon". It was first exhibited in the Museo Nazionale della Magna Grecia, but was restored and transferred to the Monasterace Archeological Museum in 2012.
In 2012 the archaeologist Francesco Cuteri and his team discovered a mosaic floor of 25 square meters. Dating to late 4th century BC, it is one of the largest mosaics from the Hellenistic period found in Southern Italy. It was discovered in what is thought to have been a thermal bathhouse. The mosaic is divided into nine polychrome squares and another space with a polychrome rosette at the entrance of the room. It depicts a dragon in its center, comparable to the mosaic discovered in 1969.
On 8 October 2013 the discovery of a bronze tablet from fifth century BC in the urban sanctuary was announced. The tablet has a dedication of eighteen lines written in the Achaean alphabet, the longest Achaean inscription ever discovered in Magna Graecia. | 1,273 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Supplies could not move efficiently when there were no roads; and the Quartermaster quickly found himself accountable for maintaining sections of the military road which connected Fort Leavenworth and Fort Gibson. With so much material being hauled overland, Swords was diligent in repairing the roads over which his equipment and supplies could be moved, but the elements sometimes were against him.
The spring and summer of 1844 were rainy and the roads became quagmires. The rivers, higher than ever before, tore away the bridges that forded them. The military road to Fort Leavenworth, completed to Spring River for a distance of 170 miles, crossed a number of rivers and streams. Most of the bridges were carried away or were so badly damaged as to be unsafe. The only direct communication, "from the North-west part of Missouri, Iowa &c. to Arkansas and Texas," the road had become a route used by emigrants, and Swords was ordered to restore the road and its bridges, particularly the one over Sugar Creek. Three trips were required before the road was restored.
Partly because of the difficulty in transporting supplies over the wet morass western prairies became in the spring, Captain Terrett submitted a special requisition for a "pontoon" wagon to be used by Company A of the Dragoons. General Kearny approved the requisition in December 1843; and in the spring, two wagons were purchased from Joseph Murphy of St. Louis for $180 each, including cover, feed trough, lead bars, etc. This wagon maker built the famous Murphy covered wagons, which were used in the West much as the higher, swayback Conestoga wagon had been used in the East.
The pontoon wagon was an invention of Jesup and involved the use of India rubber cloth, was capable of sustaining heavy loads afloat and was intended to afford a ready means of crossing rivers while on the march. The Quartermaster Department authorized its use in 1837, and the wagons were use experimentally during the Florida wars. Later, the wagon saw duty during the Mexican conflict. They were intended to be used only as light transports and not as regular haulers, however, and when used as the latter tended to break down.
A Forage and Wagon Master was essential; and shortly after his arrival, Swords suggested that Thomas W. Higgins, who had served as Quartermaster Sergeant in the 1st Regiment of Dragoons, be appointed to the position. Higgins was a master builder and had been with Swords at Leavenworth. The recommendation of Swords was not accepted, and on September 7, Mr. John McKee, Jr. was ordered to report to Camp Scott as Wagon and Forage Master. When McKee left in 1844, Swords wanted to hire John Stook, but he again was overruled and W. Meek was employed. By fall in 1845, Swords was complaining of the profligate character of the man and asking that he be removed. The subject was touchy, because Meek was the personal appointment of General Jesup, who apparently was impressed by Meek's "gallantry during the last war." Not until the next year was Meek finally relieved.
To supply the dragoon horses and animals used by the Quartermaster Department, large amounts of hay, corn and oats were needed. Fortunately there were settlers in the area, who were able to bid on the contracts for furnishing forage. In 1842 Daniel Waldo delivered 12,000 bushels of corn at 29 ¾ cents a bushel to Fort Scott, a considerably lower rate than had been asked by five other bidders, one of whom had a top bid of 47 cents. Prices rose over the years, however, and in 1845, Swords accepted a low bid from D. Johnson for 800 bushels of corn at 45 cents a bushel. Storing the corn and oats was a problem, for as late as 1847, there were no cribs at the post.
Hay was more easily obtained, but in 1847, the Quartermaster faced with having two companies of mounted volunteers wintering at the post, had barely enough hay on hand to feed his own horses, mules, and oxen. Although he issued proposals for bids on hay immediately, the Quartermaster reported the "season is far advanced, and the prairies on fire all around us," which explained the prices asked.
The blacksmith shop at the post was supervised by the Quartermaster, who at times had as many as two smiths working for him. When fresh animals were needed, the Quartermaster Department paid for them. Swords purchased " some very good horses of at least an average quality for $50," in 1844, while other prices for sound horses ranged from $65 for a sorrel to $45 for a black, bay or gray. Worn out or sick animals were sold at auction. In the third quarter of 1844, alone, a Board of Survey inspected eight horses, 19 mules, 38 oxen (three of which had died) and declared them useless. Dragoons often became very attached to their mounts and parted with them only with difficulty. Quartermaster returns carried liniments and salves to use on sick and galled animals, but there was no veterinary service at this time.
Between 1842 and 1853, the major routes of transportation which affected the operation of Fort Scott were the Missouri River and the military road. The majority of the supplies that were necessary to build and maintain the fort were transported by steamboats on the Missouri River from St. Louis to Fort Leavenworth and then they were transported in freight wagons to Fort Scott by way of the military road.
By the 1840s, there was regular steamboat traffic on the Missouri River between Fort Leavenworth, Westport (Kansas City) and St. Louis, except during the winter when the river was closed by ice. The river was very difficult to navigate because it was extremely shallow and the current constantly changed the depth and location of the shipping channel. The use of steamboats as a means of transportation was very practical and economical, but it was also very dangerous. Two of the most common causes of steamboat disasters were the explosion of the vessel's boilers from excessive pressure, and colliding with submerged logs which penetrated the hull of the vessel and caused it to sink.
The primary means of overland transportation in the 1840s was accomplished by the use of domesticated animals (oxen, horses, and mules), wagons, carts and miscellaneous wheeled vehicles. The oxen, draft horses and mules were normally used to pull the heavy freight wagons (Conestoga, Murphy, and Halladay) that transported large quantities of supplies and materials. The smaller vehicles (road wagons, carts, and Dearbon wagons) were pulled by lightweight horses which could also be used for riding.
The blacksmith, wheelwright, farrier, harness maker, and saddler were the principle trades that were necessary to maintain the wagons and animals that were used in overland transportation. In the larger cities, each tradesman normally had his own shop or business, but on the frontier one man was often skilled in many trades (i.e. blacksmith, farrier, and wheelwright). The blacksmith produced tools, nails, hinges, and other necessary items from iron and steel. A farrier was a blacksmith who specialized in shoeing horses, oxen and mules. The wheelwright was a specialist who made wagon wheels of all sizes and could often make an entire wagon. The harness maker and saddler were tradesmen who produced different types of leather saddles, bridles, halters, and harness that were necessary for the proper efficient use of the appropriate animals.
The information for this section was taken from the Historic Furnishings Report for the Quartermaster Storehouse at Fort Scott by Sally Johnson Ketcham and from an article written by an anonymous staff member at Fort Scott National Historic Site.
Last updated: October 11, 2017 | <urn:uuid:96e8f904-bfa8-495c-bb6e-b9a34646a991> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.nps.gov/fosc/learn/education/qmsuppfort.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594209.12/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119035851-20200119063851-00559.warc.gz | en | 0.988872 | 1,648 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.35735011100... | 4 | Supplies could not move efficiently when there were no roads; and the Quartermaster quickly found himself accountable for maintaining sections of the military road which connected Fort Leavenworth and Fort Gibson. With so much material being hauled overland, Swords was diligent in repairing the roads over which his equipment and supplies could be moved, but the elements sometimes were against him.
The spring and summer of 1844 were rainy and the roads became quagmires. The rivers, higher than ever before, tore away the bridges that forded them. The military road to Fort Leavenworth, completed to Spring River for a distance of 170 miles, crossed a number of rivers and streams. Most of the bridges were carried away or were so badly damaged as to be unsafe. The only direct communication, "from the North-west part of Missouri, Iowa &c. to Arkansas and Texas," the road had become a route used by emigrants, and Swords was ordered to restore the road and its bridges, particularly the one over Sugar Creek. Three trips were required before the road was restored.
Partly because of the difficulty in transporting supplies over the wet morass western prairies became in the spring, Captain Terrett submitted a special requisition for a "pontoon" wagon to be used by Company A of the Dragoons. General Kearny approved the requisition in December 1843; and in the spring, two wagons were purchased from Joseph Murphy of St. Louis for $180 each, including cover, feed trough, lead bars, etc. This wagon maker built the famous Murphy covered wagons, which were used in the West much as the higher, swayback Conestoga wagon had been used in the East.
The pontoon wagon was an invention of Jesup and involved the use of India rubber cloth, was capable of sustaining heavy loads afloat and was intended to afford a ready means of crossing rivers while on the march. The Quartermaster Department authorized its use in 1837, and the wagons were use experimentally during the Florida wars. Later, the wagon saw duty during the Mexican conflict. They were intended to be used only as light transports and not as regular haulers, however, and when used as the latter tended to break down.
A Forage and Wagon Master was essential; and shortly after his arrival, Swords suggested that Thomas W. Higgins, who had served as Quartermaster Sergeant in the 1st Regiment of Dragoons, be appointed to the position. Higgins was a master builder and had been with Swords at Leavenworth. The recommendation of Swords was not accepted, and on September 7, Mr. John McKee, Jr. was ordered to report to Camp Scott as Wagon and Forage Master. When McKee left in 1844, Swords wanted to hire John Stook, but he again was overruled and W. Meek was employed. By fall in 1845, Swords was complaining of the profligate character of the man and asking that he be removed. The subject was touchy, because Meek was the personal appointment of General Jesup, who apparently was impressed by Meek's "gallantry during the last war." Not until the next year was Meek finally relieved.
To supply the dragoon horses and animals used by the Quartermaster Department, large amounts of hay, corn and oats were needed. Fortunately there were settlers in the area, who were able to bid on the contracts for furnishing forage. In 1842 Daniel Waldo delivered 12,000 bushels of corn at 29 ¾ cents a bushel to Fort Scott, a considerably lower rate than had been asked by five other bidders, one of whom had a top bid of 47 cents. Prices rose over the years, however, and in 1845, Swords accepted a low bid from D. Johnson for 800 bushels of corn at 45 cents a bushel. Storing the corn and oats was a problem, for as late as 1847, there were no cribs at the post.
Hay was more easily obtained, but in 1847, the Quartermaster faced with having two companies of mounted volunteers wintering at the post, had barely enough hay on hand to feed his own horses, mules, and oxen. Although he issued proposals for bids on hay immediately, the Quartermaster reported the "season is far advanced, and the prairies on fire all around us," which explained the prices asked.
The blacksmith shop at the post was supervised by the Quartermaster, who at times had as many as two smiths working for him. When fresh animals were needed, the Quartermaster Department paid for them. Swords purchased " some very good horses of at least an average quality for $50," in 1844, while other prices for sound horses ranged from $65 for a sorrel to $45 for a black, bay or gray. Worn out or sick animals were sold at auction. In the third quarter of 1844, alone, a Board of Survey inspected eight horses, 19 mules, 38 oxen (three of which had died) and declared them useless. Dragoons often became very attached to their mounts and parted with them only with difficulty. Quartermaster returns carried liniments and salves to use on sick and galled animals, but there was no veterinary service at this time.
Between 1842 and 1853, the major routes of transportation which affected the operation of Fort Scott were the Missouri River and the military road. The majority of the supplies that were necessary to build and maintain the fort were transported by steamboats on the Missouri River from St. Louis to Fort Leavenworth and then they were transported in freight wagons to Fort Scott by way of the military road.
By the 1840s, there was regular steamboat traffic on the Missouri River between Fort Leavenworth, Westport (Kansas City) and St. Louis, except during the winter when the river was closed by ice. The river was very difficult to navigate because it was extremely shallow and the current constantly changed the depth and location of the shipping channel. The use of steamboats as a means of transportation was very practical and economical, but it was also very dangerous. Two of the most common causes of steamboat disasters were the explosion of the vessel's boilers from excessive pressure, and colliding with submerged logs which penetrated the hull of the vessel and caused it to sink.
The primary means of overland transportation in the 1840s was accomplished by the use of domesticated animals (oxen, horses, and mules), wagons, carts and miscellaneous wheeled vehicles. The oxen, draft horses and mules were normally used to pull the heavy freight wagons (Conestoga, Murphy, and Halladay) that transported large quantities of supplies and materials. The smaller vehicles (road wagons, carts, and Dearbon wagons) were pulled by lightweight horses which could also be used for riding.
The blacksmith, wheelwright, farrier, harness maker, and saddler were the principle trades that were necessary to maintain the wagons and animals that were used in overland transportation. In the larger cities, each tradesman normally had his own shop or business, but on the frontier one man was often skilled in many trades (i.e. blacksmith, farrier, and wheelwright). The blacksmith produced tools, nails, hinges, and other necessary items from iron and steel. A farrier was a blacksmith who specialized in shoeing horses, oxen and mules. The wheelwright was a specialist who made wagon wheels of all sizes and could often make an entire wagon. The harness maker and saddler were tradesmen who produced different types of leather saddles, bridles, halters, and harness that were necessary for the proper efficient use of the appropriate animals.
The information for this section was taken from the Historic Furnishings Report for the Quartermaster Storehouse at Fort Scott by Sally Johnson Ketcham and from an article written by an anonymous staff member at Fort Scott National Historic Site.
Last updated: October 11, 2017 | 1,724 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In the play Macbeth, Shakespeare uses many symbols to add to his story. His use of blood, water, light, dark, rampant animals, and even the witches are examples of how he used symbols to add depth to his play. These symbols were often times recurring and they were all related to the central plot of the play. Shakespeare used blood in this play several times. Blood is first mentioned by Macbeth shortly after he had slain Duncan. The subject of blood was introduced again when Duncan’s murder was brought up by Lady Macbeth, as ell as others later in the play.
In the aforementioned circumstances, blood was used to symbolize the guilt, and pain that Macbeth and his wife were experiencing as a by-product of the murderous rampage which consumed Macbeth, and later drove Lady Macbeth to suicide. If blood symbolized death, guilt, and pain, then surely water symbolized cleansing and peace, and is used in this regard in many literary pieces. In fact, even in the bible, Pontious Pilate washed his hands in water after sentencing Jesus to be crucified.
However, Macbeth mentions that all of the water in the sea would turn red from the blood on his hands; which leads me to the conclusion that blood was a much more powerful symbol than water in this play. In Macbeth, light and dark was used in a classic sense. Light symbolized all that is good, and it is no coincidence that when a scene included Banquo or another of the innocent victims in this play, the setting was bright. On the other hand, when a scene involved murder or the supernatural, such as the cenes involving the witches, a dark setting was used.
The strange acting animals which were spoken of periodically during the play were used to symbolize chaos. When Duncan was murdered, Shakespeare used these irate animals to show that something horrible and irreconcilable had occurred in the kingdom. The use of these animals was extended to symbolize the unrest that Macbeth was personally experiencing due to the witches’ prophetic statements. Furthermore, the Witches themselves are used to symbolize the nexplained, or supernatural, which was held in high regard at the time this play was written.
Shakespeare used symbols in many ways throughout the course of Macbeth. Blood, Water, Light, Dark, Animals, and the supernatural were The. major symbols that recurred throughout the play and were used in a way so that the audience could really feel the emotions of the characters. Shakespeare’s s utilization of symbols is a big part of what has made him one of the greatest playwrights of all time, and has perpetuated the performance of his plays for future generations. | <urn:uuid:8e2a70b1-5d8e-401d-9b10-c3ba3f69cad5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://mypaynetapps.com/the-use-of-symbols-in-macbeth/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00324.warc.gz | en | 0.985882 | 563 | 3.28125 | 3 | [
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-0.182162642478... | 4 | In the play Macbeth, Shakespeare uses many symbols to add to his story. His use of blood, water, light, dark, rampant animals, and even the witches are examples of how he used symbols to add depth to his play. These symbols were often times recurring and they were all related to the central plot of the play. Shakespeare used blood in this play several times. Blood is first mentioned by Macbeth shortly after he had slain Duncan. The subject of blood was introduced again when Duncan’s murder was brought up by Lady Macbeth, as ell as others later in the play.
In the aforementioned circumstances, blood was used to symbolize the guilt, and pain that Macbeth and his wife were experiencing as a by-product of the murderous rampage which consumed Macbeth, and later drove Lady Macbeth to suicide. If blood symbolized death, guilt, and pain, then surely water symbolized cleansing and peace, and is used in this regard in many literary pieces. In fact, even in the bible, Pontious Pilate washed his hands in water after sentencing Jesus to be crucified.
However, Macbeth mentions that all of the water in the sea would turn red from the blood on his hands; which leads me to the conclusion that blood was a much more powerful symbol than water in this play. In Macbeth, light and dark was used in a classic sense. Light symbolized all that is good, and it is no coincidence that when a scene included Banquo or another of the innocent victims in this play, the setting was bright. On the other hand, when a scene involved murder or the supernatural, such as the cenes involving the witches, a dark setting was used.
The strange acting animals which were spoken of periodically during the play were used to symbolize chaos. When Duncan was murdered, Shakespeare used these irate animals to show that something horrible and irreconcilable had occurred in the kingdom. The use of these animals was extended to symbolize the unrest that Macbeth was personally experiencing due to the witches’ prophetic statements. Furthermore, the Witches themselves are used to symbolize the nexplained, or supernatural, which was held in high regard at the time this play was written.
Shakespeare used symbols in many ways throughout the course of Macbeth. Blood, Water, Light, Dark, Animals, and the supernatural were The. major symbols that recurred throughout the play and were used in a way so that the audience could really feel the emotions of the characters. Shakespeare’s s utilization of symbols is a big part of what has made him one of the greatest playwrights of all time, and has perpetuated the performance of his plays for future generations. | 541 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The last traditional Chief of the Crow Nation, Plenty Coups was a visionary that led his people from the ?Buffalo Days? into the 20th century. He was an accomplished statesman and ambassador well known by several U.S. Presidents and foreign leaders. Chief Plenty Coups best illustrated the close bond between the U.S. and the Crow Nation when, in 1921, he offered his war bonnet and coups sticks at the dedication of the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. In his speech, he promised the allegiance of Crow warriors to fight any enemy of the United States. His promise has been upheld countless times in wars or armed conflicts since that gathering. The Chief was a leader by example ? he was a productive farmer and stockman, expert steward of his 1885 allotment and a supporter of education. | <urn:uuid:50c1df39-a0ee-492f-be4c-6abbf4c04da9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://coltidolart.com/product/plenty-coups-and-shot-in-the-hand-giclee/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250619323.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124100832-20200124125832-00412.warc.gz | en | 0.987242 | 166 | 3.359375 | 3 | [
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0.059505756... | 11 | The last traditional Chief of the Crow Nation, Plenty Coups was a visionary that led his people from the ?Buffalo Days? into the 20th century. He was an accomplished statesman and ambassador well known by several U.S. Presidents and foreign leaders. Chief Plenty Coups best illustrated the close bond between the U.S. and the Crow Nation when, in 1921, he offered his war bonnet and coups sticks at the dedication of the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier. In his speech, he promised the allegiance of Crow warriors to fight any enemy of the United States. His promise has been upheld countless times in wars or armed conflicts since that gathering. The Chief was a leader by example ? he was a productive farmer and stockman, expert steward of his 1885 allotment and a supporter of education. | 172 | ENGLISH | 1 |
No one person is perfect. Mistakes, just like water, are an essential part of life. It’s not for our faults that we should be judged; rather it’s the way we learn to accept our human nature and change for the better. In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s Puritanical novel, The Scarlet Letter, the main character, Hester Prynne, commits an offense of infidelity against her husband, Roger Chillingworth. From then on her secret affair with the Puritan minister will always be on her mind considering the degradation she was subjected to and the infamous letter that will be forever embedded on her bosom and her child Pearl — the fruit of her sin.
Hester was a woman that was well ahead of her time; she displayed the traits of being courageous while being passionate and independent. An attribute that takes someone to be courageous, passionate and independent is strength, which is required for one to endure. These were traits that were uncommon for a woman to possess during the time when Hawthorne wrote this novel, but even more unusual to find in a woman who was convicted of committing adultery.
Hester Prynne displays her trait of courage and passion when she stands up to Governor Bellingham. Bellingham and his assistants confront her custody of her daughter Pearl because they think it would be better for Pearl to be raised in a more Christian-like household. But Hester, being bold and strong, stands up and responds, “I can teach my little Pearl what I have learned from this,” (107) referring to the scarlet letter. Bellingham then follows by indicating that the letter is precisely the reason for wanting Pearl to be removed from her care. This is a remarkable scene, where it is rare to see an aberrant adulterous woman speak up for herself to a person of much higher authority. But, eventually Arthur Dimmesdale, Pearl’s unidentified father, preaches on Hester’s behalf and persuades Bellingham to permit Hester continue her care.
Early in the novel, Hawthorne explains that Hester was forced into a marriage to a man she did not truly love, and after being separated for a long amount of time, she became attracted to another man. Then later, she became a victim of a crime, which she was severely punished, despite the fact that she could only be accountable for half of the incident. Hester was much stronger and more courageous than her partner in adultery. Arthur Dimmesdale her secret lover was a minister in a Puritan church, who hides his sin from his congregation in order to maintain his reputation. He tells Hester, “happy for you Hester that wear the scarlet letter openly upon your bosom!
Mine burns in secret (177).” Meanwhile Hester had enough audacity to stand alone with out a known partner in crime. She respected Arthur’s decision to stay silent without a word against him. Yet Hester accepted the consequence that came along with committing adultery. While learning to live life after the embarrassment she went through at the scaffold and the life long punishment of having to wear the embedded letter “A” on her chest. That scarlet letter made her stronger, and a woman to be later admired from her Puritan counterparts.
In the early chapters of this story, Hester’s social life was virtually eliminated as a result of her shameful history. Knowing that all she had after she walked out of the prison door was her letter on her chest and beloved daughter Pearl by her side. She brought home her income by working as the town seamstress. Hester devoted the remainder of her time for creating garments for the poor. Overlooking the fact that they treat her badly in spite of her good intentions. She was even the object of ridicule to young children who crept up to her house to spy on her.
But through the seven years since she had Pearl, Hester’s reputation changed. She was a woman full of passion for the needy and everyone else who befriended her. If asked about the woman with badge, strangers would respond, “…the town’s own Hester, who is so kind to the poor, so helpful to the sick, so comforting to the afflicted! (159)” Hawthorne goes as far to state that, “the scarlet letter had the effect of the cross on a nun’s bosom.” This effect gave her practically access into every home. The “A” which formerly stood for “Adultery,” took on another meaning to the townspeople, to them it meant “Able” (158). For Hester to change her façade from an adulterous woman to a woman everyone loved.
Hester’s “badge of shame,” made her a stronger person. The symbol made her stronger because she had to walk through town being harassed by the inhabitants of Boston. Yet, Hester wore the letter with pride and courage that it would not get her down and she did live her life in solitude but yet transformed it in to being a successful seamstress which provided support for her and Pearl. From the appearance of it she turned a demeaning scarlet letter into a well-tailored accessory by embroidering it with gold thread. Hester was also aware that her sin was immoral, but by being open about it she was able to become a stronger person. Hester proved that by repenting and repelling sin, it is capable of making one stronger. Hester was truly an “Able” woman.
Cite this page
No one person is perfect. (2016, Jun 25). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/no-one-person-is-perfect-essay | <urn:uuid:aa760754-0ca8-4c78-9a34-d89beda3275d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/no-one-person-is-perfect-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250608062.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123011418-20200123040418-00037.warc.gz | en | 0.982047 | 1,199 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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-0.02908207103... | 1 | No one person is perfect. Mistakes, just like water, are an essential part of life. It’s not for our faults that we should be judged; rather it’s the way we learn to accept our human nature and change for the better. In Nathaniel Hawthorne’s Puritanical novel, The Scarlet Letter, the main character, Hester Prynne, commits an offense of infidelity against her husband, Roger Chillingworth. From then on her secret affair with the Puritan minister will always be on her mind considering the degradation she was subjected to and the infamous letter that will be forever embedded on her bosom and her child Pearl — the fruit of her sin.
Hester was a woman that was well ahead of her time; she displayed the traits of being courageous while being passionate and independent. An attribute that takes someone to be courageous, passionate and independent is strength, which is required for one to endure. These were traits that were uncommon for a woman to possess during the time when Hawthorne wrote this novel, but even more unusual to find in a woman who was convicted of committing adultery.
Hester Prynne displays her trait of courage and passion when she stands up to Governor Bellingham. Bellingham and his assistants confront her custody of her daughter Pearl because they think it would be better for Pearl to be raised in a more Christian-like household. But Hester, being bold and strong, stands up and responds, “I can teach my little Pearl what I have learned from this,” (107) referring to the scarlet letter. Bellingham then follows by indicating that the letter is precisely the reason for wanting Pearl to be removed from her care. This is a remarkable scene, where it is rare to see an aberrant adulterous woman speak up for herself to a person of much higher authority. But, eventually Arthur Dimmesdale, Pearl’s unidentified father, preaches on Hester’s behalf and persuades Bellingham to permit Hester continue her care.
Early in the novel, Hawthorne explains that Hester was forced into a marriage to a man she did not truly love, and after being separated for a long amount of time, she became attracted to another man. Then later, she became a victim of a crime, which she was severely punished, despite the fact that she could only be accountable for half of the incident. Hester was much stronger and more courageous than her partner in adultery. Arthur Dimmesdale her secret lover was a minister in a Puritan church, who hides his sin from his congregation in order to maintain his reputation. He tells Hester, “happy for you Hester that wear the scarlet letter openly upon your bosom!
Mine burns in secret (177).” Meanwhile Hester had enough audacity to stand alone with out a known partner in crime. She respected Arthur’s decision to stay silent without a word against him. Yet Hester accepted the consequence that came along with committing adultery. While learning to live life after the embarrassment she went through at the scaffold and the life long punishment of having to wear the embedded letter “A” on her chest. That scarlet letter made her stronger, and a woman to be later admired from her Puritan counterparts.
In the early chapters of this story, Hester’s social life was virtually eliminated as a result of her shameful history. Knowing that all she had after she walked out of the prison door was her letter on her chest and beloved daughter Pearl by her side. She brought home her income by working as the town seamstress. Hester devoted the remainder of her time for creating garments for the poor. Overlooking the fact that they treat her badly in spite of her good intentions. She was even the object of ridicule to young children who crept up to her house to spy on her.
But through the seven years since she had Pearl, Hester’s reputation changed. She was a woman full of passion for the needy and everyone else who befriended her. If asked about the woman with badge, strangers would respond, “…the town’s own Hester, who is so kind to the poor, so helpful to the sick, so comforting to the afflicted! (159)” Hawthorne goes as far to state that, “the scarlet letter had the effect of the cross on a nun’s bosom.” This effect gave her practically access into every home. The “A” which formerly stood for “Adultery,” took on another meaning to the townspeople, to them it meant “Able” (158). For Hester to change her façade from an adulterous woman to a woman everyone loved.
Hester’s “badge of shame,” made her a stronger person. The symbol made her stronger because she had to walk through town being harassed by the inhabitants of Boston. Yet, Hester wore the letter with pride and courage that it would not get her down and she did live her life in solitude but yet transformed it in to being a successful seamstress which provided support for her and Pearl. From the appearance of it she turned a demeaning scarlet letter into a well-tailored accessory by embroidering it with gold thread. Hester was also aware that her sin was immoral, but by being open about it she was able to become a stronger person. Hester proved that by repenting and repelling sin, it is capable of making one stronger. Hester was truly an “Able” woman.
Cite this page
No one person is perfect. (2016, Jun 25). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/no-one-person-is-perfect-essay | 1,149 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In early 2014, the world was shocked by the news of an Ebola outbreak in West Africa.
More than 20,000 people were reportedly infected with the virus that killed over 60% of those who caught it. The Chinese government was quick to respond.
The Ebola virus was named after a river in the northern region of the Democratic Republic of Congo. It was first identified in 1976 by scientists as an extremely dangerous virus in the Ebola River Valley.
The virus is highly infectious, and deadly.
Scientific study has revealed that fruit bats are the most common carriers of Ebola. They can spread the virus to primates, such as monkeys, orangutan as well as humans. The virus spreads through direct contact with body fluids, such as blood.
The 2014 Ebola outbreak started in Guinea.
In December 2013, a two-year-old boy in Guinea began displaying symptoms of severe illness, including diarrhea and vomiting, reportedly after being bitten by a fruit bat. Four days later, he was dead.
After the boy’s death several members of his family and many of their neighbours in their village became ill with what was confirmed as Ebola. Within two months, 80 cases and 59 deaths were reported in Guinea.
By May 2014, the Ebola outbreak had spread from Guinea to the neighbouring countries of Sierra Leone and Liberia. By this time, 38 Chinese medical workers were serving on the frontline in West Africa.
On March 28, 2014, a first batch of medical supplies sent by China’s National Health Commission left the port of Guangzhou, bound for Africa. The Central Military Commission wanted the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) Medical University to set up a medical team that would be sent to Liberia. Its task would be to build and operate an Ebola treatment centre.
Song Caiping, a member of PLA Medical Team in Liberia said: “We always had to put on a protective suit before entering the ward. It would take at least 40 minutes to get into and out of a suit even for the most adept. Some might take an hour. But if we neglected anything we risked being infected. The entire process of putting on and taking off the protective suit involved 41 steps.”
The Chinese-built Ebola Treatment Centre opened in Monrovia, Liberia, in November 2014. In a remarkable display of speed, it had taken exactly a month for the Chinese Medical Team to set up the fully-functioning, 100-bed clinic.
You Jianping, a chief nurse of the medical team commented on the unusual challenges, “we found it very hard to inject into his (the patient’s) vein. Firstly, the veins were difficult to see.
“Secondly, he’d been dehydrated by vomiting, diarrhea and fasting so his veins hardly stood out.
“Thirdly, after a while in the sick ward our safety glasses would be misted up by sweat. Plus, we were wearing three layers of gloves.”
In early January 2015, blood tests performed on three Ebola patients at the clinic, all proved negative. Two days later, the results were still negative. According to WHO guidelines, this meant that the three patients had made a full recovery. | <urn:uuid:8763896a-5e02-4412-a14c-e0e0a321756a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://africa.cgtn.com/2018/10/30/faces-of-africa-compassion-without-borders-episode-2-the-battle-against-ebola/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00180.warc.gz | en | 0.98555 | 656 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.01175428368151... | 3 | In early 2014, the world was shocked by the news of an Ebola outbreak in West Africa.
More than 20,000 people were reportedly infected with the virus that killed over 60% of those who caught it. The Chinese government was quick to respond.
The Ebola virus was named after a river in the northern region of the Democratic Republic of Congo. It was first identified in 1976 by scientists as an extremely dangerous virus in the Ebola River Valley.
The virus is highly infectious, and deadly.
Scientific study has revealed that fruit bats are the most common carriers of Ebola. They can spread the virus to primates, such as monkeys, orangutan as well as humans. The virus spreads through direct contact with body fluids, such as blood.
The 2014 Ebola outbreak started in Guinea.
In December 2013, a two-year-old boy in Guinea began displaying symptoms of severe illness, including diarrhea and vomiting, reportedly after being bitten by a fruit bat. Four days later, he was dead.
After the boy’s death several members of his family and many of their neighbours in their village became ill with what was confirmed as Ebola. Within two months, 80 cases and 59 deaths were reported in Guinea.
By May 2014, the Ebola outbreak had spread from Guinea to the neighbouring countries of Sierra Leone and Liberia. By this time, 38 Chinese medical workers were serving on the frontline in West Africa.
On March 28, 2014, a first batch of medical supplies sent by China’s National Health Commission left the port of Guangzhou, bound for Africa. The Central Military Commission wanted the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) Medical University to set up a medical team that would be sent to Liberia. Its task would be to build and operate an Ebola treatment centre.
Song Caiping, a member of PLA Medical Team in Liberia said: “We always had to put on a protective suit before entering the ward. It would take at least 40 minutes to get into and out of a suit even for the most adept. Some might take an hour. But if we neglected anything we risked being infected. The entire process of putting on and taking off the protective suit involved 41 steps.”
The Chinese-built Ebola Treatment Centre opened in Monrovia, Liberia, in November 2014. In a remarkable display of speed, it had taken exactly a month for the Chinese Medical Team to set up the fully-functioning, 100-bed clinic.
You Jianping, a chief nurse of the medical team commented on the unusual challenges, “we found it very hard to inject into his (the patient’s) vein. Firstly, the veins were difficult to see.
“Secondly, he’d been dehydrated by vomiting, diarrhea and fasting so his veins hardly stood out.
“Thirdly, after a while in the sick ward our safety glasses would be misted up by sweat. Plus, we were wearing three layers of gloves.”
In early January 2015, blood tests performed on three Ebola patients at the clinic, all proved negative. Two days later, the results were still negative. According to WHO guidelines, this meant that the three patients had made a full recovery. | 675 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Bible depicts two characters named "Lazarus". The most recognized character is that of Lazarus of Bethany, also known as Saint Lazarus or Lazarus of the Four Days, who was a friend of Jesus, the brother of Martha and Mary. The miracle of Jesus in the Gospel of John, whereby Jesus restores Lazarus to life four days after his death (John 11). In the various narratives on this character, he is sometimes vested as an apostle, or a bishop.
The second character, Lazarus found in the Gospel of Luke (Luke 16:19-31) tells of the relationship in life and in death, between an unnamed rich man (the traditional name for a rich man is "Dives") and a poor beggar named Lazarus. Lazarus was venerated as a patron saint of lepers and forms the basis of one of two missions of the Military and Hospitaller Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem which is dedicated to two ideals: aid to those suffering from the dreadful disease of leprosy and the defense of the Christian faith. Lazarus is often depicted as a starving beggar at the foot of the stairs leading up to a rich man's house, and who was covered in sores that even the dogs came to lick those sores.
The Gospel of John can be divided into four sections: a) Prologue (John 1); b) Jesus' ministry (the "book of signs" - John 2-12): A narrative of Jesus' public ministry consisting of seven miracles or "signs" culminating with the raising of Lazarus form the dead; c) passion and resurrection (the "book of glory" - John 13-20); d) Epilogue (John 21). For convenience and interest, the paragraph describing Jesus raising Lazarus from the dead follows:
38 Jesus, once more deeply moved, came to the tomb. It was a cave with a stone laid across the entrance.
39 “Take away the stone,” he said. “But, Lord,” said Martha, the sister of the dead man, “by this time there is a bad odor, for he has been there four days.”
40 Then Jesus said, “Did I not tell you that if you believe, you will see the glory of God?”
41 So they took away the stone. Then Jesus looked up and said, “Father, I thank you that you have heard me.
42 I knew that you always hear me, but I said this for the benefit of the people standing here, that they may believe that you sent me.”
43 When he had said this, Jesus called in a loud voice, “Lazarus, come out!”
44 The dead man came out, his hands and feet wrapped with strips of linen, and a cloth around his face. Jesus said to them, “Take off the grave clothes and let him go.
Edited from: https://www.stlazarus.ca/content/oslj-st-lazarus.php
It is related that they separated there to go and preach the Gospel in different parts of the southeast of Gaul. Lazarus, of whom alone we have to treat here, went to Marseilles, and, having converted a number of its inhabitants to Christianity, became their first pastor. During the first persecution under Nero he hid himself in a crypt, over which the celebrated Abbey of St.-Victor was constructed in the fifth century. In this same crypt he was interred, when he shed his blood for the faith. During the new persecution of Domitian he was cast into prison and beheaded in a spot which is believed to be identical with a cave beneath the prison Saint-Lazare.
His body was later translated to Autun, and buried in the cathedral of that town. But the inhabitants of Marseilles claim to be in possession of his head which they still venerate. Like the other legends concerning the saints of the Palestinian group, this tradition, which was believed for several centuries and which still finds some advocates, has no solid foundation. It is in a writing, contained in an eleventh century manuscript, with some other documents relating to St. Magdalen of Vézelay, that we first read of Lazarus in connection with the voyage that brought Magdalen to Gaul. Before the middle of the eleventh century there does not seem to be the slightest trace of the tradition according to which the Palestinian saints came to Provence. At the beginning of the twelfth century, perhaps through a confusion of names, it was believed at Autun that the tomb of St. Lazarus was to be found in the cathedral dedicated to St. Nazarius.
A search was made and remains were discovered, which were solemnly translated and were considered to be those of him whom Christ raised from the dead, but it was not thought necessary to inquire why they should be found in France. The question, however, deserved to be examined with care, seeing that, according to a tradition of the Greek Church, the body of St. Lazarus had been brought to Constantinople, just as all the other saints of the Palestinian group were said to have died in the Orient, and to have been buried, translated, and honoured there. It is only in the thirteenth century that the belief that Lazarus had come to Gaul with his two sisters and had been Bishop of Marseilles spread in Provence.
It is true that a letter is cited (its origin is uncertain), written in 1040 by Pope Benedict IX on the occasion of the consecration of the new church of St.-Victor in which Lazarus is mentioned. But in this text the pope speaks only of relics of St. Lazarus, merely calling him the saint who was raised again to life. He does not speak of him as having lived in Provence, or as having been Bishop of Marseilles. The most ancient Provençal text alluding to the episcopacy of St. Lazarus is a passage in the "Otia imperialia" of Gervase of Tillbury (1212). Thus the belief in his Provençal apostolate is of very late date, and its supporters must produce more ancient and reliable documentary evidence. In the crypt of St.-Victor at Marseilles an epitaph of the fifth century has been discovered, which informs us that a bishop named Lazarus was buried there. In the opinion of the most competent archæologists, however, this personage is Lazarus, Bishop of Aix, who was consecrated at Marseilles about 407, and who, having had to abandon his see in 411, passed some time in Palestine, whence he returned to end his days in Marseilles. It is more than likely that it is the name of this bishop and his return from Palestine, that gave rise to the legend of the coming of the Biblical Lazarus to Provence, and his apostolate in the city of Marseilles. Source: New Advent | <urn:uuid:66329f53-819d-4b1d-b8aa-8bd9e528b54c> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.catholicnewsworld.com/2019/12/saint-december-17-st-lazarus-whom-jesus.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783342.96/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128215526-20200129005526-00073.warc.gz | en | 0.983296 | 1,431 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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-0.026599902659654... | 6 | The Bible depicts two characters named "Lazarus". The most recognized character is that of Lazarus of Bethany, also known as Saint Lazarus or Lazarus of the Four Days, who was a friend of Jesus, the brother of Martha and Mary. The miracle of Jesus in the Gospel of John, whereby Jesus restores Lazarus to life four days after his death (John 11). In the various narratives on this character, he is sometimes vested as an apostle, or a bishop.
The second character, Lazarus found in the Gospel of Luke (Luke 16:19-31) tells of the relationship in life and in death, between an unnamed rich man (the traditional name for a rich man is "Dives") and a poor beggar named Lazarus. Lazarus was venerated as a patron saint of lepers and forms the basis of one of two missions of the Military and Hospitaller Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem which is dedicated to two ideals: aid to those suffering from the dreadful disease of leprosy and the defense of the Christian faith. Lazarus is often depicted as a starving beggar at the foot of the stairs leading up to a rich man's house, and who was covered in sores that even the dogs came to lick those sores.
The Gospel of John can be divided into four sections: a) Prologue (John 1); b) Jesus' ministry (the "book of signs" - John 2-12): A narrative of Jesus' public ministry consisting of seven miracles or "signs" culminating with the raising of Lazarus form the dead; c) passion and resurrection (the "book of glory" - John 13-20); d) Epilogue (John 21). For convenience and interest, the paragraph describing Jesus raising Lazarus from the dead follows:
38 Jesus, once more deeply moved, came to the tomb. It was a cave with a stone laid across the entrance.
39 “Take away the stone,” he said. “But, Lord,” said Martha, the sister of the dead man, “by this time there is a bad odor, for he has been there four days.”
40 Then Jesus said, “Did I not tell you that if you believe, you will see the glory of God?”
41 So they took away the stone. Then Jesus looked up and said, “Father, I thank you that you have heard me.
42 I knew that you always hear me, but I said this for the benefit of the people standing here, that they may believe that you sent me.”
43 When he had said this, Jesus called in a loud voice, “Lazarus, come out!”
44 The dead man came out, his hands and feet wrapped with strips of linen, and a cloth around his face. Jesus said to them, “Take off the grave clothes and let him go.
Edited from: https://www.stlazarus.ca/content/oslj-st-lazarus.php
It is related that they separated there to go and preach the Gospel in different parts of the southeast of Gaul. Lazarus, of whom alone we have to treat here, went to Marseilles, and, having converted a number of its inhabitants to Christianity, became their first pastor. During the first persecution under Nero he hid himself in a crypt, over which the celebrated Abbey of St.-Victor was constructed in the fifth century. In this same crypt he was interred, when he shed his blood for the faith. During the new persecution of Domitian he was cast into prison and beheaded in a spot which is believed to be identical with a cave beneath the prison Saint-Lazare.
His body was later translated to Autun, and buried in the cathedral of that town. But the inhabitants of Marseilles claim to be in possession of his head which they still venerate. Like the other legends concerning the saints of the Palestinian group, this tradition, which was believed for several centuries and which still finds some advocates, has no solid foundation. It is in a writing, contained in an eleventh century manuscript, with some other documents relating to St. Magdalen of Vézelay, that we first read of Lazarus in connection with the voyage that brought Magdalen to Gaul. Before the middle of the eleventh century there does not seem to be the slightest trace of the tradition according to which the Palestinian saints came to Provence. At the beginning of the twelfth century, perhaps through a confusion of names, it was believed at Autun that the tomb of St. Lazarus was to be found in the cathedral dedicated to St. Nazarius.
A search was made and remains were discovered, which were solemnly translated and were considered to be those of him whom Christ raised from the dead, but it was not thought necessary to inquire why they should be found in France. The question, however, deserved to be examined with care, seeing that, according to a tradition of the Greek Church, the body of St. Lazarus had been brought to Constantinople, just as all the other saints of the Palestinian group were said to have died in the Orient, and to have been buried, translated, and honoured there. It is only in the thirteenth century that the belief that Lazarus had come to Gaul with his two sisters and had been Bishop of Marseilles spread in Provence.
It is true that a letter is cited (its origin is uncertain), written in 1040 by Pope Benedict IX on the occasion of the consecration of the new church of St.-Victor in which Lazarus is mentioned. But in this text the pope speaks only of relics of St. Lazarus, merely calling him the saint who was raised again to life. He does not speak of him as having lived in Provence, or as having been Bishop of Marseilles. The most ancient Provençal text alluding to the episcopacy of St. Lazarus is a passage in the "Otia imperialia" of Gervase of Tillbury (1212). Thus the belief in his Provençal apostolate is of very late date, and its supporters must produce more ancient and reliable documentary evidence. In the crypt of St.-Victor at Marseilles an epitaph of the fifth century has been discovered, which informs us that a bishop named Lazarus was buried there. In the opinion of the most competent archæologists, however, this personage is Lazarus, Bishop of Aix, who was consecrated at Marseilles about 407, and who, having had to abandon his see in 411, passed some time in Palestine, whence he returned to end his days in Marseilles. It is more than likely that it is the name of this bishop and his return from Palestine, that gave rise to the legend of the coming of the Biblical Lazarus to Provence, and his apostolate in the city of Marseilles. Source: New Advent | 1,450 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Main Policy and Different Tactics
Muslims as a unit was formed as the result of the 23-year attempt of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W). He managed to form a nation that influenced the history of humanity and led the other nations.
After the Prophet (S.A.W), the infallible Imams (A.S) took the responsibility of the continuity of movement and direction. After Prophet's death, the Muslim nation had some events and disorders, which affected all the activities of Imams till the absence of Imam Mahdi and after that. Anyway, the Imams (A.S) had the responsibility of the protection and direction of this huge nation. Although others were rulers apparently, those rulers were affected by Imams' activities; consequently, they prevented the destruction of the Islamic system and the establishment of pure disbelief.
On the other hand, the protection and survival of traditional Islam and the development of correct Islamic thinking were their duties. Indeed, they were responsible for eradicating huge barriers which appeared after prophet's death. These barriers in the Islamic society were so great that Islam was on the verge of disappearing after the assassination of Prophet Muhammad's daughter. Furthermore, Imam Ali (A.S) had to apparently abdicate fighting against the usurper rulers.
In these periods, a few followers imposed such a difficult situation for Imam Ali (A.S). Training the people who would be vigilant toward right was the way the Imam (A.S) managed to pass this disorder.
As a matter of fact, the Imam (A.S) tried some activities in order to revive Islam:
A) Educating and awakening Muslims toward the realities, basic knowledge and facts;
B) Trying to avoid extreme deviation of the rulers from Islam;
C) Trying to avoid rulers' defeat against disbelief governments;
D) Revealing the facts about the usurp rulers and clarifying problems emerged for the people.
Doing these so-called opposed activities made a hard situation for the Imams (A.S). Divine infallibility, knowledge and approval were the only factors which managed to make them successful.
These four areas of activities were the main line of Imams (A.S) – one after the other – and their different kind of measures were due to the different situations which existed in each period.
Imams (A.S) had a single strategy, but since there was change in different conditions, their tactics varied. Therefore, one Imam (A.S) had various activities in his life period. There was variation because of the difference in various conditions.
For instance, Imam Hussein (A.S) was completely calm and arcane when Muawiyah was the ruler, but his activities totally changed when Yazid was the ruler. He started a movement which accompanied roaring and screaming. There are sometimes appeasement and sometimes protest in the other Imam's activities, all of which were due to various conditions. | <urn:uuid:91252968-3081-4d64-bc6c-e45bbdfa2029> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://globe.aqr.ir/portal/home/?news/33685/27076/262885/The-Main-Policy-and-Different-Tactics | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598800.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120135447-20200120164447-00410.warc.gz | en | 0.983226 | 601 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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-0.1894045174... | 1 | The Main Policy and Different Tactics
Muslims as a unit was formed as the result of the 23-year attempt of Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W). He managed to form a nation that influenced the history of humanity and led the other nations.
After the Prophet (S.A.W), the infallible Imams (A.S) took the responsibility of the continuity of movement and direction. After Prophet's death, the Muslim nation had some events and disorders, which affected all the activities of Imams till the absence of Imam Mahdi and after that. Anyway, the Imams (A.S) had the responsibility of the protection and direction of this huge nation. Although others were rulers apparently, those rulers were affected by Imams' activities; consequently, they prevented the destruction of the Islamic system and the establishment of pure disbelief.
On the other hand, the protection and survival of traditional Islam and the development of correct Islamic thinking were their duties. Indeed, they were responsible for eradicating huge barriers which appeared after prophet's death. These barriers in the Islamic society were so great that Islam was on the verge of disappearing after the assassination of Prophet Muhammad's daughter. Furthermore, Imam Ali (A.S) had to apparently abdicate fighting against the usurper rulers.
In these periods, a few followers imposed such a difficult situation for Imam Ali (A.S). Training the people who would be vigilant toward right was the way the Imam (A.S) managed to pass this disorder.
As a matter of fact, the Imam (A.S) tried some activities in order to revive Islam:
A) Educating and awakening Muslims toward the realities, basic knowledge and facts;
B) Trying to avoid extreme deviation of the rulers from Islam;
C) Trying to avoid rulers' defeat against disbelief governments;
D) Revealing the facts about the usurp rulers and clarifying problems emerged for the people.
Doing these so-called opposed activities made a hard situation for the Imams (A.S). Divine infallibility, knowledge and approval were the only factors which managed to make them successful.
These four areas of activities were the main line of Imams (A.S) – one after the other – and their different kind of measures were due to the different situations which existed in each period.
Imams (A.S) had a single strategy, but since there was change in different conditions, their tactics varied. Therefore, one Imam (A.S) had various activities in his life period. There was variation because of the difference in various conditions.
For instance, Imam Hussein (A.S) was completely calm and arcane when Muawiyah was the ruler, but his activities totally changed when Yazid was the ruler. He started a movement which accompanied roaring and screaming. There are sometimes appeasement and sometimes protest in the other Imam's activities, all of which were due to various conditions. | 578 | ENGLISH | 1 |
In Anne Frank: The Diary of a Young Girl, according to Anne Frank (the author), how did life change economically for the Jews?
In Anne Frank: The Diary of a Young Girl, Anne Frank (the author) discusses the worsening conditions for the Jews even before she and her family go into hiding in the Annex. Anne first describes how difficult it is for the Jews as forms of transportation, athletics, and even places one can go for a haircut or shave are outlawed. They are not even allowed to sit in their gardens after a certain time, and may only shop for food during a two-hour stretch in the afternoons. In terms of the economy, the war has thrown society into turmoil. The people are only able to purchase food with ration books. Tickets from these books are exchanged for food.
Once the Franks go into hiding (because they are Jewish), food is more limited. A baker sympathetic to their plight provides them with bread.
…we don't have as much as we did at home, but it's enough.
In the Annex, Anne shares that they are now forced to buy ration books on the black market (because they are in hiding and no longer receive them through regular channels). About the books she notes:
The price keeps going up; it's already risen from 27 to 33 guilders. And that for mere sheets of printed paper.
Other things in the economy are being rationed in addition to food. Being in hiding because they are Jewish limits a great deal of what the members of the Annex have access to. On November 28, 1942, Anne reports that electricity has also been rationed and that they have exceeded what was rationed to them: they prepare themselves for nights without light.
While Anne brought a large supply of pencils and paper, such things also become hard to come by because they are in hiding. As Anne writes in her diary, she is loath to scratch out mistakes she might make. She explains to "Kitty" (the imaginary recipient of the news of Anne's diary), waste is out of the question:
…I don't like crossing things out, and in these times of scarcity, tossing away a piece of paper is clearly taboo.
When Hanukkah arrives, they celebrate in small ways. This includes the lighting of the candles, but because they have so few candles and it is so difficult to get more, they light the candles for a short time: ten minutes. Anne observes that having them lit while singing is most important: they do not need them lit longer.
Food is bought in bulk, such as the beans that break the bag in which they are held—scattering them everywhere. The people in the Annex buy an enormous amount of meat ("under the counter") in case their provisions become more drastically limited in the future. Mr. van Daan makes sausages—some that will be dried and saved for the future.
While people in Europe suffer with a shortage of food (among other things), the Jews struggle even more so because so many limitations have been placed on them because of their ethnicity. Once they go into hiding, the crumbling economy makes living in in such a way that much more difficult.
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0.22170679271... | 1 | In Anne Frank: The Diary of a Young Girl, according to Anne Frank (the author), how did life change economically for the Jews?
In Anne Frank: The Diary of a Young Girl, Anne Frank (the author) discusses the worsening conditions for the Jews even before she and her family go into hiding in the Annex. Anne first describes how difficult it is for the Jews as forms of transportation, athletics, and even places one can go for a haircut or shave are outlawed. They are not even allowed to sit in their gardens after a certain time, and may only shop for food during a two-hour stretch in the afternoons. In terms of the economy, the war has thrown society into turmoil. The people are only able to purchase food with ration books. Tickets from these books are exchanged for food.
Once the Franks go into hiding (because they are Jewish), food is more limited. A baker sympathetic to their plight provides them with bread.
…we don't have as much as we did at home, but it's enough.
In the Annex, Anne shares that they are now forced to buy ration books on the black market (because they are in hiding and no longer receive them through regular channels). About the books she notes:
The price keeps going up; it's already risen from 27 to 33 guilders. And that for mere sheets of printed paper.
Other things in the economy are being rationed in addition to food. Being in hiding because they are Jewish limits a great deal of what the members of the Annex have access to. On November 28, 1942, Anne reports that electricity has also been rationed and that they have exceeded what was rationed to them: they prepare themselves for nights without light.
While Anne brought a large supply of pencils and paper, such things also become hard to come by because they are in hiding. As Anne writes in her diary, she is loath to scratch out mistakes she might make. She explains to "Kitty" (the imaginary recipient of the news of Anne's diary), waste is out of the question:
…I don't like crossing things out, and in these times of scarcity, tossing away a piece of paper is clearly taboo.
When Hanukkah arrives, they celebrate in small ways. This includes the lighting of the candles, but because they have so few candles and it is so difficult to get more, they light the candles for a short time: ten minutes. Anne observes that having them lit while singing is most important: they do not need them lit longer.
Food is bought in bulk, such as the beans that break the bag in which they are held—scattering them everywhere. The people in the Annex buy an enormous amount of meat ("under the counter") in case their provisions become more drastically limited in the future. Mr. van Daan makes sausages—some that will be dried and saved for the future.
While people in Europe suffer with a shortage of food (among other things), the Jews struggle even more so because so many limitations have been placed on them because of their ethnicity. Once they go into hiding, the crumbling economy makes living in in such a way that much more difficult.
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | 657 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Cardinal Richelieu was born in 1585 and died in 1642. Richelieu dominated the history of France from 1624 to his death as Louis XIII’s chief minister, succeeding Luynes who died in 1621. Richelieu is considered to be one of the greatest politicians in French history.
Richelieu was the third son of the Lord of Richelieu. He was educated in Paris at the Collège de Navarre. From here he went to a military school and then on to the Collège de Calvi where he studied theology. The plan was for Richelieu to take over the family bishopric at Luçon in Poitou. In April 1607, after receiving a papal dispensation as he was only 21, he was ordained as a priest and bishop.
How did a man born into a minor noble family and who administered a small and poor diocese, come to dominate France from 1624 to 1642?
Richelieu had huge ambitions to achieve far reaching power. By 1614 had achieved a reputation as a fine administrator in his diocese and he was considered a very good speaker at the meetings of the Estates-General. He became known as a dévot (a very strong supporter of Roman Catholicism) who then held pro-Spanish views. These were made known to the regent, Marie de Medici, who rewarded Richelieu by bringing him to the Royal Court in November 1515 where he was appointed Chaplain to the new queen, Anne of Austria. The royal favourite, Concini, also believed that Richelieu was talented and had him appointed Secretary of State for War and Foreign Affairs.
Between 1617 and 1622, Richelieu faded into relative obscurity. The one avenue he had to the king was, ironically, via Marie’s association with rebellion. Richelieu acted as a go-between when mother and son fell out over her associations with those who were deemed less than trustworthy in the royal court.
In 1622, Marie was successfully re-instated at court as a result of Richelieu’s skilled negotiations with Louis XIII. Marie persuaded her son that Richelieu was a highly skilled politician. None of the politicians who had replaced Luynes on his death in 1621, proved to be successful and with France becoming more and more involved at a non-military level in the Thirty Years War, Louis knew that a long term replacement for Luynes was needed and in April 1624, Richelieu was given a seat on the Royal Council and in August 1624, was made Chief Minister.
Richelieu’s time as chief minister is notable for many reasons.
He attacked the Huguenots; reformed the navy and army; crushed any rebellions and advanced royal absolutism; he raised money by any methods required and he supervised a foreign policy that was designed to make France the greatest power in Europe. It was said that you either liked Richelieu or hated him – there was no half-way.
In November 1642, Richelieu fell ill. He died on the 4th December 1642. His time as Chief Minister had brought untold suffering to the general population of France but he had pushed the nation on to the path of glory. Just days before he died, Richelieu wrote to Louis XIII:
|“I have the consolation of leaving your kingdom in the highest degree of glory and of reputation.”|
Louis XIII died shortly after in May 1643. His son Louis was only 4 so a regency was formed headed by Anne of Austria, the Queen Mother, and the Duke of Orleans, the former noble rebel. In Louis’ will, Anne was ordered to work with the ministers appointed by Richelieu to succeed him so that Richelieu’s policies would continue. Anne succeeded in forcing the Parlement de Paris to free her from the restraints of the will and allowed her to rule as she wished on behalf of her son.
- Cardinal Richelieu was a strong believer in the power of the crown - as had been his predecessor the Duke de Luynes. Richelieu served his… | <urn:uuid:9de40ce3-ed0a-492a-aefd-cec7d9b1b87b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/france-in-the-seventeenth-century/cardinal-richelieu/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00404.warc.gz | en | 0.98965 | 862 | 3.296875 | 3 | [
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0.33138757944... | 10 | Cardinal Richelieu was born in 1585 and died in 1642. Richelieu dominated the history of France from 1624 to his death as Louis XIII’s chief minister, succeeding Luynes who died in 1621. Richelieu is considered to be one of the greatest politicians in French history.
Richelieu was the third son of the Lord of Richelieu. He was educated in Paris at the Collège de Navarre. From here he went to a military school and then on to the Collège de Calvi where he studied theology. The plan was for Richelieu to take over the family bishopric at Luçon in Poitou. In April 1607, after receiving a papal dispensation as he was only 21, he was ordained as a priest and bishop.
How did a man born into a minor noble family and who administered a small and poor diocese, come to dominate France from 1624 to 1642?
Richelieu had huge ambitions to achieve far reaching power. By 1614 had achieved a reputation as a fine administrator in his diocese and he was considered a very good speaker at the meetings of the Estates-General. He became known as a dévot (a very strong supporter of Roman Catholicism) who then held pro-Spanish views. These were made known to the regent, Marie de Medici, who rewarded Richelieu by bringing him to the Royal Court in November 1515 where he was appointed Chaplain to the new queen, Anne of Austria. The royal favourite, Concini, also believed that Richelieu was talented and had him appointed Secretary of State for War and Foreign Affairs.
Between 1617 and 1622, Richelieu faded into relative obscurity. The one avenue he had to the king was, ironically, via Marie’s association with rebellion. Richelieu acted as a go-between when mother and son fell out over her associations with those who were deemed less than trustworthy in the royal court.
In 1622, Marie was successfully re-instated at court as a result of Richelieu’s skilled negotiations with Louis XIII. Marie persuaded her son that Richelieu was a highly skilled politician. None of the politicians who had replaced Luynes on his death in 1621, proved to be successful and with France becoming more and more involved at a non-military level in the Thirty Years War, Louis knew that a long term replacement for Luynes was needed and in April 1624, Richelieu was given a seat on the Royal Council and in August 1624, was made Chief Minister.
Richelieu’s time as chief minister is notable for many reasons.
He attacked the Huguenots; reformed the navy and army; crushed any rebellions and advanced royal absolutism; he raised money by any methods required and he supervised a foreign policy that was designed to make France the greatest power in Europe. It was said that you either liked Richelieu or hated him – there was no half-way.
In November 1642, Richelieu fell ill. He died on the 4th December 1642. His time as Chief Minister had brought untold suffering to the general population of France but he had pushed the nation on to the path of glory. Just days before he died, Richelieu wrote to Louis XIII:
|“I have the consolation of leaving your kingdom in the highest degree of glory and of reputation.”|
Louis XIII died shortly after in May 1643. His son Louis was only 4 so a regency was formed headed by Anne of Austria, the Queen Mother, and the Duke of Orleans, the former noble rebel. In Louis’ will, Anne was ordered to work with the ministers appointed by Richelieu to succeed him so that Richelieu’s policies would continue. Anne succeeded in forcing the Parlement de Paris to free her from the restraints of the will and allowed her to rule as she wished on behalf of her son.
- Cardinal Richelieu was a strong believer in the power of the crown - as had been his predecessor the Duke de Luynes. Richelieu served his… | 889 | ENGLISH | 1 |
14. I answered that during the light reaction, ATP is formed. I forgot that H20 is also split, so the correct answer was that both occur during the light reaction.
19.When I saw that “division process” was in bold, I assumed that this was referring to cytokinesis. After reviewing the question, it is evident to me that the entire explanation was pointing to mitosis. So mitosis is the form of reproduction that this question represents.
20. I was able to quickly eliminate a few of the choices in this question. My options came down between sperm and blood cells. Sperm cells are not somatic cells that are regularly being replaced by rapid mitosis, so the correct answer was blood cells.
22. For this question, I knew the correct answer could not be any of the last three choices. I did not know the correct answer, so I had to guess between “the nuclear envelope reorganizes and the spindle breaks up” and “centromeres split in two.” After reviewing the diagrams in my textbook, I now understand that during telophase of mitosis the nuclear envelope reorganizes and the spindle breaks up.
24. I actually knew the correct response to this question. When a mother cell gives rise to four sperm cells, it is essentially impossible for all four to be genetically identical. For some reason I second guessed myself while taking the exam and selected an incorrect answer.
29. I looked back at my notes from class when we discussed this topic. On my notes I have G0 written in and I understand that this should have been the correct answer. I was thinking that cells that stay in this stage would remain in the G1 stage, so that’s why I put that as my answer. Clearly this was incorrect, because cells that simply grow old and die stay in the G0 stage.
34. I found this question to be somewhat confusing. After reviewing it I can see where my mistake was. Sex cells do not divide mitotically and this is where my error occurred when answering the question. So the correct response was the first one, and I now have a better understanding of the sequence of events that transpires.
38. For this question, I was partially correct. I knew that John’s father could not have type B blood, because he had type A. However, my response was incorrect because John’s father obviously could not have had type O blood either. So the correct answer was that his father could not have had type B or O blood.
38. The correct answer for this fill-in-the-blank question is centrosome. I had to guess on the test because I did not know the correct answer. After looking at diagrams in my textbook I can see that the centrosome is the structural feature where a spindle fiber is able to attach in order to control the chromosome’s position.
42. B. It is during Prophase I that the homologues… | <urn:uuid:62d0c7f8-2127-4551-bf27-1e5fe9900f39> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.majortests.com/essay/Biology-Exam-Corrections-574527.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250592636.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118135205-20200118163205-00458.warc.gz | en | 0.983986 | 621 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.36823582649... | 1 | 14. I answered that during the light reaction, ATP is formed. I forgot that H20 is also split, so the correct answer was that both occur during the light reaction.
19.When I saw that “division process” was in bold, I assumed that this was referring to cytokinesis. After reviewing the question, it is evident to me that the entire explanation was pointing to mitosis. So mitosis is the form of reproduction that this question represents.
20. I was able to quickly eliminate a few of the choices in this question. My options came down between sperm and blood cells. Sperm cells are not somatic cells that are regularly being replaced by rapid mitosis, so the correct answer was blood cells.
22. For this question, I knew the correct answer could not be any of the last three choices. I did not know the correct answer, so I had to guess between “the nuclear envelope reorganizes and the spindle breaks up” and “centromeres split in two.” After reviewing the diagrams in my textbook, I now understand that during telophase of mitosis the nuclear envelope reorganizes and the spindle breaks up.
24. I actually knew the correct response to this question. When a mother cell gives rise to four sperm cells, it is essentially impossible for all four to be genetically identical. For some reason I second guessed myself while taking the exam and selected an incorrect answer.
29. I looked back at my notes from class when we discussed this topic. On my notes I have G0 written in and I understand that this should have been the correct answer. I was thinking that cells that stay in this stage would remain in the G1 stage, so that’s why I put that as my answer. Clearly this was incorrect, because cells that simply grow old and die stay in the G0 stage.
34. I found this question to be somewhat confusing. After reviewing it I can see where my mistake was. Sex cells do not divide mitotically and this is where my error occurred when answering the question. So the correct response was the first one, and I now have a better understanding of the sequence of events that transpires.
38. For this question, I was partially correct. I knew that John’s father could not have type B blood, because he had type A. However, my response was incorrect because John’s father obviously could not have had type O blood either. So the correct answer was that his father could not have had type B or O blood.
38. The correct answer for this fill-in-the-blank question is centrosome. I had to guess on the test because I did not know the correct answer. After looking at diagrams in my textbook I can see that the centrosome is the structural feature where a spindle fiber is able to attach in order to control the chromosome’s position.
42. B. It is during Prophase I that the homologues… | 603 | ENGLISH | 1 |
You might argue that teachers have used 'Learn Create Share' throughout the development of education, but the differences now are :
- We are consciously employing it, consistently employing it, and making it clear to learners that we are using it, and
- We are amplifying the benefits of the pedagogy using digital devices, and digital tools.
In doing so we have to be careful not to through the baby out with the bathwater. That is, we have to be careful that we don't throw away other tools that still work.
Over the past few weeks two classes of Year 10 social studies students under the guidance of Catherine, a teaching intern from NZGSE, and their class teacher Alby Wilson, have combined the best of the old and the new. They have been studying technological change through human history, and today it was my pleasure to open an 'exhibition' of their learning. They were looking at technologies from those early neolithic civilisations, alongside those of ancient Rome, and ancient Egypt.
Because the room they have been working in is due for demolition very soon (yay) they sought my permission to do some 'cave drawings' on some of the walls. The walls were first textured using glue and sand, and they students then created their 'cave art'. The created cardboard models, cooked food according to what historians believe were accurate recipes of the time, made life sized replicas of some equipment, and created costume that they thought was appropriate to the times. They looked at mummification as a process, both scientifically, and culturally.
The researched and they wrote (all digitally), and alongside that they created. Finally today they shared as we opened their exhibition, inviting whānau to come along and enjoy their work too.
'Learn, Create Share', the old fashioned way, but again 'amplified' through the use of digital technologies.
Now let the blogging begin as students reflect on their learning, and share those reflections with the real world, making their learning visible.
Here are some photos of their exhibition. Ka mau te wehi!! | <urn:uuid:5ce3be29-9bc4-4080-8a25-07234292833f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://whakataukihewakaekenoa.blogspot.com/2019/09/learn-create-share-old-fashioned-way.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604397.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121132900-20200121161900-00231.warc.gz | en | 0.981693 | 431 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.269458889961... | 7 | You might argue that teachers have used 'Learn Create Share' throughout the development of education, but the differences now are :
- We are consciously employing it, consistently employing it, and making it clear to learners that we are using it, and
- We are amplifying the benefits of the pedagogy using digital devices, and digital tools.
In doing so we have to be careful not to through the baby out with the bathwater. That is, we have to be careful that we don't throw away other tools that still work.
Over the past few weeks two classes of Year 10 social studies students under the guidance of Catherine, a teaching intern from NZGSE, and their class teacher Alby Wilson, have combined the best of the old and the new. They have been studying technological change through human history, and today it was my pleasure to open an 'exhibition' of their learning. They were looking at technologies from those early neolithic civilisations, alongside those of ancient Rome, and ancient Egypt.
Because the room they have been working in is due for demolition very soon (yay) they sought my permission to do some 'cave drawings' on some of the walls. The walls were first textured using glue and sand, and they students then created their 'cave art'. The created cardboard models, cooked food according to what historians believe were accurate recipes of the time, made life sized replicas of some equipment, and created costume that they thought was appropriate to the times. They looked at mummification as a process, both scientifically, and culturally.
The researched and they wrote (all digitally), and alongside that they created. Finally today they shared as we opened their exhibition, inviting whānau to come along and enjoy their work too.
'Learn, Create Share', the old fashioned way, but again 'amplified' through the use of digital technologies.
Now let the blogging begin as students reflect on their learning, and share those reflections with the real world, making their learning visible.
Here are some photos of their exhibition. Ka mau te wehi!! | 422 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The architectural and cultural history of Torbole, Italy. Churches, castles, origins and historic figures.
Set on a back drop of limestone hills, the small fishing town of Torbole is scattered with a number of historical sites, many of which are now in ruins from the French invasion of the 18th century. Evidence suggests that the town was heavily populated during the Roman era, a Roman road passing through the St Lucia Valley has consequently been used as a vital route of communication throughout the ages. Part of the third Lombard war between Venice and Milan was fought in the area and for the majority of the 15th century the town came under Venetian control which is evidenced in the traditional fishermen’s houses dotted around the harbour.
The Atesina route between Italy and Germany had brought many travellers through the town since the 16th century, however, it was after the visit and praise of Goethe in 1786 when tourism flourished and artists from the romantic world flocked to the shores to instil their mark on the picturesque town. It was evacuated during the Great War and as with many of the towns surrounding the lake, the tourist industry took off again after the Second World War.
The remains of the fort are visible today as a reminder of the careful defensive strategies that were taken by the town against invasion. Strategically positioned high on the hill-side, they offered an important observation point over the lake. The building now houses the civic museum.
Now in ruins, this medieval fortress can be seen on the rocky crag towering above Nago. The fortress would have stood in a vital defensive position with a view over the lake. It was fought over for years and was finally destroyed by French troops during the invasions at the beginning of the 18th century. It now stands as a reminder of the countless invasions that the area of Lake Garda was subjected to through the centuries.
This charming church, dedicated to the patron saint of fishing, looks over the old town of Torbole to give an impressive view of the surrounding lake. Its origin is first documented in 1159 and in 1703 it was destroyed by French troops and rebuilt in baroque style. A valuable feature of this church is the 18th century canvas by Giambettino Cignaroli of the martyrdom of Saint Andrea.
Also known as the Giants kettle due to its impressive size and peculiar shape, these vast caves were formed when the glacier met the rock during the glaciation period around 10,000 BC. You can explore these giant lime-stone caverns along the road connecting Nago to Torbole.
The 13th century S. Vigilio parish church and 18th century Baroque Trinita church can be found in the village of Nago situated on the hills above Torbole. These picturesque buildings are telling of the periods of history that Torbole has seen. | <urn:uuid:aefea4f1-3427-42d5-9b51-108054e7aaee> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sno.co.uk/lakes-mountains-holidays/lake-garda-holidays/torbole/history/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00391.warc.gz | en | 0.981425 | 583 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.3206198811531067,... | 13 | The architectural and cultural history of Torbole, Italy. Churches, castles, origins and historic figures.
Set on a back drop of limestone hills, the small fishing town of Torbole is scattered with a number of historical sites, many of which are now in ruins from the French invasion of the 18th century. Evidence suggests that the town was heavily populated during the Roman era, a Roman road passing through the St Lucia Valley has consequently been used as a vital route of communication throughout the ages. Part of the third Lombard war between Venice and Milan was fought in the area and for the majority of the 15th century the town came under Venetian control which is evidenced in the traditional fishermen’s houses dotted around the harbour.
The Atesina route between Italy and Germany had brought many travellers through the town since the 16th century, however, it was after the visit and praise of Goethe in 1786 when tourism flourished and artists from the romantic world flocked to the shores to instil their mark on the picturesque town. It was evacuated during the Great War and as with many of the towns surrounding the lake, the tourist industry took off again after the Second World War.
The remains of the fort are visible today as a reminder of the careful defensive strategies that were taken by the town against invasion. Strategically positioned high on the hill-side, they offered an important observation point over the lake. The building now houses the civic museum.
Now in ruins, this medieval fortress can be seen on the rocky crag towering above Nago. The fortress would have stood in a vital defensive position with a view over the lake. It was fought over for years and was finally destroyed by French troops during the invasions at the beginning of the 18th century. It now stands as a reminder of the countless invasions that the area of Lake Garda was subjected to through the centuries.
This charming church, dedicated to the patron saint of fishing, looks over the old town of Torbole to give an impressive view of the surrounding lake. Its origin is first documented in 1159 and in 1703 it was destroyed by French troops and rebuilt in baroque style. A valuable feature of this church is the 18th century canvas by Giambettino Cignaroli of the martyrdom of Saint Andrea.
Also known as the Giants kettle due to its impressive size and peculiar shape, these vast caves were formed when the glacier met the rock during the glaciation period around 10,000 BC. You can explore these giant lime-stone caverns along the road connecting Nago to Torbole.
The 13th century S. Vigilio parish church and 18th century Baroque Trinita church can be found in the village of Nago situated on the hills above Torbole. These picturesque buildings are telling of the periods of history that Torbole has seen. | 599 | ENGLISH | 1 |
On the outbreak of the second world war in 1939 many of the Abbey's treasures were evacuated for safety to country houses, such as Mentmore.
These included the 13th century Retable (altarpiece), tapestries, gilt bronze and oak tomb effigies, manuscripts, misericords, and statues and gates from the Lady Chapel. The bronze grille from Henry VII's tomb was also removed. The small numbers stamped on the grille to enable it to be rebuilt afterwards can still be seen. Some of the stained glass windows were boarded over but quite a lot of glass was blown out by blast, especially in 1940.
About 60,000 sandbags were used to protect immoveable royal and medieval tombs. The Coronation Chair was sent for safety to Gloucester Cathedral and the Coronation Stone was buried secretly within the Abbey. The collection of wax funeral effigies was stored in Piccadilly tube station. The Pyx Chamber was used as the Abbey ARP [Air Raid Precautions] headquarters, College Hall and the gallery in the Library were used by the team of fire watchers and the Museum in the Undercroft was made ready as a dressing station and dispensary. An air raid shelter was available for the Abbey clergy in College Garden. The crypt of the Chapter House was also used as a shelter by staff and the decontamination squad. The choirboys were evacuated but later on in the war a choir was formed with local boys and men singing on weekdays, Sundays and at special services.
The worst air raid at the Abbey was on the night of 10th/11th May 1941. Clusters of incendiaries (fire bombs rather than high explosives) fell on the roof of the Abbey and in the precincts. Most were quickly put out by the fire watchers and volunteers but one on the lantern roof (illustrated below), in the centre part of the Abbey, burned through the lead and lodged in a beam and could not easily be reached. By this time water supplies were very low. Flames shot up 40 feet into the sky. Luckily the burning timbers and molten lead fell into the mostly open area below (where monarchs are enthroned at a coronation) and the fire was more easily extinguished. The medieval Cosmati pavement and tombs in this area had been boarded over earlier in the war so were undamaged. Lead splattered on the pulpit and choir stalls.
On this night the Deanery and Cheyneygates was gutted by fire but the Jerusalem Chamber, Jericho Parlour and College Hall escaped. Westminster School Hall and the School Dormitory, and numbers 3, 6 and 7 Little Cloister [clergy houses] were also destroyed (illustrated below). Other houses and the Library roof sustained damage. Services continued throughout the war with the nave altar being used after the May raid.
On VE (Victory in Europe) Day, 8th May 1945, short services of thanksgiving were held every hour in the Abbey from 9.00am to 10.00pm. An estimated 25,000 people attended during the day, with the Lord Chancellor and House of Lords attending at 3.00pm (the House of Commons went to St Margaret's Westminster). A service was also held on the following Sunday, 13th May, when the standards of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa were laid on the High Altar to symbolize the loyalty of the whole Empire during the war. Services to celebrate VJ (Victory over Japan) Day were held on 15th and 16th August 1945 with great crowds attending.
"The Abbey in wartime" article in the Westminster Abbey Review Summer 2019
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0.63094949722290... | 1 | On the outbreak of the second world war in 1939 many of the Abbey's treasures were evacuated for safety to country houses, such as Mentmore.
These included the 13th century Retable (altarpiece), tapestries, gilt bronze and oak tomb effigies, manuscripts, misericords, and statues and gates from the Lady Chapel. The bronze grille from Henry VII's tomb was also removed. The small numbers stamped on the grille to enable it to be rebuilt afterwards can still be seen. Some of the stained glass windows were boarded over but quite a lot of glass was blown out by blast, especially in 1940.
About 60,000 sandbags were used to protect immoveable royal and medieval tombs. The Coronation Chair was sent for safety to Gloucester Cathedral and the Coronation Stone was buried secretly within the Abbey. The collection of wax funeral effigies was stored in Piccadilly tube station. The Pyx Chamber was used as the Abbey ARP [Air Raid Precautions] headquarters, College Hall and the gallery in the Library were used by the team of fire watchers and the Museum in the Undercroft was made ready as a dressing station and dispensary. An air raid shelter was available for the Abbey clergy in College Garden. The crypt of the Chapter House was also used as a shelter by staff and the decontamination squad. The choirboys were evacuated but later on in the war a choir was formed with local boys and men singing on weekdays, Sundays and at special services.
The worst air raid at the Abbey was on the night of 10th/11th May 1941. Clusters of incendiaries (fire bombs rather than high explosives) fell on the roof of the Abbey and in the precincts. Most were quickly put out by the fire watchers and volunteers but one on the lantern roof (illustrated below), in the centre part of the Abbey, burned through the lead and lodged in a beam and could not easily be reached. By this time water supplies were very low. Flames shot up 40 feet into the sky. Luckily the burning timbers and molten lead fell into the mostly open area below (where monarchs are enthroned at a coronation) and the fire was more easily extinguished. The medieval Cosmati pavement and tombs in this area had been boarded over earlier in the war so were undamaged. Lead splattered on the pulpit and choir stalls.
On this night the Deanery and Cheyneygates was gutted by fire but the Jerusalem Chamber, Jericho Parlour and College Hall escaped. Westminster School Hall and the School Dormitory, and numbers 3, 6 and 7 Little Cloister [clergy houses] were also destroyed (illustrated below). Other houses and the Library roof sustained damage. Services continued throughout the war with the nave altar being used after the May raid.
On VE (Victory in Europe) Day, 8th May 1945, short services of thanksgiving were held every hour in the Abbey from 9.00am to 10.00pm. An estimated 25,000 people attended during the day, with the Lord Chancellor and House of Lords attending at 3.00pm (the House of Commons went to St Margaret's Westminster). A service was also held on the following Sunday, 13th May, when the standards of Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa were laid on the High Altar to symbolize the loyalty of the whole Empire during the war. Services to celebrate VJ (Victory over Japan) Day were held on 15th and 16th August 1945 with great crowds attending.
"The Abbey in wartime" article in the Westminster Abbey Review Summer 2019
The Shrine of St Edward the Confessor is one of the most powerful features of the Abbey. To stand in the presence of a man who is both a saint and a monarch is awe-inspiring. | 836 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Australian Light Horse were mounted troops with characteristics of both cavalry and mounted infantry, who served in the Second Boer War and World War I. During the inter-war years, a number of regiments were raised as part of Australia's part-time military force. These units were gradually mechanised either before or during World War II, although only a small number undertook operational service during the war. A number of Australian light horse units are still in existence today.
The Australian Light Horse was established as the outcome of a debate that took place in military circles in Australia in the late 19th - early 20th centuries concerning the future of mounted troops. The example of the Franco-Prussian War illustrated that the battlefield had become dominated by massed land armies supported by artillery. For Australia the reality was vast spaces with sparse populations making it difficult to consider anything that remotely looked like the European model. The 1890s were wracked by drought and depression ensuring that none of the states were able to afford anything but the most token of armies supported by a large contingent of volunteers.
The Second Boer War provided the short term answer. While Australian forces fought against the Boers in South Africa, the Boer methodology of conducting war was considered to be the answer for Australian defence. Volunteer Light Horse Regiments were established around Australia supported by the Rifle Club movement which provided semi trained reinforcements for the various formations. Should these formations be called upon to defend Australia, the local commander was charged with maintaining resistance through the use of the Commando formation which envisaged a large scale guerrilla war. The prospect of an endless and strength-sapping guerrilla war was the key deterrent factor which relied heavily upon mobile soldiers. The mounted infantry remained the key to the Australian defence posture until the Kitchener Report of 1910 which envisaged formations that could be slotted directly into an Imperial expeditionary force. The plan envisaged two mounted divisions.
Light horse were like mounted infantry in that they usually fought dismounted, using their horses as transport to the battlefield and as a means of swift disengagement when retreating or retiring. A famous exception to this rule though was the charge of the 4th and 12th Light Horse Regiments at Beersheba on 31 October 1917. In 1918, some light horse regiments were equipped with sabres, enabling them to fight in a conventional cavalry role in the advance on Damascus. However, unlike mounted infantry, the light horse also performed certain cavalry roles, such as scouting and screening, while mounted.
The light horse were organised along cavalry rather than infantry lines. A light horse regiment, although technically equivalent to an infantry battalion in terms of command level, contained only 25 officers and 400 men as opposed to an infantry battalion that consisted of around 1,000 men. Around a quarter of this nominal strength (or one man in each section of 4) could be allotted to horse-holding duties when the regiment entered combat. A regiment was divided into three squadrons, designated "A", "B" and "C" (equivalent to a company), and a squadron divided into four troops (equivalent to but smaller than a platoon). Each troop was divided into about 10 four-man sections. When dismounting for combat, one man from each section would take the reins of the other three men's horses and lead them out of the firing line where he would remain until called upon.
Each regiment initially had a troop of two Maxim guns but during the Gallipoli Campaign, where the light horse served dismounted, this was increased to four guns. In 1916, following the establishment of the Australian Machine Gun Corps, these were consolidated into four light horse machine gun squadrons, each with 12 Vickers machine guns, allocated at brigade level within the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th Light Horse Brigades. In turn, the troops received the Lewis Gun. This was replaced by the Hotchkiss M1909 Benét-Mercié machine gun in April 1917. Eventually they arrived in such numbers as to allow each troop to have a Hotchkiss gun, which considerably added to the mobile firepower of a regiment.
The Australian Waler horse was the common mount for the light horsemen, as it was strong and hardy, which was needed in the harsh desert climate. This was facilitated by the horses being left behind in Egypt while the light horsemen went to Gallipoli, allowing them to gradually acclimatise.
Although the authorities did not welcome Indigenous men into the Australian Armed Forces, nonetheless some managed to enlist in the Australian Light Horse. Unlike in civilian life, where Indigenous men received a lower rate of pay, in the Army there was only one rate of pay. This may have been a motivation for their enlistment, in addition to other considerations, including patriotism. Several served during the Gallipoli campaign. Skilled in working with horses, and in hot climates, they were valued members of the Light Horse.
At the start of World War I, Australia committed to provide an all volunteer expeditionary force of 20,000 personnel known as the Australian Imperial Force, which would consist of an infantry division and a light horse brigade. As Australia's commitment to the war increased, the size of the light horse contingent was expanded, with a second and third light horse brigade being raised in late 1914 and early 1915. Eventually, the Australian Light Horse regiments were organised into five brigades:
The light horse regiments' first involvement in the fighting during the war came during the Gallipoli Campaign, where the troops of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Brigades were sent to Gallipoli without their horses to provide reinforcements for the infantry. During the campaign they were used mainly in a defensive role, although the light horsemen did participate in several costly battles, such as the Battle of the Nek. After the evacuation of the Gallipoli peninsula in December 1915, the light horse regiments that had been deployed were re-constituted in Egypt and in March 1916, the Australian mounted troops of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Brigades and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade were placed together in the Anzac Mounted Division.
Elements of the light horse brigades also undertook a campaign against the Senussi in the western desert region of Egypt with actions commencing in late 1915 and continuing through until 1917. These actions were largely limited though, and were overshadowed by the Light Horse's involvement in the fighting against Ottoman forces in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign from 1916 to 1918.
A reorganisation of the mounted troops was ordered in February 1917 leading to the formation of the Anzac Mounted Division consisting of the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades, the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, and the British 22nd Mounted Brigade. Meanwhile, the Imperial Mounted Division was formed from the 3rd and 4th Light Horse Brigades and the British Yeomanry 5th and 6th Mounted Brigades. The Imperial Mounted Division's name was soon changed to the Australian Mounted Division at the request of the Australian government. The arrival of more yeomanry from Salonika prompted the raising of the Yeomanry Mounted Division (6th, 8th and 22nd Yeomanry Brigades) in June 1917. The three mounted divisions and the Imperial Camel Brigade formed the Desert Mounted Corps under the command of Lieutenant General Harry Chauvel. With the removal of most of the Yeomanry to France and the breakup of the Imperial Camel Corps, the newly formed 5th Light Horse Brigade took its place with the Australian Mounted Division. Two Indian cavalry divisions replaced the Yeomanry Division in the Desert Mounted Corps.
In 1916, the average loss of sick horses and mules from the Sinai front was approximately 640 per week. They were transported in train loads of thirty trucks, each holding eight horses. Animals which died or were destroyed while on active service were buried 2 miles (3.2 km) from the nearest camp unless this was not practicable. In this case the carcasses were transported to a suitable site away from troops, where they were disemboweled and left to disintegrate in the dry desert air and high temperatures. Animals which died or were destroyed in veterinary units at Kantara, Ismalia, Bilbeis, and Quesna were dealt with in this way and after four days' drying in the sun, the carcases were stuffed with straw and burnt, after the skins were salved. These were sold to local contractors.
The 13th Light Horse Regiment and one squadron of the 4th Light Horse Regiment served on the Western Front, first as divisional cavalry squadrons for the 2nd, 4th and 5th Divisions, and then as the I ANZAC Corps Mounted Regiment. A squadron of the 4th provided the divisional cavalry squadron for the 1st Division and one of the 14th Light Horse Regiment for the 3rd Division. In combination with New Zealand mounted troops, the squadron of the 4th became part of the II ANZAC Corps Mounted Regiment. After the Australian Corps was formed in November 1917, the I Anzac Corps Mounted Regiment became known as the 13th Light Horse Regiment again.
After the war, the light horse regiments were distributed as follows:
At the outbreak of World War 2, there were 25 light horse regiments. Of these, 17 were still horsed although they had been partially mechanised, while four had been converted to machine gun regiments and two had been converted to armoured car regiments. Throughout the war, the various light horse units were converted to motorised infantry, armoured car or armoured regiments, serving mainly in the defence of Australia. As the threat of invasion passed, though, most were disbanded in 1943 or 1944 and their personnel redistributed amongst other units. By 1945, only two units remained. The first of these was the 20th Light Horse Regiment, which as the 20th Motor Regiment, served overseas, at Merauke, and was later converted into a pioneer regiment. The second was the 1st Light Horse Regiment became the 1st Tank Battalion, and as such fought in New Guinea and Borneo.
Several films include the charge at Beersheba in 1917: | <urn:uuid:2e1fcda2-47bd-47d8-8216-2019c6bf0fe1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.popflock.com/learn?s=Australian_Light_Horse | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606872.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122071919-20200122100919-00172.warc.gz | en | 0.98415 | 2,086 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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0.6869961619377... | 1 | Australian Light Horse were mounted troops with characteristics of both cavalry and mounted infantry, who served in the Second Boer War and World War I. During the inter-war years, a number of regiments were raised as part of Australia's part-time military force. These units were gradually mechanised either before or during World War II, although only a small number undertook operational service during the war. A number of Australian light horse units are still in existence today.
The Australian Light Horse was established as the outcome of a debate that took place in military circles in Australia in the late 19th - early 20th centuries concerning the future of mounted troops. The example of the Franco-Prussian War illustrated that the battlefield had become dominated by massed land armies supported by artillery. For Australia the reality was vast spaces with sparse populations making it difficult to consider anything that remotely looked like the European model. The 1890s were wracked by drought and depression ensuring that none of the states were able to afford anything but the most token of armies supported by a large contingent of volunteers.
The Second Boer War provided the short term answer. While Australian forces fought against the Boers in South Africa, the Boer methodology of conducting war was considered to be the answer for Australian defence. Volunteer Light Horse Regiments were established around Australia supported by the Rifle Club movement which provided semi trained reinforcements for the various formations. Should these formations be called upon to defend Australia, the local commander was charged with maintaining resistance through the use of the Commando formation which envisaged a large scale guerrilla war. The prospect of an endless and strength-sapping guerrilla war was the key deterrent factor which relied heavily upon mobile soldiers. The mounted infantry remained the key to the Australian defence posture until the Kitchener Report of 1910 which envisaged formations that could be slotted directly into an Imperial expeditionary force. The plan envisaged two mounted divisions.
Light horse were like mounted infantry in that they usually fought dismounted, using their horses as transport to the battlefield and as a means of swift disengagement when retreating or retiring. A famous exception to this rule though was the charge of the 4th and 12th Light Horse Regiments at Beersheba on 31 October 1917. In 1918, some light horse regiments were equipped with sabres, enabling them to fight in a conventional cavalry role in the advance on Damascus. However, unlike mounted infantry, the light horse also performed certain cavalry roles, such as scouting and screening, while mounted.
The light horse were organised along cavalry rather than infantry lines. A light horse regiment, although technically equivalent to an infantry battalion in terms of command level, contained only 25 officers and 400 men as opposed to an infantry battalion that consisted of around 1,000 men. Around a quarter of this nominal strength (or one man in each section of 4) could be allotted to horse-holding duties when the regiment entered combat. A regiment was divided into three squadrons, designated "A", "B" and "C" (equivalent to a company), and a squadron divided into four troops (equivalent to but smaller than a platoon). Each troop was divided into about 10 four-man sections. When dismounting for combat, one man from each section would take the reins of the other three men's horses and lead them out of the firing line where he would remain until called upon.
Each regiment initially had a troop of two Maxim guns but during the Gallipoli Campaign, where the light horse served dismounted, this was increased to four guns. In 1916, following the establishment of the Australian Machine Gun Corps, these were consolidated into four light horse machine gun squadrons, each with 12 Vickers machine guns, allocated at brigade level within the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th Light Horse Brigades. In turn, the troops received the Lewis Gun. This was replaced by the Hotchkiss M1909 Benét-Mercié machine gun in April 1917. Eventually they arrived in such numbers as to allow each troop to have a Hotchkiss gun, which considerably added to the mobile firepower of a regiment.
The Australian Waler horse was the common mount for the light horsemen, as it was strong and hardy, which was needed in the harsh desert climate. This was facilitated by the horses being left behind in Egypt while the light horsemen went to Gallipoli, allowing them to gradually acclimatise.
Although the authorities did not welcome Indigenous men into the Australian Armed Forces, nonetheless some managed to enlist in the Australian Light Horse. Unlike in civilian life, where Indigenous men received a lower rate of pay, in the Army there was only one rate of pay. This may have been a motivation for their enlistment, in addition to other considerations, including patriotism. Several served during the Gallipoli campaign. Skilled in working with horses, and in hot climates, they were valued members of the Light Horse.
At the start of World War I, Australia committed to provide an all volunteer expeditionary force of 20,000 personnel known as the Australian Imperial Force, which would consist of an infantry division and a light horse brigade. As Australia's commitment to the war increased, the size of the light horse contingent was expanded, with a second and third light horse brigade being raised in late 1914 and early 1915. Eventually, the Australian Light Horse regiments were organised into five brigades:
The light horse regiments' first involvement in the fighting during the war came during the Gallipoli Campaign, where the troops of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Brigades were sent to Gallipoli without their horses to provide reinforcements for the infantry. During the campaign they were used mainly in a defensive role, although the light horsemen did participate in several costly battles, such as the Battle of the Nek. After the evacuation of the Gallipoli peninsula in December 1915, the light horse regiments that had been deployed were re-constituted in Egypt and in March 1916, the Australian mounted troops of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd Light Horse Brigades and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade were placed together in the Anzac Mounted Division.
Elements of the light horse brigades also undertook a campaign against the Senussi in the western desert region of Egypt with actions commencing in late 1915 and continuing through until 1917. These actions were largely limited though, and were overshadowed by the Light Horse's involvement in the fighting against Ottoman forces in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign from 1916 to 1918.
A reorganisation of the mounted troops was ordered in February 1917 leading to the formation of the Anzac Mounted Division consisting of the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades, the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade, and the British 22nd Mounted Brigade. Meanwhile, the Imperial Mounted Division was formed from the 3rd and 4th Light Horse Brigades and the British Yeomanry 5th and 6th Mounted Brigades. The Imperial Mounted Division's name was soon changed to the Australian Mounted Division at the request of the Australian government. The arrival of more yeomanry from Salonika prompted the raising of the Yeomanry Mounted Division (6th, 8th and 22nd Yeomanry Brigades) in June 1917. The three mounted divisions and the Imperial Camel Brigade formed the Desert Mounted Corps under the command of Lieutenant General Harry Chauvel. With the removal of most of the Yeomanry to France and the breakup of the Imperial Camel Corps, the newly formed 5th Light Horse Brigade took its place with the Australian Mounted Division. Two Indian cavalry divisions replaced the Yeomanry Division in the Desert Mounted Corps.
In 1916, the average loss of sick horses and mules from the Sinai front was approximately 640 per week. They were transported in train loads of thirty trucks, each holding eight horses. Animals which died or were destroyed while on active service were buried 2 miles (3.2 km) from the nearest camp unless this was not practicable. In this case the carcasses were transported to a suitable site away from troops, where they were disemboweled and left to disintegrate in the dry desert air and high temperatures. Animals which died or were destroyed in veterinary units at Kantara, Ismalia, Bilbeis, and Quesna were dealt with in this way and after four days' drying in the sun, the carcases were stuffed with straw and burnt, after the skins were salved. These were sold to local contractors.
The 13th Light Horse Regiment and one squadron of the 4th Light Horse Regiment served on the Western Front, first as divisional cavalry squadrons for the 2nd, 4th and 5th Divisions, and then as the I ANZAC Corps Mounted Regiment. A squadron of the 4th provided the divisional cavalry squadron for the 1st Division and one of the 14th Light Horse Regiment for the 3rd Division. In combination with New Zealand mounted troops, the squadron of the 4th became part of the II ANZAC Corps Mounted Regiment. After the Australian Corps was formed in November 1917, the I Anzac Corps Mounted Regiment became known as the 13th Light Horse Regiment again.
After the war, the light horse regiments were distributed as follows:
At the outbreak of World War 2, there were 25 light horse regiments. Of these, 17 were still horsed although they had been partially mechanised, while four had been converted to machine gun regiments and two had been converted to armoured car regiments. Throughout the war, the various light horse units were converted to motorised infantry, armoured car or armoured regiments, serving mainly in the defence of Australia. As the threat of invasion passed, though, most were disbanded in 1943 or 1944 and their personnel redistributed amongst other units. By 1945, only two units remained. The first of these was the 20th Light Horse Regiment, which as the 20th Motor Regiment, served overseas, at Merauke, and was later converted into a pioneer regiment. The second was the 1st Light Horse Regiment became the 1st Tank Battalion, and as such fought in New Guinea and Borneo.
Several films include the charge at Beersheba in 1917: | 2,232 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The land lottery system that was used in 1805 in Georgia worked so well that the state government continued the system to distribute new lands when they became available. That happened in 1807 when the Creek Indians sold the state some more lands in middle Georgia, and a lottery was used to essentially expand the new counties started in 1805.
In 1820 and 1821, more lotteries were held to assign land the state acquired as a result of a war with the Creeks--or at least part of them. In 1814, a small faction of the Creek tribe, who lived mostly in South Georgia and South Alabama, went on the warpath and killed about 250 settlers in Alabama. A U.S. Army force was sent south under Andrew Jackson to take care of this, and he did the job with deadly effectiveness. It was this campaign that made Jackson a national hero and began his rise to the presidency.
Though only a small part of the Creek nation had been involved in the attacks, the whole tribe suffered the punishment when all their land in Georgia and Alabama was taken from them. In Georgia, this meant the taking of almost the entire bottom third of the state, about one-fifth of its area. In Alabama, the Creeks had to give up three-fifths of what is now Alabama. They somehow kept a bit of land in both states, but not for long.
Also in 1820, some land in North Georgia was distributed by lottery. This was land ceded by the Cherokee in 1817 and 1819 in one more futile effort to give up a little land in hopes of keeping most of it. This land ran southwest from the northeast corner of Georgia in a narrow, L-shaped strip and was eventually made into about five more counties.
The lottery of 1827 apportioned the last of the land which had belonged to the Creeks in Georgia and they were relocated. These lands became middle western Georgia counties such as Carroll, Troup, Coweta and Muscogee, and their assignment was the total end of the Creeks in Georgia. It’s probable that the clearing out of the Creeks increased the pressure on the state to get rid of the Cherokees, as well, and this pressure certainly increased over the next few years and came to a head when gold was found in the Cherokee lands.
Truthfully, the state government of Georgia had always intended to remove the Indians from the area. When Georgia’s western and northern boundaries were established in 1802, a part of the plan for developing the state was the removal of all the indigenous peoples, but in 1828, the Cherokee were still here. Unlike the Creeks, they were not difficult neighbors. They lived in towns and villages, were essentially farmers, like their white neighbors, and had adopted many other aspects of white civilization--good and bad.
Many had converted to Protestantism as missionaries had been working among them for many years. A few, including John Ross, were slave owners. They had an organized nation, based at New Echota near Calhoun. The capitol is now a state park and if you haven’t been there, I highly recommend a visit as a means of understanding who the Cherokee really were.
They also had a written language, a constitution and a newspaper. (Remember that Sequoyah, inventor of their alphabet, lived in a number of places in our part of the state as he was developing it.) This alone made the Cherokee very different from the other Indian tribes east of the Mississippi.
But regardless of all their legal pleas, a Supreme Court decision in their favor which Andrew Jackson defied as president, and all their efforts to live agreeably with their white neighbors, the Cherokee were eventually removed by force. Their story has been the subject of many books and other media and I would not presume to try to tell it here except to say that it is not an event for us to be proud of.
As soon as the handwriting was officially on the wall, the state fathers began to plan for the apportionment of the last Cherokee land to local residents. Their first move was to extend the reach of government to the new area by declaring it a county--a huge county--called Cherokee, and by sending in surveyors to lay off the area into sections and districts and lots to get it ready for distribution.
Next time: How we went from Cherokee County to Dade
Note from the Historical Society: You can now purchase this year’s Historical Calendar. Calendars will be sold at the County Commission office and the Dade County Public Library for $10. The Friends of the Library's new Christmas ornament of Davis School is also available at the library for $ 15. They will also be for sale at the Dade Small Business Expo on Dec. 14.
This year the calendar will feature churches. This is not a complete showing of our old churches. It is simply the ones which we could find or that someone sent to us. Most of the pictures were made in 1975, when the last historical inventory of Dade County was done. Many of the churches that one would expect were not photographed in 1975 and realization has come that many of our churches were founded in the 1940s and 1950s and were not eligible because they were not at least 50 years old.
There were always lots of churches here because many doubled as schools. Many of those little old churches were not built to live long and have disappeared. Pictures of our oldest churches do not seem to be available. If you have a picture of an old church please take it by the library and ask the staff or volunteers to scan it into our historical picture collection. | <urn:uuid:25f94956-d653-44de-b4df-f31c7f980cd6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.dadeplanet.com/single-post/2019/12/02/The-Georgia-Land-Lotteries-Getting-Bigger-and-Moving-Closer | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250603761.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121103642-20200121132642-00257.warc.gz | en | 0.98882 | 1,154 | 3.921875 | 4 | [
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... | 5 | The land lottery system that was used in 1805 in Georgia worked so well that the state government continued the system to distribute new lands when they became available. That happened in 1807 when the Creek Indians sold the state some more lands in middle Georgia, and a lottery was used to essentially expand the new counties started in 1805.
In 1820 and 1821, more lotteries were held to assign land the state acquired as a result of a war with the Creeks--or at least part of them. In 1814, a small faction of the Creek tribe, who lived mostly in South Georgia and South Alabama, went on the warpath and killed about 250 settlers in Alabama. A U.S. Army force was sent south under Andrew Jackson to take care of this, and he did the job with deadly effectiveness. It was this campaign that made Jackson a national hero and began his rise to the presidency.
Though only a small part of the Creek nation had been involved in the attacks, the whole tribe suffered the punishment when all their land in Georgia and Alabama was taken from them. In Georgia, this meant the taking of almost the entire bottom third of the state, about one-fifth of its area. In Alabama, the Creeks had to give up three-fifths of what is now Alabama. They somehow kept a bit of land in both states, but not for long.
Also in 1820, some land in North Georgia was distributed by lottery. This was land ceded by the Cherokee in 1817 and 1819 in one more futile effort to give up a little land in hopes of keeping most of it. This land ran southwest from the northeast corner of Georgia in a narrow, L-shaped strip and was eventually made into about five more counties.
The lottery of 1827 apportioned the last of the land which had belonged to the Creeks in Georgia and they were relocated. These lands became middle western Georgia counties such as Carroll, Troup, Coweta and Muscogee, and their assignment was the total end of the Creeks in Georgia. It’s probable that the clearing out of the Creeks increased the pressure on the state to get rid of the Cherokees, as well, and this pressure certainly increased over the next few years and came to a head when gold was found in the Cherokee lands.
Truthfully, the state government of Georgia had always intended to remove the Indians from the area. When Georgia’s western and northern boundaries were established in 1802, a part of the plan for developing the state was the removal of all the indigenous peoples, but in 1828, the Cherokee were still here. Unlike the Creeks, they were not difficult neighbors. They lived in towns and villages, were essentially farmers, like their white neighbors, and had adopted many other aspects of white civilization--good and bad.
Many had converted to Protestantism as missionaries had been working among them for many years. A few, including John Ross, were slave owners. They had an organized nation, based at New Echota near Calhoun. The capitol is now a state park and if you haven’t been there, I highly recommend a visit as a means of understanding who the Cherokee really were.
They also had a written language, a constitution and a newspaper. (Remember that Sequoyah, inventor of their alphabet, lived in a number of places in our part of the state as he was developing it.) This alone made the Cherokee very different from the other Indian tribes east of the Mississippi.
But regardless of all their legal pleas, a Supreme Court decision in their favor which Andrew Jackson defied as president, and all their efforts to live agreeably with their white neighbors, the Cherokee were eventually removed by force. Their story has been the subject of many books and other media and I would not presume to try to tell it here except to say that it is not an event for us to be proud of.
As soon as the handwriting was officially on the wall, the state fathers began to plan for the apportionment of the last Cherokee land to local residents. Their first move was to extend the reach of government to the new area by declaring it a county--a huge county--called Cherokee, and by sending in surveyors to lay off the area into sections and districts and lots to get it ready for distribution.
Next time: How we went from Cherokee County to Dade
Note from the Historical Society: You can now purchase this year’s Historical Calendar. Calendars will be sold at the County Commission office and the Dade County Public Library for $10. The Friends of the Library's new Christmas ornament of Davis School is also available at the library for $ 15. They will also be for sale at the Dade Small Business Expo on Dec. 14.
This year the calendar will feature churches. This is not a complete showing of our old churches. It is simply the ones which we could find or that someone sent to us. Most of the pictures were made in 1975, when the last historical inventory of Dade County was done. Many of the churches that one would expect were not photographed in 1975 and realization has come that many of our churches were founded in the 1940s and 1950s and were not eligible because they were not at least 50 years old.
There were always lots of churches here because many doubled as schools. Many of those little old churches were not built to live long and have disappeared. Pictures of our oldest churches do not seem to be available. If you have a picture of an old church please take it by the library and ask the staff or volunteers to scan it into our historical picture collection. | 1,198 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Why Did a Campaign for Women’s Suffrage Develop After 1870?
Women deficiencyed to curb so that they could shape past regard from men, they desired the lawful to be strengthful to effect a dissent to the way the state was run. Their inspections were that they feedd in the state therefor they had the lawfuls to curb for the laws they move to submit. Women deficiencyed to move to convenience to curb for MP’s that maintenance correspondent lawfuls, giving women a ameliorate duration.
Women deficiencyed to be strengthful to fluctuate the disconnect law as behind matrimony the man shapeed anything and the feminine was left delay nothing.
Women craved an direction correspondent to men, so that they can stipulate past under obligation, fractions polite remunerated jobs, that they could not for satisfy delayout an direction. There were divers areas of inadequacy aggravate women. The disconnect law is a string illustration of this. The men level had allotefficacious lawfuls to the conclusion if they had any, level though the woman’s job was to contemplate behind the conclusion, conjuncture the virile was at labor. So when the disconnect catchs attribute the Man calm?} goes to labor, and has to liberty the conclusion at abode delayout a woman. Women strongly felt that correspondentity was a basic and cosmical cosmical lawful.
During the 1800’s divers past men had shapeed the curb, men delay relishly near resulting swing than some women had. Women weren’t fitting reckoning of themselves, they felt that their direction they could convey encircling ameliorate childsolicitude and housing. This would advantage everyone. Their were divers argues why women belligerenceed for the curb, one of them nature that women had to submit the laws as did the men but they had no say through gregarious representatives on what they abided by. Women knew that as desire as they had no curb, they had no regard, and as desire as they had no regard, they were nature remunerated near.
The gregarious inequalities finally performed women’s gregarious strength, and their lean birth. Women felt that politics had penetrateed the abode, though law, therefor women should penetrate politics. Women rest it sickening that they were nature taxed delayout nature represented. They had to pay for the council to go aggravate what they women regard in. All top jobs are not availpowerful to feminines, as they are seen as auxiliary. This instrument that opportunities in notorious duration are destitute. Generally women move a closer interdependence delay the conclusion than the viriles do, as they contemplate behind them conjuncture the men labor.
Therefore women understand what is ameliorate for the conclusion, and their top of inspection was not regarded as they had understand gregarious condition. The belligerence for women’s tone instituted from 1870 ahead was consequently of a reckon of argues. In 1853 Florence Nightingale bought nursing to the notorious eye as a regardpowerful avocation that women could set-out on delayout nature criticised. Women showed regardefficacious zeal to mend and grace past practiced in the avowal of nursing and physic. Florence showed set-out and trust that had not been shown in women antecedently.
This was an illustration of some speed that occurred in the 1800’s, but there were calm?} divers areas of inadequacy. In 1870 the married women’s quality act was enforced, alloting women to detain i??200 of their own hues. This may not gauge regardefficacious but currency was excellence regardefficacious past in these opportunitys. This was the set-out of divers fluctuates that age women a past correspondent role in sodality. In 1873 a law was imposed alloting women to see their conclusion if they got disconnectd. This gave them closer interdependences delay their conclusion, and they would move been contemplateed behind ameliorate as the men go out to labor.
In 1884 married women were no desireer regarded holding of their husbands, this meant past regard in sodality as they were seen as herd rather than belongings. Women’s role partially grace past forcible as new jobs became notorious to women such as; command, accommodating benefit labor and secretarial labor had fitting enslaved off due to the myth of the typewriter and telephone. I move the pristine genuine lawfuls ardent to women were that they were recognized to detain i??200 of their own gaining. This gave women revelation, as they knew then, that they could use that currency to perhaphazard get an direction or to set-out a matter.
This to-boot let them understand that they do move some lawfuls and they are befitting. I to-boot regard that a key fluctuate in favour of women’s lawfuls is “The Match Girls” stamp. They ask-fored ameliorate pay and stipulations, and the notoriousity rigorous the community to mend them. I move that women unwavering to prepare belligerenceing in 1900 was consequently of the fluctuates that occurred, women were nature ardent ameliorate opportunities so they felt that they had an convenience to use this preparening to establish on the product to correspondent lawfuls. Q2 Describe the Ways in Which the Methods of the Suffragists and the Suffragettes Were Different
The Suffragettes and the Suffragists were two feminine dominated assemblages, who were very resembling in substance but used very unanalogous methods of belief. The Suffragists (NUWSS) were a honest, law-abiding assemblage. They did not ask-for the curb for all women but deficiencyed to be on correspondent foothold delay men. The pristine women to adhere the NUWSS were polite-educated, middle-adjust women, but in the 1890’s divers ingredienty girls deficiencyed to shape the curb, establish their hire and their patronage and laboring stipulations adhereed the move. By 1900 the feminine cotton laborers were the primary remunerated ingredienty laborers in Britain.
The Suffragists used their instrument and qualifications delayin the move’s members to result banners, postcards and posters. The Suffragettes (WSPU) used wholly unanalogous shapes of college. The tonettes had one aim; to shape gregarious correspondentity delay men. The WSPU was shapeed on the 13th October 1905 when two women in Manchester were thrown out of a Liberal discussion for shouting for women’s curbs.They were arrested behind a whileout the discussion for hitting and spitting at policemen. This was wholly natural for the Suffragettes as they prepared to get notoriousity though exposed stunts.
The plans of the Suffragettes were very unanalogous to those of the Suffragists, as they would get notoriousity at any require. They deliberately got arrested for crimes such as combustion, window smashing and bombing. When they were in jail for their crimes they frequently went on hunger stamp so they had to be force-fed. The Suffragettes made it free that they would not seal the ravage they were causing unnear their ask-fors were met. Types of example were key to the actions of the moves. Millicent Fawcett saw her role as a co-ordinator; she didn’t regard herself to be in entrust but to confer the exertion of the other Suffragists some direction.
She made it free that the Suffragists used non-forcible methods of belief to shape the corresponding voting lawfuls as men. The Suffragettes were led in a very unanalogous manor, Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters led the move forcefully. They were said to move firm relish “dictators” not scheduleening to others, and not reckoning of the consequences of their actions, purely concentrating on their engagement for tone. The Suffragettes were domiciled in London where all the legislation buildings are domiciled, hence when they deficiencyed to denounce they could do so, and MPs would see and genuineise how designful they were.
I move that the Suffragists were a assemblage for women who maintenanceed women’s lawfuls to curb abundance to deficiency to effect a dissent and get compromised but not abundance to get arrested or level killed relish some of the Suffragettes. The tonettes were the most telling organisation and used their shadow to shape popularity and regards delay men. They consummated this by usurpation off all their final petitions whilst the war was on. This shapeed them regard and to-boot gave them a haphazard to argue themselves that they solicituded for the state. They argued they could do the corresponding jobs, to the corresponding rule if not ameliorate than the men could.
An consummatement by twain organisations is that by 1900 aggravate half the MP’s said they deficiencyed women to move the curb. Though regardefficacious severe belligerenceing women’s tone took divers past years to consummate their initiatory gift but they twain did. Suffragists using a regardefficacious past stipulated shape of college such as posters etc, but they Suffragettes use regardefficacious past final and absurd shapes. They not merely showed that they deficiencyed correspondent lawfuls but they showed how regardefficacious they deficiencyed them. They went to divers finals fitting to shape what they very strongly regardd in.
Q3 Why Did Divers Herd Oppose Giving Women the Lawful To Curb Divers herd unanalogous giving the women the lawful to curb consequently they feared what the women might do, if they had as regardefficacious strength as men did. Divers herd regardd that if women had shapeed correspondent lawfuls they would not seal and they would deficiency to catch consummate curb. Some contemporaries strongly regardd that women would not curb responsibly but would be swingd by how someone contemplates rather than the designful gregarious issues of the day. This relates to the behind a whiledrawal of women’s direction, divers herd regardd that a woman’s attribute was at abode.
Most girls did not go to ground, the merely direction women had was to set them up for matrimony, to be strengthful to run a accustomed. Divers herd could not catch women designfully consequently of this and women were contemplateed upon as auxiliary to men. Herd to-boot demark that women were too irfair and moving to effect gauge judgements. Men and women were demark of to be very unanalogous. They should accomplish unanalogous roles in duration. Men should feed in the universe of politics and labor, and women in the universe of the abode. Women were the weaker sex, they could not be asked to conflict for their state.
Therefore, consequently they are not asked to waste losing their feeds during the war, they were not citizens in the fullest soundness. The belligerence for women’s tone had been, hijacked by a feeble, clear but unrepresentative minority of feminists. At ground, most women did not genuinely solicitude whether they had the lawful to curb or not. Middle-adjust women would use gregarious lawfuls to enunciate their solicitudeers and failure their domiciliary duties. Also, if the educated slow having families or did not move them at all, a larger adaptation of babies would be born to ‘socially unprofitable’ elements. The state would admit.
To confer the curb to women would closely unquestionably guide to a unfailing extension for men and thus qualify untried, rootnear and generally undesirpowerful herd. Basically women were auxiliary to men, but men feared that women would move their retaliation if they shapeed abundance strength to do so, men feared for their comings. Women were inpracticed and if they had the lawful to curb, they would not use their rule suitably, as they cannot examination anything into the topic consequently of their behind a whiledrawal of direction. However, men had past trial so they could effect gifted and fair decisions.
The tonettes did not made duration easier for women. They fitting made women contemplate insane, dull and incappowerful of making gifted decisions. Queen Victoria did not reckon women should move had the lawful to curb. This was consequently she demark that there was no top in changing sodality, consequently she was lucky delay the way it was laboring, and she demark that men’s decisions were gifted abundance. Women had no key role in sodality, they were childlike, auxiliary and incappowerful of making decisions, which could fluctuate the coming for the entire state, was it excellence the waste?
Women had no direction to argue themselves, and those who did had very mean. If women could not argue themselves to their state, how were they reckoned to effect an impression on sodality? It was very severe for women to fluctuate the way in which herd were reckoning, women had to contemplate and act gifted so that herd could see that they were fitting as gifted as men. The merely argue women had such a bad mark was consequently divers women labored at abode cleaning and contemplateing behind the race. This is calm?} an dignified role, if women were ardent the corresponding direction as men, they would be fitting as gifted, the fitting never had the corresponding opportunities.
I regard that the behind a whiledrawal of women’s direction was the most dignified ingredient of why divers herd did not deficiency to let women move the lawful to curb. Women were set a bad condition, and it would be severe to aggravatecome this and try to act as if they were as gifted as men were. It would be very severe for women to argue themselves. Question 4 I acquiesce that women aggravate 30 shapeed the curb in 1918 principally consequently of women’s offering to the war exertion. Amid the women’s tone move counterpart to the war sundry enormously. Mrs Fawcett told members of the NUWSS, “Women your state needs you”.
Many members became compromised in war assistance labor. However not all members deficiencyed to do war labor. Some were pacifists who wholly disagreed delay conflicting and war. Mrs Pankhurst, her daughter Christabel and members of the WSPU sealped belligerenceing and threw themselves into the war exertion. Helping he council delay recruiting and college. Divers middle-adjust and surpassing adjust women became nurses and labored straightway delay the soldierlike. Some of these women had the haphazard t labor abroad; others labored in soldierlike hospitals in Britain. Some of these women rest duration severe, they were not used to laboring and the shifts gloom and day were desire.
VAD was the Voluntary Aid Detachment, these women labored unremunerated until 1915. Behind this they accepted i??20 a year, but had to pay for their uniforms. Some men unanalogous to women in men’s jobs. They were worried that women doing the corresponding job for fewer hire meant that when the war was aggravate women would be kept on. To escape this exchange, unions made acquiescements delay the council and employers to vindicate men’s jobs and hire. Despite the disconnection women penetrateed all kinds of labor, which antecedently the war was demark to be unsuitpowerful for women.
Before the war the merely jobs for women in enravishment were as cleaners, attendants and clerks. However, during the war they became bus and cortege conductors, railway ticket collectors, conspicuous women and porters. 900,000 women were compromised in making shells, guns and aircraft. This was exposed labor, using noxious substances and explosives. At lowest 300 women died in the munitions ingredienties from the explosions. This shows how attached women were to their state. Munitions laborers were one of the best-remunerated jobs during the war delay hire up to i??5 a week.
Women were encouraged to acceleration out on farms, to detain the state replete delay living. They labored 10-12 hours a day and did not gain as regardefficacious as ingredienty women. They could adhere one of three sections of the plant soldierlike-agriculture, timber satirical and booty. Women in cultivation would contribute sheep, eliminate potatoes, hoeing, ploughing, acceleration delay fruit labor and labor on the fruit gardens. Women on the plant would feed on the farm and usually had to pay for their living and chamber. They had to mark up for either 6 months or a year and were not recognized to liberty delayout proper leave.
After the war the old voting order had to be fluctuated to allot men rebated from the war to be strengthful to curb. The law said that all curbrs must move feedd in the state for aggravate 12 months antecedently voting, so women argued that whilst making fluctuates to allot the “rebated heroes” to curb. It would be a cheerful opportunity to add women to the schedule of curbrs. The war had shaken the entire constitution of sodality- the laboring adjustes past some regard for the costly, divers herd had died or past relations, the entire of Europe was imperilled. 1918 was hence a opportunity for fluctuate or set-outing frequently.
I regard that the labor, which women did during the war gained them a lot of regard and this definitely accelerationed them win the lawful to curb. Women argued to sodality that they could be gifted and relipowerful if the were ardent the haphazard. They argued that if they had past strength they could acceleration the state and they would effect a big dissent in the way in which the sodality was run. The women’s moves antecedently the war accelerationed to establish awareness of the birth of women, this accelerationed their purpose, to-boot politicians genuineised that the forcible belligerenceing would move been young if they did not recognise women’s lawfuls. | <urn:uuid:9eea1d4e-3dcd-4d92-a8ac-b956e013f0c9> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.writemyessay.college/why-did-a-campaign-for-womens-suffrage-develop-after-1870/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589560.16/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117123339-20200117151339-00099.warc.gz | en | 0.983523 | 3,767 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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-0.041904404759... | 1 | Why Did a Campaign for Women’s Suffrage Develop After 1870?
Women deficiencyed to curb so that they could shape past regard from men, they desired the lawful to be strengthful to effect a dissent to the way the state was run. Their inspections were that they feedd in the state therefor they had the lawfuls to curb for the laws they move to submit. Women deficiencyed to move to convenience to curb for MP’s that maintenance correspondent lawfuls, giving women a ameliorate duration.
Women deficiencyed to be strengthful to fluctuate the disconnect law as behind matrimony the man shapeed anything and the feminine was left delay nothing.
Women craved an direction correspondent to men, so that they can stipulate past under obligation, fractions polite remunerated jobs, that they could not for satisfy delayout an direction. There were divers areas of inadequacy aggravate women. The disconnect law is a string illustration of this. The men level had allotefficacious lawfuls to the conclusion if they had any, level though the woman’s job was to contemplate behind the conclusion, conjuncture the virile was at labor. So when the disconnect catchs attribute the Man calm?} goes to labor, and has to liberty the conclusion at abode delayout a woman. Women strongly felt that correspondentity was a basic and cosmical cosmical lawful.
During the 1800’s divers past men had shapeed the curb, men delay relishly near resulting swing than some women had. Women weren’t fitting reckoning of themselves, they felt that their direction they could convey encircling ameliorate childsolicitude and housing. This would advantage everyone. Their were divers argues why women belligerenceed for the curb, one of them nature that women had to submit the laws as did the men but they had no say through gregarious representatives on what they abided by. Women knew that as desire as they had no curb, they had no regard, and as desire as they had no regard, they were nature remunerated near.
The gregarious inequalities finally performed women’s gregarious strength, and their lean birth. Women felt that politics had penetrateed the abode, though law, therefor women should penetrate politics. Women rest it sickening that they were nature taxed delayout nature represented. They had to pay for the council to go aggravate what they women regard in. All top jobs are not availpowerful to feminines, as they are seen as auxiliary. This instrument that opportunities in notorious duration are destitute. Generally women move a closer interdependence delay the conclusion than the viriles do, as they contemplate behind them conjuncture the men labor.
Therefore women understand what is ameliorate for the conclusion, and their top of inspection was not regarded as they had understand gregarious condition. The belligerence for women’s tone instituted from 1870 ahead was consequently of a reckon of argues. In 1853 Florence Nightingale bought nursing to the notorious eye as a regardpowerful avocation that women could set-out on delayout nature criticised. Women showed regardefficacious zeal to mend and grace past practiced in the avowal of nursing and physic. Florence showed set-out and trust that had not been shown in women antecedently.
This was an illustration of some speed that occurred in the 1800’s, but there were calm?} divers areas of inadequacy. In 1870 the married women’s quality act was enforced, alloting women to detain i??200 of their own hues. This may not gauge regardefficacious but currency was excellence regardefficacious past in these opportunitys. This was the set-out of divers fluctuates that age women a past correspondent role in sodality. In 1873 a law was imposed alloting women to see their conclusion if they got disconnectd. This gave them closer interdependences delay their conclusion, and they would move been contemplateed behind ameliorate as the men go out to labor.
In 1884 married women were no desireer regarded holding of their husbands, this meant past regard in sodality as they were seen as herd rather than belongings. Women’s role partially grace past forcible as new jobs became notorious to women such as; command, accommodating benefit labor and secretarial labor had fitting enslaved off due to the myth of the typewriter and telephone. I move the pristine genuine lawfuls ardent to women were that they were recognized to detain i??200 of their own gaining. This gave women revelation, as they knew then, that they could use that currency to perhaphazard get an direction or to set-out a matter.
This to-boot let them understand that they do move some lawfuls and they are befitting. I to-boot regard that a key fluctuate in favour of women’s lawfuls is “The Match Girls” stamp. They ask-fored ameliorate pay and stipulations, and the notoriousity rigorous the community to mend them. I move that women unwavering to prepare belligerenceing in 1900 was consequently of the fluctuates that occurred, women were nature ardent ameliorate opportunities so they felt that they had an convenience to use this preparening to establish on the product to correspondent lawfuls. Q2 Describe the Ways in Which the Methods of the Suffragists and the Suffragettes Were Different
The Suffragettes and the Suffragists were two feminine dominated assemblages, who were very resembling in substance but used very unanalogous methods of belief. The Suffragists (NUWSS) were a honest, law-abiding assemblage. They did not ask-for the curb for all women but deficiencyed to be on correspondent foothold delay men. The pristine women to adhere the NUWSS were polite-educated, middle-adjust women, but in the 1890’s divers ingredienty girls deficiencyed to shape the curb, establish their hire and their patronage and laboring stipulations adhereed the move. By 1900 the feminine cotton laborers were the primary remunerated ingredienty laborers in Britain.
The Suffragists used their instrument and qualifications delayin the move’s members to result banners, postcards and posters. The Suffragettes (WSPU) used wholly unanalogous shapes of college. The tonettes had one aim; to shape gregarious correspondentity delay men. The WSPU was shapeed on the 13th October 1905 when two women in Manchester were thrown out of a Liberal discussion for shouting for women’s curbs.They were arrested behind a whileout the discussion for hitting and spitting at policemen. This was wholly natural for the Suffragettes as they prepared to get notoriousity though exposed stunts.
The plans of the Suffragettes were very unanalogous to those of the Suffragists, as they would get notoriousity at any require. They deliberately got arrested for crimes such as combustion, window smashing and bombing. When they were in jail for their crimes they frequently went on hunger stamp so they had to be force-fed. The Suffragettes made it free that they would not seal the ravage they were causing unnear their ask-fors were met. Types of example were key to the actions of the moves. Millicent Fawcett saw her role as a co-ordinator; she didn’t regard herself to be in entrust but to confer the exertion of the other Suffragists some direction.
She made it free that the Suffragists used non-forcible methods of belief to shape the corresponding voting lawfuls as men. The Suffragettes were led in a very unanalogous manor, Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters led the move forcefully. They were said to move firm relish “dictators” not scheduleening to others, and not reckoning of the consequences of their actions, purely concentrating on their engagement for tone. The Suffragettes were domiciled in London where all the legislation buildings are domiciled, hence when they deficiencyed to denounce they could do so, and MPs would see and genuineise how designful they were.
I move that the Suffragists were a assemblage for women who maintenanceed women’s lawfuls to curb abundance to deficiency to effect a dissent and get compromised but not abundance to get arrested or level killed relish some of the Suffragettes. The tonettes were the most telling organisation and used their shadow to shape popularity and regards delay men. They consummated this by usurpation off all their final petitions whilst the war was on. This shapeed them regard and to-boot gave them a haphazard to argue themselves that they solicituded for the state. They argued they could do the corresponding jobs, to the corresponding rule if not ameliorate than the men could.
An consummatement by twain organisations is that by 1900 aggravate half the MP’s said they deficiencyed women to move the curb. Though regardefficacious severe belligerenceing women’s tone took divers past years to consummate their initiatory gift but they twain did. Suffragists using a regardefficacious past stipulated shape of college such as posters etc, but they Suffragettes use regardefficacious past final and absurd shapes. They not merely showed that they deficiencyed correspondent lawfuls but they showed how regardefficacious they deficiencyed them. They went to divers finals fitting to shape what they very strongly regardd in.
Q3 Why Did Divers Herd Oppose Giving Women the Lawful To Curb Divers herd unanalogous giving the women the lawful to curb consequently they feared what the women might do, if they had as regardefficacious strength as men did. Divers herd regardd that if women had shapeed correspondent lawfuls they would not seal and they would deficiency to catch consummate curb. Some contemporaries strongly regardd that women would not curb responsibly but would be swingd by how someone contemplates rather than the designful gregarious issues of the day. This relates to the behind a whiledrawal of women’s direction, divers herd regardd that a woman’s attribute was at abode.
Most girls did not go to ground, the merely direction women had was to set them up for matrimony, to be strengthful to run a accustomed. Divers herd could not catch women designfully consequently of this and women were contemplateed upon as auxiliary to men. Herd to-boot demark that women were too irfair and moving to effect gauge judgements. Men and women were demark of to be very unanalogous. They should accomplish unanalogous roles in duration. Men should feed in the universe of politics and labor, and women in the universe of the abode. Women were the weaker sex, they could not be asked to conflict for their state.
Therefore, consequently they are not asked to waste losing their feeds during the war, they were not citizens in the fullest soundness. The belligerence for women’s tone had been, hijacked by a feeble, clear but unrepresentative minority of feminists. At ground, most women did not genuinely solicitude whether they had the lawful to curb or not. Middle-adjust women would use gregarious lawfuls to enunciate their solicitudeers and failure their domiciliary duties. Also, if the educated slow having families or did not move them at all, a larger adaptation of babies would be born to ‘socially unprofitable’ elements. The state would admit.
To confer the curb to women would closely unquestionably guide to a unfailing extension for men and thus qualify untried, rootnear and generally undesirpowerful herd. Basically women were auxiliary to men, but men feared that women would move their retaliation if they shapeed abundance strength to do so, men feared for their comings. Women were inpracticed and if they had the lawful to curb, they would not use their rule suitably, as they cannot examination anything into the topic consequently of their behind a whiledrawal of direction. However, men had past trial so they could effect gifted and fair decisions.
The tonettes did not made duration easier for women. They fitting made women contemplate insane, dull and incappowerful of making gifted decisions. Queen Victoria did not reckon women should move had the lawful to curb. This was consequently she demark that there was no top in changing sodality, consequently she was lucky delay the way it was laboring, and she demark that men’s decisions were gifted abundance. Women had no key role in sodality, they were childlike, auxiliary and incappowerful of making decisions, which could fluctuate the coming for the entire state, was it excellence the waste?
Women had no direction to argue themselves, and those who did had very mean. If women could not argue themselves to their state, how were they reckoned to effect an impression on sodality? It was very severe for women to fluctuate the way in which herd were reckoning, women had to contemplate and act gifted so that herd could see that they were fitting as gifted as men. The merely argue women had such a bad mark was consequently divers women labored at abode cleaning and contemplateing behind the race. This is calm?} an dignified role, if women were ardent the corresponding direction as men, they would be fitting as gifted, the fitting never had the corresponding opportunities.
I regard that the behind a whiledrawal of women’s direction was the most dignified ingredient of why divers herd did not deficiency to let women move the lawful to curb. Women were set a bad condition, and it would be severe to aggravatecome this and try to act as if they were as gifted as men were. It would be very severe for women to argue themselves. Question 4 I acquiesce that women aggravate 30 shapeed the curb in 1918 principally consequently of women’s offering to the war exertion. Amid the women’s tone move counterpart to the war sundry enormously. Mrs Fawcett told members of the NUWSS, “Women your state needs you”.
Many members became compromised in war assistance labor. However not all members deficiencyed to do war labor. Some were pacifists who wholly disagreed delay conflicting and war. Mrs Pankhurst, her daughter Christabel and members of the WSPU sealped belligerenceing and threw themselves into the war exertion. Helping he council delay recruiting and college. Divers middle-adjust and surpassing adjust women became nurses and labored straightway delay the soldierlike. Some of these women had the haphazard t labor abroad; others labored in soldierlike hospitals in Britain. Some of these women rest duration severe, they were not used to laboring and the shifts gloom and day were desire.
VAD was the Voluntary Aid Detachment, these women labored unremunerated until 1915. Behind this they accepted i??20 a year, but had to pay for their uniforms. Some men unanalogous to women in men’s jobs. They were worried that women doing the corresponding job for fewer hire meant that when the war was aggravate women would be kept on. To escape this exchange, unions made acquiescements delay the council and employers to vindicate men’s jobs and hire. Despite the disconnection women penetrateed all kinds of labor, which antecedently the war was demark to be unsuitpowerful for women.
Before the war the merely jobs for women in enravishment were as cleaners, attendants and clerks. However, during the war they became bus and cortege conductors, railway ticket collectors, conspicuous women and porters. 900,000 women were compromised in making shells, guns and aircraft. This was exposed labor, using noxious substances and explosives. At lowest 300 women died in the munitions ingredienties from the explosions. This shows how attached women were to their state. Munitions laborers were one of the best-remunerated jobs during the war delay hire up to i??5 a week.
Women were encouraged to acceleration out on farms, to detain the state replete delay living. They labored 10-12 hours a day and did not gain as regardefficacious as ingredienty women. They could adhere one of three sections of the plant soldierlike-agriculture, timber satirical and booty. Women in cultivation would contribute sheep, eliminate potatoes, hoeing, ploughing, acceleration delay fruit labor and labor on the fruit gardens. Women on the plant would feed on the farm and usually had to pay for their living and chamber. They had to mark up for either 6 months or a year and were not recognized to liberty delayout proper leave.
After the war the old voting order had to be fluctuated to allot men rebated from the war to be strengthful to curb. The law said that all curbrs must move feedd in the state for aggravate 12 months antecedently voting, so women argued that whilst making fluctuates to allot the “rebated heroes” to curb. It would be a cheerful opportunity to add women to the schedule of curbrs. The war had shaken the entire constitution of sodality- the laboring adjustes past some regard for the costly, divers herd had died or past relations, the entire of Europe was imperilled. 1918 was hence a opportunity for fluctuate or set-outing frequently.
I regard that the labor, which women did during the war gained them a lot of regard and this definitely accelerationed them win the lawful to curb. Women argued to sodality that they could be gifted and relipowerful if the were ardent the haphazard. They argued that if they had past strength they could acceleration the state and they would effect a big dissent in the way in which the sodality was run. The women’s moves antecedently the war accelerationed to establish awareness of the birth of women, this accelerationed their purpose, to-boot politicians genuineised that the forcible belligerenceing would move been young if they did not recognise women’s lawfuls. | 3,783 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The goldsmiths tale
The short animation film Money As Debt explains how the financial system came to be. It is an interesting story. Once upon a time when gold was internationally accepted as money, goldsmiths fabricated gold coins of standardised weight and purity. They were a trusted source of these gold coins. They owned a safe where they stored their gold. Other people wanted to store their gold there too because those safes were well guarded.
And so some goldsmiths began to make a business out of renting safe storage. People storing their gold with the goldsmith received a voucher certifying the amount of gold they brought in. At first these vouchers could only be collected by the original depositor.
Later this restriction was lifted so that any holder of the voucher could collect the deposit. From then on people started to use these vouchers as money because paper money was more convenient than gold coin. Depositors rarely demanded their gold and it remained in the vaults of the goldsmiths.
Some goldsmiths also had another business, which was lending out their gold at interest. Because depositors rarely came in to collect their gold, they discovered that they could also lend out the gold of the depositors at interest. When the depositors found out about this, they demanded interest on their deposits too. At this point modern banking started to take off and paper money became known as bank notes.
Borrowers also preferred paper money to gold coin, so the goldsmiths, who had now become bankers, found out that they could lend out more money than there was gold in their vaults. Bankers started to create money out of thin air. This is fractional reserve banking because not all deposits were backed by gold reserves. The new money was spent on new businesses and that hired new people so the economy boomed.
When depositors discovered that there were more bank notes circulating than there was gold in the vault of the bank, the scheme could run into trouble, but mostly it didn’t. Depositors received interest. This enticed them to keep their deposits in the bank. People trusted their bank as long as they believed that debtors would pay back their loans.
Sometimes people started to have doubts about their bank and worried depositors came to the bank to exchange their bank notes for gold. This is a bank run. The bank could run out of gold and close down because not all the gold was there. The bank’s bank notes could then become worthless, even when borrowers had no problems repaying their debts. The money that the bank had created out of thin air suddenly vanished. This was a financial crisis.
As a lot of money had suddenly disappeared people had less money to spend. This could hurt sales so that some businesses could go bankrupt. Those businesses could not repay their debts at other banks. Depositors at those banks could start to fear that their bank would go bankrupt too. This could cause more bank runs and more money disappearing, so that things would become even worse. This is an economic crisis. This is the way a financial crisis could trigger an economic crisis.
Regulations and central banks
Measures have been taken to forestall financial crises and to deal with them if they occur. Banks needed to have a minimum amount of gold available in order to pay depositors. Central banks were instituted to support banks by supplying additional gold if too many depositors came in to collect their gold. Central banks could still run out of gold but this was solved when the gold backing of currencies was ended. Nowadays central banks can print new dollars or euros to cope with a shortfall.
Regulations limit the amount of loans banks make and therefore the amount of money that exists. But everyone can lend to anyone. Alternative forms of financing circumvent the regulations imposed on banks. For example, corporations can issue bonds or use crowd funding. Human imagination is the only limit to the amount of debt that can exist. As long as people expect that those debts will be repaid, even if it is with new debts, there is trust in these debts. But the financial crisis of 2008 demonstrated that trust in debts can suddenly disappear.
Featured image: A goldsmith in his shop. Peter Christus (1449). Metropolitan Museum of Art. Wikimedia Commons. Public Domain.
Other images: Money As Debt. Paul Grignon (2006). | <urn:uuid:2afc7b42-eac9-443d-a741-5d22b363773f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://theplanforthefuture.org/2018/12/03/how-the-financial-system-came-to-be/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607596.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122221541-20200123010541-00532.warc.gz | en | 0.983995 | 887 | 3.5625 | 4 | [
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0.27817037... | 1 | The goldsmiths tale
The short animation film Money As Debt explains how the financial system came to be. It is an interesting story. Once upon a time when gold was internationally accepted as money, goldsmiths fabricated gold coins of standardised weight and purity. They were a trusted source of these gold coins. They owned a safe where they stored their gold. Other people wanted to store their gold there too because those safes were well guarded.
And so some goldsmiths began to make a business out of renting safe storage. People storing their gold with the goldsmith received a voucher certifying the amount of gold they brought in. At first these vouchers could only be collected by the original depositor.
Later this restriction was lifted so that any holder of the voucher could collect the deposit. From then on people started to use these vouchers as money because paper money was more convenient than gold coin. Depositors rarely demanded their gold and it remained in the vaults of the goldsmiths.
Some goldsmiths also had another business, which was lending out their gold at interest. Because depositors rarely came in to collect their gold, they discovered that they could also lend out the gold of the depositors at interest. When the depositors found out about this, they demanded interest on their deposits too. At this point modern banking started to take off and paper money became known as bank notes.
Borrowers also preferred paper money to gold coin, so the goldsmiths, who had now become bankers, found out that they could lend out more money than there was gold in their vaults. Bankers started to create money out of thin air. This is fractional reserve banking because not all deposits were backed by gold reserves. The new money was spent on new businesses and that hired new people so the economy boomed.
When depositors discovered that there were more bank notes circulating than there was gold in the vault of the bank, the scheme could run into trouble, but mostly it didn’t. Depositors received interest. This enticed them to keep their deposits in the bank. People trusted their bank as long as they believed that debtors would pay back their loans.
Sometimes people started to have doubts about their bank and worried depositors came to the bank to exchange their bank notes for gold. This is a bank run. The bank could run out of gold and close down because not all the gold was there. The bank’s bank notes could then become worthless, even when borrowers had no problems repaying their debts. The money that the bank had created out of thin air suddenly vanished. This was a financial crisis.
As a lot of money had suddenly disappeared people had less money to spend. This could hurt sales so that some businesses could go bankrupt. Those businesses could not repay their debts at other banks. Depositors at those banks could start to fear that their bank would go bankrupt too. This could cause more bank runs and more money disappearing, so that things would become even worse. This is an economic crisis. This is the way a financial crisis could trigger an economic crisis.
Regulations and central banks
Measures have been taken to forestall financial crises and to deal with them if they occur. Banks needed to have a minimum amount of gold available in order to pay depositors. Central banks were instituted to support banks by supplying additional gold if too many depositors came in to collect their gold. Central banks could still run out of gold but this was solved when the gold backing of currencies was ended. Nowadays central banks can print new dollars or euros to cope with a shortfall.
Regulations limit the amount of loans banks make and therefore the amount of money that exists. But everyone can lend to anyone. Alternative forms of financing circumvent the regulations imposed on banks. For example, corporations can issue bonds or use crowd funding. Human imagination is the only limit to the amount of debt that can exist. As long as people expect that those debts will be repaid, even if it is with new debts, there is trust in these debts. But the financial crisis of 2008 demonstrated that trust in debts can suddenly disappear.
Featured image: A goldsmith in his shop. Peter Christus (1449). Metropolitan Museum of Art. Wikimedia Commons. Public Domain.
Other images: Money As Debt. Paul Grignon (2006). | 877 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Hearing loss is nothing new. It has affected people since the beginning of time. Unfortunately, in times past, people tried to solve the problem of hearing loss in unique ways. This resulted in some very unconventional solutions.
When the musical legend Beethoven was in his twenties, he suffered from buzzing and ringing in the years. Today we know this as tinnitus. Beethoven did not have such things as hearing aids available to him. Therefore, he visited many doctors throughout Europe. He was introduced to some different devices. One of these was the almond oil earplugs. Another was galvanism. This involved passing an electrical current through the affected part of the body to stimulate it. That must have resulted in a shocking event offering some major pain.
Beethoven was also told by one doctor to isolate himself. He was led to believe that he needed to let his ears rest. Of course, this was not a solution. Apparently, the musician finally gave up and returned to creating the music we still enjoy today.
During the 19th century, some people with hearing loss used odd tools to try to stimulate the nerves in the ear. Many tried using a large contraption. It amounted to vibrating the inner ear. Obviously, the odd-looking tool didn’t work.
Another very unusual method attempting to restore hearing was called “blistering.” This common procedure involved giving people blisters through caustic plaster. The resulting pus was believed to be evidence of unwanted toxins being removed from the body. The belief was that this promoted healthy ears. This was one more unsuccessful procedure.
Most likely, you have never heard of artificial eardrums. In the late 1800s, this was one of the methods used to restore hearing. It was believed that the tiny device would make sound resonate through the auditory canal. Not only were these devices ineffective, but they were also quite painful when inserted into the ear. Some of them were made from metal.
One of the more creative ways used to help improve hearing loss was sticking a twig in the ear. You were expected to keep it in your ear 24-hours a day. You were instructed to keep it there until your deafness was cured.
Another idea was to heat your urine. You were told to use two dishes. Once heated, you were to catch the liquid boiling off and place it in your ear. It was believed that the liquid in the ear would stop the deafness.
One other solution was for acquired hearing loss (non-congenital). You were instructed to surgically have your ear catheterized, thereby washing it out with water or gas.
People must have been desperate to help restore their hearing as the proposed cures were countless. Some of them were really out in the right-field. For example, one was to take opium. It was reported the drug cured deafness. Another was to fry peach kernels in hog lard. You would then put drops in the ear until your hearing loss was cured. Or, how about climbing up a very high tree then suddenly jumping down. It was reported the sharp fall would restore your hearing.
Fortunately, today, we have procedures that often help with hearing loss. There are also many new advancements presently being tested. The degree of improvement depends on the type of damage from which a person suffers.
One of the most used is the hearing aid. These assistive devices are becoming smaller and sleeker. They are almost reaching the point of being so little they cannot be seen inside the ear. Each year additional features are being added.
Sometimes, if hearing aids do not help a person, there is a hearing implant. The bone-anchored hearing aid is attached to the skull and involves a minor operation. There are different ways of connecting it. For people who have a major hearing loss, the cochlear implant can be a solution. There is also the auditory brainstem implant, and middle ear implants, There are a variety of assistive listening devices, other than hearing aids, to assist you to hear in everyday situations. If you are interested in seeing what is available to you, it is important to make an appointment to visit your health specialist. | <urn:uuid:4fd9e5f8-ac05-4789-ac1f-2a20e6c9cc84> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://kanhear.com/blog/hearing-loss-cures-of-the-past/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251779833.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128153713-20200128183713-00436.warc.gz | en | 0.991504 | 858 | 3.5 | 4 | [
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0.0771547853946... | 3 | Hearing loss is nothing new. It has affected people since the beginning of time. Unfortunately, in times past, people tried to solve the problem of hearing loss in unique ways. This resulted in some very unconventional solutions.
When the musical legend Beethoven was in his twenties, he suffered from buzzing and ringing in the years. Today we know this as tinnitus. Beethoven did not have such things as hearing aids available to him. Therefore, he visited many doctors throughout Europe. He was introduced to some different devices. One of these was the almond oil earplugs. Another was galvanism. This involved passing an electrical current through the affected part of the body to stimulate it. That must have resulted in a shocking event offering some major pain.
Beethoven was also told by one doctor to isolate himself. He was led to believe that he needed to let his ears rest. Of course, this was not a solution. Apparently, the musician finally gave up and returned to creating the music we still enjoy today.
During the 19th century, some people with hearing loss used odd tools to try to stimulate the nerves in the ear. Many tried using a large contraption. It amounted to vibrating the inner ear. Obviously, the odd-looking tool didn’t work.
Another very unusual method attempting to restore hearing was called “blistering.” This common procedure involved giving people blisters through caustic plaster. The resulting pus was believed to be evidence of unwanted toxins being removed from the body. The belief was that this promoted healthy ears. This was one more unsuccessful procedure.
Most likely, you have never heard of artificial eardrums. In the late 1800s, this was one of the methods used to restore hearing. It was believed that the tiny device would make sound resonate through the auditory canal. Not only were these devices ineffective, but they were also quite painful when inserted into the ear. Some of them were made from metal.
One of the more creative ways used to help improve hearing loss was sticking a twig in the ear. You were expected to keep it in your ear 24-hours a day. You were instructed to keep it there until your deafness was cured.
Another idea was to heat your urine. You were told to use two dishes. Once heated, you were to catch the liquid boiling off and place it in your ear. It was believed that the liquid in the ear would stop the deafness.
One other solution was for acquired hearing loss (non-congenital). You were instructed to surgically have your ear catheterized, thereby washing it out with water or gas.
People must have been desperate to help restore their hearing as the proposed cures were countless. Some of them were really out in the right-field. For example, one was to take opium. It was reported the drug cured deafness. Another was to fry peach kernels in hog lard. You would then put drops in the ear until your hearing loss was cured. Or, how about climbing up a very high tree then suddenly jumping down. It was reported the sharp fall would restore your hearing.
Fortunately, today, we have procedures that often help with hearing loss. There are also many new advancements presently being tested. The degree of improvement depends on the type of damage from which a person suffers.
One of the most used is the hearing aid. These assistive devices are becoming smaller and sleeker. They are almost reaching the point of being so little they cannot be seen inside the ear. Each year additional features are being added.
Sometimes, if hearing aids do not help a person, there is a hearing implant. The bone-anchored hearing aid is attached to the skull and involves a minor operation. There are different ways of connecting it. For people who have a major hearing loss, the cochlear implant can be a solution. There is also the auditory brainstem implant, and middle ear implants, There are a variety of assistive listening devices, other than hearing aids, to assist you to hear in everyday situations. If you are interested in seeing what is available to you, it is important to make an appointment to visit your health specialist. | 842 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Since the first World Milk Day was held in 2001, many countries spread throughout the world have participated in the celebrations and the number is growing each year.
Why hold a World Milk Day? The Day provides an opportunity to focus attention on milk and to publicise activities connected with milk and the milk industry. The fact that many countries choose to do this on the same day lends additional importance to individual national celebrations and shows that milk is a global food.
Where did it begin? FAO (the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations) was asked to propose a specific day on which all aspects of milk could be celebrated.
Why 1st June? This date was chosen because a number of countries were already celebrating a national milk day on or around this time. Late May was originally proposed, but some countries, for example China, felt they already had too many celebrations in that month. While most countries hold their celebrations on 1st June, some choose to hold them a week or so before or after this date. | <urn:uuid:ec2006cb-f116-4250-80af-1abecc7fe29a> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.awarenessdays.com/awareness-days-calendar/world-milk-day/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251776516.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128060946-20200128090946-00288.warc.gz | en | 0.98076 | 205 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.29186794161... | 1 | Since the first World Milk Day was held in 2001, many countries spread throughout the world have participated in the celebrations and the number is growing each year.
Why hold a World Milk Day? The Day provides an opportunity to focus attention on milk and to publicise activities connected with milk and the milk industry. The fact that many countries choose to do this on the same day lends additional importance to individual national celebrations and shows that milk is a global food.
Where did it begin? FAO (the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations) was asked to propose a specific day on which all aspects of milk could be celebrated.
Why 1st June? This date was chosen because a number of countries were already celebrating a national milk day on or around this time. Late May was originally proposed, but some countries, for example China, felt they already had too many celebrations in that month. While most countries hold their celebrations on 1st June, some choose to hold them a week or so before or after this date. | 208 | ENGLISH | 1 |
During Wallace’s adolescence Scotland was enjoying a time of independence and peace thanks to the reign of King Alexander III. Following his death in 1286 the scramble for the crown set in motion the eventual takeover of Scotland by King Edward I of England. This occurred in 1296 after the Battle of Dunbar, after which King Edwards’s forces were met with little resistance as they continued their march up North. It was the next year when Wallace made his first act of defiance against the English, which was assassination of William de Heselrig, the English High Sheriff of Lanark. This was not an isolated though, as several uprisings across Scotland were taking place in retaliation towards the English.
Four months after this incident, Wallace was leading troops into battle for his most famous victory, the Battle of Stirling Bridge. The Scottish forces were vastly outnumbered but by using the narrowness of Stirling bridge to their advantage, which could only hold up to three men across, the were able to obtain victory against the odds. By waiting until about half the army crossed the bridge, the Scots ambushed the English and prevented further reinforcements from crossing the bridge. This led to panic and confusion in the English camp and their eventual retreat.
Hugh Cressingham, King Edward's treasurer in Scotland, died in the battle and it is rumoured that Wallace used his a strip of his skin from head to toe to his as a baldric for his sword. In the aftermath of the battle, Wallace was proclaimed Guardian of Scotland and eventually knighted by the Scottish earls. However, it wouldn’t be long till events would take a turn for the worse for Wallace and the Scots.
The battle of Falkirk took place in 1298 after a renewed campaign against Scotland from King Edward. The English campaign retook much of the Lowlands before they met Wallace’s forces in battle, which the English decimated thanks to the use of longbowman. Wallace was able to make his escape but many Scots died in the battle and Wallace’s reputation was tarnished in the defeat. Due to this Wallace resigned as the Guardian of Scotland, and it is rumoured travelled to France in order to try and gain support from King Philip IV of France for Scotland. This did not come to fruition though and Wallace returned to Scotland empty handed.
Wallace was involved in skirmishes against the English for several years where he was able to evade capture until 1305. He was taken to London where he faced trial for treason, where he stated "I could not be a traitor to Edward, for I was never his subject." Of course, Wallace was found guilty and entrapped in the Tower of London before he was taken to his execution. There he was hung, drawn and quartered, his head placed on a spike on London Bridge, with the remainder of his body parts spread across Scotland and England. Wallace’s actions put Scotland on the road to independence which culminated at the Battle of Bannockburn led by the Scottish King, Robert the Bruce.
With Timberbush Tours you can explore the legend of William Wallace and witness the areas of battle. On our Loch Lomond, the Trossachs National Park & Stirling Castle tour from both Edinburgh and Glasgow where you can see where the Battle of Stirling Bridge took place and learn why Stirling was such a fought after location. You can also take our Ultimate Whisky Experience tour, again from both Edinburgh and Glasgow, where you will be taken to the Wallace Monument and learn a bit more of Wallace’s past endeavours with a dram to savour afterwards. So there really is no excuse not to learn about one of Scotland's most revered heroes! | <urn:uuid:50b11f2f-4c3a-4c93-9026-2e3bac60b156> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.timberbush-tours.co.uk/news-offers/braveheart-the-facts-behind-the-fiction | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251799918.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129133601-20200129163601-00543.warc.gz | en | 0.98617 | 756 | 3.953125 | 4 | [
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-0.27661991119... | 12 | During Wallace’s adolescence Scotland was enjoying a time of independence and peace thanks to the reign of King Alexander III. Following his death in 1286 the scramble for the crown set in motion the eventual takeover of Scotland by King Edward I of England. This occurred in 1296 after the Battle of Dunbar, after which King Edwards’s forces were met with little resistance as they continued their march up North. It was the next year when Wallace made his first act of defiance against the English, which was assassination of William de Heselrig, the English High Sheriff of Lanark. This was not an isolated though, as several uprisings across Scotland were taking place in retaliation towards the English.
Four months after this incident, Wallace was leading troops into battle for his most famous victory, the Battle of Stirling Bridge. The Scottish forces were vastly outnumbered but by using the narrowness of Stirling bridge to their advantage, which could only hold up to three men across, the were able to obtain victory against the odds. By waiting until about half the army crossed the bridge, the Scots ambushed the English and prevented further reinforcements from crossing the bridge. This led to panic and confusion in the English camp and their eventual retreat.
Hugh Cressingham, King Edward's treasurer in Scotland, died in the battle and it is rumoured that Wallace used his a strip of his skin from head to toe to his as a baldric for his sword. In the aftermath of the battle, Wallace was proclaimed Guardian of Scotland and eventually knighted by the Scottish earls. However, it wouldn’t be long till events would take a turn for the worse for Wallace and the Scots.
The battle of Falkirk took place in 1298 after a renewed campaign against Scotland from King Edward. The English campaign retook much of the Lowlands before they met Wallace’s forces in battle, which the English decimated thanks to the use of longbowman. Wallace was able to make his escape but many Scots died in the battle and Wallace’s reputation was tarnished in the defeat. Due to this Wallace resigned as the Guardian of Scotland, and it is rumoured travelled to France in order to try and gain support from King Philip IV of France for Scotland. This did not come to fruition though and Wallace returned to Scotland empty handed.
Wallace was involved in skirmishes against the English for several years where he was able to evade capture until 1305. He was taken to London where he faced trial for treason, where he stated "I could not be a traitor to Edward, for I was never his subject." Of course, Wallace was found guilty and entrapped in the Tower of London before he was taken to his execution. There he was hung, drawn and quartered, his head placed on a spike on London Bridge, with the remainder of his body parts spread across Scotland and England. Wallace’s actions put Scotland on the road to independence which culminated at the Battle of Bannockburn led by the Scottish King, Robert the Bruce.
With Timberbush Tours you can explore the legend of William Wallace and witness the areas of battle. On our Loch Lomond, the Trossachs National Park & Stirling Castle tour from both Edinburgh and Glasgow where you can see where the Battle of Stirling Bridge took place and learn why Stirling was such a fought after location. You can also take our Ultimate Whisky Experience tour, again from both Edinburgh and Glasgow, where you will be taken to the Wallace Monument and learn a bit more of Wallace’s past endeavours with a dram to savour afterwards. So there really is no excuse not to learn about one of Scotland's most revered heroes! | 751 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Buddha's Birth, Childhood, and Renunciation
Although historians can not validate many of the details of his life, most agree that he lived around 500 B.C. in what was then northern India. Versions of his life story vary slightly, but the basic outline always contains seven stages: his birth, maturity, renunciation, spiritual quest, awakening, teaching, and death. Each stage illuminates different aspects of Buddhist teachings. I have broken this telling into two articles, with this first one covering the first three stages, and the second article covering the final four.
The Buddha was born to King Suddhodana of the Shakya clan, and his wife Queen Maya. Their family name was Gautama. Upon his conception, Queen Maya dreamed of a white elephant with six white tusks entering her, a highly auspicious and powerful sign. As was tradition, when the birth neared, she traveled to her own homeland to give birth. However, she didn't make it, giving birth instead on the way, under a tree. She died soon after, and the baby - named Siddhartha, which means 'he who achieves his aim' - was raised by her sister Pajapati, who the king married.
Soon after Siddhartha's birth, a famous seer came to visit the king and proclaim the destiny of the young prince. To the king's dismay, he declared that Siddhartha's future as a king was not assured, saying instead that Siddhartha would either become a great king OR a great spiritual leader and teacher. The King consulted other seers, hoping to hear another prediction, but they all confirmed the original one.
Prince Siddhartha was an avid pupil and sportsmen, excelling at anything he tried his hand at. In an effort to assure that his son's spiritual proclivities were never awakened, the King insulated Siddhartha from all pain and suffering. He was surrounded by wealth and pleasure, his every wish granted, and all signs of illness, aging, and mortality were hidden from him.
At the age of 16, his father arranged his marriage to Princess Yasodhara, of a neighboring kingdom. Together they had a son, Rahula, and lived happily together within the palace walls, although Siddhartha often felt that there was something missing in his life.
Prince Siddhartha grew increasingly restless with palace life. At times, he requested to see life outside the palace walls, and his father worked to assure that he never saw anything painful when he did so. One day however, Prince Siddhartha caught site from his chariot of an old man. He had never seen someone stooped or wrinkled before, so he asked his charioteer and friend Channa about it. Channa told him that everyone, including the King and Siddhartha himself, would eventually age.
This made a deep impression on Siddhartha, and he began to seek out more sights outside the palace wall. He eventually encountered illness, death, and a ascetic practitioner, all of which reinforced his growing discontent. He felt that the pleasures of palace life were meaningless in the face of their ultimate transience, and death itself.
Eventually, at the age of 29, Siddhartha vowed to leave the palace, and become a spiritual ascetic himself. He vowed not to return until he knew how to end human suffering. According to legend, magical events (which vary in different accounts) transpired to aid Siddhartha's flight from the kingdom. He cut off his hair, renounced his clothing and possessions, and began his life as a renunciate.
These first three phases of the Buddha's life story represent the questioning of conditioned existence that is at the heart of Buddhist practice. And as the seer in the legend makes clear, Siddhartha, like each of us, had the choice of pursuing a purely worldly existence, or seeking answers to his questions. Ultimately, his quest was not only for himself, as his own life was happy and pleasurable. He sought the end of suffering for both himself and all of humanity. In order to seek this, he had to break, to some extent, from his past conditioning, and in his case even his physical home, for a time.
Be sure to read the rest of the story. And for more details, here are my two favorite versions of the Buddha's life story, for adults and kids, respectively:
Or, if you prefer e-books, note that this article is included in my e-book Introduction to Buddhism and Buddhist Meditation.
Editor's Picks Articles
Top Ten Articles
Content copyright © 2019 by Lisa Erickson. All rights reserved.
This content was written by Lisa Erickson. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Lisa Erickson for details. | <urn:uuid:4820cd2b-e0c7-47a7-a788-0bccd05982da> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art20182.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694176.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127020458-20200127050458-00281.warc.gz | en | 0.984618 | 995 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.2734171450138092... | 3 | Buddha's Birth, Childhood, and Renunciation
Although historians can not validate many of the details of his life, most agree that he lived around 500 B.C. in what was then northern India. Versions of his life story vary slightly, but the basic outline always contains seven stages: his birth, maturity, renunciation, spiritual quest, awakening, teaching, and death. Each stage illuminates different aspects of Buddhist teachings. I have broken this telling into two articles, with this first one covering the first three stages, and the second article covering the final four.
The Buddha was born to King Suddhodana of the Shakya clan, and his wife Queen Maya. Their family name was Gautama. Upon his conception, Queen Maya dreamed of a white elephant with six white tusks entering her, a highly auspicious and powerful sign. As was tradition, when the birth neared, she traveled to her own homeland to give birth. However, she didn't make it, giving birth instead on the way, under a tree. She died soon after, and the baby - named Siddhartha, which means 'he who achieves his aim' - was raised by her sister Pajapati, who the king married.
Soon after Siddhartha's birth, a famous seer came to visit the king and proclaim the destiny of the young prince. To the king's dismay, he declared that Siddhartha's future as a king was not assured, saying instead that Siddhartha would either become a great king OR a great spiritual leader and teacher. The King consulted other seers, hoping to hear another prediction, but they all confirmed the original one.
Prince Siddhartha was an avid pupil and sportsmen, excelling at anything he tried his hand at. In an effort to assure that his son's spiritual proclivities were never awakened, the King insulated Siddhartha from all pain and suffering. He was surrounded by wealth and pleasure, his every wish granted, and all signs of illness, aging, and mortality were hidden from him.
At the age of 16, his father arranged his marriage to Princess Yasodhara, of a neighboring kingdom. Together they had a son, Rahula, and lived happily together within the palace walls, although Siddhartha often felt that there was something missing in his life.
Prince Siddhartha grew increasingly restless with palace life. At times, he requested to see life outside the palace walls, and his father worked to assure that he never saw anything painful when he did so. One day however, Prince Siddhartha caught site from his chariot of an old man. He had never seen someone stooped or wrinkled before, so he asked his charioteer and friend Channa about it. Channa told him that everyone, including the King and Siddhartha himself, would eventually age.
This made a deep impression on Siddhartha, and he began to seek out more sights outside the palace wall. He eventually encountered illness, death, and a ascetic practitioner, all of which reinforced his growing discontent. He felt that the pleasures of palace life were meaningless in the face of their ultimate transience, and death itself.
Eventually, at the age of 29, Siddhartha vowed to leave the palace, and become a spiritual ascetic himself. He vowed not to return until he knew how to end human suffering. According to legend, magical events (which vary in different accounts) transpired to aid Siddhartha's flight from the kingdom. He cut off his hair, renounced his clothing and possessions, and began his life as a renunciate.
These first three phases of the Buddha's life story represent the questioning of conditioned existence that is at the heart of Buddhist practice. And as the seer in the legend makes clear, Siddhartha, like each of us, had the choice of pursuing a purely worldly existence, or seeking answers to his questions. Ultimately, his quest was not only for himself, as his own life was happy and pleasurable. He sought the end of suffering for both himself and all of humanity. In order to seek this, he had to break, to some extent, from his past conditioning, and in his case even his physical home, for a time.
Be sure to read the rest of the story. And for more details, here are my two favorite versions of the Buddha's life story, for adults and kids, respectively:
Or, if you prefer e-books, note that this article is included in my e-book Introduction to Buddhism and Buddhist Meditation.
Editor's Picks Articles
Top Ten Articles
Content copyright © 2019 by Lisa Erickson. All rights reserved.
This content was written by Lisa Erickson. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Lisa Erickson for details. | 989 | ENGLISH | 1 |
This timeline details the main events covered in the first 40 years of the twentieth century and is linked to the GCSE topic Peace and War: International Relations 1900 – 1939
This was an alliance made between Germany and Austria-Hungary to protect themselves from Russia. The Treaty was instigated by the the German minister Bismarck who was concerned by the fact that relations between Austria-Hungary and Russia had become strained because Russia had attacked Turkey. The terms of the treaty agreed that they would come to the other’s aid in the face of attack by Russia.
This alliance extended the Dual Alliance made in 1879 to include Italy. The Italians had been prompted to join the Alliance because of anger at France’s seizure of Tunisia but also out of a need for protection in case of attack.
This was a mutual aid alliance between France and Russia. The French Republic had so far remained independent but in the face of the Triple Alliance made the alliance with Russia to curb German and Austro-Hungarian power. In the event of war Germany and Austria-Hungary would be forced to fight a war on two fronts.
A law was passed in Germany to significantly increase its navy. This alarmed Britain because Britain had always had the largest navy in the world. As a result Britain increased production of battleships to retain its superior position.
War broke out between Russia and Japanese over control in China.
This was an agreement, but not a formal alliance, between France and Britain. The agreement ended the traditional hostility between the two countries. France recognised British control of Egypt while Britain recognised French control of Morocco, disputes over fishing rights were settled and disputes in Siam (Thailand) were also settled.
Morocco wanted independence from France. Germany declared support for the Moroccans against the French. War was avoided following negotiations which allowed France to retain possession of Morocco.
The signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente together with the Entente Cordiale between Britain and France and the Franco-Russian Alliance created what was known as the Triple Entente and provided for mutual aid guarantees if any country were attacked.
Austria took control of Bosnia angering Serbia. Serbia threatened Austria-Hungary with war. Russia, allied to Serbia, mobilised its forces. Germany mobilised its forces and threatened Russia. War was avoided when Russia backed down.
Germany sent a gunboat to the Moroccon port of Agadir in protest at France’s increasing military presence in Morocco. Britain announced that she would stand behind France which threatened to result in the outbreak of war. War was avoided when, in November, Germany agreed to French possession of Morocco in return for some land in the Congo.
An amendment to the German Naval law was passed approving a new surge in the production of German naval vessels.
Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria had formed the Balkan League in order to force the Turks out of the area. On 8th October the Balkan League attacked the Turks and forced them out of the Balkan region. Austria Hungary was alarmed at the prospect of Serbia gaining control and wanted to send troops against Serbia. However, the Great Powers forced a peace settlement on the Balkan States.
This Treaty gave additional territory to Serbia but prevented them from having a coastline by creating Albania. Serbia doubled in size and its population increased by 1.6 million to 4.5 million. Serbia gained the backing of Russia which made the country stronger but also made Austria Hungary determined to prevent them becoming even more powerful.
The League fell apart when Bulgaria, which had also gained land from the Treaty of London, attacked Greece and Serbia. Full scale war was averted when Russia and Britain intervened and forced them to agree peace.
Bulgaria lost most of the territory gained from the Treaty of London 1913 and wanted revenge on Serbia and Greece. Bulgaria was supported by Austria Hungary.
The heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie were assassinated. The couple were on a visit to the Bosnian capital Sarajevo when they were shot and killed by Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Black Hand Serbian terrorist group.
This was a peace treaty negotiated by Russia with Germany. As part of the settlement Germany gained land in Russia.
Lloyd George of Britain, Georges Clemenceau of France and Woodrow Wilson were the leading delegates of ten from USA, Britain, France, Italy and Japan that met to discuss the peace settlement in Paris. Wilson put forward a 14 point plan that he believed would ensure ongoing peace in Europe. However, Clemenceau wanted to see Germany punished and weakened. Lloyd George, who had recently fought an election promising the British people that Germany would pay, did not want to antagonise the electorate. Although Lloyd George wanted a mid way between Clemenceau and Wilson he sided with France to appease the British electorate.
This treaty which dealt with the punishment of Germany contained 440 articles and came into effect in January 1920. Germany had not been invited to the negotiations and even though they felt the terms excessively harsh they had no choice but to sign. Failure to sign may have meant a return to a war that Germany could not win.
The main clauses of the treaty were:
War Guilt Clause – Germany had to accept the blame for the war
Reparations – Germany was to pay £6,600 million in reparations
Army – reduced to 100,000 men
Navy – reduced to 15,000 sailors, 6 battleships, 30 other ships and no submarines
Airforce – destroyed
Land – Germany lost 13% of its territory including the industrial region of Alsace Lorraine. All overseas colonies were re-distributed.
This treaty dealt with the punishment of Austria. The main clauses of the treaty were:
Reparations – Austria was to pay reparations but before the amount was set Austria became bankrupt
Army – reduced to 30,000 men
Land – Austria lost land to Czechoslovakia, Italy and Yugoslavia
Anschluss – Union with Germany, was forbidden.
This treaty dealt with the punishment of Bulgaria. The main clauses of the treaty were:
Reparations – Bulgaria had to pay £90 million in reparations
Army – reduced to 20,000 men
Land – Bulgaria lost land to Greece, Romania and Yugoslavia
This treaty dealt with the punishment of Hungary. The main clauses of the treaty were:
Reparations – Hungary was to pay reparations but the amount was never set
Army – reduced to 35,000 men
Land – Hungary lost about 65% of its land to Austria, Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia.
This treaty dealt with the punishment of Turkey. However, Turkey refused to accept the treaty and were particularly upset by the fact that land would be given to Greece. This led to conflict with Greece and allied forces in Turkey were also threatened.
This treaty was negotiated with Turkey to replace the Treaty of Sevres, August 1920.
This was an attempt to relieve tensions caused by the reparations Germany had to pay as a result of the Treaty of Versailles. The main points of the plan were:
Following a two year moratorium, Germany would pay reparations at a fixed rate
French and Belgian troops were to evacuate the Ruhr
Germany would be given a loan by the USA and Britain.
This was a new agreement designed to reduce tension between France and Germany. It agreed:
The borders between Germany and France were fixed and Alsace Lorraine would be permanently French
The Rhineland area should be de-militarised.
The initial aim of this pact was to improve relations between France and the USA but it was then extended to other countries. Signatories of the pact agreed not to use war to resolve disputes.
The American stock market crashed causing a World depression as Americans called in international loans. Banks collapsed leaving people with very little money. This meant consumer spending fell and as a result businesses and factories had to cut production and lay off staff. It became known as the Great Depression.
Japan had been badly affected by the Depression as demand for Japanese goods fell worldwide. Without income from exports Japan could not import goods needed. Manchuria in China was rich in raw materials and also offered additional living space for the Japanese people. China appealed to the League of Nations who requested Japanese withdrawal of troops from the area. The Japanese refused and the League set up a commission to investigate the affair. By the time the investigation was completed in September 1932 Japan had completed its conquest. In February 1933 The League of Nations called for Japan to return Manchuria to China, Japan refused and left the League of Nations. Britain and the USA had territories in the Far East and were reluctant to intervene for fear of Japanese reprisals.
Delegates from 60 nations met to discuss ways in which to achieve disarmament. The conference failed due to the fact that France and Germany could not agree.
Germany and Italy signed an agreement where they agreed to work together on matters of mutual interest.
This was an anti-communist pact signed by Germany and Japan.
German troops marched into Austria and the two countries were joined together. Britain and France protested but as they were both following a policy of appeasement they did nothing.
Hitler ordered the leader of the Sudeten Nazi Party to stir up trouble in the region. German newspapers then reported that Czech officials were being hostile towards Germans living in the Sudeten region of Czechoslovakia.
Hitler demanded that the Sudeten region of Czechoslovakia, which had a majority German population, be given to Germany. He made it clear that he would declare war if the land was not returned.
Hitler now demanded that land in the Sudeten should also be given to Poland and Hungary since there were nationals from both countries living there.
In a bid to stop Hitler invading the Sudetenland region Chamberlain, Daladier, Mussolini and Hitler met to try to prevent an outbreak of war. The Czech Prime Minister was not invited to attend. Hitler insisted that if he was allowed to have the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia then it would be the end of his expansion ideas. It was also agreed that Poland and Hungary would also receive land from the Sudeten. The four leaders agreed to guarantee Czechoslovakia’s new borders.
This was a night of violence towards the Jewish population in Germany where shop windows were smashed, houses and synagogues destroyed. The violence was condemned by Britain.
Italy and Germany signed this pact of friendship and military alliance.
This was a German Soviet non-aggression agreement where both countries agreed:
Not to support any country making an attack on Russia or Germany
Not to join any alliance that was unfavourable to the other country
To jointly invade Poland and split the region between the two countries.
That Russia could invade and occupy Estonia, Latvia and LIthuania.
Published Aug 10, 2017 @ 1:06 pm – Updated –
Harvard Reference for this page:
Heather Y Wheeler. (2017 – 2019). Peace and War: International Relations 1900 – 1939. Available: https://www.totallytimelines.com/peace-and-war-international-relations-1900-1939 Last accessed January 20th, 2020 | <urn:uuid:13db6cec-95f8-49f8-bf6d-e7bc0bca422d> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.totallytimelines.com/peace-and-war-international-relations-1900-1939/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601241.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121014531-20200121043531-00367.warc.gz | en | 0.980852 | 2,317 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
-0.2710995078086853,
0.43349945545196533,
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0.818956255912... | 1 | This timeline details the main events covered in the first 40 years of the twentieth century and is linked to the GCSE topic Peace and War: International Relations 1900 – 1939
This was an alliance made between Germany and Austria-Hungary to protect themselves from Russia. The Treaty was instigated by the the German minister Bismarck who was concerned by the fact that relations between Austria-Hungary and Russia had become strained because Russia had attacked Turkey. The terms of the treaty agreed that they would come to the other’s aid in the face of attack by Russia.
This alliance extended the Dual Alliance made in 1879 to include Italy. The Italians had been prompted to join the Alliance because of anger at France’s seizure of Tunisia but also out of a need for protection in case of attack.
This was a mutual aid alliance between France and Russia. The French Republic had so far remained independent but in the face of the Triple Alliance made the alliance with Russia to curb German and Austro-Hungarian power. In the event of war Germany and Austria-Hungary would be forced to fight a war on two fronts.
A law was passed in Germany to significantly increase its navy. This alarmed Britain because Britain had always had the largest navy in the world. As a result Britain increased production of battleships to retain its superior position.
War broke out between Russia and Japanese over control in China.
This was an agreement, but not a formal alliance, between France and Britain. The agreement ended the traditional hostility between the two countries. France recognised British control of Egypt while Britain recognised French control of Morocco, disputes over fishing rights were settled and disputes in Siam (Thailand) were also settled.
Morocco wanted independence from France. Germany declared support for the Moroccans against the French. War was avoided following negotiations which allowed France to retain possession of Morocco.
The signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente together with the Entente Cordiale between Britain and France and the Franco-Russian Alliance created what was known as the Triple Entente and provided for mutual aid guarantees if any country were attacked.
Austria took control of Bosnia angering Serbia. Serbia threatened Austria-Hungary with war. Russia, allied to Serbia, mobilised its forces. Germany mobilised its forces and threatened Russia. War was avoided when Russia backed down.
Germany sent a gunboat to the Moroccon port of Agadir in protest at France’s increasing military presence in Morocco. Britain announced that she would stand behind France which threatened to result in the outbreak of war. War was avoided when, in November, Germany agreed to French possession of Morocco in return for some land in the Congo.
An amendment to the German Naval law was passed approving a new surge in the production of German naval vessels.
Serbia, Greece, Montenegro and Bulgaria had formed the Balkan League in order to force the Turks out of the area. On 8th October the Balkan League attacked the Turks and forced them out of the Balkan region. Austria Hungary was alarmed at the prospect of Serbia gaining control and wanted to send troops against Serbia. However, the Great Powers forced a peace settlement on the Balkan States.
This Treaty gave additional territory to Serbia but prevented them from having a coastline by creating Albania. Serbia doubled in size and its population increased by 1.6 million to 4.5 million. Serbia gained the backing of Russia which made the country stronger but also made Austria Hungary determined to prevent them becoming even more powerful.
The League fell apart when Bulgaria, which had also gained land from the Treaty of London, attacked Greece and Serbia. Full scale war was averted when Russia and Britain intervened and forced them to agree peace.
Bulgaria lost most of the territory gained from the Treaty of London 1913 and wanted revenge on Serbia and Greece. Bulgaria was supported by Austria Hungary.
The heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie were assassinated. The couple were on a visit to the Bosnian capital Sarajevo when they were shot and killed by Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Black Hand Serbian terrorist group.
This was a peace treaty negotiated by Russia with Germany. As part of the settlement Germany gained land in Russia.
Lloyd George of Britain, Georges Clemenceau of France and Woodrow Wilson were the leading delegates of ten from USA, Britain, France, Italy and Japan that met to discuss the peace settlement in Paris. Wilson put forward a 14 point plan that he believed would ensure ongoing peace in Europe. However, Clemenceau wanted to see Germany punished and weakened. Lloyd George, who had recently fought an election promising the British people that Germany would pay, did not want to antagonise the electorate. Although Lloyd George wanted a mid way between Clemenceau and Wilson he sided with France to appease the British electorate.
This treaty which dealt with the punishment of Germany contained 440 articles and came into effect in January 1920. Germany had not been invited to the negotiations and even though they felt the terms excessively harsh they had no choice but to sign. Failure to sign may have meant a return to a war that Germany could not win.
The main clauses of the treaty were:
War Guilt Clause – Germany had to accept the blame for the war
Reparations – Germany was to pay £6,600 million in reparations
Army – reduced to 100,000 men
Navy – reduced to 15,000 sailors, 6 battleships, 30 other ships and no submarines
Airforce – destroyed
Land – Germany lost 13% of its territory including the industrial region of Alsace Lorraine. All overseas colonies were re-distributed.
This treaty dealt with the punishment of Austria. The main clauses of the treaty were:
Reparations – Austria was to pay reparations but before the amount was set Austria became bankrupt
Army – reduced to 30,000 men
Land – Austria lost land to Czechoslovakia, Italy and Yugoslavia
Anschluss – Union with Germany, was forbidden.
This treaty dealt with the punishment of Bulgaria. The main clauses of the treaty were:
Reparations – Bulgaria had to pay £90 million in reparations
Army – reduced to 20,000 men
Land – Bulgaria lost land to Greece, Romania and Yugoslavia
This treaty dealt with the punishment of Hungary. The main clauses of the treaty were:
Reparations – Hungary was to pay reparations but the amount was never set
Army – reduced to 35,000 men
Land – Hungary lost about 65% of its land to Austria, Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia.
This treaty dealt with the punishment of Turkey. However, Turkey refused to accept the treaty and were particularly upset by the fact that land would be given to Greece. This led to conflict with Greece and allied forces in Turkey were also threatened.
This treaty was negotiated with Turkey to replace the Treaty of Sevres, August 1920.
This was an attempt to relieve tensions caused by the reparations Germany had to pay as a result of the Treaty of Versailles. The main points of the plan were:
Following a two year moratorium, Germany would pay reparations at a fixed rate
French and Belgian troops were to evacuate the Ruhr
Germany would be given a loan by the USA and Britain.
This was a new agreement designed to reduce tension between France and Germany. It agreed:
The borders between Germany and France were fixed and Alsace Lorraine would be permanently French
The Rhineland area should be de-militarised.
The initial aim of this pact was to improve relations between France and the USA but it was then extended to other countries. Signatories of the pact agreed not to use war to resolve disputes.
The American stock market crashed causing a World depression as Americans called in international loans. Banks collapsed leaving people with very little money. This meant consumer spending fell and as a result businesses and factories had to cut production and lay off staff. It became known as the Great Depression.
Japan had been badly affected by the Depression as demand for Japanese goods fell worldwide. Without income from exports Japan could not import goods needed. Manchuria in China was rich in raw materials and also offered additional living space for the Japanese people. China appealed to the League of Nations who requested Japanese withdrawal of troops from the area. The Japanese refused and the League set up a commission to investigate the affair. By the time the investigation was completed in September 1932 Japan had completed its conquest. In February 1933 The League of Nations called for Japan to return Manchuria to China, Japan refused and left the League of Nations. Britain and the USA had territories in the Far East and were reluctant to intervene for fear of Japanese reprisals.
Delegates from 60 nations met to discuss ways in which to achieve disarmament. The conference failed due to the fact that France and Germany could not agree.
Germany and Italy signed an agreement where they agreed to work together on matters of mutual interest.
This was an anti-communist pact signed by Germany and Japan.
German troops marched into Austria and the two countries were joined together. Britain and France protested but as they were both following a policy of appeasement they did nothing.
Hitler ordered the leader of the Sudeten Nazi Party to stir up trouble in the region. German newspapers then reported that Czech officials were being hostile towards Germans living in the Sudeten region of Czechoslovakia.
Hitler demanded that the Sudeten region of Czechoslovakia, which had a majority German population, be given to Germany. He made it clear that he would declare war if the land was not returned.
Hitler now demanded that land in the Sudeten should also be given to Poland and Hungary since there were nationals from both countries living there.
In a bid to stop Hitler invading the Sudetenland region Chamberlain, Daladier, Mussolini and Hitler met to try to prevent an outbreak of war. The Czech Prime Minister was not invited to attend. Hitler insisted that if he was allowed to have the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia then it would be the end of his expansion ideas. It was also agreed that Poland and Hungary would also receive land from the Sudeten. The four leaders agreed to guarantee Czechoslovakia’s new borders.
This was a night of violence towards the Jewish population in Germany where shop windows were smashed, houses and synagogues destroyed. The violence was condemned by Britain.
Italy and Germany signed this pact of friendship and military alliance.
This was a German Soviet non-aggression agreement where both countries agreed:
Not to support any country making an attack on Russia or Germany
Not to join any alliance that was unfavourable to the other country
To jointly invade Poland and split the region between the two countries.
That Russia could invade and occupy Estonia, Latvia and LIthuania.
Published Aug 10, 2017 @ 1:06 pm – Updated –
Harvard Reference for this page:
Heather Y Wheeler. (2017 – 2019). Peace and War: International Relations 1900 – 1939. Available: https://www.totallytimelines.com/peace-and-war-international-relations-1900-1939 Last accessed January 20th, 2020 | 2,354 | ENGLISH | 1 |
How would one analyze "The Umbrella Man," by Roald Dahl.
Red herring is one of the most dominant devices author Roald Dahl uses to craft his short story "The Umbrella Man." A red herring is a type of literary device used in narration to distract a reader from what's really important and make the reader draw "false conclusions" about the outcome of a story ("Red Herring," Literary Devices). To create red herrings in suspense fiction, authors will paint innocent characters as either falsely innocent or falsely suspicious and plant misleading clues.
In his short story, Dahl creates red herrings by describing the elderly man in the story through the eyes of the young, naive, innocent, twelve-year-old protagonist. In her eyes, the man is small, "pretty old," polite, has a jolly-looking pink face, and is a gentleman. The protagonist is convinced he is a gentleman because of what she perceives to be the quality of his shoes, which she describes as being "beautiful brown shoes." She has learned to judge character based on shoes from her mother, who has told her, "You can always spot a gentleman by the shoes he wears."
Though the reader doesn't know it until the end of the story, the reader has many reasons to be suspicious of the young protagonist's assessment of the man. First, since she is only twelve years old, we have reason to question her judgement of his age. Children often think older adults are much older than they really are because children do not yet have the experience needed to judge age. Second, her mother's comment about shoes is really based on such things as expensive brand and materials. All the girl says is that his shows were "beautiful brown"; she is unable to say anything about brand or material because she again does not yet have the experience needed to judge. Therefore, the reader can question her assessment of his shoes. All of these clues--her assessment of the man, her description of him, her judgement of his shoes--are meant to distract the reader from drawing the correct conclusion that the man is not a gentleman and not trustworthy, making them perfect red herrings. But, since they are red herrings, all the reader is at first able to do is see the elderly man from the girl's eyes and be...
(The entire section contains 2 answers and 772 words.)
check Approved by eNotes Editorial | <urn:uuid:d067ad56-3f09-470e-ac52-d0a6c913bfeb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/how-would-one-analyze-umbrella-man-by-roald-dahl-255642?en_action=hh-question_click&en_label=topics_related_hh_questions&en_category=internal_campaign | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251688806.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126104828-20200126134828-00495.warc.gz | en | 0.98167 | 494 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
-0.3904604911804199,
0.169088214635849,
-0.09477192908525467,
-0.14061933755874634,
0.18723280727863312,
-0.155477836728096,
0.6444733142852783,
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-0.24415214359760284,
0.06525754183530807,
0.2664499580860138,
0.09490012377500534,
-0.0154203260317444... | 2 | How would one analyze "The Umbrella Man," by Roald Dahl.
Red herring is one of the most dominant devices author Roald Dahl uses to craft his short story "The Umbrella Man." A red herring is a type of literary device used in narration to distract a reader from what's really important and make the reader draw "false conclusions" about the outcome of a story ("Red Herring," Literary Devices). To create red herrings in suspense fiction, authors will paint innocent characters as either falsely innocent or falsely suspicious and plant misleading clues.
In his short story, Dahl creates red herrings by describing the elderly man in the story through the eyes of the young, naive, innocent, twelve-year-old protagonist. In her eyes, the man is small, "pretty old," polite, has a jolly-looking pink face, and is a gentleman. The protagonist is convinced he is a gentleman because of what she perceives to be the quality of his shoes, which she describes as being "beautiful brown shoes." She has learned to judge character based on shoes from her mother, who has told her, "You can always spot a gentleman by the shoes he wears."
Though the reader doesn't know it until the end of the story, the reader has many reasons to be suspicious of the young protagonist's assessment of the man. First, since she is only twelve years old, we have reason to question her judgement of his age. Children often think older adults are much older than they really are because children do not yet have the experience needed to judge age. Second, her mother's comment about shoes is really based on such things as expensive brand and materials. All the girl says is that his shows were "beautiful brown"; she is unable to say anything about brand or material because she again does not yet have the experience needed to judge. Therefore, the reader can question her assessment of his shoes. All of these clues--her assessment of the man, her description of him, her judgement of his shoes--are meant to distract the reader from drawing the correct conclusion that the man is not a gentleman and not trustworthy, making them perfect red herrings. But, since they are red herrings, all the reader is at first able to do is see the elderly man from the girl's eyes and be...
(The entire section contains 2 answers and 772 words.)
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Six Ways to Teach Kids Accountability
We love our kids and we will do anything for them. We want to protect them. We want to help them. But sometimes, in our effort to do these things, we take away their ability to experience life. We take away their ability to experience consequences. And worse yet, we take away their ability to take responsibility for their actions.
Accountability is defined as an obligation or the willingness to accept responsibility or to account for one’s actions. We can look at numerous examples in the news today of people who refused to take accountability for their actions and are now experiencing dire consequences. When we take away our kids’ opportunities to take responsibility for their actions, we are setting them up for life-altering repercussions when they become adults.
When I work with my kids, I am always looking to the future: trying to figure out not only where they should be as little kids, but where they will need to be as adults, functioning and productive in society. I don’t treat them like babies—rather, I treat the young people they are. Who will one day grow up and have real world problems. I do not sugar-coat life for them.
There are many ways to train your children to embrace accountability. Here are a few:
1. Encourage kids to take on challenges
As parents, we are fully aware of our kids’ strengths and weaknesses. In order to help boost our children’s self-esteem, we tend to encourage them to do things that we know they’ll be good at. Encouraging the child in something that he is good at and playing to his strengths is always a good idea. However, this does not mean that we should never encourage children to approach things that stretch them beyond their comfort zone.
Indeed, in life we all have to tackle problems in areas that we might not necessarily like and that we are not good at. Challenging your children now will help them to develop the fortitude to solve problems and face issues that are outside of their comfort zone as they grow.
If we deprive our children of opportunities to challenge themselves, we do them a disservice developmentally, because they will never learn to take on challenges and thus become accountable for issues that are outside of their comfort zone. It is much easier to teach a child how to tackle successes and failures in challenging situations when they are young, than to expect the young adult who has never faced a challenge to be able to conquer it once they are living on their own.
2. Allow them to make mistakes
As we watch our children living life, we are so often tempted to protect them from making mistakes. If we see that our child is about to fall, we want to rush to catch them before they hit the ground. If we see our kids making a bad decision, we are so tempted to intervene and instead tell them what to do or handle it ourselves. The problem with this is that the children then never learn cause and effect. Worse, this sort of action sends a subconscious message to the child that they are incapable of making a decision on their own. It causes the child to perpetually second-guess their own instincts and instead rely on exterior methods of problem-solving as opposed internal methods.
If we do not allow children to make mistakes, it takes away any accountability for poor decisions and it releases any responsibility on the child’s behalf for any consequences of their actions.
Denying a child the ability to make her own mistakes also sends the message that making a mistake is a bad thing. I teach my kids that everyone makes mistakes, including Mom. But what is important about a mistake is being accountable for it, accepting responsibility for it, learning from it, and then moving on with life.
Children who do not learn to use mistakes as learning opportunities can never meet their full potential as adults.
3. Allow them to experience consequences for their actions
Every child has the capacity to learn cause-and-effect relationships. For example, my daughter learned at age 2 that having a fit and falling out in the middle of the floor would result in me walking away and leaving her in the room by herself. Since this is obviously not the reaction she was going for, the fits ended in about two weeks’ time. Similarly, my son learned that practicing his violin the required three hours per week meant that he did not embarrass himself when the orchestra teacher started calling on people individually to play their piece in front of class to ferret out who was playing the wrong notes.
And so it is with life. We experience consequences on a daily basis. If we do not pay our bill, our lights get turned off. If we go to work or work our business, we get paid.
When we tell our kids that certain consequences will flow from their actions, we have to make sure that we follow through. When we have warned our children or encouraged them on a point and advised them of the consequences, it is imperative that we allow them to deal with the consequences, whatever they may be.
Sometimes, my son decided he was not interested in practicing his violin for three hours during the week. Orchestra was always stressful for me because I wanted the children to do well and wanted them to be perfect. However, they were old enough that I realized I just had to let them make the call. One week when my son did not attend to his violin, it was he who had to tell the orchestra teacher how many minutes he’d practiced. It made a much bigger impact for him to have to report that he’d only practiced 30 minutes and have to face the teacher’s disapproving face, than it was for me to nag him to practice. And it was a much more powerful lesson when he did practice and she complimented him on how perfectly he played his piece.
When I have suggested that people allow their children to experience consequences, some have replied that it is our role as parents to make the decisions and that some things are just too important to leave in a child’s hand. I agree with this. For example, I will determine when bedtime is, I will prepare nutritionally balanced food and I expect them to eat it, and I will set the framework for our homeschool. Those are major decisions that affect my children’s livelihood and our family dynamic.
But we can and should give children as many opportunities as possible to exercise autonomy and govern decisions in their lives. And as they get older, they should be given more autonomy. It is far better for them to make mistakes while at home with parents who can counsel and guide them through the mistake, than to have them experience mistakes when they’re out in the world that they really could’ve learned about earlier in life.
4. Teach self-reflection
As a practicing attorney, it was common for the team to get together after closing a big deal and go over what went well and what didn’t. Many industries do this sort of Monday morning quarterbacking. And this is something that should be encouraged with your children.
Parent led reflection is something that would happen after a major event. An example of this would be after a child got in trouble at school or if there was a major conflict on a play date. This is the time when you sit down with your child, have them go over the facts of the incident, and then have the child tell you what his role was in the incident, if he thought the incident could’ve been handled differently on his part, if so, how, and then discuss what could be learned from the incident. At that point, you can discuss any consequences that will flow from the incident and then—and this is key—agree that the incident is over and you are moving on.
The “moving on” part is really critical. Unless the situation calls for additional discussion or action, it is a policy in my house that we do not bring up past mistakes. This is so important in maintaining an open dialogue with your children. As painful as parent-led reflection can be, my kids understand that once it’s over, that’s the end of it. If the child is afraid that mistakes are going to be brought up over and over again, they will not be as open with you.
Reflecting on the day, the highs and lows, can benefit anyone. It reminds me of having to keep a timesheet whereby at the end of the day, I had to make sure that every hour I spent working during the day was reported and accounted for. A wonderful exercise in accountability is to teach a child as part of her bedtime routine to spend a moment to reflect on the great things in the not so great things of the day, process what’s happened, and decide how to make tomorrow a better day. Engaging in self-reflection and making a conscious effort to make the next day a better day, forces the child to accept his or her role in the day as well as acknowledge that she is in control, to a great extent, of the outcome of her life the following day.
For a child to recognize that she has control of her own destiny and that her actions can affect that destiny is incredibly powerful. It serves as a subconscious method to remind your kids that their locus of control is within them and not something that’s imposed upon them by an external force. A person who accepts responsibility for his or her own actions is one who will, by definition, be more accountable for those actions.
5. Discourage blaming, excuse making and self-victimization
If you turn on any news program today, you will see that it is replete with blaming, excuse-making, and self-victimization. I do not accept any of these in my home. I do not accept “I did it because my brother did it.” Because the next question becomes, “But you knew it was wrong when he did it, so why would you follow someone you know is doing something wrong?” Therefore, that “excuse” does not fly. Indeed, it may elicit a more severe consequence for having followed someone who she knew was in the wrong.
Self-victimization is a huge problem in today’s society. Most people have a host of reasons why bad things happen to them or why they cannot achieve something. And I acknowledge that sometimes those reasons are valid. But in many instances, they are not.
When we take away the self-victimization, we teach children the grit and wherewithal to cope with life. Because in life not everything is going to go their way. If they have learned to self-reflect, they will be able better to cope with, and perhaps work around, challenges that were initially seen as impossible. But if a child is allowed to wallow in self-victimization, it takes any responsibility away from the child and lays it upon an uncontrollable external force.
By refusing to accept blaming of other people, excuses, and self-victimization, we leave the child with no choice but to be accountable for her actions.
6. Help kids set goals and self-accountability charts
If you have not been accustomed to holding your child accountable, it is never too late to begin. A good way to start is by sitting down with your child and helping him prepare a list of his own goals. Each goal should lay out several steps that help the child to achieve that goal. Have the child set a timetable for achieving the goals and then have the child post her accountability chart in an area see where she can see it daily.
At the end of the designated time period, sit down with your child and go over where he is with regard to meeting his goal. Encourage and congratulate him for the goals that he has successfully completed. Ask how it feels to see that he has accomplished the goal on his own through his own ingenuity and hard work. For any goals that were not fully accomplished, reflect on why they were not completed and develop a plan for completing them.
The accountability charts should consist primarily of tasks that the child can accomplish largely on her own. Working with accountability charts will give your child a visual representation of the benefits and consequences of being accountable. This can be a very powerful tool in encouraging accountability in an older child.
Teaching children accountability will serve them their entire lives. It will help them in their relationships, it will help them on their job, and it will help them when they are running their businesses. The lack of accountability is so rampant these days; we can turn the tide and raise responsible and morally-competent children who will be the great thought and business leaders for tomorrow. | <urn:uuid:f2940ee2-10b8-495b-84af-02d6e249d52b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://homeschooling.mom/blog/six-ways-to-teach-kids-accountability | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250616186.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124070934-20200124095934-00087.warc.gz | en | 0.981355 | 2,624 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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We love our kids and we will do anything for them. We want to protect them. We want to help them. But sometimes, in our effort to do these things, we take away their ability to experience life. We take away their ability to experience consequences. And worse yet, we take away their ability to take responsibility for their actions.
Accountability is defined as an obligation or the willingness to accept responsibility or to account for one’s actions. We can look at numerous examples in the news today of people who refused to take accountability for their actions and are now experiencing dire consequences. When we take away our kids’ opportunities to take responsibility for their actions, we are setting them up for life-altering repercussions when they become adults.
When I work with my kids, I am always looking to the future: trying to figure out not only where they should be as little kids, but where they will need to be as adults, functioning and productive in society. I don’t treat them like babies—rather, I treat the young people they are. Who will one day grow up and have real world problems. I do not sugar-coat life for them.
There are many ways to train your children to embrace accountability. Here are a few:
1. Encourage kids to take on challenges
As parents, we are fully aware of our kids’ strengths and weaknesses. In order to help boost our children’s self-esteem, we tend to encourage them to do things that we know they’ll be good at. Encouraging the child in something that he is good at and playing to his strengths is always a good idea. However, this does not mean that we should never encourage children to approach things that stretch them beyond their comfort zone.
Indeed, in life we all have to tackle problems in areas that we might not necessarily like and that we are not good at. Challenging your children now will help them to develop the fortitude to solve problems and face issues that are outside of their comfort zone as they grow.
If we deprive our children of opportunities to challenge themselves, we do them a disservice developmentally, because they will never learn to take on challenges and thus become accountable for issues that are outside of their comfort zone. It is much easier to teach a child how to tackle successes and failures in challenging situations when they are young, than to expect the young adult who has never faced a challenge to be able to conquer it once they are living on their own.
2. Allow them to make mistakes
As we watch our children living life, we are so often tempted to protect them from making mistakes. If we see that our child is about to fall, we want to rush to catch them before they hit the ground. If we see our kids making a bad decision, we are so tempted to intervene and instead tell them what to do or handle it ourselves. The problem with this is that the children then never learn cause and effect. Worse, this sort of action sends a subconscious message to the child that they are incapable of making a decision on their own. It causes the child to perpetually second-guess their own instincts and instead rely on exterior methods of problem-solving as opposed internal methods.
If we do not allow children to make mistakes, it takes away any accountability for poor decisions and it releases any responsibility on the child’s behalf for any consequences of their actions.
Denying a child the ability to make her own mistakes also sends the message that making a mistake is a bad thing. I teach my kids that everyone makes mistakes, including Mom. But what is important about a mistake is being accountable for it, accepting responsibility for it, learning from it, and then moving on with life.
Children who do not learn to use mistakes as learning opportunities can never meet their full potential as adults.
3. Allow them to experience consequences for their actions
Every child has the capacity to learn cause-and-effect relationships. For example, my daughter learned at age 2 that having a fit and falling out in the middle of the floor would result in me walking away and leaving her in the room by herself. Since this is obviously not the reaction she was going for, the fits ended in about two weeks’ time. Similarly, my son learned that practicing his violin the required three hours per week meant that he did not embarrass himself when the orchestra teacher started calling on people individually to play their piece in front of class to ferret out who was playing the wrong notes.
And so it is with life. We experience consequences on a daily basis. If we do not pay our bill, our lights get turned off. If we go to work or work our business, we get paid.
When we tell our kids that certain consequences will flow from their actions, we have to make sure that we follow through. When we have warned our children or encouraged them on a point and advised them of the consequences, it is imperative that we allow them to deal with the consequences, whatever they may be.
Sometimes, my son decided he was not interested in practicing his violin for three hours during the week. Orchestra was always stressful for me because I wanted the children to do well and wanted them to be perfect. However, they were old enough that I realized I just had to let them make the call. One week when my son did not attend to his violin, it was he who had to tell the orchestra teacher how many minutes he’d practiced. It made a much bigger impact for him to have to report that he’d only practiced 30 minutes and have to face the teacher’s disapproving face, than it was for me to nag him to practice. And it was a much more powerful lesson when he did practice and she complimented him on how perfectly he played his piece.
When I have suggested that people allow their children to experience consequences, some have replied that it is our role as parents to make the decisions and that some things are just too important to leave in a child’s hand. I agree with this. For example, I will determine when bedtime is, I will prepare nutritionally balanced food and I expect them to eat it, and I will set the framework for our homeschool. Those are major decisions that affect my children’s livelihood and our family dynamic.
But we can and should give children as many opportunities as possible to exercise autonomy and govern decisions in their lives. And as they get older, they should be given more autonomy. It is far better for them to make mistakes while at home with parents who can counsel and guide them through the mistake, than to have them experience mistakes when they’re out in the world that they really could’ve learned about earlier in life.
4. Teach self-reflection
As a practicing attorney, it was common for the team to get together after closing a big deal and go over what went well and what didn’t. Many industries do this sort of Monday morning quarterbacking. And this is something that should be encouraged with your children.
Parent led reflection is something that would happen after a major event. An example of this would be after a child got in trouble at school or if there was a major conflict on a play date. This is the time when you sit down with your child, have them go over the facts of the incident, and then have the child tell you what his role was in the incident, if he thought the incident could’ve been handled differently on his part, if so, how, and then discuss what could be learned from the incident. At that point, you can discuss any consequences that will flow from the incident and then—and this is key—agree that the incident is over and you are moving on.
The “moving on” part is really critical. Unless the situation calls for additional discussion or action, it is a policy in my house that we do not bring up past mistakes. This is so important in maintaining an open dialogue with your children. As painful as parent-led reflection can be, my kids understand that once it’s over, that’s the end of it. If the child is afraid that mistakes are going to be brought up over and over again, they will not be as open with you.
Reflecting on the day, the highs and lows, can benefit anyone. It reminds me of having to keep a timesheet whereby at the end of the day, I had to make sure that every hour I spent working during the day was reported and accounted for. A wonderful exercise in accountability is to teach a child as part of her bedtime routine to spend a moment to reflect on the great things in the not so great things of the day, process what’s happened, and decide how to make tomorrow a better day. Engaging in self-reflection and making a conscious effort to make the next day a better day, forces the child to accept his or her role in the day as well as acknowledge that she is in control, to a great extent, of the outcome of her life the following day.
For a child to recognize that she has control of her own destiny and that her actions can affect that destiny is incredibly powerful. It serves as a subconscious method to remind your kids that their locus of control is within them and not something that’s imposed upon them by an external force. A person who accepts responsibility for his or her own actions is one who will, by definition, be more accountable for those actions.
5. Discourage blaming, excuse making and self-victimization
If you turn on any news program today, you will see that it is replete with blaming, excuse-making, and self-victimization. I do not accept any of these in my home. I do not accept “I did it because my brother did it.” Because the next question becomes, “But you knew it was wrong when he did it, so why would you follow someone you know is doing something wrong?” Therefore, that “excuse” does not fly. Indeed, it may elicit a more severe consequence for having followed someone who she knew was in the wrong.
Self-victimization is a huge problem in today’s society. Most people have a host of reasons why bad things happen to them or why they cannot achieve something. And I acknowledge that sometimes those reasons are valid. But in many instances, they are not.
When we take away the self-victimization, we teach children the grit and wherewithal to cope with life. Because in life not everything is going to go their way. If they have learned to self-reflect, they will be able better to cope with, and perhaps work around, challenges that were initially seen as impossible. But if a child is allowed to wallow in self-victimization, it takes any responsibility away from the child and lays it upon an uncontrollable external force.
By refusing to accept blaming of other people, excuses, and self-victimization, we leave the child with no choice but to be accountable for her actions.
6. Help kids set goals and self-accountability charts
If you have not been accustomed to holding your child accountable, it is never too late to begin. A good way to start is by sitting down with your child and helping him prepare a list of his own goals. Each goal should lay out several steps that help the child to achieve that goal. Have the child set a timetable for achieving the goals and then have the child post her accountability chart in an area see where she can see it daily.
At the end of the designated time period, sit down with your child and go over where he is with regard to meeting his goal. Encourage and congratulate him for the goals that he has successfully completed. Ask how it feels to see that he has accomplished the goal on his own through his own ingenuity and hard work. For any goals that were not fully accomplished, reflect on why they were not completed and develop a plan for completing them.
The accountability charts should consist primarily of tasks that the child can accomplish largely on her own. Working with accountability charts will give your child a visual representation of the benefits and consequences of being accountable. This can be a very powerful tool in encouraging accountability in an older child.
Teaching children accountability will serve them their entire lives. It will help them in their relationships, it will help them on their job, and it will help them when they are running their businesses. The lack of accountability is so rampant these days; we can turn the tide and raise responsible and morally-competent children who will be the great thought and business leaders for tomorrow. | 2,526 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Rosa Parks Facts
- Birth: February 4, 1912
- Death: October 24, 2005
- Parents: James and Leona Edwards McCauley
- Husband: Raymond Parks (1932-1977)
- Children: None
- Education: Honorary Doctorates
- Bus: December 1, 1955
- Buried: Woodlawn Cemetery, Detroit, MI
- Museum: Montgomery, Alabama
- Profession: Activist
- Birth: Rosa Parks is Known as the Mother of the Modern-Day Civil Rights Movement
- Education: Parks’ Education Was Delayed
- Marriage: Parks Married a Barber
- History: Parks Wasn’t the First to Take a Stand Against Segregation
- Activist: Parks Was Tired but Not from Her Work
- Achievements: Parks Started the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self-Development
- Achievements: Parks Received the Congressional Gold Medal
- Achievements: Parks was Honored by Several Presidents
- Education: Even Without Attending College, Parks Held Multiple Degrees
- Death: Parks Was Honored Even After Her Death
- Rosa Parks Sued Outkast
- Parks Was a Respected Author
- Parks Went to War with the NAACP Image Awards
- Parks Was Arrested More Than Once
- Parks Had Already Encountered the Bus Driver and Typically Avoided Him
Rosa Parks is Known as the Mother of the Modern Day Civil Rights Movement
Let’s begin our Rosa Parks facts by stating that Parks is famous for beginning the Modern Day Civil Rights Movement. Without her leadership and infamous act on a bus, it is unknown what route history would have taken. Parks came from humble beginnings though. She was born on February 4, 1913 in Tuskegee, Alabama as Rosa Louise McCauley. She was the first child in her family and eventually had a younger brother, Sylvester McCauley, born in 1915. Their parents were James and Leona Edwards McCauley. The family was close, humble and could not have known the bright future in store for Parks.
Parks’ Education Was Delayed
The McCauley family eventually moved to Pine Level, Alabama. Parks was enrolled in the rural school system. She completed her initial education at the age of 11 and her mother then enrolled her in the Montgomery Industrial School for Girls. It was a private institution with a great reputation. She completed her education there and moved on to Alabama State Teacher’s College High School.
Unfortunately, she did not graduate because she instead turned to taking care of her terminally ill grandmother, Rose Edwards. Parks was dedicated to her education though and enrolled again. Fate was against her and she was forced to drop out again to take care of her now ill mother. She did eventually receive her high school diploma in 1934.
Parks Married a Barber
Rosa Parks married her husband in 1932, when she was only 19. Raymond Parks was a member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), which took up a large amount of his free time. To make ends meet, he worked as a barber. Although not a college graduate, he was supportive of his wife’s education and encouraged her to enrol and finally complete the required courses to earn her high school diploma. Both were respected members of Montgomery’s African-American community and were active in trying to raise awareness regarding the rules of segregation.
Parks Wasn’t the First to Take a Stand Against Segregation
Rosa Parks facts tells us that there were other incidents similar to hers on the bus. In 1892, a man named Homer Plessey refused to leave an all white rail car in Louisiana. Charges were filed and the case made it all the way to the Supreme Court, titled Plessey vs. Ferguson. Plessey lost the case due to the newly founded Jim Crow laws, the same laws that Parks would fight against decades later. These laws would not be overturned until 1954 in the case of Brown vs. Board of Education.
Parks Was Tired but Not from Her Work
A common myth surrounding Parks is that she didn’t get up from her seat because she was tired from a long day at work. The truth is a little more simple. Parks was simply tired of segregation and how every aspect of her life revolved around what she was or wasn’t allowed to do, all because of her skin color. She was 42 years old when she refused to give up her seat. After that many years of segretation, Parks had finally reached her breaking point. The movement that followed was more tiring but certainly worth it.
Parks Started the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self Development
Parks started the Institute with Elaine Eason Steel in February of 1987. The Institute was founded in honor of Parks’ late husband, who had passed away ten years before its opening. The Institute’s mission is to motivate youth ages 11-17 to reach their highest potential through training in life skills. The curriculum focuses on Parks’ philosophy of ”Quiet Strength”. It is ran by volunteers from professional, technical, community and internationAL backgrounds that then share their knowledge and skills with students, all in a manner that reflects Parks’ specified approach to self development and growth.
Parks Received the Congressional Gold Medal
Parks continued to gain recognition for her life’s work well after retirement age. At the age of 86, hundreds of people gathered at the U.S. Capitol to witness Parks as she received the Congressional Gold Medal in 1999. This was one of her biggest achievements. This award is the highest honor someone can receive in the United States. Other recipients include George Washington, Thomas Edison, Betty Ford, and Mother Teresa. When asked about the honor, Parks stated, ”This medal is encouragement for all of us to continue until all have rights.”
Parks was Honored by Several Presidents
Parks was again honored by the United States government, this time by former President George W. Bush, who took it upon himself to honor Parks one year after her death in 2006. Bush proclaimed that a statue would be erected in Parks’ honor in the National Statuary Hall in Washington, D.C. President Bush also released an official statement on the statue, saying that he wanted it to serve as remembrance and to commemorate one of the most important people in the history of the United States. The statue still stands today and is a popular tourist attraction.
Even Without Attending College, Parks Held Multiple Degrees
Throughout her life, Parks was awarded with dozens of honorary doctorates from universities around the world. She was also inducted as an honorary representative and member of the Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority. The list of Parks’ awards and achievements is almost never ending, including the NAACP’s Spingarn Medal, the UAW’s Social Justice Award, the Martin Luther King, Jr. Non – Violent Peace Prize and the Rosa Parks Peace Prize. In 1999, Parks was named as one of the 20 most powerful citizens of the century by Time Magazine. In 2000, Troy University dedicated The Rosa Parks Library and Museum in her honor, which features the famous statue of Parks sitting on a bus bench.
Parks Was Honored Even After Her Death
One of the more inspirational Rosa Parks facts tells about what happened after Parks passed away. Parks was diagnosed with progressive dementia in 2004 and passed away on October 24, 2005. In the days following her death, all city buses in the cities of Montgomery and Detroit reserved their front seats by placing black ribbons over them. They remained this way until Parks’ was laid to rest. Her body was first taken to Montgomery for a viewing at the St. Paul African Methodist Episcopal Church, where Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice spoke. Her body was then taken to Washington D.C., where she was the first woman to even have a viewing in the Capital. Her body was then taken back to Detroit for a final viewing and her burial.
Rosa Parks Sued Outkast
In 1999, Parks sued the critically-acclaimed hip-hop group Outkast, stating that their latest song titled ”Rose Parks” was a misappropriated use of her name. She was also offended by the song’s vulgar language. Parks stated that there wasn’t an artistic connection between her name and the song’s content. The lawsuit was first dropped but the Supreme Court eventually allowed the lawsuit to proceed. In the end, the suit was settled on April 14, 2005, with OutKast paying Parks an undisclosed cash settlement. They also agreed to work with the Rose and Raymond Parks Institute for Self Development in creating engaging and educational curriculum surrounding Parks’ life.
Parks Was a Respected Author
Besides being an amazing activist, Rosa Parks facts also tell us that Parks wrote several books, including Rosa Parks: My Story, which focused on her life before the day on the bus, Quiet Strength, which described her Christian faith and the role that it played throughout her life, Dear Mrs. Parks: A Dialogue with Today’s Youth, and I Am Rosa Parks, a book for preschoolers. Dear Mrs. Parks: A Dialogue with Today’s Youth received the NAACP’s Image Award for Outstanding Literary Work in 1996. Parks was passionate about spreading her philosophy and telling her story.
Parks Went to War with the NAACP Image Awards
Even though the NAACP was a large part of her life and a strong support base, Parks eventually boycotted the NAACP Image Awards in 2003 because of the movie Barbershop, which was quite successful at that time. Cedric the Entertainer, an actor in the movie, portrayed a man who thought that Parks wasn’t a key part of the famous bus incident. Cedric also happened to be hosting the Image Awards that year. NAACP President Kweisi Mfume stated that he felt the event was exaggerated in the media while Parks felt the need to raise her voice in the situation because of her late husband who was a member of the NAACP.
Parks Was Arrested More Than Once
Parks was arrested after not giving up her seat to a white man on a bus on December 1, 1955, which sparked a boycott against the Montgomery bus system. Parks worked for a short time as a dispatcher for the group organizing the boycott and arranged carpool rids for boycotters. But on February 21, 1956, Parks was again arrested for violating a state law against organized boycotting. She was arrested along with over a hundred other boycotters. The New York Times featured a picture of Parks being fingerprinted. After the arrests, Parks and her husband began experiencing discrimination at work and even death threats. They moved to Detroit in 1957, where they lived for the rest of their lives.
Parks Had Already Encountered the Bus Driver and Typically Avoided Him
The man driving the bus on the day that Parks refused to give up her seat was James Blake, who had a bad reputation among black passengers. Over 10 years before the December incident, Parks paid her fare on a bus driven by Blake. She was then told that she had to enter through the back entrance rather than the front. As she walked alongside the bus towards the other entrance, Blake sped away. When interviewed later about Parks not giving up her seat, Blake stated, “I wasn’t trying to do anything to that Parks woman except do my job. She was in violation of the city codes, so what was I supposed to do? That damn bus was full and she wouldn’t move back. I had my orders. I had police powers—any driver for the city did. So the bus filled up and a white man got on, and she had his seat and I told her to move back, and she wouldn’t do it.”
Rosa Parks Facts – Facts about Rosa Parks Summary
Rosa Parks facts tell the amazing life story about a woman who was brave enough to change history. Learn about her family, her education and her never ending list of accomplishments, all which sparked on a December day when she refused to give up her seat for a white man. Get ready to be amazed with Rosa Parks, the Mother of the Modern Civil Rights Movement, a wife, an author and a true inspiration to us all. | <urn:uuid:07ecc247-c480-479e-8c19-8211e2fb54b8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://facts.net/people/activists/rosa-parks-facts | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250594662.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119151736-20200119175736-00143.warc.gz | en | 0.980578 | 2,547 | 3.40625 | 3 | [
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0.094169326126... | 1 | Rosa Parks Facts
- Birth: February 4, 1912
- Death: October 24, 2005
- Parents: James and Leona Edwards McCauley
- Husband: Raymond Parks (1932-1977)
- Children: None
- Education: Honorary Doctorates
- Bus: December 1, 1955
- Buried: Woodlawn Cemetery, Detroit, MI
- Museum: Montgomery, Alabama
- Profession: Activist
- Birth: Rosa Parks is Known as the Mother of the Modern-Day Civil Rights Movement
- Education: Parks’ Education Was Delayed
- Marriage: Parks Married a Barber
- History: Parks Wasn’t the First to Take a Stand Against Segregation
- Activist: Parks Was Tired but Not from Her Work
- Achievements: Parks Started the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self-Development
- Achievements: Parks Received the Congressional Gold Medal
- Achievements: Parks was Honored by Several Presidents
- Education: Even Without Attending College, Parks Held Multiple Degrees
- Death: Parks Was Honored Even After Her Death
- Rosa Parks Sued Outkast
- Parks Was a Respected Author
- Parks Went to War with the NAACP Image Awards
- Parks Was Arrested More Than Once
- Parks Had Already Encountered the Bus Driver and Typically Avoided Him
Rosa Parks is Known as the Mother of the Modern Day Civil Rights Movement
Let’s begin our Rosa Parks facts by stating that Parks is famous for beginning the Modern Day Civil Rights Movement. Without her leadership and infamous act on a bus, it is unknown what route history would have taken. Parks came from humble beginnings though. She was born on February 4, 1913 in Tuskegee, Alabama as Rosa Louise McCauley. She was the first child in her family and eventually had a younger brother, Sylvester McCauley, born in 1915. Their parents were James and Leona Edwards McCauley. The family was close, humble and could not have known the bright future in store for Parks.
Parks’ Education Was Delayed
The McCauley family eventually moved to Pine Level, Alabama. Parks was enrolled in the rural school system. She completed her initial education at the age of 11 and her mother then enrolled her in the Montgomery Industrial School for Girls. It was a private institution with a great reputation. She completed her education there and moved on to Alabama State Teacher’s College High School.
Unfortunately, she did not graduate because she instead turned to taking care of her terminally ill grandmother, Rose Edwards. Parks was dedicated to her education though and enrolled again. Fate was against her and she was forced to drop out again to take care of her now ill mother. She did eventually receive her high school diploma in 1934.
Parks Married a Barber
Rosa Parks married her husband in 1932, when she was only 19. Raymond Parks was a member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), which took up a large amount of his free time. To make ends meet, he worked as a barber. Although not a college graduate, he was supportive of his wife’s education and encouraged her to enrol and finally complete the required courses to earn her high school diploma. Both were respected members of Montgomery’s African-American community and were active in trying to raise awareness regarding the rules of segregation.
Parks Wasn’t the First to Take a Stand Against Segregation
Rosa Parks facts tells us that there were other incidents similar to hers on the bus. In 1892, a man named Homer Plessey refused to leave an all white rail car in Louisiana. Charges were filed and the case made it all the way to the Supreme Court, titled Plessey vs. Ferguson. Plessey lost the case due to the newly founded Jim Crow laws, the same laws that Parks would fight against decades later. These laws would not be overturned until 1954 in the case of Brown vs. Board of Education.
Parks Was Tired but Not from Her Work
A common myth surrounding Parks is that she didn’t get up from her seat because she was tired from a long day at work. The truth is a little more simple. Parks was simply tired of segregation and how every aspect of her life revolved around what she was or wasn’t allowed to do, all because of her skin color. She was 42 years old when she refused to give up her seat. After that many years of segretation, Parks had finally reached her breaking point. The movement that followed was more tiring but certainly worth it.
Parks Started the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self Development
Parks started the Institute with Elaine Eason Steel in February of 1987. The Institute was founded in honor of Parks’ late husband, who had passed away ten years before its opening. The Institute’s mission is to motivate youth ages 11-17 to reach their highest potential through training in life skills. The curriculum focuses on Parks’ philosophy of ”Quiet Strength”. It is ran by volunteers from professional, technical, community and internationAL backgrounds that then share their knowledge and skills with students, all in a manner that reflects Parks’ specified approach to self development and growth.
Parks Received the Congressional Gold Medal
Parks continued to gain recognition for her life’s work well after retirement age. At the age of 86, hundreds of people gathered at the U.S. Capitol to witness Parks as she received the Congressional Gold Medal in 1999. This was one of her biggest achievements. This award is the highest honor someone can receive in the United States. Other recipients include George Washington, Thomas Edison, Betty Ford, and Mother Teresa. When asked about the honor, Parks stated, ”This medal is encouragement for all of us to continue until all have rights.”
Parks was Honored by Several Presidents
Parks was again honored by the United States government, this time by former President George W. Bush, who took it upon himself to honor Parks one year after her death in 2006. Bush proclaimed that a statue would be erected in Parks’ honor in the National Statuary Hall in Washington, D.C. President Bush also released an official statement on the statue, saying that he wanted it to serve as remembrance and to commemorate one of the most important people in the history of the United States. The statue still stands today and is a popular tourist attraction.
Even Without Attending College, Parks Held Multiple Degrees
Throughout her life, Parks was awarded with dozens of honorary doctorates from universities around the world. She was also inducted as an honorary representative and member of the Alpha Kappa Alpha Sorority. The list of Parks’ awards and achievements is almost never ending, including the NAACP’s Spingarn Medal, the UAW’s Social Justice Award, the Martin Luther King, Jr. Non – Violent Peace Prize and the Rosa Parks Peace Prize. In 1999, Parks was named as one of the 20 most powerful citizens of the century by Time Magazine. In 2000, Troy University dedicated The Rosa Parks Library and Museum in her honor, which features the famous statue of Parks sitting on a bus bench.
Parks Was Honored Even After Her Death
One of the more inspirational Rosa Parks facts tells about what happened after Parks passed away. Parks was diagnosed with progressive dementia in 2004 and passed away on October 24, 2005. In the days following her death, all city buses in the cities of Montgomery and Detroit reserved their front seats by placing black ribbons over them. They remained this way until Parks’ was laid to rest. Her body was first taken to Montgomery for a viewing at the St. Paul African Methodist Episcopal Church, where Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice spoke. Her body was then taken to Washington D.C., where she was the first woman to even have a viewing in the Capital. Her body was then taken back to Detroit for a final viewing and her burial.
Rosa Parks Sued Outkast
In 1999, Parks sued the critically-acclaimed hip-hop group Outkast, stating that their latest song titled ”Rose Parks” was a misappropriated use of her name. She was also offended by the song’s vulgar language. Parks stated that there wasn’t an artistic connection between her name and the song’s content. The lawsuit was first dropped but the Supreme Court eventually allowed the lawsuit to proceed. In the end, the suit was settled on April 14, 2005, with OutKast paying Parks an undisclosed cash settlement. They also agreed to work with the Rose and Raymond Parks Institute for Self Development in creating engaging and educational curriculum surrounding Parks’ life.
Parks Was a Respected Author
Besides being an amazing activist, Rosa Parks facts also tell us that Parks wrote several books, including Rosa Parks: My Story, which focused on her life before the day on the bus, Quiet Strength, which described her Christian faith and the role that it played throughout her life, Dear Mrs. Parks: A Dialogue with Today’s Youth, and I Am Rosa Parks, a book for preschoolers. Dear Mrs. Parks: A Dialogue with Today’s Youth received the NAACP’s Image Award for Outstanding Literary Work in 1996. Parks was passionate about spreading her philosophy and telling her story.
Parks Went to War with the NAACP Image Awards
Even though the NAACP was a large part of her life and a strong support base, Parks eventually boycotted the NAACP Image Awards in 2003 because of the movie Barbershop, which was quite successful at that time. Cedric the Entertainer, an actor in the movie, portrayed a man who thought that Parks wasn’t a key part of the famous bus incident. Cedric also happened to be hosting the Image Awards that year. NAACP President Kweisi Mfume stated that he felt the event was exaggerated in the media while Parks felt the need to raise her voice in the situation because of her late husband who was a member of the NAACP.
Parks Was Arrested More Than Once
Parks was arrested after not giving up her seat to a white man on a bus on December 1, 1955, which sparked a boycott against the Montgomery bus system. Parks worked for a short time as a dispatcher for the group organizing the boycott and arranged carpool rids for boycotters. But on February 21, 1956, Parks was again arrested for violating a state law against organized boycotting. She was arrested along with over a hundred other boycotters. The New York Times featured a picture of Parks being fingerprinted. After the arrests, Parks and her husband began experiencing discrimination at work and even death threats. They moved to Detroit in 1957, where they lived for the rest of their lives.
Parks Had Already Encountered the Bus Driver and Typically Avoided Him
The man driving the bus on the day that Parks refused to give up her seat was James Blake, who had a bad reputation among black passengers. Over 10 years before the December incident, Parks paid her fare on a bus driven by Blake. She was then told that she had to enter through the back entrance rather than the front. As she walked alongside the bus towards the other entrance, Blake sped away. When interviewed later about Parks not giving up her seat, Blake stated, “I wasn’t trying to do anything to that Parks woman except do my job. She was in violation of the city codes, so what was I supposed to do? That damn bus was full and she wouldn’t move back. I had my orders. I had police powers—any driver for the city did. So the bus filled up and a white man got on, and she had his seat and I told her to move back, and she wouldn’t do it.”
Rosa Parks Facts – Facts about Rosa Parks Summary
Rosa Parks facts tell the amazing life story about a woman who was brave enough to change history. Learn about her family, her education and her never ending list of accomplishments, all which sparked on a December day when she refused to give up her seat for a white man. Get ready to be amazed with Rosa Parks, the Mother of the Modern Civil Rights Movement, a wife, an author and a true inspiration to us all. | 2,597 | ENGLISH | 1 |
A new book, Fashion Behind the Iron Curtain, released by Grada and Prague’s Museum of Decorative Arts (UPM) has taken on the task of mapping fashion in Czechoslovakia from 1948 – 1989, a period that followed the Second World War, the Nazi occupation of Bohemia and Moravia, a brief window of democracy and freedom and itself was marked by 40 years of totalitarian rule.
Author and curator at UPM Konstantína Hlaváčková was instrumental in putting together the work; in an interview for Czech Radio she explained that one of the book’s main goals was to show how the communist regime in Czechoslovakia after 1948 used fashion for its own ideological aims.
“I’m not sure how much people [today] are aware just how much peoples’ lives changed under the communist regime. They were affected to the very core and not even fashion was exempt. The regime was very aware of the role fashion could play. They knew that fashion could influence thinking, could present a new way of life and ‘educate’ citizens of the new socialist or communist state.”
Although the new regime had great ambitions, numerous factors proved negative in the early years. One problem? The monumental task of creating a new style which ignored fashion trends in the West.
“It was really very tough to create new fashion from scratch as well as to create new institutions which would dress the whole nation and fill wardrobes emptied during the war. The regime knew it needed skilled designers and others but they had to work within set rules, not to create freely and creatively as they had before. Everything was to be carefully monitored and according to the regime.”
Compounding difficulties, the textiles industry had been decimated by the war and by the expulsion of some three million ethnic Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia where much of the textile industry was based. The communists called for brave new fashion for the proletariat but who would come up with the design and who would produce them? To help, in 1949, the Communists launched an institute known as National Textile Production which brought together experts and some of the best talents and workers in the textile industry of the period: seamstresses, tailors, and designers – including some of the most respected names from the earlier era – to come up with solutions.
While their involvement, was largely positive, what was not were many of the restrictions within which they would soon work as well as some of the targets they had to meet. UPM’s Hlaváčková again:
“They weren’t responsible only for what the new fashion would be but they also bore responsibility for production – whether the items would actually be made. And that wasn’t at all easy. Under the Beneš Decree, the German population in the Sudentenland had to leave Czechoslovakia after 1945. That had a huge impact on the textile and clothing business.
“Much of the textile industry had been located in the Sudetenland and suddenly there were factories without workers, without expert craftsmen, and without owners. Expert craftsmen are not easy to replace and that left factories unable to meet the new demands.”
Matters were further complicated by the nationalisation of large industry under the communists, a process which had begun even earlier in 1945 under Czechoslovakia’s second president, Eduard Beneš. The industry reinvented under the new regime, Konstantína Hlaváčková says, also had to deal with shortages in materials: most needed fabrics had always been shipped to Czecholsovakia.
“Wool, cotton, silk, the last being a luxury, had always been imported. Flax or linen was a traditional textile but in any case there wasn’t enough. Capital had to be found to import enough fabrics and new factories had to be built up and last but not least a new fashion had to be invented.”
The last, says Hlaváčková, was a monumental task. A new theory of fashion behind the Iron Curtain was needed by the regime, one not influenced by the fashion houses in Paris or London. The new prescribed styles were to reflect the ideals of the communist regime in Czechoslovakia, similar in style to other countries in the Soviet bloc. UPM Konstantína Hlaváčková outlines the main principle:
“The most important requirement was ‘function’. Designs needed to be simple and easy to wear – without needless decorative elements. Take, for example, the woman’s suit: it can be wonderful, in the French or English style. But women’s suits under the new regime were very strict, akin to uniforms.
“Slim skirts were rejected as they were hard to sit or walk in and jackets, for example, were to feature little variation in collars. Certainly there were few frills or decorative edging or ornaments Fake pockets were out as they served no practical function. Such a jacket was worn with a simple blouse underneath also with few decorative elements.”
“The second you had female labourers rebel against the style, saying they had been promised beautiful and colourful new fashion – something they had not been able to afford under the capitalist system, the theoreticians had to go back to the drawing board and find new solutions.”
One solution was to celebrate and indeed elevate traditional folk costumes which were indeed far more colourful, historic and had the added advantage for the ideologues of being purely Slavic in origin. Head scarves served as a needed and suitable alternative for women of all ages, to replace women’s hats which had been worn before; those were now considered a bourgeois symbol to be completely avoided. Of course, the celebration of folk costumes could only go so far - there were obvious limitations. Such clothes had no place on the factory floor or in heavy industry, and not much in agriculture in either; so, even that source of inspiration was not a solution for the worker – the hero of the new regime.
Konstantína Hlaváčková points out, that as a result designers were sent to pig or cow farms to see how women worked, to try and find solutions, to modify designs labourer’s needs. She points out when it came to some work clothes, paradoxically, there wasn’t that much to reinvent: for example, overalls (what later also came to be called the boiler suit) had existed since the industrial revolution in the 19th century.
Then, there was the matter of the regime coming up with suitable dress outside the workplace: clothes to be worn to and from work or in leisure time or formal dress at evening events. Evening dress was among the very most problematic, as previous so-called bourgeois elements were shunned. The odd mix of strict new uniforms and other designs continued up until the year of 1953 when things, to a degree, began to change. Konstantína Hlaváčková once more:
“That was the year Stalin and Gottwald died and those historic events influenced even fashion in Czechoslovakia. After their deaths, the country began to breathe a little more freely again. It began to be apparent that maybe breaking away from world fashion hadn’t been the wisest decision.
“Still, it was only another three years later, when Khrushchev denounced Stalin and the cult of personality began to be dismantled, that there was an apology to our women that they deserved to be nicely dressed and that it had been mistake. It is hard to do fashion by five-year-plans so gradually Paris fashion became an example again and, with certain variations, fashion in Czechoslovakia developed in a different direction up until 1989.”
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Three Czechs trapped in Wuhan due to coronavirus | <urn:uuid:57674125-1869-4759-bf12-b029588f6f17> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://m.radio.cz/en/section/arts/fashion-behind-the-iron-curtain-a-new-book-explores-how-czechoslovakias-communist-regime-used-fashion-to-further-its-ideological-aims | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251737572.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127235617-20200128025617-00491.warc.gz | en | 0.982229 | 1,710 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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0.262355864... | 1 | A new book, Fashion Behind the Iron Curtain, released by Grada and Prague’s Museum of Decorative Arts (UPM) has taken on the task of mapping fashion in Czechoslovakia from 1948 – 1989, a period that followed the Second World War, the Nazi occupation of Bohemia and Moravia, a brief window of democracy and freedom and itself was marked by 40 years of totalitarian rule.
Author and curator at UPM Konstantína Hlaváčková was instrumental in putting together the work; in an interview for Czech Radio she explained that one of the book’s main goals was to show how the communist regime in Czechoslovakia after 1948 used fashion for its own ideological aims.
“I’m not sure how much people [today] are aware just how much peoples’ lives changed under the communist regime. They were affected to the very core and not even fashion was exempt. The regime was very aware of the role fashion could play. They knew that fashion could influence thinking, could present a new way of life and ‘educate’ citizens of the new socialist or communist state.”
Although the new regime had great ambitions, numerous factors proved negative in the early years. One problem? The monumental task of creating a new style which ignored fashion trends in the West.
“It was really very tough to create new fashion from scratch as well as to create new institutions which would dress the whole nation and fill wardrobes emptied during the war. The regime knew it needed skilled designers and others but they had to work within set rules, not to create freely and creatively as they had before. Everything was to be carefully monitored and according to the regime.”
Compounding difficulties, the textiles industry had been decimated by the war and by the expulsion of some three million ethnic Germans from the Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia where much of the textile industry was based. The communists called for brave new fashion for the proletariat but who would come up with the design and who would produce them? To help, in 1949, the Communists launched an institute known as National Textile Production which brought together experts and some of the best talents and workers in the textile industry of the period: seamstresses, tailors, and designers – including some of the most respected names from the earlier era – to come up with solutions.
While their involvement, was largely positive, what was not were many of the restrictions within which they would soon work as well as some of the targets they had to meet. UPM’s Hlaváčková again:
“They weren’t responsible only for what the new fashion would be but they also bore responsibility for production – whether the items would actually be made. And that wasn’t at all easy. Under the Beneš Decree, the German population in the Sudentenland had to leave Czechoslovakia after 1945. That had a huge impact on the textile and clothing business.
“Much of the textile industry had been located in the Sudetenland and suddenly there were factories without workers, without expert craftsmen, and without owners. Expert craftsmen are not easy to replace and that left factories unable to meet the new demands.”
Matters were further complicated by the nationalisation of large industry under the communists, a process which had begun even earlier in 1945 under Czechoslovakia’s second president, Eduard Beneš. The industry reinvented under the new regime, Konstantína Hlaváčková says, also had to deal with shortages in materials: most needed fabrics had always been shipped to Czecholsovakia.
“Wool, cotton, silk, the last being a luxury, had always been imported. Flax or linen was a traditional textile but in any case there wasn’t enough. Capital had to be found to import enough fabrics and new factories had to be built up and last but not least a new fashion had to be invented.”
The last, says Hlaváčková, was a monumental task. A new theory of fashion behind the Iron Curtain was needed by the regime, one not influenced by the fashion houses in Paris or London. The new prescribed styles were to reflect the ideals of the communist regime in Czechoslovakia, similar in style to other countries in the Soviet bloc. UPM Konstantína Hlaváčková outlines the main principle:
“The most important requirement was ‘function’. Designs needed to be simple and easy to wear – without needless decorative elements. Take, for example, the woman’s suit: it can be wonderful, in the French or English style. But women’s suits under the new regime were very strict, akin to uniforms.
“Slim skirts were rejected as they were hard to sit or walk in and jackets, for example, were to feature little variation in collars. Certainly there were few frills or decorative edging or ornaments Fake pockets were out as they served no practical function. Such a jacket was worn with a simple blouse underneath also with few decorative elements.”
“The second you had female labourers rebel against the style, saying they had been promised beautiful and colourful new fashion – something they had not been able to afford under the capitalist system, the theoreticians had to go back to the drawing board and find new solutions.”
One solution was to celebrate and indeed elevate traditional folk costumes which were indeed far more colourful, historic and had the added advantage for the ideologues of being purely Slavic in origin. Head scarves served as a needed and suitable alternative for women of all ages, to replace women’s hats which had been worn before; those were now considered a bourgeois symbol to be completely avoided. Of course, the celebration of folk costumes could only go so far - there were obvious limitations. Such clothes had no place on the factory floor or in heavy industry, and not much in agriculture in either; so, even that source of inspiration was not a solution for the worker – the hero of the new regime.
Konstantína Hlaváčková points out, that as a result designers were sent to pig or cow farms to see how women worked, to try and find solutions, to modify designs labourer’s needs. She points out when it came to some work clothes, paradoxically, there wasn’t that much to reinvent: for example, overalls (what later also came to be called the boiler suit) had existed since the industrial revolution in the 19th century.
Then, there was the matter of the regime coming up with suitable dress outside the workplace: clothes to be worn to and from work or in leisure time or formal dress at evening events. Evening dress was among the very most problematic, as previous so-called bourgeois elements were shunned. The odd mix of strict new uniforms and other designs continued up until the year of 1953 when things, to a degree, began to change. Konstantína Hlaváčková once more:
“That was the year Stalin and Gottwald died and those historic events influenced even fashion in Czechoslovakia. After their deaths, the country began to breathe a little more freely again. It began to be apparent that maybe breaking away from world fashion hadn’t been the wisest decision.
“Still, it was only another three years later, when Khrushchev denounced Stalin and the cult of personality began to be dismantled, that there was an apology to our women that they deserved to be nicely dressed and that it had been mistake. It is hard to do fashion by five-year-plans so gradually Paris fashion became an example again and, with certain variations, fashion in Czechoslovakia developed in a different direction up until 1989.”
Czech IT specialists organize “hackathon” to give government online motorway vignette sales system for free
Minister: Czech Republic won’t take in 40 child refugees from Greek camps
CzechTourism head hints attracting tourists no longer agency’s main goal
EU, Russia row over WWII, with Poles and Czechs on front lines
Three Czechs trapped in Wuhan due to coronavirus | 1,657 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The largest cause of unemployment can be attributed to recession. The term recession refers to the backward movement of the economy for a long period. People spend only when they have to. (Nagle 2009). With people spending less there would be less money in circulation therefore, enterprises would suffer financially and people would suffer too. This is so because recession reduces the fiscal bases of enterprises, forcing these enterprises to reduce their workforce through layoffs. These enterprises lay off their workers in order to cut the costs they incur in terms of wage and salary payments.
However, this move is not always a wise one because when an enterprise has fewer workers it would reduce its productivity which would mean more financial problems. Besides it strains the workforce. If these corporations continue incurring losses they eventually close down and as a result, the workforce loses jobs. This is what has been going on since December 2007. Unemployment is one of the biggest problems that governments have to deal with. (compston 2002).
The end of the year 2007 marked the beginning of the great recession. When recession began about 4.9 % of the population had no jobs. Over the years, increase in youth unemployment has been on an increase. By the end of 2008, the worst impacts of recession were eminent. During that year, about 2.6 million people were rendered jobless. This was recorded as the worst hit year in more than 60 years. More than half a million jobs were lost by the end of 2008. In 2009 the rate of unemployment rose to 7%.By last year, the rate had grown to 9.8%. Nevada used to be the best state financially. However, at the moment its unemployment is rated at 14%.
By the year 2010 there were about six and a half million people who had remained unemployed for a period of over six months. The number of the people who were officially unemployed, together with those who had lost the faith of getting jobs rose since the onset of the recession. In 2011, the rate of unemployment is at 9%. Although there is a decline it has been rather slow. Financial analysts predict that unemployment rate would drop to 8%. Even for the people who still have their jobs the hours that they work have been reduced since then. With reduced hours the productivity of the workers would not be fully exploited which in the end, affects the economy. This is so because with a small fiscal base the economy has not been able to recover from recession fast enough. Although there have been positive growths in the employment rates these growths are barely enough. They do little to help in the dire situation. This only means that joblessness is something that the population would have learned to live with.
The minority communities like Africans have tasted the worst impacts of recession. This is so because unemployment rates are highest within these communities. By the year 2010, the unemployment rate of the African population in the United States stood... | <urn:uuid:be4d8347-a855-4701-93a5-dd34bad8d5e0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/unemployment-as-well-as-the-great-recession | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591763.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118023429-20200118051429-00011.warc.gz | en | 0.982456 | 581 | 3.65625 | 4 | [
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0.097960211336... | 1 | The largest cause of unemployment can be attributed to recession. The term recession refers to the backward movement of the economy for a long period. People spend only when they have to. (Nagle 2009). With people spending less there would be less money in circulation therefore, enterprises would suffer financially and people would suffer too. This is so because recession reduces the fiscal bases of enterprises, forcing these enterprises to reduce their workforce through layoffs. These enterprises lay off their workers in order to cut the costs they incur in terms of wage and salary payments.
However, this move is not always a wise one because when an enterprise has fewer workers it would reduce its productivity which would mean more financial problems. Besides it strains the workforce. If these corporations continue incurring losses they eventually close down and as a result, the workforce loses jobs. This is what has been going on since December 2007. Unemployment is one of the biggest problems that governments have to deal with. (compston 2002).
The end of the year 2007 marked the beginning of the great recession. When recession began about 4.9 % of the population had no jobs. Over the years, increase in youth unemployment has been on an increase. By the end of 2008, the worst impacts of recession were eminent. During that year, about 2.6 million people were rendered jobless. This was recorded as the worst hit year in more than 60 years. More than half a million jobs were lost by the end of 2008. In 2009 the rate of unemployment rose to 7%.By last year, the rate had grown to 9.8%. Nevada used to be the best state financially. However, at the moment its unemployment is rated at 14%.
By the year 2010 there were about six and a half million people who had remained unemployed for a period of over six months. The number of the people who were officially unemployed, together with those who had lost the faith of getting jobs rose since the onset of the recession. In 2011, the rate of unemployment is at 9%. Although there is a decline it has been rather slow. Financial analysts predict that unemployment rate would drop to 8%. Even for the people who still have their jobs the hours that they work have been reduced since then. With reduced hours the productivity of the workers would not be fully exploited which in the end, affects the economy. This is so because with a small fiscal base the economy has not been able to recover from recession fast enough. Although there have been positive growths in the employment rates these growths are barely enough. They do little to help in the dire situation. This only means that joblessness is something that the population would have learned to live with.
The minority communities like Africans have tasted the worst impacts of recession. This is so because unemployment rates are highest within these communities. By the year 2010, the unemployment rate of the African population in the United States stood... | 629 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Yup'ik People and Their Culture
By Alice Aluskak Rearden (Yup'ik), 2009
(This is shortened version of a longer essay from the Smithsonian book Living Our Cultures, Sharing Our Heritage: The First Peoples of Alaska.)
Sea, Land, Rivers
The Yup’ik homeland in southwest Alaska extends from Bristol Bay to Norton Sound and centers on the great delta where the Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers reach the sea. It is a country of treeless tundra, countless lakes and low mountain ranges. Almost seventy Yup’ik communities are situated along the Bering Sea coast and lower courses of the two rivers, including the Kuskokwim village of Napakiak, where I grew up.
Whenever I ask elders about the traditional way of life on this land, they always say, “Caperrnarqellruuq – how difficult, how daunting it was back then.” Previous generations had to master a wide range of specific knowledge that was critical to their survival. You can see the meticulous care they took in making their tools: with a harpoon, you had to know the right wood to use, where to attach the lines, and how to balance it perfectly so that it would be effective. The values they lived by—cooperation, generosity, diligence, humility and respect for others—were just as important as skill and knowledge in sustaining their communities.
The contemporary Yup’ik lifestyle is easier than the traditional one, although people still work incredibly hard to provide for their families. We have Western schooling and such amenities as store-bought goods and clothing, although the cost of those things is high in rural Alaska. The environment around us remains the primary source of what we need, but it takes less effort to subsist by hunting and fishing with the guns, snow machines and other equipment that we depend on today than it took with the equipment of the past.
My grandparents helped care for me during childhood, and they were hard-working people who taught us how to honor Yup’ik values and utilize the resources of the land. I remember my grandmother preparing and preserving the food that my grandfather brought home from the wilderness in different seasons—blackfish, whitefish, migratory birds, caribou and moose. He had a full-time job, but was an active subsistence hunter as well. My grandmother was very concerned that we never waste food. Although she did not explain it directly, I came to understand that she was concerned that such negligence would show disrespect to the animals and diminish my grandfather’s success as a hunter.
Community and Family
At a certain time a child becomes aware of life. A baby will be sitting and looking around when an expression of surprise and delight comes to her face. My mom will say “Ellangartuq – she has just become aware.” Ella is the word for awareness, but it also means weather, the world, the universe; as human beings we gradually wake up to a consciousness of all that exists. Different stages of awareness occur during a child’s growth. For that reason it is important to be extremely careful around babies; their early perceptions will shape the rest of their lives. They will be stronger people later on if they have a quiet environment where they are never startled, or scared, or exposed to inappropriate behavior.
I grew up speaking Yup’ik as my first language and was also one of the first children to benefit from the bilingual education program that was started in the Napakiak schools. From kindergarten through elementary school I took classes that were taught in Yup’ik, and during those years I learned to read and write the language. Later on I took a Yup’ik course at the University of Alaska Fairbanks and after graduation used my training to work as a Yup’ik transcriber and translator. The work was extremely difficult at first! I was not an expert in the subtleties of grammar and structure, and the speakers used terminology that was new to me. I had to ask many people about some of the words and to check that I fully understood their meanings. I was excited by what I was doing and found it rewarding to learn new aspects of Yup’ik culture and history.
In listening to elders’ words, I have been impressed by the passion they feel about young people learning to appreciate the traditional values so that they can lead better lives and contribute to the health of their communities. Elders see how much has been lost as a result of cultural and material change and the shift away from Yup’ik ways of learning, being and speaking. Alcoholism, loss of respect for others, broken families and hopelessness come from losing that vital connection to cultural knowledge and identity.
Ceremony and Celebration
Our traditional spiritual life was based on the recognition that all things have ella, awareness. Elders were taught that if you are out walking and see a piece of driftwood sticking out of the mud, you should pull it out and turn it over so that the muddy part can dry. That piece of wood is alive and aware, and it will feel gratitude for your kindness.
Elders have told us about the masked dance ceremonies of the past. The winter celebrations honored the yuit, or inner persons, of the animals, and the dances were a kind of prayer that asked for these spirits to give their physical bodies to meet the needs of the community. Shamans made carvings or masks representing animals – walrus, caribou, seals and others. When the masks were danced in the qasgiq (community house), it was a petition for those animals to return in the spring. During Nakaciuryaraq, the Bladder Festival, the bladders of seals that had been taken by hunters during the year were returned to the sea through a hole in the ice, allowing those seals to be reborn in new bodies.
Kevgiq, the Messenger Feast, was a spring festival for sharing and bringing communities together. People worked hard throughout the year, gathering plants, hunting furs and harvesting food, and Kevgiq was a time to distribute some of what they had earned to others. Parents were especially proud if one of their children had contributed to the family’s effort for the first time – a son who brought home his first game or a daughter who caught a pike through the ice. Those events were recognized as rites of passage that meant the child was beginning a lifetime of providing for kin and community. By giving away at Kevgiq, a family ensured the future success of its children and the prosperity of the whole group. Villages still carry out the Messenger Feast tradition of inviting guests from other places and distributing presents to them. The dancing and gift-giving represent the same values as in the past, even if some of the items are store-bought goods. It is about giving generously to others and celebrating the success of the subsistence harvest.
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0.08446520... | 2 | The Yup'ik People and Their Culture
By Alice Aluskak Rearden (Yup'ik), 2009
(This is shortened version of a longer essay from the Smithsonian book Living Our Cultures, Sharing Our Heritage: The First Peoples of Alaska.)
Sea, Land, Rivers
The Yup’ik homeland in southwest Alaska extends from Bristol Bay to Norton Sound and centers on the great delta where the Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers reach the sea. It is a country of treeless tundra, countless lakes and low mountain ranges. Almost seventy Yup’ik communities are situated along the Bering Sea coast and lower courses of the two rivers, including the Kuskokwim village of Napakiak, where I grew up.
Whenever I ask elders about the traditional way of life on this land, they always say, “Caperrnarqellruuq – how difficult, how daunting it was back then.” Previous generations had to master a wide range of specific knowledge that was critical to their survival. You can see the meticulous care they took in making their tools: with a harpoon, you had to know the right wood to use, where to attach the lines, and how to balance it perfectly so that it would be effective. The values they lived by—cooperation, generosity, diligence, humility and respect for others—were just as important as skill and knowledge in sustaining their communities.
The contemporary Yup’ik lifestyle is easier than the traditional one, although people still work incredibly hard to provide for their families. We have Western schooling and such amenities as store-bought goods and clothing, although the cost of those things is high in rural Alaska. The environment around us remains the primary source of what we need, but it takes less effort to subsist by hunting and fishing with the guns, snow machines and other equipment that we depend on today than it took with the equipment of the past.
My grandparents helped care for me during childhood, and they were hard-working people who taught us how to honor Yup’ik values and utilize the resources of the land. I remember my grandmother preparing and preserving the food that my grandfather brought home from the wilderness in different seasons—blackfish, whitefish, migratory birds, caribou and moose. He had a full-time job, but was an active subsistence hunter as well. My grandmother was very concerned that we never waste food. Although she did not explain it directly, I came to understand that she was concerned that such negligence would show disrespect to the animals and diminish my grandfather’s success as a hunter.
Community and Family
At a certain time a child becomes aware of life. A baby will be sitting and looking around when an expression of surprise and delight comes to her face. My mom will say “Ellangartuq – she has just become aware.” Ella is the word for awareness, but it also means weather, the world, the universe; as human beings we gradually wake up to a consciousness of all that exists. Different stages of awareness occur during a child’s growth. For that reason it is important to be extremely careful around babies; their early perceptions will shape the rest of their lives. They will be stronger people later on if they have a quiet environment where they are never startled, or scared, or exposed to inappropriate behavior.
I grew up speaking Yup’ik as my first language and was also one of the first children to benefit from the bilingual education program that was started in the Napakiak schools. From kindergarten through elementary school I took classes that were taught in Yup’ik, and during those years I learned to read and write the language. Later on I took a Yup’ik course at the University of Alaska Fairbanks and after graduation used my training to work as a Yup’ik transcriber and translator. The work was extremely difficult at first! I was not an expert in the subtleties of grammar and structure, and the speakers used terminology that was new to me. I had to ask many people about some of the words and to check that I fully understood their meanings. I was excited by what I was doing and found it rewarding to learn new aspects of Yup’ik culture and history.
In listening to elders’ words, I have been impressed by the passion they feel about young people learning to appreciate the traditional values so that they can lead better lives and contribute to the health of their communities. Elders see how much has been lost as a result of cultural and material change and the shift away from Yup’ik ways of learning, being and speaking. Alcoholism, loss of respect for others, broken families and hopelessness come from losing that vital connection to cultural knowledge and identity.
Ceremony and Celebration
Our traditional spiritual life was based on the recognition that all things have ella, awareness. Elders were taught that if you are out walking and see a piece of driftwood sticking out of the mud, you should pull it out and turn it over so that the muddy part can dry. That piece of wood is alive and aware, and it will feel gratitude for your kindness.
Elders have told us about the masked dance ceremonies of the past. The winter celebrations honored the yuit, or inner persons, of the animals, and the dances were a kind of prayer that asked for these spirits to give their physical bodies to meet the needs of the community. Shamans made carvings or masks representing animals – walrus, caribou, seals and others. When the masks were danced in the qasgiq (community house), it was a petition for those animals to return in the spring. During Nakaciuryaraq, the Bladder Festival, the bladders of seals that had been taken by hunters during the year were returned to the sea through a hole in the ice, allowing those seals to be reborn in new bodies.
Kevgiq, the Messenger Feast, was a spring festival for sharing and bringing communities together. People worked hard throughout the year, gathering plants, hunting furs and harvesting food, and Kevgiq was a time to distribute some of what they had earned to others. Parents were especially proud if one of their children had contributed to the family’s effort for the first time – a son who brought home his first game or a daughter who caught a pike through the ice. Those events were recognized as rites of passage that meant the child was beginning a lifetime of providing for kin and community. By giving away at Kevgiq, a family ensured the future success of its children and the prosperity of the whole group. Villages still carry out the Messenger Feast tradition of inviting guests from other places and distributing presents to them. The dancing and gift-giving represent the same values as in the past, even if some of the items are store-bought goods. It is about giving generously to others and celebrating the success of the subsistence harvest.
Tags: Yup'ik, Alaska Native, Indigenous, Smithsonian Arctic Studies Center in AlaskaRead More » | 1,419 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Prince Among Slaves (film)
In 1788, the slave ship Africa set sail from West Africa, headed for the West Indies filled with a profitable but highly perishable cargo--hundreds of men, women, and children bound in chains. Six months later one of its human cargo, a twenty-six-year-old man named Abdul Rahman, was transported and sold in Natchez, Mississippi. According to legends that developed around Abdul Rahman in antebellum America, he made the remarkable claim to the farmer who purchased him at the auction that he was an "African prince"; and that his father would pay gold for his return. The offer was refused and Abdul Rahman did not return to Africa for another forty years. During his enslavement he toiled on the Foster plantation, married, and fathered nine children. His story also made him one the most famous Africans in America for a time, attracting the attention of powerful men such as Secretary of State Henry Clay.
After forty years of slavery, Abdul Rahman finally reclaimed his freedom, but he defied his former master"s demand that the federal government return him immediately to Africa, and instead traveled throughout the northern states, speaking to large audiences in a partially successful attempt to raise enough money to buy his children’s freedom. Finally at the age of sixty-seven, and after raising funds to free two of his children, Abdul Rahman returned to Africa, only to fall ill and die just as word of his arrival reached his former home of Futa Jallon in present-day Guinea.
Unity Productions Foundation, 2008
How to Cite This Page
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In 1788, the slave ship Africa set sail from West Africa, headed for the West Indies filled with a profitable but highly perishable cargo--hundreds of men, women, and children bound in chains. Six months later one of its human cargo, a twenty-six-year-old man named Abdul Rahman, was transported and sold in Natchez, Mississippi. According to legends that developed around Abdul Rahman in antebellum America, he made the remarkable claim to the farmer who purchased him at the auction that he was an "African prince"; and that his father would pay gold for his return. The offer was refused and Abdul Rahman did not return to Africa for another forty years. During his enslavement he toiled on the Foster plantation, married, and fathered nine children. His story also made him one the most famous Africans in America for a time, attracting the attention of powerful men such as Secretary of State Henry Clay.
After forty years of slavery, Abdul Rahman finally reclaimed his freedom, but he defied his former master"s demand that the federal government return him immediately to Africa, and instead traveled throughout the northern states, speaking to large audiences in a partially successful attempt to raise enough money to buy his children’s freedom. Finally at the age of sixty-seven, and after raising funds to free two of his children, Abdul Rahman returned to Africa, only to fall ill and die just as word of his arrival reached his former home of Futa Jallon in present-day Guinea.
Unity Productions Foundation, 2008
How to Cite This Page
"Muslim Journeys | Item #100: ", January 28, 2020 http://bridgingcultures-muslimjourneys.org/items/show/100. | 368 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Edgar Allan Poe was a mysterious yet amazing man. He changed lives while having his own life changed. From bipolarity to normalcy and everything in between, Poe did it all. His life is a great example of the often forgotten 19th century. The life of Edgar Allan Poe is a story that everyone should know.
Edgar Poe was born on January 19, 1809, in Boston, Massachusetts. He was born to David Jr. and Elizabeth Poe. Both were traveling actors and both also died in 1811. Poe became an orphan at the age of three. Poe was then adopted by John and Frances Allan, a wealthy tobacco merchant and his wife, where he was then known as Edgar Allan (the Allan’s had given all of their adopted children their last name as the child’s middle name), and the new family moved to England. Edgar started his schooling while there, but eventually moved back to the United States to continue it.
Edgar Allan Poe’s primary education was at the academy of William Burke, where he succeeded in athletics. Edgar then went on to attend the University of Virginia, but was forced to drop out because John Allan would not give him any money for tuition. This furthered their dislike of each other, especially Edgar since John had just inherited a fortune from his uncle. Edgar returned home to heartbreak as well: his neighbor and fiancée Elmira Royster had become engaged to someone else. Not having many other options, Poe then joined the United States Army under the name Edgar A. Perry (Biography.com). Edgar Poe does well in the Army, and attains rank of sergeant major. He was then nineteen.
Mrs. Allan dies in 1829, and Edgar returns home. Poe and John Allan temporarily reconcile their differences. Poe then applied to West Point; John Allan sponsors him....
... middle of paper ...
...ue term that really does not describe much. That is the epitome of Poe. The shadowy and cryptic figure that he was and will always be through all of his literary works is fascinating. The fact that his cause of death is unknown goes right along with the type of person that he was. It was the perfect ending to the dark life that he lived.
All in all, Edgar Allan Poe made an impact on American literature that few others can claim they made. From inventing the modern detective story to being the namesake creator of an NFL team, his influence is everywhere still today. His bone-chilling stories resonate from classrooms all over the world. One might think that the master of mystery would be pleased with how he is now appreciated. Some locals even say his grave in Baltimore has an ominous aura around it, along with hearing the infamous words of “The Raven”: “Nevermore”.
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- Death as a Theme in Edgar Allan Poe’s Life and Stories What is it like to be obsessed with something. Not sure. Take a look at Edgar Allan Poe’s life and one can see what it is like to be obsessed with something. For Poe that obsession was darkness and death. Edgar Allan Poe was an American author who was born in the 19th century and was the start of the gothic revolution. Poe wrote both poems and short stories of terror. Edgar Allan Poe 's writing style in his short stories is dark and mysterious with death as a recurring theme in most of his pieces.... [tags: Edgar Allan Poe, Short story]
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-0.015864977613... | 1 | Edgar Allan Poe was a mysterious yet amazing man. He changed lives while having his own life changed. From bipolarity to normalcy and everything in between, Poe did it all. His life is a great example of the often forgotten 19th century. The life of Edgar Allan Poe is a story that everyone should know.
Edgar Poe was born on January 19, 1809, in Boston, Massachusetts. He was born to David Jr. and Elizabeth Poe. Both were traveling actors and both also died in 1811. Poe became an orphan at the age of three. Poe was then adopted by John and Frances Allan, a wealthy tobacco merchant and his wife, where he was then known as Edgar Allan (the Allan’s had given all of their adopted children their last name as the child’s middle name), and the new family moved to England. Edgar started his schooling while there, but eventually moved back to the United States to continue it.
Edgar Allan Poe’s primary education was at the academy of William Burke, where he succeeded in athletics. Edgar then went on to attend the University of Virginia, but was forced to drop out because John Allan would not give him any money for tuition. This furthered their dislike of each other, especially Edgar since John had just inherited a fortune from his uncle. Edgar returned home to heartbreak as well: his neighbor and fiancée Elmira Royster had become engaged to someone else. Not having many other options, Poe then joined the United States Army under the name Edgar A. Perry (Biography.com). Edgar Poe does well in the Army, and attains rank of sergeant major. He was then nineteen.
Mrs. Allan dies in 1829, and Edgar returns home. Poe and John Allan temporarily reconcile their differences. Poe then applied to West Point; John Allan sponsors him....
... middle of paper ...
...ue term that really does not describe much. That is the epitome of Poe. The shadowy and cryptic figure that he was and will always be through all of his literary works is fascinating. The fact that his cause of death is unknown goes right along with the type of person that he was. It was the perfect ending to the dark life that he lived.
All in all, Edgar Allan Poe made an impact on American literature that few others can claim they made. From inventing the modern detective story to being the namesake creator of an NFL team, his influence is everywhere still today. His bone-chilling stories resonate from classrooms all over the world. One might think that the master of mystery would be pleased with how he is now appreciated. Some locals even say his grave in Baltimore has an ominous aura around it, along with hearing the infamous words of “The Raven”: “Nevermore”.
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2852 words (8.1 pages) | 2,052 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Colosseum is a monument with impressive history and it is Rome’s biggest treasure. Even today, the stadium is really magnificent and it is seen by a huge number of tourists. The Colosseum is the biggest amphitheater, found in the center of Rome, on top of Nero’s palace. It was made about 70-80 AD and it was started by Vespasian and finished by his son. In 80 AD, Vespasian’s eldest son Titus officially opened the Colosseum with 100 days of games, which included animal fights and gladiatorial battles. The amphitheater was significant due to the fact that it held a various events – both important and entertaining. It was designed for public spectacles and gladiatorial duels. Romans needed this because it entertained them and kept the lower class under control. One of the most famous types of show was the venatio. This is kind of entertainment in Roman amphitheaters that involves killing and hunting wild animals. Moreover, the Colosseum was place where a lot of public executions happened. The immense majority of the battlers who faced each other in front of the audience were men. The gladiators were mostly criminals, slaves or prisoners. Next, the Colosseum’s technology is really magnificent. It could hold 80 000 people. About its architecture, the theatre was also breathtaking from the outside with huge open arcades on each of the first three floors were statue-filled arches. Unlike the other amphitheaters, the Colosseum was a structure made of concrete and stone. Also it has perfect acoustic. The theater has many tunnels and trap doors from where the gladiators and the animals came from. It had retractable roof and universal parts. “Each entrance was marked by huge porticoes, each had gilded horse-drawn chariot on the top. The emperor also had a private entrance, which was under the seats, and went to the imperial box” (Keith Hopkins 2011). Unfortunately, the stadium had been damaged by natural phenomena such as earthquakes. In the later centuries, the Colosseum was abandoned completely and now used as a tourist location. | <urn:uuid:b11cc8a9-8332-45f7-85c4-74dbc59c178b> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wallaceandjames.com/the-started-by-vespasian-and-finished-by-his/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00235.warc.gz | en | 0.98649 | 454 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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0.528332650661468... | 1 | The Colosseum is a monument with impressive history and it is Rome’s biggest treasure. Even today, the stadium is really magnificent and it is seen by a huge number of tourists. The Colosseum is the biggest amphitheater, found in the center of Rome, on top of Nero’s palace. It was made about 70-80 AD and it was started by Vespasian and finished by his son. In 80 AD, Vespasian’s eldest son Titus officially opened the Colosseum with 100 days of games, which included animal fights and gladiatorial battles. The amphitheater was significant due to the fact that it held a various events – both important and entertaining. It was designed for public spectacles and gladiatorial duels. Romans needed this because it entertained them and kept the lower class under control. One of the most famous types of show was the venatio. This is kind of entertainment in Roman amphitheaters that involves killing and hunting wild animals. Moreover, the Colosseum was place where a lot of public executions happened. The immense majority of the battlers who faced each other in front of the audience were men. The gladiators were mostly criminals, slaves or prisoners. Next, the Colosseum’s technology is really magnificent. It could hold 80 000 people. About its architecture, the theatre was also breathtaking from the outside with huge open arcades on each of the first three floors were statue-filled arches. Unlike the other amphitheaters, the Colosseum was a structure made of concrete and stone. Also it has perfect acoustic. The theater has many tunnels and trap doors from where the gladiators and the animals came from. It had retractable roof and universal parts. “Each entrance was marked by huge porticoes, each had gilded horse-drawn chariot on the top. The emperor also had a private entrance, which was under the seats, and went to the imperial box” (Keith Hopkins 2011). Unfortunately, the stadium had been damaged by natural phenomena such as earthquakes. In the later centuries, the Colosseum was abandoned completely and now used as a tourist location. | 461 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It also brought the problems of industrial society. Workers labored long hours for wages that barely kept them and their families alive. Their children typically went to work in factories and mines shortly after reaching age 6. Many children were orphaned or abandoned and lived in the streets. To survive, many people in London’s crowded slums stole and robbed.
The Industrial Revolution, which brought tremendous wealth to Britain, had spawned a major crime wave. Beggars, pickpockets, and thieves swarmed London’s streets. Honest citizens feared this "criminal class" from the slums. They demanded action to stop the crime wave.
British authorities already punished criminals severely—often by hanging. There were over 200 death penalty offenses, most of them for stealing and other property crimes. Since no prisons existed as we know them today, hanging criminals was one of the few options available.
Another option was to banish, or deport, criminals to some faraway place. Called "transportation," this penalty had been used by the British since the time of Queen Elizabeth I (1533–1603). In fact, about 40,000 convicts were transported to the British colonies in America where they worked off their sentences. But the transportation of lawbreakers to America ended abruptly in 1776 when the Revolutionary War began.
To Botany Bay
With crime rising and the American colonies rebelling, Britain had to find another place to send its convicted felons. As a temporary solution, prisoners were crammed aboard old rotting warships, called "hulks." The hulks stayed anchored on the Thames River, which links London to the sea. By day, the convicts labored on London’s docks and other public works.
The government considered several places to dump its glut of convicts. Finally, in 1786, Prime Minister William Pitt (the Younger) decided to establish a convict colony at Botany Bay, halfway around the world in Australia.
Australia, which the British called New South Wales, had been explored by the Dutch in the early 1600s. But in 1770, Captain James Cook had landed at Botany Bay, establishing British claims to the huge, uncharted continent. Prime Minister Pitt believed that a convict colony along with a military presence at Botany Bay would assure British naval and commercial supremacy in the South Pacific.
Sending prisoners to far-off Australia would also make transportation a much harsher punishment. Most slum dwellers in their life never traveled more than 30 miles from where they were born. Sending them to what was then considered the remotest place on Earth, with little likelihood of return, would be a horrific punishment. The government hoped this punishment would strike terror in the hearts of would-be criminals.
Pitt’s government decided to transport the prisoners aboard the hulks to Botany Bay without any on-site preparation and only Captain Cook’s nearly 20-year-old reports as a guide. Thus the British launched a bold experiment in penology (the treatment of criminals). If successful, the experiment would empty the hulks along the Thames, solve the riddle of what to do with criminals, and even deter people from committing crimes.
The first British fleet to transport convicts to Australia consisted of 11 ships, including two navy warships. The commander of the fleet was Captain Arthur Phillip. Captain Phillip had been appointed governor of Australia by King George III.
In May of 1787, using Captain Cook’s 20-year-old reports as their only guide, about 200 sailors and 700 convicts sailed into the unknown. The youngest criminal was a 9-year-old boy who had stolen some clothes and a pistol. The oldest was an 82-year-old woman convicted of perjury, or lying under oath.
After a 252-day voyage across 15,000 miles, the ships reached Botany Bay. But Captain Phillip soon determined that Botany Bay was a poor harbor and the surrounding land was not suited for growing crops. He ordered the fleet northward to another location, which Captain Phillip named Sydney (after Lord Sydney, William Pitt’s minister of colonial affairs).
The First Years
Governor Phillip had been given near absolute power to rule his convict colony. This included the authority to establish courts, proclaim martial law, and award grants of land in the new colony. He also had the authority to emancipate (set free) deserving convicts. Upon landing at Sydney, Governor Phillip announced to the convicts that—if they wanted to eat—they would have to work.
More than two years passed before any relief ships arrived from Britain. During this time, the colonists nearly starved. But somehow over the next few years, Governor Phillip used convict labor to plant crops, establish herds of livestock (mainly sheep), and construct buildings and roads necessary for the colony. In the meantime, the British government continued to empty out the Thames River hulks by transporting more than a thousand convicts to Sydney each year. By 1792, when Governor Phillip returned to Britain, New South Wales had survived five harsh years to become largely self-sufficient.
Who were these convicts transported to Australia? About three-quarters were young, single men and women. Most were common thieves (called "sneaksmen") from London and other British cities. Fewer than 5 percent were transported for violent crimes. Some were political offenders, mainly from rebellious Ireland and Scotland. Male convicts outnumbered females 6 to 1. Although none of the women were transported for prostitution, many were forced to become prostitutes after landing in Australia. Frequently, female convicts ended up as "prisoners of the prisoners" and were sold like slaves.
The "Assignment System"
"The sentence of the court upon you is, that you be transported beyond the seas for the term of your natural life." More commonly, criminals were sentenced to Australia for a specific term like 7 or 14 years.
After 1800, about 10 percent of the convicts arriving in Australia worked on government farms and public-works projects, such as roads and harbors. The other 90 percent were assigned to work for settlers who had received grants of land. The assigned convicts were dispersed throughout the colony to provide free labor until they had served their sentences.
How they were treated depended on who they worked for. In general, however, they lived in brutal conditions on meager rations.
Even so, the convicts were not considered slaves or "property." They possessed rights under British law. For example, neither the government nor private masters could physically punish a convict without first getting the approval of a judge at a hearing. But approval was routine.
The most common court-authorized punishment was flogging by the "cat-o’-nine-tails," a whip with nine leather cords. Convicts found guilty of minor offenses typically got 25 lashes on the back. More serious offenders drew up to 300 lashes, which would leave them gravely wounded.
While flogging kept convicts in line, a reward system also existed. "Gentlemen convicts" and those who exhibited good behavior were sometimes granted a "ticket-of-leave." This allowed the convict to work for wages and live virtually free. The only restriction was that such a person could not leave Australia until his or her sentence had expired. Deserving convicts also hoped to be emancipated by the governor.
To hold on to such a vast territory as Australia, the British government needed colonists to settle the land. Although it encouraged immigrants from Britain, few came. So the government called upon released convicts, who had served their sentences, to settle the land. It offered former convicts free land, tools, seed, livestock, and even food for one year. In addition, the government assigned newly arrived convicts to them to help work the land. As it turned out, most ex-convicts never returned to Britain but stayed in Australia to become landowners or wage workers.
More Penal Experiments
The number of convicts transported to Australia increased dramatically when more ships became available following the Napoleonic Wars (1804–1815). The peak year was 1833 when 36 ships transported nearly 7,000 convicts. By this time, areas outside Sydney had been opened up for settlement under the convict assignment system. One of these was the large island south of the mainland, now called Tasmania.
Beginning in 1834, Tasmania became the site of perhaps the world’s first juvenile prison. Convicted boys aged 9–18 were isolated from adult convicts at Point Puer (Latin for "boy"). Considered too young or ignorant for assignment, they were given a basic education, taught a trade, instructed in religion, and punished for misbehavior. Although they were subjected to flogging and solitary confinement, the training they received probably provided them with more opportunities than they would have had growing up in London’s slums.
By contrast, the place of ultimate terror was Norfolk Island, 1,000 miles east of Sydney. Set aside for the worst adult criminals, this island prison kept convicts working in chains. Guards unmercifully flogged prisoners for the slightest rule violation. Desperate to get off the island, convicts sometimes would draw lots to kill each other so that the murderer would be taken to Sydney for trial.
But even Norfolk Island had its moment of enlightenment. Scotsman Alexander Maconochie came to Australia as a government official in favor of reforming convicts rather than brutalizing them. He proposed a system of rewarding convicts with "marks" for hard work and good behavior. After earning a certain number of these marks, the convict would be set free. Thus the actual length of time a convict served depended on how fast or slowly he earned his marks.
In 1840, Maconochie got a chance to try out his mark system when he was made commandant of Norfolk Island. He immediately ended flogging and gave each convict a plot of land to grow vegetables and tobacco.
Much to the surprise of everyone but Maconochie, his system worked. During his five years as commandant, he discharged almost a thousand convicts. Only 2 percent of them were ever convicted again of a serious crime. But Maconochie had many enemies who wanted to keep the old system. They didn’t care whether Maconochie’s system worked on Norfolk. They wanted Norfolk to stand as a place of terror where any unruly convict could be sent. They finally convinced the government back in London to recall him in 1845.
By the mid-1800s, the transportation of criminals to Australia had slowed down. Reformers like Maconochie published reports critical of how the transported convicts were treated. New British prisons, patterned after American penitentiaries, made the costly transportation of convicts halfway around the world less attractive to the government. Finally, a gold rush brought thousands of new immigrants into Australia. In 1868, the last transport reached Western Australia, the only remaining convict outpost.
Between 1788 and 1868, 160,000 convicts were transported to Australia. But this did little to deter crime in Britain. The government was unable to convince the "criminal class" that transportation was a terrible punishment when most convicts chose to remain in Australia after serving their sentences. What transportation did accomplish, however, was the creation of a new people and eventually a new nation known, ironically, for its law-abiding people and low crime rate. When transportation ended, about 40 percent of Australia’s English-speaking population had come to the "land down under" as convicted criminals. Transportation to Australia worked but not as its originators intended.
For Discussion and Writing
- What does it mean to say that "transportation to Australia worked but not as its originators intended"?
- Why do you think most ex-convicts preferred to stay in Australia instead of returning to Britain?
- Do you think that a mark system, like the one created by Alexander Maconochie, should be tried in the United States today to enable prisoners to earn their way to freedom? Why or why not?
- Do you think transportation was a good way for Britain to deal with its crime problem? Why or why not?
A C T I V I T Y
In 1994, two 17-year-old Tlingit Indians pleaded guilty to robbing an Everett, Washington, pizza delivery man and severely beating him with a baseball bat. The victim suffered a partial hearing loss. At the sentencing hearing, a state court judge was presented with two radically different options:
OPTION A: The state prosecutors argued for prison terms of from three to five years. They pointed out that this was a violent crime, which caused serious injury to the victim, and they argued that the perpetrators deserved punishment, not special treatment. A three-to-five year term, they said, is the typical punishment for this crime.
OPTION B: Tlingit tribal leaders proposed that the Native American youths be banished for a year to two small uninhabited islands in the Gulf of Alaska. The young men would be supplied with some food and tools and would be monitored by the tribe. The tribe also promised to build the victim a new house and pay his medical bills. The tribal leaders said that this kind of penalty was more in line with their cultural traditions.
In this activity, four role groups will argue for and against the two punishment options.
1. Two groups will argue for Option A:
- a group representing the state of Washington
- a group representing the victim and his family
2. Two other groups will argue for Option B:
- a group representing the Tlingit tribe
- a group representing the two convicted Tlingit teen-agers
3. Each group, in turn, will present its arguments to a class member playing the role of the Washington state judge who will make the final choice. | <urn:uuid:e1198723-8846-4cfd-b917-d0007814e149> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.crf-usa.org/bill-of-rights-in-action/bria-11-2-a-beyond-the-seas-the-transportation-of-criminals-to-australia | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251696046.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127081933-20200127111933-00190.warc.gz | en | 0.981501 | 2,845 | 4.21875 | 4 | [
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0.2609... | 5 | It also brought the problems of industrial society. Workers labored long hours for wages that barely kept them and their families alive. Their children typically went to work in factories and mines shortly after reaching age 6. Many children were orphaned or abandoned and lived in the streets. To survive, many people in London’s crowded slums stole and robbed.
The Industrial Revolution, which brought tremendous wealth to Britain, had spawned a major crime wave. Beggars, pickpockets, and thieves swarmed London’s streets. Honest citizens feared this "criminal class" from the slums. They demanded action to stop the crime wave.
British authorities already punished criminals severely—often by hanging. There were over 200 death penalty offenses, most of them for stealing and other property crimes. Since no prisons existed as we know them today, hanging criminals was one of the few options available.
Another option was to banish, or deport, criminals to some faraway place. Called "transportation," this penalty had been used by the British since the time of Queen Elizabeth I (1533–1603). In fact, about 40,000 convicts were transported to the British colonies in America where they worked off their sentences. But the transportation of lawbreakers to America ended abruptly in 1776 when the Revolutionary War began.
To Botany Bay
With crime rising and the American colonies rebelling, Britain had to find another place to send its convicted felons. As a temporary solution, prisoners were crammed aboard old rotting warships, called "hulks." The hulks stayed anchored on the Thames River, which links London to the sea. By day, the convicts labored on London’s docks and other public works.
The government considered several places to dump its glut of convicts. Finally, in 1786, Prime Minister William Pitt (the Younger) decided to establish a convict colony at Botany Bay, halfway around the world in Australia.
Australia, which the British called New South Wales, had been explored by the Dutch in the early 1600s. But in 1770, Captain James Cook had landed at Botany Bay, establishing British claims to the huge, uncharted continent. Prime Minister Pitt believed that a convict colony along with a military presence at Botany Bay would assure British naval and commercial supremacy in the South Pacific.
Sending prisoners to far-off Australia would also make transportation a much harsher punishment. Most slum dwellers in their life never traveled more than 30 miles from where they were born. Sending them to what was then considered the remotest place on Earth, with little likelihood of return, would be a horrific punishment. The government hoped this punishment would strike terror in the hearts of would-be criminals.
Pitt’s government decided to transport the prisoners aboard the hulks to Botany Bay without any on-site preparation and only Captain Cook’s nearly 20-year-old reports as a guide. Thus the British launched a bold experiment in penology (the treatment of criminals). If successful, the experiment would empty the hulks along the Thames, solve the riddle of what to do with criminals, and even deter people from committing crimes.
The first British fleet to transport convicts to Australia consisted of 11 ships, including two navy warships. The commander of the fleet was Captain Arthur Phillip. Captain Phillip had been appointed governor of Australia by King George III.
In May of 1787, using Captain Cook’s 20-year-old reports as their only guide, about 200 sailors and 700 convicts sailed into the unknown. The youngest criminal was a 9-year-old boy who had stolen some clothes and a pistol. The oldest was an 82-year-old woman convicted of perjury, or lying under oath.
After a 252-day voyage across 15,000 miles, the ships reached Botany Bay. But Captain Phillip soon determined that Botany Bay was a poor harbor and the surrounding land was not suited for growing crops. He ordered the fleet northward to another location, which Captain Phillip named Sydney (after Lord Sydney, William Pitt’s minister of colonial affairs).
The First Years
Governor Phillip had been given near absolute power to rule his convict colony. This included the authority to establish courts, proclaim martial law, and award grants of land in the new colony. He also had the authority to emancipate (set free) deserving convicts. Upon landing at Sydney, Governor Phillip announced to the convicts that—if they wanted to eat—they would have to work.
More than two years passed before any relief ships arrived from Britain. During this time, the colonists nearly starved. But somehow over the next few years, Governor Phillip used convict labor to plant crops, establish herds of livestock (mainly sheep), and construct buildings and roads necessary for the colony. In the meantime, the British government continued to empty out the Thames River hulks by transporting more than a thousand convicts to Sydney each year. By 1792, when Governor Phillip returned to Britain, New South Wales had survived five harsh years to become largely self-sufficient.
Who were these convicts transported to Australia? About three-quarters were young, single men and women. Most were common thieves (called "sneaksmen") from London and other British cities. Fewer than 5 percent were transported for violent crimes. Some were political offenders, mainly from rebellious Ireland and Scotland. Male convicts outnumbered females 6 to 1. Although none of the women were transported for prostitution, many were forced to become prostitutes after landing in Australia. Frequently, female convicts ended up as "prisoners of the prisoners" and were sold like slaves.
The "Assignment System"
"The sentence of the court upon you is, that you be transported beyond the seas for the term of your natural life." More commonly, criminals were sentenced to Australia for a specific term like 7 or 14 years.
After 1800, about 10 percent of the convicts arriving in Australia worked on government farms and public-works projects, such as roads and harbors. The other 90 percent were assigned to work for settlers who had received grants of land. The assigned convicts were dispersed throughout the colony to provide free labor until they had served their sentences.
How they were treated depended on who they worked for. In general, however, they lived in brutal conditions on meager rations.
Even so, the convicts were not considered slaves or "property." They possessed rights under British law. For example, neither the government nor private masters could physically punish a convict without first getting the approval of a judge at a hearing. But approval was routine.
The most common court-authorized punishment was flogging by the "cat-o’-nine-tails," a whip with nine leather cords. Convicts found guilty of minor offenses typically got 25 lashes on the back. More serious offenders drew up to 300 lashes, which would leave them gravely wounded.
While flogging kept convicts in line, a reward system also existed. "Gentlemen convicts" and those who exhibited good behavior were sometimes granted a "ticket-of-leave." This allowed the convict to work for wages and live virtually free. The only restriction was that such a person could not leave Australia until his or her sentence had expired. Deserving convicts also hoped to be emancipated by the governor.
To hold on to such a vast territory as Australia, the British government needed colonists to settle the land. Although it encouraged immigrants from Britain, few came. So the government called upon released convicts, who had served their sentences, to settle the land. It offered former convicts free land, tools, seed, livestock, and even food for one year. In addition, the government assigned newly arrived convicts to them to help work the land. As it turned out, most ex-convicts never returned to Britain but stayed in Australia to become landowners or wage workers.
More Penal Experiments
The number of convicts transported to Australia increased dramatically when more ships became available following the Napoleonic Wars (1804–1815). The peak year was 1833 when 36 ships transported nearly 7,000 convicts. By this time, areas outside Sydney had been opened up for settlement under the convict assignment system. One of these was the large island south of the mainland, now called Tasmania.
Beginning in 1834, Tasmania became the site of perhaps the world’s first juvenile prison. Convicted boys aged 9–18 were isolated from adult convicts at Point Puer (Latin for "boy"). Considered too young or ignorant for assignment, they were given a basic education, taught a trade, instructed in religion, and punished for misbehavior. Although they were subjected to flogging and solitary confinement, the training they received probably provided them with more opportunities than they would have had growing up in London’s slums.
By contrast, the place of ultimate terror was Norfolk Island, 1,000 miles east of Sydney. Set aside for the worst adult criminals, this island prison kept convicts working in chains. Guards unmercifully flogged prisoners for the slightest rule violation. Desperate to get off the island, convicts sometimes would draw lots to kill each other so that the murderer would be taken to Sydney for trial.
But even Norfolk Island had its moment of enlightenment. Scotsman Alexander Maconochie came to Australia as a government official in favor of reforming convicts rather than brutalizing them. He proposed a system of rewarding convicts with "marks" for hard work and good behavior. After earning a certain number of these marks, the convict would be set free. Thus the actual length of time a convict served depended on how fast or slowly he earned his marks.
In 1840, Maconochie got a chance to try out his mark system when he was made commandant of Norfolk Island. He immediately ended flogging and gave each convict a plot of land to grow vegetables and tobacco.
Much to the surprise of everyone but Maconochie, his system worked. During his five years as commandant, he discharged almost a thousand convicts. Only 2 percent of them were ever convicted again of a serious crime. But Maconochie had many enemies who wanted to keep the old system. They didn’t care whether Maconochie’s system worked on Norfolk. They wanted Norfolk to stand as a place of terror where any unruly convict could be sent. They finally convinced the government back in London to recall him in 1845.
By the mid-1800s, the transportation of criminals to Australia had slowed down. Reformers like Maconochie published reports critical of how the transported convicts were treated. New British prisons, patterned after American penitentiaries, made the costly transportation of convicts halfway around the world less attractive to the government. Finally, a gold rush brought thousands of new immigrants into Australia. In 1868, the last transport reached Western Australia, the only remaining convict outpost.
Between 1788 and 1868, 160,000 convicts were transported to Australia. But this did little to deter crime in Britain. The government was unable to convince the "criminal class" that transportation was a terrible punishment when most convicts chose to remain in Australia after serving their sentences. What transportation did accomplish, however, was the creation of a new people and eventually a new nation known, ironically, for its law-abiding people and low crime rate. When transportation ended, about 40 percent of Australia’s English-speaking population had come to the "land down under" as convicted criminals. Transportation to Australia worked but not as its originators intended.
For Discussion and Writing
- What does it mean to say that "transportation to Australia worked but not as its originators intended"?
- Why do you think most ex-convicts preferred to stay in Australia instead of returning to Britain?
- Do you think that a mark system, like the one created by Alexander Maconochie, should be tried in the United States today to enable prisoners to earn their way to freedom? Why or why not?
- Do you think transportation was a good way for Britain to deal with its crime problem? Why or why not?
A C T I V I T Y
In 1994, two 17-year-old Tlingit Indians pleaded guilty to robbing an Everett, Washington, pizza delivery man and severely beating him with a baseball bat. The victim suffered a partial hearing loss. At the sentencing hearing, a state court judge was presented with two radically different options:
OPTION A: The state prosecutors argued for prison terms of from three to five years. They pointed out that this was a violent crime, which caused serious injury to the victim, and they argued that the perpetrators deserved punishment, not special treatment. A three-to-five year term, they said, is the typical punishment for this crime.
OPTION B: Tlingit tribal leaders proposed that the Native American youths be banished for a year to two small uninhabited islands in the Gulf of Alaska. The young men would be supplied with some food and tools and would be monitored by the tribe. The tribe also promised to build the victim a new house and pay his medical bills. The tribal leaders said that this kind of penalty was more in line with their cultural traditions.
In this activity, four role groups will argue for and against the two punishment options.
1. Two groups will argue for Option A:
- a group representing the state of Washington
- a group representing the victim and his family
2. Two other groups will argue for Option B:
- a group representing the Tlingit tribe
- a group representing the two convicted Tlingit teen-agers
3. Each group, in turn, will present its arguments to a class member playing the role of the Washington state judge who will make the final choice. | 2,907 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ulysses S. Grant Essay
Ulysses S. Grant rose to command all the Federal armies in the Civil War. Ulysses Hiram Grant was born April 27, 1822, in a two room frame house at Point Pleasant, Ohio. His father, Jesse Root Grant, was foreman in a tannery. When Grant was one his parents moved to Georgetown where they had five more children there, two boys and three girls. At seventeen Grant was harvesting, and hauling wood. his father got him an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point that year. In spite of grants real middle name they used Grants’, mothers’ maiden name, Simpson.
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He made few friends at West Point due to being shy and quiet. Grant was in almost every battle of the Mexican War. This experience, he said, was of great value to him, because he became acquainted with nearly all the officers of the regular army. Some of them including the great soldier Robert E. Lee were to be on the Confederate side in the Civil War. Grant came back from Mexico a captain, with favorable mention. In the Mexican War Grant formed the habit of drinking. Grant spent two years on the Pacific coast and missed his second childs birth.
His colonel asked for his resignation due to him drinking and wearing sloppy uniforms, and Grant borrowed money from him to return home. Julias father gave Grant 80 acres to farm, near St. Louis. Grant called the place Hardscrabble. Two more children were born and Grant couldnt support his growing family so Grant worked as a clerk, selling hides to saddle makers and cobbles. After Fort Sumter was fired on April 12, 1861, President Lincoln issued a call to arms. Within two weeks Grant was drilling volunteers in Galena, because, as he said, there was no one else to do the job, the gathering was completed and Grant left.
A few weeks later the governor telegraphed him to come back and accept the rank of colonel because the men he had recruited had asked for him. Grant reached his headquarters at Cairo, Illinois, September 4, 1861. Grant then set to work to prepare his men for a long, hard struggle. In February 1862 Grant advanced into Tennessee. While he was invading this fort, the Confederate general, Simon B. Buckner asked for a truce. This was the same officer who in had loaned Grant money to rejoin his family in 1858. Grant’s answer became famous in American history: “No terms except an unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted.
I propose to move immediately upon your works”. In two days of desperate fighting, Grant pushed the Confederate forces back to Corinth in Mississippi Grant was severely criticized for his conduct in this battle. Grant made no excuses but spent the rest of 1862 making plans to take Vicksburg. Grant’s son Frederick, 13 years old, was with him battle. On November 24 and 25, the Federal troops stormed the heights, and the Confederates fled into Georgia. In the final battle of the Civil War, Grant found himself up against Robert E. Lee. Lee saw that Grant wouldn’t back down, so he Grant went to Washington to disband the army.
Grant had never been interested in politics and belonged to no political party. The Radical Republicans in Congress demanded a harsh policy. Johnson hoped to have Grant’s support, but Grant quarreled with him and was won over by the Radicals unanimously nominated Grant for president, with Schuyler Colfax of Indiana for vice-president. Grant received 214 electoral votes as against 80 for the Democratic candidate, Horatio Seymour. Grant received great support from the black people, Grant’s brothers stayed with their business and were too busy to visit him.
Led by Carl Schurz and other reformers, a group in the Republican party set out to defeat Grant for reelection. They organized the Liberal Republican party, which called for civil service reform, an end to corruption in government. United States treasury, with Grant’s approval, suddenly put 4 million dollars in gold up for sale. Republicans re-nominated Grant. Grant received 286 electoral votes. Grant’s popularity declined as evidence as serious political corruption came to light. In 1874 the Whiskey Ring scandal was uncovered.
The ring was a combination of distillers and tax officers who defrauded the treasury of the revenue tax on whiskey. Grant was not personally implicated in the scandals, but he gave appointments to unfit people and stood by them after they had been shown to be dishonest. The wartime boom ended with the great panic of 1873. Five years of hard times followed. Businessmen urged the government to return to a sound currency and call in the “greenbacks”–paper money issued during the Civil War. Grant vetoed a bill calling for more paper currency. Both the Republicans and the Democrats nominated “reform” candidates Ulysses S.
Grant nominated James A. Garfield. Grant, however, was still the people’s hero. Grant’s children had become adults and been successful in living their lives. Grant unwisely invested all his money in Grant and Ward, a stock brokerage firm. The firm crashed in 1884 and left Grant penniless and humiliated. To earn money, Grant turned to writing. Samuel L. Clemens, better known as Mark Twain, was then a subscription book publisher. He offered Grant a high royalty for his memoirs, and in 1885 Grant began to dictate them. They were so popular that Mrs. Grant received nearly $450,000 from its sale. | <urn:uuid:da55a38c-894d-4627-9826-4caee33a6fea> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://benjaminbarber.org/ulysses-s-grant-essay/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250593295.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20200118164132-20200118192132-00391.warc.gz | en | 0.986578 | 1,174 | 3.4375 | 3 | [
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0.52041494846343... | 1 | Ulysses S. Grant Essay
Ulysses S. Grant rose to command all the Federal armies in the Civil War. Ulysses Hiram Grant was born April 27, 1822, in a two room frame house at Point Pleasant, Ohio. His father, Jesse Root Grant, was foreman in a tannery. When Grant was one his parents moved to Georgetown where they had five more children there, two boys and three girls. At seventeen Grant was harvesting, and hauling wood. his father got him an appointment to the United States Military Academy at West Point that year. In spite of grants real middle name they used Grants’, mothers’ maiden name, Simpson.
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Leave your essay topic in comments and get a free help
He made few friends at West Point due to being shy and quiet. Grant was in almost every battle of the Mexican War. This experience, he said, was of great value to him, because he became acquainted with nearly all the officers of the regular army. Some of them including the great soldier Robert E. Lee were to be on the Confederate side in the Civil War. Grant came back from Mexico a captain, with favorable mention. In the Mexican War Grant formed the habit of drinking. Grant spent two years on the Pacific coast and missed his second childs birth.
His colonel asked for his resignation due to him drinking and wearing sloppy uniforms, and Grant borrowed money from him to return home. Julias father gave Grant 80 acres to farm, near St. Louis. Grant called the place Hardscrabble. Two more children were born and Grant couldnt support his growing family so Grant worked as a clerk, selling hides to saddle makers and cobbles. After Fort Sumter was fired on April 12, 1861, President Lincoln issued a call to arms. Within two weeks Grant was drilling volunteers in Galena, because, as he said, there was no one else to do the job, the gathering was completed and Grant left.
A few weeks later the governor telegraphed him to come back and accept the rank of colonel because the men he had recruited had asked for him. Grant reached his headquarters at Cairo, Illinois, September 4, 1861. Grant then set to work to prepare his men for a long, hard struggle. In February 1862 Grant advanced into Tennessee. While he was invading this fort, the Confederate general, Simon B. Buckner asked for a truce. This was the same officer who in had loaned Grant money to rejoin his family in 1858. Grant’s answer became famous in American history: “No terms except an unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted.
I propose to move immediately upon your works”. In two days of desperate fighting, Grant pushed the Confederate forces back to Corinth in Mississippi Grant was severely criticized for his conduct in this battle. Grant made no excuses but spent the rest of 1862 making plans to take Vicksburg. Grant’s son Frederick, 13 years old, was with him battle. On November 24 and 25, the Federal troops stormed the heights, and the Confederates fled into Georgia. In the final battle of the Civil War, Grant found himself up against Robert E. Lee. Lee saw that Grant wouldn’t back down, so he Grant went to Washington to disband the army.
Grant had never been interested in politics and belonged to no political party. The Radical Republicans in Congress demanded a harsh policy. Johnson hoped to have Grant’s support, but Grant quarreled with him and was won over by the Radicals unanimously nominated Grant for president, with Schuyler Colfax of Indiana for vice-president. Grant received 214 electoral votes as against 80 for the Democratic candidate, Horatio Seymour. Grant received great support from the black people, Grant’s brothers stayed with their business and were too busy to visit him.
Led by Carl Schurz and other reformers, a group in the Republican party set out to defeat Grant for reelection. They organized the Liberal Republican party, which called for civil service reform, an end to corruption in government. United States treasury, with Grant’s approval, suddenly put 4 million dollars in gold up for sale. Republicans re-nominated Grant. Grant received 286 electoral votes. Grant’s popularity declined as evidence as serious political corruption came to light. In 1874 the Whiskey Ring scandal was uncovered.
The ring was a combination of distillers and tax officers who defrauded the treasury of the revenue tax on whiskey. Grant was not personally implicated in the scandals, but he gave appointments to unfit people and stood by them after they had been shown to be dishonest. The wartime boom ended with the great panic of 1873. Five years of hard times followed. Businessmen urged the government to return to a sound currency and call in the “greenbacks”–paper money issued during the Civil War. Grant vetoed a bill calling for more paper currency. Both the Republicans and the Democrats nominated “reform” candidates Ulysses S.
Grant nominated James A. Garfield. Grant, however, was still the people’s hero. Grant’s children had become adults and been successful in living their lives. Grant unwisely invested all his money in Grant and Ward, a stock brokerage firm. The firm crashed in 1884 and left Grant penniless and humiliated. To earn money, Grant turned to writing. Samuel L. Clemens, better known as Mark Twain, was then a subscription book publisher. He offered Grant a high royalty for his memoirs, and in 1885 Grant began to dictate them. They were so popular that Mrs. Grant received nearly $450,000 from its sale. | 1,203 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Wilfred Edward Salter Owen was born on 18 March 1893 in Oswestry, Shropshire and began to write poetry from a very young age. He went to London University, where he was known to be a quiet and thoughtful student. After going to Bordeaux in 1913 to teach English, Owen returned to England and joined the army, as he really wanted to fight for his country. He was injured in March 1917 and was sent home; he was fit for duty in August 1918, and returned to the front line. On November 4, just seven days before the end of the First World War, he was caught in a German machine gun attack and killed. He was twenty-five years old when he died.
Owen's poems, published only after his death, along with his letters from the front line to his mother, are perhaps the most powerful and vivid accounts of the horror of war to emerge from the First World War.
In one of his most well known poems, 'Dulce et Decorum est' Owen challenges the famous Latin saying by Horace which means that it is sweet and becoming to die for one's country. Owen wrote this as he wanted to provoke compassion at its deepest levels for what was going on every day in the war areas. Owen was greatly concerned about the patriotism of people who knew nothing of the horrors of fighting. 'Dulce et Decorum est' was designed to make the public ask itself what purpose the never-ending casualties - on both sides - were serving.
The poem is in four stanzas, in which the first stanza deals with the extreme condition of the exhausted soldiers. The second stanza deals with a gas attack in which one of the soldiers dies, unable to fit his gas mask in time, and he drowns on his own blood. The third stanza is about Owen's personal reaction to these circumstances, which is the way in which he feels personally responsible and guilty about the incident. The forth stanza emphasises the physical sufferings of the men, which tries to make the reader consider the 'glories' of war and 'The old Lie: Dulce et decorum est/Pro patria mori. | <urn:uuid:9c46f057-31a7-40cb-8572-c98a0bba2564> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/66619.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00470.warc.gz | en | 0.990657 | 448 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.073201239109... | 4 | Wilfred Edward Salter Owen was born on 18 March 1893 in Oswestry, Shropshire and began to write poetry from a very young age. He went to London University, where he was known to be a quiet and thoughtful student. After going to Bordeaux in 1913 to teach English, Owen returned to England and joined the army, as he really wanted to fight for his country. He was injured in March 1917 and was sent home; he was fit for duty in August 1918, and returned to the front line. On November 4, just seven days before the end of the First World War, he was caught in a German machine gun attack and killed. He was twenty-five years old when he died.
Owen's poems, published only after his death, along with his letters from the front line to his mother, are perhaps the most powerful and vivid accounts of the horror of war to emerge from the First World War.
In one of his most well known poems, 'Dulce et Decorum est' Owen challenges the famous Latin saying by Horace which means that it is sweet and becoming to die for one's country. Owen wrote this as he wanted to provoke compassion at its deepest levels for what was going on every day in the war areas. Owen was greatly concerned about the patriotism of people who knew nothing of the horrors of fighting. 'Dulce et Decorum est' was designed to make the public ask itself what purpose the never-ending casualties - on both sides - were serving.
The poem is in four stanzas, in which the first stanza deals with the extreme condition of the exhausted soldiers. The second stanza deals with a gas attack in which one of the soldiers dies, unable to fit his gas mask in time, and he drowns on his own blood. The third stanza is about Owen's personal reaction to these circumstances, which is the way in which he feels personally responsible and guilty about the incident. The forth stanza emphasises the physical sufferings of the men, which tries to make the reader consider the 'glories' of war and 'The old Lie: Dulce et decorum est/Pro patria mori. | 456 | ENGLISH | 1 |
It isn't easy to measure the degree of prejudice that some groups in Germany face. But that didn't stop Germany's Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency from undertaking a significant effort in recent years to get a grasp of the scope of discrimination. As part of that endeavor, pollsters surveyed around 2,000 people across the country five years ago, asking them to share the image they have of members of different minority groups.
For our Global Societies project, reporters around the world will be writing about societal problems, sustainability and development in Asia, Africa, Latin America and Europe. The series will include features, analyses, photo essays, videos and podcasts looking behind the curtain of globalization. The project is generously funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
They found that the strongest reservations are reserved for Sinti and Roma, with few respondents having a positive view of the minority. A relatively large number of study participants expressed the belief that Sinti and Roma lead completely different lives from the majority of people in Germany. A significant share of respondents also said they would prefer not having any Sinti and Roma living in their neighborhood.
The survey also included questions about Eastern Europeans, Muslims, black people, Italians, Jews and asylum-seekers. Perceptions of all those groups were generally more positive than they were for Sinti and Roma. Other studies have also confirmed the prevalence of prejudice against Sinti and Roma in Germany.
Sinti Have Lived in Germany for at Least 600 Years
Prejudices are always ill-considered and one-dimensional, but when it comes to the Sinti and Roma, the blanket assumptions apparently held by Germans are particularly at odds with reality.
The Sinti and Roma living in Germany lead extremely diverse lives. They may be united by the fact that they all have ancestors who emigrated from India more than 1,000 years ago. But after that, their lives took different paths.
The Sinti sub-group has been living in Germany for around 600 years, while the smaller group known as German Roma have been here for around 150 years. Together, they comprise one of four officially recognized ethnic minorities in Germany and in most cases, they are German citizens.
Other Roma came to Germany as migrant workers from Eastern Europe in the 1960s or fled here in the 1990s from the violence in former Yugoslavia. Many of these later arrivals have only been granted what is referred to as "tolerated" immigrant status, meaning the threat of deportation is always there.
Sinti and Roma
The Roma have retained a common language: Romani is derived from ancient Indian Sanskrit. However, the Romani spoken by the Sinti differs significantly from that spoken by Roma in Eastern Europe, for example. Many words are also taken from the languages of their home countries. Romani has no standardized spelling or grammar and is still mostly passed on orally within families.
A Sinto is a male member, a Sintesa a female member of the Sinti. Among the Roma, the self-designations are Rom and Romani.
The Roma and Sinti were the targets of systematic persecution by the Nazis, who conducted race research and forced sterilizations on them and destroyed much of their cultural heritage. They murdered more than half of the Sinti and Roma who had been officially registered in Germany and Austria at the time.
Despite the diversity of the Sinti and Roma minority in Germany, there is little public awareness of that variety. The researchers who carried out the 2014 survey on attitudes toward minorities for the Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency noted that only 5 percent of respondents said they were able to differentiate between Sinti and Roma, not to mention other subgroups.
The study confirms what the people affected by this prejudice have long reported: Almost all Sinti and Roma suffer equally under the centuries-old cliché of the criminal and dirty "gypsy." In response, many try to hide their origins.
But there are still some who are willing to go public with their experiences. One Sinto and three Roma shared their stories with DER SPIEGEL about growing up, the obstacles they faced -- and how they overcame them.
Silas Kropf, 24: "You don't look like one at all"
As a child and a teenager, I preferred to keep the fact that I am Sinto to myself. This also has to do with the fact that my family was persecuted during the Nazi era. My grandfather was terrified that something like that could happen again, which is why we didn't live our culture openly to the outside world and spoke only German at home and not Romani.
My family underwent incredible suffering under the Nazis. My great-grandmother was a Sintesa and she had many siblings whose families were deported to concentration camps. Only a few returned -- the others were murdered. In my opinion, there is far too little discussion about the persecution of the Sinti and Roma during the Nazi period. To this day, it's little more than a footnote in the history books.
Because my great-grandmother was married to an entertainer who was not a Sinto, the Nazis didn't initially target her for deportation. My great-grandmother suspects that the district head was well-disposed toward her and concealed her ethnic background in her file. She was supposed to be deported later and her children were to be sterilized, but that didn't happen either. They were lucky.
Nobody Suspected Anything at School
The stories about that period were one of the reasons we kept our backgrounds under wraps. Many Sinti are still highly suspicious of state institutions such as agencies, schools and hospitals. Some are also afraid of getting lumped together with Roma who have immigrated from Eastern Europe since the 1990s and who are also the subject of strong prejudices. About half of the Sinti in my circle of relatives and acquaintances don't reveal their true identities for that reason.
No one at school knew that I was a Sinto. Like many other German Sinti, I have light skin and light brown hair and don't stick out at all in Hanau (near Frankfurt), where I was born.
After my high school graduation, I attended an educational conference organized by the Central Council of German Sinti and Roma, where I got to know other young Sinti who have always been open about their roots. As a result, I began wondering why I should make a secret of it.
Some Cracked 'Gypsy' Jokes
When I came out to my friends and acquaintances as a Sinto, they reacted in several different ways. Some said: "That can't be true, you don't look like one." Others just quietly accepted the information. Still others cracked gypsy jokes.
At first, I would often hear lines that were apparently meant to be funny. When I spilled something on my pants once, someone said: "You gypsies, you're so dirty." The term "gypsy" is often used carelessly in our society and some friends let lines slip like: "Look at the gypsies over there," in reference to people who looked poor or somehow suspicious. They would then quickly back pedal: "Oops, I didn't mean it like that."
I let a handful of friendships peter out because I realized that it wasn't good for me to surround myself with people who foist their prejudices on me. Many people simply know too little about the Sinti. We've lived in this country for hundreds of years yet I've been praised for speaking such good German.
Hateful Facebook Posts
When I was at university, I was responsible for a residential area that was home to many Roma for a year and a half on behalf of the Youth Welfare Office. The local newspaper reported about it and I wrote an editorial that was intended to help inform people about Sinti and Roma.
The result was three days of hateful comments posted on Facebook and on the newspaper's website -- things like: "The Roma steal from others and have their children defecate on graves in the cemetery. They're social parasites and asylum tourists." There's also a link between these enduring clichés and the reporting: The media too often has a negative slant in its coverage of Sinti and Roma.
We come from different countries and have grown up in different ways. But because we are part of a minority, I think we all have to stand up for each other. We have a stronger political voice when we speak together. And the "gypsy" stereotype affects us all equally.
That's why I've been holding workshops and lectures on antiziganism as a freelancer for the last six years and have gotten involved in organizations seeking to strengthen Sinti and Roma and to raise awareness in the rest of society about prejudices.
Silas Kropf lives in Hanau and works full-time for a personnel and management consultancy.
Melissa Sejdi, 20: "We could also call it Balkan schnitzel"
My mother is German and my father a Romani. He fled from his former homeland of Yugoslavia in the 1990s due to the war. My parents brought me up very German, and I have always been open about my origins. I never had bad experiences with racism as a child.
I went to a free, democratic school and had well-informed, nice teachers. That's why it was never a problem for me to be a Romani. But that doesn't mean that I haven't experienced discrimination since then.
Recently, I was sick and went to the family doctor, but my health insurance card was broken. The receptionist sent me home even though I was really sick, saying I should get a confirmation from my insurance company and then come back.
Some Friends Voted for the AfD
I wasn't sure if they treated me like that because I have a foreign surname. So, I later asked a friend with a German name to tell this same doctor that his insurance card was broken if he got sick. They saw him anyway.
I feel like aversions to the Roma people are growing in our society. A few of my friends even voted for the AfD (Alternative for Germany). I've tried to talk to them about why they would vote for such a right-wing populist party and why I find it problematic. But they're very stubborn. They reply with things like, "We have nothing against you, but ..."
Even though I haven't experienced that many disadvantages myself so far, it is important to me to stand up for the Roma as a whole and to help reduce prejudices against our minority. That's why I'm involved in the organization Romano Sumnal, which campaigns for the rights of Roma in the state of Saxony.
I'll Pass on the 'Gypsy Sauce'
Most of the Roma I know in Germany have apartments and jobs and it's important that we show that. Many in my family went to university. I would like to make it clear that the Roma in Eastern Europe also don't want to live the way they often do -- without work and in poverty-stricken parts of the city that they often can't escape. When people don't have much, they have to do things like collect bottles. Nobody wants to flee their homeland, but sometimes they hardly have a choice.
I sometimes try to convince acquaintances to stop using terms like "gypsy schnitzel" or "gypsy sauce" as names for food. Some don't understand how this can be offensive to many Roma and Sinti people, but why do we use words that are inherently discriminatory? We could also call it "Balkan schnitzel."
Melissa Sejdi was born in Leipzig. Next year, she wants to finish high school and become a registrar.
Ajriz Bekirovski, 22: "The labor market in Macedonia would have been extremely difficult for me."
My father didn't see a future for us in Macedonia. Regardless what you study, getting a job there is very difficult. I had just finished my first year of high school when we moved away. When I got here, I first had to learn German and then had to catch up on my secondary school graduation. I want to finish my trainee program in January. It was too difficult for me to get into a college prep high school here.
But I have at least come to understand why my dad wanted to get out of Macedonia. Everyone there immediately recognizes from the color of my skin that I belong to the Roma. I was always proud of it, but I am sure it would have put me at an extreme disadvantage on the labor market in Macedonia.
I don't think I ever would have gotten a managerial position there, even if I had gone to college. As a Roma or Romani, you're always just the help. This applies even to those who have a good education or are college educated. We Roma have been excluded in Europe for centuries, and I still feel that today. Many people don't trust us at all, and they don't believe we're capable of taking care of ourselves.
A Barrage of Prejudice
In Germany, people tend to recognize my qualifications, but here, too, we are constantly confronted with prejudice. Although I have never been called a "gypsy," there are often moments when I feel discriminated against.
When I went to school to pick up a book, for example, the teacher would send someone to accompany me. Of course, at the end of the day I don't know what he was thinking or if he would have done that with everyone. But it made me feel like he didn't trust me -- and that he had the cliché stuck in his head that "gypsies" will steal.
Many Families Are Deported
In recent years, many Roma families from Macedonia have been deported, but I don't have any reason to fear right now because I've finished my vocational training. But since Macedonia got declared a safe country of origin in 2014, it has become much more difficult for Roma from the country to stay in Germany. But I think we should have the right to asylum because we are so disadvantaged as Roma in Macedonia.
I want to stay here, pursue my career and earn money, just like other people do. Of course, there are Roma out there who don't want to work -- although the same applies to some Germans. But many Roma are also unable to find jobs because people consider them to be criminal and incapable of learning.
Ignorance is the source of discrimination. That's why as Roma we have to be more open about change. I contribute to this by organizing events and workshops dealing with, among other things, the centuries of persecution and the genocide against the Roma.
But it is difficult to find Roma who are willing to go public with their identity. The experience they have all had is that if they want to get somewhere in Germany, they have to conceal their origins.
Ajriz Bekirovski is originally from Skopje and lives in Dresden. He is training to become an electronics technician and heads the organization Amaro Drom, which champions better integration of young Roma in Germany.
Diana Preda, 30: "I'm proud of myself as I am"
I come from a village near Arad in Romania. My parents were antiques dealers and I grew up with seven siblings in my grandmother's house.
As a child in school, I didn't feel discriminated against. That first began in Germany. I moved here 11 years ago, and I look a little different than many women in this country.
I've been wearing skirts and a headscarf since I got married. For me this has to do with my religion -- I'm a member of the Pentecostal church. Skirts are also a sign of respect for my family.
A Feeling of Not Being Taken Seriously
I don't know if I sometimes have a harder time in Germany because of my appearance, whether I am at a disadvantage. But it feels that way.
For example, there was this car accident a year and a half ago. I was in my car in a parking lot and a woman drove her car into mine. I got out and before I could say anything, she immediately claimed that I was to blame for the accident. I never expected anyone to lie like that.
I became upset and raised my voice. The police officer who came shouted at me, telling me to shut up. I was shocked and told the policeman I thought it was racist.
What I really wanted to say was that it was discrimination, but the wrong word slipped out. Two weeks later, I received a fine for making insulting remarks and had to pay 500 euros. I felt as though the policeman had treated me like I was the worst person on the planet.
A Two-Year Apartment Hunt
I don't know if the policeman knew I was Romani. The other woman wasn't wearing a skirt or a headscarf, and she spoke German better than I do. I think that may have something to do with the fact that the police officer treated her better than me.
For the last two years, I've been hunting for an apartment for my mother, who still lives with my brother. Sometimes we have two or three viewing appointments a week, but so far, no landlord has been willing to take us.
I thought about whether I should wear something other than a skirt and headscarf at the viewing appointments. But if it is God's will, we'll find a place anyway. Besides, my sister-in-law has been looking for four year -- and she speaks perfect German, wears pants and grew up here. She hasn't been able to find a new place to live either.
I'm proud of myself just the way I am. And I want other young Roma to be comfortable with themselves and their identity. That's why I conduct workshops all over Germany, where I explain our history and tell people how they can stand up against everyday racism.
Diana Preda moved from Romania to live with her husband in Germany 11 years ago. She works as a translator and social counselor for a Frankfurt-based organization that provides support services for Roma.
This piece is part of the Global Societies series. The project runs for three years and is funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
The Global Societies series involves reporters reporting from Asia, Africa, Latin America and Europe about injustices in a globalized world, societal challenges and sustainable development. The features, analyses, photo essays, videos and podcasts will be appearing in the Global Societies section of SPIEGEL International. The project is initially planned to run for three years and receives financial support from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
No. The foundation exerts no influence whatsoever on the stories and other elements that appear in the series.
Yes. Large European media outlets like the Guardian and El País have similar sections on their websites -- called "Global Development" and "Planeta Futuro," respectively -- that are likewise funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
In recent years, DER SPIEGEL has complete two projects with the support of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the European Journalism Centre (EJC): "Expedition BeyondTomorrow," about global sustainability goals, and the journalist refugee project "The New Arrivals," which resulted in several award-winning features.
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0.250585198402... | 1 | It isn't easy to measure the degree of prejudice that some groups in Germany face. But that didn't stop Germany's Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency from undertaking a significant effort in recent years to get a grasp of the scope of discrimination. As part of that endeavor, pollsters surveyed around 2,000 people across the country five years ago, asking them to share the image they have of members of different minority groups.
For our Global Societies project, reporters around the world will be writing about societal problems, sustainability and development in Asia, Africa, Latin America and Europe. The series will include features, analyses, photo essays, videos and podcasts looking behind the curtain of globalization. The project is generously funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
They found that the strongest reservations are reserved for Sinti and Roma, with few respondents having a positive view of the minority. A relatively large number of study participants expressed the belief that Sinti and Roma lead completely different lives from the majority of people in Germany. A significant share of respondents also said they would prefer not having any Sinti and Roma living in their neighborhood.
The survey also included questions about Eastern Europeans, Muslims, black people, Italians, Jews and asylum-seekers. Perceptions of all those groups were generally more positive than they were for Sinti and Roma. Other studies have also confirmed the prevalence of prejudice against Sinti and Roma in Germany.
Sinti Have Lived in Germany for at Least 600 Years
Prejudices are always ill-considered and one-dimensional, but when it comes to the Sinti and Roma, the blanket assumptions apparently held by Germans are particularly at odds with reality.
The Sinti and Roma living in Germany lead extremely diverse lives. They may be united by the fact that they all have ancestors who emigrated from India more than 1,000 years ago. But after that, their lives took different paths.
The Sinti sub-group has been living in Germany for around 600 years, while the smaller group known as German Roma have been here for around 150 years. Together, they comprise one of four officially recognized ethnic minorities in Germany and in most cases, they are German citizens.
Other Roma came to Germany as migrant workers from Eastern Europe in the 1960s or fled here in the 1990s from the violence in former Yugoslavia. Many of these later arrivals have only been granted what is referred to as "tolerated" immigrant status, meaning the threat of deportation is always there.
Sinti and Roma
The Roma have retained a common language: Romani is derived from ancient Indian Sanskrit. However, the Romani spoken by the Sinti differs significantly from that spoken by Roma in Eastern Europe, for example. Many words are also taken from the languages of their home countries. Romani has no standardized spelling or grammar and is still mostly passed on orally within families.
A Sinto is a male member, a Sintesa a female member of the Sinti. Among the Roma, the self-designations are Rom and Romani.
The Roma and Sinti were the targets of systematic persecution by the Nazis, who conducted race research and forced sterilizations on them and destroyed much of their cultural heritage. They murdered more than half of the Sinti and Roma who had been officially registered in Germany and Austria at the time.
Despite the diversity of the Sinti and Roma minority in Germany, there is little public awareness of that variety. The researchers who carried out the 2014 survey on attitudes toward minorities for the Federal Anti-Discrimination Agency noted that only 5 percent of respondents said they were able to differentiate between Sinti and Roma, not to mention other subgroups.
The study confirms what the people affected by this prejudice have long reported: Almost all Sinti and Roma suffer equally under the centuries-old cliché of the criminal and dirty "gypsy." In response, many try to hide their origins.
But there are still some who are willing to go public with their experiences. One Sinto and three Roma shared their stories with DER SPIEGEL about growing up, the obstacles they faced -- and how they overcame them.
Silas Kropf, 24: "You don't look like one at all"
As a child and a teenager, I preferred to keep the fact that I am Sinto to myself. This also has to do with the fact that my family was persecuted during the Nazi era. My grandfather was terrified that something like that could happen again, which is why we didn't live our culture openly to the outside world and spoke only German at home and not Romani.
My family underwent incredible suffering under the Nazis. My great-grandmother was a Sintesa and she had many siblings whose families were deported to concentration camps. Only a few returned -- the others were murdered. In my opinion, there is far too little discussion about the persecution of the Sinti and Roma during the Nazi period. To this day, it's little more than a footnote in the history books.
Because my great-grandmother was married to an entertainer who was not a Sinto, the Nazis didn't initially target her for deportation. My great-grandmother suspects that the district head was well-disposed toward her and concealed her ethnic background in her file. She was supposed to be deported later and her children were to be sterilized, but that didn't happen either. They were lucky.
Nobody Suspected Anything at School
The stories about that period were one of the reasons we kept our backgrounds under wraps. Many Sinti are still highly suspicious of state institutions such as agencies, schools and hospitals. Some are also afraid of getting lumped together with Roma who have immigrated from Eastern Europe since the 1990s and who are also the subject of strong prejudices. About half of the Sinti in my circle of relatives and acquaintances don't reveal their true identities for that reason.
No one at school knew that I was a Sinto. Like many other German Sinti, I have light skin and light brown hair and don't stick out at all in Hanau (near Frankfurt), where I was born.
After my high school graduation, I attended an educational conference organized by the Central Council of German Sinti and Roma, where I got to know other young Sinti who have always been open about their roots. As a result, I began wondering why I should make a secret of it.
Some Cracked 'Gypsy' Jokes
When I came out to my friends and acquaintances as a Sinto, they reacted in several different ways. Some said: "That can't be true, you don't look like one." Others just quietly accepted the information. Still others cracked gypsy jokes.
At first, I would often hear lines that were apparently meant to be funny. When I spilled something on my pants once, someone said: "You gypsies, you're so dirty." The term "gypsy" is often used carelessly in our society and some friends let lines slip like: "Look at the gypsies over there," in reference to people who looked poor or somehow suspicious. They would then quickly back pedal: "Oops, I didn't mean it like that."
I let a handful of friendships peter out because I realized that it wasn't good for me to surround myself with people who foist their prejudices on me. Many people simply know too little about the Sinti. We've lived in this country for hundreds of years yet I've been praised for speaking such good German.
Hateful Facebook Posts
When I was at university, I was responsible for a residential area that was home to many Roma for a year and a half on behalf of the Youth Welfare Office. The local newspaper reported about it and I wrote an editorial that was intended to help inform people about Sinti and Roma.
The result was three days of hateful comments posted on Facebook and on the newspaper's website -- things like: "The Roma steal from others and have their children defecate on graves in the cemetery. They're social parasites and asylum tourists." There's also a link between these enduring clichés and the reporting: The media too often has a negative slant in its coverage of Sinti and Roma.
We come from different countries and have grown up in different ways. But because we are part of a minority, I think we all have to stand up for each other. We have a stronger political voice when we speak together. And the "gypsy" stereotype affects us all equally.
That's why I've been holding workshops and lectures on antiziganism as a freelancer for the last six years and have gotten involved in organizations seeking to strengthen Sinti and Roma and to raise awareness in the rest of society about prejudices.
Silas Kropf lives in Hanau and works full-time for a personnel and management consultancy.
Melissa Sejdi, 20: "We could also call it Balkan schnitzel"
My mother is German and my father a Romani. He fled from his former homeland of Yugoslavia in the 1990s due to the war. My parents brought me up very German, and I have always been open about my origins. I never had bad experiences with racism as a child.
I went to a free, democratic school and had well-informed, nice teachers. That's why it was never a problem for me to be a Romani. But that doesn't mean that I haven't experienced discrimination since then.
Recently, I was sick and went to the family doctor, but my health insurance card was broken. The receptionist sent me home even though I was really sick, saying I should get a confirmation from my insurance company and then come back.
Some Friends Voted for the AfD
I wasn't sure if they treated me like that because I have a foreign surname. So, I later asked a friend with a German name to tell this same doctor that his insurance card was broken if he got sick. They saw him anyway.
I feel like aversions to the Roma people are growing in our society. A few of my friends even voted for the AfD (Alternative for Germany). I've tried to talk to them about why they would vote for such a right-wing populist party and why I find it problematic. But they're very stubborn. They reply with things like, "We have nothing against you, but ..."
Even though I haven't experienced that many disadvantages myself so far, it is important to me to stand up for the Roma as a whole and to help reduce prejudices against our minority. That's why I'm involved in the organization Romano Sumnal, which campaigns for the rights of Roma in the state of Saxony.
I'll Pass on the 'Gypsy Sauce'
Most of the Roma I know in Germany have apartments and jobs and it's important that we show that. Many in my family went to university. I would like to make it clear that the Roma in Eastern Europe also don't want to live the way they often do -- without work and in poverty-stricken parts of the city that they often can't escape. When people don't have much, they have to do things like collect bottles. Nobody wants to flee their homeland, but sometimes they hardly have a choice.
I sometimes try to convince acquaintances to stop using terms like "gypsy schnitzel" or "gypsy sauce" as names for food. Some don't understand how this can be offensive to many Roma and Sinti people, but why do we use words that are inherently discriminatory? We could also call it "Balkan schnitzel."
Melissa Sejdi was born in Leipzig. Next year, she wants to finish high school and become a registrar.
Ajriz Bekirovski, 22: "The labor market in Macedonia would have been extremely difficult for me."
My father didn't see a future for us in Macedonia. Regardless what you study, getting a job there is very difficult. I had just finished my first year of high school when we moved away. When I got here, I first had to learn German and then had to catch up on my secondary school graduation. I want to finish my trainee program in January. It was too difficult for me to get into a college prep high school here.
But I have at least come to understand why my dad wanted to get out of Macedonia. Everyone there immediately recognizes from the color of my skin that I belong to the Roma. I was always proud of it, but I am sure it would have put me at an extreme disadvantage on the labor market in Macedonia.
I don't think I ever would have gotten a managerial position there, even if I had gone to college. As a Roma or Romani, you're always just the help. This applies even to those who have a good education or are college educated. We Roma have been excluded in Europe for centuries, and I still feel that today. Many people don't trust us at all, and they don't believe we're capable of taking care of ourselves.
A Barrage of Prejudice
In Germany, people tend to recognize my qualifications, but here, too, we are constantly confronted with prejudice. Although I have never been called a "gypsy," there are often moments when I feel discriminated against.
When I went to school to pick up a book, for example, the teacher would send someone to accompany me. Of course, at the end of the day I don't know what he was thinking or if he would have done that with everyone. But it made me feel like he didn't trust me -- and that he had the cliché stuck in his head that "gypsies" will steal.
Many Families Are Deported
In recent years, many Roma families from Macedonia have been deported, but I don't have any reason to fear right now because I've finished my vocational training. But since Macedonia got declared a safe country of origin in 2014, it has become much more difficult for Roma from the country to stay in Germany. But I think we should have the right to asylum because we are so disadvantaged as Roma in Macedonia.
I want to stay here, pursue my career and earn money, just like other people do. Of course, there are Roma out there who don't want to work -- although the same applies to some Germans. But many Roma are also unable to find jobs because people consider them to be criminal and incapable of learning.
Ignorance is the source of discrimination. That's why as Roma we have to be more open about change. I contribute to this by organizing events and workshops dealing with, among other things, the centuries of persecution and the genocide against the Roma.
But it is difficult to find Roma who are willing to go public with their identity. The experience they have all had is that if they want to get somewhere in Germany, they have to conceal their origins.
Ajriz Bekirovski is originally from Skopje and lives in Dresden. He is training to become an electronics technician and heads the organization Amaro Drom, which champions better integration of young Roma in Germany.
Diana Preda, 30: "I'm proud of myself as I am"
I come from a village near Arad in Romania. My parents were antiques dealers and I grew up with seven siblings in my grandmother's house.
As a child in school, I didn't feel discriminated against. That first began in Germany. I moved here 11 years ago, and I look a little different than many women in this country.
I've been wearing skirts and a headscarf since I got married. For me this has to do with my religion -- I'm a member of the Pentecostal church. Skirts are also a sign of respect for my family.
A Feeling of Not Being Taken Seriously
I don't know if I sometimes have a harder time in Germany because of my appearance, whether I am at a disadvantage. But it feels that way.
For example, there was this car accident a year and a half ago. I was in my car in a parking lot and a woman drove her car into mine. I got out and before I could say anything, she immediately claimed that I was to blame for the accident. I never expected anyone to lie like that.
I became upset and raised my voice. The police officer who came shouted at me, telling me to shut up. I was shocked and told the policeman I thought it was racist.
What I really wanted to say was that it was discrimination, but the wrong word slipped out. Two weeks later, I received a fine for making insulting remarks and had to pay 500 euros. I felt as though the policeman had treated me like I was the worst person on the planet.
A Two-Year Apartment Hunt
I don't know if the policeman knew I was Romani. The other woman wasn't wearing a skirt or a headscarf, and she spoke German better than I do. I think that may have something to do with the fact that the police officer treated her better than me.
For the last two years, I've been hunting for an apartment for my mother, who still lives with my brother. Sometimes we have two or three viewing appointments a week, but so far, no landlord has been willing to take us.
I thought about whether I should wear something other than a skirt and headscarf at the viewing appointments. But if it is God's will, we'll find a place anyway. Besides, my sister-in-law has been looking for four year -- and she speaks perfect German, wears pants and grew up here. She hasn't been able to find a new place to live either.
I'm proud of myself just the way I am. And I want other young Roma to be comfortable with themselves and their identity. That's why I conduct workshops all over Germany, where I explain our history and tell people how they can stand up against everyday racism.
Diana Preda moved from Romania to live with her husband in Germany 11 years ago. She works as a translator and social counselor for a Frankfurt-based organization that provides support services for Roma.
This piece is part of the Global Societies series. The project runs for three years and is funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
The Global Societies series involves reporters reporting from Asia, Africa, Latin America and Europe about injustices in a globalized world, societal challenges and sustainable development. The features, analyses, photo essays, videos and podcasts will be appearing in the Global Societies section of SPIEGEL International. The project is initially planned to run for three years and receives financial support from the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
No. The foundation exerts no influence whatsoever on the stories and other elements that appear in the series.
Yes. Large European media outlets like the Guardian and El País have similar sections on their websites -- called "Global Development" and "Planeta Futuro," respectively -- that are likewise funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.
In recent years, DER SPIEGEL has complete two projects with the support of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation and the European Journalism Centre (EJC): "Expedition BeyondTomorrow," about global sustainability goals, and the journalist refugee project "The New Arrivals," which resulted in several award-winning features.
All Global Societies pieces will be published in the Global Societies section of the SPIEGEL International website. | 3,991 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Effects of the Black Death
The Black Death reared its head sporadically in Europe over the next few centuries. But by 1352, it had essentially loosened its grip. Europe's population had been hard hit, which had an economic impact. The workforce had been destroyed -- farms were abandoned and buildings crumbled. The price of labor skyrocketed in the face of worker shortage, and the cost of goods rose. The price of food, though, didn't go up, perhaps because the population had declined so much.
The Black Death did set the stage for more modern medicine and spurred changes in public health and hospital management. Frustrated with Black Death diagnoses that revolved around astrology and superstition, educators began placing greater emphasis on clinical medicine, based on physical science. While schools initially had to close for lack of educators, the plague eventually drove growth in higher education. New schools were established, sometimes specifically mentioning in their charters that they were trying to address the decay in learning and gaps in education left by the Black Death.
People who survived the Black Death era generally suffered a communal crisis of faith. Rather than becoming more religious in thanksgiving to God for their survival, people harbored doubts. They had turned to the church for an answer to the plague, and the church had been able to offer no help. Additionally, priests, who, along with doctors, had the highest rate of contact with the diseased, also had one of the highest rates of fatalities. Several new heretical movements sprang up. Those who still clung to their faith were more likely to do so in a very personal manner. Many began to build private chapels.
Feeling, essentially, that God had turned his back on them, the people reacted to the end of the Black Death by turning their backs on him. They engaged in wild debauchery to celebrate being alive. They held gluttonous banquets, drank, wore extravagant clothing and gambled. It was clear through the art of the time, though, that people still had death on their minds. The danse macabre, or dance of death, is an allegorical concept that was expressed in drama, poetry, music and visual art. The danse macabre usually shows a procession or dance between the living and the dead. The range of figures shown is meant to show that death will come for everyone, and the various activities depicted are a reminder that death could always be right around the corner.
Geneticists are continuing to document the effects of the Black Death on Europe's population today. Analysis has shown that genetic diversity in England is much lower than it was in the eleventh century, perhaps because so many people died in the 1300s. While the rest of Europe does not show a lowered amount of genetic variation, that may be due to increased migration patterns in other places.
The work of 19th-century scientists finally provided some answers about the causes of the Black Death. | <urn:uuid:ec576d73-8d60-4627-9fc2-b6ca0c91eaba> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://history.howstuffworks.com/historical-events/black-death3.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00059.warc.gz | en | 0.987666 | 600 | 4.15625 | 4 | [
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0.0831177085638... | 15 | Effects of the Black Death
The Black Death reared its head sporadically in Europe over the next few centuries. But by 1352, it had essentially loosened its grip. Europe's population had been hard hit, which had an economic impact. The workforce had been destroyed -- farms were abandoned and buildings crumbled. The price of labor skyrocketed in the face of worker shortage, and the cost of goods rose. The price of food, though, didn't go up, perhaps because the population had declined so much.
The Black Death did set the stage for more modern medicine and spurred changes in public health and hospital management. Frustrated with Black Death diagnoses that revolved around astrology and superstition, educators began placing greater emphasis on clinical medicine, based on physical science. While schools initially had to close for lack of educators, the plague eventually drove growth in higher education. New schools were established, sometimes specifically mentioning in their charters that they were trying to address the decay in learning and gaps in education left by the Black Death.
People who survived the Black Death era generally suffered a communal crisis of faith. Rather than becoming more religious in thanksgiving to God for their survival, people harbored doubts. They had turned to the church for an answer to the plague, and the church had been able to offer no help. Additionally, priests, who, along with doctors, had the highest rate of contact with the diseased, also had one of the highest rates of fatalities. Several new heretical movements sprang up. Those who still clung to their faith were more likely to do so in a very personal manner. Many began to build private chapels.
Feeling, essentially, that God had turned his back on them, the people reacted to the end of the Black Death by turning their backs on him. They engaged in wild debauchery to celebrate being alive. They held gluttonous banquets, drank, wore extravagant clothing and gambled. It was clear through the art of the time, though, that people still had death on their minds. The danse macabre, or dance of death, is an allegorical concept that was expressed in drama, poetry, music and visual art. The danse macabre usually shows a procession or dance between the living and the dead. The range of figures shown is meant to show that death will come for everyone, and the various activities depicted are a reminder that death could always be right around the corner.
Geneticists are continuing to document the effects of the Black Death on Europe's population today. Analysis has shown that genetic diversity in England is much lower than it was in the eleventh century, perhaps because so many people died in the 1300s. While the rest of Europe does not show a lowered amount of genetic variation, that may be due to increased migration patterns in other places.
The work of 19th-century scientists finally provided some answers about the causes of the Black Death. | 606 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Written by Edward Whelan, Contributing Writer, Classical Wisdom
Stoicism was one of the most popular and influential schools of philosophy in the Ancient World. Indeed, it is still popular to this day and is studied in Universities. One of the greatest of all Stoic philosophers was Epictetus (55-135 AD), a man who, despite being subjected to slavery, was one of the greatest and penetrating minds of his time.
Epictetus was born in c. 55 A.D. in Phrygia (what is now Southern Turkey). Epictetus was either born into slavery or was, at some point, enslaved. There are records that show that he was owned by a powerful former slave called Epaphroditos, who served in the administration of Nero, and who, despite his lowly social status, would have been a man of considerable influence and power.
According to one story, Epictetus had been crippled by a cruel master, but others claim that he had been lame since birth (this is why he is often depicted as having crutches). Epaphroditos was by all accounts a kind master and even supported Epictetus in his studies. It was not uncommon for masters to arrange that their slaves be freed after their death, and so when his master died, it appears that Epictetus finally gained his freedom.
At this point, Epictetus became a teacher of philosophy. However, in 93 AD, Domitian expelled all the philosophers from the city of Rome. Epictetus was thus forced to go into exile, and it appears that he made his way to Epirus in Greece, where he would go on to establish a school of philosophy. Soon his school became famous throughout the Roman Empire.
Artistic impression of Epictetus, including his crutch.
Epictetus was a member of the Stoic school, which had been founded three centuries earlier by Zeno of Citium
and which was very popular among members of the elite. The little we know about the life of Epictetus comes from the biography written by his pupil, the historian Arrian. It is claimed that several Emperors visited the former slave-turned-philosopher to listen to his words of wisdom. Despite being praised and admired by the elite, Epictetus himself lived a life of great simplicity and generally lived alone.
Epictetus was a Stoic and he held that only through self-mastery could we live in accordance with nature. Self-mastery consists of the use of reason and living virtuously. Above all else, the philosophy of Epictetus was a practical one that sought to help people live a good and meaningful life.
Epictetus believed that philosophy depended on self-knowledge. In his works, the Discourses and the Enchiridion, he emphasized that there are things that we can control—that which is in our power— and those we cannot—that which is not in our power. Self-knowledge means learning to discern just what those things are.
“Some things are in our control and others not. Things in our control are opinion, pursuit, desire, aversion, and, in a word, whatever are our own actions. Things not in our control are body, property, reputation, command, and, in one word, whatever are not our own actions.” ~ Epictetus, Enchiridion
Zeno Of Citium 336-264. Engraved By J.W.Cook.
According to Epictetus, we should only concern ourselves with those things that are in our power, and these include our own thoughts and actions. The ultimate aim of every man and woman is to live in accordance with the ‘Universal Harmony’ of nature. Epictetus believed that we have all been allotted a role in life, and so we must play our part. We cannot control the role we’re assigned or what is thrust upon us by fate, but we can control how we choose to react.
“You may be unconquerable, if you enter into no combat in which it is not in your own control to conquer.”
He argued that we should submit to our fate and be thankful that we are alive. Being happy depends on how closely we follow the way that the gods have ordained for us. Epictetus argued that human reason is something that makes us akin to the Gods, who are rational. When humans are rational they are not only following the path ordained by the divine, but come as close as humanly possible to emulating the deities themselves.
Reason also plays another important role for Epictetus, namely in being the source of human freedom. We have the ability to make meaningful choices and we are responsible for our actions. Humans have the ability to develop the right opinions and to reject bad ones. This enables them to master their mind and emotions and live a happy and fulfilled life. Indeed, an individual is free only to the extent that they cultivated self-control and live according to reason. Only by mastering our emotions and examining our thoughts can we take control of our lives.
The philosophy of the former slave was enormously influential. Many believe that he formulated the most coherent and rational version of stoicism, one that offers real practical advice on the ethical life. He decisively influenced the great Philosopher-Emperor Marcus Aurelius
Chapter 1, page 1, of the Enchiridion of Epictetus, from the 1683 edition in Greek and Latin by Abrahamus Berkelius (Abraham van Berkel).
The Enchiridion was translated into Latin in the 15th century and became very popular. Many Christian humanists believed that the philosophy of Epictetus was compatible with the teachings of Christ, and both Pascal and Descartes were fascinated by his arguments.
A full list of his legacy could go on and on. What stands out most, I think, is the way in which a former slave, freed as he was from his physical chains, sought to teach others that true freedom ultimately belongs to the rational mind, and that to have control over oneself is to be unconquerable.
“But, for your part, don’t wish to be a general, or a senator, or a consul, but to be free; and the only way to this is a contempt of things not in our own control.” | <urn:uuid:a571d591-af8f-46ec-98b9-a3e1cb6bfc29> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://classicalwisdom.com/people/philosophers/epictetus-philosophy-as-a-guide-to-life/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251681625.83/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125222506-20200126012506-00157.warc.gz | en | 0.982888 | 1,318 | 3.765625 | 4 | [
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Stoicism was one of the most popular and influential schools of philosophy in the Ancient World. Indeed, it is still popular to this day and is studied in Universities. One of the greatest of all Stoic philosophers was Epictetus (55-135 AD), a man who, despite being subjected to slavery, was one of the greatest and penetrating minds of his time.
Epictetus was born in c. 55 A.D. in Phrygia (what is now Southern Turkey). Epictetus was either born into slavery or was, at some point, enslaved. There are records that show that he was owned by a powerful former slave called Epaphroditos, who served in the administration of Nero, and who, despite his lowly social status, would have been a man of considerable influence and power.
According to one story, Epictetus had been crippled by a cruel master, but others claim that he had been lame since birth (this is why he is often depicted as having crutches). Epaphroditos was by all accounts a kind master and even supported Epictetus in his studies. It was not uncommon for masters to arrange that their slaves be freed after their death, and so when his master died, it appears that Epictetus finally gained his freedom.
At this point, Epictetus became a teacher of philosophy. However, in 93 AD, Domitian expelled all the philosophers from the city of Rome. Epictetus was thus forced to go into exile, and it appears that he made his way to Epirus in Greece, where he would go on to establish a school of philosophy. Soon his school became famous throughout the Roman Empire.
Artistic impression of Epictetus, including his crutch.
Epictetus was a member of the Stoic school, which had been founded three centuries earlier by Zeno of Citium
and which was very popular among members of the elite. The little we know about the life of Epictetus comes from the biography written by his pupil, the historian Arrian. It is claimed that several Emperors visited the former slave-turned-philosopher to listen to his words of wisdom. Despite being praised and admired by the elite, Epictetus himself lived a life of great simplicity and generally lived alone.
Epictetus was a Stoic and he held that only through self-mastery could we live in accordance with nature. Self-mastery consists of the use of reason and living virtuously. Above all else, the philosophy of Epictetus was a practical one that sought to help people live a good and meaningful life.
Epictetus believed that philosophy depended on self-knowledge. In his works, the Discourses and the Enchiridion, he emphasized that there are things that we can control—that which is in our power— and those we cannot—that which is not in our power. Self-knowledge means learning to discern just what those things are.
“Some things are in our control and others not. Things in our control are opinion, pursuit, desire, aversion, and, in a word, whatever are our own actions. Things not in our control are body, property, reputation, command, and, in one word, whatever are not our own actions.” ~ Epictetus, Enchiridion
Zeno Of Citium 336-264. Engraved By J.W.Cook.
According to Epictetus, we should only concern ourselves with those things that are in our power, and these include our own thoughts and actions. The ultimate aim of every man and woman is to live in accordance with the ‘Universal Harmony’ of nature. Epictetus believed that we have all been allotted a role in life, and so we must play our part. We cannot control the role we’re assigned or what is thrust upon us by fate, but we can control how we choose to react.
“You may be unconquerable, if you enter into no combat in which it is not in your own control to conquer.”
He argued that we should submit to our fate and be thankful that we are alive. Being happy depends on how closely we follow the way that the gods have ordained for us. Epictetus argued that human reason is something that makes us akin to the Gods, who are rational. When humans are rational they are not only following the path ordained by the divine, but come as close as humanly possible to emulating the deities themselves.
Reason also plays another important role for Epictetus, namely in being the source of human freedom. We have the ability to make meaningful choices and we are responsible for our actions. Humans have the ability to develop the right opinions and to reject bad ones. This enables them to master their mind and emotions and live a happy and fulfilled life. Indeed, an individual is free only to the extent that they cultivated self-control and live according to reason. Only by mastering our emotions and examining our thoughts can we take control of our lives.
The philosophy of the former slave was enormously influential. Many believe that he formulated the most coherent and rational version of stoicism, one that offers real practical advice on the ethical life. He decisively influenced the great Philosopher-Emperor Marcus Aurelius
Chapter 1, page 1, of the Enchiridion of Epictetus, from the 1683 edition in Greek and Latin by Abrahamus Berkelius (Abraham van Berkel).
The Enchiridion was translated into Latin in the 15th century and became very popular. Many Christian humanists believed that the philosophy of Epictetus was compatible with the teachings of Christ, and both Pascal and Descartes were fascinated by his arguments.
A full list of his legacy could go on and on. What stands out most, I think, is the way in which a former slave, freed as he was from his physical chains, sought to teach others that true freedom ultimately belongs to the rational mind, and that to have control over oneself is to be unconquerable.
“But, for your part, don’t wish to be a general, or a senator, or a consul, but to be free; and the only way to this is a contempt of things not in our own control.” | 1,295 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The measure of a country’s greatness is its ability to retain compassion in times of crisis.
Thurgood Marshall was the country’s first African American Supreme Court judge. Before landing the historic position, he was known as a leader for equal rights, having argued, and won, hundreds of cases to bring the nation closer to equality. A man that led himself well and stood for a cause much larger than his own, Thurgood Marshall gave us several great examples of leadership.
Follow your calling instead of what others call you
Thurgood Marshall knew that he wanted to be a lawyer and worked hard through his college career to position himself for law school. After graduating with honors, he was rejected from the Maryland Law School based on his race. The encounter with discrimination stuck with him for the rest of his life. He went on to become a lawyer though another school, worked at the NAACP and began arguing civil rights cases. Where Dr. Martin Luther King brought people together in the streets, Marshall began righting social injustice laws in the courts.
When you find your calling, let no one keep you from it. If you run into adversity, find a way around it, through it, under it. Do whatever needs to be done to follow your calling. Had Marshall given up, the civil rights movement may not have been as strong and the progress set back a number of years.
Use your gifts to help others
Marshall’s drive was to end as much inequality as he could. He won one of the most famous cases of the 20th century; Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. He challenged the notion of separate but equal, and then won a unanimous decision that “separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.” While the change was slow, this was the foundation that ended segregation in schools.
Use your gifts, just as Marshall did, to help others. It may not be as dramatic, but there are certainly ways that you can utilize your skills and talents to increase the value of others.
Work toward a vision even if you know you can’t reach it
At Marshall’s retirement press conference, several reports asked him about his legacy. One asked about MLK’s “Free at last” statement to which Marshall replied that he didn’t feel free. Marshall also said that wanted to be remembered as a man that did what he could with what he had. He knew that he wouldn’t see the vision that he and Dr. King had during their lifetimes, but that didn’t stop him from pushing towards the goal.
Hopefully, you are working towards a vision and purpose for your life and/or work that is so big that you may not make it. That’s what makes it exciting! Don’t be discouraged if at the end of the day you don’t get to realize the vision. Think about the progress that you made from your efforts.
I had a culture vision for an organization that had been around over 100 years. Although I never got to realize it’s full potential, I’m very proud of the progress that was made. Sometimes you are a steward of a vision for a while and then someone else will come along and carry it further.
A few interesting facts
- Marshall had a great track record as a lawyer and judge. None of his 100 decisions as a circuit judge were overturned in the Supreme Court. He also won 29 of the 32 cases that he argued in the Supreme Court.
- He said that one of his greatest accomplishments in high school was that he could recite the whole constitution from memory. He initially received the assignment from a teacher for misbehaving in class.
- The Thurgood Marshall Academy was established in 2001 to honor Marshall’s legacy and drive for equal opportunities. The school is located in D.C.’s historic Anacostia neighborhood in Ward 8. There they prep students for successful college careers and teach the importance of being engaged in their community.
Use your skills to help others, follow your calling and shoot for a goal so big that you may not hit it in your lifetime.
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0.062754891... | 12 | The measure of a country’s greatness is its ability to retain compassion in times of crisis.
Thurgood Marshall was the country’s first African American Supreme Court judge. Before landing the historic position, he was known as a leader for equal rights, having argued, and won, hundreds of cases to bring the nation closer to equality. A man that led himself well and stood for a cause much larger than his own, Thurgood Marshall gave us several great examples of leadership.
Follow your calling instead of what others call you
Thurgood Marshall knew that he wanted to be a lawyer and worked hard through his college career to position himself for law school. After graduating with honors, he was rejected from the Maryland Law School based on his race. The encounter with discrimination stuck with him for the rest of his life. He went on to become a lawyer though another school, worked at the NAACP and began arguing civil rights cases. Where Dr. Martin Luther King brought people together in the streets, Marshall began righting social injustice laws in the courts.
When you find your calling, let no one keep you from it. If you run into adversity, find a way around it, through it, under it. Do whatever needs to be done to follow your calling. Had Marshall given up, the civil rights movement may not have been as strong and the progress set back a number of years.
Use your gifts to help others
Marshall’s drive was to end as much inequality as he could. He won one of the most famous cases of the 20th century; Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka. He challenged the notion of separate but equal, and then won a unanimous decision that “separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.” While the change was slow, this was the foundation that ended segregation in schools.
Use your gifts, just as Marshall did, to help others. It may not be as dramatic, but there are certainly ways that you can utilize your skills and talents to increase the value of others.
Work toward a vision even if you know you can’t reach it
At Marshall’s retirement press conference, several reports asked him about his legacy. One asked about MLK’s “Free at last” statement to which Marshall replied that he didn’t feel free. Marshall also said that wanted to be remembered as a man that did what he could with what he had. He knew that he wouldn’t see the vision that he and Dr. King had during their lifetimes, but that didn’t stop him from pushing towards the goal.
Hopefully, you are working towards a vision and purpose for your life and/or work that is so big that you may not make it. That’s what makes it exciting! Don’t be discouraged if at the end of the day you don’t get to realize the vision. Think about the progress that you made from your efforts.
I had a culture vision for an organization that had been around over 100 years. Although I never got to realize it’s full potential, I’m very proud of the progress that was made. Sometimes you are a steward of a vision for a while and then someone else will come along and carry it further.
A few interesting facts
- Marshall had a great track record as a lawyer and judge. None of his 100 decisions as a circuit judge were overturned in the Supreme Court. He also won 29 of the 32 cases that he argued in the Supreme Court.
- He said that one of his greatest accomplishments in high school was that he could recite the whole constitution from memory. He initially received the assignment from a teacher for misbehaving in class.
- The Thurgood Marshall Academy was established in 2001 to honor Marshall’s legacy and drive for equal opportunities. The school is located in D.C.’s historic Anacostia neighborhood in Ward 8. There they prep students for successful college careers and teach the importance of being engaged in their community.
Use your skills to help others, follow your calling and shoot for a goal so big that you may not hit it in your lifetime.
Make a better tomorrow. | 835 | ENGLISH | 1 |
History of Rocky Mountain House
Rocky Mountain House draws its rich history from the North Saskatchewan River. Fur traders used the River to transport goods east that were found west, within and over the great Rocky Mountain range. It was the prominent location of the confluence of the Clearwater and North Saskatchewan River where the two competing fur trading companies of the 1800s, the Hudson’s Bay Company and North West Company decided to set up trading posts. Both companies had the idea of using this site as a jumping off point for exploration of routes to the Pacific Coast, as well as for fur trading.
Prior to the establishment of the two posts, the Cree and the Blackfoot had traded at Edmonton House, but conflict between the two was always imminent. The Rocky Mountain House posts were in Blackfoot territory where it was unlikely the Cree would come in great numbers, and yet close enough to the mountains so that the trading Companies hoped to attract the trade of the Kootenays from across the mountains where the beaver was more plentiful. The Blackfoot, however, had other ideas. They did not wish to see their traditional enemies armed with guns, and therefore blocked the Kootenay from coming to the trading post, and blocked the explorers from crossing the mountains.
It was customary to man these forts only in winter, abandoning them in spring for the better supplied base at Edmonton. Spring break-up was also the time the furs were loaded in the York boats and the long trek to York factory started.
Life for the traders at Rocky Mountain House was adventurous for two reasons. Game was often scarce and starvation a real possibility. The traders also had to live in close proximity with the Blackfoot, who were unpredictable and dangerous when they believed that the traders were trying to attract trade from some of their enemies.
Safety was the first consideration in the construction of the fort. A high stockade surrounded the buildings with loop-holed bastions at the four corners. The river acted as a protected trench on one side, and trees had been cleared on all other sides. The stockade enclosed living quarters, black-smith shops, store-rooms, and a trading shop.
For 76 years the trading post in Rocky Mountain House was abandoned, re-built, and re-opened as demanded by competition with other companies, inter-tribal hostilities, and the needs of early explorers, the most notable of whom was David Thompson.
At 14 years of age, David Thompson came to Canada in 1784 in the employ of the Hudson’s Bay Company. He studied the art of surveying and map making under the able tutoring of Philip Turner. The Hudson’s Bay Company had many misgivings about letting him explore new country, so in 1797 he left their employ and joined the North West Company. It was with his latter company that he earned his place in history. David Thompson spent several years in Rocky Mountain House searching for a passage west to the Pacific Ocean. This search led to the extensive surveying and mapping of the west. Some of his better known achievements include the mapping of the 49th parallel between the Great Lakes and the Rocky Mountains, the discovery of Howse Pass and Athabasca Pass; as well as being the first white man to travel down the Columbia River.
Perhaps the most fascinating story of David Thompson was his relationship with his wife, Charlotte Small. When David Thompson first met Charlotte Small, he was 28 and she was 14. Charlotte was Metis and her father abandoned her family at Isle a la Croix after “retiring” to England. At the time, the lack of a formal, legal marriage contract often resulted in abandonment of Native wives of company men. It is admirable to note that the marriage of David Thompson to Charlotte Small lasted for over 59 years. David Thompson taught Charlotte to read and write, and they wrote letters back and forth whenever he was away. David Thompson was very protective of his wife and children and the family was inseparable for the greater part of their marriage.
Due to it being burned once, and abandoned for large periods of time, there existed at least three different forts at Rocky Mountain House in all. They were all in the same general area, and all bearing the name Rocky Mountain House; as well one fort was called Acton House. That area today is preserved in what is Alberta's only National Historic Park.
In the early 20th Century, the land was surveyed for homesteads, and slowly, settlers began to trek into Rocky Mountain House, driving the 60 to 100 miles with horse teams from the Calgary - Edmonton C.P.R Line. In 1909, the first Post Office was opened, situated two miles south of the present town's site. In 1909 and 1910, the Alberta Centre Railway survey passed through Red Deer, 60 miles east, to a point 60 miles west of Rocky Mountain House, to tap the coal at a point called the Brazeau Coalfields, now called Nordegg.
As soon as it was certain the railway was coming, the town started to expand, and in August of 1912, the first Rocky Mountain House post office was opened. In the same summer, the railway started a bridge over the North Saskatchewan River. It took two years to freight in the cement for the pillars from surrounding town sites. Their material was hauled over twisted trails, through thick bush, muskeg and dangerous fords across the rivers.
In 1912, the present town site was bought from J. F. Bertrand and surveyed. Stores, a bank and the first newspaper were started.
In 1939, Rocky was given the status of a town with a population of approximately 800. Mr. W. H. Teskey became the first mayor.
Rocky Mountain House Today
Today, Rocky Mountain House is well known as the place of "Where Adventure Began" with the story of the Rocky Mountain House trading fort and David Thompson. The highway dedicated in his name passes through some of the most beautiful scenery in Western Canada and still is the place of “Where Adventure Begins!” | <urn:uuid:a40aece6-d93f-4da5-9ac2-cb1813cac055> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://rockymtnhouse.com/p/about-rocky | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00054.warc.gz | en | 0.982958 | 1,243 | 3.875 | 4 | [
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0.066187053918... | 9 | History of Rocky Mountain House
Rocky Mountain House draws its rich history from the North Saskatchewan River. Fur traders used the River to transport goods east that were found west, within and over the great Rocky Mountain range. It was the prominent location of the confluence of the Clearwater and North Saskatchewan River where the two competing fur trading companies of the 1800s, the Hudson’s Bay Company and North West Company decided to set up trading posts. Both companies had the idea of using this site as a jumping off point for exploration of routes to the Pacific Coast, as well as for fur trading.
Prior to the establishment of the two posts, the Cree and the Blackfoot had traded at Edmonton House, but conflict between the two was always imminent. The Rocky Mountain House posts were in Blackfoot territory where it was unlikely the Cree would come in great numbers, and yet close enough to the mountains so that the trading Companies hoped to attract the trade of the Kootenays from across the mountains where the beaver was more plentiful. The Blackfoot, however, had other ideas. They did not wish to see their traditional enemies armed with guns, and therefore blocked the Kootenay from coming to the trading post, and blocked the explorers from crossing the mountains.
It was customary to man these forts only in winter, abandoning them in spring for the better supplied base at Edmonton. Spring break-up was also the time the furs were loaded in the York boats and the long trek to York factory started.
Life for the traders at Rocky Mountain House was adventurous for two reasons. Game was often scarce and starvation a real possibility. The traders also had to live in close proximity with the Blackfoot, who were unpredictable and dangerous when they believed that the traders were trying to attract trade from some of their enemies.
Safety was the first consideration in the construction of the fort. A high stockade surrounded the buildings with loop-holed bastions at the four corners. The river acted as a protected trench on one side, and trees had been cleared on all other sides. The stockade enclosed living quarters, black-smith shops, store-rooms, and a trading shop.
For 76 years the trading post in Rocky Mountain House was abandoned, re-built, and re-opened as demanded by competition with other companies, inter-tribal hostilities, and the needs of early explorers, the most notable of whom was David Thompson.
At 14 years of age, David Thompson came to Canada in 1784 in the employ of the Hudson’s Bay Company. He studied the art of surveying and map making under the able tutoring of Philip Turner. The Hudson’s Bay Company had many misgivings about letting him explore new country, so in 1797 he left their employ and joined the North West Company. It was with his latter company that he earned his place in history. David Thompson spent several years in Rocky Mountain House searching for a passage west to the Pacific Ocean. This search led to the extensive surveying and mapping of the west. Some of his better known achievements include the mapping of the 49th parallel between the Great Lakes and the Rocky Mountains, the discovery of Howse Pass and Athabasca Pass; as well as being the first white man to travel down the Columbia River.
Perhaps the most fascinating story of David Thompson was his relationship with his wife, Charlotte Small. When David Thompson first met Charlotte Small, he was 28 and she was 14. Charlotte was Metis and her father abandoned her family at Isle a la Croix after “retiring” to England. At the time, the lack of a formal, legal marriage contract often resulted in abandonment of Native wives of company men. It is admirable to note that the marriage of David Thompson to Charlotte Small lasted for over 59 years. David Thompson taught Charlotte to read and write, and they wrote letters back and forth whenever he was away. David Thompson was very protective of his wife and children and the family was inseparable for the greater part of their marriage.
Due to it being burned once, and abandoned for large periods of time, there existed at least three different forts at Rocky Mountain House in all. They were all in the same general area, and all bearing the name Rocky Mountain House; as well one fort was called Acton House. That area today is preserved in what is Alberta's only National Historic Park.
In the early 20th Century, the land was surveyed for homesteads, and slowly, settlers began to trek into Rocky Mountain House, driving the 60 to 100 miles with horse teams from the Calgary - Edmonton C.P.R Line. In 1909, the first Post Office was opened, situated two miles south of the present town's site. In 1909 and 1910, the Alberta Centre Railway survey passed through Red Deer, 60 miles east, to a point 60 miles west of Rocky Mountain House, to tap the coal at a point called the Brazeau Coalfields, now called Nordegg.
As soon as it was certain the railway was coming, the town started to expand, and in August of 1912, the first Rocky Mountain House post office was opened. In the same summer, the railway started a bridge over the North Saskatchewan River. It took two years to freight in the cement for the pillars from surrounding town sites. Their material was hauled over twisted trails, through thick bush, muskeg and dangerous fords across the rivers.
In 1912, the present town site was bought from J. F. Bertrand and surveyed. Stores, a bank and the first newspaper were started.
In 1939, Rocky was given the status of a town with a population of approximately 800. Mr. W. H. Teskey became the first mayor.
Rocky Mountain House Today
Today, Rocky Mountain House is well known as the place of "Where Adventure Began" with the story of the Rocky Mountain House trading fort and David Thompson. The highway dedicated in his name passes through some of the most beautiful scenery in Western Canada and still is the place of “Where Adventure Begins!” | 1,272 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose was born on 23rd January in the year 1897. He was an Indian nationalist and his effort in World War 2 to free India from the British rule made him a hero of the nation. He had joined hands with Nazi Germany and Japan to fight against the British forces. Due to his great effort the word “Netaji” which means “Respected Leader” is given to him in late 1940.
In the north-eastern states of India like Assam, Odisha, West Bengal, Tripura the celebration of this day is remarkable. Many government bodies are closed on this day in the state of West Bengal. In India’s struggle for freedom, Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose is seen as a prominent figure.
He was born in the city Currack, in the state of Orissa which is now known as Odisha. He was born into a wealthy family. He went to Calcutta now is known as Kolkata for completing his degree in Philosophy. And after finishing his degree he was sent to England for the Civil Services exam. He returned to India in the late 1920s and was involved in many movements going on to free the country. In the late 1920s only he was made a leader of the youth wing of the Indian National Congress. And in the later years, he had become the president of the Congress in the year 1938 and 1939. His views and future plans for the country did not match with the Congress high command. There used to be a lot of difference between Mahatma Gandhi and Netaji so he finally decided to left the position. And in late 1939 he resigns from his position. Till that time he was treated as a rebel to the British Raj and so he was subsequently placed under house arrest by the British.
He escaped from India in mid 1940. It is believed that every member from his house helped him to escape from India as there used to be tight security on him inside his own home by the British people. He traveled to many different countries before reaching to Germany in April 1941. He wants to meet Hitler to join hands with him so that with the help of Nazi Army and Indian Soldiers which are fighting in British army they both together attack the British army and free India. Bose meet Hitler in May 1942 at his residence. As Netaji arrived at Hitler’s residence, he was welcomed by Hitler’s staff and was told to wait outside his office. He was also informed that the Fuhrer was busy in some important meeting and he will come to see you as the meeting is over.
So Netaji agreed to wait outside his office. To pass his time Netaji had decided to read newspapers. Netaji waited outside of his office for a long time but Hitler did not come out. After a few hours Hitler came outside of his office and saw Netaji but did not meet him. Neither did Netaji went up to him. And then Hitler went away. Again after some time Hitler Passed by Netaji but did not meet him. The same gesture was repeated by Netaji. The same thing went on several times. Few more hours passed like this. Then at last Hitler came, walked up to Netaji and stood their silently. Netaji did not gave any attention and did not look up and keep reading the newspaper. After seeing this, Hitler went behind Netaji and placed his arms on Netaji shoulders. At this gesture, Netaji looks up to him and says “Hitler”. Hitler asked back “How can you be so sure?” To this Netaji replied, “No one except the Real Hitler has the audacity to place his arms on my shoulders”. Hearing this Hitler was quite impressed. To fool his enemies, Hitler had kept many look-alikes but he could not fool Netaji.
Hitler was quite impressed when he meets Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose because of the incident that took place. Definitely, Hilter will not give his army assistance for free. Netaji also demanded to release of Indian Prisoners who were arrested in North Africa. Hitler didn’t agree at first but after Netaji insisted many times Hitler finally agreed to his condition. In Germany, an army of around 1000 men was built to liberate India from the British rule. This army was called as Tiger Legion or Azad Hind Fauj or Indian Legion. In Andaman Nicobar Netaji also established a provisional government of Azad Hind or Free India.
On 18th of August 1945, it is said that Netaji had died in Taiwan from third-degree burns sustained after his plane crashed. But many believed that the Netaji did not die and was underground to be safe and to carry the operation to free India. Many numbers of committees and officers are appointed for this but that effort is all in vain. The people who were present on the plane with Netaji were called to tell exactly what had happened in the plane on August 18th. Each prospect told a different story of the incident and all that story ends on the death of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose. Many also believed that no plane was flied on 18th August. The death of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose is still a mystery.
The Life of Subhas Chandra Bose is an inspiration to generations of young Indians. The Chief Minister of West Bengal had written a letter in January 2018 to Prime Minister to declare a national holiday on the birthday of Netaji. She also tweeted that “Swami Vivekananda and Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose are national and international icons. I have written a letter to the PM urging the GOI to declare both their birthdays as national holidays.”Netaji Jayanti is an opportunity to celebrate his role in India’s freedom movement.
Festivals play a significant role in our day to day lives. We worship different Gods and accordingly there are different festivals that we celebrate to mark the occasion. Festivals provide us with an opportunity to spend quality time with our family, friends and relatives. There are so many rituals attached to the festivals and this makes the entire concept of celebration of festivals even more colorful & exciting.
Sathya Sai Baba Story : Sathya Sai Baba was born on 23rd November 1926 and was named Sathyanarayana Raju, he left his followers on 24th April…
Van Mahotsav Celebrated on 1st July to 7th July Have you ever thought about how our earth would be without trees? Can’t imagine right? There…
Engineers Day Celebrated on 15th September 2019 The year 2019 will mark the 51st anniversary of Engineer's Day in India and the 158th anniversary of…
Hindi Diwas and Hindi language Celebrated on 14th September 2019 Hindi is a language that serves to unify our diverse country into one thread. The Hindi…
© 2018. Amewoo. All Rights Reserved. | <urn:uuid:7d103ff6-72f2-4683-bc26-b890416336b6> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.amewoo.com/event/occasions/subash-chandra-bose-jayanti-freedom-fighter | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250598726.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120110422-20200120134422-00468.warc.gz | en | 0.990946 | 1,454 | 3.640625 | 4 | [
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Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose was born on 23rd January in the year 1897. He was an Indian nationalist and his effort in World War 2 to free India from the British rule made him a hero of the nation. He had joined hands with Nazi Germany and Japan to fight against the British forces. Due to his great effort the word “Netaji” which means “Respected Leader” is given to him in late 1940.
In the north-eastern states of India like Assam, Odisha, West Bengal, Tripura the celebration of this day is remarkable. Many government bodies are closed on this day in the state of West Bengal. In India’s struggle for freedom, Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose is seen as a prominent figure.
He was born in the city Currack, in the state of Orissa which is now known as Odisha. He was born into a wealthy family. He went to Calcutta now is known as Kolkata for completing his degree in Philosophy. And after finishing his degree he was sent to England for the Civil Services exam. He returned to India in the late 1920s and was involved in many movements going on to free the country. In the late 1920s only he was made a leader of the youth wing of the Indian National Congress. And in the later years, he had become the president of the Congress in the year 1938 and 1939. His views and future plans for the country did not match with the Congress high command. There used to be a lot of difference between Mahatma Gandhi and Netaji so he finally decided to left the position. And in late 1939 he resigns from his position. Till that time he was treated as a rebel to the British Raj and so he was subsequently placed under house arrest by the British.
He escaped from India in mid 1940. It is believed that every member from his house helped him to escape from India as there used to be tight security on him inside his own home by the British people. He traveled to many different countries before reaching to Germany in April 1941. He wants to meet Hitler to join hands with him so that with the help of Nazi Army and Indian Soldiers which are fighting in British army they both together attack the British army and free India. Bose meet Hitler in May 1942 at his residence. As Netaji arrived at Hitler’s residence, he was welcomed by Hitler’s staff and was told to wait outside his office. He was also informed that the Fuhrer was busy in some important meeting and he will come to see you as the meeting is over.
So Netaji agreed to wait outside his office. To pass his time Netaji had decided to read newspapers. Netaji waited outside of his office for a long time but Hitler did not come out. After a few hours Hitler came outside of his office and saw Netaji but did not meet him. Neither did Netaji went up to him. And then Hitler went away. Again after some time Hitler Passed by Netaji but did not meet him. The same gesture was repeated by Netaji. The same thing went on several times. Few more hours passed like this. Then at last Hitler came, walked up to Netaji and stood their silently. Netaji did not gave any attention and did not look up and keep reading the newspaper. After seeing this, Hitler went behind Netaji and placed his arms on Netaji shoulders. At this gesture, Netaji looks up to him and says “Hitler”. Hitler asked back “How can you be so sure?” To this Netaji replied, “No one except the Real Hitler has the audacity to place his arms on my shoulders”. Hearing this Hitler was quite impressed. To fool his enemies, Hitler had kept many look-alikes but he could not fool Netaji.
Hitler was quite impressed when he meets Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose because of the incident that took place. Definitely, Hilter will not give his army assistance for free. Netaji also demanded to release of Indian Prisoners who were arrested in North Africa. Hitler didn’t agree at first but after Netaji insisted many times Hitler finally agreed to his condition. In Germany, an army of around 1000 men was built to liberate India from the British rule. This army was called as Tiger Legion or Azad Hind Fauj or Indian Legion. In Andaman Nicobar Netaji also established a provisional government of Azad Hind or Free India.
On 18th of August 1945, it is said that Netaji had died in Taiwan from third-degree burns sustained after his plane crashed. But many believed that the Netaji did not die and was underground to be safe and to carry the operation to free India. Many numbers of committees and officers are appointed for this but that effort is all in vain. The people who were present on the plane with Netaji were called to tell exactly what had happened in the plane on August 18th. Each prospect told a different story of the incident and all that story ends on the death of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose. Many also believed that no plane was flied on 18th August. The death of Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose is still a mystery.
The Life of Subhas Chandra Bose is an inspiration to generations of young Indians. The Chief Minister of West Bengal had written a letter in January 2018 to Prime Minister to declare a national holiday on the birthday of Netaji. She also tweeted that “Swami Vivekananda and Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose are national and international icons. I have written a letter to the PM urging the GOI to declare both their birthdays as national holidays.”Netaji Jayanti is an opportunity to celebrate his role in India’s freedom movement.
Festivals play a significant role in our day to day lives. We worship different Gods and accordingly there are different festivals that we celebrate to mark the occasion. Festivals provide us with an opportunity to spend quality time with our family, friends and relatives. There are so many rituals attached to the festivals and this makes the entire concept of celebration of festivals even more colorful & exciting.
Sathya Sai Baba Story : Sathya Sai Baba was born on 23rd November 1926 and was named Sathyanarayana Raju, he left his followers on 24th April…
Van Mahotsav Celebrated on 1st July to 7th July Have you ever thought about how our earth would be without trees? Can’t imagine right? There…
Engineers Day Celebrated on 15th September 2019 The year 2019 will mark the 51st anniversary of Engineer's Day in India and the 158th anniversary of…
Hindi Diwas and Hindi language Celebrated on 14th September 2019 Hindi is a language that serves to unify our diverse country into one thread. The Hindi…
© 2018. Amewoo. All Rights Reserved. | 1,501 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Date Added: 03 January 2020
The ship in a bottle was built on a scale of 1:335 and is in a 0.2 litre bottle. It consists completely of wood, masts of bamboo, the sails as cotton fabric. The chimney, which is set separately on the deck in the bottle, is made of brass. The icy sea is modelled from a mixture of window putty and plaster, the ice flows consist of painted tree bark. The "Germania" was a North German research vessel which served as the main ship in 1869/70 during Second German North Polar Expedition. Under Captain Carl Koldewey she sailed with the "Hansa" to Greenland and the Arctic Ocean with the intention to expand into the Arctic central region. While the "Hansa" had to be abandoned surrounded by ice, the "Germania" was able to return home to Germany unscathed and prove as the most important research result that the North Pole could not be reached by sea. On its return journey from Greenland, the "Germania" neither ran to land nor contacted any ships encountering it. Thus the ship's command learned nothing of the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War (1870/71) and the blockade of the German North Sea coast by a French armoured ship squadron off the then still British island of Helgoland. The ship unconsciously broke through the blockade line and had to find out before Bremerhaven that there were no more sea marks left. The crew therefore headed for Wilhelmshaven, which was secured by the German Navy with naval mines. As if by a miracle, the "Germania" did not run to a mine and was received in the town with great cheers. | <urn:uuid:d48800cf-1d96-4ba8-aaeb-2b1e09f2fe97> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://folkartinbottles.com/bottle-gallery/article/1427-Germania%20in%20a%20Bottle | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250607118.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122131612-20200122160612-00248.warc.gz | en | 0.985161 | 350 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.2775024473... | 25 | Date Added: 03 January 2020
The ship in a bottle was built on a scale of 1:335 and is in a 0.2 litre bottle. It consists completely of wood, masts of bamboo, the sails as cotton fabric. The chimney, which is set separately on the deck in the bottle, is made of brass. The icy sea is modelled from a mixture of window putty and plaster, the ice flows consist of painted tree bark. The "Germania" was a North German research vessel which served as the main ship in 1869/70 during Second German North Polar Expedition. Under Captain Carl Koldewey she sailed with the "Hansa" to Greenland and the Arctic Ocean with the intention to expand into the Arctic central region. While the "Hansa" had to be abandoned surrounded by ice, the "Germania" was able to return home to Germany unscathed and prove as the most important research result that the North Pole could not be reached by sea. On its return journey from Greenland, the "Germania" neither ran to land nor contacted any ships encountering it. Thus the ship's command learned nothing of the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War (1870/71) and the blockade of the German North Sea coast by a French armoured ship squadron off the then still British island of Helgoland. The ship unconsciously broke through the blockade line and had to find out before Bremerhaven that there were no more sea marks left. The crew therefore headed for Wilhelmshaven, which was secured by the German Navy with naval mines. As if by a miracle, the "Germania" did not run to a mine and was received in the town with great cheers. | 365 | ENGLISH | 1 |
|Birth||9 February 1806|
|Death||23 April 1880|
Telanga Kharia (1806 - 1880) was a great Indian Tribal freedom fighter, who spearheaded a rebellion against the British Raj in Chota Nagpur Region during 1850-1860.This rebellion was mainly against injustice, atrocities and land alienation of tribal people resulted in British Rule. In the freedom struggle in Chota Nagpur region Telanga Kharia keeps an important figure along with other great freedom fighters like Vir Budhu Bhagat, Sidhu Kanhu, Birsa Munda, Tilka Manjhi etc.
Telanga Kharia was born on 9 February 1806, at Murgu village, Gumla district of modern-day Jharkhand state. He belonged to Kharia tribe. His father's name was Thunya Kharia and mother's name was Peti Kharia. His father was a storekeeper at Chota Nagpur Nagvansi king of Ratu. Since childhood he was brave, honest and very talkative by nature. He was involved in agriculture and animal rearing. He later married to Ratni Kharia. He developed keen interest on social and political issues as he often had chance to witness debates on these topics in the court of King of Ratu, where he used to go with his father. As an adult, he was well known for his revolutionary thoughts, reasoning skill and dedication to social service.
Movement against British Raj
By the end of 1850 the British rule was established in Chota Nagpur region. From ages tribals have their own traditional autonomous self-governance rule of "Parha System" and they were almost free from any outside interference. But this autonomous self - governance rule was disturbed and destroyed by the regulations imposed by British Raj. Now tribals had to pay revenue(malgujari) on their own land which they had been prepared and cultivated for centuries. They were alienated from their land in the hands of zamindars and Britishers, when they failed to pay land revenue. In their own land they were forced to live like a farm labourers. The middlemen like money lenders(sahukars) and zamindars didn't miss any single chance to loot common people. There also existed the major problem of rural indebtness. Poor people had to lose their land when they were unable to repay loans taken from village moneylenders. Many times these debts were inherited from the past and increased with the passage of time. The plight of a common man was very miserable.
Telanga Kharia couldn't tolerate these injustice and atrocities and started the fight against British rule and their middlemen. He started organising people and creating awareness among them. He created Jury Panchayat in many villages, which worked as self-governance rule parallel to British rule. There were 13 jury panchayats formed by Telanga Kharia, which were spread across Sisai, Gumla, Basia, Simdega, Kumhari, Kolebira, Chainpur, Mahabuang and Bano area. He created "Akhara", where he used to give arms training to his followers. Their main weapons were sword and bow-arrow. He raised an army of around 900 to 1500 trained followers. Their used Guerrilla style of fighting. Telanga Kharia and his follower attacked Britishers, their middlemen and every other establishment of the British Raj. They also looted British banks and treasuries. During the period of 1850-1860 the rebellion led by Telanga Kharia against the British Raj in Chotanagpur region was at its peak. British Raj became very desperate to get rid of Telanga Kharia and wanted to suppress this uprising by any means. After knowing the intention of British Telanga Kharia became very alert, he now used to control his operations mostly from hideouts inside the forest and unknown locations. Once, when Telanga Kharia was busy conducting a meeting at one village Jury Panchayat, the information about his presence at the meeting was passed by an agent of Zamindar to the British. And soon the meeting place was surrounded by the British army and then they arrested Telanga Kharia. He was first sent to Lohardaga Jail, then to Calcutta Jail, where he got imprisonment of 18 years.
Release from jail, revival of movement and death
When Telanga Kharia was released after completing his imprisonment in Calcutta jail, he again met his followers at Sisai Akhara. He started to revive the movement and started making plans to strengthen the organisation. Information about his rebellion activities soon reached in the ears of the British and they started making plans to kill him. On 23 April 1980, Telanga Kharia was offering daily prayer at Sisai Akhara before the start of training session, he bowed down for prayer, one of the British agents, named Bodhan Singh ambushed nearby that Akhara, opened fired at him. After being hit by bullet he was collapsed. Then his followers immediately carried his body and moved towards forest, so that Britishers couldn't find his body. After crossing the Koel river they buried the body of Telanga Kharia at Soso Neem Toli village of Gumla district. Now this burial place is called as 'Telanga Topa Tand' meaning 'burial ground of Telanga' and considered very sacred by the people of Chotanagpur specially by Kharia community and every year his martyrdom is commemorated by the people. Also one week long 'Sahid Telanga Mela' is organised on 23 April every year at Dhedhouli village of Gumla district. Telanga Kharia is still an inspiration of millions in the region of Chotanagpur for his bravery, sacrifice and martyrdom. | <urn:uuid:1c8e1a48-d40a-4b2d-8754-9805d2257a5f> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://peoplepill.com/people/telanga-kharia/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251778168.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20200128091916-20200128121916-00370.warc.gz | en | 0.98698 | 1,198 | 3.390625 | 3 | [
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0.143229946494... | 1 | |Birth||9 February 1806|
|Death||23 April 1880|
Telanga Kharia (1806 - 1880) was a great Indian Tribal freedom fighter, who spearheaded a rebellion against the British Raj in Chota Nagpur Region during 1850-1860.This rebellion was mainly against injustice, atrocities and land alienation of tribal people resulted in British Rule. In the freedom struggle in Chota Nagpur region Telanga Kharia keeps an important figure along with other great freedom fighters like Vir Budhu Bhagat, Sidhu Kanhu, Birsa Munda, Tilka Manjhi etc.
Telanga Kharia was born on 9 February 1806, at Murgu village, Gumla district of modern-day Jharkhand state. He belonged to Kharia tribe. His father's name was Thunya Kharia and mother's name was Peti Kharia. His father was a storekeeper at Chota Nagpur Nagvansi king of Ratu. Since childhood he was brave, honest and very talkative by nature. He was involved in agriculture and animal rearing. He later married to Ratni Kharia. He developed keen interest on social and political issues as he often had chance to witness debates on these topics in the court of King of Ratu, where he used to go with his father. As an adult, he was well known for his revolutionary thoughts, reasoning skill and dedication to social service.
Movement against British Raj
By the end of 1850 the British rule was established in Chota Nagpur region. From ages tribals have their own traditional autonomous self-governance rule of "Parha System" and they were almost free from any outside interference. But this autonomous self - governance rule was disturbed and destroyed by the regulations imposed by British Raj. Now tribals had to pay revenue(malgujari) on their own land which they had been prepared and cultivated for centuries. They were alienated from their land in the hands of zamindars and Britishers, when they failed to pay land revenue. In their own land they were forced to live like a farm labourers. The middlemen like money lenders(sahukars) and zamindars didn't miss any single chance to loot common people. There also existed the major problem of rural indebtness. Poor people had to lose their land when they were unable to repay loans taken from village moneylenders. Many times these debts were inherited from the past and increased with the passage of time. The plight of a common man was very miserable.
Telanga Kharia couldn't tolerate these injustice and atrocities and started the fight against British rule and their middlemen. He started organising people and creating awareness among them. He created Jury Panchayat in many villages, which worked as self-governance rule parallel to British rule. There were 13 jury panchayats formed by Telanga Kharia, which were spread across Sisai, Gumla, Basia, Simdega, Kumhari, Kolebira, Chainpur, Mahabuang and Bano area. He created "Akhara", where he used to give arms training to his followers. Their main weapons were sword and bow-arrow. He raised an army of around 900 to 1500 trained followers. Their used Guerrilla style of fighting. Telanga Kharia and his follower attacked Britishers, their middlemen and every other establishment of the British Raj. They also looted British banks and treasuries. During the period of 1850-1860 the rebellion led by Telanga Kharia against the British Raj in Chotanagpur region was at its peak. British Raj became very desperate to get rid of Telanga Kharia and wanted to suppress this uprising by any means. After knowing the intention of British Telanga Kharia became very alert, he now used to control his operations mostly from hideouts inside the forest and unknown locations. Once, when Telanga Kharia was busy conducting a meeting at one village Jury Panchayat, the information about his presence at the meeting was passed by an agent of Zamindar to the British. And soon the meeting place was surrounded by the British army and then they arrested Telanga Kharia. He was first sent to Lohardaga Jail, then to Calcutta Jail, where he got imprisonment of 18 years.
Release from jail, revival of movement and death
When Telanga Kharia was released after completing his imprisonment in Calcutta jail, he again met his followers at Sisai Akhara. He started to revive the movement and started making plans to strengthen the organisation. Information about his rebellion activities soon reached in the ears of the British and they started making plans to kill him. On 23 April 1980, Telanga Kharia was offering daily prayer at Sisai Akhara before the start of training session, he bowed down for prayer, one of the British agents, named Bodhan Singh ambushed nearby that Akhara, opened fired at him. After being hit by bullet he was collapsed. Then his followers immediately carried his body and moved towards forest, so that Britishers couldn't find his body. After crossing the Koel river they buried the body of Telanga Kharia at Soso Neem Toli village of Gumla district. Now this burial place is called as 'Telanga Topa Tand' meaning 'burial ground of Telanga' and considered very sacred by the people of Chotanagpur specially by Kharia community and every year his martyrdom is commemorated by the people. Also one week long 'Sahid Telanga Mela' is organised on 23 April every year at Dhedhouli village of Gumla district. Telanga Kharia is still an inspiration of millions in the region of Chotanagpur for his bravery, sacrifice and martyrdom. | 1,238 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The New Student's Reference Work/Sumter, Thomas
Sum′ter, Thomas (1734-1832), an American Revolutionary soldier, was born in Virginia. Early in his career he served under Braddock in the disastrous expedition against Fort Duquesne and took part in fighting the Cherokees. In 1776 he was appointed lieutenant-colonel of a regiment of South Carolina riflemen, and subsequently became a partisan commander, defeating the Tories in 1780 at Hanging Rock. Twice he had to accept defeat at the hands of Tarleton, the English general in command of The British Legion, though later he settled accounts with that general at Blackstock Hill, though himself wounded in the affair. Prior to this, and while in command of the South Carolina troops, he had gained the rank of brigadier-general. At the close of the Revolutionary War he acted as a member of the South Carolina convention which ratified the Federal constitution, and for two periods (1789–93 and 1797–1801) was a member of the Federal house of representatives. During 1801–09 he served in the national senate, and during 1809–11 he was minister to Brazil. When he died, he was the last general officer of the Revolutionary era. | <urn:uuid:a375868a-fc9c-4a06-9bf5-f1798d90da7e> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_New_Student%27s_Reference_Work/Sumter,_Thomas | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250606975.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20200122101729-20200122130729-00041.warc.gz | en | 0.986285 | 254 | 3.609375 | 4 | [
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0.00648493040... | 1 | The New Student's Reference Work/Sumter, Thomas
Sum′ter, Thomas (1734-1832), an American Revolutionary soldier, was born in Virginia. Early in his career he served under Braddock in the disastrous expedition against Fort Duquesne and took part in fighting the Cherokees. In 1776 he was appointed lieutenant-colonel of a regiment of South Carolina riflemen, and subsequently became a partisan commander, defeating the Tories in 1780 at Hanging Rock. Twice he had to accept defeat at the hands of Tarleton, the English general in command of The British Legion, though later he settled accounts with that general at Blackstock Hill, though himself wounded in the affair. Prior to this, and while in command of the South Carolina troops, he had gained the rank of brigadier-general. At the close of the Revolutionary War he acted as a member of the South Carolina convention which ratified the Federal constitution, and for two periods (1789–93 and 1797–1801) was a member of the Federal house of representatives. During 1801–09 he served in the national senate, and during 1809–11 he was minister to Brazil. When he died, he was the last general officer of the Revolutionary era. | 279 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Opponent, Opponent Responses, and Violence Opponents:
One of the most important tasks women performed during the strike was the setting up of a food kitchen. These considerations must have proved important as the women served 1, to 1, free meals daily. These services were funded in part by the Relief Committee of which a Mrs.
Webbs was in charge.
A large portion of the funding came from collections taken at various meetings of the strikers throughout the city. Appeals were also made in the Western Labor News for donations of staples such as bread, tea, sugar and sandwiches.
Other funding came from organizations of workers who set up dances and performances for the benefit of the kitchen and Relief Fund. The creation of the kitchen and the thousands of meals served weekly provide strong evidence of the large number of women on strike, as well as pointing out that due to their lower wages, women were unlikely to be able to scrape through the strike without the support of other women.
Winnipeg Strike Committee, On May 14, the Winnipeg Tribune reported that the Y. On May 20, the Western Labor News announced an all-day organizational meeting for all women workers. A mass meeting of the strikers had been held the evening before at their headquarters, at which time a system of picketing was arranged.
On May 15, the members of the candy and confectionary workers not yet on strike stopped work and joined the mass of strikers. Although the workers rented space in the building, when they arrived for their meeting the building was found locked and all strike cards had been torn down.
Issues discussed at the meetings included the availability of food supplies, the maintenance of law and order, and the T.
Before the strike even began the company recruited a band of scab labour to come in from Toronto. In this particular instance the Western Labor News reprinted a sweetly written letter of gratitude the company sent its women employees. Helen Armstrong organized many of the wholesale and retail workers.
The Tribune reported that on May 26, at 5: She further announced her intention to keep up the drive until a settlement was achieved.
The Winnipeg General Strike, May 15 to June 25, , is Canada's best-known general strike. Massive unemployment and inflation, the success of the Russian Revolution (), a wave of strikes across Canada and rising revolutionary industrial unionism all contributed to postwar labour unrest. The Winnipeg General Strike was a landmark in North America. The strike officially began on May 15th, at AM and continued until late June, , and approximately 35, workers, basically the entire workforce of Winnipeg, walked off their jobs, risking their entire lives (Naylor, ). The Winnipeg General Strike of was one of the most influential strikes in Canadian history, and became the platform for future labour reforms. Massive unemployment and inflation, dismal wages and working conditions, and the success of the Russian Revolution all contributed to labour unrest at the time.
At this time, the union forwarded to the Manitoba Telephone Commission a request for salary increases of 15 - 40 per cent. A three hour strike was staged on May 1, and an investigatory board was called in to research the situation.
The operators agreed to stay on their jobs until the end of May at which time the board was to produce their findings.
This strike had begun in April when teamsters, electrical workers, water works employees, and office workers went to the city administration for wage increases.
The municipal authorities, not wanting to make up a new pay schedule which they believed would freeze the already inflated war-time rates at an artificially high level, offered instead a bonus until peacetime when new wages could be negotiated.
Although in dollars the bonus represented much the same increase that the workers were demanding, the creation of a new pay schedule became a matter of principle. On May 7,these workers went on strike and on May 16, the telephone operators joined in a sympathetic strike.
By May 24,the strike was over. The civic electricians, water works employees, teamsters and firemen all received higher wages.
All workers who had joined the sympathetic strike were reinstated without penalty. Further, the Fowler Amendment, which denied civic employees the right to strike but which actually inspired more walk-outs, was withdrawn. The role of the telephone operators in both the and strikes was mentioned in the Western Labor News.
This time they pulled all fuses including the P. The next day, in the column called Strikelets: Less than ten days after the strike began, the Winnipeg Citizen reported that volunteers were wanted to resume telephone service.
On June 19, George A. Watson, Telephone Commissioner, reported to the Citizen that applications had been received for permanent employment as telephone operators, 43 of which were from operators who had returned to duty.
Watson also reported that these 43 operators gave the required pledge not to participate in sympathetic strikes. The return of these women, especially under the degrading condition of the pledge, probably illustrates the absolute necessity of a regular wage for survival.
Watson, more than women and girls were operating telephone exchanges and more had been advertised for. We are giving permanent employment to young women who show aptitude for this work.In March , diverse labor leaders met in Calgary in Western Canada to discuss the creation of an industrial union to be called the One Big Union to work for higher wages, improved working conditions, official union recognition and collective bargaining.
The Winnipeg General Strike of was a landmark moment in North American working-class history. In May and June that year, over 30, workers ceased work for six weeks. The General Strike of was not only Winnipeg’s climactic event, but a watershed of some consequence in the evolution of Canada.
It stands, too, among the . In Winnipeg on May 15, when negotiations broke down between management and labour in the building and metal trades, the Winnipeg Trades and Labour Council (WTLC) called a general strike.
At stake was the principle of collective bargaining, better wages and . On May 1, , Winnipeg's building and metal workers went on strike for higher wages. Two weeks later, the Winnipeg Trades and Labour Council appealed for a general strike in support of the metal.
The Winnipeg strike of was one of the most influential strikes in Canadian history and became the platform for the future labour reforms. Massive unemployment, inflation, dismal wages, working conditions and the success of the Russian Revolution all contributed to labour unrest at the time. | <urn:uuid:8d9d691f-451e-439c-b082-1afb383e28a5> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://puwazye.vetconnexx.com/the-winnipeg-general-strike-of-1919-bargained-for-better-working-conditions-51136rz.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251690379.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20200126195918-20200126225918-00253.warc.gz | en | 0.981003 | 1,305 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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One of the most important tasks women performed during the strike was the setting up of a food kitchen. These considerations must have proved important as the women served 1, to 1, free meals daily. These services were funded in part by the Relief Committee of which a Mrs.
Webbs was in charge.
A large portion of the funding came from collections taken at various meetings of the strikers throughout the city. Appeals were also made in the Western Labor News for donations of staples such as bread, tea, sugar and sandwiches.
Other funding came from organizations of workers who set up dances and performances for the benefit of the kitchen and Relief Fund. The creation of the kitchen and the thousands of meals served weekly provide strong evidence of the large number of women on strike, as well as pointing out that due to their lower wages, women were unlikely to be able to scrape through the strike without the support of other women.
Winnipeg Strike Committee, On May 14, the Winnipeg Tribune reported that the Y. On May 20, the Western Labor News announced an all-day organizational meeting for all women workers. A mass meeting of the strikers had been held the evening before at their headquarters, at which time a system of picketing was arranged.
On May 15, the members of the candy and confectionary workers not yet on strike stopped work and joined the mass of strikers. Although the workers rented space in the building, when they arrived for their meeting the building was found locked and all strike cards had been torn down.
Issues discussed at the meetings included the availability of food supplies, the maintenance of law and order, and the T.
Before the strike even began the company recruited a band of scab labour to come in from Toronto. In this particular instance the Western Labor News reprinted a sweetly written letter of gratitude the company sent its women employees. Helen Armstrong organized many of the wholesale and retail workers.
The Tribune reported that on May 26, at 5: She further announced her intention to keep up the drive until a settlement was achieved.
The Winnipeg General Strike, May 15 to June 25, , is Canada's best-known general strike. Massive unemployment and inflation, the success of the Russian Revolution (), a wave of strikes across Canada and rising revolutionary industrial unionism all contributed to postwar labour unrest. The Winnipeg General Strike was a landmark in North America. The strike officially began on May 15th, at AM and continued until late June, , and approximately 35, workers, basically the entire workforce of Winnipeg, walked off their jobs, risking their entire lives (Naylor, ). The Winnipeg General Strike of was one of the most influential strikes in Canadian history, and became the platform for future labour reforms. Massive unemployment and inflation, dismal wages and working conditions, and the success of the Russian Revolution all contributed to labour unrest at the time.
At this time, the union forwarded to the Manitoba Telephone Commission a request for salary increases of 15 - 40 per cent. A three hour strike was staged on May 1, and an investigatory board was called in to research the situation.
The operators agreed to stay on their jobs until the end of May at which time the board was to produce their findings.
This strike had begun in April when teamsters, electrical workers, water works employees, and office workers went to the city administration for wage increases.
The municipal authorities, not wanting to make up a new pay schedule which they believed would freeze the already inflated war-time rates at an artificially high level, offered instead a bonus until peacetime when new wages could be negotiated.
Although in dollars the bonus represented much the same increase that the workers were demanding, the creation of a new pay schedule became a matter of principle. On May 7,these workers went on strike and on May 16, the telephone operators joined in a sympathetic strike.
By May 24,the strike was over. The civic electricians, water works employees, teamsters and firemen all received higher wages.
All workers who had joined the sympathetic strike were reinstated without penalty. Further, the Fowler Amendment, which denied civic employees the right to strike but which actually inspired more walk-outs, was withdrawn. The role of the telephone operators in both the and strikes was mentioned in the Western Labor News.
This time they pulled all fuses including the P. The next day, in the column called Strikelets: Less than ten days after the strike began, the Winnipeg Citizen reported that volunteers were wanted to resume telephone service.
On June 19, George A. Watson, Telephone Commissioner, reported to the Citizen that applications had been received for permanent employment as telephone operators, 43 of which were from operators who had returned to duty.
Watson also reported that these 43 operators gave the required pledge not to participate in sympathetic strikes. The return of these women, especially under the degrading condition of the pledge, probably illustrates the absolute necessity of a regular wage for survival.
Watson, more than women and girls were operating telephone exchanges and more had been advertised for. We are giving permanent employment to young women who show aptitude for this work.In March , diverse labor leaders met in Calgary in Western Canada to discuss the creation of an industrial union to be called the One Big Union to work for higher wages, improved working conditions, official union recognition and collective bargaining.
The Winnipeg General Strike of was a landmark moment in North American working-class history. In May and June that year, over 30, workers ceased work for six weeks. The General Strike of was not only Winnipeg’s climactic event, but a watershed of some consequence in the evolution of Canada.
It stands, too, among the . In Winnipeg on May 15, when negotiations broke down between management and labour in the building and metal trades, the Winnipeg Trades and Labour Council (WTLC) called a general strike.
At stake was the principle of collective bargaining, better wages and . On May 1, , Winnipeg's building and metal workers went on strike for higher wages. Two weeks later, the Winnipeg Trades and Labour Council appealed for a general strike in support of the metal.
The Winnipeg strike of was one of the most influential strikes in Canadian history and became the platform for the future labour reforms. Massive unemployment, inflation, dismal wages, working conditions and the success of the Russian Revolution all contributed to labour unrest at the time. | 1,315 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Chariot racing (Greek: ἁρματοδρομία harmatodromia, Latin: ludi circenses) was one of the most popular ancient Greek, Roman, and Byzantine sports. Chariot racing was dangerous to both drivers and horses as they often suffered serious injury and even death, but these dangers added to the excitement and interest for spectators. Chariot races could be watched by women, who were banned from watching many other sports. In the Roman form of chariot racing, teams represented different groups of financial backers and sometimes competed for the services of particularly skilled drivers. As in modern sports like soccer, spectators generally chose to support a single team, identifying themselves strongly with its fortunes, and violence sometimes broke out between rival factions. The rivalries were sometimes politicized, when teams became associated with competing social or religious ideas. This helps explain why Roman and later Byzantine emperors took control of the teams and appointed many officials to oversee them.
The sport faded in importance in the West after the fall of Rome. It survived for a time in the Byzantine Empire, where the traditional Roman factions continued to play a prominent role for several centuries, gaining influence in political matters. Their rivalry culminated in the Nika riots, which marked the gradual decline of the sport.
It is unknown exactly when chariot racing began, but It may have been as old as chariots themselves. It is known from artistic evidence on pottery that the sport existed in the Mycenaean world,[a] but the first literary reference to a chariot race is one described by Homer, at the funeral games of Patroclus. The participants in this race were Diomedes, Eumelus, Antilochus, Menelaus, and Meriones. The race, which was one lap around the stump of a tree, was won by Diomedes, who received a slave woman and a cauldron as his prize. A chariot race also was said to be the event that founded the Olympic Games; according to one legend, mentioned by Pindar, King Oenomaus challenged suitors for his daughter Hippodamia to a race, but was defeated by Pelops, who founded the Games in honour of his victory.
In the ancient Olympic Games, as well as the other Panhellenic Games, there were both four-horse (tethrippon, Greek: τέθριππον) and two-horse (synoris, Greek: συνωρὶς) chariot races, which were essentially the same aside from the number of horses. [b] The chariot racing event was first added to the Olympics in 680 BC with the games expanding from a one-day to a two-day event to accommodate the new event (but was not, in reality, the founding event). The chariot race was not so prestigious as the foot race of 195 meters (stadion, Greek: στάδιον), but it was more important than other equestrian events such as racing on horseback, which were dropped from the Olympic Games very early on.
The races themselves were held in the hippodrome, which held both chariot races and riding races. The single horse race was known as the "keles" (keles, Greek: κέλης).[c] The hippodrome was situated at the south-east corner of the sanctuary of Olympia, on the large flat area south of the stadium and ran almost parallel to the latter. Until recently, its exact location was unknown, since it is buried by several meters of sedimentary material from the Alfeios River. In 2008, however, Annie Muller and staff of the German Archeological Institute used radar to locate a large, rectangular structure similar to Pausanias's description. Pausanias, who visited Olympia in the second century AD, describes the monument as a large, elongated, flat space, approximately 780 meters long and 320 meters wide (four stadia long and one stadefour plethra wide). The elongated racecourse was divided longitudinally into two tracks by a stone or wooden barrier, the embolon. All the horses or chariots ran on one track toward the east, then turned around the embolon and headed back west. Distances varied according to the event. The racecourse was surrounded by natural (to the north) and artificial (to the south and east) banks for the spectators; a special place was reserved for the judges on the west side of the north bank.
The race was begun by a procession into the hippodrome, while a herald announced the names of the drivers and owners. The tethrippon consisted of twelve laps around the hippodrome, with sharp turns around the posts at either end. Various mechanical devices were used, including the starting gates (hyspleges, Greek: ὕσπληγγες; singular: hysplex, Greek: ὕσπληγξ) which were lowered to start the race. According to Pausanias, these were invented by the architect Cleoitas, and staggered so that the chariots on the outside began the race earlier than those on the inside. The race did not begin properly until the final gate was opened, at which point each chariot would be more or less lined up alongside each other, although the ones that had started on the outside would have been traveling faster than the ones in the middle. Other mechanical devices known as the "eagle" and the "dolphin" were raised to signify that the race had begun, and were lowered as the race went on to signify the number of laps remaining. These were probably bronze carvings of those animals, set up on posts at the starting line.
In most cases, the owner and the driver of the chariot were different persons. In 416 BC, the Athenian general Alcibiades had seven chariots in the race, and came in first, second, and fourth; obviously, he could not have been racing all seven chariots himself. Philip II of Macedon also won an Olympic chariot race in an attempt to prove he was not a barbarian, although if he had driven the chariot himself he would likely have been considered even lower than a barbarian. The poet Pindar did praise the courage of Herodotes of Thebes, however, for driving his own chariot. This rule also meant that women could win the race through ownership, despite the fact that women were not allowed to participate in or even watch the Games. This happened rarely, but a notable example is the Spartan Cynisca, daughter of Archidamus II, who won the chariot race twice. Chariot racing was a way for Greeks to demonstrate their prosperity at the games. The case of Alcibiades indicates also that chariot racing was an alternative route to public exposure and fame for the wealthy.
The charioteer was usually either a family member of the owner of the chariot or, in most cases, a slave or a hired professional. Driving a racing chariot required unusual strength, skill, and courage. Yet, we know the names of very few charioteers, and victory songs and statues regularly contrive to leave them out of account. Unlike the other Olympic events, charioteers did not perform in the nude, probably for safety reasons because of the dust kicked up by the horses and chariots, and the likelihood of bloody crashes. Racers wore a sleeved garment called a xystis. It fell to the ankles and was fastened high at the waist with a plain belt. Two straps that crossed high at the upper back prevented the xystis from "ballooning" during the race.
The chariots themselves were modified war chariots, essentially wooden carts with two wheels and an open back, although chariots were by this time no longer used in battle. The charioteer's feet were held in place, but the cart rested on the axle, so the ride was bumpy. The most exciting part of the chariot race, at least for the spectators, was the turns at the ends of the hippodrome. These turns were very dangerous and often deadly. If a chariot had not already been knocked over by an opponent before the turn, it might be overturned or crushed (along with the horses and driver) by the other chariots as they went around the post. Deliberately running into an opponent to cause him to crash was technically illegal, but nothing could be done about it (at Patroclus' funeral games, Antilochus in fact causes Menelaus to crash in this way,) and crashes were likely to happen by accident anyway.
As a result of the rise of the Greek cities of the classic period, other great festivals emerged in Asia Minor, Magna Graecia, and the mainland providing the opportunity for athletes to gain fame and riches. Apart from the Olympics, the best respected were the Isthmian Games in Corinth, the Nemean Games, the Pythian Games in Delphi, and the Panathenaic Games in Athens, where the winner of the four-horse chariot race was given 140 amphorae of olive oil (much sought after and precious in ancient times). Prizes at other competitions included corn in Eleusis, bronze shields in Argos, and silver vessels in Marathon.[d] Another form of chariot racing at the Panathenaic Games was known as the apobatai, in which the contestant wore armor and periodically leapt off a moving chariot and ran alongside it before leaping back on again. In these races, there was a second charioteer (a "rein-holder") while the apobates jumped out; in the catalogues with the winners both the names of the apobates and of the rein-holder are mentioned. Images of this contest show warriors, armed with helmets and shields, perched on the back of their racing chariots. Some scholars believe that the event preserved traditions of Homeric warfare.
The Romans probably borrowed chariot racing from the Etruscans as well as the racing tracks, who themselves borrowed it from the Greeks, but the Romans were also influenced directly by the Greeks.[e] According to Roman legend, chariot racing was used by Romulus just after he founded Rome in 753 BC as a way of distracting the Sabine men. Romulus sent out invitations to the neighbouring towns to celebrate the festival of the Consualia, which included both horse races and chariot races. Whilst the Sabines were enjoying the spectacle, Romulus and his men seized and carried off the Sabine women, who became wives of the Romans. Chariot races were a part of several Roman religious festivals, and on these occasions were preceded by a parade (pompa circensis) that featured the charioteers, music, costumed dancers, and images of the gods. While the entertainment value of chariot races tended to overshadow any sacred purpose, in late antiquity the Church Fathers still saw them as a traditional "pagan" practice, and advised Christians not to participate.
In ancient Rome, chariot races commonly took place in a circus. The main centre of chariot racing was the Circus Maximus in the valley between Palatine Hill and Aventine Hill,[f] which could seat 250,000 people. It was the earliest circus in the city of Rome. The Circus was supposed to date to the city's earliest times,[g] but it was rebuilt by Julius Caesar around 50 BC so that it had a length of about 650 metres (2,130 ft) and a width of about 125 metres (410 ft). One end of the track was more open than the other, as this was where the chariots lined up to begin the race. The Romans used a series of gates known as carceres, an equivalent to the Greek hysplex. These were staggered in the same way as the hysplex, but they were slightly different because Roman racing tracks also had a median (the spina) in the centre of the track. The carceres took up the angled end of the track, and the chariots were loaded into spring-loaded gates. When the chariots were ready, the emperor (or whoever was hosting the races, if they were not in Rome) dropped a cloth known as a mappa, signalling the beginning of the race. The gates would spring open, creating a perfectly fair beginning for all participants.
Once the race had begun, the chariots could move in front of each other in an attempt to cause their opponents to crash into the spinae (singular spina). On the top of the spinae stood small tables or frames supported on pillars, and also small pieces of marble in the shape of eggs or dolphins. The spina eventually became very elaborate, with statues and obelisks and other forms of art, but the multiplication of the adornments of the spina had one unfortunate result: They became so numerous that they obstructed the view of spectators on lower seats. At either end of the spina was a meta, or turning point, in the form of large gilded columns. Spectacular crashes in which the chariot was destroyed and the charioteer and horses incapacitated were known as naufragia, also the Latin word for shipwrecks.
The race itself was much like its Greek counterpart, although there were usually 24 races every day that, during the fourth century, took place on 66 days each year. However, a race consisted of only 7 laps (and later 5 laps, so that there could be even more races per day), instead of the 12 laps of the Greek race. The Roman style was also more money-oriented; racers were professionals and there was widespread betting among spectators. There were four-horse chariots (quadrigae) and two-horse chariots (bigae), but the four-horse races were more important. In rare cases, if a driver wanted to show off his skill, he could use up to 10 horses, although this was extremely impractical.
The technique and clothing of Roman charioteers differed significantly from those used by the Greeks. Roman drivers wrapped the reins round their waist, while the Greeks held the reins in their hands.[h] Because of this, the Romans could not let go of the reins in a crash, so they would be dragged around the circus until they were killed or they freed themselves. In order to cut the reins and keep from being dragged in case of accident, they carried a falx, a curved knife. They also wore helmets and other protective gear. In any given race, there might be a number of teams put up by each faction, who would cooperate to maximize their chances of victory by ganging up on opponents, forcing them out of the preferred inside track or making them lose concentration and expose themselves to accident and injury. Spectators could also play a part as there is evidence they threw lead "curse" amulets studded with nails at teams opposing their favourite.
Another important difference was that the charioteers themselves, the aurigae, were considered to be the winners, although they were usually also slaves (as in the Greek world). They received a wreath of laurel leaves, and probably some money; if they won enough races they could buy their freedom. Drivers could become celebrities throughout the Empire simply by surviving, as the life expectancy of a charioteer was not very high. One such celebrity driver was Scorpus, who won over 2000 races before being killed in a collision at the meta when he was about 27 years old. The most famous of all was Gaius Appuleius Diocles who won 1,462 out of 4,257 races. When Diocles retired at the age of 42 after a 24-year career his winnings reportedly totalled 35,863,120 sesterces ($US 15 billion), making him the highest paid sports star in history. The horses, too, could become celebrities, but their life expectancy was also low. The Romans kept detailed statistics of the names, breeds, and pedigrees of famous horses.
Seats in the Circus were free for the poor, who by the time of the Empire had little else to do, as they were no longer involved in political or military affairs as they had been in the Republic. The wealthy could pay for shaded seats where they had a better view, and they probably also spent much of their times betting on the races. The circus was the only place where the emperor showed himself before a populace assembled in vast numbers, and where the latter could manifest their affection or anger. The imperial box, called the pulvinar in the Circus Maximus, was directly connected to the imperial palace.
The driver's clothing was color-coded in accordance with his faction, which would help distant spectators to keep track of the race's progress. According to Tertullian, there were originally just two factions, White and Red, sacred to winter and summer respectively. As fully developed, there were four factions, the Red, White, Green, and Blue. Each team could have up to three chariots each in a race. Members of the same team often collaborated with each other against the other teams, for example to force them to crash into the spina (a legal and encouraged tactic). Drivers could switch teams, much like athletes can be traded to different teams today.
By 77 BC, the rivalry between the Red and the Whites was already developed, when a funeral for a Red driver involved a Red supporter throwing himself on the funeral pyre. No writer of the time, however, refers to these as factions such as came into existence later, with the factions being official organizations. Writing near the beginning of the third century, he wrote that the Reds were dedicated to Mars, the Whites to the Zephyrs, the Greens to Mother Earth or spring, and the Blues to the sky and sea or autumn. Domitian created two new factions, the Purples and Golds, which disappeared soon after he died. The Blues and the Greens gradually became the most prestigious factions, supported by emperor and populace alike. Numerous occasions occurred when a Blue vs. Green clash would break out during a race. Indeed, Reds and Whites are only rarely mentioned in the surviving literature, although their continued activity is documented in inscriptions and in curse-tablets.
Like many other aspects of the Roman world, chariot racing continued in the Byzantine Empire, although the Byzantines did not keep as many records and statistics as the Romans did. In place of the detailed inscriptions of Roman racing statistics, several short epigrams in verse were composed celebrating some of the more famous Byzantine Charioteers. The six charioteers about whom these laudatory verses were written were Anastasius, Julianus of Tyre, Faustinus, his son, Constantinus, Uranius, and Porphyrius. Although Anastasius's single epigram reveals almost nothing about him, Porphyrius is much better known, having thirty-four known poems dedicated to him.
Constantine I (r. 306–337) preferred chariot racing to gladiatorial combat, which he considered a vestige of paganism. However, the end of gladiatorial games in the Empire may have been more the result of the difficulty and expense that came with procuring gladiators to fight in the games, than the influence of Christianity in Byzantium. The Olympic Games were eventually ended by Emperor Theodosius I (r. 379–395) in 393, perhaps in a move to suppress paganism and promote Christianity, but chariot racing remained popular. The fact that chariot racing became linked to the imperial majesty meant that the Church did not prevent it, although gradually prominent Christian writers, such as Tertullian, began attacking the sport. Despite the influence of Christianity in the Byzantine Empire, venationes, bloody wild-beast hunts, continued as a form of popular entertainment during the early days of the Empire as part of the extra entertainment that went along with chariot racing. Eventually, Emperor Leo (r. 457–474) banned public entertainments on Sundays in 469, showing that the hunts did not have imperial support, and the venationes were banned completely by Emperor Anastasius (r. 491–518) in 498. Anastasius was praised for this action by some sources, but their concern seems to be more for the danger the hunts could put humans in rather than for objections to the brutality or moral objections. There continued to be burnings and mutilations of humans who committed crimes or were enemies of the state in the hippodrome throughout the Byzantine Empire, as well as victory celebrations and imperial coronations.
The chariot races were important in the Byzantine Empire, as in the Roman Empire, as a way to reinforce social class and political power, including the might of the Byzantine emperor, and were often put on for political or religious reasons. In addition, chariot races were sometimes held in celebration of an emperor's birthday. An explicit parallel was drawn between the victorious charioteers and the victorious emperor. The factions addressed their victors by chanting "Rejoice ... your Lords have conquered" while the charioteer took a victory lap, further indicating the parallel between the charioteer's victory and the emperor's victory. Indeed, reliefs of Porphyrius, the famous Byzantine charioteer, show him in a victor's pose being acclaimed by partisans, which is clearly modeled on the images on the base of Emperor Theodosius's obelisk. The races could also be used to symbolically make religious statements, such as when a charioteer, whose mother was named Mary, fell off his chariot and got back on and the crowd described it as "The son of Mary has fallen and risen again and is victorious."
The Hippodrome of Constantinople (really a Roman circus, not the open space that the original Greek hippodromes were) was connected to the emperor's palace and the Church of Hagia Sophia, allowing spectators to view the emperor as they had in Rome.[i] Citizens used their proximity to the emperor in the circuses and theatres to express public opinion, like their dissatisfaction with the Emperor's errant policy. It has been argued that the people became so powerful that the emperors had no choice but to grant them more legal rights. However, contrary to this traditional view, it appears, based on more recent historical research, that the Byzantine emperors treated the protests and petitions of their citizens in the circuses with greater contempt and were more dismissive of them than their Roman predecessors. Justinian I (r. 527–565), for instance, seems to have been dismissive of the Greens' petitions and to have never negotiated with them at all.
There is not much evidence that the chariot races were subject to bribes or other forms of cheating in the Roman Empire. In the Byzantine Empire, there seems to have been more cheating; Justinian I's reformed legal code prohibits drivers from placing curses on their opponents, but otherwise there does not seem to have been any mechanical tampering or bribery. Wearing the colours of one's team became an important aspect of Byzantine dress.
Chariot racing in the Byzantine Empire also included the Roman racing clubs, which continued to play a prominent role in these public exhibitions. By this time, the Blues (Vénetoi) and the Greens (Prásinoi) had come to overshadow the other two factions of the Whites (Leukoí) and Reds (Roúsioi), while still maintaining the paired alliances, although these were now fixed as Blue and White vs. Green and Red.[j] These circus factions were no longer the private businesses they were during the Roman Empire. Instead, the races began to be given regular, public funding, putting them under imperial control. Running the chariot races at public expense was probably a cost-cutting and labor-reducing measure, making it easier to channel the proper funds into the racing organizations. The Emperor himself belonged to one of the four factions, and supported the interests of either the Blues or the Greens.
Adopting the color of their favorite charioteers was a way fans showed their loyalty to that particular racer or faction. Many of the young men in the fan clubs, or factions, adopted extravagant clothing and hairstyles, such as billowing sleeves, "Hunnic" hair-styles, and "Persian" facial hair. There is evidence that these young men were the faction members most prone to violence and extreme factional rivalry. Some scholars have tried to argue that the factional rivalry and violence was a result of opposing religious or political views, but more likely the young men simply identified strongly with their faction for group solidarity. The factional violence was probably engaged in similarly to the violence of modern football or soccer fans. The games themselves were the usual focus of the factional violence, even when it was taken to the streets. Although fans who went to the hippodrome cheered on their favorite charioteers, their loyalty appears to be to the color for which the charioteer drove more than for the individual driver. Charioteers could change faction allegiance and race for different colors during their careers, but the fans did not change their allegiance to their color.
The Blues and the Greens were now more than simply sports teams. They gained influence in military, political,[k] and theological matters, although the hypothesis that the Greens tended towards Monophysitism and the Blues represented Orthodoxy is disputed. It is now widely believed that neither of the factions had any consistent religious bias or allegiance, in spite of the fact that they operated in an environment fraught with religious controversy. According to some scholars, the Blue-Green rivalry contributed to the conditions that underlay the rise of Islam, while factional enmities were exploited by the Sassanid Empire in its conflicts with the Byzantines during the century preceding Islam's advent.[l]
The Blue-Green rivalry often erupted into gang warfare, and street violence had been on the rise in the reign of Justin I (r. 518–527), who took measures to restore order, when the gangs murdered a citizen in the Hagia Sophia. Riots culminated in the Nika riots of 532 AD during the reign of Justinian, which began when the two main factions united and attempted unsuccessfully to overthrow the emperor.
Chariot racing seems to have declined in the course of the seventh century, with the losses the Empire suffered at the hands of the Arabs and the decline of the population and economy. The Blues and Greens, deprived of any political power, were relegated to a purely ceremonial role. After the Nika riots, the factions grew less violent as their importance in imperial ceremony increased. In particular, the iconoclast emperor Constantine V (r. 741–775) courted the factions for their support in his campaigns against the monks. They aided the emperor in executing his prisoners and by putting on shows in which monks and nuns held hands while the crowd hissed at them. Constantine V seems to have given the factions a political role in addition to their traditionally ceremonial role. The two factions continued their activity until the imperial court was moved to Blachernae during the 12th century.
The Hippodrome in Constantinople remained in use for races, games, and public ceremonies up to the sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204. In the 12th century, Emperor Manuel I Komnenos (r. 1143–1180) even staged Western-style jousting matches in the Hippodrome. During the sack of 1204, the Crusaders looted the city and, among other things, removed the copper quadriga that stood above the carceres; it is now displayed at St. Mark's Cathedral in Venice. Thereafter, the Hippodrome was neglected, although still occasionally used for spectacles. A print of the Hippodrome from the fifteenth century shows a derelict site, a few walls still standing, and the spina, the central reservation, robbed of its splendor. Today, only the obelisks and the Serpent Column stand where for centuries the spectators gathered. In the West, the games had ended much sooner; by the end of the fourth century public entertainments in Italy had come to an end in all but a few towns. The last recorded chariot race in Rome itself took place in the Circus Maximus in 549 AD.
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0.4301204681396... | 1 | Chariot racing (Greek: ἁρματοδρομία harmatodromia, Latin: ludi circenses) was one of the most popular ancient Greek, Roman, and Byzantine sports. Chariot racing was dangerous to both drivers and horses as they often suffered serious injury and even death, but these dangers added to the excitement and interest for spectators. Chariot races could be watched by women, who were banned from watching many other sports. In the Roman form of chariot racing, teams represented different groups of financial backers and sometimes competed for the services of particularly skilled drivers. As in modern sports like soccer, spectators generally chose to support a single team, identifying themselves strongly with its fortunes, and violence sometimes broke out between rival factions. The rivalries were sometimes politicized, when teams became associated with competing social or religious ideas. This helps explain why Roman and later Byzantine emperors took control of the teams and appointed many officials to oversee them.
The sport faded in importance in the West after the fall of Rome. It survived for a time in the Byzantine Empire, where the traditional Roman factions continued to play a prominent role for several centuries, gaining influence in political matters. Their rivalry culminated in the Nika riots, which marked the gradual decline of the sport.
It is unknown exactly when chariot racing began, but It may have been as old as chariots themselves. It is known from artistic evidence on pottery that the sport existed in the Mycenaean world,[a] but the first literary reference to a chariot race is one described by Homer, at the funeral games of Patroclus. The participants in this race were Diomedes, Eumelus, Antilochus, Menelaus, and Meriones. The race, which was one lap around the stump of a tree, was won by Diomedes, who received a slave woman and a cauldron as his prize. A chariot race also was said to be the event that founded the Olympic Games; according to one legend, mentioned by Pindar, King Oenomaus challenged suitors for his daughter Hippodamia to a race, but was defeated by Pelops, who founded the Games in honour of his victory.
In the ancient Olympic Games, as well as the other Panhellenic Games, there were both four-horse (tethrippon, Greek: τέθριππον) and two-horse (synoris, Greek: συνωρὶς) chariot races, which were essentially the same aside from the number of horses. [b] The chariot racing event was first added to the Olympics in 680 BC with the games expanding from a one-day to a two-day event to accommodate the new event (but was not, in reality, the founding event). The chariot race was not so prestigious as the foot race of 195 meters (stadion, Greek: στάδιον), but it was more important than other equestrian events such as racing on horseback, which were dropped from the Olympic Games very early on.
The races themselves were held in the hippodrome, which held both chariot races and riding races. The single horse race was known as the "keles" (keles, Greek: κέλης).[c] The hippodrome was situated at the south-east corner of the sanctuary of Olympia, on the large flat area south of the stadium and ran almost parallel to the latter. Until recently, its exact location was unknown, since it is buried by several meters of sedimentary material from the Alfeios River. In 2008, however, Annie Muller and staff of the German Archeological Institute used radar to locate a large, rectangular structure similar to Pausanias's description. Pausanias, who visited Olympia in the second century AD, describes the monument as a large, elongated, flat space, approximately 780 meters long and 320 meters wide (four stadia long and one stadefour plethra wide). The elongated racecourse was divided longitudinally into two tracks by a stone or wooden barrier, the embolon. All the horses or chariots ran on one track toward the east, then turned around the embolon and headed back west. Distances varied according to the event. The racecourse was surrounded by natural (to the north) and artificial (to the south and east) banks for the spectators; a special place was reserved for the judges on the west side of the north bank.
The race was begun by a procession into the hippodrome, while a herald announced the names of the drivers and owners. The tethrippon consisted of twelve laps around the hippodrome, with sharp turns around the posts at either end. Various mechanical devices were used, including the starting gates (hyspleges, Greek: ὕσπληγγες; singular: hysplex, Greek: ὕσπληγξ) which were lowered to start the race. According to Pausanias, these were invented by the architect Cleoitas, and staggered so that the chariots on the outside began the race earlier than those on the inside. The race did not begin properly until the final gate was opened, at which point each chariot would be more or less lined up alongside each other, although the ones that had started on the outside would have been traveling faster than the ones in the middle. Other mechanical devices known as the "eagle" and the "dolphin" were raised to signify that the race had begun, and were lowered as the race went on to signify the number of laps remaining. These were probably bronze carvings of those animals, set up on posts at the starting line.
In most cases, the owner and the driver of the chariot were different persons. In 416 BC, the Athenian general Alcibiades had seven chariots in the race, and came in first, second, and fourth; obviously, he could not have been racing all seven chariots himself. Philip II of Macedon also won an Olympic chariot race in an attempt to prove he was not a barbarian, although if he had driven the chariot himself he would likely have been considered even lower than a barbarian. The poet Pindar did praise the courage of Herodotes of Thebes, however, for driving his own chariot. This rule also meant that women could win the race through ownership, despite the fact that women were not allowed to participate in or even watch the Games. This happened rarely, but a notable example is the Spartan Cynisca, daughter of Archidamus II, who won the chariot race twice. Chariot racing was a way for Greeks to demonstrate their prosperity at the games. The case of Alcibiades indicates also that chariot racing was an alternative route to public exposure and fame for the wealthy.
The charioteer was usually either a family member of the owner of the chariot or, in most cases, a slave or a hired professional. Driving a racing chariot required unusual strength, skill, and courage. Yet, we know the names of very few charioteers, and victory songs and statues regularly contrive to leave them out of account. Unlike the other Olympic events, charioteers did not perform in the nude, probably for safety reasons because of the dust kicked up by the horses and chariots, and the likelihood of bloody crashes. Racers wore a sleeved garment called a xystis. It fell to the ankles and was fastened high at the waist with a plain belt. Two straps that crossed high at the upper back prevented the xystis from "ballooning" during the race.
The chariots themselves were modified war chariots, essentially wooden carts with two wheels and an open back, although chariots were by this time no longer used in battle. The charioteer's feet were held in place, but the cart rested on the axle, so the ride was bumpy. The most exciting part of the chariot race, at least for the spectators, was the turns at the ends of the hippodrome. These turns were very dangerous and often deadly. If a chariot had not already been knocked over by an opponent before the turn, it might be overturned or crushed (along with the horses and driver) by the other chariots as they went around the post. Deliberately running into an opponent to cause him to crash was technically illegal, but nothing could be done about it (at Patroclus' funeral games, Antilochus in fact causes Menelaus to crash in this way,) and crashes were likely to happen by accident anyway.
As a result of the rise of the Greek cities of the classic period, other great festivals emerged in Asia Minor, Magna Graecia, and the mainland providing the opportunity for athletes to gain fame and riches. Apart from the Olympics, the best respected were the Isthmian Games in Corinth, the Nemean Games, the Pythian Games in Delphi, and the Panathenaic Games in Athens, where the winner of the four-horse chariot race was given 140 amphorae of olive oil (much sought after and precious in ancient times). Prizes at other competitions included corn in Eleusis, bronze shields in Argos, and silver vessels in Marathon.[d] Another form of chariot racing at the Panathenaic Games was known as the apobatai, in which the contestant wore armor and periodically leapt off a moving chariot and ran alongside it before leaping back on again. In these races, there was a second charioteer (a "rein-holder") while the apobates jumped out; in the catalogues with the winners both the names of the apobates and of the rein-holder are mentioned. Images of this contest show warriors, armed with helmets and shields, perched on the back of their racing chariots. Some scholars believe that the event preserved traditions of Homeric warfare.
The Romans probably borrowed chariot racing from the Etruscans as well as the racing tracks, who themselves borrowed it from the Greeks, but the Romans were also influenced directly by the Greeks.[e] According to Roman legend, chariot racing was used by Romulus just after he founded Rome in 753 BC as a way of distracting the Sabine men. Romulus sent out invitations to the neighbouring towns to celebrate the festival of the Consualia, which included both horse races and chariot races. Whilst the Sabines were enjoying the spectacle, Romulus and his men seized and carried off the Sabine women, who became wives of the Romans. Chariot races were a part of several Roman religious festivals, and on these occasions were preceded by a parade (pompa circensis) that featured the charioteers, music, costumed dancers, and images of the gods. While the entertainment value of chariot races tended to overshadow any sacred purpose, in late antiquity the Church Fathers still saw them as a traditional "pagan" practice, and advised Christians not to participate.
In ancient Rome, chariot races commonly took place in a circus. The main centre of chariot racing was the Circus Maximus in the valley between Palatine Hill and Aventine Hill,[f] which could seat 250,000 people. It was the earliest circus in the city of Rome. The Circus was supposed to date to the city's earliest times,[g] but it was rebuilt by Julius Caesar around 50 BC so that it had a length of about 650 metres (2,130 ft) and a width of about 125 metres (410 ft). One end of the track was more open than the other, as this was where the chariots lined up to begin the race. The Romans used a series of gates known as carceres, an equivalent to the Greek hysplex. These were staggered in the same way as the hysplex, but they were slightly different because Roman racing tracks also had a median (the spina) in the centre of the track. The carceres took up the angled end of the track, and the chariots were loaded into spring-loaded gates. When the chariots were ready, the emperor (or whoever was hosting the races, if they were not in Rome) dropped a cloth known as a mappa, signalling the beginning of the race. The gates would spring open, creating a perfectly fair beginning for all participants.
Once the race had begun, the chariots could move in front of each other in an attempt to cause their opponents to crash into the spinae (singular spina). On the top of the spinae stood small tables or frames supported on pillars, and also small pieces of marble in the shape of eggs or dolphins. The spina eventually became very elaborate, with statues and obelisks and other forms of art, but the multiplication of the adornments of the spina had one unfortunate result: They became so numerous that they obstructed the view of spectators on lower seats. At either end of the spina was a meta, or turning point, in the form of large gilded columns. Spectacular crashes in which the chariot was destroyed and the charioteer and horses incapacitated were known as naufragia, also the Latin word for shipwrecks.
The race itself was much like its Greek counterpart, although there were usually 24 races every day that, during the fourth century, took place on 66 days each year. However, a race consisted of only 7 laps (and later 5 laps, so that there could be even more races per day), instead of the 12 laps of the Greek race. The Roman style was also more money-oriented; racers were professionals and there was widespread betting among spectators. There were four-horse chariots (quadrigae) and two-horse chariots (bigae), but the four-horse races were more important. In rare cases, if a driver wanted to show off his skill, he could use up to 10 horses, although this was extremely impractical.
The technique and clothing of Roman charioteers differed significantly from those used by the Greeks. Roman drivers wrapped the reins round their waist, while the Greeks held the reins in their hands.[h] Because of this, the Romans could not let go of the reins in a crash, so they would be dragged around the circus until they were killed or they freed themselves. In order to cut the reins and keep from being dragged in case of accident, they carried a falx, a curved knife. They also wore helmets and other protective gear. In any given race, there might be a number of teams put up by each faction, who would cooperate to maximize their chances of victory by ganging up on opponents, forcing them out of the preferred inside track or making them lose concentration and expose themselves to accident and injury. Spectators could also play a part as there is evidence they threw lead "curse" amulets studded with nails at teams opposing their favourite.
Another important difference was that the charioteers themselves, the aurigae, were considered to be the winners, although they were usually also slaves (as in the Greek world). They received a wreath of laurel leaves, and probably some money; if they won enough races they could buy their freedom. Drivers could become celebrities throughout the Empire simply by surviving, as the life expectancy of a charioteer was not very high. One such celebrity driver was Scorpus, who won over 2000 races before being killed in a collision at the meta when he was about 27 years old. The most famous of all was Gaius Appuleius Diocles who won 1,462 out of 4,257 races. When Diocles retired at the age of 42 after a 24-year career his winnings reportedly totalled 35,863,120 sesterces ($US 15 billion), making him the highest paid sports star in history. The horses, too, could become celebrities, but their life expectancy was also low. The Romans kept detailed statistics of the names, breeds, and pedigrees of famous horses.
Seats in the Circus were free for the poor, who by the time of the Empire had little else to do, as they were no longer involved in political or military affairs as they had been in the Republic. The wealthy could pay for shaded seats where they had a better view, and they probably also spent much of their times betting on the races. The circus was the only place where the emperor showed himself before a populace assembled in vast numbers, and where the latter could manifest their affection or anger. The imperial box, called the pulvinar in the Circus Maximus, was directly connected to the imperial palace.
The driver's clothing was color-coded in accordance with his faction, which would help distant spectators to keep track of the race's progress. According to Tertullian, there were originally just two factions, White and Red, sacred to winter and summer respectively. As fully developed, there were four factions, the Red, White, Green, and Blue. Each team could have up to three chariots each in a race. Members of the same team often collaborated with each other against the other teams, for example to force them to crash into the spina (a legal and encouraged tactic). Drivers could switch teams, much like athletes can be traded to different teams today.
By 77 BC, the rivalry between the Red and the Whites was already developed, when a funeral for a Red driver involved a Red supporter throwing himself on the funeral pyre. No writer of the time, however, refers to these as factions such as came into existence later, with the factions being official organizations. Writing near the beginning of the third century, he wrote that the Reds were dedicated to Mars, the Whites to the Zephyrs, the Greens to Mother Earth or spring, and the Blues to the sky and sea or autumn. Domitian created two new factions, the Purples and Golds, which disappeared soon after he died. The Blues and the Greens gradually became the most prestigious factions, supported by emperor and populace alike. Numerous occasions occurred when a Blue vs. Green clash would break out during a race. Indeed, Reds and Whites are only rarely mentioned in the surviving literature, although their continued activity is documented in inscriptions and in curse-tablets.
Like many other aspects of the Roman world, chariot racing continued in the Byzantine Empire, although the Byzantines did not keep as many records and statistics as the Romans did. In place of the detailed inscriptions of Roman racing statistics, several short epigrams in verse were composed celebrating some of the more famous Byzantine Charioteers. The six charioteers about whom these laudatory verses were written were Anastasius, Julianus of Tyre, Faustinus, his son, Constantinus, Uranius, and Porphyrius. Although Anastasius's single epigram reveals almost nothing about him, Porphyrius is much better known, having thirty-four known poems dedicated to him.
Constantine I (r. 306–337) preferred chariot racing to gladiatorial combat, which he considered a vestige of paganism. However, the end of gladiatorial games in the Empire may have been more the result of the difficulty and expense that came with procuring gladiators to fight in the games, than the influence of Christianity in Byzantium. The Olympic Games were eventually ended by Emperor Theodosius I (r. 379–395) in 393, perhaps in a move to suppress paganism and promote Christianity, but chariot racing remained popular. The fact that chariot racing became linked to the imperial majesty meant that the Church did not prevent it, although gradually prominent Christian writers, such as Tertullian, began attacking the sport. Despite the influence of Christianity in the Byzantine Empire, venationes, bloody wild-beast hunts, continued as a form of popular entertainment during the early days of the Empire as part of the extra entertainment that went along with chariot racing. Eventually, Emperor Leo (r. 457–474) banned public entertainments on Sundays in 469, showing that the hunts did not have imperial support, and the venationes were banned completely by Emperor Anastasius (r. 491–518) in 498. Anastasius was praised for this action by some sources, but their concern seems to be more for the danger the hunts could put humans in rather than for objections to the brutality or moral objections. There continued to be burnings and mutilations of humans who committed crimes or were enemies of the state in the hippodrome throughout the Byzantine Empire, as well as victory celebrations and imperial coronations.
The chariot races were important in the Byzantine Empire, as in the Roman Empire, as a way to reinforce social class and political power, including the might of the Byzantine emperor, and were often put on for political or religious reasons. In addition, chariot races were sometimes held in celebration of an emperor's birthday. An explicit parallel was drawn between the victorious charioteers and the victorious emperor. The factions addressed their victors by chanting "Rejoice ... your Lords have conquered" while the charioteer took a victory lap, further indicating the parallel between the charioteer's victory and the emperor's victory. Indeed, reliefs of Porphyrius, the famous Byzantine charioteer, show him in a victor's pose being acclaimed by partisans, which is clearly modeled on the images on the base of Emperor Theodosius's obelisk. The races could also be used to symbolically make religious statements, such as when a charioteer, whose mother was named Mary, fell off his chariot and got back on and the crowd described it as "The son of Mary has fallen and risen again and is victorious."
The Hippodrome of Constantinople (really a Roman circus, not the open space that the original Greek hippodromes were) was connected to the emperor's palace and the Church of Hagia Sophia, allowing spectators to view the emperor as they had in Rome.[i] Citizens used their proximity to the emperor in the circuses and theatres to express public opinion, like their dissatisfaction with the Emperor's errant policy. It has been argued that the people became so powerful that the emperors had no choice but to grant them more legal rights. However, contrary to this traditional view, it appears, based on more recent historical research, that the Byzantine emperors treated the protests and petitions of their citizens in the circuses with greater contempt and were more dismissive of them than their Roman predecessors. Justinian I (r. 527–565), for instance, seems to have been dismissive of the Greens' petitions and to have never negotiated with them at all.
There is not much evidence that the chariot races were subject to bribes or other forms of cheating in the Roman Empire. In the Byzantine Empire, there seems to have been more cheating; Justinian I's reformed legal code prohibits drivers from placing curses on their opponents, but otherwise there does not seem to have been any mechanical tampering or bribery. Wearing the colours of one's team became an important aspect of Byzantine dress.
Chariot racing in the Byzantine Empire also included the Roman racing clubs, which continued to play a prominent role in these public exhibitions. By this time, the Blues (Vénetoi) and the Greens (Prásinoi) had come to overshadow the other two factions of the Whites (Leukoí) and Reds (Roúsioi), while still maintaining the paired alliances, although these were now fixed as Blue and White vs. Green and Red.[j] These circus factions were no longer the private businesses they were during the Roman Empire. Instead, the races began to be given regular, public funding, putting them under imperial control. Running the chariot races at public expense was probably a cost-cutting and labor-reducing measure, making it easier to channel the proper funds into the racing organizations. The Emperor himself belonged to one of the four factions, and supported the interests of either the Blues or the Greens.
Adopting the color of their favorite charioteers was a way fans showed their loyalty to that particular racer or faction. Many of the young men in the fan clubs, or factions, adopted extravagant clothing and hairstyles, such as billowing sleeves, "Hunnic" hair-styles, and "Persian" facial hair. There is evidence that these young men were the faction members most prone to violence and extreme factional rivalry. Some scholars have tried to argue that the factional rivalry and violence was a result of opposing religious or political views, but more likely the young men simply identified strongly with their faction for group solidarity. The factional violence was probably engaged in similarly to the violence of modern football or soccer fans. The games themselves were the usual focus of the factional violence, even when it was taken to the streets. Although fans who went to the hippodrome cheered on their favorite charioteers, their loyalty appears to be to the color for which the charioteer drove more than for the individual driver. Charioteers could change faction allegiance and race for different colors during their careers, but the fans did not change their allegiance to their color.
The Blues and the Greens were now more than simply sports teams. They gained influence in military, political,[k] and theological matters, although the hypothesis that the Greens tended towards Monophysitism and the Blues represented Orthodoxy is disputed. It is now widely believed that neither of the factions had any consistent religious bias or allegiance, in spite of the fact that they operated in an environment fraught with religious controversy. According to some scholars, the Blue-Green rivalry contributed to the conditions that underlay the rise of Islam, while factional enmities were exploited by the Sassanid Empire in its conflicts with the Byzantines during the century preceding Islam's advent.[l]
The Blue-Green rivalry often erupted into gang warfare, and street violence had been on the rise in the reign of Justin I (r. 518–527), who took measures to restore order, when the gangs murdered a citizen in the Hagia Sophia. Riots culminated in the Nika riots of 532 AD during the reign of Justinian, which began when the two main factions united and attempted unsuccessfully to overthrow the emperor.
Chariot racing seems to have declined in the course of the seventh century, with the losses the Empire suffered at the hands of the Arabs and the decline of the population and economy. The Blues and Greens, deprived of any political power, were relegated to a purely ceremonial role. After the Nika riots, the factions grew less violent as their importance in imperial ceremony increased. In particular, the iconoclast emperor Constantine V (r. 741–775) courted the factions for their support in his campaigns against the monks. They aided the emperor in executing his prisoners and by putting on shows in which monks and nuns held hands while the crowd hissed at them. Constantine V seems to have given the factions a political role in addition to their traditionally ceremonial role. The two factions continued their activity until the imperial court was moved to Blachernae during the 12th century.
The Hippodrome in Constantinople remained in use for races, games, and public ceremonies up to the sack of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204. In the 12th century, Emperor Manuel I Komnenos (r. 1143–1180) even staged Western-style jousting matches in the Hippodrome. During the sack of 1204, the Crusaders looted the city and, among other things, removed the copper quadriga that stood above the carceres; it is now displayed at St. Mark's Cathedral in Venice. Thereafter, the Hippodrome was neglected, although still occasionally used for spectacles. A print of the Hippodrome from the fifteenth century shows a derelict site, a few walls still standing, and the spina, the central reservation, robbed of its splendor. Today, only the obelisks and the Serpent Column stand where for centuries the spectators gathered. In the West, the games had ended much sooner; by the end of the fourth century public entertainments in Italy had come to an end in all but a few towns. The last recorded chariot race in Rome itself took place in the Circus Maximus in 549 AD.
Media related to Chariot racing at Wikimedia Commons | 6,043 | ENGLISH | 1 |
For today’s Winner Wednesday, the book that will be examined is The Snowy Day by Ezra Jack Keats. This book was the Caldecott winner in 1963.
The Snowy Day is the story of a young boy’s adventures in the snow on a very snowy day. The story follows Peter as he explores his new, snow-covered surroundings and entertains himself in the snow. He puts a snowball in his pocket, and is sad when it is no longer there. Children will definitely enjoy this story, as most young children can relate to this experience in playing and experimenting in a snowy environment.
The illustration in the book are truly superb. They are made of painted materials that look as though they are cut up and reglued into different arrangements. They capture the feeling of the world you know being transformed by a huge snowstorm. They also help you see the world from the eyes of a child, as the snow piles truly look like looming mountains.
In recent years, this book has faced some backlash. The book has an African American protagonist, but was written by a Caucasian author. Some think that this is an insult to African American authors. However, it was written when very few books with African American characters were published at all. It shows an African American boy experiencing a universal childhood experience that transcends race. This book was very important at the time, as it showed that children who may not look alike can have similar experiences and can find commonalities. It also allowed for African American children to see themselves represented in a book, not as the side character, but as the main character. This book is important in the history and evolution of children’s literature, even if it can be replaced today by a more relevant story. | <urn:uuid:3ae3ed79-4ee3-429f-85fd-d4e1cfe78bd0> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://neelysnews.wordpress.com/2019/12/04/winner-wednesday-the-snowy-day/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00411.warc.gz | en | 0.984937 | 358 | 3.796875 | 4 | [
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... | 2 | For today’s Winner Wednesday, the book that will be examined is The Snowy Day by Ezra Jack Keats. This book was the Caldecott winner in 1963.
The Snowy Day is the story of a young boy’s adventures in the snow on a very snowy day. The story follows Peter as he explores his new, snow-covered surroundings and entertains himself in the snow. He puts a snowball in his pocket, and is sad when it is no longer there. Children will definitely enjoy this story, as most young children can relate to this experience in playing and experimenting in a snowy environment.
The illustration in the book are truly superb. They are made of painted materials that look as though they are cut up and reglued into different arrangements. They capture the feeling of the world you know being transformed by a huge snowstorm. They also help you see the world from the eyes of a child, as the snow piles truly look like looming mountains.
In recent years, this book has faced some backlash. The book has an African American protagonist, but was written by a Caucasian author. Some think that this is an insult to African American authors. However, it was written when very few books with African American characters were published at all. It shows an African American boy experiencing a universal childhood experience that transcends race. This book was very important at the time, as it showed that children who may not look alike can have similar experiences and can find commonalities. It also allowed for African American children to see themselves represented in a book, not as the side character, but as the main character. This book is important in the history and evolution of children’s literature, even if it can be replaced today by a more relevant story. | 354 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The State of Guanabara (Portuguese: Estado da Guanabara, [ɡwanaˈbaɾa]) was a Brazilian city-state that existed from 1960 to 1975. It comprised only the city of Rio de Janeiro after the Federal District was moved from that city to Brasília in 1960. The state was named after Guanabara Bay, along its eastern coast.
In 1834, the city of Rio de Janeiro was elevated to Imperial capital of the Empire of Brazil, but it was not part of any Brazilian province, having special status as the so-called "Neutral municipality" (Portuguese: Município Neutro). The surrounding Province of Rio de Janeiro (which did not include the city) had its capital city in Niterói. When Brazil became a republic in 1889, the city of Rio de Janeiro remained the national capital and became the Federal District (Portuguese: Distrito Federal), while the surrounding homonymous province became a state, still with Niterói as its capital.
When the national capital was moved to Brasília in 1960, a new Federal District was carved out of the state of Goiás to contain it, and the old Federal District became Guanabara State.
Throughout its 15-year existence, Guanabara was a unique state in many ways. Comprising only one city (albeit a large one), Guanabara was the smallest Brazilian state by land. It also had the peculiarity of being the only Brazilian state that was not divided into municipalities. Although for some practical purposes, it was sometimes counted as having one single municipality, and Rio de Janeiro was officially named its capital, there was no mayor, municipal legislature or any other municipal government institution there, as the city of Rio de Janeiro was directly administered by the state government. On the other hand, that also meant that the Guanabara state government had some functions that were normally assigned to municipalities elsewhere, such as regulating urban zoning, inspecting the safety of buildings, or issuing licenses for commercial venues, for example.
All the characteristics disappeared in 1975, when the states of Guanabara and Rio de Janeiro merged into a new, larger State of Rio de Janeiro. The city of Rio de Janeiro became a municipality of the new combined state and its new capital city. | <urn:uuid:51681f95-0475-4a76-a88e-506f9a52fb73> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://alchetron.com/Guanabara-%28state%29 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250610919.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123131001-20200123160001-00227.warc.gz | en | 0.982523 | 476 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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... | 1 | The State of Guanabara (Portuguese: Estado da Guanabara, [ɡwanaˈbaɾa]) was a Brazilian city-state that existed from 1960 to 1975. It comprised only the city of Rio de Janeiro after the Federal District was moved from that city to Brasília in 1960. The state was named after Guanabara Bay, along its eastern coast.
In 1834, the city of Rio de Janeiro was elevated to Imperial capital of the Empire of Brazil, but it was not part of any Brazilian province, having special status as the so-called "Neutral municipality" (Portuguese: Município Neutro). The surrounding Province of Rio de Janeiro (which did not include the city) had its capital city in Niterói. When Brazil became a republic in 1889, the city of Rio de Janeiro remained the national capital and became the Federal District (Portuguese: Distrito Federal), while the surrounding homonymous province became a state, still with Niterói as its capital.
When the national capital was moved to Brasília in 1960, a new Federal District was carved out of the state of Goiás to contain it, and the old Federal District became Guanabara State.
Throughout its 15-year existence, Guanabara was a unique state in many ways. Comprising only one city (albeit a large one), Guanabara was the smallest Brazilian state by land. It also had the peculiarity of being the only Brazilian state that was not divided into municipalities. Although for some practical purposes, it was sometimes counted as having one single municipality, and Rio de Janeiro was officially named its capital, there was no mayor, municipal legislature or any other municipal government institution there, as the city of Rio de Janeiro was directly administered by the state government. On the other hand, that also meant that the Guanabara state government had some functions that were normally assigned to municipalities elsewhere, such as regulating urban zoning, inspecting the safety of buildings, or issuing licenses for commercial venues, for example.
All the characteristics disappeared in 1975, when the states of Guanabara and Rio de Janeiro merged into a new, larger State of Rio de Janeiro. The city of Rio de Janeiro became a municipality of the new combined state and its new capital city. | 499 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Negro baseball leagues have a deep historical significance. Racism and “Jim Crow” laws encouraged segregation of African-Americans and whites. Arguably, the players on the negro baseball leagues were some of the best ever. Even today they are still being recognized and honored for their wonderful contribution to baseball as a whole. It started when major league owners had made a “gentleman’s agreement” to keep blacks from playing in the game. The barrier that went up was finally broken with a few black players being signed into white teams in the 1940s. It was once said by Martin Luther King Jr., “[Segregation] gives the segregator a false sense of superiority, it gives the segregated a false sense of inferiority.” While that is true of the times and conditions, I tend to believe that the negro baseball players had a different type of pride that kept them strong and helped blacks eventually gain equality. This still affects us as a society because we will always continue to look for equal opportunity.
African-American baseball players had been a part of professional baseball when it was first starting in the 1880s. Some black players had signed a contract already with their team, but the International League banned blacks from signing anymore. Blacks that were already under contract were able to finish until it was up, but they were not allowed to renew it. Ever since that, Major League Baseball was a segregated sport until the late 1940s. The major league owners had conspired together and wrote what was called a “gentlemen's agreement” to keep black players out of the game. This did not stop African-Americans from achieving their goal of playing baseball. They organized their own teams and played “pickup games” with anyone that would play them, until 1920 when they finally organized a negro league.
The negro leagues got started by forming teams. The first all-black team formed in 1894 called the Page Fence Giants was from Michigan. Other teams followed later and traveled throughout the country playing each other in “pickup games”. In 1920, Rube Foster, who had been a pitcher-manager with other teams, organized the first Negro National League. He had financial backing to support the eight teams he organized. The teams consisted of the Chicago American Giants, Chicago Giants, Dayton Marcos, Detroit Stars, Indianapolis ABCs, Kansas City Monarchs, St. Louis Giants, and Cuban Stars. With these teams he controlled all the operations from equipment to scheduling games to selling tickets. Foster wanted to add structure to baseball leagues to prove that it didn’t have to be run the way whites do. He also wanted to show white baseball league members that his ideas were good. “The attitude of the white majority was, there is nothing you can possesses that we cannot take away.” ("Negro Leagues." Major League Baseball, 2014. Web. 12 Jan 2014.)
The Negro League players were the best at entertaining the crowd. They would impress the audience by playing an... | <urn:uuid:a7849316-01f9-42ae-8ed4-81ce329e38b1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://brightkite.com/essay-on/the-historic-need-for-negro-baseball-leagues | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251671078.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125071430-20200125100430-00445.warc.gz | en | 0.99062 | 620 | 3.515625 | 4 | [
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0.03994765877... | 1 | Negro baseball leagues have a deep historical significance. Racism and “Jim Crow” laws encouraged segregation of African-Americans and whites. Arguably, the players on the negro baseball leagues were some of the best ever. Even today they are still being recognized and honored for their wonderful contribution to baseball as a whole. It started when major league owners had made a “gentleman’s agreement” to keep blacks from playing in the game. The barrier that went up was finally broken with a few black players being signed into white teams in the 1940s. It was once said by Martin Luther King Jr., “[Segregation] gives the segregator a false sense of superiority, it gives the segregated a false sense of inferiority.” While that is true of the times and conditions, I tend to believe that the negro baseball players had a different type of pride that kept them strong and helped blacks eventually gain equality. This still affects us as a society because we will always continue to look for equal opportunity.
African-American baseball players had been a part of professional baseball when it was first starting in the 1880s. Some black players had signed a contract already with their team, but the International League banned blacks from signing anymore. Blacks that were already under contract were able to finish until it was up, but they were not allowed to renew it. Ever since that, Major League Baseball was a segregated sport until the late 1940s. The major league owners had conspired together and wrote what was called a “gentlemen's agreement” to keep black players out of the game. This did not stop African-Americans from achieving their goal of playing baseball. They organized their own teams and played “pickup games” with anyone that would play them, until 1920 when they finally organized a negro league.
The negro leagues got started by forming teams. The first all-black team formed in 1894 called the Page Fence Giants was from Michigan. Other teams followed later and traveled throughout the country playing each other in “pickup games”. In 1920, Rube Foster, who had been a pitcher-manager with other teams, organized the first Negro National League. He had financial backing to support the eight teams he organized. The teams consisted of the Chicago American Giants, Chicago Giants, Dayton Marcos, Detroit Stars, Indianapolis ABCs, Kansas City Monarchs, St. Louis Giants, and Cuban Stars. With these teams he controlled all the operations from equipment to scheduling games to selling tickets. Foster wanted to add structure to baseball leagues to prove that it didn’t have to be run the way whites do. He also wanted to show white baseball league members that his ideas were good. “The attitude of the white majority was, there is nothing you can possesses that we cannot take away.” ("Negro Leagues." Major League Baseball, 2014. Web. 12 Jan 2014.)
The Negro League players were the best at entertaining the crowd. They would impress the audience by playing an... | 619 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The late 1800s and early 1900s were a time of impressive innovation and growth for America. Unfortunately, the progress America enjoyed was unevenly shared with its people. Due to their living and working conditions, and lack of educational and economic opportunities, the sharecropper and working classes were virtually hopeless to rise to the middle class, while the middle class had every advantage to maintain status.
Sharecroppers lived in small, dirty shacks on the edge of their landowner’s territory. They ate off the land (usually whatever vegetables they grew). The entire family (children included) worked 10-14-hour days, 6 days per week to support the family. As such, the children were afforded little or often no access to education, which then limited their future ability to find better paying work in adulthood. The farmers were perpetually in debt due to the sharecropping arrangement — they were forced to plant whatever crops the landowner demanded (often inedible crops like cotton), they had no ownership of the land itself, and they had to give the landowner 50% share or more of the crop yielded. Furthermore, they often had to rent the farming equipment and take out loans to purchase the seeds, leaving them indebted from year to year. Since most sharecroppers were also African American, they were also treated as second-class citizens and forced to obey unfair and highly restrictive laws such as The Black Codes and Jim Crow Laws.
The working class, like the sharecroppers, lived in dilapidated conditions. Typically residing in tenements or shacks, their homes were cramped, dirty, and sometimes contained only but a handful personal items, as in a photo of an Italian immigrant living under the Rivington Street Dump, seen with barely a bed to sleep on, a few tattered blankets, a tin can, and a small trunk (all appearing utterly filthy). Disease ran rampant among them and nearly 25% of children born in cities died before age 1. Their diet, also like the sharecroppers, was limited to whatever they could afford, like potatoes ($0.01/potato) and oatmeal ($0.03/pound). Considering food for a family of 2 parents and 1 child could cost about $0.70/day, families had little choice but to sometimes forgo expensive steak or chops ($0.10/pound) in lieu of more affordable fish ($0.08/pound) or no meat at all. When work was in season, often the entire family worked 10-14-hour days, 6 to 7 days a week in jobs like mining, canning factory work, or building the Brooklyn Bridge for $2-5 per day — none of which offered unemployment or health insurance in precariously unsafe work environments, so when a worker was injured by workplace accident (which happened frequently as in the case of the Brooklyn Bridge leaving men invalid), they were simply left out of work and out of pay. While there were some non-obligatory opportunities for education (both for children and adults), the exhaustingly laborious days often left them too tired to attend. Those that did had unequal experiences due to America’s disjointed public education system, which left more than 4.5 million people illiterate in 1870 and 5.6 million people unable to write. Like the sharecropper families, these families were stuck in a cycle of poverty.
The middle class was a different story. They lived a Victorian lifestyle — the father worked a comfortable white-collar job such as an attorney, doctor, or banker, while the wife stayed home to care for a tidy household and children attended school. A patent attorney’s advertisement of the time listed agency fees starting at $10 for a single document, a hefty wage compared to the sharecroppers and working class. These jobs were less physically strenuous and usually had better working hours (perhaps 8-10 hours/day), leaving more time for family and leisure. The better pay meant they could save money and afford concrete block construction homes such as the modern home advertised by Sears for $1,995, filled well-made furnishings like couches, chairs, hutches, rugs, bookshelves, and curtains. Their cleaner surroundings meant a generally healthier lifestyle than their sharecropper and working-class counterparts. As their children became educated, they too had better odds of professional advancement.
With so many more advantages (educational, economic, or otherwise), the middle class was far-better positioned for success than the sharecropping and working classes, who could hardly ascend from debt, let alone into the middle class. Though some still fell out of the middle class, these families clearly had opportunities the lower classes couldn’t dream of, and this made it vastly more likely for them to find a long-lasting position in middle class life. | <urn:uuid:3d329b2a-3afb-4899-8c93-0abfc7a84da1> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://essayhub.net/essays/the-status-of-sharecropper-and-working-classes-compared-to-the-middle-class-in-19th-century | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250601040.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120224950-20200121013950-00430.warc.gz | en | 0.984117 | 987 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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0.124144531786441... | 2 | The late 1800s and early 1900s were a time of impressive innovation and growth for America. Unfortunately, the progress America enjoyed was unevenly shared with its people. Due to their living and working conditions, and lack of educational and economic opportunities, the sharecropper and working classes were virtually hopeless to rise to the middle class, while the middle class had every advantage to maintain status.
Sharecroppers lived in small, dirty shacks on the edge of their landowner’s territory. They ate off the land (usually whatever vegetables they grew). The entire family (children included) worked 10-14-hour days, 6 days per week to support the family. As such, the children were afforded little or often no access to education, which then limited their future ability to find better paying work in adulthood. The farmers were perpetually in debt due to the sharecropping arrangement — they were forced to plant whatever crops the landowner demanded (often inedible crops like cotton), they had no ownership of the land itself, and they had to give the landowner 50% share or more of the crop yielded. Furthermore, they often had to rent the farming equipment and take out loans to purchase the seeds, leaving them indebted from year to year. Since most sharecroppers were also African American, they were also treated as second-class citizens and forced to obey unfair and highly restrictive laws such as The Black Codes and Jim Crow Laws.
The working class, like the sharecroppers, lived in dilapidated conditions. Typically residing in tenements or shacks, their homes were cramped, dirty, and sometimes contained only but a handful personal items, as in a photo of an Italian immigrant living under the Rivington Street Dump, seen with barely a bed to sleep on, a few tattered blankets, a tin can, and a small trunk (all appearing utterly filthy). Disease ran rampant among them and nearly 25% of children born in cities died before age 1. Their diet, also like the sharecroppers, was limited to whatever they could afford, like potatoes ($0.01/potato) and oatmeal ($0.03/pound). Considering food for a family of 2 parents and 1 child could cost about $0.70/day, families had little choice but to sometimes forgo expensive steak or chops ($0.10/pound) in lieu of more affordable fish ($0.08/pound) or no meat at all. When work was in season, often the entire family worked 10-14-hour days, 6 to 7 days a week in jobs like mining, canning factory work, or building the Brooklyn Bridge for $2-5 per day — none of which offered unemployment or health insurance in precariously unsafe work environments, so when a worker was injured by workplace accident (which happened frequently as in the case of the Brooklyn Bridge leaving men invalid), they were simply left out of work and out of pay. While there were some non-obligatory opportunities for education (both for children and adults), the exhaustingly laborious days often left them too tired to attend. Those that did had unequal experiences due to America’s disjointed public education system, which left more than 4.5 million people illiterate in 1870 and 5.6 million people unable to write. Like the sharecropper families, these families were stuck in a cycle of poverty.
The middle class was a different story. They lived a Victorian lifestyle — the father worked a comfortable white-collar job such as an attorney, doctor, or banker, while the wife stayed home to care for a tidy household and children attended school. A patent attorney’s advertisement of the time listed agency fees starting at $10 for a single document, a hefty wage compared to the sharecroppers and working class. These jobs were less physically strenuous and usually had better working hours (perhaps 8-10 hours/day), leaving more time for family and leisure. The better pay meant they could save money and afford concrete block construction homes such as the modern home advertised by Sears for $1,995, filled well-made furnishings like couches, chairs, hutches, rugs, bookshelves, and curtains. Their cleaner surroundings meant a generally healthier lifestyle than their sharecropper and working-class counterparts. As their children became educated, they too had better odds of professional advancement.
With so many more advantages (educational, economic, or otherwise), the middle class was far-better positioned for success than the sharecropping and working classes, who could hardly ascend from debt, let alone into the middle class. Though some still fell out of the middle class, these families clearly had opportunities the lower classes couldn’t dream of, and this made it vastly more likely for them to find a long-lasting position in middle class life. | 1,002 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Ghilman were introduced to the Abbasid Caliphate during the reign of al-Mu'tasim (r. 833-842), who showed them great favor and relied upon them for his personal guard. The ghilman were slave-soldiers taken as prisoners of war from conquered regions or frontier zones, especially from among the Turkic people of Central Asia and the Caucasian peoples (Turkish: Kölemen). They fought in bands, and demanded high pay for their services. They were opposed by the native Arab population, and riots against the ghilman in Baghdad in 836 forced Mu'tasim to relocate his capital to Samarra. The ghilman rose rapidly in power and influence, and under the weak rulers that followed Mu'tasim, they became king-makers: they revolted several times during the so-called "Anarchy at Samarra" in the 860s and killed four caliphs. Eventually, starting with Ahmad ibn Tulun in Egypt, some of them became autonomous rulers and established dynasties of their own, leading to the dissolution of the Abbasid Caliphate by the mid-10th century.
A ghulam was trained and educated at his master's expense and could earn his freedom through his dedicated service. Ghilman were required to marry Turkic slave-women, who were chosen for them by their masters. Some ghilman seem to have lived celibate lives. The absence of family life and offspring was possibly one of the reasons why ghilman, even when attaining power, generally failed to start dynasties or proclaim their independence. The only exception to this was the Ghaznavid dynasty of Afghanistan. | <urn:uuid:ce2decd3-1d7f-4918-8302-cd996e6d6267> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.popflock.com/learn?s=Ghilman | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250611127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123160903-20200123185903-00413.warc.gz | en | 0.990155 | 346 | 3.46875 | 3 | [
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0.43273818492... | 1 | Ghilman were introduced to the Abbasid Caliphate during the reign of al-Mu'tasim (r. 833-842), who showed them great favor and relied upon them for his personal guard. The ghilman were slave-soldiers taken as prisoners of war from conquered regions or frontier zones, especially from among the Turkic people of Central Asia and the Caucasian peoples (Turkish: Kölemen). They fought in bands, and demanded high pay for their services. They were opposed by the native Arab population, and riots against the ghilman in Baghdad in 836 forced Mu'tasim to relocate his capital to Samarra. The ghilman rose rapidly in power and influence, and under the weak rulers that followed Mu'tasim, they became king-makers: they revolted several times during the so-called "Anarchy at Samarra" in the 860s and killed four caliphs. Eventually, starting with Ahmad ibn Tulun in Egypt, some of them became autonomous rulers and established dynasties of their own, leading to the dissolution of the Abbasid Caliphate by the mid-10th century.
A ghulam was trained and educated at his master's expense and could earn his freedom through his dedicated service. Ghilman were required to marry Turkic slave-women, who were chosen for them by their masters. Some ghilman seem to have lived celibate lives. The absence of family life and offspring was possibly one of the reasons why ghilman, even when attaining power, generally failed to start dynasties or proclaim their independence. The only exception to this was the Ghaznavid dynasty of Afghanistan. | 352 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The origins of ice hockey have attracted heated debates in recent years. For a long time, ice hockey was believed to have originated from Indian lacrosse and field hockey and spread across Canada by British soldiers. In the later 1980s, some research showed the mention of a hockey-like game that was played in the early 1800s by the Micmac Indians. Researchers now believe that the mentioned game was the game that fundamentally spread through Canada and evolved to be the Ice Hockey sport that we know and love today.
The name ‘hockey,’ as the organized game is currently known, is said to have originated from ‘hoquet,’ a French word that refers to a shepherd’s stick. The designated play area of ice hockey is known as the rink. That term was used initially in the game of curling back in the 18th century.
The early ice hockey games allowed each team to field up to 30 players on the ice for each team. The goals were just two stones that were each placed across the length of the playing area and frozen into the ice. A ball was used instead of the puck. It is until 1860 that the use of a puck was first recorded. That game took place in Kingston Harbor in Ontario, Canada.
The first-ever public ice hockey game that was played indoors and recorded took place in Victoria, back in 1875. The game was between two student teams, both from McGill University. The game’s reputation of violence began from that very first recorded game, with The Daily British Whig reporting that fans fled in confusion after shins and heads were battered.
The first organized ice hockey team to have ever been formed was the McGill University Hockey Club, which was formed in the year 1877. The team tweaked the rules of the game and set a limit to the number of players that could be fielded at a time. | <urn:uuid:882ce1df-9154-4185-8406-f745f7cd4073> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://ncmp.ca/history-of-ice-hockey/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251694908.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20200127051112-20200127081112-00073.warc.gz | en | 0.992702 | 383 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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-0.15998242795467377... | 3 | The origins of ice hockey have attracted heated debates in recent years. For a long time, ice hockey was believed to have originated from Indian lacrosse and field hockey and spread across Canada by British soldiers. In the later 1980s, some research showed the mention of a hockey-like game that was played in the early 1800s by the Micmac Indians. Researchers now believe that the mentioned game was the game that fundamentally spread through Canada and evolved to be the Ice Hockey sport that we know and love today.
The name ‘hockey,’ as the organized game is currently known, is said to have originated from ‘hoquet,’ a French word that refers to a shepherd’s stick. The designated play area of ice hockey is known as the rink. That term was used initially in the game of curling back in the 18th century.
The early ice hockey games allowed each team to field up to 30 players on the ice for each team. The goals were just two stones that were each placed across the length of the playing area and frozen into the ice. A ball was used instead of the puck. It is until 1860 that the use of a puck was first recorded. That game took place in Kingston Harbor in Ontario, Canada.
The first-ever public ice hockey game that was played indoors and recorded took place in Victoria, back in 1875. The game was between two student teams, both from McGill University. The game’s reputation of violence began from that very first recorded game, with The Daily British Whig reporting that fans fled in confusion after shins and heads were battered.
The first organized ice hockey team to have ever been formed was the McGill University Hockey Club, which was formed in the year 1877. The team tweaked the rules of the game and set a limit to the number of players that could be fielded at a time. | 391 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Forty Acres and a Mule in the 21st Century
After the Civil War in the South, the phrase “forty acres and a mule” was a well-known phrase. This phrase referred to the rights that blacks had gained to own their own land due to the unpaid labor that they had gone through during the period of slavery. Primarily, the Freedman’s Bureau was put in charge of dividing abandoned and confiscated land into forty-acre tracts for sale to the former slaves of the South. Although, this was the original intent of the nation during the Reconstruction Period, redistribution eventually failed and lands were given back to white owners. Despite the fact that the actual act of slavery no longer remained, the remnants of slavery were left behind in social context. Slavery ended years ago, African Americans today are greatly affected by the social racism that takes place every day in the South. Racism is something that is still very much present in today’s society and still portrays what the black slaves had to go through before the Civil War. The question is: should every African American be compensated for what their ancestors had to struggle through? Or is this really fair to the whites in America who have gone through very hard times as well?
I think that the “forty acres and a mule” that the former slaves were promised really portrays the trust that Americans truly have for each other and the truthfulness that remains of our history. They promised the blacks a right to land of their own-but not only that; a place for their families to live and be able to become successful as a farmer rather than a slave; a place where their descendants could find a better life and not have to go what they went through. Although these blacks present in America after the Civil War were poorly treated, all that they went through has no connection to the blacks in America today. I believe that the American spirit is the right to EARN what you get and WORK HARD for...
Cited: Darity, William Jr. Forty Acres and a Mule in the 21st Century.
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | <urn:uuid:546a792d-2d94-477a-853b-ba66aea7abcc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.studymode.com/essays/Racism-1377856.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00014.warc.gz | en | 0.985362 | 439 | 4.03125 | 4 | [
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After the Civil War in the South, the phrase “forty acres and a mule” was a well-known phrase. This phrase referred to the rights that blacks had gained to own their own land due to the unpaid labor that they had gone through during the period of slavery. Primarily, the Freedman’s Bureau was put in charge of dividing abandoned and confiscated land into forty-acre tracts for sale to the former slaves of the South. Although, this was the original intent of the nation during the Reconstruction Period, redistribution eventually failed and lands were given back to white owners. Despite the fact that the actual act of slavery no longer remained, the remnants of slavery were left behind in social context. Slavery ended years ago, African Americans today are greatly affected by the social racism that takes place every day in the South. Racism is something that is still very much present in today’s society and still portrays what the black slaves had to go through before the Civil War. The question is: should every African American be compensated for what their ancestors had to struggle through? Or is this really fair to the whites in America who have gone through very hard times as well?
I think that the “forty acres and a mule” that the former slaves were promised really portrays the trust that Americans truly have for each other and the truthfulness that remains of our history. They promised the blacks a right to land of their own-but not only that; a place for their families to live and be able to become successful as a farmer rather than a slave; a place where their descendants could find a better life and not have to go what they went through. Although these blacks present in America after the Civil War were poorly treated, all that they went through has no connection to the blacks in America today. I believe that the American spirit is the right to EARN what you get and WORK HARD for...
Cited: Darity, William Jr. Forty Acres and a Mule in the 21st Century.
Please join StudyMode to read the full document | 427 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Paper type: Essay Pages: 4 (847 words)
The tomb painters were more of artisans than they were artists in ancient Egypt. The reason for this is they didn’t typically come up with the ideas for what they were painting in the tombs; they were told what to paint and painted it. Artists would have had free range on what to paint rather than being told what to paint exactly. Artisans are more the people who can actually paint someone’s idea who might not be able to design or paint the idea given.
One rationale reason for cave paintings in prehistoric times, that I have heard and agree with is that they painted these things on the walls in hope that the creatures would come so they would have food among other things. One particular example would be all the paintings in the Las Caux cave in France; it is a cave entirely full of images of bulls. Bulls or bison were a source of not only food but probably clothing and they could use other parts of the body for various things.
These animals were extremely important for their culture to survive.
I believe they painted them on the walls not only to honor the creatures for all they did to help their people but also as wishful thinking. It’s the whole “if you build it they will come” idea, if the people painted these animals maybe something miraculously would help their hunting season better. This theory helps show how they believed in gods and looked for help from a higher being just like we do now. 3. During ancient times goddess statues were extremely popular all over the then world.
One of the most famous goddess statues is the Venus of Willendorf. She is the very first goddess statue that has been found and dates back to 24,000 bce. She is a very small pudgy statue with and large female areas; her face is not there and is replaces with grooves. The statue has no feet and cannot stand on its own. The way that the statue was created shows the importance of fertility and women by not only the enlarged breast but the wide hips that would be of assistance when it comes to giving birth.
They most likely used this little statue to wish new couples luck when it comes to reproducing and it was a fertility statue. Modern day has a much different view on our “goddess” culture. People nowadays look up to Barbie dolls and stick thin models and celebrities. So much has changed since then. The prehistoric times and even up until more recent times believed that fuller women were beautiful and even that it showed wealth. I think that our culture looks up to the wrong people when it comes to our versions of a “goddess culture”.
One Mesopotamian civilization that I like is Babylon. It was a land in the Fertile Crescent between the rivers like most civilizations in that time period. They had one of the most influential and important leaders, Hammurabi, who came up with one of the most well known set of laws or Hammurabi’s code. Babylon also was the home of one of the Seven Wonders of the World the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. Babylon was a very well set up society and really changed the way people governed their civilizations.
They were one of the first cultures to write down their set of rules and stick by them through thick and thin and that was entirely new. Question 1: When it comes to restoring artwork it is a tricky subject. I think that they should restore art but not add anything to it because it makes it a different then it was originally portrayed. I think restoring the art so it is in full form is ideally good because we want future generations to see the pieces of art the way they were meant to be viewed.
I mean yes, it is using a lot of time and a lot of hours to be fixing something that is broken and old, but it’s our history. If these artifacts were not there we would have no look into our past and how people lived. People should fix up old paintings, statues and buildings because not only is it part of history but it’s incredible to see how people could build such magnificent things without the technology we have today. It makes people appreciate what they have now and all the advances we have gone through.
When it is 300,000 years from now and out pictures and buildings are slowly falling apart we would want someone to take their time and interest to fix up something that we once held as a huge part of our lives and our society. If the paintings, statues and buildings were built and built so beautifully they were made that way for a reason. Art is art and I think we should do everything humanly possible to keep this world as beautiful through the decades as it was meant to be when they first were displayed.
Cite this page
Art History Midterm. (2018, Oct 30). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/art-history-midterm-essay | <urn:uuid:21180d76-6da8-48c5-8e4e-739cc959fcc8> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://studymoose.com/art-history-midterm-essay | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00203.warc.gz | en | 0.989392 | 1,022 | 3.34375 | 3 | [
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The tomb painters were more of artisans than they were artists in ancient Egypt. The reason for this is they didn’t typically come up with the ideas for what they were painting in the tombs; they were told what to paint and painted it. Artists would have had free range on what to paint rather than being told what to paint exactly. Artisans are more the people who can actually paint someone’s idea who might not be able to design or paint the idea given.
One rationale reason for cave paintings in prehistoric times, that I have heard and agree with is that they painted these things on the walls in hope that the creatures would come so they would have food among other things. One particular example would be all the paintings in the Las Caux cave in France; it is a cave entirely full of images of bulls. Bulls or bison were a source of not only food but probably clothing and they could use other parts of the body for various things.
These animals were extremely important for their culture to survive.
I believe they painted them on the walls not only to honor the creatures for all they did to help their people but also as wishful thinking. It’s the whole “if you build it they will come” idea, if the people painted these animals maybe something miraculously would help their hunting season better. This theory helps show how they believed in gods and looked for help from a higher being just like we do now. 3. During ancient times goddess statues were extremely popular all over the then world.
One of the most famous goddess statues is the Venus of Willendorf. She is the very first goddess statue that has been found and dates back to 24,000 bce. She is a very small pudgy statue with and large female areas; her face is not there and is replaces with grooves. The statue has no feet and cannot stand on its own. The way that the statue was created shows the importance of fertility and women by not only the enlarged breast but the wide hips that would be of assistance when it comes to giving birth.
They most likely used this little statue to wish new couples luck when it comes to reproducing and it was a fertility statue. Modern day has a much different view on our “goddess” culture. People nowadays look up to Barbie dolls and stick thin models and celebrities. So much has changed since then. The prehistoric times and even up until more recent times believed that fuller women were beautiful and even that it showed wealth. I think that our culture looks up to the wrong people when it comes to our versions of a “goddess culture”.
One Mesopotamian civilization that I like is Babylon. It was a land in the Fertile Crescent between the rivers like most civilizations in that time period. They had one of the most influential and important leaders, Hammurabi, who came up with one of the most well known set of laws or Hammurabi’s code. Babylon also was the home of one of the Seven Wonders of the World the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. Babylon was a very well set up society and really changed the way people governed their civilizations.
They were one of the first cultures to write down their set of rules and stick by them through thick and thin and that was entirely new. Question 1: When it comes to restoring artwork it is a tricky subject. I think that they should restore art but not add anything to it because it makes it a different then it was originally portrayed. I think restoring the art so it is in full form is ideally good because we want future generations to see the pieces of art the way they were meant to be viewed.
I mean yes, it is using a lot of time and a lot of hours to be fixing something that is broken and old, but it’s our history. If these artifacts were not there we would have no look into our past and how people lived. People should fix up old paintings, statues and buildings because not only is it part of history but it’s incredible to see how people could build such magnificent things without the technology we have today. It makes people appreciate what they have now and all the advances we have gone through.
When it is 300,000 years from now and out pictures and buildings are slowly falling apart we would want someone to take their time and interest to fix up something that we once held as a huge part of our lives and our society. If the paintings, statues and buildings were built and built so beautifully they were made that way for a reason. Art is art and I think we should do everything humanly possible to keep this world as beautiful through the decades as it was meant to be when they first were displayed.
Cite this page
Art History Midterm. (2018, Oct 30). Retrieved from https://studymoose.com/art-history-midterm-essay | 1,004 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Womens Rights Beginning in the mid-19th century, several generations of woman suffragesupporters lectured, wrote, marched and disobeyed many rules to change in the Constitution. parades, silence and hunger strikes where used to demonstrate the need for a change in the constitution. Women struggled for their rights ,and they struggled equally to black americans who desired voting rights as well(The Fifteenth Amendment., Susan Banfield pp.11-20). Women had it difficult in the mid-1800s to early 1900s. There was a difference in the treatment of men and women.
Married women were legally concidered a property of the man they married in the eyes of the law. Women were not allowed to vote. Married women had no property rights. Women were not allowed to enter professions such as medicine or law. Women had no means to gain an education since no college or university would accept women students.
Then the first Women’s Rights Convention was held on July 19 and 20 in 1848(What’s Right with America., Dwight Bohmach pp.261). The convention was convened as planned, and over the two-days of discussion, the Declaration of Sentiments and 12 resolutions received agreement endorsement, one by one, with a few amendments(http://www.nara.gov/education/teaching/ woman/home.html). The only resolution that did not pass unanimously was the call for women’s authorization. That women should be allowed to vote in elections was impossible to some. At the convention, debate over the woman’s vote was the main concern.
Women’s Rights Conventions were held on a regular basis from 1850 until the start of the Civil War. Some drew such large crowds that people had to be turned away for lack of meeting space. The women’s rights movement of the late 19th century went on to address the wide range of issues talked about at the Seneca Falls Convention. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and women like Susan B. Anthony, Lucy Stone, and Sojourner Truth, who were pioneer theorists, traveled the country lecturing and organizing for the next forty years. Winning the right to vote was the key issue, since the vote would provide the means to accomplish the other reforms.
The campaign for woman’s right to vote ran across continous opposition that it took 72 years for the women and their male supporters to win (When Hens Crow : the Woman’s Rights Movements in Antebellum America pp.66). During the Women’s Rights Movement, women faced incredible obstacles to win the American civil right to vote, which was later won in 1920.There were some very important women involved in the Women’s Right Movement. Esther Morris, who was the first woman to hold a judicial position, who led the first successful state campaign for woman’s right to vote, in 1869(What’s Right with America., Dwight Bohmach pp.260-263). Abigail Scott Duniway, the leader of the successful fight in the early 1900s. Ida B. Wells-Barnett and Mary Church Terrell, arrangers of thousands of African-American women who worked for the right to vote for all women. Anna Howard Shaw and Carrie Chapman Catt, leaders of the National American Woman Suffrage Association in the early years of the 20th century, who got the campaign to its final success.
If the suffrage movement had not been so ignored by historians, women like Lucretia Mott, Carrie Chapman Catt and Alice Paul would be as familiar to us as Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, or Martin Luther King, Jr. We would know how men took away the right to vote. We would know how women were betrayed after the Civil War, defeated and often cheated in election after election, and how they were forced to fight for their rights against the opposition, with virtually no financial, legal, or political power of their own. If the history of the suffrage movement was better known, we would understand that democracy, for the first 150 years of our nation’s existence, excluded more than half of the population. And we would realize that this situation changed only after one of the most remarkable and successful nonviolent efforts the world has ever seen.
The suffragists’ nonviolent approach was a logical strategy since a remarkable number of the movement’s prominent leaders, including Lucretia Mott, Susan B. Anthony, and Alice Paul, were Quakers and pacifists. They were committed to peaceful resistance and they were opponents of war and violence. And, they were clear about their goal: not victory over men, but equality with men. Women won the vote.
They were not given it or granted it. Women won it as truly as any political campaign is ultimately won or lost. And they won it by the slimmest of margins, which only underscores the difficulty and magnitude of their victories History Essays. | <urn:uuid:993b8ce9-7fd1-4028-a278-3ea6d2b8fdc7> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://thewop.org/womens-rights/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251783621.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20200129010251-20200129040251-00002.warc.gz | en | 0.982878 | 1,022 | 4.375 | 4 | [
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-0.080111287... | 3 | Womens Rights Beginning in the mid-19th century, several generations of woman suffragesupporters lectured, wrote, marched and disobeyed many rules to change in the Constitution. parades, silence and hunger strikes where used to demonstrate the need for a change in the constitution. Women struggled for their rights ,and they struggled equally to black americans who desired voting rights as well(The Fifteenth Amendment., Susan Banfield pp.11-20). Women had it difficult in the mid-1800s to early 1900s. There was a difference in the treatment of men and women.
Married women were legally concidered a property of the man they married in the eyes of the law. Women were not allowed to vote. Married women had no property rights. Women were not allowed to enter professions such as medicine or law. Women had no means to gain an education since no college or university would accept women students.
Then the first Women’s Rights Convention was held on July 19 and 20 in 1848(What’s Right with America., Dwight Bohmach pp.261). The convention was convened as planned, and over the two-days of discussion, the Declaration of Sentiments and 12 resolutions received agreement endorsement, one by one, with a few amendments(http://www.nara.gov/education/teaching/ woman/home.html). The only resolution that did not pass unanimously was the call for women’s authorization. That women should be allowed to vote in elections was impossible to some. At the convention, debate over the woman’s vote was the main concern.
Women’s Rights Conventions were held on a regular basis from 1850 until the start of the Civil War. Some drew such large crowds that people had to be turned away for lack of meeting space. The women’s rights movement of the late 19th century went on to address the wide range of issues talked about at the Seneca Falls Convention. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and women like Susan B. Anthony, Lucy Stone, and Sojourner Truth, who were pioneer theorists, traveled the country lecturing and organizing for the next forty years. Winning the right to vote was the key issue, since the vote would provide the means to accomplish the other reforms.
The campaign for woman’s right to vote ran across continous opposition that it took 72 years for the women and their male supporters to win (When Hens Crow : the Woman’s Rights Movements in Antebellum America pp.66). During the Women’s Rights Movement, women faced incredible obstacles to win the American civil right to vote, which was later won in 1920.There were some very important women involved in the Women’s Right Movement. Esther Morris, who was the first woman to hold a judicial position, who led the first successful state campaign for woman’s right to vote, in 1869(What’s Right with America., Dwight Bohmach pp.260-263). Abigail Scott Duniway, the leader of the successful fight in the early 1900s. Ida B. Wells-Barnett and Mary Church Terrell, arrangers of thousands of African-American women who worked for the right to vote for all women. Anna Howard Shaw and Carrie Chapman Catt, leaders of the National American Woman Suffrage Association in the early years of the 20th century, who got the campaign to its final success.
If the suffrage movement had not been so ignored by historians, women like Lucretia Mott, Carrie Chapman Catt and Alice Paul would be as familiar to us as Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, or Martin Luther King, Jr. We would know how men took away the right to vote. We would know how women were betrayed after the Civil War, defeated and often cheated in election after election, and how they were forced to fight for their rights against the opposition, with virtually no financial, legal, or political power of their own. If the history of the suffrage movement was better known, we would understand that democracy, for the first 150 years of our nation’s existence, excluded more than half of the population. And we would realize that this situation changed only after one of the most remarkable and successful nonviolent efforts the world has ever seen.
The suffragists’ nonviolent approach was a logical strategy since a remarkable number of the movement’s prominent leaders, including Lucretia Mott, Susan B. Anthony, and Alice Paul, were Quakers and pacifists. They were committed to peaceful resistance and they were opponents of war and violence. And, they were clear about their goal: not victory over men, but equality with men. Women won the vote.
They were not given it or granted it. Women won it as truly as any political campaign is ultimately won or lost. And they won it by the slimmest of margins, which only underscores the difficulty and magnitude of their victories History Essays. | 1,025 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Eanmund was a Swedishprince of the Scylfingdynasty. Unlike his relatives, Eanmund is only mentioned in Beowulf. Eanmund was the son of Ohthere and the brother of Eadgils. Ohthere was murdered by his younger brother Onela, who claimed the Swedish throne. Since, their uncle had usurped the throne and murdered their father, Eanmund and Eadgils sought refuge among the Geats. This caused Onela to attack the Geats, an attack which was also motivated by the fact that the Geatish king Heardred's father had killed Onela's grand-father Ongentheow. During the battle, Eanmund was killed by Onela's champion Weohstan and Heardred was killed as well. Eadgils, however, survived and later, Beowulf helped him avenge Eanmund and Ohthere by slaying Onela, an event which also appears in Scandinavian sources.
Weohstan took Eanmund's sword which was inherited by his son Wiglaf who used the sword when fighting the dragon together with Beowulf.
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Usage implies agreement with terms, 1022, m | <urn:uuid:ce93d028-bd9c-44ea-8ad1-e55d11a13d93> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | http://www.statemaster.com/encyclopedia/Eanmund | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00018.warc.gz | en | 0.983977 | 314 | 3.375 | 3 | [
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-0.0991228... | 1 | Eanmund was a Swedishprince of the Scylfingdynasty. Unlike his relatives, Eanmund is only mentioned in Beowulf. Eanmund was the son of Ohthere and the brother of Eadgils. Ohthere was murdered by his younger brother Onela, who claimed the Swedish throne. Since, their uncle had usurped the throne and murdered their father, Eanmund and Eadgils sought refuge among the Geats. This caused Onela to attack the Geats, an attack which was also motivated by the fact that the Geatish king Heardred's father had killed Onela's grand-father Ongentheow. During the battle, Eanmund was killed by Onela's champion Weohstan and Heardred was killed as well. Eadgils, however, survived and later, Beowulf helped him avenge Eanmund and Ohthere by slaying Onela, an event which also appears in Scandinavian sources.
Weohstan took Eanmund's sword which was inherited by his son Wiglaf who used the sword when fighting the dragon together with Beowulf.
Share your thoughts, questions and commentary here
Want to know more? Search encyclopedia, statistics and forums:
Press Releases |
The Wikipedia article included on this page is licensed under the
Images may be subject to relevant owners' copyright.
All other elements are (c) copyright NationMaster.com 2003-5. All Rights Reserved.
Usage implies agreement with terms, 1022, m | 317 | ENGLISH | 1 |
I do not know much about the history of photography, but I do know that photography started back in the 17th century due to my previous research on Polaroids. The first product produced to capture an image was called the Camera Obscura, which was a device with lens projecting an image from the outside in an upside down position onto a viewing frame so the image can be traced. The first permanent camera was produced in the mid-1820s by Nicephore Niepce and by the 19th century portable devices such as the Kodak was introduced. Later, the 35mm film was discovered and that was the start of a new revolution for photography—black-and-white film, to Polaroids, and finally digital.
From this course I hope to learn more about the history of photography of what I don’t already know. I would also like to explore the different parts of the world that were exposed to photography in the early ages and how it has changed. I am excited to learn why, where, and when photography came about in the world and how its existent grew and developed over time. | <urn:uuid:2c58688b-892c-43e6-8ac4-b59bc427e228> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://ospace.otis.edu/jamie_guan/Reflections11 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250609478.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20200123071220-20200123100220-00258.warc.gz | en | 0.988919 | 228 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.5226976871490479... | 1 | I do not know much about the history of photography, but I do know that photography started back in the 17th century due to my previous research on Polaroids. The first product produced to capture an image was called the Camera Obscura, which was a device with lens projecting an image from the outside in an upside down position onto a viewing frame so the image can be traced. The first permanent camera was produced in the mid-1820s by Nicephore Niepce and by the 19th century portable devices such as the Kodak was introduced. Later, the 35mm film was discovered and that was the start of a new revolution for photography—black-and-white film, to Polaroids, and finally digital.
From this course I hope to learn more about the history of photography of what I don’t already know. I would also like to explore the different parts of the world that were exposed to photography in the early ages and how it has changed. I am excited to learn why, where, and when photography came about in the world and how its existent grew and developed over time. | 229 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Advantages/Disadvantages of Rev. Conflict
There are advantages and disadvantages in every conflict that can both be tiny details or perhaps change the whole course of the war. In the Revolutionary battle, there were many advantages and disadvantages of either area. America and Britain both equally had various things working for all of them or against them, many of these things had been very significant by the end of the war. Though both sides had various pros and cons, America's advantages outweighed the ones from the Uk.
In the war, America got many things working for them, which include familiarity of the land, quick access to supply lines, aid from abroad, and the determination of struggling for a cause. The People in america were extremely familiar with a lot of the lands that they can fought in, giving them the strategical edge. The supply lines in America were very important to the soldiers having munitions, meals, and medical supplies to armies quickly in order for them to have the ability to fight again fast. An important advantage the Americans experienced in the warfare was the support from the People from france, getting supplies and troops. The most important advantage for the People in the usa was creating a cause to fight for. Thinking about freedom by an oppressive king and freedom of presidency gave the Patriots an extremely deep sense of determination to the trigger, which helped them to fight better. Although the Americans got many positive aspects, they did get their share of disadvantages coming into the warfare. The People in the usa were incredibly outnumbered by the British, having only nineteen, 000 males. The Us citizens were also terribly trained and poorly informed, making it difficult to inflict various casualties around the British army.
Throughout the war, the British had even more disadvantages then simply advantages. The war began with many United kingdom advantages like a giant armed service, a navy blue, and many speedy wins at the start of the warfare. The British army was composed of over 32, 000 soldiers, practically two times the size of the American's army. The soldiers were very well prepared and very well... | <urn:uuid:082e6e73-90f0-411f-bd3b-834239a8b5bc> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://gbcollegehoops.com/disadvantages-of/94444-advantagesdisadvantages-of-rev-conflict-essay.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250597458.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120052454-20200120080454-00062.warc.gz | en | 0.984476 | 418 | 3.53125 | 4 | [
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0.03903725370764... | 1 | Advantages/Disadvantages of Rev. Conflict
There are advantages and disadvantages in every conflict that can both be tiny details or perhaps change the whole course of the war. In the Revolutionary battle, there were many advantages and disadvantages of either area. America and Britain both equally had various things working for all of them or against them, many of these things had been very significant by the end of the war. Though both sides had various pros and cons, America's advantages outweighed the ones from the Uk.
In the war, America got many things working for them, which include familiarity of the land, quick access to supply lines, aid from abroad, and the determination of struggling for a cause. The People in america were extremely familiar with a lot of the lands that they can fought in, giving them the strategical edge. The supply lines in America were very important to the soldiers having munitions, meals, and medical supplies to armies quickly in order for them to have the ability to fight again fast. An important advantage the Americans experienced in the warfare was the support from the People from france, getting supplies and troops. The most important advantage for the People in the usa was creating a cause to fight for. Thinking about freedom by an oppressive king and freedom of presidency gave the Patriots an extremely deep sense of determination to the trigger, which helped them to fight better. Although the Americans got many positive aspects, they did get their share of disadvantages coming into the warfare. The People in the usa were incredibly outnumbered by the British, having only nineteen, 000 males. The Us citizens were also terribly trained and poorly informed, making it difficult to inflict various casualties around the British army.
Throughout the war, the British had even more disadvantages then simply advantages. The war began with many United kingdom advantages like a giant armed service, a navy blue, and many speedy wins at the start of the warfare. The British army was composed of over 32, 000 soldiers, practically two times the size of the American's army. The soldiers were very well prepared and very well... | 421 | ENGLISH | 1 |
1. ) American society wasn’t that democratic during the colonial days. Although it was much more democratic than England, it still wasn’t quite there yet. The constitution wasn’t signed and agreed upon until 1787, and before the turn of the 18th century, the colonies were a big mess. Most cities had an oligarchy, meaning a religious leader was in charge, making everyone abide by their rules, although it was often less religious and more on the tyrannical side. There wasn’t much separation of church and state.
The only people who could vote were members of the church in most colonies, although some colonies allowed white men who owned property to have the right of franchise. People were hung, flogged, and exiled. Indentured servants had it bad, and were accused of the littlest things. African American slaves were sold as property and had no rights. Women were confined to the house of their husband and were essentially treated as property as well. The beginning of New Netherland, of what was to soon become New York, the Dutch established a patroon system, in which feudal-like rights were given to the few wealthy and powerful landholders.
In Virginia, the colonial assembly shared power with a royally appointed governor. Locally, the power was invested in county courts, which were self-appointed. Rhode Island began with an egalitarian constitution, which provided for majority rule in civility. In Massachusetts Bay colony, only members of the church were allowed to vote, but later on, landholders were given the right of franchise. New England was governed by the Dominion of New England for a short period of time, where governor Edmund Andros caused anger among the population.
A group of Bostonians captured Andros and the Dominion of New England was dissolved and colonial charters were given back. The middle colonies had a large degree of political diversity. In south Carolina, the proprietary government was evoked, but collapsed, selling all the colonies to the British crown. More towards the end of the 18th century, there were three distinct forms of government: Provincial, proprietary, and charter, although they were all subordinate to the feudal system of Great Britain and the monarch.
The provincial colonies, consisting of most of the southern colonies and some middle colonies, had a governor and council, and an assembly which were appointed by landowners of the province. The proprietary colonies were the majority of the middle colonies. These were colonies in which the land grants were given to a few people by the monarch and gave them the general powers of government, these colonies were subject to the control of the monarch and the governor and legislature were organized by the proprietaries. The charter colonies were all of New England.
In which representatives were given control of the land and powers of the legislative government. The powers were divided between the legislative, executive, and judicial functions. Colonial American society was becoming less equal in the sense that the only real participants were a handful of rich aristocrats. And although being the smaller percentage of the population, they still ran the governments. The difference in the social ladder was divided between the Aristocratic and rich, and the slaves, servants, and Indians.
The higher class was determined to create a large division between the two “populations”. 2. ) Some of the causes of the great awakening were the decline in church membership. The Half-way covenant was started because of this. The worldliness of people; the rise of sectarianism following immigration of Quakers, Lutherans, Presbyterians; the Doctrine of Arminianism: opposition to the idea of predestination, emphasis on freedom of will, belief in good works as a means of salvation; and the rise of skepticism all led to the Great Awakening.
George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards led the Great Awakening, reviving the feeling of God throughout the colonies and a sense of emotion into preaching instead of the dull sermons of the elder ministers. After the Great Awakening which began in the 1730’s, the belief that man was equal was quickly wide-spread. It spread Christianity to African-Americans and had a major part in reshaping the Congregational Church and Presbyterian Church. It also strengthened the small Baptist and Methodist congregations. It created a sense of democracy and also a political impact on the soon-to-occur American Revolution. | <urn:uuid:57aaf1d1-8049-43e9-a360-f8a6e440cd64> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://tbf-sa.co.za/democratic-colonial-america-cause-and-effect-of-the-great-awakening/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250599789.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20200120195035-20200120224035-00064.warc.gz | en | 0.988923 | 889 | 4.125 | 4 | [
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0.01055431... | 3 | 1. ) American society wasn’t that democratic during the colonial days. Although it was much more democratic than England, it still wasn’t quite there yet. The constitution wasn’t signed and agreed upon until 1787, and before the turn of the 18th century, the colonies were a big mess. Most cities had an oligarchy, meaning a religious leader was in charge, making everyone abide by their rules, although it was often less religious and more on the tyrannical side. There wasn’t much separation of church and state.
The only people who could vote were members of the church in most colonies, although some colonies allowed white men who owned property to have the right of franchise. People were hung, flogged, and exiled. Indentured servants had it bad, and were accused of the littlest things. African American slaves were sold as property and had no rights. Women were confined to the house of their husband and were essentially treated as property as well. The beginning of New Netherland, of what was to soon become New York, the Dutch established a patroon system, in which feudal-like rights were given to the few wealthy and powerful landholders.
In Virginia, the colonial assembly shared power with a royally appointed governor. Locally, the power was invested in county courts, which were self-appointed. Rhode Island began with an egalitarian constitution, which provided for majority rule in civility. In Massachusetts Bay colony, only members of the church were allowed to vote, but later on, landholders were given the right of franchise. New England was governed by the Dominion of New England for a short period of time, where governor Edmund Andros caused anger among the population.
A group of Bostonians captured Andros and the Dominion of New England was dissolved and colonial charters were given back. The middle colonies had a large degree of political diversity. In south Carolina, the proprietary government was evoked, but collapsed, selling all the colonies to the British crown. More towards the end of the 18th century, there were three distinct forms of government: Provincial, proprietary, and charter, although they were all subordinate to the feudal system of Great Britain and the monarch.
The provincial colonies, consisting of most of the southern colonies and some middle colonies, had a governor and council, and an assembly which were appointed by landowners of the province. The proprietary colonies were the majority of the middle colonies. These were colonies in which the land grants were given to a few people by the monarch and gave them the general powers of government, these colonies were subject to the control of the monarch and the governor and legislature were organized by the proprietaries. The charter colonies were all of New England.
In which representatives were given control of the land and powers of the legislative government. The powers were divided between the legislative, executive, and judicial functions. Colonial American society was becoming less equal in the sense that the only real participants were a handful of rich aristocrats. And although being the smaller percentage of the population, they still ran the governments. The difference in the social ladder was divided between the Aristocratic and rich, and the slaves, servants, and Indians.
The higher class was determined to create a large division between the two “populations”. 2. ) Some of the causes of the great awakening were the decline in church membership. The Half-way covenant was started because of this. The worldliness of people; the rise of sectarianism following immigration of Quakers, Lutherans, Presbyterians; the Doctrine of Arminianism: opposition to the idea of predestination, emphasis on freedom of will, belief in good works as a means of salvation; and the rise of skepticism all led to the Great Awakening.
George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards led the Great Awakening, reviving the feeling of God throughout the colonies and a sense of emotion into preaching instead of the dull sermons of the elder ministers. After the Great Awakening which began in the 1730’s, the belief that man was equal was quickly wide-spread. It spread Christianity to African-Americans and had a major part in reshaping the Congregational Church and Presbyterian Church. It also strengthened the small Baptist and Methodist congregations. It created a sense of democracy and also a political impact on the soon-to-occur American Revolution. | 879 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Contribution to Journalism of Charles Dickens.
Dickens’ most memorable and profound Journalistic contributions, it might be said, were his social criticisms. These social criticisms were also heavily entwined in his works of fiction. His narrative form of journalism enabled him to convey important opinions in a story-like way, and so possibly reached a wider readership. He also wrote short stories in newspapers and magazines under the pseudonym “Boz”. The intentions of his journalism reaching a wide readership are shown in “A Preliminary Word” for his journal in 1850 when he states “We hope to be the comrade and friend of many thousands of people, of both sexes, and of all ages and conditions” (Slater, p175-179). This conveys Dickens’ desire to reach a mass audience and give the lower classes a better understanding of news and events.
However, he also encouraged the better-off to treat the working classes kindly and with more respect, as well as trying to encourage changes being made to living conditions. The standard of life among the poor in the 19th Century has been described as “abysmally low” (Seaman, p43). This might be why Dickens’ article “To Working Men” passionately states that unless all readers “amend the dwellings of the poor, they are guilty, before God of wholesale murder.” (Dickens’, p467-470). This article ends suggesting that if people were more sympathetic to the poor, there would be more understanding between the two divisions in society.
In the aforementioned article, Dickens uses an example of a working-class man going against his awful predicament and saying “I will not bear it, and it shall not be!”. This seems to take his own opinions away by using another character's voice, but is still intended to inspire the reader to make a change. This impersonal style of writing was very much respected by one of Dickens’ employers, John Black editor of the Morning Chronicle, who said about his work that instead of just passing judgment “Boz” could “create works for other people to criticize.” (Slater, xii). The Morning Chronicle was a liberal Whig owned newspaper that was only second to The Times in circulation. Although referring to his reviews here, it could be argued that the same applies to his work as a social critic. For example pieces such as “A walk in a Workhouse” shows Dickens’ colourful use of the description of his surroundings such as people “crouching and drooping in corners.” (Slater, p236-237) Dickens is thus able to come across as impartial, even somewhat indifferent, but yet evince his topics passionately.
His observations and harsh descriptions of workhouses, for example, enable readers to visualize these horrid conditions themselves and so hopefully feel sympathetic. There was a large wealth disparity in Victorian England, but also a growing middle class. Dickens’ work was aimed at all to read, but people with more money were the ones who were able to afford newspapers every day. His artistic flair meant that strong opinions and injustices could be conveyed in an entertaining way to such people. It would therefore perhaps, unlike other journalists, seem less like preaching.
Dickens’ hatred of workhouses may come from his experience as a child of being sent to a shoe blacking factory when his father was sent to debtors’ prison. This was evidently a very difficult time in his life, as he describes that his hope of becoming a learned man was “crushed” (Forster, 22-23). For someone so eager to learn this was something that he was very upset about. Even after his father agreed to send him back to school, he never forgave his mother for wanting to send him back to the blacking factory. This experience most likely created some understanding and empathy for the poor that his readers may not have experienced, although he seemed to have a great sense of empathy and understanding inherently. It could be argued that Dickens’ experience at the blacking factory was over-dramatized and was just the “whining of a poor little rich boy” (Jordan, p4) .But his upbringing in a fairly middle-class home inspired him to want to go to school and get a decent job, and the longing for these basic rights would have certainly been shared by the fortuneless of Victorian England.
He also seemed to want to create sympathy for women on many occasions. This is shown in 1874 when he helped to create a “Home for Homeless Women”, which he later ran, and also in his article “Ignorance and Crime” (Slater p92-93). This article argues that statistically most women who commit crime have barely any education and usually no jobs, even saying they are “educated within the prison walls!”. This kind of view suggests that women were victims of their lack of education, which was quite surprising at a time when women’s issues were not widely brought into public view. Furthermore, another book states “Florence Nightingale’s campaign to establish nursing as a profession received support in the pages both of Household Words and All the year Round.” (Slater, p330-331).These actions were probably seen as quite revolutionary as it might have influenced others to call for women in proper education at a later date. Although Dickens’ just believed in giving girls and women basic household education such as needlework, his journalism may have had a greater effect contributed to females starting to rise up in society.
One of the most important recurring themes in Dickens’ work is that of education, and as he linked ignorance to crime, he also linked bad education to child depravity. This is also very important because it is evidence of how Dickens’ directed the attention of society to public institutions. Dickens hated terrorizing children, and in 1901 James L. Hughes wrote that his work about ignorance “Brought about the establishment of free schools in England.” (Hughes, pvii-17) In Demoralisation and total Abstinence Dickens hints to the fact that there should be education for all including the poor. If there were to be opened “new schools for poor people’s children” then in his opinion drunkenness would decline in poorer communities. He goes on to say “common sense and common duty should be taught in common terms”.This shows an understanding of different levels of communication, possibly why his own work was widely read.
Dickens also agreed with the ideas of Froebel when his article on Infant Gardens stated: “To make men and women better- it is a requisite to begin quite at the beginning.” (Hughes, p136) This refers to the importance of education at a very young age. It might, therefore, be argued that Dickens’ journalism enabled him to voice his opinions on the education system and so lead ultimately to reform. These ideas of children being allowed intellectual freedom also seemed to contrast with Victorian ideas of children being seen and not heard. Him being an imaginative and dramatic person himself, sought to aid the development of children’s imaginations stated in the preface of Household Words.
Although possibly influenced by societal changes at the time, such as the 1834 Poor Law Amendment Act, the burning of the Houses of Parliament, and the accession of Victoria amongst many things, it seems earlier things influenced Dickens. His experience of working in a factory as a child was an important influence, but also “the reading and the theatre-going were the raw materials, the sources of stimulation.” (Devries, p17.) He was able to experience the cultural benefits of the middle-class, and the factory work of the poor. These multifaceted life experiences all contributed to his creative output. His large amount of reading and theatre attendance definitely influenced Dickens, to the extent of him nearly taking a career in acting until gaining a good job as a journalist. Even whilst working in the blacking factory he would tell stories to his workmates, and was very highly imaginative. Therefore, it might be said that his cultural experiences were the most valuable in shaping his writing, or at least his desire to write. His creative need for expression was inherent, but perhaps the factory work inspired his future content.
The press at the time was also a powerful industry. During Dickens’ life newspapers became more valuable as enterprises than at any other time. By 1819 the Morning Chronicle was “making an annual profit from advertisements and sales of £12’400” (Smith, p79). Newspapers, however, were still quite risky to undertake. Dickens’ Daily News was nearly a failure, but survived. This was to become “The News Chronicle, one of the most important English newspapers of the last hundred years.” (Smith, p122). One of its contributors was Harriet Martineau, the first female to be a leader-writer in England. This may also be seen as an important step for the equality of women in journalism, and society itself. The newspaper in Victorian England had become a very important industry in its own right, as its capital belonged to itself because a large part of its revenue was drawn from advertising.
Slater, Michael, Dickens Journalism, The Amusements of the People and other Papers, JM Dent: London, 1996, 175-179.
Seaman, LCB, Victorian England , Aspects of English and Imperial History 1837-1901, The Chaucer Press: 1973, 43.
Dickens’, Charles, Selected Journalism 1850-1870, Penguin Books: New York , 1997, 467-470.
Slater, Michael, Dickens Journalism, The Amusements of the People and other Papers, JM Dent: London, 1996, xii.
Ibid, 236-237.
Forster, John, The life of Charles Dickens, Volume one, JM Dent: London, 1969, 22-23.
Jordan , John O., Charles Dickens, Cambridge University Press: London, 2001, 4.
Slater, Michael, Dickens Journalism, The Amusements of the People and other Papers, JM Dent: London, 1996, 92-93.
Slater, Michael, Dickens and Women, JM Dent: London, Melbourne and Toronto:1983, 330-331.
Hughes , James L., Dickens as an Educator, The Appleton Press, New York: 1901, vii-17.
Slater, Michael, Dickens Journalism, The Amusements of the People and other Papers, JM Dent: London, 1996, 163.
Hughes , James L., Dickens as An Educator, The Appleton Press, New York: 1901
DeVries, Duane, Dickens Apprentice Years- The Making of a Novelist, The Harvester Press Limited: New York, 1976, 17.
Smith, Anthony, The Newspaper an International History, Thames and Hudson: 1979, 79-122.
Ibid, p122. | <urn:uuid:31de98bd-400e-4445-8e8a-47aceb3ebe46> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://m.hausarbeiten.de/document/382012 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250589861.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117152059-20200117180059-00152.warc.gz | en | 0.9804 | 2,296 | 3.671875 | 4 | [
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0.165603905916... | 1 | The Contribution to Journalism of Charles Dickens.
Dickens’ most memorable and profound Journalistic contributions, it might be said, were his social criticisms. These social criticisms were also heavily entwined in his works of fiction. His narrative form of journalism enabled him to convey important opinions in a story-like way, and so possibly reached a wider readership. He also wrote short stories in newspapers and magazines under the pseudonym “Boz”. The intentions of his journalism reaching a wide readership are shown in “A Preliminary Word” for his journal in 1850 when he states “We hope to be the comrade and friend of many thousands of people, of both sexes, and of all ages and conditions” (Slater, p175-179). This conveys Dickens’ desire to reach a mass audience and give the lower classes a better understanding of news and events.
However, he also encouraged the better-off to treat the working classes kindly and with more respect, as well as trying to encourage changes being made to living conditions. The standard of life among the poor in the 19th Century has been described as “abysmally low” (Seaman, p43). This might be why Dickens’ article “To Working Men” passionately states that unless all readers “amend the dwellings of the poor, they are guilty, before God of wholesale murder.” (Dickens’, p467-470). This article ends suggesting that if people were more sympathetic to the poor, there would be more understanding between the two divisions in society.
In the aforementioned article, Dickens uses an example of a working-class man going against his awful predicament and saying “I will not bear it, and it shall not be!”. This seems to take his own opinions away by using another character's voice, but is still intended to inspire the reader to make a change. This impersonal style of writing was very much respected by one of Dickens’ employers, John Black editor of the Morning Chronicle, who said about his work that instead of just passing judgment “Boz” could “create works for other people to criticize.” (Slater, xii). The Morning Chronicle was a liberal Whig owned newspaper that was only second to The Times in circulation. Although referring to his reviews here, it could be argued that the same applies to his work as a social critic. For example pieces such as “A walk in a Workhouse” shows Dickens’ colourful use of the description of his surroundings such as people “crouching and drooping in corners.” (Slater, p236-237) Dickens is thus able to come across as impartial, even somewhat indifferent, but yet evince his topics passionately.
His observations and harsh descriptions of workhouses, for example, enable readers to visualize these horrid conditions themselves and so hopefully feel sympathetic. There was a large wealth disparity in Victorian England, but also a growing middle class. Dickens’ work was aimed at all to read, but people with more money were the ones who were able to afford newspapers every day. His artistic flair meant that strong opinions and injustices could be conveyed in an entertaining way to such people. It would therefore perhaps, unlike other journalists, seem less like preaching.
Dickens’ hatred of workhouses may come from his experience as a child of being sent to a shoe blacking factory when his father was sent to debtors’ prison. This was evidently a very difficult time in his life, as he describes that his hope of becoming a learned man was “crushed” (Forster, 22-23). For someone so eager to learn this was something that he was very upset about. Even after his father agreed to send him back to school, he never forgave his mother for wanting to send him back to the blacking factory. This experience most likely created some understanding and empathy for the poor that his readers may not have experienced, although he seemed to have a great sense of empathy and understanding inherently. It could be argued that Dickens’ experience at the blacking factory was over-dramatized and was just the “whining of a poor little rich boy” (Jordan, p4) .But his upbringing in a fairly middle-class home inspired him to want to go to school and get a decent job, and the longing for these basic rights would have certainly been shared by the fortuneless of Victorian England.
He also seemed to want to create sympathy for women on many occasions. This is shown in 1874 when he helped to create a “Home for Homeless Women”, which he later ran, and also in his article “Ignorance and Crime” (Slater p92-93). This article argues that statistically most women who commit crime have barely any education and usually no jobs, even saying they are “educated within the prison walls!”. This kind of view suggests that women were victims of their lack of education, which was quite surprising at a time when women’s issues were not widely brought into public view. Furthermore, another book states “Florence Nightingale’s campaign to establish nursing as a profession received support in the pages both of Household Words and All the year Round.” (Slater, p330-331).These actions were probably seen as quite revolutionary as it might have influenced others to call for women in proper education at a later date. Although Dickens’ just believed in giving girls and women basic household education such as needlework, his journalism may have had a greater effect contributed to females starting to rise up in society.
One of the most important recurring themes in Dickens’ work is that of education, and as he linked ignorance to crime, he also linked bad education to child depravity. This is also very important because it is evidence of how Dickens’ directed the attention of society to public institutions. Dickens hated terrorizing children, and in 1901 James L. Hughes wrote that his work about ignorance “Brought about the establishment of free schools in England.” (Hughes, pvii-17) In Demoralisation and total Abstinence Dickens hints to the fact that there should be education for all including the poor. If there were to be opened “new schools for poor people’s children” then in his opinion drunkenness would decline in poorer communities. He goes on to say “common sense and common duty should be taught in common terms”.This shows an understanding of different levels of communication, possibly why his own work was widely read.
Dickens also agreed with the ideas of Froebel when his article on Infant Gardens stated: “To make men and women better- it is a requisite to begin quite at the beginning.” (Hughes, p136) This refers to the importance of education at a very young age. It might, therefore, be argued that Dickens’ journalism enabled him to voice his opinions on the education system and so lead ultimately to reform. These ideas of children being allowed intellectual freedom also seemed to contrast with Victorian ideas of children being seen and not heard. Him being an imaginative and dramatic person himself, sought to aid the development of children’s imaginations stated in the preface of Household Words.
Although possibly influenced by societal changes at the time, such as the 1834 Poor Law Amendment Act, the burning of the Houses of Parliament, and the accession of Victoria amongst many things, it seems earlier things influenced Dickens. His experience of working in a factory as a child was an important influence, but also “the reading and the theatre-going were the raw materials, the sources of stimulation.” (Devries, p17.) He was able to experience the cultural benefits of the middle-class, and the factory work of the poor. These multifaceted life experiences all contributed to his creative output. His large amount of reading and theatre attendance definitely influenced Dickens, to the extent of him nearly taking a career in acting until gaining a good job as a journalist. Even whilst working in the blacking factory he would tell stories to his workmates, and was very highly imaginative. Therefore, it might be said that his cultural experiences were the most valuable in shaping his writing, or at least his desire to write. His creative need for expression was inherent, but perhaps the factory work inspired his future content.
The press at the time was also a powerful industry. During Dickens’ life newspapers became more valuable as enterprises than at any other time. By 1819 the Morning Chronicle was “making an annual profit from advertisements and sales of £12’400” (Smith, p79). Newspapers, however, were still quite risky to undertake. Dickens’ Daily News was nearly a failure, but survived. This was to become “The News Chronicle, one of the most important English newspapers of the last hundred years.” (Smith, p122). One of its contributors was Harriet Martineau, the first female to be a leader-writer in England. This may also be seen as an important step for the equality of women in journalism, and society itself. The newspaper in Victorian England had become a very important industry in its own right, as its capital belonged to itself because a large part of its revenue was drawn from advertising.
Slater, Michael, Dickens Journalism, The Amusements of the People and other Papers, JM Dent: London, 1996, 175-179.
Seaman, LCB, Victorian England , Aspects of English and Imperial History 1837-1901, The Chaucer Press: 1973, 43.
Dickens’, Charles, Selected Journalism 1850-1870, Penguin Books: New York , 1997, 467-470.
Slater, Michael, Dickens Journalism, The Amusements of the People and other Papers, JM Dent: London, 1996, xii.
Ibid, 236-237.
Forster, John, The life of Charles Dickens, Volume one, JM Dent: London, 1969, 22-23.
Jordan , John O., Charles Dickens, Cambridge University Press: London, 2001, 4.
Slater, Michael, Dickens Journalism, The Amusements of the People and other Papers, JM Dent: London, 1996, 92-93.
Slater, Michael, Dickens and Women, JM Dent: London, Melbourne and Toronto:1983, 330-331.
Hughes , James L., Dickens as an Educator, The Appleton Press, New York: 1901, vii-17.
Slater, Michael, Dickens Journalism, The Amusements of the People and other Papers, JM Dent: London, 1996, 163.
Hughes , James L., Dickens as An Educator, The Appleton Press, New York: 1901
DeVries, Duane, Dickens Apprentice Years- The Making of a Novelist, The Harvester Press Limited: New York, 1976, 17.
Smith, Anthony, The Newspaper an International History, Thames and Hudson: 1979, 79-122.
Ibid, p122. | 2,329 | ENGLISH | 1 |
The Atlantic campaign of May 1794 was a series of operations conducted by the British Royal Navy's Channel Fleet against the French Navy's Atlantic Fleet, with the aim of preventing the passage of a strategically important French grain convoy travelling from the United States to France. The campaign involved commerce raiding by detached forces and two minor engagements, eventually culminating in the full fleet action of the Glorious First of June 1794, at which both fleets were badly mauled and both Britain and France claimed victory. The French lost seven battleships; the British none, but the battle distracted the British fleet long enough for the French convoy to safely reach port.
The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were fought in the Hundred Years' War against the Kingdom of France. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century; the oldest of the UK's armed services, it is known as the Senior Service.
The Channel Fleet and originally known as the Channel Squadron was the Royal Navy formation of warships that defended the waters of the English Channel from 1854 to 1909 and 1914 to 1915.
The French Navy, informally "La Royale", is the maritime arm of the French Armed Forces. Dating back to 1624, the French Navy is one of the world's oldest naval forces. It has participated in conflicts around the globe and played a key part in establishing the French colonial empire.
By the spring of 1794, the French Republic, under the rule of the National Convention, was at war with all its neighbours. With famine imminent, the French Committee of Public Safety looked to France's colonies and the United States to provide an infusion of grain; this was to be convoyed across the Atlantic during April, May and June, accompanied by a small escort squadron and supported by a second, larger squadron in the Bay of Biscay. However, political upheaval had severely reduced the French Navy's ability to fight coherently and supply shortages had devastated its morale, significantly weakening the fleet. Britain, by contrast, was at a high state of readiness with a well-organised command structure, but was suffering from a severe shortage of trained seamen with which to man its large navy. The French Atlantic Fleet, under Admiral Villaret de Joyeuse, was tasked with keeping the British Channel Fleet occupied long enough for the convoy to reach France safely. The Channel Fleet, commanded by Lord Howe, knew of the convoy's passage, and dispatched squadrons to protect British commerce while pursuing Villaret himself with the main body of the Royal Navy's Channel Fleet. For over a week the two battlefleets manoeuvred around one another, Villaret drawing Howe deeper westwards into the Atlantic and away from the convoy. Two partial but inconclusive fleet actions on 28 and 29 May followed, during which Howe seized the weather gage from Villaret, granting him freedom to choose the time and place of his next attack.
The National Convention was the first government of the French Revolution, following the two-year National Constituent Assembly and the one-year Legislative Assembly. Created after the great insurrection of 10 August 1792, it was the first French government organized as a republic, abandoning the monarchy altogether. The Convention sat as a single-chamber assembly from 20 September 1792 to 26 October 1795.
The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of sweeping military conflicts lasting from 1792 until 1802 and resulting from the French Revolution. They pitted France against Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia and several other monarchies. They are divided in two periods: the War of the First Coalition (1792–97) and the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802). Initially confined to Europe, the fighting gradually assumed a global dimension. After a decade of constant warfare and aggressive diplomacy, France had conquered a wide array of territories, from the Italian Peninsula and the Low Countries in Europe to the Louisiana Territory in North America. French success in these conflicts ensured the spread of revolutionary principles over much of Europe.
A famine is a widespread scarcity of food, caused by several factors including war, inflation, crop failure, population imbalance, or government policies. This phenomenon is usually accompanied or followed by regional malnutrition, starvation, epidemic, and increased mortality. Every inhabited continent in the world has experienced a period of famine throughout history. In the 19th and 20th century, it was generally Southeast and South Asia, as well as Eastern and Central Europe that suffered the most deaths from famine. The numbers dying from famine began to fall sharply from the 2000s.
The culminating action of the campaign took place over 400 nautical miles (740 km) into the Atlantic, and became known as the Glorious First of June. This final engagement saw Howe use the weather gage to attack Villaret directly while his opponent attempted to fight in a traditional line of battle formation. In the battle, the British fleet inflicted a heavy defeat on the French after a bitterly contested day of fighting. Forcing Villaret to retreat, Howe's force captured seven French battleships, one of which later sank, and inflicted 7,000 casualties on the enemy. Villaret however, claimed strategic success as his delaying tactics had bought enough time for the convoy to reach France safely. The battle was the first in a series of defeats the French Navy suffered during the early years of the war, which bred a defeatist attitude and an unwillingness among the French officer corps to engage the British at sea.
In naval warfare, the line of battle is a tactic in which a naval fleet of ships forms a line end to end. Its first use is disputed, variously claimed for dates ranging from 1502 to 1652, with line-of-battle tactics in widespread use by 1675.
In the winter of 1793, war and internal disorder had combined with poor weather to leave France facing starvation following the collapse of the harvest.France's ongoing conflict with her neighbours precluded overland imports; the only nation willing and able to sell grain to the National Convention was the United States. Importing food from the Americas was a highly risky venture, as the British Royal Navy—at war with France since early 1793—patrolled much of the Atlantic passage. To provide effective protection for the vessels involved, a plan was agreed between France and the United States to collect the supplies over a period of months and transport them in a single convoy. A gathering point was arranged at Hampton Roads in the Chesapeake Bay.
Hampton Roads is the name of both a body of water that serves as a wide channel for the James, Nansemond and Elizabeth rivers between Old Point Comfort and Sewell's Point where the Chesapeake Bay flows into the Atlantic Ocean and the surrounding metropolitan region located in the Southeastern Virginia and Northeastern North Carolina portions of the Tidewater region.
The Chesapeake Bay is an estuary in the U.S. states of Maryland and Virginia. The Bay is located in the Mid-Atlantic region and is primarily separated from the Atlantic Ocean by the Delmarva Peninsula with its mouth located between Cape Henry and Cape Charles. With its northern portion in Maryland and the southern part in Virginia, the Chesapeake Bay is a very important feature for the ecology and economy of those two states, as well as others. More than 150 major rivers and streams flow into the Bay's 64,299-square-mile (166,534 km2) drainage basin, which covers parts of six states and all of Washington, D.C.
A squadron commanded by Admiral Pierre Vanstabel was dispatched to Hampton Roads to provide escort. Vanstabel would bring the convoy to the Bay of Biscay, where a second squadron under Joseph-Marie Nielly would reinforce him for the rest of the journey.Together, these officers mustered six ships of the line and numerous smaller craft. The main French battlefleet of 25 ships under Admiral Villaret de Joyeuse would cruise the Bay of Biscay in order to challenge the British Channel Fleet if it attempted to intercept the supplies. The convoy's passage was expected to take approximately two months, and it included 117 merchant ships carrying enough food to feed France for a year.
Joseph-Marie Nielly (1751–1833) was a French naval officer and admiral.
A cargo ship or freighter ship is a merchant ship that carries cargo, goods, and materials from one port to another. Thousands of cargo carriers ply the world's seas and oceans each year, handling the bulk of international trade. Cargo ships are usually specially designed for the task, often being equipped with cranes and other mechanisms to load and unload, and come in all sizes. Today, they are almost always built by welded steel, and with some exceptions generally have a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years before being scrapped.
Lord Howe, admiral of the British Channel Fleet, was aware of the convoy's nature and destination long before it left the Chesapeake, and made preparations to block its passage. Sending several small squadrons to protect British commerce crossing the Bay of Biscay, Howe detailed Admiral George Montagu with six battleships to search for the convoy in the south of the Bay while Howe took the main body of the fleet, 26 ships of the line, to patrol near Brest.
Admiral of the Fleet Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe, was a British naval officer. After serving throughout the War of the Austrian Succession, he gained a reputation for his role in amphibious operations against the French coast as part of Britain's policy of naval descents during the Seven Years' War. He also took part, as a naval captain, in the decisive British naval victory at the Battle of Quiberon Bay in November 1759.
Admiral Sir George Montagu was a Royal Navy officer, the second son of Admiral John Montagu, and the brother of Captain James Montagu and Lieutenant-Colonel Edward Montagu.
April 1794 was a month of fevered activity on both sides of the English Channel as Villaret and Howe made their final preparations for the coming campaign. The slow French convoy had departed American waters on 2 April, and British convoys destined for the Empire had sailed from Portsmouth on 2 May. Howe used his whole force to provide them with protection as far as the Western Approaches, and on 5 May sent the frigates HMS Latona and HMS Phaeton close in to Brest to ascertain the status of the French—they reported that Villaret's battlefleet was still in harbour.
Out in the Atlantic, the detached squadrons of Nielly (French) and Montagu (British) were commerce raiding against enemy merchant shipping, but had thus far failed to find the main food convoy. Nielly encountered a British convoy from Newfoundland and took ten ships as prizes—including the convoy escort, the 32-gun frigate HMS Castor.Thomas Troubridge, captain of the Castor, would spend the entire campaign aboard Nielly's flagship Sans Pareil. Montagu also met with some success on 15 May, recapturing the merchant ships Nielly had taken, along with the French corvette Marie-Guiton and accurate intelligence on the direction and size of the French convoy which Montagu immediately passed to Howe. Resuming his patrol in the Mid-Atlantic, Nielly found the convoy from America a few days later, and transferred two of his ships to Vanstabel's escort to augment the convoy's defences. He then returned to the Eastern Atlantic to look for signs of British activity which might pose a threat to its passage. He also dispatched frigates to Villaret, carrying information about the convoy's location and speed.
While Nielly and Montagu searched out at sea, Howe took his fleet on a series of cruises back and forth across the Bay of Biscay in the hope of catching the convoy. Between 5 and 18 May he found nothing and so returned to Brest, where his scouting frigates reported that the French battlefleet had gone.Taking advantage of dense fog, Villaret had sailed the previous day, his ships passing within earshot of the British fleet. The French admiral was on the trail of Nielly's squadron; his intention was to meet both Nielly and the convoy and combine forces; with superior numbers he would then be able to escort the convoy to France in safety. Having eluded Howe and still some days from his planned rendezvous, Villaret gained an unexpected success when he ran across a Dutch convoy of 53 vessels. Its escorts, Alliance and Waakzaamheid, fled at the sight of the approaching French fleet, and Villaret was free to attack the convoy, capturing 20 merchantmen.
Howe realised that the direction of Villaret's departure would take him directly across Admiral Montagu's planned route, and that, should Montagu meet Villaret, the British squadron would be destroyed.Setting all sail in pursuit, Howe followed Villaret into the Atlantic on 20 May. The next day Howe's ships recaptured ten of the lost Dutch merchantmen, but he was forced to burn them since crewing them with British sailors would weaken his own already understrength fleet. Prisoners from these ships gave Howe the information that the French fleet was only a short distance ahead, but that it had been joined by an additional ship from Nielly's squadron as well as several frigates. By now satisfied that Montagu was safely to the southwest, Howe pressed on hoped to bring Villaret to battle within the week. On 23 May however, the British fleet was driven southwards by strong winds and had to slowly work its way north to find the French track again. The detour did however enable him to recapture and destroy four more of Villaret's Dutch prizes.
On the morning of 25 May Howe's pursuit finally bore fruit, when his scouting frigates spotted a lone French ship of the line at 04:00. This ship sighted Howe's force at the same time, and immediately made off in the direction of the French fleet. The fleeing battleship left behind an American merchant ship she had been towing, which when taken reported that the French ship was Audacieux, of Nielly's squadron.Pursuing Audacieux after burning the American prize, the British fleet also overran and burnt two French corvettes, the 20-gun Républicaine and 16-gun Inconnue. Continuing his chase over the next three days, on 28 May Howe's lookouts spotted the French on the eastern horizon slightly to the south, indicating that the French held the weather gage. [Note A]
With his enemy visible from the deck of his flagship by 06:30, Howe recalled his frigates and ordered his fleet to press on all sail in the hope of engaging the rear of the scattered French line.By 10:35 Howe's continued pursuit was making his own battleline ragged, but he pressed on in the belief that Villaret intended to use the weather gage to outrun him and escape. To counter this, Howe ordered his fastest ships into a flying squadron under Admiral Thomas Pasley. This squadron was significantly faster than the majority of the vessels in either fleet and rapidly closed with the French rear. The first shots of the engagement were fired at 14:30 by HMS Russell, commanded by John Willett Payne, which managed some long-distance fire at the rearmost French ships on the opposite tack. Fire was returned by the French but without significant effect. In an attempt to hold off Pasley's squadron, at 17:00 the French first rate 110-gun Révolutionnaire exchanged places with the smaller third rates at the rear of the line and engaged the pursuing British van. This manoeuvre was apparently conducted on the initiative of Captain Vandangel of Révolutionnaire without orders from Admiral Villaret or his political observer Jean Bon Saint-André.
Through a sharp and skilful tack, HMS Bellerophon, one of the slowest ships in the British van, succeeded in bringing the Révolutionnaire to steady action at 18:00. The ships exchanged fire for twenty minutes, the weaker Bellerophon taking severe damage to her rigging, and falling back to be replaced by HMS Marlborough under Captain George Cranfield Berkeley.Marlborough was joined by HMS Russell and HMS Thunderer, and between them they shot away much of the Révolutionnaire's rigging, so that by 19:30 she was unmanageable. HMS Leviathan also joined the action, firing at an unidentified ship ahead of Révolutionnaire. Concerned about Pasley's squadron becoming cut off from the main body of his fleet, Howe recalled them to the British line at 20:00. All complied except the newly arrived HMS Audacious under Captain William Parker. Audacious had engaged Révolutionnaire so closely that she could not safely withdraw, and although her gunnery eventually dismasted her huge opponent, Audacious took severe damage.
It was not until 22:00 that Audacious and Révolutionnaire disentangled themselves and limped apart—their respective fleets now some way off.Audacious's crew later claimed that Révolutionnaire had struck her colours during the engagement, although this has not been corroborated. Parker stated that he did not take possession of Révolutionnaire because he was concerned by the distant sighting of nine French battleships on the horizon. He had spotted a squadron under Commodore Jean-Joseph Castagnier, which was uninvolved in the current campaign and which soon disappeared without participating in any of the subsequent engagements. Audacious's crew made strenuous efforts to repair their ship and rejoin the British fleet during the night, but became disorientated and in the morning Audacious was still only half a mile from her former opponent.
Révolutionnaire had suffered much more severely than Audacious, but survived the encounter without being boarded thanks to a misread signal by Captain Albemarle Bertie of Thunderer, who failed to take possession of the dismasted three-decker when ordered to. 's captain was subsequently arrested.During the night Villaret sent reinforcements to rescue Révolutionnaire, and at dawn on 29 May Parker saw that his large opponent was soon to be supported by the undamaged ship of the line Audacieux, the frigate Bellone, and two corvettes. Once more Audacious came under fire from Révolutionnaire, leaving her no option but to flee this superior force. Audacious was chased for half an hour by Bellone and the corvettes, before losing them in a rain squall, and eventually returned to Plymouth on 3 June. Révolutionnaire also escaped pursuit and was taken under tow by Audacieux, who brought her safely to Rochefort several days later. For leaving the battlefleet before the main engagement, Révolutionnaire
With Audacious and Révolutionnaire lost in the dark behind them, both British and French fleets continued westwards towards the convoy rendezvous. At dawn on 29 May the British fleet saw Audacieux retiring to the east but did not follow, concentrating on the main French line with the hope of provoking a decisive engagement.Howe ordered his ships to pursue the enemy rear, and the British line was placed on a tack that was intended to cut through the French line and isolate and capture the ships east of the cut. Captain Anthony Molloy in HMS Caesar was chosen to lead the attack as his ship was the fastest in the fleet, but the manoeuvre was a complete failure due to the inexplicable refusal of Molloy to close with the enemy. Instead, Caesar and HMS Queen opened fire on the rearmost French ships from a distance. The vans of the opposing fleets then engaged in a long-range broadside duel from 10:00. This inflicted mild damage on both sides, the worst hit being the French Montagnard.
Having failed to cut the French line at his first attempt, Howe reissued the order at 12:30. Once more Caesar was to lead the way, with the intention of splitting the enemy fleet in half.Captain Molloy then refused to carry out the order, signalling without cause that Caesar was unable to tack and then turning and sailing eastwards down the outside of the British fleet, rather than towards the enemy. This unexpected move threw the following ships into a state of confusion; Queen, coming behind Caesar, attempted to obey Howe's signal alone but was badly damaged by shot, and her captain John Hutt mortally wounded. Unable to effectively manoeuvre, Queen passed down the outside of the French line, firing as she went.
His plan in tatters, Howe responded by example, leading his flagship HMS Queen Charlotte towards the French line which was rapidly slipping ahead of the British, steering around the meandering Caesar as he did so.Queen Charlotte first attempted to break through the French between the sixth and seventh ships from the rear, but was unable to reach this gap and instead sailed between the fifth and sixth, raking the sixth ship Eole from close range. Bellerophon and Lord Hugh Seymour in Leviathan followed close behind the flagship. Both battleships attempted to cut between the subsequent French ships; Bellerophon successfully, Leviathan prevented by damage to her helm. This manoeuvre changed the course of the battle, as Howe's ships isolated and raked the Terrible, Tyrannicide, and Indomptable, forcing Villaret to either abandon his ships or sacrifice the weather gage to save them.
As Howe pressed after the main body of the French fleet—now tailed by the damaged Terrible—the rest of his fleet followed, bombarding the already battered Tyrannicide and Indomptable as they passed.As HMS Orion, HMS Invincible, and HMS Barfleur cut through the French in turn, Villaret wore his fleet round to face Howe. Encouraged by Caesar's disobedience, he deliberately sacrificed the weather gage in the belief that Howe's fleet was more damaged than it appeared. All of Villaret's ships followed him except Montagnard, which refused to turn, claiming to be seriously damaged. Villaret's manoeuvre soon isolated the Queen Charlotte, Bellerophon, and Leviathan, which were forced to retreat hastily before the main French force. Having driven away the ships threatening Indomptable and Tyrannicide, Villaret reformed his fleet and attempted to escape westwards, closely followed by the British van who were now holding the weather gage. Both fleets were too damaged to continue action in the remaining daylight and firing stopped at 17:00. The British fleet has suffered 67 killed and 128 wounded during the day's fighting.
Evening found the fleets approximately 10 nautical miles (19 km) apart, sailing northwest. Both were conducting hasty repairs and attempting to ready themselves for what all assumed would be another day of battle on 30 May. Significantly, Lord Howe was unaware that to the northeast, over the same sea as the previous day's action had been fought, the ponderous convoy of merchant ships was passing, having successfully evaded British pursuit. Unlike his opponent Villaret knew the location of the convoy, which was joined that evening by the battered Montagnard. Escorting the convoy, Admiral Nielly had been apprised of the situation by Montagnard's captain, and had left his escort duties to reinforce Villaret.
In a postscript to the day's action the British frigate Castor, captured early in the campaign by Nielly, was attacked and retaken by the smaller HMS Carysfort under Captain Francis Laforey at the frigate action of 29 May 1794. Some of the crew were released by their rescuers but most, including the officers, were not aboard, having been taken onto Nielly's flagship Sans Pareil.
On the morning of 30 May, Howe sent a signal to all his captains asking if they considered their ships ready for combat. All but Caesar replied in the affirmative and Howe pushed his ships after the retreating French.Despite holding the weather gage, Howe's pursuit was soon hampered by descending fog, and unable to see or come to grips with the enemy throughout the whole day, the admiral feared he may have lost his opportunity for battle. However, by 31 May the fog had cleared and the French were still within sight to the north. To the surprise of the British, none of the 26 battleships in the French fleet appeared to show battle damage, whereas many of the British ships were nursing damaged rigging and battered hulls. Villaret had made use of the fog to reorganise his force, losing Montagnard and the frigate Seine to the convoy but gaining the independently sailing battleship Trente-un-Mai and Nielly's squadron of Sans Pareil, Trajan, and Téméraire. Villaret had also dispatched the battered Indomptable for home, escorted by an undamaged French ship.
Throughout 31 May Howe's fleet closed with the French, making full use of the advantage of the weather gage. By 17:00 the fleets were five miles (9 km) apart, but at 19:00 Howe gave orders to keep his ships out of shot range but within easy sailing of the French. He did not want a repeat of the confusion of 29 May and preferred to delay any combat until he was assured of a full day in which to conduct it, in order that his signals not be obscured or misinterpreted. During the night the fleets remained in visual contact, and by first light on 1 June the British were just six miles (11 km) from Villaret's fleet and organising in preparation to attack once more. Both fleets were now sailing in a western direction, Villaret still hoping to draw Howe away from the convoy.
At 09:24 on the morning of 1 June, Howe sent his ships into action using the original tactic of turning each ship in his line northwest simultaneously, so that they would bear down individually on Villaret's fleet and each break the enemy line separately. His intention was to cut the French line in 25 places, raking the enemy vessels at both bow and stern and dividing their fire so they could be defeated piecemeal. Ultimately though this ambitious plan failed, due to ill-discipline among Howe's subordinates and the damage his fleet had sustained over the previous week.While six of Howe's ships did break the French line as ordered, and several others came close, many of his captains failed to follow orders and instead engaged the enemy from a distance in desultory gun duels which had little effect.
As various British and French ships broke off into personal duels and some latecoming British ships struggled to get into action, Villaret led his flagship Montagne to the north and began assembling a coherent counter-force from those of his fleet which had escaped Howe's assault.In the melee itself several very hard-fought engagements took place—particularly that between HMS Brunswick and Vengeur du Peuple. At least twelve ships were dismasted, with the British battleships HMS Marlborough and HMS Defence losing all three masts and ten French vessels suffering similarly.
By 11:30 the initial action was dying down, and Villaret brought his reconstituted force back towards the battle site to contest ownership of the dismasted hulks floating there. Howe likewise reformed his main force and met Villaret, who failed to capture any of the battered British ships but did regather six of his own, leaving Howe with seven prizes.Of these, the wrecked Vengeur soon sank, although British boats had removed many of her crew. Howe was left in possession of the battle site, but Villaret had successfully held off the British long enough for the convoy to pass to the east unmolested. Both fleets returned to their home ports over the next week.
While searching for the convoy during the first week of June, Montagu's squadron became trapped between two French squadrons and was forced to sail southwards to avoid Villaret's returning fleet. As a result, the French Atlantic seaboard was clear of British forces for a significant period.The food convoy arrived safely in France in the third week of June, and Montagu returned to Britain empty-handed. Both nations claimed victory in the campaign; the British by virtue of success in the only major action, and the French through the intact arrival of their convoy.
The campaign had notable effects on the navies of both Britain and France. The French did not directly contest British supremacy in Northern European waters again, spending most of the next 23 years in Brest and other ports, their few major sallies mainly directed at the Mediterranean. Continued upheavals in the French Navy resulted in a decline of quality in its officer corps, so that by the Battle of Trafalgar 11 years later the port-bound nature of the French fleet had resulted in a cautious and inexperienced tactical outlook.In Britain, the battle created a division within the Royal Navy's officer corps. Howe's dispatch after the battle criticised some officers who he believed had hesitated in action, and those officers received none of the honours distributed at the end of the campaign. Fallout from this dispute was widespread, with several senior figures resigning in disgust. Captain Molloy of HMS Caesar was ultimately court-martialled and dismissed from the service for failing to support his admiral.
The Glorious First of June[Note A] of 1794 was the first and largest fleet action of the naval conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the First French Republic during the French Revolutionary Wars.
Louis-Thomas Villaret de Joyeuse was a French admiral.
The Battle of Groix was a large naval engagement which took place near the island of Groix off the Biscay coast of Brittany on 23 June 1795 during the French Revolutionary Wars. The battle was fought between elements of the British Channel Fleet and the French Atlantic Fleet, which were cruising in the region on separate missions. The British fleet, commanded by Admiral Lord Bridport, was covering an invasion convoy carrying a French Royalist army to invade Quiberon, while the French under Vice-amiral Villaret de Joyeuse had sailed a week earlier to rescue a French convoy from attack by a British squadron. The French fleet had driven off the British squadron in a battle on 17 June known as Cornwallis's Retreat, and were attempting to return to their base at Brest when Bridport's force of 14 ships of the line appeared on 22 June.
Admiral Sir William Cornwallis, was a Royal Navy officer. He was the brother of Charles Cornwallis, the 1st Marquess Cornwallis, British commander at the siege of Yorktown. Cornwallis took part in a number of decisive battles including the Siege of Louisbourg in 1758, when he was 14, and the Battle of the Saintes but is best known as a friend of Lord Nelson and as the commander-in-chief of the Channel Fleet during the Napoleonic Wars. He is depicted in the Horatio Hornblower novel, Hornblower and the Hotspur.
Admiral of the Fleet Sir James Alexander Gordon, GCB was a Royal Navy officer. As a volunteer, he fought at the Battle of Groix, at the Battle of the Glorious First of June and at the Battle of Cape St Vincent during the French Revolutionary Wars and then, as a midshipman, served under Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson at the Battle of the Nile.
The Action of 6 November 1794 was a naval engagement during the French Revolutionary Wars. Two British ships of the line, HMS Alexander and HMS Canada were intercepted while returning to Britain through the Celtic Sea by a large French squadron. The French squadron had sailed from Brest in search of an inward bound British convoy in October, but instead encountered the two British ships returning from escorting an outward-bound convoy. There had been no warning of the French approach as the British force assigned to watch Brest was absent at Plymouth due to the policy of operating a distant blockade.
HMS Latona was a 36-gun, fifth-rate frigate of the Royal Navy that served during the American Revolution, the French Revolutionary Wars, and the Napoleonic Wars. Shortly after her launch in 1781, she participated in the Battle of Dogger Bank against a Dutch squadron in the North Sea. In September 1782, Latona took part in the relief of Gibraltar and was the first ship in the convoy to pass through the Straits, when Richard Howe sent her ahead, to spy on the condition of the Franco-Spanish fleet in Algeciras Bay.
Vice-Admiral Sir Joshua Rowley, 1st Baronet (1734–1790) was the fourth son of Admiral Sir William Rowley. Sir Joshua was from an ancient English family, originating in Staffordshire (England) and was born on 1 May 1734 in Dublin Rowley served with distinction in a number of battles throughout his career and was highly praised by his contemporaries. Unfortunately whilst his career was often active he did not have the opportunity to command any significant engagements and always followed rather than led. His achievements have therefore been eclipsed by his contemporaries such as Keppel, Hawke, Howe and Rodney. Rowley however remains one of the stalwart commanders of the wooden walls that kept Britain safe for so long.
HMS Brunswick was a 74-gun third rate ship-of-the-line of the Royal Navy, launched on 30 April 1790 at Deptford. She was first commissioned in the following month under Sir Hyde Parker for the Spanish Armament but was not called into action. When the Russian Armament was resolved without conflict in August 1791, Brunswick took up service as a guardship in Portsmouth Harbour. She joined Richard Howe's Channel Fleet at the outbreak of the French Revolutionary War and was present at the battle on Glorious First of June where she a fought a hard action against the French 74-gun Vengeur du Peuple. Brunswick was in a small squadron under William Cornwallis that encountered a large French fleet in June 1798. The British ships were forced to run into the Atlantic and narrowly avoided capture through a combination of good fortune and some fake signals.
Fénix was an 80-gun ship of the line (navio) of the Spanish Navy, built by Pedro de Torres at Havana in accordance with the system laid down by Antonio Gaztaneta launched in 1749. In 1759, she was sent to bring the new king, Carlos III, from Naples to Barcelona. When Spain entered the American Revolutionary War in June 1779, Fénix set sail for the English Channel where she was to join a Franco-Spanish fleet of more than 60 ships of the line under Lieutenant General Luis de Córdova y Córdova. The Armada of 1779 was an invasion force of 40,000 troops with orders to capture the British naval base at Portsmouth.
Admiral Sir Roger Curtis, 1st Baronet, GCB was an officer of the British Royal Navy, who saw action in several battles during an extensive career that was punctuated by a number of highly controversial incidents. Curtis served during the American Revolutionary War and the French Revolutionary Wars and was highly praised in the former conflict for his bravery under fire at the Great Siege of Gibraltar, where he saved several hundred Spanish lives at great risk to his own. His career suffered however in the aftermath of the Glorious First of June, when he was heavily criticised for his conduct by several influential figures, including Cuthbert Collingwood. His popularity fell further due to his involvement in two highly controversial courts-martial, those of Anthony Molloy in 1795 and James Gambier in 1810.
Admiral Sir Thomas Pasley, 1st Baronet was a senior and highly experienced British Royal Navy officer of the eighteenth century, who served with distinction at numerous actions of the Seven Years' War, American Revolutionary War and French Revolutionary Wars. In his youth he was renowned as an efficient and able frigate officer and in later life became a highly respected squadron commander in the Channel Fleet. It was during the latter service when he was awarded his baronetcy after losing a leg at the Glorious First of June, aged 60.
Captain James Newman-Newman (1767–1811) of the British Royal Navy was an officer who served in numerous actions with distinction during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars before his death in the wreck of his ship of the line HMS Hero, which was lost with two other battleships off the Northern European coast during a storm in December 1811. Over 2,000 sailors lost their lives.
HMS Sans Pareil("Without Equal") was an 80-gun third rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy. She was formerly the French ship Sans Pareil, but was captured in 1794 and spent the rest of her career in service with the British.
The Atlantic campaign of 1806 was one of the most important and complex naval campaigns of the post-Trafalgar Napoleonic Wars. Seeking to take advantage of the withdrawal of British forces from the Atlantic in the aftermath of the Battle of Trafalgar, Emperor Napoleon ordered two battle squadrons to sea from the fleet stationed at Brest, during December 1805. Escaping deep into the Atlantic, these squadrons succeeded in disrupting British convoys, evading pursuit by British battle squadrons and reinforcing the French garrison at Santo Domingo. The period of French success was brief: on 6 February 1806 one of the squadrons, under Vice-Admiral Corentin Urbain Leissègues, was intercepted by a British squadron at the Battle of San Domingo and destroyed, losing all five of its ships of the line.
Cornwallis's Retreat was a naval engagement during the French Revolutionary Wars in which a British Royal Navy squadron of five ships of the line and two frigates was attacked by a much larger French Navy fleet of 12 ships of the line and 11 frigates. The action took place in the waters off the west coast of Brittany on 16–17 June 1795.
Sir Lawrence William Halsted GCB was an officer of the Royal Navy who served during the American War of Independence and the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.
The frigate action of 29 May 1794—not to be confused with the much larger fleet action of 29 May 1794 that took place in the same waters at the same time—was a minor naval engagement of the French Revolutionary Wars between a Royal Navy frigate and a French Navy frigate. The action formed a minor part of the Atlantic campaign of May 1794, a campaign which culminated in the battle of the Glorious First of June, and was unusual in that the French ship Castor had only been in French hands for a few days at the time of the engagement. Castor had previously been a British ship, seized on 19 May by a French battle squadron in the Bay of Biscay and converted to French service while still at sea. While the main fleets manoeuvered around one another, Castor was detached in pursuit of a Dutch merchant ship and on 29 May encountered the smaller independently cruising British frigate HMS Carysfort.
The Action of 7 May 1794 was a minor naval action fought between a British ship of the line and a French frigate early in the French Revolutionary Wars. The French Navy sought to disrupt British trade by intercepting and capturing merchant ships with roving frigates, a strategy countered by protecting British convoys with heavier warships, particularly in European waters. On 5 May 1794, the British escorts of a convoy from Cork sighted two French ships approaching and gave chase. The ships, a frigate and a corvette, outmatched by their opponents, separated and the convoy escorts did likewise, each following one of the raiders on a separate course. | <urn:uuid:30940141-9e19-48ae-adc5-a41b40a69f27> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://wikimili.com/en/Atlantic_campaign_of_May_1794 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250595787.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20200119234426-20200120022426-00104.warc.gz | en | 0.980446 | 8,178 | 3.9375 | 4 | [
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0.412656366825... | 1 | The Atlantic campaign of May 1794 was a series of operations conducted by the British Royal Navy's Channel Fleet against the French Navy's Atlantic Fleet, with the aim of preventing the passage of a strategically important French grain convoy travelling from the United States to France. The campaign involved commerce raiding by detached forces and two minor engagements, eventually culminating in the full fleet action of the Glorious First of June 1794, at which both fleets were badly mauled and both Britain and France claimed victory. The French lost seven battleships; the British none, but the battle distracted the British fleet long enough for the French convoy to safely reach port.
The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by the English kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were fought in the Hundred Years' War against the Kingdom of France. The modern Royal Navy traces its origins to the early 16th century; the oldest of the UK's armed services, it is known as the Senior Service.
The Channel Fleet and originally known as the Channel Squadron was the Royal Navy formation of warships that defended the waters of the English Channel from 1854 to 1909 and 1914 to 1915.
The French Navy, informally "La Royale", is the maritime arm of the French Armed Forces. Dating back to 1624, the French Navy is one of the world's oldest naval forces. It has participated in conflicts around the globe and played a key part in establishing the French colonial empire.
By the spring of 1794, the French Republic, under the rule of the National Convention, was at war with all its neighbours. With famine imminent, the French Committee of Public Safety looked to France's colonies and the United States to provide an infusion of grain; this was to be convoyed across the Atlantic during April, May and June, accompanied by a small escort squadron and supported by a second, larger squadron in the Bay of Biscay. However, political upheaval had severely reduced the French Navy's ability to fight coherently and supply shortages had devastated its morale, significantly weakening the fleet. Britain, by contrast, was at a high state of readiness with a well-organised command structure, but was suffering from a severe shortage of trained seamen with which to man its large navy. The French Atlantic Fleet, under Admiral Villaret de Joyeuse, was tasked with keeping the British Channel Fleet occupied long enough for the convoy to reach France safely. The Channel Fleet, commanded by Lord Howe, knew of the convoy's passage, and dispatched squadrons to protect British commerce while pursuing Villaret himself with the main body of the Royal Navy's Channel Fleet. For over a week the two battlefleets manoeuvred around one another, Villaret drawing Howe deeper westwards into the Atlantic and away from the convoy. Two partial but inconclusive fleet actions on 28 and 29 May followed, during which Howe seized the weather gage from Villaret, granting him freedom to choose the time and place of his next attack.
The National Convention was the first government of the French Revolution, following the two-year National Constituent Assembly and the one-year Legislative Assembly. Created after the great insurrection of 10 August 1792, it was the first French government organized as a republic, abandoning the monarchy altogether. The Convention sat as a single-chamber assembly from 20 September 1792 to 26 October 1795.
The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of sweeping military conflicts lasting from 1792 until 1802 and resulting from the French Revolution. They pitted France against Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia and several other monarchies. They are divided in two periods: the War of the First Coalition (1792–97) and the War of the Second Coalition (1798–1802). Initially confined to Europe, the fighting gradually assumed a global dimension. After a decade of constant warfare and aggressive diplomacy, France had conquered a wide array of territories, from the Italian Peninsula and the Low Countries in Europe to the Louisiana Territory in North America. French success in these conflicts ensured the spread of revolutionary principles over much of Europe.
A famine is a widespread scarcity of food, caused by several factors including war, inflation, crop failure, population imbalance, or government policies. This phenomenon is usually accompanied or followed by regional malnutrition, starvation, epidemic, and increased mortality. Every inhabited continent in the world has experienced a period of famine throughout history. In the 19th and 20th century, it was generally Southeast and South Asia, as well as Eastern and Central Europe that suffered the most deaths from famine. The numbers dying from famine began to fall sharply from the 2000s.
The culminating action of the campaign took place over 400 nautical miles (740 km) into the Atlantic, and became known as the Glorious First of June. This final engagement saw Howe use the weather gage to attack Villaret directly while his opponent attempted to fight in a traditional line of battle formation. In the battle, the British fleet inflicted a heavy defeat on the French after a bitterly contested day of fighting. Forcing Villaret to retreat, Howe's force captured seven French battleships, one of which later sank, and inflicted 7,000 casualties on the enemy. Villaret however, claimed strategic success as his delaying tactics had bought enough time for the convoy to reach France safely. The battle was the first in a series of defeats the French Navy suffered during the early years of the war, which bred a defeatist attitude and an unwillingness among the French officer corps to engage the British at sea.
In naval warfare, the line of battle is a tactic in which a naval fleet of ships forms a line end to end. Its first use is disputed, variously claimed for dates ranging from 1502 to 1652, with line-of-battle tactics in widespread use by 1675.
In the winter of 1793, war and internal disorder had combined with poor weather to leave France facing starvation following the collapse of the harvest.France's ongoing conflict with her neighbours precluded overland imports; the only nation willing and able to sell grain to the National Convention was the United States. Importing food from the Americas was a highly risky venture, as the British Royal Navy—at war with France since early 1793—patrolled much of the Atlantic passage. To provide effective protection for the vessels involved, a plan was agreed between France and the United States to collect the supplies over a period of months and transport them in a single convoy. A gathering point was arranged at Hampton Roads in the Chesapeake Bay.
Hampton Roads is the name of both a body of water that serves as a wide channel for the James, Nansemond and Elizabeth rivers between Old Point Comfort and Sewell's Point where the Chesapeake Bay flows into the Atlantic Ocean and the surrounding metropolitan region located in the Southeastern Virginia and Northeastern North Carolina portions of the Tidewater region.
The Chesapeake Bay is an estuary in the U.S. states of Maryland and Virginia. The Bay is located in the Mid-Atlantic region and is primarily separated from the Atlantic Ocean by the Delmarva Peninsula with its mouth located between Cape Henry and Cape Charles. With its northern portion in Maryland and the southern part in Virginia, the Chesapeake Bay is a very important feature for the ecology and economy of those two states, as well as others. More than 150 major rivers and streams flow into the Bay's 64,299-square-mile (166,534 km2) drainage basin, which covers parts of six states and all of Washington, D.C.
A squadron commanded by Admiral Pierre Vanstabel was dispatched to Hampton Roads to provide escort. Vanstabel would bring the convoy to the Bay of Biscay, where a second squadron under Joseph-Marie Nielly would reinforce him for the rest of the journey.Together, these officers mustered six ships of the line and numerous smaller craft. The main French battlefleet of 25 ships under Admiral Villaret de Joyeuse would cruise the Bay of Biscay in order to challenge the British Channel Fleet if it attempted to intercept the supplies. The convoy's passage was expected to take approximately two months, and it included 117 merchant ships carrying enough food to feed France for a year.
Joseph-Marie Nielly (1751–1833) was a French naval officer and admiral.
A cargo ship or freighter ship is a merchant ship that carries cargo, goods, and materials from one port to another. Thousands of cargo carriers ply the world's seas and oceans each year, handling the bulk of international trade. Cargo ships are usually specially designed for the task, often being equipped with cranes and other mechanisms to load and unload, and come in all sizes. Today, they are almost always built by welded steel, and with some exceptions generally have a life expectancy of 25 to 30 years before being scrapped.
Lord Howe, admiral of the British Channel Fleet, was aware of the convoy's nature and destination long before it left the Chesapeake, and made preparations to block its passage. Sending several small squadrons to protect British commerce crossing the Bay of Biscay, Howe detailed Admiral George Montagu with six battleships to search for the convoy in the south of the Bay while Howe took the main body of the fleet, 26 ships of the line, to patrol near Brest.
Admiral of the Fleet Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe, was a British naval officer. After serving throughout the War of the Austrian Succession, he gained a reputation for his role in amphibious operations against the French coast as part of Britain's policy of naval descents during the Seven Years' War. He also took part, as a naval captain, in the decisive British naval victory at the Battle of Quiberon Bay in November 1759.
Admiral Sir George Montagu was a Royal Navy officer, the second son of Admiral John Montagu, and the brother of Captain James Montagu and Lieutenant-Colonel Edward Montagu.
April 1794 was a month of fevered activity on both sides of the English Channel as Villaret and Howe made their final preparations for the coming campaign. The slow French convoy had departed American waters on 2 April, and British convoys destined for the Empire had sailed from Portsmouth on 2 May. Howe used his whole force to provide them with protection as far as the Western Approaches, and on 5 May sent the frigates HMS Latona and HMS Phaeton close in to Brest to ascertain the status of the French—they reported that Villaret's battlefleet was still in harbour.
Out in the Atlantic, the detached squadrons of Nielly (French) and Montagu (British) were commerce raiding against enemy merchant shipping, but had thus far failed to find the main food convoy. Nielly encountered a British convoy from Newfoundland and took ten ships as prizes—including the convoy escort, the 32-gun frigate HMS Castor.Thomas Troubridge, captain of the Castor, would spend the entire campaign aboard Nielly's flagship Sans Pareil. Montagu also met with some success on 15 May, recapturing the merchant ships Nielly had taken, along with the French corvette Marie-Guiton and accurate intelligence on the direction and size of the French convoy which Montagu immediately passed to Howe. Resuming his patrol in the Mid-Atlantic, Nielly found the convoy from America a few days later, and transferred two of his ships to Vanstabel's escort to augment the convoy's defences. He then returned to the Eastern Atlantic to look for signs of British activity which might pose a threat to its passage. He also dispatched frigates to Villaret, carrying information about the convoy's location and speed.
While Nielly and Montagu searched out at sea, Howe took his fleet on a series of cruises back and forth across the Bay of Biscay in the hope of catching the convoy. Between 5 and 18 May he found nothing and so returned to Brest, where his scouting frigates reported that the French battlefleet had gone.Taking advantage of dense fog, Villaret had sailed the previous day, his ships passing within earshot of the British fleet. The French admiral was on the trail of Nielly's squadron; his intention was to meet both Nielly and the convoy and combine forces; with superior numbers he would then be able to escort the convoy to France in safety. Having eluded Howe and still some days from his planned rendezvous, Villaret gained an unexpected success when he ran across a Dutch convoy of 53 vessels. Its escorts, Alliance and Waakzaamheid, fled at the sight of the approaching French fleet, and Villaret was free to attack the convoy, capturing 20 merchantmen.
Howe realised that the direction of Villaret's departure would take him directly across Admiral Montagu's planned route, and that, should Montagu meet Villaret, the British squadron would be destroyed.Setting all sail in pursuit, Howe followed Villaret into the Atlantic on 20 May. The next day Howe's ships recaptured ten of the lost Dutch merchantmen, but he was forced to burn them since crewing them with British sailors would weaken his own already understrength fleet. Prisoners from these ships gave Howe the information that the French fleet was only a short distance ahead, but that it had been joined by an additional ship from Nielly's squadron as well as several frigates. By now satisfied that Montagu was safely to the southwest, Howe pressed on hoped to bring Villaret to battle within the week. On 23 May however, the British fleet was driven southwards by strong winds and had to slowly work its way north to find the French track again. The detour did however enable him to recapture and destroy four more of Villaret's Dutch prizes.
On the morning of 25 May Howe's pursuit finally bore fruit, when his scouting frigates spotted a lone French ship of the line at 04:00. This ship sighted Howe's force at the same time, and immediately made off in the direction of the French fleet. The fleeing battleship left behind an American merchant ship she had been towing, which when taken reported that the French ship was Audacieux, of Nielly's squadron.Pursuing Audacieux after burning the American prize, the British fleet also overran and burnt two French corvettes, the 20-gun Républicaine and 16-gun Inconnue. Continuing his chase over the next three days, on 28 May Howe's lookouts spotted the French on the eastern horizon slightly to the south, indicating that the French held the weather gage. [Note A]
With his enemy visible from the deck of his flagship by 06:30, Howe recalled his frigates and ordered his fleet to press on all sail in the hope of engaging the rear of the scattered French line.By 10:35 Howe's continued pursuit was making his own battleline ragged, but he pressed on in the belief that Villaret intended to use the weather gage to outrun him and escape. To counter this, Howe ordered his fastest ships into a flying squadron under Admiral Thomas Pasley. This squadron was significantly faster than the majority of the vessels in either fleet and rapidly closed with the French rear. The first shots of the engagement were fired at 14:30 by HMS Russell, commanded by John Willett Payne, which managed some long-distance fire at the rearmost French ships on the opposite tack. Fire was returned by the French but without significant effect. In an attempt to hold off Pasley's squadron, at 17:00 the French first rate 110-gun Révolutionnaire exchanged places with the smaller third rates at the rear of the line and engaged the pursuing British van. This manoeuvre was apparently conducted on the initiative of Captain Vandangel of Révolutionnaire without orders from Admiral Villaret or his political observer Jean Bon Saint-André.
Through a sharp and skilful tack, HMS Bellerophon, one of the slowest ships in the British van, succeeded in bringing the Révolutionnaire to steady action at 18:00. The ships exchanged fire for twenty minutes, the weaker Bellerophon taking severe damage to her rigging, and falling back to be replaced by HMS Marlborough under Captain George Cranfield Berkeley.Marlborough was joined by HMS Russell and HMS Thunderer, and between them they shot away much of the Révolutionnaire's rigging, so that by 19:30 she was unmanageable. HMS Leviathan also joined the action, firing at an unidentified ship ahead of Révolutionnaire. Concerned about Pasley's squadron becoming cut off from the main body of his fleet, Howe recalled them to the British line at 20:00. All complied except the newly arrived HMS Audacious under Captain William Parker. Audacious had engaged Révolutionnaire so closely that she could not safely withdraw, and although her gunnery eventually dismasted her huge opponent, Audacious took severe damage.
It was not until 22:00 that Audacious and Révolutionnaire disentangled themselves and limped apart—their respective fleets now some way off.Audacious's crew later claimed that Révolutionnaire had struck her colours during the engagement, although this has not been corroborated. Parker stated that he did not take possession of Révolutionnaire because he was concerned by the distant sighting of nine French battleships on the horizon. He had spotted a squadron under Commodore Jean-Joseph Castagnier, which was uninvolved in the current campaign and which soon disappeared without participating in any of the subsequent engagements. Audacious's crew made strenuous efforts to repair their ship and rejoin the British fleet during the night, but became disorientated and in the morning Audacious was still only half a mile from her former opponent.
Révolutionnaire had suffered much more severely than Audacious, but survived the encounter without being boarded thanks to a misread signal by Captain Albemarle Bertie of Thunderer, who failed to take possession of the dismasted three-decker when ordered to. 's captain was subsequently arrested.During the night Villaret sent reinforcements to rescue Révolutionnaire, and at dawn on 29 May Parker saw that his large opponent was soon to be supported by the undamaged ship of the line Audacieux, the frigate Bellone, and two corvettes. Once more Audacious came under fire from Révolutionnaire, leaving her no option but to flee this superior force. Audacious was chased for half an hour by Bellone and the corvettes, before losing them in a rain squall, and eventually returned to Plymouth on 3 June. Révolutionnaire also escaped pursuit and was taken under tow by Audacieux, who brought her safely to Rochefort several days later. For leaving the battlefleet before the main engagement, Révolutionnaire
With Audacious and Révolutionnaire lost in the dark behind them, both British and French fleets continued westwards towards the convoy rendezvous. At dawn on 29 May the British fleet saw Audacieux retiring to the east but did not follow, concentrating on the main French line with the hope of provoking a decisive engagement.Howe ordered his ships to pursue the enemy rear, and the British line was placed on a tack that was intended to cut through the French line and isolate and capture the ships east of the cut. Captain Anthony Molloy in HMS Caesar was chosen to lead the attack as his ship was the fastest in the fleet, but the manoeuvre was a complete failure due to the inexplicable refusal of Molloy to close with the enemy. Instead, Caesar and HMS Queen opened fire on the rearmost French ships from a distance. The vans of the opposing fleets then engaged in a long-range broadside duel from 10:00. This inflicted mild damage on both sides, the worst hit being the French Montagnard.
Having failed to cut the French line at his first attempt, Howe reissued the order at 12:30. Once more Caesar was to lead the way, with the intention of splitting the enemy fleet in half.Captain Molloy then refused to carry out the order, signalling without cause that Caesar was unable to tack and then turning and sailing eastwards down the outside of the British fleet, rather than towards the enemy. This unexpected move threw the following ships into a state of confusion; Queen, coming behind Caesar, attempted to obey Howe's signal alone but was badly damaged by shot, and her captain John Hutt mortally wounded. Unable to effectively manoeuvre, Queen passed down the outside of the French line, firing as she went.
His plan in tatters, Howe responded by example, leading his flagship HMS Queen Charlotte towards the French line which was rapidly slipping ahead of the British, steering around the meandering Caesar as he did so.Queen Charlotte first attempted to break through the French between the sixth and seventh ships from the rear, but was unable to reach this gap and instead sailed between the fifth and sixth, raking the sixth ship Eole from close range. Bellerophon and Lord Hugh Seymour in Leviathan followed close behind the flagship. Both battleships attempted to cut between the subsequent French ships; Bellerophon successfully, Leviathan prevented by damage to her helm. This manoeuvre changed the course of the battle, as Howe's ships isolated and raked the Terrible, Tyrannicide, and Indomptable, forcing Villaret to either abandon his ships or sacrifice the weather gage to save them.
As Howe pressed after the main body of the French fleet—now tailed by the damaged Terrible—the rest of his fleet followed, bombarding the already battered Tyrannicide and Indomptable as they passed.As HMS Orion, HMS Invincible, and HMS Barfleur cut through the French in turn, Villaret wore his fleet round to face Howe. Encouraged by Caesar's disobedience, he deliberately sacrificed the weather gage in the belief that Howe's fleet was more damaged than it appeared. All of Villaret's ships followed him except Montagnard, which refused to turn, claiming to be seriously damaged. Villaret's manoeuvre soon isolated the Queen Charlotte, Bellerophon, and Leviathan, which were forced to retreat hastily before the main French force. Having driven away the ships threatening Indomptable and Tyrannicide, Villaret reformed his fleet and attempted to escape westwards, closely followed by the British van who were now holding the weather gage. Both fleets were too damaged to continue action in the remaining daylight and firing stopped at 17:00. The British fleet has suffered 67 killed and 128 wounded during the day's fighting.
Evening found the fleets approximately 10 nautical miles (19 km) apart, sailing northwest. Both were conducting hasty repairs and attempting to ready themselves for what all assumed would be another day of battle on 30 May. Significantly, Lord Howe was unaware that to the northeast, over the same sea as the previous day's action had been fought, the ponderous convoy of merchant ships was passing, having successfully evaded British pursuit. Unlike his opponent Villaret knew the location of the convoy, which was joined that evening by the battered Montagnard. Escorting the convoy, Admiral Nielly had been apprised of the situation by Montagnard's captain, and had left his escort duties to reinforce Villaret.
In a postscript to the day's action the British frigate Castor, captured early in the campaign by Nielly, was attacked and retaken by the smaller HMS Carysfort under Captain Francis Laforey at the frigate action of 29 May 1794. Some of the crew were released by their rescuers but most, including the officers, were not aboard, having been taken onto Nielly's flagship Sans Pareil.
On the morning of 30 May, Howe sent a signal to all his captains asking if they considered their ships ready for combat. All but Caesar replied in the affirmative and Howe pushed his ships after the retreating French.Despite holding the weather gage, Howe's pursuit was soon hampered by descending fog, and unable to see or come to grips with the enemy throughout the whole day, the admiral feared he may have lost his opportunity for battle. However, by 31 May the fog had cleared and the French were still within sight to the north. To the surprise of the British, none of the 26 battleships in the French fleet appeared to show battle damage, whereas many of the British ships were nursing damaged rigging and battered hulls. Villaret had made use of the fog to reorganise his force, losing Montagnard and the frigate Seine to the convoy but gaining the independently sailing battleship Trente-un-Mai and Nielly's squadron of Sans Pareil, Trajan, and Téméraire. Villaret had also dispatched the battered Indomptable for home, escorted by an undamaged French ship.
Throughout 31 May Howe's fleet closed with the French, making full use of the advantage of the weather gage. By 17:00 the fleets were five miles (9 km) apart, but at 19:00 Howe gave orders to keep his ships out of shot range but within easy sailing of the French. He did not want a repeat of the confusion of 29 May and preferred to delay any combat until he was assured of a full day in which to conduct it, in order that his signals not be obscured or misinterpreted. During the night the fleets remained in visual contact, and by first light on 1 June the British were just six miles (11 km) from Villaret's fleet and organising in preparation to attack once more. Both fleets were now sailing in a western direction, Villaret still hoping to draw Howe away from the convoy.
At 09:24 on the morning of 1 June, Howe sent his ships into action using the original tactic of turning each ship in his line northwest simultaneously, so that they would bear down individually on Villaret's fleet and each break the enemy line separately. His intention was to cut the French line in 25 places, raking the enemy vessels at both bow and stern and dividing their fire so they could be defeated piecemeal. Ultimately though this ambitious plan failed, due to ill-discipline among Howe's subordinates and the damage his fleet had sustained over the previous week.While six of Howe's ships did break the French line as ordered, and several others came close, many of his captains failed to follow orders and instead engaged the enemy from a distance in desultory gun duels which had little effect.
As various British and French ships broke off into personal duels and some latecoming British ships struggled to get into action, Villaret led his flagship Montagne to the north and began assembling a coherent counter-force from those of his fleet which had escaped Howe's assault.In the melee itself several very hard-fought engagements took place—particularly that between HMS Brunswick and Vengeur du Peuple. At least twelve ships were dismasted, with the British battleships HMS Marlborough and HMS Defence losing all three masts and ten French vessels suffering similarly.
By 11:30 the initial action was dying down, and Villaret brought his reconstituted force back towards the battle site to contest ownership of the dismasted hulks floating there. Howe likewise reformed his main force and met Villaret, who failed to capture any of the battered British ships but did regather six of his own, leaving Howe with seven prizes.Of these, the wrecked Vengeur soon sank, although British boats had removed many of her crew. Howe was left in possession of the battle site, but Villaret had successfully held off the British long enough for the convoy to pass to the east unmolested. Both fleets returned to their home ports over the next week.
While searching for the convoy during the first week of June, Montagu's squadron became trapped between two French squadrons and was forced to sail southwards to avoid Villaret's returning fleet. As a result, the French Atlantic seaboard was clear of British forces for a significant period.The food convoy arrived safely in France in the third week of June, and Montagu returned to Britain empty-handed. Both nations claimed victory in the campaign; the British by virtue of success in the only major action, and the French through the intact arrival of their convoy.
The campaign had notable effects on the navies of both Britain and France. The French did not directly contest British supremacy in Northern European waters again, spending most of the next 23 years in Brest and other ports, their few major sallies mainly directed at the Mediterranean. Continued upheavals in the French Navy resulted in a decline of quality in its officer corps, so that by the Battle of Trafalgar 11 years later the port-bound nature of the French fleet had resulted in a cautious and inexperienced tactical outlook.In Britain, the battle created a division within the Royal Navy's officer corps. Howe's dispatch after the battle criticised some officers who he believed had hesitated in action, and those officers received none of the honours distributed at the end of the campaign. Fallout from this dispute was widespread, with several senior figures resigning in disgust. Captain Molloy of HMS Caesar was ultimately court-martialled and dismissed from the service for failing to support his admiral.
The Glorious First of June[Note A] of 1794 was the first and largest fleet action of the naval conflict between the Kingdom of Great Britain and the First French Republic during the French Revolutionary Wars.
Louis-Thomas Villaret de Joyeuse was a French admiral.
The Battle of Groix was a large naval engagement which took place near the island of Groix off the Biscay coast of Brittany on 23 June 1795 during the French Revolutionary Wars. The battle was fought between elements of the British Channel Fleet and the French Atlantic Fleet, which were cruising in the region on separate missions. The British fleet, commanded by Admiral Lord Bridport, was covering an invasion convoy carrying a French Royalist army to invade Quiberon, while the French under Vice-amiral Villaret de Joyeuse had sailed a week earlier to rescue a French convoy from attack by a British squadron. The French fleet had driven off the British squadron in a battle on 17 June known as Cornwallis's Retreat, and were attempting to return to their base at Brest when Bridport's force of 14 ships of the line appeared on 22 June.
Admiral Sir William Cornwallis, was a Royal Navy officer. He was the brother of Charles Cornwallis, the 1st Marquess Cornwallis, British commander at the siege of Yorktown. Cornwallis took part in a number of decisive battles including the Siege of Louisbourg in 1758, when he was 14, and the Battle of the Saintes but is best known as a friend of Lord Nelson and as the commander-in-chief of the Channel Fleet during the Napoleonic Wars. He is depicted in the Horatio Hornblower novel, Hornblower and the Hotspur.
Admiral of the Fleet Sir James Alexander Gordon, GCB was a Royal Navy officer. As a volunteer, he fought at the Battle of Groix, at the Battle of the Glorious First of June and at the Battle of Cape St Vincent during the French Revolutionary Wars and then, as a midshipman, served under Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson at the Battle of the Nile.
The Action of 6 November 1794 was a naval engagement during the French Revolutionary Wars. Two British ships of the line, HMS Alexander and HMS Canada were intercepted while returning to Britain through the Celtic Sea by a large French squadron. The French squadron had sailed from Brest in search of an inward bound British convoy in October, but instead encountered the two British ships returning from escorting an outward-bound convoy. There had been no warning of the French approach as the British force assigned to watch Brest was absent at Plymouth due to the policy of operating a distant blockade.
HMS Latona was a 36-gun, fifth-rate frigate of the Royal Navy that served during the American Revolution, the French Revolutionary Wars, and the Napoleonic Wars. Shortly after her launch in 1781, she participated in the Battle of Dogger Bank against a Dutch squadron in the North Sea. In September 1782, Latona took part in the relief of Gibraltar and was the first ship in the convoy to pass through the Straits, when Richard Howe sent her ahead, to spy on the condition of the Franco-Spanish fleet in Algeciras Bay.
Vice-Admiral Sir Joshua Rowley, 1st Baronet (1734–1790) was the fourth son of Admiral Sir William Rowley. Sir Joshua was from an ancient English family, originating in Staffordshire (England) and was born on 1 May 1734 in Dublin Rowley served with distinction in a number of battles throughout his career and was highly praised by his contemporaries. Unfortunately whilst his career was often active he did not have the opportunity to command any significant engagements and always followed rather than led. His achievements have therefore been eclipsed by his contemporaries such as Keppel, Hawke, Howe and Rodney. Rowley however remains one of the stalwart commanders of the wooden walls that kept Britain safe for so long.
HMS Brunswick was a 74-gun third rate ship-of-the-line of the Royal Navy, launched on 30 April 1790 at Deptford. She was first commissioned in the following month under Sir Hyde Parker for the Spanish Armament but was not called into action. When the Russian Armament was resolved without conflict in August 1791, Brunswick took up service as a guardship in Portsmouth Harbour. She joined Richard Howe's Channel Fleet at the outbreak of the French Revolutionary War and was present at the battle on Glorious First of June where she a fought a hard action against the French 74-gun Vengeur du Peuple. Brunswick was in a small squadron under William Cornwallis that encountered a large French fleet in June 1798. The British ships were forced to run into the Atlantic and narrowly avoided capture through a combination of good fortune and some fake signals.
Fénix was an 80-gun ship of the line (navio) of the Spanish Navy, built by Pedro de Torres at Havana in accordance with the system laid down by Antonio Gaztaneta launched in 1749. In 1759, she was sent to bring the new king, Carlos III, from Naples to Barcelona. When Spain entered the American Revolutionary War in June 1779, Fénix set sail for the English Channel where she was to join a Franco-Spanish fleet of more than 60 ships of the line under Lieutenant General Luis de Córdova y Córdova. The Armada of 1779 was an invasion force of 40,000 troops with orders to capture the British naval base at Portsmouth.
Admiral Sir Roger Curtis, 1st Baronet, GCB was an officer of the British Royal Navy, who saw action in several battles during an extensive career that was punctuated by a number of highly controversial incidents. Curtis served during the American Revolutionary War and the French Revolutionary Wars and was highly praised in the former conflict for his bravery under fire at the Great Siege of Gibraltar, where he saved several hundred Spanish lives at great risk to his own. His career suffered however in the aftermath of the Glorious First of June, when he was heavily criticised for his conduct by several influential figures, including Cuthbert Collingwood. His popularity fell further due to his involvement in two highly controversial courts-martial, those of Anthony Molloy in 1795 and James Gambier in 1810.
Admiral Sir Thomas Pasley, 1st Baronet was a senior and highly experienced British Royal Navy officer of the eighteenth century, who served with distinction at numerous actions of the Seven Years' War, American Revolutionary War and French Revolutionary Wars. In his youth he was renowned as an efficient and able frigate officer and in later life became a highly respected squadron commander in the Channel Fleet. It was during the latter service when he was awarded his baronetcy after losing a leg at the Glorious First of June, aged 60.
Captain James Newman-Newman (1767–1811) of the British Royal Navy was an officer who served in numerous actions with distinction during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars before his death in the wreck of his ship of the line HMS Hero, which was lost with two other battleships off the Northern European coast during a storm in December 1811. Over 2,000 sailors lost their lives.
HMS Sans Pareil("Without Equal") was an 80-gun third rate ship of the line of the Royal Navy. She was formerly the French ship Sans Pareil, but was captured in 1794 and spent the rest of her career in service with the British.
The Atlantic campaign of 1806 was one of the most important and complex naval campaigns of the post-Trafalgar Napoleonic Wars. Seeking to take advantage of the withdrawal of British forces from the Atlantic in the aftermath of the Battle of Trafalgar, Emperor Napoleon ordered two battle squadrons to sea from the fleet stationed at Brest, during December 1805. Escaping deep into the Atlantic, these squadrons succeeded in disrupting British convoys, evading pursuit by British battle squadrons and reinforcing the French garrison at Santo Domingo. The period of French success was brief: on 6 February 1806 one of the squadrons, under Vice-Admiral Corentin Urbain Leissègues, was intercepted by a British squadron at the Battle of San Domingo and destroyed, losing all five of its ships of the line.
Cornwallis's Retreat was a naval engagement during the French Revolutionary Wars in which a British Royal Navy squadron of five ships of the line and two frigates was attacked by a much larger French Navy fleet of 12 ships of the line and 11 frigates. The action took place in the waters off the west coast of Brittany on 16–17 June 1795.
Sir Lawrence William Halsted GCB was an officer of the Royal Navy who served during the American War of Independence and the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars.
The frigate action of 29 May 1794—not to be confused with the much larger fleet action of 29 May 1794 that took place in the same waters at the same time—was a minor naval engagement of the French Revolutionary Wars between a Royal Navy frigate and a French Navy frigate. The action formed a minor part of the Atlantic campaign of May 1794, a campaign which culminated in the battle of the Glorious First of June, and was unusual in that the French ship Castor had only been in French hands for a few days at the time of the engagement. Castor had previously been a British ship, seized on 19 May by a French battle squadron in the Bay of Biscay and converted to French service while still at sea. While the main fleets manoeuvered around one another, Castor was detached in pursuit of a Dutch merchant ship and on 29 May encountered the smaller independently cruising British frigate HMS Carysfort.
The Action of 7 May 1794 was a minor naval action fought between a British ship of the line and a French frigate early in the French Revolutionary Wars. The French Navy sought to disrupt British trade by intercepting and capturing merchant ships with roving frigates, a strategy countered by protecting British convoys with heavier warships, particularly in European waters. On 5 May 1794, the British escorts of a convoy from Cork sighted two French ships approaching and gave chase. The ships, a frigate and a corvette, outmatched by their opponents, separated and the convoy escorts did likewise, each following one of the raiders on a separate course. | 8,452 | ENGLISH | 1 |
By 1885 Americans were ready for new math. In 1773, the sixth edition of Thomas Dilworth’s classic Schoolmaster’s Assistant was the dominant textbook of the day for students in American grammar schools.
Dilworth was a British cleric and his book – which was used by school teachers as they delivered lessons to their pupils – was the most widely used text for teaching math (Dilworth also covered a host of other topics).
But with the Revolution came a certain amount of hostility to many things British – and Dilworth’s books were very British indeed. His examples of diverting stories for children had a British flavor and his lessons in arithmetic used British units of measure and currency as measurements to be mastered.
While pounds, shillings and pence were still in use in America, the Congress was phasing them out and gradually transitioning people to a system of dollars and cents. And people needed to have their classrooms focus on the new money rather than the old.
It was too much to ask many school teachers to master the new currency themselves and present it to their students. A new text was needed. While any number of small texts were published and adopted in pockets of the country, Nicholas Pike was the first to put forward a book, in 1788, that would be widely adopted, the New and Complete System of Arithmetic – Composed for the Use of the Citizens of the United States.
Pike was born in 1743 in Somersworth, N.H., and had taught in York, Maine before settling in Newburyport, Mass. Harvard-educated, Pike served as magistrate in Newburyport during the Revolution as well as selectman and head of the grammar school. Pike drafted his book and sent it to George Washington, asking that he might dedicate it to him. Washington replied that he was honored, but asked Pike to dedicate it to a scholar of New England.
“It gives me the highest satisfaction to find the Arts and Sciences making a progress in any Country; but when I see them advancing in the rising States of America I feel a peculiar pleasure: and in my opinion, every effort of Genius, and all attempts towards improving useful knowledge ought to meet with encouragement in this Country. Your performance is of the most useful and beneficial kind, and, from the opinion of those Gentlemen who have inspected it I have not the least doubt but that it is a very valuable one.”
Pike secured endorsements from Dartmouth, Harvard and Yale colleges for his work and it began a long run as a successful textbook.
Pike was not alone in the field of math publishing, however. In 1799 Nathan Daboll of Groton, Conn. published his Daboll’s schoolmaster’s assistant: being a plain, practical system of arithmetic, adapted to the United States. Daboll was a teacher in New London, Conn. who taught navigation to sailors there. In the 1770s he began publishing almanacs, some featuring pro-American propaganda to help promote the Revolution.
After the war Daboll’s work became some famous he earned a mention in Herman Mellville’s Moby Dick, and when someone wanted a short-hand expression to mean that something was correct and beyond question, he said it was: “According to Daboll.”
Daniel Adams was another contributor to the Americanization of math texts when he published his The Scholar’s Arithmetic, or Federal Accountant in Leominster, Mass. In 1801. Adams was born in Townsend and became a physician in Leominster when he published the book. It gained widespread use for over 25 years. Adams himself was a legislator in both Massachusetts and New Hampshire and his life took him to Boston and then finally to New Hampshire where he settled in Keene.
Publishers even tried to update Dilworth’s old text for the American market, but it could not regain its position of dominance.
Hat tip to: The Teaching and History of Mathematics in the United States, By Florian Cajori. | <urn:uuid:97bf27e9-1ec9-4188-9bd8-20d90ab5b4a4> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/new-england-teachers-invented-new-math-1788/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250626449.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124221147-20200125010147-00216.warc.gz | en | 0.984435 | 838 | 3.328125 | 3 | [
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-0.1164206340... | 8 | By 1885 Americans were ready for new math. In 1773, the sixth edition of Thomas Dilworth’s classic Schoolmaster’s Assistant was the dominant textbook of the day for students in American grammar schools.
Dilworth was a British cleric and his book – which was used by school teachers as they delivered lessons to their pupils – was the most widely used text for teaching math (Dilworth also covered a host of other topics).
But with the Revolution came a certain amount of hostility to many things British – and Dilworth’s books were very British indeed. His examples of diverting stories for children had a British flavor and his lessons in arithmetic used British units of measure and currency as measurements to be mastered.
While pounds, shillings and pence were still in use in America, the Congress was phasing them out and gradually transitioning people to a system of dollars and cents. And people needed to have their classrooms focus on the new money rather than the old.
It was too much to ask many school teachers to master the new currency themselves and present it to their students. A new text was needed. While any number of small texts were published and adopted in pockets of the country, Nicholas Pike was the first to put forward a book, in 1788, that would be widely adopted, the New and Complete System of Arithmetic – Composed for the Use of the Citizens of the United States.
Pike was born in 1743 in Somersworth, N.H., and had taught in York, Maine before settling in Newburyport, Mass. Harvard-educated, Pike served as magistrate in Newburyport during the Revolution as well as selectman and head of the grammar school. Pike drafted his book and sent it to George Washington, asking that he might dedicate it to him. Washington replied that he was honored, but asked Pike to dedicate it to a scholar of New England.
“It gives me the highest satisfaction to find the Arts and Sciences making a progress in any Country; but when I see them advancing in the rising States of America I feel a peculiar pleasure: and in my opinion, every effort of Genius, and all attempts towards improving useful knowledge ought to meet with encouragement in this Country. Your performance is of the most useful and beneficial kind, and, from the opinion of those Gentlemen who have inspected it I have not the least doubt but that it is a very valuable one.”
Pike secured endorsements from Dartmouth, Harvard and Yale colleges for his work and it began a long run as a successful textbook.
Pike was not alone in the field of math publishing, however. In 1799 Nathan Daboll of Groton, Conn. published his Daboll’s schoolmaster’s assistant: being a plain, practical system of arithmetic, adapted to the United States. Daboll was a teacher in New London, Conn. who taught navigation to sailors there. In the 1770s he began publishing almanacs, some featuring pro-American propaganda to help promote the Revolution.
After the war Daboll’s work became some famous he earned a mention in Herman Mellville’s Moby Dick, and when someone wanted a short-hand expression to mean that something was correct and beyond question, he said it was: “According to Daboll.”
Daniel Adams was another contributor to the Americanization of math texts when he published his The Scholar’s Arithmetic, or Federal Accountant in Leominster, Mass. In 1801. Adams was born in Townsend and became a physician in Leominster when he published the book. It gained widespread use for over 25 years. Adams himself was a legislator in both Massachusetts and New Hampshire and his life took him to Boston and then finally to New Hampshire where he settled in Keene.
Publishers even tried to update Dilworth’s old text for the American market, but it could not regain its position of dominance.
Hat tip to: The Teaching and History of Mathematics in the United States, By Florian Cajori. | 820 | ENGLISH | 1 |
"Son, it means that all people are created equally, no matter what."
Principle 2: All people have basic rights that cannot be taken away.
"I think it means that I think it means,everyone has the same rights like life,liberty, and happiness.
Do Now: What does the second principle mean?
Thomas Jefferson signed the Declaration of Independence. It was signed at Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Everyone approved of it on July 4, 1776, now called Independence Day. The purpose was to officialy state that the colonies were being seperated from Great Britain.
Principle 3: The government gets its power to make decisions and protect rights from the people.
"Great idea! I'll add this to my notes. Thank you!"
This principle is important because all men were treated equal. Women was later added to that. This meant that all people no matter what, had to be treated the same.
Principle 4: When the government does not protect the rights of the people, the people have the right to alter or abolish the government.
"I don't agree at all."
This principle is important because all people should be able to have all the same rights and no one could take them away. This is why there is no more war in the U.S.
Today, Principle 2 Is Best Upheld
This principle is important because the government has all the rights. Since the government got elected from all the people, he/she gets to make their own rights that protect their place that they are controlling.
"I think we should put more stop signs around town."
This principle is important because if the government does not serve its purpose then there is no point to vote for him/her. That is why it is okay to abolish the government in that situation.
"I think we should out more red lights around."
Today, principle 2 is best upheld because no matter who you are, you have the same basic rights like everyone else. Now there is no wars in the U.S because evryone has the same basic rights. | <urn:uuid:75851c72-99a8-420e-9929-a5882df56510> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.storyboardthat.com/storyboards/39e5ab53/declariation-of-independence--saif-khan | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250604849.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20200121162615-20200121191615-00400.warc.gz | en | 0.983794 | 432 | 3.421875 | 3 | [
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0.0999856889247894... | 1 | "Son, it means that all people are created equally, no matter what."
Principle 2: All people have basic rights that cannot be taken away.
"I think it means that I think it means,everyone has the same rights like life,liberty, and happiness.
Do Now: What does the second principle mean?
Thomas Jefferson signed the Declaration of Independence. It was signed at Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Everyone approved of it on July 4, 1776, now called Independence Day. The purpose was to officialy state that the colonies were being seperated from Great Britain.
Principle 3: The government gets its power to make decisions and protect rights from the people.
"Great idea! I'll add this to my notes. Thank you!"
This principle is important because all men were treated equal. Women was later added to that. This meant that all people no matter what, had to be treated the same.
Principle 4: When the government does not protect the rights of the people, the people have the right to alter or abolish the government.
"I don't agree at all."
This principle is important because all people should be able to have all the same rights and no one could take them away. This is why there is no more war in the U.S.
Today, Principle 2 Is Best Upheld
This principle is important because the government has all the rights. Since the government got elected from all the people, he/she gets to make their own rights that protect their place that they are controlling.
"I think we should put more stop signs around town."
This principle is important because if the government does not serve its purpose then there is no point to vote for him/her. That is why it is okay to abolish the government in that situation.
"I think we should out more red lights around."
Today, principle 2 is best upheld because no matter who you are, you have the same basic rights like everyone else. Now there is no wars in the U.S because evryone has the same basic rights. | 418 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Which Are All the Properties in Z?
Which exactly are most of the properties in mathematics? What exactly does the range me-an in mathematics? This write-up is going to share with you the many types of all the combinations you could research answers you are able to have in your equations and distinct techniques to get a solution.
What is just really a numerous in math? You’ll find lots of tactics. By applying the emblem N and also a multiple in the equation, you are saying exactly what N will be in the equation and also into the right.
The way to say what N is really in mathematics is a number that is definitely different and also . You may produce the equation employing exactly the same equation or this way, however you want to create N as a distinct group. The N in the equation is utilised to demonstrate that a number just isn’t being defined by you, but are specifying a word.
You are able to write N as the exact same number working with another angle, so you also can produce N as one of many angles to the correct or you could publish N within a angle. You are able to use the several in math’s definition with the definition of N.
You may publish the same significance becoming utilised by N . You are able to use N by 2 different angles.
You are able to even produce N by two angles. You can produce N. All of these are versions of N.
The way to express what N would be in math is and a distinct angle. You can compose https://morningside.edu/graduate…in-education/…/educational-resources-of-mn-llc/ N by about several angles, one angle, or even 2 angles. N can be written by you from a single angle utilizing the angle.
You are able to also compose N two angles. You can also compose N as two angles and a double angle. N might be written by you as two angles along with a angle.
You are able to even produce N by a few angles, either a angle, along with an angle and also two angles. You’re able to either write N by 2 angles plus 4 angles, a quadrangle or quadrant, or some quadrant. N may be written by you as 3 angles as well as a quadrant.
You are able to even produce N by 3 angles and means of a quadrant. You can also compose N by also a radius and also about 3 angles. You could also compose N as a two and quadrant angles.
You might even publish N by also a quadrant and 3 angles along with means of a quadrant and also two angles. You might even create N for a quadrant and two angles plus also a radius. | <urn:uuid:5e1214b4-ad38-47f9-a934-4cea174fa4bb> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.rssuyoto.com/2020/01/16/which-are-all-the-properties-in-z/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250591431.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20200117234621-20200118022621-00482.warc.gz | en | 0.980332 | 573 | 3.453125 | 3 | [
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-0.229337275... | 1 | Which Are All the Properties in Z?
Which exactly are most of the properties in mathematics? What exactly does the range me-an in mathematics? This write-up is going to share with you the many types of all the combinations you could research answers you are able to have in your equations and distinct techniques to get a solution.
What is just really a numerous in math? You’ll find lots of tactics. By applying the emblem N and also a multiple in the equation, you are saying exactly what N will be in the equation and also into the right.
The way to say what N is really in mathematics is a number that is definitely different and also . You may produce the equation employing exactly the same equation or this way, however you want to create N as a distinct group. The N in the equation is utilised to demonstrate that a number just isn’t being defined by you, but are specifying a word.
You are able to write N as the exact same number working with another angle, so you also can produce N as one of many angles to the correct or you could publish N within a angle. You are able to use the several in math’s definition with the definition of N.
You may publish the same significance becoming utilised by N . You are able to use N by 2 different angles.
You are able to even produce N by two angles. You can produce N. All of these are versions of N.
The way to express what N would be in math is and a distinct angle. You can compose https://morningside.edu/graduate…in-education/…/educational-resources-of-mn-llc/ N by about several angles, one angle, or even 2 angles. N can be written by you from a single angle utilizing the angle.
You are able to also compose N two angles. You can also compose N as two angles and a double angle. N might be written by you as two angles along with a angle.
You are able to even produce N by a few angles, either a angle, along with an angle and also two angles. You’re able to either write N by 2 angles plus 4 angles, a quadrangle or quadrant, or some quadrant. N may be written by you as 3 angles as well as a quadrant.
You are able to even produce N by 3 angles and means of a quadrant. You can also compose N by also a radius and also about 3 angles. You could also compose N as a two and quadrant angles.
You might even publish N by also a quadrant and 3 angles along with means of a quadrant and also two angles. You might even create N for a quadrant and two angles plus also a radius. | 548 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Describe the Effects of the Yom Kippur War on Arab Israeli relations. (12 marks) The Yom Kippur War happened in October 1973, which involved the Arabs and the Israelis, as well as two superpowers, the USA and the USSR. At the end of the war, the Israelis had won. However, the Israeli government and people were shocked by how the Arabs did. The Yom Kippur War has led to a number of effects on the Arab-Israeli relations, which can be classified as two aspects, short term and long term. There are some immediate consequences caused by the Yom Kippur War.
The Arabs used oil as a political weapon, which led to a huge economic problem and oil shortage in the world. On 17 October 1973, the price of oil was cut by 70 per cent by the OAPEC, a mostly Arab group. At the same time it cut production by 35 per cent and banned all sale of its products to the US and the Netherlands. Because of this oil incident, plenty of people lost their jobs and the prices raised sharply. Therefore, many countries’ economies collapsed, which took years to recover. The other short term effect was that the war resulted in even more refugees in Jordan and Lebanon, particularly in Lebanon.
People were then realized that they could no longer rely on the government but to gain hope from the Palestinian organizations, especially the PLO: they need to fight for peace their own way. This indicates a greater unsteadiness and also a rising support for the PLO. The attacks on Israel and the Israeli peace with Egypt led to many invasions: the PLO attacks on Israel from refugees’ camp in Lebanon, as well as the Israel peace with Egypt caused the Israeli invasions of Lebanon in 1978 and 1982. The Camp David Accords isolated Egypt from the rest of Arab world.
After the war, Egypt signed two agreements with the Israeli president with the help of the American Secretary. Many Arab countries were very sad and disappointed. Egyptian relations with rest of the Arab world declined. As a result, Sadat was assassinated by extremists. Seeing how Sadat was killed by making peace with Israel, other Arab leaders didn’t have the courage to do what Sadat has done, to make peace. Consequently, the Arab world was lacking a clear leader. Syria attempted to take this position, but didn’t success. Also, after the war, Egypt moved towards USA away from USSR, which means Egypt was no longer close to USSR.
Instead, they improved the relationship with USA as the USSR did not support them much during the war. Trust was lost between USSR and Egypt. The long term effects brought by the war can be divided into a few points. The world opinion changed after the Yom Kippur War. Militarily, the Israelis won. They had shown their weapons, their training and their strategies were the better ones. But politically, it was a victory for the Arabs. They had completely surprised the Israelis and the rest of the world in the war. They now let the world know that Arab soldiers could fight with courage.
Because of the war, Egyptians became more confident in themselves. They thought that Israel had only been saved by the United States. The thought that Israel is so strong that might not be defeated had been destroyed. After the war, the world was not on the side of Israel anymore. In contrast, there was much more sympathy for the Arab position. Above all, they had done everything together, especially in the use of the oil weapon. As a result, the rest of the world showed much more respect for the Arabs. This is the first war in which the Israel suffered serious losses. There were a great Human loss and a feeling of uncertainty among Israelis.
An estimated 3,000 Israeli and 8,500 Egyptian and Syrian soldiers were killed, and 8,000 Israelis and almost 20,000 Syrians wounded. It was the first Arab-Israeli war in which Israel suffered a high casualty rate. These effects led to the emergence of an Israeli peace movement. This and the later experience of the wars in Lebanon led to the growth of ‘Israeli peace movement’ in Israel. To conclude, the Yom Kippur War has a negative impact on the Arab-Israeli relations. The PLO and other Palestinian terrorists groups, the oil crisis and the other incidents happened in the Yom Kippur War have worsened the relationship between the two states. | <urn:uuid:da58b2e0-0097-4478-910d-903f014aca79> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://doosanmoxy.com/effects-of-the-yom-kippur-war-on-arab-israeli-relation/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579250624328.55/warc/CC-MAIN-20200124161014-20200124190014-00011.warc.gz | en | 0.982961 | 910 | 3.484375 | 3 | [
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0.248589366674423... | 1 | Describe the Effects of the Yom Kippur War on Arab Israeli relations. (12 marks) The Yom Kippur War happened in October 1973, which involved the Arabs and the Israelis, as well as two superpowers, the USA and the USSR. At the end of the war, the Israelis had won. However, the Israeli government and people were shocked by how the Arabs did. The Yom Kippur War has led to a number of effects on the Arab-Israeli relations, which can be classified as two aspects, short term and long term. There are some immediate consequences caused by the Yom Kippur War.
The Arabs used oil as a political weapon, which led to a huge economic problem and oil shortage in the world. On 17 October 1973, the price of oil was cut by 70 per cent by the OAPEC, a mostly Arab group. At the same time it cut production by 35 per cent and banned all sale of its products to the US and the Netherlands. Because of this oil incident, plenty of people lost their jobs and the prices raised sharply. Therefore, many countries’ economies collapsed, which took years to recover. The other short term effect was that the war resulted in even more refugees in Jordan and Lebanon, particularly in Lebanon.
People were then realized that they could no longer rely on the government but to gain hope from the Palestinian organizations, especially the PLO: they need to fight for peace their own way. This indicates a greater unsteadiness and also a rising support for the PLO. The attacks on Israel and the Israeli peace with Egypt led to many invasions: the PLO attacks on Israel from refugees’ camp in Lebanon, as well as the Israel peace with Egypt caused the Israeli invasions of Lebanon in 1978 and 1982. The Camp David Accords isolated Egypt from the rest of Arab world.
After the war, Egypt signed two agreements with the Israeli president with the help of the American Secretary. Many Arab countries were very sad and disappointed. Egyptian relations with rest of the Arab world declined. As a result, Sadat was assassinated by extremists. Seeing how Sadat was killed by making peace with Israel, other Arab leaders didn’t have the courage to do what Sadat has done, to make peace. Consequently, the Arab world was lacking a clear leader. Syria attempted to take this position, but didn’t success. Also, after the war, Egypt moved towards USA away from USSR, which means Egypt was no longer close to USSR.
Instead, they improved the relationship with USA as the USSR did not support them much during the war. Trust was lost between USSR and Egypt. The long term effects brought by the war can be divided into a few points. The world opinion changed after the Yom Kippur War. Militarily, the Israelis won. They had shown their weapons, their training and their strategies were the better ones. But politically, it was a victory for the Arabs. They had completely surprised the Israelis and the rest of the world in the war. They now let the world know that Arab soldiers could fight with courage.
Because of the war, Egyptians became more confident in themselves. They thought that Israel had only been saved by the United States. The thought that Israel is so strong that might not be defeated had been destroyed. After the war, the world was not on the side of Israel anymore. In contrast, there was much more sympathy for the Arab position. Above all, they had done everything together, especially in the use of the oil weapon. As a result, the rest of the world showed much more respect for the Arabs. This is the first war in which the Israel suffered serious losses. There were a great Human loss and a feeling of uncertainty among Israelis.
An estimated 3,000 Israeli and 8,500 Egyptian and Syrian soldiers were killed, and 8,000 Israelis and almost 20,000 Syrians wounded. It was the first Arab-Israeli war in which Israel suffered a high casualty rate. These effects led to the emergence of an Israeli peace movement. This and the later experience of the wars in Lebanon led to the growth of ‘Israeli peace movement’ in Israel. To conclude, the Yom Kippur War has a negative impact on the Arab-Israeli relations. The PLO and other Palestinian terrorists groups, the oil crisis and the other incidents happened in the Yom Kippur War have worsened the relationship between the two states. | 931 | ENGLISH | 1 |
Maggie Lena Walker Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Birth Place :
Maggie Lena Walker was an African American businesswoman. Despite her race and disability, she became the first African American to charter a bank in the US.
The Entrepreneur, Maggie Lena Walker was born on 15th July 1864 in Richmond, Virginia two years after the end of the American Civil War. Her parents were Elizabeth Draper Mitchell and Lena Mitchell.
While her father was a writer and butler, her mother was a former slave who worked as a cook at Church Hill mansion.
Together with her brother, they grew in College Alley. At a young age, she lost her father living the two children under the care of their mother.
Early life and education
Maggie Lena Walker went to Lancaster School before joining Richmond Colored Normal School. Both schools were Black American schools.
While still a student she became a member of St. Luke, a fraternal organization. The organization aimed at improving African American's lives both socially and financially.
She completed her training as a teacher in 1883. After completing her education, she returned to her former school where she taught for three years.
Maggie Lena Walker was forced to quit her job as a teacher after her marriage to Armstead Walker Jr. The school’s policy was against married teachers.
Over the next few years, she worked for St. Luke while looking after her family. Her exceptional performance saw her rise to the deputy matron ranks of Order.
Two years after giving birth to her second born child, Maggie Lena Walker was elected as the Order of St. Luke’s Secretary. The organization was on the verge of bankruptcy.
Her first significant action in the organization was opening the St. Luke Penny Savings Bank after that she offered African-American women opportunities and access to affordable goods.
Maggie’s leadership in the bank saw its membership rise to 50,000 in 1,500 local chapters. Despite the fall of several banks during the depression Maggie managed to merge St. Luke with another bank.
After losing her second born child, another tragedy struck Maggie Lena Walker in 1915. She mistook her father for an intruder and shot him.
Having killed him, she was tried for murder but was found innocent. During that time Maggie was seen to have diabetes. Despite her condition, she continued with her work.
She made a failed attempt to run for the seat of superintendent of public instruction in 1921.
Maggie Lena Walker married Armstead Walker Jr in 1886. She gave birth to her first child, Russell and her second in 1893. Her second child, however, died as an infant.
The last few years of her life saw Maggie confined to a wheelchair because of her diabetic condition. Maggie Lena Walker died on 15th December 1934 at the age of 70.
Her body was laid to rest at Evergreen Cemetery at Richmond. The National Parks Service purchased her home and converted it to a historic site.
In honor of Maggie, Richmond Public Schools constructed built Maggie L. Walker High School. In addition to that National Register of Historic Places converted her house to a museum. | <urn:uuid:97887e8a-922a-4b2a-898f-3123c5a1b3af> | CC-MAIN-2020-05 | https://www.sunsigns.org/famousbirthdays/profile/maggie-lena-walker/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-05/segments/1579251678287.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20200125161753-20200125190753-00083.warc.gz | en | 0.986355 | 653 | 3.265625 | 3 | [
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0.22892126441001892,
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0.3519362807273865,
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0.34404695034027... | 7 | Maggie Lena Walker Biography, Life, Interesting Facts
Died On :
Birth Place :
Maggie Lena Walker was an African American businesswoman. Despite her race and disability, she became the first African American to charter a bank in the US.
The Entrepreneur, Maggie Lena Walker was born on 15th July 1864 in Richmond, Virginia two years after the end of the American Civil War. Her parents were Elizabeth Draper Mitchell and Lena Mitchell.
While her father was a writer and butler, her mother was a former slave who worked as a cook at Church Hill mansion.
Together with her brother, they grew in College Alley. At a young age, she lost her father living the two children under the care of their mother.
Early life and education
Maggie Lena Walker went to Lancaster School before joining Richmond Colored Normal School. Both schools were Black American schools.
While still a student she became a member of St. Luke, a fraternal organization. The organization aimed at improving African American's lives both socially and financially.
She completed her training as a teacher in 1883. After completing her education, she returned to her former school where she taught for three years.
Maggie Lena Walker was forced to quit her job as a teacher after her marriage to Armstead Walker Jr. The school’s policy was against married teachers.
Over the next few years, she worked for St. Luke while looking after her family. Her exceptional performance saw her rise to the deputy matron ranks of Order.
Two years after giving birth to her second born child, Maggie Lena Walker was elected as the Order of St. Luke’s Secretary. The organization was on the verge of bankruptcy.
Her first significant action in the organization was opening the St. Luke Penny Savings Bank after that she offered African-American women opportunities and access to affordable goods.
Maggie’s leadership in the bank saw its membership rise to 50,000 in 1,500 local chapters. Despite the fall of several banks during the depression Maggie managed to merge St. Luke with another bank.
After losing her second born child, another tragedy struck Maggie Lena Walker in 1915. She mistook her father for an intruder and shot him.
Having killed him, she was tried for murder but was found innocent. During that time Maggie was seen to have diabetes. Despite her condition, she continued with her work.
She made a failed attempt to run for the seat of superintendent of public instruction in 1921.
Maggie Lena Walker married Armstead Walker Jr in 1886. She gave birth to her first child, Russell and her second in 1893. Her second child, however, died as an infant.
The last few years of her life saw Maggie confined to a wheelchair because of her diabetic condition. Maggie Lena Walker died on 15th December 1934 at the age of 70.
Her body was laid to rest at Evergreen Cemetery at Richmond. The National Parks Service purchased her home and converted it to a historic site.
In honor of Maggie, Richmond Public Schools constructed built Maggie L. Walker High School. In addition to that National Register of Historic Places converted her house to a museum. | 665 | ENGLISH | 1 |
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